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0 | document: Sabrina ( given name ) - wikipedia Sabrina ( given name ) Jump to : navigation , search Sabrina Gender Feminine Origin Meaning Legendary princess , From Cyprus , or from the river Severn or `` boundary '' Sabrina is a feminine given name found primarily in Western European cultures and to a lesser extent in the Arabic world . Contents ( hide ) 1 In European culture 2 In Arabic culture 3 Popularity 4 People 5 Fictional characters 6 See also 7 Notes In European culture ( edit ) In the European heritage , it is taken from the Roman name for a river in mid-Wales which flows into England , there known as the Severn . According to a legend recounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century , Habren or Sabrina , the Latinized form of the river 's Common Brittonic or proto - Welsh name , was the daughter of a king named Locrinus ( also known as Locrin or Locrine in English ) by his mistress , the Germanic princess Estrildis . Locrinus ruled England after the death of his father , Brutus of Troy , the legendary second founder of Britain . Locrinus cast aside his wife , Guendolen , and their son Maddan and acknowledged Sabrina and her mother , but the enraged Guendolen raised an army against him and defeated Locrinus in battle . Guendolen then ordered that Sabrina and her mother be drowned in the river . The river was named after Sabrina so Locrine 's betrayal of Guendolen would never be forgotten . According to legend , Sabrina lives in the river , which reflects her mood . She rides in a chariot and dolphins and salmon swim alongside her . The later story suggests that the legend of Sabrina could have become intermingled with old stories of a river goddess or nymph . On the name Sabrina , The Facts on File Dictionary of First Names ( 1983 ) has this to say : Roman name for the River Severn , in England . Ekwall , in his English River Names , thinks that Severn is a Celtic name but is unable to explain it . The legendary explanation for Sabrina is that she was the daughter of King Locrine by his mistress Estrildis . Queen Guendolen 's fury led to her assembling an army to make war on her husband , who was slain . Guendolen then had Sabrina and Estrildis thrown into the river which from that time was called Sabrina . The poet Milton , in Comus , and the playwright Fletcher , in The Faithful Shepherdess , refer to the legend . In modern times there has been a play Sabrina Fair by Samuel Taylor , and a film called Sabrina . In Britain the name was used throughout the 19th century but has been very rarely used in the 20th century . In the U.S. it was being steadily used in the 1970s and early 1980s . It also notes that `` ( i ) n the U.S. Sabrina has tended to displace Sabina since ( the 1940s ) . '' In Arabic culture ( edit ) Sabrina , alternatively spelled Sabreena or in other slight variations , is taken from the Arabic word sabr , meaning patience or patient one . Popularity ( edit ) The name gained popularity in English - speaking populations following the release of the film Sabrina ( 1954 ) ; it was the 789th most popular name for girls born in the United States in 1954 , and rose to the 245th most popular name in 1955 . Its use has continued , boosted by the popularity of the comic book character Sabrina the Teenage Witch , who debuted in 1962 . A television series featured the character in the 1990s . The name was ranked as the 197th most popular name for U.S. - born girls in 2007 . People ( edit ) Sabrina Sidney ( 1757 -- 1843 ) , English foundling girl Sabrina ( actress ) ( born 1936 ) , stage name of Norma Ann Sykes , a British glamour model and actress Sabrina ( Portuguese artist ) ( born 1982 ) , stage name of Teresa Villa - Lobos , a Portuguese singer Sabrina Brazzo ( born 1968 ) , Italian ballerina Sabrina Bryan ( born 1984 ) , stage name Reba Hinojos , a Cheetah Girl Sabrina Carpenter ( born 1999 ) , American teen actress and singer Sabrina Dornhoefer ( born 1963 ) , American middle distance runner Sabrina Erdely ( born 1971 / 1972 ) , American magazine reporter Sabrina Ferilli ( born 1964 ) , Italian actress Sabrina Goleš ( born 1965 ) , Croatian tennis player who represented Yugoslavia Sabrina Ionescu ( born 1997 ) , American basketball player Sabrina Jeffries ( active since 1992 ) , pen name of Deborah Gonzales , an American author Sabrina Le Beauf ( born 1958 ) , American actress from the Cosby Show Sabrina Lloyd ( born 1970 ) , American actress who starred in Sliders and Sports Night Sabrina Richard ( born 1977 ) , French weightlifter Sabrina Sabrok ( born 1976 ) , Argentine - Mexican model and host Sabrina Salerno ( born 1968 ) , stage name of Norma Salerno , an Italian Disco singer , actress and model Fictional characters ( edit ) Sabrina Fairchild , played by Audrey Hepburn in the 1954 movie Sabrina and by Julia Ormond in the 1995 remake Sabrina Spellman , an Archie Comics character who debuted in 1962 in the October issue of Archie 's Mad House played by Jane Webb on the animated television series The Archie Comedy Hour ( 1969 ) and Sabrina the Teenage Witch ( 1970 ) played by Melissa Joan Hart on the 1996 television series Sabrina the Teenage Witch played by Emily Hart on the animated 2000 television series Sabrina : The Animated Series Sabrina Duncan , played by Kate Jackson on the 1976 television series Charlie 's Angels Sabrina , the Gym Leader of Saffron City in the Pokémon franchise , first appearing in 1996 Sabrina Grimm , a main character in The Sisters Grimm series of novels ( 2005 to 2012 ) written by Michael Buckley Sabrina Costelana Newman , played by Raya Meddine on the 2008 season of the American soap opera The Young and the Restless Sabrina Santiago , played by Teresa Castillo premiering in the 2012 season of the American soap opera General Hospital See also ( edit ) Sabrina ( disambiguation ) for other uses Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Hanks , Patrick ( 2003 ) . `` Severn '' . Dictionary of American Family Names . Retrieved 10 December 2012 . ( T ) opographic name from the river Severn , which flows from Wales through much of western England to the Bristol Channel . The river name is recorded as early as the 2nd century ad in the form Sabrina . This is one of Britain 's most ancient river names ; the original meaning is uncertain , but it may have been ' slow - moving ' . Jump up ^ `` Sabrina . '' Online Etymology Dictionary . Douglas Harper . Retrieved 7 January 2013 . < Etymonline.com http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Sabrina > . Jump up ^ Behind the Name Jump up ^ The Legend of Sabrina Jump up ^ Tidal Bore Research Society Jump up ^ Liam Rogers ( 1999 ) , Sabrina and the River Severn ^ Jump up to : Dunkling , Leslie ; Gosling , William ( 1983 ) , The Facts on File Dictionary of First Names , New York : Facts on File Publications , p. 247 , ISBN 0 - 87196 - 274 - 8 ^ Jump up to : United States Social Security Administration AS : Arabic Name : Sabrina http://www.mynameinarabic.com/2007/06/21/sabrina-sabreena/ This page or section lists people that share the same given name . If an internal link led you here , you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabrina_(given_name)&oldid=830990546 '' Categories : Given names English feminine given names Hidden categories : All set index articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Boarisch Brezhoneg Cymraeg Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Italiano Magyar Nederlands Norsk Polski Slovenščina Suomi Svenska 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 18 March 2018 , at 02 : 55 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_112|> <|d1_224|> <|d2_160|> <|d3_0|> |
1 | document: Bigg Boss 10 - Wikipedia Bigg Boss 10 Jump to : navigation , search Bigg Boss ◄ Season 10 ( 2016 -- 17 ) ( show ) Housemates Name Entered Exited Manveer Day 1 Day 105 Bani Day 1 Day 105 Lopamudra Day 1 Day 105 Manu Day 1 Day 58 Day 49 Day 105 Rohan Day 1 Day 101 Monalisa Day 1 Day 96 Nitibha Day 1 Day 90 Swami Om Day 1 Day 24 Day 50 Day 79 Day 21 Day 48 Day 78 Day 81 Gaurav Day 1 Day 77 Priyanka Day 1 Day 42 Day 7 Day 69 Rahul Day 1 Day 63 Sahil Day 42 Day 56 Jason Day 42 Day 55 Elena Day 42 Day 49 Lokesh Day 1 Day 35 Karan Day 1 Day 34 Navin Day 1 Day 28 Akanksha Day 1 Day 14 Winner Runner - Up Evicted Walked Ejected Bigg Boss 10 is the tenth season of the Indian reality TV series Bigg Boss . It began airing on 16 October 2016 on Colors . The show is also available after the original telecast on Viacom 18 's digital platform -- Voot . A new element called ' Unseen - Undekha ' was introduced by way of unseen footage uploaded on Voot. This footage showed parts of the day that were n't included in the episode , from ' wake - up call ' to ' lights out ' . The series was won by Manveer Gurjar while reality star Bani J finished runner - up . Contents ( hide ) 1 Housemates 1.1 Original entrants 1.2 Wild Card entries 2 Guests 3 Weekly summary 4 Voting History 4.1 Nomination notes 5 Vote count 6 References 7 External links Housemates ( edit ) The participants in the order of appearance and entered in house are : Original entrants ( edit ) Swami Om - He is a social , religious and political leader . He is 60 years old . He is from Delhi , India . Lopamudra Raut - She is an Indian model and beauty queen from the state of Maharashtra . She is an engineer by profession . She represented India at Miss United Continents 2016 pageant and was crowned 2nd runner up . She also won the `` Best National Costume '' award for India three years in a row . Previous representatives of India , Gail Nicole Da Silva in 2014 and Sushrii Shreya Mishraa in 2015 also won the award . Manveer Gurjar - He is from Aghapur in Noida and been around farms all his life . He wanted to become an actor but could not pursue this dream of his . Nitibha Kaul - She is from Kashmir . She is 23 years old and a former account strategist for Google Marketing Solutions . She became the first runner - up in the show Dabur Miss Rose and even been selected in the Times Fresh Face Delhi . Rohan Mehra - He is an Indian television actor and model . He is 27 years old . He is better known for his role of Naksh Singhania in the TV serial Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai . He made his television debut on Channel V 's show Gumrah : End of Innocence as Aarav . He has worked as a commercial model and in the films Uvaa and Sixteen ( 16 ) . Gurbani Judge - VJ , model and television host . She was the runner up of MTV Roadies and anchored seasons 6 , 7 , 9 and 10 of that series . She was also a contestant in Fear Factor : Khatron Ke Khiladi and I Can Do That . She acted in Zorawar and Aap Kaa Surooor . Lokesh Kumari Sharma - Sharma is a 25 - year - old student from Delhi . Karan Mehra - Mehra is a TV actor , model and fashion designer . He played the lead role of Naitik Singhania in the television series Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai . He also appeared in the movie Love Story 2050 . participated in the dance shows Nach Baliye 5 and Nach Baliye Shriman v / s Shrimati along with his wife Nisha Rawal . Akanksha Sharma - She is a Haryanvi writer and stage actress . She was married to Yuvraj Singh 's youger brother Zorawar but later divorced . Manu Punjabi - He lives in Jaipur . He participated in The Bachelorette India : Mere Khayaalon ki Mallika in 2013 . Gaurav Chopra - Chopra is a television actor known for his work in the series Left Right Left , Karma , Uttaran , and Pati Patni Aur Woh . Priyanka Jagga - Jagga is a recruiter in marketing from Delhi . After being evicted on Day 7 she came back as a wild card contestant on Day 42 . Rahul Dev - He is an Indian film actor and former model who works in Hindi , Punjabi , Telugu , Malayalam , Tamil , Kannada and Bengali films . He made his debut in the 2000 film Champion where he played a villainous role , for which he was nominated for the 2001 Filmfare Best Villain Award . Navin Prakash - He is a 26 - year - old teacher , who was raised in Jhajha , a remote place in Bihar . He graduated from Delhi University and lives in Kolkata where he mentors Union Public Service Commission candidates . He is also a poet , activist and public speaker . Monalisa - Known as Monalisa , Antara Biswas is a Bengali actress who has appeared in more than 100 Bhojpuri films . She was born to a Bengali Hindu family . Wild card entries ( edit ) Jason Shah - He is a British born actor and fitness model. He was born to a British mother and an American father but later his mother married to an Indian man of Gujarati origin . He is currently living in Mumbai , India . Elena Kazan - She is German - Russian actress who appears in German as well as Indian films such as Agent Vinod , John Day , Prague etc . Sahil Anand - He is an Indian Film and Television Actor . He is known for his roles in Student of the Year and Babloo Happy Hai . He also participated in MTV Roadies ( season 4 ) . Guests ( edit ) Week ( s ) Guest ( s ) Notes Premiere Deepika Padukone To promote her film XXX : Return of Xander Cage . Kamya Punjabi To appreciate and motivate the contestants as an ex-contestant of Bigg Boss 7 . Karan Wahi and Bharti Singh To promote their show Comedy Nights Bachao Taaza . Farhan Akhtar and Shraddha Kapoor To promote their film Rock On 2 . Ankit Tiwari , Neha Sharma , Aditya Seal and Aashim Gulati . To promote their film Tum Bin II . Himesh Reshammiya To promote his album Aap Se Mausiiquii . Tanishaa Mukerji and VJ Andy To appreciate and motivate the contestants as ex-contestants of Bigg Boss 7 . 5 Mouni Roy and Anubhav Sinha To promote their film Tum Bin 2 Alia Bhatt To promote her film Dear Zindagi . 6 Sunny Leone To do a special nomination task and celebrate her 5 years of Bigg Boss . Gautam Gulati and Mandana Karimi To appreciate and motivate the contestants as ex-contestants of Bigg Boss 8 and Bigg Boss 9 respectively . Vidya Balan To Promote her film Kahaani 2 7 Ranveer Singh and Vaani Kapoor To Promote their film Befikre 8 Karishma Tanna and Dibang To discuss their point of views on the game Hina Khan To support Rohan Mehra 9 Rubina Dilaik ( Soumya ) , Mouni Roy ( Shivangi ) , Adaa Khan ( Shesha ) , Karanvir Bohra ( Rocky ) , Vijayendra Kumeria ( Suraj ) and Meera Deosthale ( Chakor ) Came as guest from Colors family from shows Naagin , Shakti -- Astitva Ke Ehsaas Ki , Udaan . Prachi Shah ( Sharada ) , Ankitta Sharma ( Naina ) & Sangeeta Chauhan ( Meghna ) To promote their new show Ek Shringaar - Swabhiman 10 Alexander Meuis and Jermaine Meuis To meet their mother Priyanka in the Family App Task . Raghav Chopra To meet his brother Gaurav in the Family App Task . Vikrant Singh Rajpoot To meet his girlfriend Mona in The Family App Task . Siddharth Mehra To meet his brother Rohan in the Family App Task . Kumar Baisoya To meet his son Manveer in the Family App Task . Mrs. Kaul To meet her daughter Nitibha in the Family App Task . Gauhar Khan To meet her bestfriend Bani in The Family App Task . Bhagyashree Raut To meet her sister Lopamudra in The Family App Task . 11 Diandra Soares and Aamir Ali To discuss their point of views on the game Salman Yusuff Khan , Shantanu Maheshwari , Karishma Tanna , Teriya Magar and Preetjot Singh To celebrate New Year as the contestants from Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 9 Ravi Kishan , Vindu Dara Singh and Lokesh Kumari Sharma To celebrate New Year , appreciate and motivate the contestants as ex-contestants of Bigg Boss 1 , Bigg Boss 2 and Bigg Boss 10 respectively Bharti Singh , Krushna Abhishek , Sudesh Lehri , Anita Hassanandani , Mubeen Saudagar and Balraj Sayal To celebrate New Year as the comedians from Comedy Nights Bachao Taaza 12 Aditya Roy Kapoor and Shraddha Kapoor To promote their film OK Jaanu 13 Govinda To promote his film Aa Gaya Hero 14 Vikrant Singh Rajpoot To marry Monalisa . Dinesh Lal Yadav , Ravi Kishan , Amrapali , Vikrant 's sister and Monalisa 's mother Guests in Monalisa and Vikrant 's Wedding Jacqueline Fernandez , Ganesh Hegde , Karan Johar , Farah Khan and Manish Paul As the judges and host and to declare the winner of the Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 9 Salman Yusuff Khan , Shantanu Maheshwari and Teriya Magar with their respective choreo partner As the Finalist of Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 9 Shah Rukh Khan and Sunny Leone To promote their Film Raees 15 Mandana Karimi and Rishabh Sinha As guest in task BB Mela . Farah Khan Handler of the task Celebrities vs Indiawale . Puneet Issar and Malishka Mendonsa As the panelists and supporters of Celebrities Bani and Lopamudra in task Celebrities vs Indiawale . Ravi Dubey and Shweta Singh As the panelists and supporters of Indiawale Manveer and Manu in task Celebrities vs Indiawale . Finale Yami Gautam and Hrithik Roshan To promote their Film Kaabil Karanvir Bohra , Vijayendra Kumeria and Meera Deosthale Guests Karishma Tanna and Mouni Roy Guests - Dance Performances Rashami Desai , Siddharth Shukla and Jasmin Bhasin To promote their new show Dil Se Dil Tak Weekly summary ( edit ) The main events in the house are summarized in the table below . A typical week begins with nominations , followed by the luxury budget task , punishment than a task for immunity or anything else and then the eviction of a housemate during the Sunday or Saturday episode called as `` Weekend Ka Vaar '' . Evictions , tasks , and other notable events for a particular week are noted in order of sequence . Week Entrances and Nominations On Day 1 , Swami Om , Lopamudra , Manveer , Nitibha , Rohan , Bani , Lokesh , Karan , Akanksha , Manu , Gaurav , Priyanka , Rahul , Navin and Monalisa entered the house . Indiawale were made Maliks ( owners ) and Celebrities were their Sevaks ( servants ) . Bigg Boss announced the rules and each housemate were called in the confession room for nomination . Indiawale had to nominate 2 Celebrities and the Celebrities were asked to nominate 2 Indiawale . Gaurav and Monalisa from the Celebrities and Priyanka and Manu from Indiawale were nominated for the elimination . Tasks Raaz On Day 2 , Bigg Boss gave Celebrities a task to become the Malik of the house . They had to guess maximum secret out of 8 to become Malik . On Day 2 , Celebrities guessed only Akanksha 's secret . On Day 3 , Celebrities guessed only Swami Om 's secret out of 4 guesses . On Day 4 , Bigg Boss gave Celebrities last 4 riddles to solve the secrets . But Celebrities could n't guess any of these secrets and remained Indiawale 's sevak . Result Won - Indiawale Reward Common people remained owner of the house and Celebrities remained the same . Punishments On Day 4 , Bigg Boss asked the Housemates to choose worst performer from each team . Celebrities chose Mona and Indiawale chose Swami Om . Other Tasks The Riding Horse On Day 5 , Indiawale broke the rule by cooking . For breaking the rule , Bigg Boss gave another chance to Celebrities to rule the house . They had to choose two housemates to ride the horse for whole day and the chosen housemate have to drink a jug of water when the toy horse neigh . Celebrities : Bani & Gaurav Indiawale : Priyanka & Navin Result Won - Indiawale Exit On Day 7 , Priyanka Jagga became the first housemate to evict from the house after facing the public vote . Week Nominations On Day 8 , The housemates were sitting in the Garden Area and Bigg Boss announced that the contestants have to splash a plate of foam on the faces of the ones who they want to nominate for eliminations . At the end Mona , Gaurav and Rohan from Celebrities and Akanksha , Nitibha , Manoj and Manveer from Indiawale were nominated for the evictions . Tasks Bigg Boss Laundry Day 9 was the first day of this task . Indiawale were playing against the Celebrities . There was a running platform where Bigg Boss sent clothes for both team . Celebrities and Indiawale have to snatch the clothes from each other . They have to wash them , dry them and iron them to fulfill Bigg Boss 's order . There was a quality inspector from each team . Rohan from Celebrities and Nitibha from Indiawale was selected quality inspector by Bigg Boss . If the quality inspector rejects the clothes than team will have to wash them again . There were fights between Rohan and Navin and Rahul Dev and Manu . At the end of first day it was cancelled and the day wasted . On Day 10 there were fights between Rohan and Indiawale team . Bigg Boss changed the rule and announced that whoever sent maximum approved clothes won the task . Navin fell water on Celebrities clothes . As a result , Celebrities ca n't send maximum approved clothes and loses the task . Result Won - Indiawale Reward Indiawale became Malik again and Celebrities remained their sevak . Punishments On Day 11 , when Bigg Boss asked the housemates for the weakest contestant from their respective team to send jail , Celebrities again choose Mona . On the other hand , Indiawale choose Swami Om again . On Day 12 , Bigg Boss released both of them from jail . Other Tasks The Immunity Challenge On Day 11 , Indiwale were enjoying the Jacuzzi and the Swimming pool while Bigg Boss announced a task for immunity in the coming nominations . Indiwale had to choose 2 contestants for this task . They choose Navin & Lokesh . They had to convince the housemates to give them their cards and they have to make the card stand until the Buzzer rang . At the end of the task , Lopamudra announced that Navin has more card stand compare to Lokesh . Result Immuned - Navin Exits On Day 14 , Akanksha Sharma was evicted from the house after facing the public vote . Week Nominations On Day 15 , Bigg Boss announced that nominations are being held . This time the contestants had to nominate two contestants from their own team . Bani , Lopamudra and Monalisa from the Celebrities and Manveer , Manoj , Nitibha and Swami Om from Indiawale are nominated . Tasks Raja Aur Rank On Day 16 , Bigg Boss announced the luxury budget task for the week . In it Indiawale became a royal family , where Swami Om was the King , Manveer as King 's son , Nitibha as Manveer 's wife , Lokesh as princess , King 's daughter and Navin as Lokesh 's husband and Manu played the role of a cunning brother - in - law of the King . Whereas , Celebrities became the royal staff of the royal family , where Rohan as royal entertainer , Karan and Lopamudra as royal cooks , Gaurav as royal advisor , Bani as King 's royal bodyguard and Rahul and Monalisa as royal servants . Celebrities were given a secret task in which they had to create some situations given by Bigg Boss . They were also given a digital camera and they had to hide the camera and this secret task from the opponents . On Day 17 , 2nd day of the task . Swami Om was given a royal bath of milk also in the Jacuzzi and the Swimming Pool . While Celebrities were busy with the secret task the Indiawale were taking their role too seriously and did n't noticed about the secret task . By doing maximum of the secret tasks Celebrities gain the authority of the house . Result Won - Celebrities Reward Celebrities became the Malik and Indiawale became their Sevak . Punishments On Day 17 , Bigg Boss asked the housemates for the weakest contestant from their respective team to send jail . Celebrities and Indiawale chose Karan and Nitibha respectively as their weakest members in the task . Other Tasks The Immunity Challenge Bigg Boss called Lopamudra to the confession room and told her about the immunity challenge . Celebrities chose Lopamudra , Bani and Monalisa for this task . Navin was handler of the task . In the task , there was a long skateboard where they have to stand . Monalisa was the first to quit the task . After some time when Bigg Boss asked Navin declared Lopamudra as the winner . Result Immuned - Lopamudra Exit On Day 21 , Swami Om was evicted from the house after facing the public vote . Shortly after his eviction he was sent to the secret room and was kept there for three days before returning to the house . Week Entrance On Day 24 , Swami Om re-entered the Bigg Boss house after staying in the secret room for three days . Nominations Telephone Task Bigg Boss set a telephone on a chair in garden area . Whoever picked up the telephone would be nominated . To save from nomination they had to do task by other housemate . At first , Bani picked up the telephone . Bigg Boss gave her a task where Gaurav had to bleach his eyebrows , which he successfully did . Then Bani nominated Rohan for nomination . Bigg Boss gave him a task where Karan had to shred Nisha Rawal 's picture , which he successfully did . Then Rohan nominated Monalisa . She got a task where Manoj had to cut his doll into pieces , he also successfully did the task . Then Monalisa nominated Nitibha . Bigg Boss gave Nitibha two choices : She can use her immunity by using the Immunity Medallion or she can play the task , Nitibha chose first choice . Then Nitibha nominated Gaurav . He got a task where Bani had to put down her jacket into a paint bucket , she also did the task . Then Gaurav nominated Manoj . He got a task where Manveer had to shave his beard , this task was also successfully done . Then Manoj nominated Manveer . Bigg Boss gave him a task where Rohan had to wear a gown and a makeup like a woman , Rohan refused to do it . Then Manveer nominated Rahul . He got a task where Navin had to announce that he will never participate in the immunity task , which he also refused to do . Then Rahul nominated Karan . Bigg Boss gave him a task where Lokesh had to nominate herself for the following week , she did the task successfully . Then Karan nominated Navin . He got a task where Nitibha had to give her makeup box to Bigg Boss for the entire season , which she refused to do . Captaincy Task Siyasat On Day 25 , Bigg Boss announced that first three housemates who will come to the confession room and register their name will be the contenders of the house captain . Bani , Swami Om and Manoj was the first three housemates who came to the confession room . Thus make them the contenders for the respective post . Then Bigg Boss announced a task where three contenders will have three political team . At the end of the task , which team has maximum supporters will win the task . At the end of the task , Bani had 6 , Manoj had 4 and Swami Om had no one on their support . Result Won - Bani Reward Bani became the first captain of the house . Punishments On Day 26 , When Bigg Boss asked to Bani that which two housemates she wants to send in jail , Bani told that she wants Manoj and Swami Om as prisoners . Other Tasks The Immunity Medallion On Day 21 , Bigg Boss gave all housemates a chance to save themselves from the nominations . In the activity area , Bigg Boss created a stage for the auction in order to gain the Immunity Medallion and announced the rule that if more than one housemates bids for with the same amount then their bid will be cancelled . Then second highest bidder will be the winner . Bigg Boss also announced that this bidding money will be cut off from the winning prize money . After the bidding , Navin , Rahul and Rohan were the highest bidder with the same amount of ₹ 24 , 99,998 . For this , the second highest bidder Nitibha won the Immunity Medallion by bidding ₹ 24 , 99,994 . Now she can use this Immunity Medallion for two weeks wherever she wants in this season . Result Immuned - Nitibha Exit On Day 28 , Navin Prakash was the third housemate to evict from the house after facing the public vote . Week 5 Nominations On Day 29 , Bigg Boss asked the housemates to give names of 4 contestants by mutual consent whom they thought were boring for the public . Housemates chose Karan , Lokesh , Monalisa and Rahul . Task Lock Down On Day 30 , Bigg Boss introduced the luxury budget task where the housemates need to survive without their basic utilities . Bigg Boss kept their clothes and other essentials in containers placed in the living area . Whenever the gong bell rings , two members of each team got a chance to bring maximum of 4 essentials at a time from the containers . But for whatever essential they picked up , one point was added to their scoreboard . At the end of the task , whoever got maximum points will lose the task . Bigg Boss divided the housemates in two teams . Teams are : Team Rohan : Bani , Karan , Lokesh , Lopamudra , Rahul and Rohan . Team Monalisa : Gaurav , Manoj , Manveer , Monalisa , Nitibha and Swami Om . Bigg Boss gave some mini task where teams had a chance to reduce their points by winning it . Firstly Bigg Boss introduced a task where the challengers from each team need to finish an entire bowl of Rasgulla where 25 rasgullas were there , winner will be able to reduce 12 points from their scoreboard . This task was played by : Team Rohan : Rahul Team Monalisa : Manoj This task was cancelled by Bigg Boss as both captain was not agree to announce the same winner . Later Bigg Boss gave another task where the challengers from each team need to finish an entire jug of bitter melon juice . winner will be able to take out six essentials from the container . This task was played by : Team Rohan : Lopamudra Team Monalisa : Gaurav This task was won by Team Rohan as Lopamudra finished the bitter melon juice first . On Day 31 , Bigg Boss announced that the task time is over . As Team Monalisa was leading with much points , so Team Rohan won the task . Result Won - Team Rohan Captaincy Task Bigg Boss introduced the first competition , monitored by Nitibha . Where Karan and Lopamudra both had to balance a flower pot on opposite side of a see - saw using one leg and ensuring that see - saw is resting in a straight line . They one who keep balance till end will be winner . At the end of the task , Lopamudra won the task as Karan loose balance and pot falls from see - saw . Bigg Boss introduced the second competition , where Rahul and Rohan participated . In this task , both challengers had to get wrapped in a sheet of plastic paper , covering them from their shoulder till their knees . Once wrapped , They had to participate in race where they need to cross the finish line by jumping or crawling . The first person to cross the finish line and be standing on their feet will be the winner . At the end of the task , Rohan finally stands up on finish line before Rahul and won task . Bigg Boss told the housemates that they had to choose a captain from Lopamudra and . As Nitibha and Swami Om was the worst performers so they could n't cast their vote as individual , they both had to vote a person . After voting , Rohan got 5 votes and Lopamudra got 4 votes . Thus make Rohan the second captain of the house . Result Won - Rohan Punishments On Day 31 , When Bigg Boss asked to housemates which two housemates were worst in the task , they told that Nitibha and Swami Om was the worst by mutual consent . They could n't take the dinner given by Bigg Boss . On Day 32 , they could n't cast their vote as individual for the captaincy task . However , Bigg Boss allowed a mutual vote from them but their vote would only count as of one person . Exit On Day 34 , Salman Khan announced that there would be Double Eviction in the following week . Later in that day , daily soap actor Karan Mehra was the fourth housemate to be evicted after facing the public vote . On Day 35 , Lokesh Kumari Sharma was the fifth housemate to be evicted after facing the public vote . Week 6 Entrances On Day 42 , there were 4 new wildcard entries in the house . Former house guest Priyanka Jagga re-entered the house with Sahil Anand , Jason Shah and Elena Kazan . Nominations Viral Video Fever On Day 36 , Bigg Boss introduced a task where housemates had to create a 3 minutes entertaining , sensational video matching the set up provided by Bigg Boss . These videos was judged by Sunny Leone . She was giving thumbs up for liking video and thumbs down for not liking video . At the end of the task , which team got more likes will be declared as the winner and they will be save from the nomination . On the other hand , the opposite team will be nominate for the week . In the task , the housemates were divided into two teams . Teams were the following : Team Lopamudra : Lopamudra , Manoj , Monalisa , Rohan and Swami Om . Team Bani : Bani , Gaurav , Manveer , Nitibha and Rahul . At the end , Team Lopamudra won the task by 3 - 2 . So all the members of Team Lopamudra were immuned for the following week 's nomination and all the members of Team Bani were nominated . Result Won - Team Lopamudra Captaincy Task BB Gold Mine Bigg Boss introduced a gold mining task that was in the garden area . The task involved digging out gold and Bigg Boss announced that if Rohan inherits most of the gold he will be allowed to extend his captaincy for the following week . Shortly after announcing the task Bigg Boss called Lopamudra to the Confession Room where she was assigned a secret task . The task was that if Lopamudra and Manoj successfully could get 50 % of the gold that Rohan had , then Rohan would be removed from his captaincy and they would become the candidates for the position . At the end of the task , Bigg Boss announced that Lopamudra and Manoj had failed in their secret task . Hence , making Rohan 's captainship extended for one more week . Result Won - Rohan Reward Rohan got the opportunity to remain captain for one more week . Punishments Bigg Boss gave a task to the captain Rohan to choose the four worst performers in the task . Rohan choose Lopamudra , Monalisa , Nitibha and Swami Om . Then Bigg Boss gave them a punishment task named Rohan Ki Kathputliyan . In this task Rohan had to choose which punishment he wanted to give to his selected worst performers . Rohan decided to give the 1st punishment to Swami Om , where he had to eat 2 plates of butter . Rohan also gave the 2nd punishment to Swami Om , where Swami Om had to remain on stretcher until Bigg Boss 's next order . Rohan gave the 3rd punishment for Nitibha to go in the jail . Exit There was no eviction this week as voting lines were closed for the following week . Week 7 Nominations The Dome Bigg Boss announced a new nomination task called the Dome . The challengers or the four new wildcard contestants were instructed to pick one other contestant who is not a wild card . The task involved for the challenger and the other housemate to stay in the dome as long as possible , the first person to leave the dome would be nominated from each pair . Bigg Boss also stated that you can annoy the other person that is in your dome . The pairs were the following Gaurav and Jason Bani and Priyanka Nithiba and Elena Rahul and Sahil The first contestant to leave his / her dome was Rahul Dev who had to leave because he had to use the restroom , hence making him nominated and making Sahil safe . The second contestant to leave his / her dome was Elena Kazan hence making Nitibha safe . The third contestant who exited his / her dome was Jason Shah who also had to use the restroom making him nominated and saving Gaurav Chopra . That left Priyanka and Bani who stayed until 3 : 30 AM , had ended the task by Bani saving Priyanka by exiting the dome first . They decided to keep it secret until Bigg Boss announced the nominated houseguests . The nominated houseguests are : Rahul , Elena , Jason and Bani Result Captaincy Task Captaincy Gayi Pani Mein After Rohan 's ejection from his captaincy Bigg Boss announced that all the remaining houseguests except for the nominated would be a part of this task , Priyanka was the moderator of the taskBigg Boss said she would automatically become a candidate for Captain if she successfully completes her responsibilities . Each houseguest had a test tube that was dedicated to a person , when Bigg Boss played a gong which would happen seven times . Someone would need to empty their test tube in the bowl . After this task was concluded Bigg Boss said the last two remaining would become the nominees for captainship . Priyanka failed to become a nominee . The final two were Manveer and Gaurav . After Bigg Boss created a canvas and to win Captainship Manveer ( yellow ) and Gaurav ( blue ) would have to paint the canvas with their respective paints for two hours after Bigg Boss announced the time was up , Lopamudra Raut was the moderator of this competition . After painting Manveer slipped and fell , and injured himself by cutting his head . Bigg Boss paused the test and sent a medic to the confession room where Manveer was healed . After coming out Bigg Boss told Lopamudra that the task had concluded because the medic said that Manveer could not continue . Since Blue and Yellow make Green Lopamudra saw blue more than green and she said that Gaurav had won the task . Result Won - Gaurav Reward Other Tasks Result Punishments On Day 44 Bigg Boss announced that Rohan would be ejected from his captaincy due to not fulfilling the responsibilities . He was also punished with the fact that he could never become a captain for the rest of the season . Exit On Day 49 , Elena was the 6th Housemate to be evicted after facing public vote . Week 8 Nominations Housemates had to decide on who they want to nominate out of the wild cards Priyanka , Jason , Sahil . Everyone took Priyanka 's name . Tasks BB Taxi Stand Manveer and Bani have are taxi drivers while Priyanka is the traffic police women . Bani and Manveer both have to take the inmates for a ride and then they can give money to them . Priyanka will be the strict traffic police women and cane the housemates if they break any rules . The inmate with the most money will have a chance to participate in the captaincy round . Result Won - Priyanka Captaincy Task Appy Fizz Feel the Fizz Gaurav and Priyanka have to select 4 supporters each to keep them raised up in the air as high while they are tied to a harness . The one who hold for the most longest becomes the captain for next week . Result Won - Priyanka Reward Other Tasks Result Punishments Gaurav was given a chance to punish two housemates who 's hard work was less in the BB Taxi Stand task . He first chose Swami Om and Lopamudra . Exit Sahil was evicted from the house after facing the public vote . Priyanka was said to be evicted from the house but was sent to the secret room . Voting history ( edit ) Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Week 14 Week 15 Day 93 Day 97 House Captain Bani Rohan Gaurav Priyanka Lopamudra Manveer Captain 's Nomination Not eligible Priyanka Lopamudra Manveer Bani Manveer Lopamudra , Monalisa Gaurav , Rohan Nitibha , Swami Om Rahul Karan , Lokesh , Rahul , Rohan Nominated Not eligible Sahil , Bani Rahul Gaurav , Monalisa Not eligible House Captain Winner ( Day 105 ) Bani Manu , Priyanka Manu , Manveer Lopamudra , Monalisa Rohan House Captain Nominated Nominated Priyanka , Rahul , Lopamudra Lopamudra , Nitibha Manu , Monalisa Nominated Swami Om No nominations Lopamudra No nominations Runner - up ( Day 105 ) Lopamudra Manu , Priyanka Manveer , Nitibha Bani , Karan Not eligible Gaurav Karan , Manu , Manveer Not eligible Not eligible Priyanka , Bani , Nitibha Bani Bani Not eligible Nitibha No nominations Monalisa No nominations Third place ( Day 105 ) Manu Bani , Gaurav Gaurav , Rohan Nitibha , Swami Om Manveer Karan , Lokesh , Rahul , Rohan Not eligible Not eligible Walked ( Day 50 ) In Secret Room Gaurav , Priyanka Not eligible Monalisa No nominations Bani No nominations Walked ( Day 105 ) Rohan Manu , Priyanka Manu , Manveer Bani , Monalisa Monalisa Gaurav Manu , Manveer , Monalisa House Captain House Captain Priyanka , Sahil , Bani Not eligible Monalisa , Priyanka Not eligible Nominated No nominations Nominated No nominations Evicted ( Day 101 ) Monalisa Manu , Priyanka Akanksha , Nitibha Bani , Lopamudra Nitibha Karan , Lokesh , Rahul , Rohan Not eligible Not eligible Priyanka , Sahil , Rohan Not eligible Gaurav , Priyanka Nominated Monalisa No nominations Nominated Evicted ( Day 98 ) Nitibha Rahul , Monalisa Lopamudra , Monalisa Manu , Manveer Gaurav Karan , Manveer , Monalisa , Rahul Nominated Not eligible Priyanka , Sahil , Bani Not eligible Gaurav , Monalisa Not eligible Lopamudra No nominations Evicted ( Day 91 ) Swami Om Bani , Gaurav Bani , Gaurav Manu , Manveer In Secret Room Karan , Lokesh , Monalisa , Rahul Not eligible Not eligible Walked ( Day 48 ) Not eligible Manu , Manveer Not eligible Bani Ejected ( Day 81 ) Gaurav Manu , Priyanka Manu , Manveer Bani , Rahul Manu Karan , Lokesh , Monalisa , Rahul Nominated Not eligible Priyanka , Lopamudra , Manveer Not eligible Monalisa , Nitibha Nominated Evicted ( Day 77 ) Priyanka Bani , Gaurav Evicted ( Day 7 ) Not eligible Jason , Sahil In Secret Room Monalisa , Nitibha Walked ( Day 69 ) Rahul Manu , Priyanka Akanksha , Swami Om Karan , Monalisa Karan Karan , Lokesh , Manu , Monalisa Nominated Nominated Priyanka , Bani , Sahil Manveer Evicted ( Day 63 ) Sahil Not in House Not eligible Manveer , Nitibha Evicted ( Day 56 ) Jason Not in House Nominated Rohan , Monalisa Walked ( Day 55 ) Elena Not in House Nominated Evicted ( Day 49 ) Lokesh Lopamudra , Monalisa Gaurav , Monalisa Manu , Swami Om Lokesh Gaurav , Karan , Manveer , Rahul Evicted ( Day 35 ) Karan Manu , Priyanka Manu , Manveer Lopamudra , Monalisa Navin Lokesh , Manu , Monalisa , Rahul Evicted ( Day 34 ) Navin Gaurav , Rahul Gaurav Rohan Manu , Swami Om Not eligible Evicted ( Day 28 ) Akanksha Monalisa , Rahul Monalisa , Rahul Evicted ( Day 14 ) Notes 3 , 4 5 , 6 , 7 8 , 9 , 10 11 , 11 , 12 11 , 13 14 , 15 16 , 17 Against public vote Gaurav , Manu , Monalisa , Priyanka Akanksha , Gaurav , Manu , Manveer , Monalisa , Nitibha , Rohan Bani , Lopamudra , Manu , Manveer , Monalisa , Nitibha , Swami Om Lokesh , Manveer , Navin , Rahul Karan , Lokesh , Monalisa , Rahul Bani , Gaurav , Manveer , Nitibha , Rahul Bani , Elena , Jason , Rahul Bani , Lopamudra , Manveer , Nitibha , Priyanka , Rohan , Sahil Bani , Lopamudra , Manveer , Nitibha , Rahul Bani , Gaurav , Monalisa Bani , Gaurav , Monalisa Bani , Lopamudra , Monalisa , Nitibha , Rohan , Swami Om Bani , Lopamudra , Monalisa , Nitibha , Rohan Monalisa , Rohan Bani , Rohan Bani , Lopamudra , Manveer , Manu Walked none Swami Om , Manu Jason none Manu Ejected none Priyanka none Swami Om none Evicted Priyanka Akanksha Swami Om Navin Karan No eviction Elena Sahil Rahul Eviction cancelled Gaurav Eviction postponed Nitibha Monalisa Rohan Lopamudra Bani Lokesh Priyanka Manveer ^ Swami Om was evicted by the regular eviction process however in accordance with the secret room twist he was moved to a temporary abode and later returned in the week that followed . ^ Priyanka was evicted in the double eviction on Day 57 . However , she was moved to the secret room and later returned to the house . ^ Priyanka was asked to leave the house by host of the show Salman Khan after a heated exchange with him during which he threatened to quit presenting the show from there on and for future seasons if Priyanka did not exit the house . Priyanka Left the house under the circumstances . It is unknown whether her decision was influenced by the producers but is strongly alleged . The nominations were carry forwarded because she was ejected . ^ Swami Om was ejected from the house after he threw his urine which he had stored in a container on Bani and Rohan during the captaincy task . ^ Manveer was made house captain for three weeks following a task he won for eternal immunity . ^ Following an offer presented to all housemates by Bigg Boss , Manu chose to take the ₹ 10 lakh and left the house . indicates the House Captain . Moved to the Secret Room . indicates that the Housemate was directly nominated for eviction prior to the regular nominations process . indicates that the Housemate was granted immunity from nominations . Nomination notes ( edit ) ^ 1 All the Celebrities had to nominate 2 Indiawale by mutual consent . ^ 2 On Day 8 , Housemates nominated face to face , with each Housemate nominated two Housemates from their opposite team . ^ 3 Navin was immune for Week 3 from nomination by winning The Immunity Challenge . ^ 4 After Swami Om 's eviction , he was sent to secret room . ^ 5 All the housemates nominated a housemate for nomination and also to sit on the Telephone Task chair . ^ 6 Lopamudra was immune for Week 4 from nomination by winning The Immunity Challenge . ^ 7 Nitibha was also immune for Week 4 by using The Immunity Medallion . ^ 8 All the housemates nominated 4 housemates by mutual consent . ^ 9 Swami Om was immune for Week 5 from nomination as he returned as a Wild Card Entry that week . ^ 10 Nitibha was also immune for Week 5 by using The Immunity Medallion . ^ 11 Rohan was eternally nominated as punishment for physically assaulting Swami Om . ^ 12 Manveer qualified for the final week after winning the `` Ticket to Finale '' task . ^ 13 Each housemate was assigned a parcel of one of their fellow contestant which they have to either deliver or destroy in a foyer . If they fail to destroy and instead deliver it successfully , they will get nominated for the week while the contestant owning the parcel will be safe from nomination . Mona got Manu 's , Manu got Bani 's , Bani got Lopamudra 's and Lopamudra got Mona 's parcel . Only Mona delivered her parcel . Hence , nominating herself . ^ 14 Rohan was spared from his eternal nomination for the last nomination process . ^ 15 Housemates were divided into two teams . For winning the task Team Manu consisting of Lopamudra , Manu and Manveer was declared safe from the last nominations , making it to the finals . On the other hand , Team Rohan consisting of Bani , Monalisa and Rohan was nominated . As Monalisa and Rohan were already nominated , whoever survived the eviction was to be tagged with Bani for the last eviction before the finale . ^ 16 During the final week the public initially voted for who they wanted to save between Bani and Rohan . Audience voted for the four remaining housemates to win Bigg Boss , the three housemates with the fewest votes were evicted on Day 105 ( the finale ) with the Winner revealed on the same night . Vote count ( edit ) Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Week 14 Week 15 Nominations received Evictions faced Manveer 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 16 7 Gurbani 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 17 11 Lopamudra 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 6 Manu 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 Rohan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 6 Antara 6 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 26 9 Nitibha 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 7 Swami Om 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Gaurav 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 5 Priyanka 7 0 7 0 17 Rahul 8 0 0 16 Sahil 0 6 6 Jason 0 Elena 0 0 Lokesh 0 0 0 7 8 Karan 0 0 9 12 Navin 0 0 0 Akanksha 0 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/manveer-gurjar-wins-bigg-boss-10-why-he-was-the-most-deserving-contestant-3226688.html/amp Jump up ^ http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bigg-boss-season-10/manveer-gurjar-bani-j-bigg-boss-10-winner-finale-4496898/ Jump up ^ `` Meet Bigg Boss 10 Contestant S Sadachari Saibaba Omiji '' . Colors TV . 16 October 2016 . Retrieved 21 October 2016 . 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Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Om Swamiji and Bhojpuri actor Monalisa are in jail '' . Hindustan Times . 20 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 4 '' . TellyUpdates. 21 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Celebs get another chance to become Maaliks as Indiawale break rules on Bigg Boss 10 ! '' . Colors TV . 21 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : VJ Bani has a tiff with other celebrities ; will commoners win the task again ? '' . Daily News and Analysis . 21 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 5 '' . TellyUpdates. 21 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 Episode 5 21st October 2016 written update : Sevaks get another chance to turn Malik '' . Times of India . 21 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Shocking ! Priyanka Jagga evicted from Bigg Boss 10 ! '' . Colors TV . 23 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 7 ; Weekend Ka Vaar '' . TellyUpdates. 23 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Priyanka Jagga is the first contestant evicted '' . Retrieved 23 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 October 23 update : Priyanka Jagga first to be eliminated from the show '' . Daily News and Analysis . 24 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BREAKING : Priyanka Jagga evicted from Bigg Boss 10 in the first elimination '' . Times of India . 22 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 8 '' . TellyUpdates. 25 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Nominations for Week 2 on Bigg Boss 10 ! '' . Colors TV . 25 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 7 contestants nominated - here 's the full list ! '' . Daily News and Analysis . 24 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 Episode 9 , 25th October update : House turns BB laundry for the luxury budget task '' . The Times of India . 25 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Competition reaches a new height during luxury budget task on Bigg Boss 10 ! '' . Colors TV . 25 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 9 '' . TellyUpdates. 25 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Fights , fights and more fights in the house '' . Hindustan Times . 26 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 10 '' . TellyUpdates. 26 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 Episode 10 synopsis : Luxury Budget task BB Laundry brings out the worst side of the contestants '' . The Times of India . 26 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Navin 's ferocious avatar and all highlights of day 10 '' . Hindustan Times . 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 11 '' . TellyUpdates. 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 12 '' . TellyUpdates. 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` First immunity task on Bigg Boss 10 '' . Colors TV . 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 Episode 11 , October 27 update : Lokesh , Navin fight it out in an immunity task '' . The Times of India . 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Lokesh Kumari Sharma and Navin Prakash lock horns '' . Hindustan Times . 28 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Navin Prakash cheats to win immunity , Lokesh Kumari now in danger '' . Daily News and Analysis . 28 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Akansha Sharma is voted out of the show '' . Hindustan Times . 31 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BREAKING : Akanksha Sharma evicted from Bigg Boss 10 this week ! '' . Daily News and Analysis . 29 October 2016 . Retrieved 30 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 14 : Weeknd Ka Vaar '' . TellyUpdates. 30 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 Day 15 '' . The Indian Express . 1 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Raja aur Rank ' : New Task on Bigg Boss 10 ! '' . Colors TV . 1 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 18 '' . TellyUpdates. 3 November 2016 . Retrieved 4 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 : Day 14 : Weeknd Ka Vaar '' . TellyUpdates. 30 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 10 eliminations : Sahil Anand EVICTED ! '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/bigg-boss-10-priyanka-jagga-salman-khan-wrote-on-social-media-after-sameer-jagga-lifetv/1/842477.html Jump up ^ http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bigg-boss-season-10/was-there-more-to-priyanka-jaggas-ouster-from-bigg-boss-10-house-4445606/ Jump up ^ http://www.bollywoodlife.com/news-gossip/bigg-boss-10-om-swami-reveals-why-he-threw-his-urine-on-bani-j-and-rohan-mehra/ Jump up ^ http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/01/05/antics-at-bigg-boss-reaches-an-all-time-low-swami-om-throws-uri/ External links ( edit ) Official Website Bigg Boss Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Spin - off Bigg Boss Halla Bol Winners Rahul Roy Ashutosh Kaushik Vindu Dara Singh Shweta Tiwari Juhi Parmar Urvashi Dholakia Gauahar Khan Gautam Gulati Prince Narula Manveer Gurjar Notable Contestants Veena Malik Mandana Karimi Gurbani Judge Kishwar Merchant Rochelle Maria Rao Sonali Raut Karishma Tanna Sambhavna Seth Sana Khan Dolly Bindra Dimpy Ganguly Gauhar Khan Gautam Gulati Kashmira Shah Mahek Chahal Sunny Leone Rahul Mahajan Shweta Tiwari Pooja Misrra Imam Siddique Rakhi Sawant Arya Babbar Armaan Kohli Tanisha Mukherjee Jade Goody Pratyusha Banerjee Ajaz Khan Sara Khan Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bigg_Boss_10&oldid=803615530 '' Categories : Colors ( TV channel ) series Bigg Boss seasons 2016 Indian television seasons Hidden categories : Use Indian English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Use dmy dates from October 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2017 , at 16 : 06 . 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2 | document: Three - Fifths Compromise - wikipedia Three - Fifths Compromise Jump to : navigation , search The Three - Fifths Compromise was a compromise reached between state delegates during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention . The debate was over whether , and if so , how , slaves would be counted when determining a state 's total population for legislative representation and taxing purposes . The issue was important , as this population number would then be used to determine the number of seats that the state would have in the United States House of Representatives for the next ten years . The effect was to give the southern states a third more seats in Congress and a third more electoral votes than if slaves had been ignored , but fewer than if slaves and free persons had been counted equally , allowing the slaveholder interests to largely dominate the government of the United States until 1861 . The compromise was proposed by delegates James Wilson and Roger Sherman . Contents ( hide ) 1 Enactment 2 Impact before the Civil War 3 After the Civil War 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography Enactment ( edit ) Part of a series on Slavery Contemporary ( show ) Child labour Conscription Debt Forced marriage Bride buying Wife selling Forced prostitution Human trafficking Peonage Penal labour Sexual slavery Wage slavery Historical ( show ) Antiquity Ancient Rome Babylonia Ancient Greece Topics and practices Atlantic slave trade Middle Passage Arab slave trade Ghilman Mamluk Saqaliba Aztec Blackbirding Byzantine Empire Coolie Corvée labor Field slaves in the United States House slaves Kholop Medieval Europe Panyarring Thrall Serfs History Russia Slave market Slave raiding Naval Galley slave Impressment Pirates Shanghaiing Slave ship By country or region ( show ) Sub-Saharan Africa Contemporary Africa Slavery on the Barbary Coast Barbary slave trade Slave Coast Angola Chad Ethiopia Mali Mauritania Niger Somalia South Africa Sudan Seychelles North and South America Americas indigenous U.S. Natives Brazil Lei Áurea Canada Caribbean Barbados Code Noir Cuba Haiti revolt Restavek Latin America Puerto Rico Trinidad United States colonial maps female partus penal labor Slave codes interregional Human trafficking Virgin Islands Central , East , and South Asia Human trafficking in Southeast Asia Bhutan China Booi Aha Laogai India Debt bondage Chukri System Japan comfort women South Korea Yankee princess North Korea Vietnam Australia and Oceania Blackbirding in Australia Human trafficking in Australia Slave raiding in Easter Island Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea Blackbirding in Polynesia Europe and North Asia Sex trafficking in Europe Britain Denmark Dutch Republic Germany in World War II Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Spain colonies Sweden North Africa and West Asia Iran Libya Human trafficking in the Middle East Ottoman Empire Yemen Religion ( show ) Bible Christianity Catholicism Mormonism Islam 21st century Judaism Bahá'í Faith Opposition and resistance ( show ) Timeline Abolitionism U.K. U.S. Anti-Slavery International Blockade of Africa U.K. U.S. Compensated emancipation Freedman manumission Freedom suit Abolitionists Slave Power Underground Railroad songs Slave rebellion Slave Trade Acts International law 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution Related ( show ) Common law Indentured servitude Unfree labour Fugitive slaves laws Great Dismal Swamp maroons List of slaves owners Slave narrative films songs Slave name Slave catcher Slave patrol Slave Route Project Treatment in U.S. breeding court cases Washington Jefferson Adams Lincoln 40 acres Freedmen 's Bureau bit Emancipation Day The Convention had unanimously accepted the principle that representation in the House of Representatives would be in proportion to the relative state populations . However , since slaves could not vote , leaders in slave states would thus have the benefit of increased representation in the House and the Electoral College . Delegates opposed to slavery proposed that only free inhabitants of each state be counted for apportionment purposes , while delegates supportive of slavery , on the other hand , opposed the proposal , wanting slaves to count in their actual numbers . The compromise that was finally agreed upon -- of counting `` all other persons '' as only three - fifths of their actual numbers -- reduced the representation of the slave states relative to the original proposals , but improved it over the Northern position . An inducement for slave states to accept the Compromise was its tie to taxation in the same ratio , so that the burden of taxation on the slave states was also reduced . The Three - Fifths Compromise is found in Article 1 , Section 2 , Clause 3 of the United States Constitution , which reads : Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union , according to their respective Numbers , which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons , including those bound to Service for a Term of Years , and excluding Indians not taxed , three fifths of all other Persons . The three - fifths ratio originated with a 1783 amendment proposed to the Articles of Confederation . The amendment was to have changed the basis for determining the wealth of each state , and hence its tax obligations , from real estate to population , as a measure of ability to produce wealth . The proposal by a committee of the Congress had suggested that taxes `` shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age , sex , and quality , except Indians not paying taxes '' . The South immediately objected to this formula since it would include slaves , who were viewed primarily as property , in calculating the amount of taxes to be paid . As Thomas Jefferson wrote in his notes on the debates , the southern states would be taxed `` according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly , while the northern would be taxed on numbers only '' . After proposed compromises of one - half by Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and three - fourths by several New Englanders failed to gain sufficient support , Congress finally settled on the three - fifths ratio proposed by James Madison . But this amendment ultimately failed , falling two states short of the unanimous approval required for amending the Articles of Confederation ( only New Hampshire and New York were opposed ) . A contentious issue at the 1787 Constitutional Convention was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress or would instead be considered property and , as such , not be considered for purposes of representation . Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation , but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population . Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation , but not in determining representation . The proposed ratio was , however , a ready solution to the impasse that arose during the Constitutional Convention . In that situation , the alignment of the contending forces was the reverse of what had obtained under the Articles of Confederation . In amending the Articles , the North wanted slaves to count for more than the South did because the objective was to determine taxes paid by the states to the federal government . In the Constitutional Convention , the more important issue was representation in Congress , so the South wanted slaves to count for more than the North did . Much has been said of the impropriety of representing men who have no will of their own ... They are men , though degraded to the condition of slavery . They are persons known to the municipal laws of the states which they inhabit , as well as to the laws of nature . But representation and taxation go together ... Would it be just to impose a singular burden , without conferring some adequate advantage ? -- Alexander Hamilton Impact before the Civil War ( edit ) The Three - Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states until the American Civil War . In 1793 , for example , Southern slave states had 47 of the 105 members but would have had 33 , had seats been assigned based on free populations . In 1812 , slave states had 76 out of 143 instead of the 59 they would have had ; in 1833 , 98 out of 240 instead of 73 . As a result , Southern states had disproportionate influence on the presidency , the speakership of the House , and the Supreme Court in the period prior to the Civil War . Along with this must be considered the number of slave and free states , which remained mostly equal until 1850 , safeguarding the Southern bloc in the Senate as well as Electoral College votes . Historian Garry Wills has postulated that without the additional slave state votes , Jefferson would have lost the presidential election of 1800 . Also , `` slavery would have been excluded from Missouri ... Jackson 's Indian removal policy would have failed ... the Wilmot Proviso would have banned slavery in territories won from Mexico ... the Kansas - Nebraska bill would have failed . '' While the Three - Fifths Compromise could be seen to favor Southern states because of their large slave populations , for example , the Connecticut Compromise tended to favor the Northern states ( which were generally smaller ) . Support for the new Constitution rested on the balance of these sectional interests . After the Civil War ( edit ) Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment ( 1868 ) later superseded Article 1 , Section 2 , Clause 3 and explicitly repealed the compromise . It provides that `` representatives shall be apportioned ... counting the whole number of persons in each State , excluding Indians not taxed . '' A later provision of the same clause reduced the Congressional representation of states who denied the right to vote to adult male citizens , but this provision was never effectively enforced . ( The Thirteenth Amendment , passed in 1865 , had already eliminated almost all persons from the original clause 's jurisdiction by banning slavery ; the only remaining persons subject to it were those sentenced for a crime to penal servitude , which the amendment excluded from the ban . ) After the Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877 , however , the former slave states subverted the objective of these changes by using various strategies to disenfranchise their black citizens , while obtaining the benefit of apportionment of representatives on the basis of the total populations . These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era , inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president . The disenfranchisement of black citizens eventually attracted the attention of Congress , and in 1900 some members proposed stripping the South of seats , related to the number of people who were barred from voting . In the end , Congress did not act to change apportionment , largely because of the power of the Southern bloc . The Southern bloc comprised Southern Democrats voted into office by white voters and constituted a powerful voting bloc in Congress until the 1960s . Their representatives , re-elected repeatedly by one - party states , controlled numerous chairmanships of important committees in both houses on the basis of seniority , giving them control over rules , budgets and important patronage projects , among other issues . Their power allowed them to defeat federal legislation against racial violence and abuses in the South . See also ( edit ) United States portal Section 127 of the Australian Constitution , excluding Aboriginal people from the census for purposes of determining allocation of seats in Parliament ; repealed in 1967 . Slave Trade Acts References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` We Hold These Truths to be Self - evident ; '' An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Roots of Racism & slavery in America Kenneth N. Addison ; Introduction p. xxii Jump up ^ Paul Finkelman , `` How The Proslavery Constitution Led To The Civil War '' , Rutgers Law Journal Volume 43 Fall / Winter 2013 Number 3 , p405 Jump up ^ Wills pg. 51 Jump up ^ Hannis Taylor ( 1911 ) . The Origin and Growth of the American Constitution : An Historical Treatise . Houghton Mifflin Company . p. 131 . Jump up ^ Wills pp. 51 -- 52 Jump up ^ Wills pg 53 . Jump up ^ Jonathan Elliot , ed. ( 1866 ) . The Debates In The Several State Conventions On The Adoption Of The Federal Constitution , As Recommended By The General Convention At Philadelphia , In 1787 . J.B. Lippincott & Co . Washington : Taylor & Maury . p. 237 . ^ Jump up to : Wills pp. 5 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Banning , Lance ( August 31 , 2004 ) . `` Three - Fifths Historian '' . The Claremont Institute . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 21 . Jump up ^ Friedman , Walter ( January 1 , 2006 ) . `` Fourteenth Amendment '' . Encyclopedia of African - American Culture and History . -- via HighBeam Research ( subscription required ) . Retrieved June 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Committee At Odds on Reapportionment , The New York Times , December 20 , 1900 , accessed March 10 , 2008 Jump up ^ Richard H. Pildes , `` Democracy , Anti-Democracy , and the Canon '' , Constitutional Commentary , Vol. 17 , 2000 , p. 10 , accessed 10 Mar 2008 Bibliography ( edit ) Wills , Garry ( 2003 ) . `` Negro President '' : Jefferson and the Slave Power . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 0 - 618 - 34398 - 9 . Walton , Hanes , Jr. ; Smith , Robert C. ( 2006 ) . American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom ( 3rd ed . ) . New York : Pearson Longman . ISBN 0 - 321 - 29237 - 5 . Wiencek , Henry ( 2004 ) . An Imperfect God : George Washington , His Slaves , and the Creation of America . New York : Farrar , Straus , and Giroux . ISBN 0 - 374 - 52951 - 5 . Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice ( hide ) United States Constitution Articles Preamble II III IV V VI VII Amendments Ratified Bill of Rights 5 6 7 8 9 10 Others 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Pending Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Amendment Child Labor Repealed Eighteenth Amendment Unsuccessful Equal Rights District of Columbia Voting Rights List of Amendments Bill of Rights ( Amendments 1 -- 10 ) Reconstruction Amendments ( Amendments 13 -- 15 ) Amendment proposals in Congress Convention to propose amendments State ratifying conventions Formation History Articles of Confederation Mount Vernon Conference Annapolis Convention Philadelphia Convention Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan Connecticut Compromise Three - Fifths Compromise Committee of Detail Signing Independence Hall Syng inkstand The Federalist Papers Anti-Federalist Papers Massachusetts Compromise Virginia Ratifying Convention Hillsborough Convention Rhode Island ratification Drafting and ratification timeline Clauses Appointments Appropriations Assistance of Counsel Bills of credit Case or Controversy Citizenship Commerce Compact Compulsory Process Confrontation Contract Copyright and Patent Double Jeopardy Due Process Equal Protection Establishment Exceptions Excessive Bail Ex post facto Extradition Free Exercise Free Speech Fugitive Slave Full Faith and Credit General Welfare Guarantee Impeachment Import - Export Ineligibility Militia Natural - born citizen Necessary and Proper New States No Religious Test Oath or Affirmation Origination Petition Postal Presentment Privileges and Immunities Privileges or Immunities Recess appointment Recommendation Self - Incrimination Speech or Debate Speedy Trial State of the Union Supremacy Suspension Take Care Takings Taxing and Spending Territorial Title of Nobility Treaty Trial by Jury Vesting Vicinage War Powers List of clauses Interpretation Concurrent powers Congressional enforcement Constitutional law Criminal procedure Criminal sentencing Dormant Commerce Clause Enumerated powers Equal footing Executive privilege Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Judicial review Nondelegation doctrine Preemption Saxbe fix Separation of church and state Separation of powers Taxation power Unitary executive theory Display and legacy National Archives Charters of Freedom Rotunda Independence Mall Constitution Day Constitution Gardens National Constitution Center Scene at the Signing of the Constitution ( painting ) A More Perfect Union ( film ) Worldwide influence US Government Portal Law Portal Wikipedia book Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Three-Fifths_Compromise&oldid=825708121 '' Categories : Drafting of the United States Constitution Slavery in the United States History of African - American civil rights History of the United States ( 1776 -- 89 ) 1787 in the United States 1787 in American politics Hidden categories : Subscription required using via Pages containing links to subscription - only content Use mdy dates from May 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2009 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from September 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Português 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 February 2018 , at 23 : 01 . 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3 | document: Roman Empire - Wikipedia Roman Empire Jump to : navigation , search For other uses of `` Roman Empire '' , see Roman Empire ( disambiguation ) . Not to be confused with Latin Empire or Holy Roman Empire . Roman Empire Imperium Romanum ( Latin ) Senatus Populusque Romanus ( SPQR ) Roman Senate and People Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων ( Ancient Greek ) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC -- 395 AD 395 -- 476 ( Western ) 395 -- 1453 ( Eastern ) Aureus of Augustus Vexilloid The Roman Empire in 117 AD , at its greatest extent at the time of Trajan 's death ( with its vassals in pink ) . Capital Rome ( 27 BC -- AD 410 ) Mediolanum ( 286 -- 402 , Western ) Augusta Treverorum Sirmium Ravenna ( 402 -- 476 , Western ) Nicomedia ( 286 -- 330 , Eastern ) Constantinople ( 330 -- 1453 , Eastern ) Syracuse ( 663 -- 669 , Eastern ) Languages Latin ( official until 610 ) Greek ( official after 610 ) Regional / local languages Religion Before AD 380 : Imperial cult - driven polytheism From AD 380 : Nicene Christianity Government Mixed , functionally absolute monarchy Emperor 27 BC -- AD 14 Augustus ( first ) 98 -- 117 Trajan 284 -- 305 Diocletian 306 -- 337 Constantine I 379 -- 395 Theodosius I 474 -- 480 Julius Nepos 527 -- 565 Justinian I 976 -- 1025 Basil II 1449 -- 1453 Constantine XI Legislature Senate Historical era Classical era to Late Middle Ages Final War of the Roman Republic 32 -- 30 BC Empire established 30 -- 2 BC Constantinople becomes capital 330 Final East West divide 395 Fall of the Western Roman Empire 476 Fourth Crusade 1202 -- 1204 Reconquest of Constantinople 1261 Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Fall of Trebizond 15 August 1461 Area 25 BC 2,750,000 km ( 1,060,000 sq mi ) AD 117 5,000,000 km ( 1,900,000 sq mi ) AD 390 4,400,000 km ( 1,700,000 sq mi ) Population 25 BC est . 56,800,000 Density 21 / km ( 53 / sq mi ) Currency Sestertius , Aureus , Solidus , Nomisma Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( Latin : Imperium Rōmānum ; Classical Latin : ( ɪmˈpɛ. ri. ũː roːˈmaː. nũː ) Koine and Medieval Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων , tr . Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn ) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization , characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe , Africa and Asia . The city of Rome was the largest city in the world c. 100 BC -- c . AD 400 , with Constantinople ( New Rome ) becoming the largest around AD 500 , and the Empire 's populace grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants ( roughly 20 % of the world 's population at the time ) . The 500 - year - old republic which preceded it was severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict , during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC . Civil wars and executions continued , culminating in the victory of Octavian , Caesar 's adopted son , over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt . Octavian 's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus , effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic . The imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era . The first two centuries of the empire 's existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana , or `` Roman Peace '' . Following Octavian 's victory , the size of the empire was dramatically increased . After the assassination of Caligula in AD 41 , the Senate briefly considered restoring the republic , but the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius emperor instead . Under Claudius , the empire invaded Britannia , its first major expansion since Augustus . After Claudius ' successor , Nero , committed suicide in AD 68 , the empire suffered a series of brief civil wars , as well as a concurrent major rebellion in Judea , during which four different legionary generals were proclaimed emperor . Vespasian emerged triumphant in AD 69 , establishing the Flavian dynasty , before being succeeded by his son Titus , who opened the Colosseum shortly after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius . His short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian , who was eventually assassinated . The Senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors . The empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan , the second in this line . A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus . Commodus ' assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors , of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious . The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a fifty - year time span . It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy , which saw four emperors rule the empire at once . This arrangement was ultimately unsuccessful , leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine the Great , who defeated his rivals and became the sole ruler of the empire in 324 . Constantine subsequently established a second capital city in Byzantium , which he renamed Constantinople . It remained the capital of the east until its demise . Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the official state religion of the empire . Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 , the empire was permanently divided between the West and the East . The dominion of the Western Roman Empire was gradually eroded by abuses of power , civil wars , barbarian migrations and invasions , military reforms and economic depression . The Sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths and again in 455 by the Vandals accelerated the Western Empire 's decay , while the deposition of the emperor , Romulus Augustulus , in 476 by Odoacer , is generally accepted to mark the end of the empire in the west . However , Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague , and separate rule in the Western part of the empire only ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos , in 480 . The Eastern Roman Empire ( in modern historiography called the Byzantine Empire ) endured for another millennium as one of the leading powers in the world alongside its arch - rival the Sassanid Empire , which had inherited a centuries - old Roman - Persian conflict from its predecessor the Parthians . It eventually fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic , cultural , political and military forces in the world of its time . It was one of the largest empires in world history . At its height under Trajan , it covered 5 million square kilometres . It held sway over an estimated 70 million people , at that time 21 % of the world 's entire population . The longevity and vast extent of the empire ensured the lasting influence of Latin and Greek language , culture , religion , inventions , architecture , philosophy , law and forms of government on the empire 's descendants . Throughout the European medieval period , attempts were even made to establish successors to the Roman Empire , including the Empire of Romania , a Crusader state , and the Holy Roman Empire . By means of European colonialism following the Renaissance , and their descendant states , Greco - Roman and Judaeo - Christian culture was exported on a worldwide scale , playing a crucial role in the development of the modern world . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Geography and demography 3 Languages 3.1 Local languages and linguistic legacy 4 Society 4.1 Legal status 4.1. 1 Women in Roman law 4.1. 2 Slaves and the law 4.1. 3 Freedmen 4.2 Census rank 4.2. 1 Unequal justice 5 Government and military 5.1 Central government 5.2 Military 5.3 Provincial government 5.4 Roman law 5.5 Taxation 6 Economy 6.1 Currency and banking 6.2 Mining and metallurgy 6.3 Transportation and communication 6.4 Trade and commodities 6.5 Labour and occupations 6.6 GDP and income distribution 7 Architecture and engineering 8 Daily life 8.1 City and country 8.2 Food and dining 8.3 Recreation and spectacles 8.3. 1 Personal training and play 8.4 Clothing 9 The arts 9.1 Portraiture 9.2 Sculpture 9.2. 1 Sarcophagi 9.3 Painting 9.4 Mosaic 9.5 Decorative arts 9.6 Performing arts 10 Literacy , books , and education 10.1 Primary education 10.2 Secondary education 10.3 Educated women 10.4 Decline of literacy 11 Literature 12 Religion 13 Political legacy 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 16.1 Citations 16.2 Cited sources 17 External links History Main article : History of the Roman Empire See also : Campaign history of the Roman military , Roman - Persian Wars , and Roman Kingdom The Augustus of Prima Porta ( early 1st century AD ) Bust of Tiberius Julius Sauromates II ( d . 210 AD ) , ruler of the Bosporan Kingdom in Roman Crimea , one of Rome 's client states Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC , though it did not expand outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC . Then , it was an `` empire '' long before it had an emperor . The Roman Republic was not a nation - state in the modern sense , but a network of towns left to rule themselves ( though with varying degrees of independence from the Roman Senate ) and provinces administered by military commanders . It was ruled , not by emperors , but by annually elected magistrates ( Roman Consuls above all ) in conjunction with the senate . For various reasons , the 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval , which ultimately led to rule by emperors . The consuls ' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium , which literally means `` command '' ( though typically in a military sense ) . Occasionally , successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator ( commander ) , and this is the origin of the word emperor ( and empire ) since this title ( among others ) was always bestowed to the early emperors upon their accession . Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts , conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC onwards , while greatly extending its power beyond Italy . This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic . Towards the end of this era , in 44 BC , Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated . The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by an army led by Mark Antony and Caesar 's adopted son Octavian . Antony and Octavian 's division of the Roman world between themselves did not last and Octavian 's forces defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps ( `` first citizen '' ) with proconsular imperium , thus beginning the Principate ( the first epoch of Roman imperial history , usually dated from 27 BC to AD 284 ) , and gave him the name `` Augustus '' ( `` the venerated '' ) . Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place , Augustus came to predominate it . Although the republic stood in name , contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome . Since his rule ended a century of civil wars and began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity , he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure . During the years of his rule , a new constitutional order emerged ( in part organically and in part by design ) , so that , upon his death , this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor . The 200 years that began with Augustus 's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ( `` Roman Peace '' ) . During this period , the cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced . Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent , but put down `` mercilessly and swiftly '' when they occurred . The sixty years of Jewish -- Roman wars in the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century were exceptional in their duration and violence . The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs . The Julio - Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors -- Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius and Nero -- before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife - torn Year of Four Emperors , from which Vespasian emerged as victor . Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty , to be followed by the Nerva -- Antonine dynasty which produced the `` Five Good Emperors '' : Nerva , Trajan , Hadrian , Antoninus Pius and the philosophically - inclined Marcus Aurelius . In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius , a contemporary observer , the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent `` from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron '' -- a famous comment which has led some historians , notably Edward Gibbon , to take Commodus ' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire . In 212 , during the reign of Caracalla , Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire . But despite this gesture of universality , the Severan dynasty was tumultuous -- an emperor 's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution -- and , following its collapse , the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century , a period of invasions , civil strife , economic disorder , and plague . In defining historical epochs , this crisis is sometimes viewed as marking the transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity . Aurelian ( reigned 270 -- 275 ) brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it . Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire , but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine , `` master '' or `` lord '' . This marked the end of the Principate , and the beginning of the Dominate . Diocletian 's reign also brought the empire 's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity , the `` Great Persecution '' . The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453 . Diocletian divided the empire into four regions , each ruled by a separate emperor , the Tetrarchy . Confident that he fixed the disorders that were plaguing Rome , he abdicated along with his co-emperor , and the Tetrarchy soon collapsed . Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great , who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity , and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire . During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties , the empire was divided along an east -- west axis , with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome . The reign of Julian , who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion , only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors . Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both East and West , died in 395 AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire . The Roman Empire by 476 The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the migrants and fight off the invaders . The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders , most famously Attila , though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself . Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 , when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer . By placing himself under the rule of the Eastern Emperor , rather than naming himself Emperor ( as other Germanic chiefs had done after deposing past emperors ) , Odoacer ended the Western Empire by ending the line of Western emperors . The empire in the East -- often known as the Byzantine Empire , but referred to in its time as the Roman Empire or by various other names -- had a different fate . It survived for almost a millennium after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages . During the 6th century , Justinian I reconquered Northern Africa and Italy . But within a few years of Justinian 's death , Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula . In the east , partially resulting from the destructive Plague of Justinian , the Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam , whose followers rapidly conquered the territories of Syria , Armenia and Egypt during the Byzantine - Arab Wars , and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople . In the following century , the Arabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily . Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans . The Roman ( Byzantine ) Empire c. 1263 . The Romans , however , managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and , beginning in the 9th century , reclaimed parts of the conquered lands . In 1000 AD , the Eastern Empire was at its height : Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia , culture and trade flourished . However , soon after , the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert . The aftermath of this important battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline . Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095 . The West responded with the Crusades , eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade . The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states , the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea . After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces , the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast . The Roman Empire finally collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453 . Geography and demography Main articles : Demography of the Roman Empire and Borders of the Roman Empire Further information : Classical demography The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history , with contiguous territories throughout Europe , North Africa , and the Middle East . The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ( `` empire without end '' ) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire . In Vergil 's epic poem the Aeneid , limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter . This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century . In reality , Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic , though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD , when Roman control in Europe , Africa and Asia was strengthened . During the reign of Augustus , a `` global map of the known world '' was displayed for the first time in public at Rome , coinciding with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity , the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo . When Augustus died , the commemorative account of his achievements ( Res Gestae ) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of peoples and places within the Empire . Geography , the census , and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration . A segment of the ruins of Hadrian 's Wall in northern England The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan ( reigned 98 -- 117 ) , encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres . The traditional population estimate of 55 -- 60 million inhabitants accounted for between one - sixth and one - fourth of the world 's total population and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century . Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million to more than 100 million . Each of the three largest cities in the Empire -- Rome , Alexandria , and Antioch -- was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century . As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it : Then the empire stretched from Hadrian 's Wall in drizzle - soaked northern England to the sun - baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria ; from the great Rhine -- Danube river system , which snaked across the fertile , flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea , to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt . The empire completely circled the Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum -- ' our sea ' . Trajan 's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire . Borders ( fines ) were marked , and the frontiers ( limites ) patrolled . The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable . Hadrian 's Wall , which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever - present barbarian threat , is the primary surviving monument of this effort . Languages This section may contain misleading parts . Please help clarify this article according to any suggestions provided on the talk page . ( September 2016 ) Main article : Languages of the Roman Empire The language of the Romans was Latin , which Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition . Until the time of Alexander Severus ( reigned 222 -- 235 ) , the birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin . Latin was the language of the law courts in the West and of the military throughout the Empire , but was not imposed officially on peoples brought under Roman rule . This policy contrasts with that of Alexander the Great , who aimed to impose Greek throughout his empire as the official language . As a consequence of Alexander 's conquests , koine Greek had become the shared language around the eastern Mediterranean and into Asia Minor . The `` linguistic frontier '' dividing the Latin West and the Greek East passed through the Balkan peninsula . A 5th - century papyrus showing a parallel Latin - Greek text of a speech by Cicero Romans who received an elite education studied Greek as a literary language , and most men of the governing classes could speak Greek . The Julio - Claudian emperors encouraged high standards of correct Latin ( Latinitas ) , a linguistic movement identified in modern terms as Classical Latin , and favoured Latin for conducting official business . Claudius tried to limit the use of Greek , and on occasion revoked the citizenship of those who lacked Latin , but even in the Senate he drew on his own bilingualism in communicating with Greek - speaking ambassadors . Suetonius quotes him as referring to `` our two languages '' . In the Eastern empire , laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin . The everyday interpenetration of the two languages is indicated by bilingual inscriptions , which sometimes even switch back and forth between Greek and Latin . After all freeborn inhabitants of the empire were universally enfranchised in 212 AD , a great number of Roman citizens would have lacked Latin , though they were expected to acquire at least a token knowledge , and Latin remained a marker of `` Romanness . '' Among other reforms , the emperor Diocletian ( reigned 284 -- 305 ) sought to renew the authority of Latin , and the Greek expression hē kratousa dialektos attests to the continuing status of Latin as `` the language of power . '' In the early 6th century , the emperor Justinian engaged in a quixotic effort to reassert the status of Latin as the language of law , even though in his time Latin no longer held any currency as a living language in the East . Local languages and linguistic legacy Bilingual Latin - Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna , Roman Africa ( present - day Libya ) References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin , particularly in Egypt , where Coptic predominated , and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube . Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic , Gaulish , and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths . In the province of Africa , Libyco - Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius ( 1st century AD ) . Libyco - Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century , some bilingual with Latin . In Syria , Palmyrene soldiers even used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions , in a striking exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military . The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in the Empire . These papyri , named for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to 132 AD , mostly employ Aramaic , the local language , written in Greek characters with Semitic and Latin influences ; a petition to the Roman governor , however , was written in Greek . The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages , since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral . In the West , Latin , referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin , gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages that were related to it by a shared Indo - European origin . Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary facilitated the adoption of Latin . After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity , Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languages , such as Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian and Romanian , and a large number of minor languages and dialects . Today , more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide . As an international language of learning and literature , Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century , and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present . Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire , linguistic distribution in the East was more complex . A Greek - speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islands , western Anatolia , major cities , and some coastal areas . Like Greek and Latin , the Thracian language was of Indo - European origin , as were several now - extinct languages in Anatolia attested by Imperial - era inscriptions . Albanian is often seen as the descendant of Illyrian , although this hypothesis has been challenged by some linguists , who maintain that it derives from Dacian or Thracian . ( Illyrian , Dacian , and Thracian , however , may have formed a subgroup or a Sprachbund ; see Thraco - Illyrian . ) Various Afroasiatic languages -- primarily Coptic in Egypt , and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia -- were never replaced by Greek . The international use of Greek , however , was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity , as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul . Society For more details on this topic , see Ancient Roman society . A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii ( 1st century AD ) Spread of Seuso at Lacus Pelso ( Lake Balaton ) The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural , with `` a rather astonishing cohesive capacity '' to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time . The Roman attention to creating public monuments and communal spaces open to all -- such as forums , amphitheatres , racetracks and baths -- helped foster a sense of `` Romanness '' . Roman society had multiple , overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of `` class '' in English may not represent accurately . The two decades of civil war from which Augustus rose to sole power left traditional society in Rome in a state of confusion and upheaval , but did not affect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power . From the perspective of the lower classes , a peak was merely added to the social pyramid . Personal relationships -- patronage , friendship ( amicitia ) , family , marriage -- continued to influence the workings of politics and government , as they had in the Republic . By the time of Nero , however , it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen , or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator . The blurring or diffusion of the Republic 's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility under the Empire , both upward and downward , to an extent that exceeded that of all other well - documented ancient societies . Women , freedmen , and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them . Social life in the Empire , particularly for those whose personal resources were limited , was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities ( collegia and sodalitates ) formed for various purposes : professional and trade guilds , veterans ' groups , religious sodalities , drinking and dining clubs , performing arts troupes , and burial societies . Citizen of Roman Egypt ( Fayum mummy portrait ) Infanticide has been recorded in the Roman Empire and may have been widespread . Legal status Main articles : Status in Roman legal system and Roman citizenship According to the jurist Gaius , the essential distinction in the Roman `` law of persons '' was that all human beings were either free ( liberi ) or slaves ( servi ) . The legal status of free persons might be further defined by their citizenship . Most citizens held limited rights ( such as the ius Latinum , `` Latin right '' ) , but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship . Free people not considered citizens , but living within the Roman world , held status as peregrini , non-Romans . In 212 AD , by means of the edict known as the Constitutio Antoniniana , the emperor Caracalla extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire . This legal egalitarianism would have required a far - reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens . Women in Roman law Main article : Women in ancient Rome Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire , but did not vote , hold political office , or serve in the military . A mother 's citizen status determined that of her children , as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ( `` children born of two Roman citizens '' ) . A Roman woman kept her own family name ( nomen ) for life . Children most often took the father 's name , but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother 's name part of theirs , or even used it instead . Left image : Roman fresco of a blond maiden reading a text , Pompeian Fourth Style ( 60 -- 79 AD ) , Pompeii , Italy Right image : Bronze statuette ( 1st century AD ) of a young woman reading , based on a Hellenistic original The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband 's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era , and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage . Technically she remained under her father 's legal authority , even though she moved into her husband 's home , but when her father died she became legally emancipated . This arrangement was one of the factors in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed relative to those of many other ancient cultures and up to the modern period : although she had to answer to her father in legal matters , she was free of his direct scrutiny in her daily life , and her husband had no legal power over her . Although it was a point of pride to be a `` one - man woman '' ( univira ) who had married only once , there was little stigma attached to divorce , nor to speedy remarriage after the loss of a husband through death or divorce . Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will . A Roman mother 's right to own property and to dispose of it as she saw fit , including setting the terms of her own will , gave her enormous influence over her sons even when they were adults . As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order , moral legislation attempted to regulate the conduct of men and women as a means of promoting `` family values '' . Adultery , which had been a private family matter under the Republic , was criminalized , and defined broadly as an illicit sex act ( stuprum ) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman , or between a married woman and any man other than her husband . Childbearing was encouraged by the state : a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom ( the ius trium liberorum ) . Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated , women could own property , enter contracts , and engage in business , including shipping , manufacturing , and lending money . Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works , an indication they could acquire and dispose of considerable fortunes ; for instance , the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma , a female member of the family honoured , and the largest building in the forum at Pompeii was funded by Eumachia , a priestess of Venus . Slaves and the law Main article : Slavery in ancient Rome At the time of Augustus , as many as 35 % of the people in Italy were slaves , making Rome one of five historical `` slave societies '' in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy . Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility . In urban settings , slaves might be professionals such as teachers , physicians , chefs , and accountants , in addition to the majority of slaves who provided trained or unskilled labour in households or workplaces . Agriculture and industry , such as milling and mining , relied on the exploitation of slaves . Outside Italy , slaves made up on average an estimated 10 to 20 % of the population , sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas . Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries would have affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces . Although the institution of slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries , it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 5th century . Slavery ceased gradually in the 6th and 7th centuries along with the decline of urban centres in the West and the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy that had created the demand for it . Slave holding writing tablets for his master ( relief from a 4th - century sarcophagus ) Laws pertaining to slavery were `` extremely intricate '' . Under Roman law , slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood . They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens , sexual exploitation , torture , and summary execution . A slave could not as a matter of law be raped , since rape could be committed only against people who were free ; a slave 's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law . Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium , but their unions were sometimes recognized , and if both were freed they could marry . Following the Servile Wars of the Republic , legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups , and for hunting down fugitive slaves . Technically , a slave could not own property , but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual account or fund ( peculium ) that he could use as if it were his own . The terms of this account varied depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave : a slave with an aptitude for business could be given considerable leeway to generate profit , and might be allowed to bequeath the peculium he managed to other slaves of his household . Within a household or workplace , a hierarchy of slaves might exist , with one slave in effect acting as the master of other slaves . Over time slaves gained increased legal protection , including the right to file complaints against their masters . A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution , as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves . The burgeoning trade in eunuch slaves in the late 1st century AD prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will `` for lust or gain . '' Roman slavery was not based on race . Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean , including Gaul , Hispania , Germany , Britannia , the Balkans , Greece ... Generally slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians , with a minority of foreigners ( including both slaves and freedmen ) born outside of Italy estimated at 5 % of the total in the capital at its peak , where their number was largest . Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent , while the Jewish ones never fully assimilated into Roman society , remaining an identifiable minority . These slaves ( especially the foreigners ) had higher mortality rates and lower birth rates than natives , and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions . The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was extraordinarily low : seventeen and a half years ( 17.2 for males ; 17.9 for females ) . During the period of Republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive , war captives were a main source of slaves . The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war , and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves into Rome . Slaves were also traded in markets , and sometimes sold by pirates . Infant abandonment and self - enslavement among the poor were other sources . Vernae , by contrast , were `` homegrown '' slaves born to female slaves within the urban household or on a country estate or farm . Although they had no special legal status , an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval , as they were considered part of his familia , the family household , and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family . Talented slaves with a knack for business might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom , or be manumitted for services rendered . Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law ( Lex Fufia Caninia ) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will . Freedmen Cinerary urn for the freedman Tiberius Claudius Chryseros and two women , probably his wife and daughter Rome differed from Greek city - states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens . After manumission , a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership , but active political freedom ( libertas ) , including the right to vote . A slave who had acquired libertas was a libertus ( `` freed person , '' feminine liberta ) in relation to his former master , who then became his patron ( patronus ) : the two parties continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other . As a social class generally , freed slaves were libertini , though later writers used the terms libertus and libertinus interchangeably . A libertinus was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods , but he could play a priestly role in the cult of the emperor . He could not marry a woman from a family of senatorial rank , nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself , but during the early Empire , freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy , so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law . Any future children of a freedman would be born free , with full rights of citizenship . The rise of successful freedmen -- through either political influence in imperial service , or wealth -- is a characteristic of early Imperial society . The prosperity of a high - achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire , and by their ownership of some of the most lavish houses at Pompeii , such as the House of the Vettii . The excesses of nouveau riche freedmen were satirized in the character of Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius , who wrote in the time of Nero . Such individuals , while exceptional , are indicative of the upward social mobility possible in the Empire . Census rank See also : Senate of the Roman Empire , Equestrian order , and Decurion ( administrative ) The Latin word ordo ( plural ordines ) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as `` class , order , rank , '' none of which is exact . One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged . The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian . Outside Rome , the decurions , also known as curiales ( Greek bouleutai ) , were the top governing ordo of an individual city . Fragment of a sarcophagus depicting Gordian III and senators ( 3rd century ) `` Senator '' was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome ; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate . A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii , as determined by the census . Nero made large gifts of money to a number of senators from old families who had become too impoverished to qualify . Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat , which required legal domicile at Rome . Emperors often filled vacancies in the 600 - member body by appointment . A senator 's son belonged to the ordo senatorius , but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate itself . A senator could be removed for violating moral standards : he was prohibited , for instance , from marrying a freedwoman or fighting in the arena . In the time of Nero , senators were still primarily from Rome and other parts of Italy , with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France ; men from the Greek - speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian . The first senator from the most eastern province , Cappadocia , was admitted under Marcus Aurelius . By the time of the Severan dynasty ( 193 -- 235 ) , Italians made up less than half the Senate . During the 3rd century , domicile at Rome became impractical , and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland ( patria ) . Senators had an aura of prestige and were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum , the political career track , but equestrians of the Empire often possessed greater wealth and political power . Membership in the equestrian order was based on property ; in Rome 's early days , equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors ( the `` public horse '' ) , but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire . A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified a man as an equestrian . The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified , and in 14 AD , a thousand equestrians were registered at Cadiz and Padua alone . Equestrians rose through a military career track ( tres militiae ) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration . The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the first three centuries of the Empire . Roman aristocracy was based on competition , and unlike later European nobility , a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands . Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges , but also a number of responsibilities . In antiquity , a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works , events , and services ( munera ) , rather than on tax revenues , which primarily supported the military . Maintaining one 's rank required massive personal expenditures . Decurions were so vital for the functioning of cities that in the later Empire , as the ranks of the town councils became depleted , those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged by the central government to give up their seats and return to their hometowns , in an effort to sustain civic life . In the later Empire , the dignitas ( `` worth , esteem '' ) that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris , `` illustrious man '' . The appellation clarissimus ( Greek lamprotatos ) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family , including women . `` Grades '' of equestrian status proliferated . Those in Imperial service were ranked by pay grade ( sexagenarius , 60,000 sesterces per annum ; centenarius , 100,000 ; ducenarius , 200,000 ) . The title eminentissimus , `` most eminent '' ( Greek exochôtatos ) was reserved for equestrians who had been Praetorian prefects . The higher equestrian officials in general were perfectissimi , `` most distinguished '' ( Greek diasêmotatoi ) , the lower merely egregii , `` outstanding '' ( Greek kratistos ) . Unequal justice Condemned man attacked by a leopard in the arena ( 3rd - century mosaic from Tunisia ) As the republican principle of citizens ' equality under the law faded , the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours ( honestiores ) and those who were humbler folk ( humiliores ) . In general , honestiores were the members of the three higher `` orders , '' along with certain military officers . The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority over other citizens affirmed , particularly within the justice system . Sentencing depended on the judgement of the presiding official as to the relative `` worth '' ( dignitas ) of the defendant : an honestior could pay a fine when convicted of a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging . Execution , which had been an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic even in a capital case , could be quick and relatively painless for the Imperial citizen considered `` more honourable '' , while those deemed inferior might suffer the kinds of torture and prolonged death previously reserved for slaves , such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts as a spectacle in the arena . In the early Empire , those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores , especially if they declined to fulfil the religious aspects of their civic responsibilities , and thus became subject to punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom . Government and military Main article : Constitution of the Roman Empire Augustus as Jove , holding scepter and orb ( first half of 1st century AD ) . The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority ( auctoritas ) of the Roman State . The official offer of cultus to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional : his Principate should therefore demonstrate pious respect for traditional Republican deities and mores Forum of Gerasa ( Jerash in present - day Jordan ) , with columns marking a covered walkway ( stoa ) for vendor stalls , and a semicircular space for public speaking The three major elements of the Imperial Roman state were the central government , the military , and provincial government . The military established control of a territory through war , but after a city or people was brought under treaty , the military mission turned to policing : protecting Roman citizens ( after 212 AD , all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire ) , the agricultural fields that fed them , and religious sites . Without modern instruments of either mass communication or mass destruction , the Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to impose their rule through force alone . Cooperation with local power elites was necessary to maintain order , collect information , and extract revenue . The Romans often exploited internal political divisions by supporting one faction over another : in the view of Plutarch , `` it was discord between factions within cities that led to the loss of self - governance '' . Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws , could collect their own taxes locally , and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation . Legal privileges and relative independence were an incentive to remain in good standing with Rome . Roman government was thus limited , but efficient in its use of the resources available to it . Central government See also : Roman emperor and Senate of the Roman Empire The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of certain powers from several republican offices , including the inviolability of the tribunes of the people and the authority of the censors to manipulate the hierarchy of Roman society . The emperor also made himself the central religious authority as Pontifex Maximus , and centralized the right to declare war , ratify treaties , and negotiate with foreign leaders . While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate , the emperor 's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical , culminating in the Dominate . Antoninus Pius ( reigned 138 -- 161 ) , wearing a toga ( Hermitage Museum ) The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy - and decision - making , but in the early Principate he was expected to be accessible to individuals from all walks of life , and to deal personally with official business and petitions . A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually . The Julio - Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians , but trusted slaves and freedmen . After Nero , the unofficial influence of the latter was regarded with suspicion , and the emperor 's council ( consilium ) became subject to official appointment for the sake of greater transparency . Though the senate took a lead in policy discussions until the end of the Antonine dynasty , equestrians played an increasingly important role in the consilium . The women of the emperor 's family often intervened directly in his decisions . Plotina exercised influence on both her husband Trajan and his successor Hadrian . Her influence was advertised by having her letters on official matters published , as a sign that the emperor was reasonable in his exercise of authority and listened to his people . Access to the emperor by others might be gained at the daily reception ( salutatio ) , a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron ; public banquets hosted at the palace ; and religious ceremonies . The common people who lacked this access could manifest their general approval or displeasure as a group at the games held in large venues . By the 4th century , as urban centres decayed , the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings , no longer responding to individual petitions . Although the senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor , it survived the Augustan restoration and the turbulent Year of Four Emperors to retain its symbolic political centrality during the Principate . The senate legitimated the emperor 's rule , and the emperor needed the experience of senators as legates ( legati ) to serve as generals , diplomats , and administrators . A successful career required competence as an administrator and remaining in favour with the emperor , or over time perhaps multiple emperors . The practical source of an emperor 's power and authority was the military . The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury , and swore an annual military oath of loyalty to the emperor ( sacramentum ) . The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis . Most emperors indicated their choice of successor , usually a close family member or adopted heir . The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape . No emperor could hope to survive , much less to reign , without the allegiance and loyalty of the Praetorian Guard and of the legions . To secure their loyalty , several emperors paid the donativum , a monetary reward . In theory , the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor , but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians . Military The Roman empire under Hadrian ( ruled 117 -- 138 ) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in AD 125 Main articles : Imperial Roman army and Structural history of the Roman military The soldiers of the Imperial Roman army were professionals who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves . The transition to a professional military had begun during the late Republic , and was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism , under which an army of conscripts had exercised their responsibilities as citizens in defending the homeland in a campaign against a specific threat . For Imperial Rome , the military was a full - time career in itself . The primary mission of the Roman military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana . The three major divisions of the military were : the garrison at Rome , which includes both the Praetorians and the vigiles who functioned as police and firefighters ; the provincial army , comprising the Roman legions and the auxiliaries provided by the provinces ( auxilia ) ; the navy . The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural exchange and assimilation known as `` Romanization , '' particularly in regard to politics , the economy , and religion . Knowledge of the Roman military comes from a wide range of sources : Greek and Roman literary texts ; coins with military themes ; papyri preserving military documents ; monuments such as Trajan 's Column and triumphal arches , which feature artistic depictions of both fighting men and military machines ; the archaeology of military burials , battle sites , and camps ; and inscriptions , including military diplomas , epitaphs , and dedications . Through his military reforms , which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty , Augustus changed and regularized the legion , down to the hobnail pattern on the soles of army boots . A legion was organized into ten cohorts , each of which comprised six centuries , with a century further made up of ten squads ( contubernia ) ; the exact size of the Imperial legion , which is most likely to have been determined by logistics , has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280 . Relief panel from Trajan 's Column showing the building of a fort and the reception of a Dacian embassy In AD 9 , Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest . This disastrous event reduced the number of the legions to 25 . The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30 . The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century , and under 400,000 in the 2nd , `` significantly smaller '' than the collective armed forces of the territories it conquered . No more than 2 % of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army . Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard : nine cohorts , ostensibly to maintain the public peace , which were garrisoned in Italy . Better paid than the legionaries , the Praetorians served only sixteen years . The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens . Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength , they were paid less than the legionaries , and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship , also extended to their sons . According to Tacitus there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries . The auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men , implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments . The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic , Hispanic or Germanic areas . Several aspects of training and equipment , such as the four - horned saddle , derived from the Celts , as noted by Arrian and indicated by archaeology . The Roman navy ( Latin : classis , `` fleet '' ) not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions , but also helped in the protection of the frontiers along the rivers Rhine and Danube . Another of its duties was the protection of the crucial maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates . It patrolled the whole of the Mediterranean , parts of the North Atlantic coasts , and the Black Sea . Nevertheless , the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch . Provincial government The Pula Arena in Croatia is one of the largest and most intact of the remaining Roman amphitheatres An annexed territory became a province in a three - step process : making a register of cities , taking a census of the population , and surveying the land . Further government recordkeeping included births and deaths , real estate transactions , taxes , and juridical proceedings . In the 1st and 2nd centuries , the central government sent out around 160 officials each year to govern outside Italy . Among these officials were the `` Roman governors '' , as they are called in English : either magistrates elected at Rome who in the name of the Roman people governed senatorial provinces ; or governors , usually of equestrian rank , who held their imperium on behalf of the emperor in provinces excluded from senatorial control , most notably Roman Egypt . A governor had to make himself accessible to the people he governed , but he could delegate various duties . His staff , however , was minimal : his official attendants ( apparitores ) , including lictors , heralds , messengers , scribes , and bodyguards ; legates , both civil and military , usually of equestrian rank ; and friends , ranging in age and experience , who accompanied him unofficially . Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances . Separating fiscal responsibility from justice and administration was a reform of the Imperial era . Under the Republic , provincial governors and tax farmers could exploit local populations for personal gain more freely . Equestrian procurators , whose authority was originally `` extra-judicial and extra-constitutional , '' managed both state - owned property and the vast personal property of the emperor ( res privata ) . Because Roman government officials were few in number , a provincial who needed help with a legal dispute or criminal case might seek out any Roman perceived to have some official capacity , such as a procurator or a military officer , including centurions down to the lowly stationarii or military police . Roman law Main article : Roman law Roman portraiture frescos from Pompeii , 1st century AD , depicting two different men wearing laurel wreaths , one holding the rotulus ( blondish figure , left ) , the other a volumen ( brunet figure , right ) , both made of papyrus Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire , but there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces . Most parts of the Eastern empire already had well - established law codes and juridical procedures . In general , it was Roman policy to respect the mos regionis ( `` regional tradition '' or `` law of the land '' ) and to regard local laws as a source of legal precedent and social stability . The compatibility of Roman and local law was thought to reflect an underlying ius gentium , the `` law of nations '' or international law regarded as common and customary among all human communities . If the particulars of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom , Roman courts heard appeals , and the emperor held final authority to render a decision . In the West , law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis , and private property rights may have been a novelty of the Roman era , particularly among Celtic peoples . Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite who found their new privileges as citizens to be advantageous . The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law , replacing the local law codes that had applied to non-citizens . Diocletian 's efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century included two major compilations of law in four years , the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex Hermogenianus , to guide provincial administrators in setting consistent legal standards . The pervasive exercise of Roman law throughout Western Europe led to its enormous influence on the Western legal tradition , reflected by the continued use of Latin legal terminology in modern law . Taxation Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5 % of the Empire 's gross product . The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5 % . The tax code was `` bewildering '' in its complicated system of direct and indirect taxes , some paid in cash and some in kind . Taxes might be specific to a province , or kinds of properties such as fisheries or salt evaporation ponds ; they might be in effect for a limited time . Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military , and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty . In - kind taxes were accepted from less - monetized areas , particularly those who could supply grain or goods to army camps . Personification of the River Nile and his children , from the Temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome ( 1st century AD ) The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals , who paid a poll tax and a tax on their land , construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity . Supplemental forms could be filed by those eligible for certain exemptions ; for example , Egyptian farmers could register fields as fallow and tax - exempt depending on flood patterns of the Nile . Tax obligations were determined by the census , which required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a head count of his household , as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation . A major source of indirect - tax revenue was the portoria , customs and tolls on imports and exports , including among provinces . Special taxes were levied on the slave trade . Towards the end of his reign , Augustus instituted a 4 % tax on the sale of slaves , which Nero shifted from the purchaser to the dealers , who responded by raising their prices . An owner who manumitted a slave paid a `` freedom tax '' , calculated at 5 % of value . An inheritance tax of 5 % was assessed when Roman citizens above a certain net worth left property to anyone but members of their immediate family . Revenues from the estate tax and from a 1 % sales tax on auctions went towards the veterans ' pension fund ( aerarium militare ) . Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth , which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government . An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the `` super-rich '' , but in the later period , the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire . Economy Main article : Roman economy Moses Finley was the chief proponent of the primitivist view that the Roman economy was `` underdeveloped and underachieving , '' characterized by subsistence agriculture ; urban centres that consumed more than they produced in terms of trade and industry ; low - status artisans ; slowly developing technology ; and a `` lack of economic rationality . '' Current views are more complex . Territorial conquests permitted a large - scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization , particularly in north Africa . Some cities were known for particular industries or commercial activities , and the scale of building in urban areas indicates a significant construction industry . Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism , and the Empire was highly monetized . Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity , transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly , and trade routes connected regional economies . The supply contracts for the army , which pervaded every part of the Empire , drew on local suppliers near the base ( castrum ) , throughout the province , and across provincial borders . The Empire is perhaps best thought of as a network of regional economies , based on a form of `` political capitalism '' in which the state monitored and regulated commerce to assure its own revenues . Economic growth , though not comparable to modern economies , was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization . Socially , economic dynamism opened up one of the avenues of social mobility in the Roman Empire . Social advancement was thus not dependent solely on birth , patronage , good luck , or even extraordinary ability . Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society , a strong tendency towards plutocracy is indicated by the wealth requirements for census rank . Prestige could be obtained through investing one 's wealth in ways that advertised it appropriately : grand country estates or townhouses , durable luxury items such as jewels and silverware , public entertainments , funerary monuments for family members or coworkers , and religious dedications such as altars . Guilds ( collegia ) and corporations ( corpora ) provided support for individuals to succeed through networking , sharing sound business practices , and a willingness to work . Currency and banking See also : Roman currency and Roman finance Currency denominations 27 BC -- AD 212 : 1 gold aureus ( 1 / 40 lb. of gold , devalued to 1 / 50 lb. by 212 ) = 25 silver denarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 400 copper asses 294 -- 312 : 1 gold aureus solidus ( 1 / 60 lb. of gold ) = 10 silver argentei = 40 bronze folles = 1,000 debased metal denarii 312 onwards : 1 gold solidus ( 1 / 72 lb . ) = 24 silver siliquae = 180 bronze folles The early Empire was monetized to a near - universal extent , in the sense of using money as a way to express prices and debts . The sestertius ( plural sestertii , English `` sesterces '' , symbolized as HS ) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century , though the silver denarius , worth four sesterces , was used also for accounting beginning in the Severan dynasty . The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as ( plural asses ) , one - fourth sestertius . Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia , `` money , '' and were used only on the frontiers for transacting business or buying property . Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted coins , rather than weighing them -- an indication that the coin was valued on its face , not for its metal content . This tendency towards fiat money led eventually to the debasement of Roman coinage , with consequences in the later Empire . The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration . The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving . Rome had no central bank , and regulation of the banking system was minimal . Banks of classical antiquity typically kept less in reserves than the full total of customers ' deposits . A typical bank had fairly limited capital , and often only one principal , though a bank might have as many as six to fifteen principals . Seneca assumes that anyone involved in commerce needs access to credit . Solidus issued under Constantine II , and on the reverse Victoria , one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins , gradually transforming into an angel under Christian rule A professional deposit banker ( argentarius , coactor argentarius , or later nummularius ) received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term , and lent money to third parties . The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending , both as creditors and borrowers , making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections . The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party , without cash changing hands . Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked `` paper '' or documentary transactions , the system of banks throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of very large sums without the physical transfer of coins , in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash , particularly by sea . Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire , a credit crisis in 33 AD that put a number of senators at risk ; the central government rescued the market through a loan of 100 million HS made by the emperor Tiberius to the banks ( mensae ) . Generally , available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers . The central government itself did not borrow money , and without public debt had to fund deficits from cash reserves . Emperors of the Antonine and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency , particularly the denarius , under the pressures of meeting military payrolls . Sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus damaged the credit market . In the mid-200s , the supply of specie contracted sharply . Conditions during the Crisis of the Third Century -- such as reductions in long - distance trade , disruption of mining operations , and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies -- greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300 . Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or fiduciary currency , general economic anxieties came to a head under Aurelian , and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government . Despite Diocletian 's introduction of the gold solidus and monetary reforms , the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness . Mining and Metallurgy Main article : Roman metallurgy See also : Mining in Roman Britain Landscape resulting from the ruina montium mining technique at Las Médulas , Spain , one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula ( gold , silver , copper , tin , lead ) ; Gaul ( gold , silver , iron ) ; Britain ( mainly iron , lead , tin ) , the Danubian provinces ( gold , iron ) ; Macedonia and Thrace ( gold , silver ) ; and Asia Minor ( gold , silver , iron , tin ) . Intensive large - scale mining -- of alluvial deposits , and by means of open - cast mining and underground mining -- took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD , when the instability of the Empire disrupted production . The gold mines of Dacia , for instance , were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271 . Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century . Hydraulic mining , which Pliny referred to as ruina montium ( `` ruin of the mountains '' ) , allowed base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto - industrial scale . The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 tonnes . Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t , and lead at 80,000 t , both production levels unmatched until the Industrial Revolution ; Hispania alone had a 40 % share in world lead production . The high lead output was a by - product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum . At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD , the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t , five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD . As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production , lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era , and dropped again thereafter . Transportation and communication See also : Roman roads Gallo - Roman relief depicting a river boat transporting wine barrels , an invention of the Gauls that came into widespread use during the 2nd century ; above , wine is stored in the traditional amphorae , some covered in wicker The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean , which they called `` our sea '' ( mare nostrum ) . Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire , including the Guadalquivir , Ebro , Rhône , Rhine , Tiber and Nile . Transport by water was preferred where possible , and moving commodities by land was more difficult . Vehicles , wheels , and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers . Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads . The in - kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel , animals , or vehicles for the cursus publicus , the state mail and transport service established by Augustus . Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles , and tended to grow into a village or trading post . A mansio ( plural mansiones ) was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the cursus publicus . The support staff at such a facility included muleteers , secretaries , blacksmiths , cartwrights , a veterinarian , and a few military police and couriers . The distance between mansiones was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day . Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts , travelling about 4 mph . As an example of the pace of communication , it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior , even on a matter of urgency . In addition to the mansiones , some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink ; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine , bread , mule feed , and the services of a prostitute . Trade and commodities See also : Roman commerce , Indo - Roman trade and relations , and Sino - Roman relations The Pompeii Lakshmi , an ivory statuette from India found in the ruins of Pompeii . A green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty ( 25 -- 220 AD ) tomb in Guangxi , southern China ; the earliest Roman glassware found in China was discovered in a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou , dated to the early 1st century BC , and ostensibly came via the maritime route through the South China Sea Roman provinces traded among themselves , but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as China and India . The main commodity was grain . Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the Silk Road ; Indian trade , however , also occurred by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea . Also traded were olive oil , various foodstuffs , garum ( fish sauce ) , slaves , ore and manufactured metal objects , fibres and textiles , timber , pottery , glassware , marble , papyrus , spices and materia medica , ivory , pearls , and gemstones . Though most provinces were capable of producing wine , regional varietals were desirable and wine was a central item of trade . Shortages of vin ordinaire were rare . The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy , southern Gaul , the Tarraconensis region of Hispania , and Crete . Alexandria , the second - largest city , imported wine from Laodicea in Syria and the Aegean . At the retail level , taverns or speciality wine shops ( vinaria ) sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises , with price ranges reflecting quality . Labour and occupations Workers at a cloth - processing shop , in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii Roman hunters during the preparations , set - up of traps , and in - action hunting near Tarraco Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome , and 85 in Pompeii . Professional associations or trade guilds ( collegia ) are attested for a wide range of occupations , including fishermen ( piscatores ) , salt merchants ( salinatores ) , olive oil dealers ( olivarii ) , entertainers ( scaenici ) , cattle dealers ( pecuarii ) , goldsmiths ( aurifices ) , teamsters ( asinarii or muliones ) , and stonecutters ( lapidarii ) . These are sometimes quite specialized : one collegium at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and citrus wood . Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories : domestic , with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs ; imperial or public service ; urban crafts and services ; agriculture ; and mining . Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries , where conditions were notoriously brutal . In practice , there was little division of labour between slave and free , and most workers were illiterate and without special skills . The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture : in the Italian system of industrial farming ( latifundia ) , these may have been mostly slaves , but throughout the Empire , slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved . Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment . Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire , whose products were often named for them or a particular town , rather like a fashion `` label '' . Better ready - to - wear was exported by businessmen ( negotiatores or mercatores ) who were often well - to - do residents of the production centres . Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents , who travelled to potential customers , or by vestiarii , clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen ; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants . In Egypt , textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices , free workers earning wages , and slaves . The fullers ( fullones ) and dye workers ( coloratores ) had their own guilds . Centonarii were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into pieced goods . GDP and income distribution For more details on this topic , see Roman economy § Gross domestic product . Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate . In the sample years of 14 , 100 , and 150 AD , estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS . The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40 to 66 % higher than in the rest of the Empire , due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland . In the Scheidel -- Friesen economic model , the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion HS , with about 5 % extracted by central and local government . Households in the top 1.5 % of income distribution captured about 20 % of income . Another 20 % went to about 10 % of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle . The remaining `` vast majority '' produced more than half of the total income , but lived near subsistence . Architecture and engineering Main articles : Ancient Roman architecture , Roman engineering , and Roman technology Amphitheatres of the Roman Empire Construction on the Flavian Amphitheatre , more commonly known as the Colosseum , began during the reign of Vespasian The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch , vault and the dome . Even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand , due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete . Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century . The system of roadways facilitated military policing , communications , and trade . The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards . Even after the collapse of the central government , some roads remained usable for more than a thousand years . Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges , built from stone with the arch as the basic structure . Most utilized concrete as well . The largest Roman bridge was Trajan 's bridge over the lower Danube , constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus , which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall span and length . The Romans built many dams and reservoirs for water collection , such as the Subiaco Dams , two of which fed the Anio Novus , one of the largest aqueducts of Rome . They built 72 dams just on the Iberian peninsula , and many more are known across the Empire , some still in use . Several earthen dams are known from Roman Britain , including a well - preserved example from Longovicium ( Lanchester ) . The Pont du Gard aqueduct , which crosses the Gardon River in southern France , is on UNESCO 's list of World Heritage Sites The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts . A surviving treatise by Frontinus , who served as curator aquarum ( water commissioner ) under Nerva , reflects the administrative importance placed on ensuring the water supply . Masonry channels carried water from distant springs and reservoirs along a precise gradient , using gravity alone . After the water passed through the aqueduct , it was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains , baths , toilets , or industrial sites . The main aqueducts in the city of Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia . The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km . Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance , and to a technological standard that was not to be equalled until modern times . The Romans also made use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire , at sites such as Las Medulas and Dolaucothi in South Wales . Insulated glazing ( or `` double glazing '' ) was used in the construction of public baths . Elite housing in cooler climates might have hypocausts , a form of central heating . The Romans were the first culture to assemble all essential components of the much later steam engine , when Hero built the aeolipile . With the crank and connecting rod system , all elements for constructing a steam engine ( invented in 1712 ) -- Hero 's aeolipile ( generating steam power ) , the cylinder and piston ( in metal force pumps ) , non-return valves ( in water pumps ) , gearing ( in water mills and clocks ) -- were known in Roman times . Daily life Main article : Culture of ancient Rome Cityscape from the Villa Boscoreale ( 60s AD ) City and country In the ancient world , a city was viewed as a place that fostered civilization by being `` properly designed , ordered , and adorned . '' Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome , supported public displays of art that expressed the new imperial ideology , and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods ( vici ) administered at the local level with police and firefighting services . A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius , an open area outside the city centre that in early times had been devoted to equestrian sports and physical training for youth . The Altar of Augustan Peace ( Ara Pacis Augustae ) was located there , as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer ( gnomon ) of a horologium . With its public gardens , the Campus became one of the most attractive places in the city to visit . City planning and urban lifestyles had been influenced by the Greeks from an early period , and in the eastern Empire , Roman rule accelerated and shaped the local development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character . Cities such as Athens , Aphrodisias , Ephesus and Gerasa altered some aspects of city planning and architecture to conform to imperial ideals , while also expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence . In the areas of the western Empire inhabited by Celtic - speaking peoples , Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples , forums , monumental fountains , and amphitheatres , often on or near the sites of the preexisting walled settlements known as oppida . Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast . Aquae Sulis in Bath , England : architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction The network of cities throughout the Empire ( coloniae , municipia , civitates or in Greek terms poleis ) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana . Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were encouraged by imperial propaganda to `` inculcate the habits of peacetime '' . As the classicist Clifford Ando has noted : Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture -- public cult and its games and civic banquets , competitions for artists , speakers , and athletes , as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art -- were financed by private individuals , whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges . Even the Christian polemicist Tertullian declared that the world of the late 2nd century was more orderly and well - cultivated than in earlier times : `` Everywhere there are houses , everywhere people , everywhere the res publica , the commonwealth , everywhere life . '' The decline of cities and civic life in the 4th century , when the wealthy classes were unable or disinclined to support public works , was one sign of the Empire 's imminent dissolution . Public toilets ( latrinae ) from Ostia Antica In the city of Rome , most people lived in multistory apartment buildings ( insulae ) that were often squalid firetraps . Public facilities -- such as baths ( thermae ) , toilets that were flushed with running water ( latrinae ) , conveniently located basins or elaborate fountains ( nymphea ) delivering fresh water , and large - scale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combat -- were aimed primarily at the common people who lived in the insulae . Similar facilities were constructed in cities throughout the Empire , and some of the best - preserved Roman structures are in Spain , southern France , and northern Africa . The public baths served hygienic , social and cultural functions . Bathing was the focus of daily socializing in the late afternoon before dinner . Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures , with varying amenities that might include an exercise and weight - training room , sauna , exfoliation spa ( where oils were massaged into the skin and scraped from the body with a strigil ) , ball court , or outdoor swimming pool . Baths had hypocaust heating : the floors were suspended over hot - air channels that circulated warmth . Mixed nude bathing was not unusual in the early Empire , though some baths may have offered separate facilities or hours for men and women . Public baths were a part of urban culture throughout the provinces , but in the late 4th century , individual tubs began to replace communal bathing . Christians were advised to go to the baths for health and cleanliness , not pleasure , but to avoid the games ( ludi ) , which were part of religious festivals they considered `` pagan '' . Tertullian says that otherwise Christians not only availed themselves of the baths , but participated fully in commerce and society . Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the House of the Vettii Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses , a townhouse ( domus , plural domūs ) and at least one luxury home ( villa ) outside the city . The domus was a privately owned single - family house , and might be furnished with a private bath ( balneum ) , but it was not a place to retreat from public life . Although some neighbourhoods of Rome show a higher concentration of well - to - do houses , the rich did not live in segregated enclaves . Their houses were meant to be visible and accessible . The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias ( head of household ) met with clients every morning , from wealthy friends to poorer dependents who received charity . It was also a centre of family religious rites , containing a shrine and the images of family ancestors . The houses were located on busy public roads , and ground - level spaces facing the street were often rented out as shops ( tabernae ) . In addition to a kitchen garden -- windowboxes might substitute in the insulae -- townhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden that brought a tract of nature , made orderly , within walls . Birds and fountain within a garden setting , with oscilla ( hanging masks ) above , in a painting from Pompeii The villa by contrast was an escape from the bustle of the city , and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances the civilized pursuit of intellectual and artistic interests ( otium ) with an appreciation of nature and the agricultural cycle . Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista , carefully framed by the architectural design . It might be located on a working estate , or in a `` resort town '' situated on the seacoast , such as Pompeii and Herculaneum . The programme of urban renewal under Augustus , and the growth of Rome 's population to as many as 1 million people , was accompanied by a nostalgia for rural life expressed in the arts . Poetry praised the idealized lives of farmers and shepherds . The interiors of houses were often decorated with painted gardens , fountains , landscapes , vegetative ornament , and animals , especially birds and marine life , rendered accurately enough that modern scholars can sometimes identify them by species . The Augustan poet Horace gently satirized the dichotomy of urban and rural values in his fable of the city mouse and the country mouse , which has often been retold as a children 's story . On a more practical level , the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture . Producing food was the top priority of land use . Larger farms ( latifundia ) achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life and its more specialized division of labour . Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres . Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire , and new crops were introduced from one province to another , such as peas and cabbage to Britain . Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic , when the state began to provide a grain dole ( annona ) to citizens who registered for it . About 200,000 -- 250,000 adult males in Rome received the dole , amounting to about 33 kg . per month , for a per annum total of about 100,000 tons of wheat primarily from Sicily , north Africa , and Egypt . The dole cost at least 15 % of state revenues , but improved living conditions and family life among the lower classes , and subsidized the rich by allowing workers to spend more of their earnings on the wine and olive oil produced on the estates of the landowning class . Bread stall , from a Pompeiian wall painting The grain dole also had symbolic value : it affirmed both the emperor 's position as universal benefactor , and the right of all citizens to share in `` the fruits of conquest '' . The annona , public facilities , and spectacular entertainments mitigated the otherwise dreary living conditions of lower - class Romans , and kept social unrest in check . The satirist Juvenal , however , saw `` bread and circuses '' ( panem et circenses ) as emblematic of the loss of republican political liberty : The public has long since cast off its cares : the people that once bestowed commands , consulships , legions and all else , now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things : bread and circuses . Food and dining Main article : Food and dining in the Roman Empire See also : Grain supply to the city of Rome and Ancient Rome and wine Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens , though a charcoal brazier could be used for rudimentary cookery . Prepared food was sold at pubs and bars , inns , and food stalls ( tabernae , cauponae , popinae , thermopolia ) . Carryout and restaurant dining were for the lower classes ; fine dining could be sought only at private dinner parties in well - to - do houses with a chef ( archimagirus ) and trained kitchen staff , or at banquets hosted by social clubs ( collegia ) . Most people would have consumed at least 70 % of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes . Puls ( pottage ) was considered the aboriginal food of the Romans . The basic grain pottage could be elaborated with chopped vegetables , bits of meat , cheese , or herbs to produce dishes similar to polenta or risotto . An Ostian taberna for eating and drinking ; the faded painting over the counter pictured eggs , olives , fruit and radishes Urban populations and the military preferred to consume their grain in the form of bread . Mills and commercial ovens were usually combined in a bakery complex . By the reign of Aurelian , the state had begun to distribute the annona as a daily ration of bread baked in state factories , and added olive oil , wine , and pork to the dole . The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as Galen ( 2nd century AD ) , whose treatises included one On Barley Soup . Views on nutrition were influenced by schools of thought such as humoral theory . Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes , for whom the evening meal ( cena ) had important social functions . Guests were entertained in a finely decorated dining room ( triclinium ) , often with a view of the peristyle garden . Diners lounged on couches , leaning on the left elbow . By the late Republic , if not earlier , women dined , reclined , and drank wine along with men . The most famous description of a Roman meal is probably Trimalchio 's dinner party in the Satyricon , a fictional extravaganza that bears little resemblance to reality even among the most wealthy . The poet Martial describes serving a more plausible dinner , beginning with the gustatio ( `` tasting '' or `` appetizer '' ) , which was a composed salad of mallow leaves , lettuce , chopped leeks , mint , arugula , mackerel garnished with rue , sliced eggs , and marinated sow udder . The main course was succulent cuts of kid , beans , greens , a chicken , and leftover ham , followed by a dessert of fresh fruit and vintage wine . The Latin expression for a full - course dinner was ab ovo usque mala , `` from the egg to the apples , '' equivalent to the English `` from soup to nuts . '' Still life on a 2nd - century Roman mosaic A book - length collection of Roman recipes is attributed to Apicius , a name for several figures in antiquity that became synonymous with `` gourmet . '' Roman `` foodies '' indulged in wild game , fowl such as peacock and flamingo , large fish ( mullet was especially prized ) , and shellfish . Luxury ingredients were brought by the fleet from the far reaches of empire , from the Parthian frontier to the Straits of Gibraltar . Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline . The early Imperial historian Tacitus contrasted the indulgent luxuries of the Roman table in his day with the simplicity of the Germanic diet of fresh wild meat , foraged fruit , and cheese , unadulterated by imported seasonings and elaborate sauces . Most often , because of the importance of landowning in Roman culture , produce -- cereals , legumes , vegetables , and fruit -- was considered a more civilized form of food than meat . The Mediterranean staples of bread , wine , and oil were sacralized by Roman Christianity , while Germanic meat consumption became a mark of paganism , as it might be the product of animal sacrifice . Some philosophers and Christians resisted the demands of the body and the pleasures of food , and adopted fasting as an ideal . Food became simpler in general as urban life in the West diminished , trade routes were disrupted , and the rich retreated to the more limited self - sufficiency of their country estates . As an urban lifestyle came to be associated with decadence , the Church formally discouraged gluttony , and hunting and pastoralism were seen as simple , virtuous ways of life . Recreation and spectacles See also : Ludi , Chariot racing , and Gladiator Wall painting depicting a sports riot at the amphitheatre of Pompeii , which led to the banning of gladiator combat in the town When Juvenal complained that the Roman people had exchanged their political liberty for `` bread and circuses '' , he was referring to the state - provided grain dole and the circenses , events held in the entertainment venue called a circus in Latin . The largest such venue in Rome was the Circus Maximus , the setting of horse races , chariot races , the equestrian Troy Game , staged beast hunts ( venationes ) , athletic contests , gladiator combat , and historical re-enactments . From earliest times , several religious festivals had featured games ( ludi ) , primarily horse and chariot races ( ludi circenses ) . Although their entertainment value tended to overshadow ritual significance , the races remained part of archaic religious observances that pertained to agriculture , initiation , and the cycle of birth and death . Under Augustus , public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year ; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius , the number of days had expanded to 135 . Circus games were preceded by an elaborate parade ( pompa circensis ) that ended at the venue . Competitive events were held also in smaller venues such as the amphitheatre , which became the characteristic Roman spectacle venue , and stadium . Greek - style athletics included footraces , boxing , wrestling , and the pancratium . Aquatic displays , such as the mock sea battle ( naumachia ) and a form of `` water ballet '' , were presented in engineered pools . State - supported theatrical events ( ludi scaenici ) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres , or in the smaller enclosed theatre called an odeum . A victor in his four - horse chariot Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world , though the Greeks had their own architectural traditions for the similarly purposed hippodrome . The Flavian Amphitheatre , better known as the Colosseum , became the regular arena for blood sports in Rome after it opened in 80 AD . The circus races continued to be held more frequently . The Circus Maximus could seat around 150,000 spectators , and the Colosseum about 50,000 with standing room for about 10,000 more . Many Roman amphitheatres , circuses and theatres built in cities outside Italy are visible as ruins today . The local ruling elite were responsible for sponsoring spectacles and arena events , which both enhanced their status and drained their resources . The physical arrangement of the amphitheatre represented the order of Roman society : the emperor presiding in his opulent box ; senators and equestrians watching from the advantageous seats reserved for them ; women seated at a remove from the action ; slaves given the worst places , and everybody else packed in - between . The crowd could call for an outcome by booing or cheering , but the emperor had the final say . Spectacles could quickly become sites of social and political protest , and emperors sometimes had to deploy force to put down crowd unrest , most notoriously at the Nika riots in the year 532 , when troops under Justinian slaughtered thousands . The Zliten mosaic , from a dining room in present - day Libya , depicts a series of arena scenes : from top , musicians playing a Roman tuba , a water pipe organ and two horns ; six pairs of gladiators with two referees ; four beast fighters ; and three convicts condemned to the beasts The chariot teams were known by the colours they wore , with the Blues and Greens the most popular . Fan loyalty was fierce and at times erupted into sports riots . Racing was perilous , but charioteers were among the most celebrated and well - compensated athletes . One star of the sport was Diocles , from Lusitania ( present - day Portugal ) , who raced chariots for 24 years and had career earnings of 35 million sesterces . Horses had their fans too , and were commemorated in art and inscriptions , sometimes by name . The design of Roman circuses was developed to assure that no team had an unfair advantage and to minimize collisions ( naufragia , `` shipwrecks '' ) , which were nonetheless frequent and spectacularly satisfying to the crowd . The races retained a magical aura through their early association with chthonic rituals : circus images were considered protective or lucky , curse tablets have been found buried at the site of racetracks , and charioteers were often suspected of sorcery . Chariot racing continued into the Byzantine period under imperial sponsorship , but the decline of cities in the 6th and 7th centuries led to its eventual demise . The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with funeral games and sacrifices in which select captive warriors were forced to fight to expiate the deaths of noble Romans . Some of the earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such as `` Thracian '' or `` Gallic '' . The staged combats were considered munera , `` services , offerings , benefactions '' , initially distinct from the festival games ( ludi ) . Throughout his 40 - year reign , Augustus presented eight gladiator shows in which a total of 10,000 men fought , as well as 26 staged beast hunts that resulted in the deaths of 3,500 animals . To mark the opening of the Colosseum , the emperor Titus presented 100 days of arena events , with 3,000 gladiators competing on a single day . Roman fascination with gladiators is indicated by how widely they are depicted on mosaics , wall paintings , lamps , and even graffiti drawings . Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves , convicts , or free volunteers . Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters , whose training represented a costly and time - consuming investment . By contrast , noxii were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training , often unarmed , and with no expectation of survival . Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed . These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths , and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects . Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed - up form of human sacrifice . Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the `` theatre of life and death '' to be one of the more difficult aspects of their civilization to understand and explain . The younger Pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people , a way `` to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death , by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory even in the bodies of slaves and criminals '' . Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles , but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter rather than in victory -- an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena . Even martyr literature , however , offers `` detailed , indeed luxuriant , descriptions of bodily suffering '' , and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction . Personal training and play Boys and girls playing ball games ( 2nd century relief from the Louvre ) In the plural , ludi almost always refers to the large - scale spectator games . The singular ludus , `` play , game , sport , training , '' had a wide range of meanings such as `` word play , '' `` theatrical performance , '' `` board game , '' `` primary school , '' and even `` gladiator training school '' ( as in Ludus Magnus , the largest such training camp at Rome ) . Activities for children and young people included hoop rolling and knucklebones ( astragali or `` jacks '' ) . The sarcophagi of children often show them playing games . Girls had dolls , typically 15 -- 16 cm tall with jointed limbs , made of materials such as wood , terracotta , and especially bone and ivory . Ball games include trigon , which required dexterity , and harpastum , a rougher sport . Pets appear often on children 's memorials and in literature , including birds , dogs , cats , goats , sheep , rabbits and geese . So - called `` bikini girls '' mosaic from the Villa del Casale , Roman Sicily , 4th century After adolescence , most physical training for males was of a military nature . The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men developed the skills of horsemanship and warfare . Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime . According to Plutarch , conservative Romans disapproved of Greek - style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake , and condemned Nero 's efforts to encourage gymnastic games in the Greek manner . Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers , and a rare few as female gladiators . The famous `` bikini girls '' mosaic shows young women engaging in apparatus routines that might be compared to rhythmic gymnastics . Women in general were encouraged to maintain their health through activities such as playing ball , swimming , walking , reading aloud ( as a breathing exercise ) , riding in vehicles , and travel . Stone game board from Aphrodisias : boards could also be made of wood , with deluxe versions in costly materials such as ivory ; game pieces or counters were bone , glass , or polished stone , and might be coloured or have markings or images People of all ages played board games pitting two players against each other , including latrunculi ( `` Raiders '' ) , a game of strategy in which opponents coordinated the movements and capture of multiple game pieces , and XII scripta ( `` Twelve Marks '' ) , involving dice and arranging pieces on a grid of letters or words . A game referred to as alea ( dice ) or tabula ( the board ) , to which the emperor Claudius was notoriously addicted , may have been similar to backgammon , using a dice - cup ( pyrgus ) . Playing with dice as a form of gambling was disapproved of , but was a popular pastime during the December festival of the Saturnalia with its carnival , norms - overturned atmosphere . Clothing Main article : Clothing in ancient Rome In a status - conscious society like that of the Romans , clothing and personal adornment gave immediate visual clues about the etiquette of interacting with the wearer . Wearing the correct clothing was supposed to reflect a society in good order . The toga was the distinctive national garment of the Roman male citizen , but it was heavy and impractical , worn mainly for conducting political business and religious rites , and for going to court . The clothing Romans wore ordinarily was dark or colourful , and the most common male attire seen daily throughout the provinces would have been tunics , cloaks , and in some regions trousers . The study of how Romans dressed in daily life is complicated by a lack of direct evidence , since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value , and surviving textiles from the period are rare . Women from the wall painting at the Villa of the Mysteries , Pompeii The basic garment for all Romans , regardless of gender or wealth , was the simple sleeved tunic . The length differed by wearer : a man 's reached mid-calf , but a soldier 's was somewhat shorter ; a woman 's fell to her feet , and a child 's to its knees . The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural , dull shades , with the length determined by the type of work they did . Finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen . A man who belonged to the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes ( clavi ) woven vertically into the fabric : the wider the stripe , the higher the wearer 's status . Other garments could be layered over the tunic . The Imperial toga was a `` vast expanse '' of semi-circular white wool that could not be put on and draped correctly without assistance . In his work on oratory , Quintilian describes in detail how the public speaker ought to orchestrate his gestures in relation to his toga . In art , the toga is shown with the long end dipping between the feet , a deep curved fold in front , and a bulbous flap at the midsection . The drapery became more intricate and structured over time , with the cloth forming a tight roll across the chest in later periods . The toga praetexta , with a purple or purplish - red stripe representing inviolability , was worn by children who had not come of age , curule magistrates , and state priests . Only the emperor could wear an all - purple toga ( toga picta ) . Claudius wearing an early Imperial toga ( see a later , more structured toga above ) , and the pallium as worn by a priest of Serapis , sometimes identified as the emperor Julian In the 2nd century , emperors and men of status are often portrayed wearing the pallium , an originally Greek mantle ( himation ) folded tightly around the body . Women are also portrayed in the pallium . Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians , in contrast to the toga , and for educated people , since it was associated with philosophers . By the 4th century , the toga had been more or less replaced by the pallium as a garment that embodied social unity . Roman clothing styles changed over time , though not as rapidly as fashions today . In the Dominate , clothing worn by both soldiers and government bureaucrats became highly decorated , with woven or embroidered stripes ( clavi ) and circular roundels ( orbiculi ) applied to tunics and cloaks . These decorative elements consisted of geometrical patterns , stylized plant motifs , and in more elaborate examples , human or animal figures . The use of silk increased , and courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes . The militarization of Roman society , and the waning of cultural life based on urban ideals , affected habits of dress : heavy military - style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers , and the toga was abandoned . The arts Main article : Roman art The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris ( 54 -- 68 AD , Pompeian Fourth Style ) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio People visiting or living in Rome or the cities throughout the Empire would have seen art in a range of styles and media on a daily basis . Public or official art -- including sculpture , monuments such as victory columns or triumphal arches , and the iconography on coins -- is often analysed for its historical significance or as an expression of imperial ideology . At Imperial public baths , a person of humble means could view wall paintings , mosaics , statues , and interior decoration often of high quality . In the private sphere , objects made for religious dedications , funerary commemoration , domestic use , and commerce can show varying degrees of aesthetic quality and artistic skill . A wealthy person might advertise his appreciation of culture through painting , sculpture , and decorative arts at his home -- though some efforts strike modern viewers and some ancient connoisseurs as strenuous rather than tasteful . Greek art had a profound influence on the Roman tradition , and some of the most famous examples of Greek statues are known only from Roman Imperial versions and the occasional description in a Greek or Latin literary source . Despite the high value placed on works of art , even famous artists were of low social status among the Greeks and Romans , who regarded artists , artisans , and craftsmen alike as manual labourers . At the same time , the level of skill required to produce quality work was recognized , and even considered a divine gift . Portraiture Main article : Roman portraiture Two portraits circa 130 AD : the empress Vibia Sabina ( left ) ; and the Antinous Mondragone , one of the abundant likenesses of Hadrian 's famously beautiful male companion Antinous Portraiture , which survives mainly in the medium of sculpture , was the most copious form of imperial art . Portraits during the Augustan period utilize youthful and classical proportions , evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism . Republican portraits had been characterized by a `` warts and all '' verism , but as early as the 2nd century BC , the Greek convention of heroic nudity was adopted sometimes for portraying conquering generals . Imperial portrait sculptures may model the head as mature , even craggy , atop a nude or seminude body that is smooth and youthful with perfect musculature ; a portrait head might even be added to a body created for another purpose . Clothed in the toga or military regalia , the body communicates rank or sphere of activity , not the characteristics of the individual . Women of the emperor 's family were often depicted dressed as goddesses or divine personifications such as Pax ( `` Peace '' ) . Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the Fayum mummy portraits , which evoke Egyptian and Roman traditions of commemorating the dead with the realistic painting techniques of the Empire . Marble portrait sculpture would have been painted , and while traces of paint have only rarely survived the centuries , the Fayum portraits indicate why ancient literary sources marvelled at how lifelike artistic representations could be . The bronze Drunken Satyr , excavated at Herculaneum and exhibited in the 18th century , inspired an interest among later sculptors in similar `` carefree '' subjects Sculpture Main article : Roman sculpture Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly , though often in damaged or fragmentary condition , including freestanding statues and statuettes in marble , bronze and terracotta , and reliefs from public buildings , temples , and monuments such as the Ara Pacis , Trajan 's Column , and the Arch of Titus . Niches in amphitheatres such as the Colosseum were originally filled with statues , and no formal garden was complete without statuary . Temples housed the cult images of deities , often by famed sculptors . The religiosity of the Romans encouraged the production of decorated altars , small representations of deities for the household shrine or votive offerings , and other pieces for dedicating at temples . Divine and mythological figures were also given secular , humorous , and even obscene depictions . On the Ludovisi sarcophagus , an example of the battle scenes favoured during the Crisis of the Third Century , the `` writhing and highly emotive '' Romans and Goths fill the surface in a packed , anti-classical composition Sarcophagi Main article : Ancient Roman sarcophagi Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to the 4th centuries with at least 10,000 examples surviving . Although mythological scenes have been most widely studied , sarcophagus relief has been called the `` richest single source of Roman iconography , '' and may also depict the deceased 's occupation or life course , military scenes , and other subject matter . The same workshops produced sarcophagi with Jewish or Christian imagery . The Primavera of Stabiae , perhaps the goddess Flora Painting Much of what is known of Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private homes , particularly as preserved at Pompeii and Herculaneum by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD . In addition to decorative borders and panels with geometric or vegetative motifs , wall painting depicts scenes from mythology and the theatre , landscapes and gardens , recreation and spectacles , work and everyday life , and frank pornography . Birds , animals , and marine life are often depicted with careful attention to realistic detail . A unique source for Jewish figurative painting under the Empire is the Dura - Europos synagogue , dubbed `` the Pompeii of the Syrian Desert , '' buried and preserved in the mid-3rd century after the city was destroyed by Persians . Mosaic Main article : Roman mosaic The Triumph of Neptune floor mosaic from Africa Proconsularis ( present - day Tunisia ) , celebrating agricultural success with allegories of the Seasons , vegetation , workers and animals viewable from multiple perspectives in the room ( latter 2nd century ) Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts , and are found on the surfaces of floors and other architectural features such as walls , vaulted ceilings , and columns . The most common form is the tessellated mosaic , formed from uniform pieces ( tesserae ) of materials such as stone and glass . Mosaics were usually crafted on site , but sometimes assembled and shipped as ready - made panels . A mosaic workshop was led by the master artist ( pictor ) who worked with two grades of assistants . Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting , and in some cases portray subject matter in almost identical compositions . Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire , regional preferences also find expression . In North Africa , a particularly rich source of mosaics , homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates , hunting , agriculture , and local wildlife . Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present - day Turkey , Italy , southern France , Spain , and Portugal . More than 300 Antioch mosaics from the 3rd century are known . Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone , usually coloured marble , is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed . This more difficult technique was highly prized , and became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century , an abundant example of which is the Basilica of Junius Bassus . Decorative arts See also : Ancient Roman pottery and Roman glass Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery , silver and bronze vessels and implements , and glassware . The manufacture of pottery in a wide range of quality was important to trade and employment , as were the glass and metalworking industries . Imports stimulated new regional centres of production . Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red - gloss pottery ( terra sigillata ) that was a major item of trade in 1st - century Europe . Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC , and by the 3rd century Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass . Silver cup , from the Boscoreale treasure ( early 1st century AD ) Figural bronze oil lamps from Nova Zagora in Roman - era Bulgaria ( 1st -- 2nd century ) Finely decorated Gallo - Roman terra sigillata bowl Gold earrings with gemstones , 3rd century Glass cage cup from the Rhineland , latter 4th century Seuso plate ( detail ) Performing arts Main articles : Theatre of ancient Rome and Music of ancient Rome In Roman tradition , borrowed from the Greeks , literary theatre was performed by all - male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions that allowed audiences to `` see '' how a character was feeling . Such masks were occasionally also specific to a particular role , and an actor could then play multiple roles merely by switching masks . Female roles were played by men in drag ( travesti ) . Roman literary theatre tradition is particularly well represented in Latin literature by the tragedies of Seneca . The circumstances under which Seneca 's tragedies were performed are however unclear ; scholarly conjectures range from minimally staged readings to full production pageants . More popular than literary theatre was the genre - defying mimus theatre , which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation , risqué language and jokes , sex scenes , action sequences , and political satire , along with dance numbers , juggling , acrobatics , tightrope walking , striptease , and dancing bears . Unlike literary theatre , mimus was played without masks , and encouraged stylistic realism in acting . Female roles were performed by women , not by men . Mimus was related to the genre called pantomimus , an early form of story ballet that contained no spoken dialogue . Pantomimus combined expressive dancing , instrumental music and a sung libretto , often mythological , that could be either tragic or comic . All - male theatrical troupe preparing for a masked performance , on a mosaic from the House of the Tragic Poet Although sometimes regarded as foreign elements in Roman culture , music and dance had existed in Rome from earliest times . Music was customary at funerals , and the tibia ( Greek aulos ) , a woodwind instrument , was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences . Song ( carmen ) was an integral part of almost every social occasion . The Secular Ode of Horace , commissioned by Augustus , was performed publicly in 17 BC by a mixed children 's choir . Music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos , and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge . Various woodwinds and `` brass '' instruments were played , as were stringed instruments such as the cithara , and percussion . The cornu , a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician 's body , was used for military signals and on parade . These instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate , and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces . Instruments are widely depicted in Roman art . The hydraulic pipe organ ( hydraulis ) was `` one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity '' , and accompanied gladiator games and events in the amphitheatre , as well as stage performances . It was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played . Although certain forms of dance were disapproved of at times as non-Roman or unmanly , dancing was embedded in religious rituals of archaic Rome , such as those of the dancing armed Salian priests and of the Arval Brothers , priesthoods which underwent a revival during the Principate . Ecstatic dancing was a feature of the international mystery religions , particularly the cult of Cybele as practised by her eunuch priests the Galli and of Isis . In the secular realm , dancing girls from Syria and Cadiz were extremely popular . Like gladiators , entertainers were infames in the eyes of the law , little better than slaves even if they were technically free . `` Stars '' , however , could enjoy considerable wealth and celebrity , and mingled socially and often sexually with the upper classes , including emperors . Performers supported each other by forming guilds , and several memorials for members of the theatre community survive . Theatre and dance were often condemned by Christian polemicists in the later Empire , and Christians who integrated dance traditions and music into their worship practices were regarded by the Church Fathers as shockingly `` pagan . '' St. Augustine is supposed to have said that bringing clowns , actors , and dancers into a house was like inviting in a gang of unclean spirits . Literacy , books , and education This article is incomplete . This is because the use of papyrus or parchment scrolls , which were very common before the invention of the codex , is missing . Please help to improve it , or discuss the issue on the talk page . ( April 2017 ) Main article : Education in ancient Rome Pride in literacy was displayed in portraiture through emblems of reading and writing , as in this example of a couple from Pompeii ( Portrait of Paquius Proculo ) Estimates of the average literacy rate in the Empire range from 5 to 30 % or higher , depending in part on the definition of `` literacy '' . The Roman obsession with documents and public inscriptions indicates the high value placed on the written word . The Imperial bureaucracy was so dependent on writing that the Babylonian Talmud declared `` if all seas were ink , all reeds were pen , all skies parchment , and all men scribes , they would be unable to set down the full scope of the Roman government 's concerns . '' Laws and edicts were posted in writing as well as read out . Illiterate Roman subjects would have someone such as a government scribe ( scriba ) read or write their official documents for them . Public art and religious ceremonies were ways to communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability to read . Although the Romans were not a `` People of the Book '' , they had an extensive priestly archive , and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with statues and small votives dedicated by ordinary people to divinities , as well as on binding tablets and other `` magic spells '' , with hundreds of examples collected in the Greek Magical Papyri . The military produced a vast amount of written reports and service records , and literacy in the army was `` strikingly high '' . Urban graffiti , which include literary quotations , and low - quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites . In addition , numeracy was necessary for any form of commerce . Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers , and some were highly educated . Books were expensive , since each copy had to be written out individually on a roll of papyrus ( volumen ) by scribes who had apprenticed to the trade . The codex -- a book with pages bound to a spine -- was still a novelty in the time of the poet Martial ( 1st century AD ) , but by the end of the 3rd century was replacing the volumen and was the regular form for books with Christian content . Commercial production of books had been established by the late Republic , and by the 1st century AD certain neighbourhoods of Rome were known for their bookshops ( tabernae librariae ) , which were found also in Western provincial cities such as Lugdunum ( present - day Lyon , France ) . The quality of editing varied wildly , and some ancient authors complain about error - ridden copies , as well as plagiarism or forgery , since there was no copyright law . A skilled slave copyist ( servus litteratus ) could be valued as highly as 100,000 sesterces . Reconstruction of a writing tablet : the stylus was used to inscribe letters into the wax surface for drafts , casual letterwriting , and schoolwork , while texts meant to be permanent were copied onto papyrus Collectors amassed personal libraries , such as that of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum , and a fine library was part of the cultivated leisure ( otium ) associated with the villa lifestyle . Significant collections might attract `` in - house '' scholars ; Lucian mocked mercenary Greek intellectuals who attached themselves to philistine Roman patrons . An individual benefactor might endow a community with a library : Pliny the Younger gave the city of Comum a library valued at 1 million sesterces , along with another 100,000 to maintain it . Imperial libraries housed in state buildings were open to users as a privilege on a limited basis , and represented a literary canon from which disreputable writers could be excluded . Books considered subversive might be publicly burned , and Domitian crucified copyists for reproducing works deemed treasonous . Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups . Scholars such as Pliny the Elder engaged in `` multitasking '' by having works read aloud to them while they dined , bathed or travelled , times during which they might also dictate drafts or notes to their secretaries . The multivolume Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius is an extended exploration of how Romans constructed their literary culture . The reading public expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century , and while those who read for pleasure remained a minority , they were no longer confined to a sophisticated ruling elite , reflecting the social fluidity of the Empire as a whole and giving rise to `` consumer literature '' meant for entertainment . Illustrated books , including erotica , were popular , but are poorly represented by extant fragments . Primary education A teacher with two students , as a third arrives with his loculus , a writing case that would contain pens , ink pot , and a sponge to correct errors Traditional Roman education was moral and practical . Stories about great men and women , or cautionary tales about individual failures , were meant to instil Roman values ( mores maiorum ) . Parents and family members were expected to act as role models , and parents who worked for a living passed their skills on to their children , who might also enter apprenticeships for more advanced training in crafts or trades . Formal education was available only to children from families who could pay for it , and the lack of state intervention in access to education contributed to the low rate of literacy . Young children were attended by a pedagogus , or less frequently a female pedagoga , usually a Greek slave or former slave . The pedagogue kept the child safe , taught self - discipline and public behaviour , attended class and helped with tutoring . The emperor Julian recalled his pedagogue Mardonius , a eunuch slave who reared him from the age of 7 to 15 , with affection and gratitude . Usually , however , pedagogues received little respect . Primary education in reading , writing , and arithmetic might take place at home for privileged children whose parents hired or bought a teacher . Others attended a school that was `` public , '' though not state - supported , organized by an individual schoolmaster ( ludimagister ) who accepted fees from multiple parents . Vernae ( homeborn slave children ) might share in home - or public - schooling . Schools became more numerous during the Empire , and increased the opportunities for children to acquire an education . School could be held regularly in a rented space , or in any available public niche , even outdoors . Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12 , but classes were not segregated by grade or age . For the socially ambitious , bilingual education in Greek as well as Latin was a must . Quintilian provides the most extensive theory of primary education in Latin literature . According to Quintilian , each child has in - born ingenium , a talent for learning or linguistic intelligence that is ready to be cultivated and sharpened , as evidenced by the young child 's ability to memorize and imitate . The child incapable of learning was rare . To Quintilian , ingenium represented a potential best realized in the social setting of school , and he argued against homeschooling . He also recognized the importance of play in child development , and disapproved of corporal punishment because it discouraged love of learning -- in contrast to the practice in most Roman primary schools of routinely striking children with a cane ( ferula ) or birch rod for being slow or disruptive . Secondary education Mosaic from Pompeii depicting the Academy of Plato At the age of 14 , upperclass males made their rite of passage into adulthood , and began to learn leadership roles in political , religious , and military life through mentoring from a senior member of their family or a family friend . Higher education was provided by grammatici or rhetores . The grammaticus or `` grammarian '' taught mainly Greek and Latin literature , with history , geography , philosophy or mathematics treated as explications of the text . With the rise of Augustus , contemporary Latin authors such as Vergil and Livy also became part of the curriculum . The rhetor was a teacher of oratory or public speaking . The art of speaking ( ars dicendi ) was highly prized as a marker of social and intellectual superiority , and eloquentia ( `` speaking ability , eloquence '' ) was considered the `` glue '' of a civilized society . Rhetoric was not so much a body of knowledge ( though it required a command of references to the literary canon ) as it was a mode of expression and decorum that distinguished those who held social power . The ancient model of rhetorical training -- `` restraint , coolness under pressure , modesty , and good humour '' -- endured into the 18th century as a Western educational ideal . In Latin , illiteratus ( Greek agrammatos ) could mean both `` unable to read and write '' and `` lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication . '' Higher education promoted career advancement , particularly for an equestrian in Imperial service : `` eloquence and learning were considered marks of a well - bred man and worthy of reward '' . The poet Horace , for instance , was given a top - notch education by his father , a prosperous former slave . Urban elites throughout the Empire shared a literary culture embued with Greek educational ideals ( paideia ) . Hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning as an expression of cultural achievement . Young men from Rome who wished to pursue the highest levels of education often went abroad to study rhetoric and philosophy , mostly to one of several Greek schools in Athens . The curriculum in the East was more likely to include music and physical training along with literacy and numeracy . On the Hellenistic model , Vespasian endowed chairs of grammar , Latin and Greek rhetoric , and philosophy at Rome , and gave teachers special exemptions from taxes and legal penalties , though primary schoolmasters did not receive these benefits . Quintilian held the first chair of grammar . In the eastern empire , Berytus ( present - day Beirut ) was unusual in offering a Latin education , and became famous for its school of Roman law . The cultural movement known as the Second Sophistic ( 1st -- 3rd century AD ) promoted the assimilation of Greek and Roman social , educational , and aesthetic values , and the Greek proclivities for which Nero had been criticized were regarded from the time of Hadrian onward as integral to Imperial culture . Educated women Portrait of a literary woman from Pompeii ( ca . 50 AD ) Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be calligraphers and scribes . The `` girlfriends '' addressed in Augustan love poetry , although fictional , represent an ideal that a desirable woman should be educated , well - versed in the arts , and independent to a frustrating degree . Education seems to have been standard for daughters of the senatorial and equestrian orders during the Empire . A highly educated wife was an asset for the socially ambitious household , but one that Martial regards as an unnecessary luxury . The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria , who educated young men in mathematics , philosophy , and astronomy , and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics . Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria , Cyril , who may have been implicated in her violent death in 415 at the hands of a Christian mob . Decline of literacy Literacy began to decline , perhaps dramatically , during the socio - political Crisis of the Third Century . Although the Church Fathers were well - educated , they regarded Classical literature as dangerous , if valuable , and reconstrued it through moralizing and allegorical readings . Julian , the only emperor after the conversion of Constantine to reject Christianity , banned Christians from teaching the Classical curriculum , on the grounds that they might corrupt the minds of youth . While the book roll had emphasized the continuity of the text , the codex format encouraged a `` piecemeal '' approach to reading by means of citation , fragmented interpretation , and the extraction of maxims . In the 5th and 6th centuries , reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy . Literature Main article : Latin literature See also : Roman historiography , Church Fathers , and Latin poetry Statue in Constanța , Romania ( the ancient colony Tomis ) , commemorating Ovid 's exile In the traditional literary canon , literature under Augustus , along with that of the late Republic , has been viewed as the `` Golden Age '' of Latin literature , embodying the classical ideals of `` unity of the whole , the proportion of the parts , and the careful articulation of an apparently seamless composition . '' The three most influential Classical Latin poets -- Vergil , Horace , and Ovid -- belong to this period . Vergil wrote the Aeneid , creating a national epic for Rome in the manner of the Homeric epics of Greece . Horace perfected the use of Greek lyric metres in Latin verse . Ovid 's erotic poetry was enormously popular , but ran afoul of the Augustan moral programme ; it was one of the ostensible causes for which the emperor exiled him to Tomis ( present - day Constanța , Romania ) , where he remained to the end of his life . Ovid 's Metamorphoses was a continuous poem of fifteen books weaving together Greco - Roman mythology from the creation of the universe to the deification of Julius Caesar . Ovid 's versions of Greek myths became one of the primary sources of later classical mythology , and his work was so influential in the Middle Ages that the 12th and 13th centuries have been called the `` Age of Ovid . '' The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy , whose account of Rome 's founding and early history became the most familiar version in modern - era literature . Vitruvius 's book De Architectura , the only complete work on architecture to survive from antiquity , also belongs to this period . Latin writers were immersed in the Greek literary tradition , and adapted its forms and much of its content , but Romans regarded satire as a genre in which they surpassed the Greeks . Horace wrote verse satires before fashioning himself as an Augustan court poet , and the early Principate also produced the satirists Persius and Juvenal . The poetry of Juvenal offers a lively curmudgeon 's perspective on urban society . The period from the mid-1st century through the mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the `` Silver Age '' of Latin literature . Under Nero , disillusioned writers reacted to Augustanism . The three leading writers -- Seneca the philosopher , dramatist , and tutor of Nero ; Lucan , his nephew , who turned Caesar 's civil war into an epic poem ; and the novelist Petronius ( Satyricon ) -- all committed suicide after incurring the emperor 's displeasure . Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania , as was the later epigrammatist and keen social observer Martial , who expressed his pride in his Celtiberian heritage . Martial and the epic poet Statius , whose poetry collection Silvae had a far - reaching influence on Renaissance literature , wrote during the reign of Domitian . The so - called `` Silver Age '' produced several distinguished writers , including the encyclopedist Pliny the Elder ; his nephew , known as Pliny the Younger ; and the historian Tacitus . The Natural History of the elder Pliny , who died during disaster relief efforts in the wake of the eruption of Vesuvius , is a vast collection on flora and fauna , gems and minerals , climate , medicine , freaks of nature , works of art , and antiquarian lore . Tacitus 's reputation as a literary artist matches or exceeds his value as a historian ; his stylistic experimentation produced `` one of the most powerful of Latin prose styles . '' The Twelve Caesars by his contemporary Suetonius is one of the primary sources for imperial biography . Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus , the Jewish historian Josephus , and the senator Cassius Dio . Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer and antiquarian Plutarch , the geographer Strabo , and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian . Popular Greek romance novels were part of the development of long - form fiction works , represented in Latin by the Satyricon of Petronius and The Golden Ass of Apuleius . From the 2nd to the 4th centuries , the Christian authors who would become the Latin Church Fathers were in active dialogue with the Classical tradition , within which they had been educated . Tertullian , a convert to Christianity from Roman Africa , was the contemporary of Apuleius and one of the earliest prose authors to establish a distinctly Christian voice . After the conversion of Constantine , Latin literature is dominated by the Christian perspective . When the orator Symmachus argued for the preservation of Rome 's religious traditions , he was effectively opposed by Ambrose , the bishop of Milan and future saint -- a debate preserved by their missives . Brescia Casket , an ivory box with Biblical imagery ( late 4th century ) In the late 4th century , Jerome produced the Latin translation of the Bible that became authoritative as the Vulgate . Augustine , another of the Church Fathers from the province of Africa , has been called `` one of the most influential writers of western culture '' , and his Confessions is sometimes considered the first autobiography of Western literature . In The City of God against the Pagans , Augustine builds a vision of an eternal , spiritual Rome , a new imperium sine fine that will outlast the collapsing Empire . In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin , the literary aesthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality that has been compared to the mosaics characteristic of the period . A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century , with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella . Prominent Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius , Prudentius , Claudian , and Sidonius . Ausonius ( d . ca . 394 ) , the Bordelaise tutor of the emperor Gratian , was at least nominally a Christian , though throughout his occasionally obscene mixed - genre poems , he retains a literary interest in the Greco - Roman gods and even druidism . The imperial panegyrist Claudian ( d . 404 ) was a vir illustris who appears never to have converted . Prudentius ( d . ca . 413 ) , born in Hispania Tarraconensis and a fervent Christian , was thoroughly versed in the poets of the Classical tradition , and transforms their vision of poetry as a monument of immortality into an expression of the poet 's quest for eternal life culminating in Christian salvation . Sidonius ( d . 486 ) , a native of Lugdunum , was a Roman senator and bishop of Clermont who cultivated a traditional villa lifestyle as he watched the Western empire succumb to barbarian incursions . His poetry and collected letters offer a unique view of life in late Roman Gaul from the perspective of a man who `` survived the end of his world '' . Religion A Roman priest , his head ritually covered with a fold of his toga , extends a patera in a gesture of libation ( 2nd -- 3rd century ) Main articles : Religion in ancient Rome and Imperial cult ( ancient Rome ) See also : History of the Jews in the Roman Empire , Early Christianity , and Religious persecution in the Roman Empire The Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem , from a Western religious manuscript , c. 1504 Religion in the Roman Empire encompassed the practices and beliefs the Romans regarded as their own , as well as the many cults imported to Rome or practised by peoples throughout the provinces . The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious , and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety ( pietas ) in maintaining good relations with the gods ( pax deorum ) . The archaic religion believed to have been handed down from the earliest kings of Rome was the foundation of the mos maiorum , `` the way of the ancestors '' or `` tradition '' , viewed as central to Roman identity . There was no principle analogous to `` separation of church and state '' . The priesthoods of the state religion were filled from the same social pool of men who held public office , and in the Imperial era , the Pontifex Maximus was the emperor . Roman religion was practical and contractual , based on the principle of do ut des , `` I give that you might give . '' Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer , ritual , and sacrifice , not on faith or dogma , although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs . For ordinary Romans , religion was a part of daily life . Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family 's domestic deities were offered . Neighbourhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city . Apuleius ( 2nd century ) described the everyday quality of religion in observing how people who passed a cult place might make a vow or a fruit offering , or merely sit for a while . The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances . In the Imperial era , as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games ( ludi ) . Women , slaves , and children all participated in a range of religious activities . In the wake of the Republic 's collapse , state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors . As the first Roman emperor , Augustus justified the novelty of one - man rule with a vast programme of religious revivalism and reform . Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor . So - called `` emperor worship '' expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius , the divine tutelary of every individual . Upon death , an emperor could be made a state divinity ( divus ) by vote of the Senate . Imperial cult , influenced by Hellenistic ruler cult , became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire . Cultural precedent in the Eastern provinces facilitated a rapid dissemination of Imperial cult , extending as far as the Augustan military settlement at Najran , in present - day Saudi Arabia . Rejection of the state religion became tantamount to treason against the emperor . This was the context for Rome 's conflict with Christianity , which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio . Statuettes representing Roman and Gallic deities , for personal devotion at private shrines The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honoured , a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists . As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world , their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them . One way that Rome promoted stability among diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage , building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion . Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side - by - side worship of local and Roman deities , including dedications made by Romans to local gods . By the height of the Empire , numerous cults of pseudo-foreign gods ( Roman reinventions of foreign gods ) were cultivated at Rome and in the provinces , among them cults of Cybele , Isis , Epona , and of solar gods such as Mithras and Sol Invictus , found as far north as Roman Britain . Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only , religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems . Mystery religions , which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife , were a matter of personal choice for an individual , practised in addition to carrying on one 's family rites and participating in public religion . The mysteries , however , involved exclusive oaths and secrecy , conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of `` magic '' , conspiracy ( coniuratio ) , and subversive activity . Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity . In Gaul , the power of the druids was checked , first by forbidding Roman citizens to belong to the order , and then by banning druidism altogether . At the same time , however , Celtic traditions were reinterpreted ( interpretatio romana ) within the context of Imperial theology , and a new Gallo - Roman religion coalesced , with its capital at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls in Lugdunum ( present - day Lyon , France ) . The sanctuary established precedent for Western cult as a form of Roman - provincial identity . This funerary stele from the 3rd century is among the earliest Christian inscriptions , written in both Greek and Latin : the abbreviation D.M. at the top refers to the Di Manes , the traditional Roman spirits of the dead , but accompanies Christian fish symbolism . Relief from the Arch of Titus in Rome depicting a menorah and other spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem carried in Roman triumph . The monotheistic rigour of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions . Tertullian noted that the Jewish religion , unlike that of the Christians , was considered a religio licita , `` legitimate religion . '' Wars between the Romans and the Jews occurred when conflict , political as well as religious , became intractable . When Caligula wanted to place a golden statue of his deified self in the Temple in Jerusalem , the potential sacrilege and likely war were prevented only by his timely death . The Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD led to the sacking of the temple and the dispersal of Jewish political power ( see Jewish diaspora ) . Christianity emerged in Roman Judea as a Jewish religious sect in the 1st century AD . The religion gradually spread out of Jerusalem , initially establishing major bases in first Antioch , then Alexandria , and over time throughout the Empire as well as beyond . Imperially authorized persecutions were limited and sporadic , with martyrdoms occurring most often under the authority of local officials . The first persecution by an emperor occurred under Nero , and was confined to the city of Rome . Tacitus reports that after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 , some among the population held Nero responsible and that the emperor attempted to deflect blame onto the Christians . After Nero , a major persecution occurred under the emperor Domitian and a persecution in 177 took place at Lugdunum , the Gallo - Roman religious capital . A surviving letter from Pliny the Younger , governor of Bythinia , to the emperor Trajan describes his persecution and executions of Christians . The Decian persecution of 246 -- 251 was a serious threat to the Church , but ultimately strengthened Christian defiance . Diocletian undertook what was to be the most severe persecution of Christians , lasting from 303 to 311 . In the early 4th century , Constantine I became the first emperor to convert to Christianity . During the rest of the fourth century Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire . The emperor Julian made a short - lived attempt to revive traditional and Hellenistic religion and to affirm the special status of Judaism , but in 380 ( Edict of Thessalonica ) , under Theodosius I Christianity became the official state church of the Roman Empire , to the exclusion of all others . From the 2nd century onward , the Church Fathers had begun to condemn the diverse religions practised throughout the Empire collectively as `` pagan . '' Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus ( d . 402 ) were rejected , and Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination . Christian heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution , but Rome 's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian forms , and many pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived in Christian festivals and local traditions . Political legacy Main article : Legacy of the Roman Empire Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire 's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The Holy Roman Empire , an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West , was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day , though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades . After the fall of Constantinople , the Russian Tsardom , as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire 's Orthodox Christian tradition , counted itself the Third Rome ( Constantinople having been the second ) . These concepts are known as Translatio imperii . When the Ottomans , who based their state on the Byzantine model , took Constantinople in 1453 , Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire . He even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of re-uniting the Empire and invited European artists to his capital , including Gentile Bellini . In the medieval West , `` Roman '' came to mean the church and the Pope of Rome . The Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek - speaking Christian population of the Eastern Roman Empire , and is still used by Greeks in addition to their common appellation . The Roman Empire 's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would influence Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy ( Risorgimento ) in 1861 . The Virginia State Capitol ( left ) , built in the late 1700s , was modelled after the Maison Carrée , a Gallo - Roman temple built around 16 BC under Augustus In the United States , the founders were educated in the classical tradition , and used classical models for landmarks and buildings in Washington , D.C. , to avoid the feudal and religious connotations of European architecture such as castles and cathedrals . In forming their theory of the mixed constitution , the founders looked to Athenian democracy and Roman republicanism for models , but regarded the Roman emperor as a figure of tyranny . They nonetheless adopted Roman Imperial forms such as the dome , as represented by the US Capitol and numerous state capitol buildings , to express classical ideals through architecture . Thomas Jefferson saw the Empire as a negative political lesson , but was a chief proponent of its architectural models . Jefferson 's design for the Virginia State Capitol , for instance , is modelled directly from the Maison Carrée , a Gallo - Roman temple built under Augustus . The renovations of the National Mall at the beginning of the 20th century have been viewed as expressing a more overt imperialist kinship with Rome . See also Ancient Rome portal Classical Civilisation portal Mediterranean portal Ancient Near East portal Daqin ( `` Great Qin '' ) , the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire ; see also Sino - Roman relations Fall of the Western Roman Empire Imperial Italy Italian Empire Notes Jump up ^ Other ways of referring to the `` Roman Empire '' among the Romans and Greeks themselves included Res publica Romana or Imperium Romanorum ( also in Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων -- Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn -- ( `` Dominion ( Literally ' kingdom ' but also interpreted as ' empire ' ) of the Romans '' ) ) and Romania . Res publica means Roman `` commonwealth '' and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras . Imperium Romanum ( or Romanorum ) refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority . Populus Romanus ( `` the Roman people '' ) was / is often used to indicate the Roman state in matters involving other nations . The term Romania , initially a colloquial term for the empire 's territory as well as a collective name for its inhabitants , appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the Eastern Roman Empire ( see R.L. Wolff , `` Romania : The Latin Empire of Constantinople '' in Speculum 23 ( 1948 ) , pp. 1 -- 34 and especially pp. 2 -- 3 ) . Jump up ^ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea , the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus , which were all contenders for rule of the Empire . The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because it managed to re-take Constantinople . Jump up ^ The final emperor to rule over all of the Roman Empire 's territories before its conversion to a diarchy . Jump up ^ Officially the final emperor of the Western empire . Jump up ^ Last emperor of the Eastern ( Byzantine ) empire . Jump up ^ Abbreviated `` HS '' . Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces ; see # Currency and banking for currency denominations by period . Jump up ^ An average of figures from different sources as listed at the US Census Bureau 's Historical Estimates of World Population Jump up ^ Translated as `` power without end '' in Southern Jump up ^ Prudentius ( 348 -- 413 ) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry , as noted by Marc Mastrangelo , The Roman Self in Late Antiquity : Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul ( Johns Hopkins University Press , 2008 ) , pp. 73 , 203 . St. Augustine , however , distinguished between the secular and eternal `` Rome '' in The City of God . See also J. Rufus Fears , `` The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology , '' Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II. 17.1 ( 1981 ) , p. 136 , on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine ; Bang , Peter Fibiger ( 2011 ) `` The King of Kings : Universal Hegemony , Imperial Power , and a New Comparative History of Rome , '' in The Roman Empire in Context : Historical and Comparative Perspectives . John Wiley & Sons ; and the Greek concept of globalism ( oikouménē ) . Jump up ^ The civis ( `` citizen '' ) stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina , a foreign or non-Roman woman : A.N. Sherwin - White ( 1979 ) Roman Citizenship . Oxford University Press . pp. 211 and 268 ; Frier , pp. 31 -- 32 , 457 . In the form of legal marriage called conubium , the father 's legal status determined the child 's , but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens . A soldier , for instance , was banned from marrying while in service , but if he formed a long - term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces , he could marry her legally after he was discharged , and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens -- in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship . The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD . See Sara Elise Phang , The Marriage of Roman Soldiers ( 13 B.C. -- A.D. 235 ) : Law and Family in the Imperial Army ( Brill , 2001 ) , p. 2 , and Pat Southern , The Roman Army : A Social and Institutional History ( Oxford University Press , 2006 ) , p. 144 . Jump up ^ That is , a double standard was in place : a married woman could have sex only with her husband , but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute , slave , or person of marginalized status . See McGinn , Thomas A.J. ( 1991 ) . `` Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery '' . Transactions of the American Philological Association ( 1974 -- ) . 121 : 335 -- 375 ( 342 ) . doi : 10.2307 / 284457 . JSTOR 284457 . ; Martha C. Nussbaum ( 2002 ) `` The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus , Platonist , Stoic , and Roman , '' in The Sleep of Reason : Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome . University of Chicago Press . p. 305 , noting that custom `` allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change '' ; Elaine Fantham , `` Stuprum : Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome , '' in Roman Readings : Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian ( Walter de Gruyter , 2011 ) , p. 124 , citing Papinian , De adulteriis I and Modestinus , Liber Regularum I. Eva Cantarella , Bisexuality in the Ancient World ( Yale University Press , 1992 , 2002 , originally published 1988 in Italian ) , p. 104 ; Edwards , pp. 34 -- 35 . Jump up ^ The relation of the equestrian order to the `` public horse '' and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations ( such as the Lusus Troiae ) is complex , but those who participated in the latter seem , for instance , to have been the equites who were accorded the high - status ( and quite limited ) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis . Senators could not possess the `` public horse . '' See Wiseman , pp. 78 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Ancient Gades , in Roman Spain , and Patavium , in the Celtic north of Italy , were atypically wealthy cities , and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual . Strabo 3.169 , 5.213 Jump up ^ Vout , p. 212 . The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship , since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters ; see Jinyu Liu ( 2009 ) Collegia Centonariorum : The Guilds of Textile Dealers in the Roman West . Brill . Liu sees them as `` primarily tradesmen and / or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low - or medium - quality woolen textiles and clothing , including felt and its products . '' Jump up ^ Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement , and even called Avaricum ( Bourges , France ) , a center of the Bituriges , an urbs , `` city . '' Archaeology indicates that oppida were centers of religion , trade ( including import / export ) , and industrial production , walled for the purposes of defense , but they may not have been inhabited by concentrated populations year - round : see Harding , D.W. ( 2007 ) The Archaeology of Celtic Art . Routledge . pp. 211 -- 212 . ISBN 113426464X ; Collis , John ( 2000 ) `` ' Celtic ' Oppida , '' in A Comparative Study of Thirty City - state Cultures . Danske Videnskabernes Selskab . pp. 229 -- 238 ; Celtic Chiefdom , Celtic State : The Evolution of Complex Social Systems . Cambridge University Press , 1995 , 1999 , p. 61 . Jump up ^ Such as the Consualia and the October Horse sacrifice : Humphrey , pp. 544 , 558 ; Auguste Bouché - Leclercq , Manuel des Institutions Romaines ( Hachette , 1886 ) , p. 549 ; `` Purificazione , '' in Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum ( LIMC , 2004 ) , p. 83 . Jump up ^ Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these exercises : Lee , H. ( 1984 ) . `` Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina '' . Stadion. 10 : 45 -- 75 . sees them as gymnasts , while M. Torelli , `` Piazza Armerina : Note di iconologia '' , in La Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina , edited by G. Rizza ( Catania , 1988 ) , p. 152 , thinks they are dancers at the games . Jump up ^ By Michael Rostovtzeff , as noted by Robin M. Jensen ( 1999 ) `` The Dura - Europos Synagogue , Early - Christian Art and Religious Life in Dura Europos , '' in Jews , Christians and Polytheists in the Ancient Synagogue : Cultural Interaction during the Greco - Roman Period . Routledge . p. 154 . Jump up ^ Political slogans and obscenities are widely preserved as graffiti in Pompeii : Antonio Varone , Erotica Pompeiana : Love Inscriptions on the Walls of Pompeii ( `` L'Erma '' di Bretschneider , 2002 ) . Soldiers sometimes inscribed sling bullets with aggressive messages : Phang , `` Military Documents , Languages , and Literacy , '' p. 300 . Jump up ^ Bloomer , W. Martin ( 2011 ) The School of Rome : Latin Studies and the Origins of Liberal Education ( University of California Press , 2011 ) , pp. 93 -- 99 ; Morgan , Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds , p. 250 . Quintilian uses the metaphor acuere ingenium , `` to sharpen talent , '' as well as agricultural metaphors . Jump up ^ For an overview of the representation of Roman religion in early Christian authors , see R.P.C. Hanson , `` The Christian Attitue to Pagan Religions up to the Time of Constantine the Great , '' and Carlos A. Contreras , `` Christian Views of Paganism , '' in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II. 23.1 ( 1980 ) 871 -- 1022 . Jump up ^ `` This mentality , '' notes John T. Koch , `` lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible '' ; entry on `` Interpretatio romana , '' in Celtic Culture : A Historical Encyclopedia ( ABC - Clio , 2006 ) , p. 974 . References Citations Jump up ^ Bennett , Julian ( 1997 ) . Trajan : Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 16524 - 2 ... Fig. 1 . Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116 -- 117 . ^ Jump up to : Taagepera , Rein ( 1979 ) . `` Size and Duration of Empires : Growth - Decline Curves , 600 B.C. to 600 A.D '' . Social Science History . Duke University Press . 3 ( 3 / 4 ) : 125 . doi : 10.2307 / 1170959 . JSTOR 1170959 . Jump up ^ Durand , John D. ( 1977 ) . `` Historical Estimates of World Population : An Evaluation '' . Population and Development Review . 3 ( 3 ) : 253 . doi : 10.2307 / 1971891 . JSTOR 1971891 . ^ Jump up to : Turchin , Peter ; Adams , Jonathan M. ; Hall , Thomas D ( 2006 ) . `` East - West Orientation of Historical Empires '' ( PDF ) . Journal of world - systems research . 12 ( 2 ) : 222 . ISSN 1076 - 156X . Retrieved 6 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Morris , Ian ( October 2010 ) Social Development . Stanford University Jump up ^ Morris , Ian ( 2010 ) Why the West Rules -- For Now , New York : Farrar , Straus and Giroux . ISBN 978 - 0 - 374 - 29002 - 3 . Jump up ^ Kremer , M. ( 1993 ) . `` Population Growth and Technological Change : One Million B.C. To 1990 '' ( PDF ) . The Quarterly Journal of Economics . 108 ( 3 ) : 681 -- 716 . doi : 10.2307 / 2118405 . JSTOR 2118405 . Jump up ^ Stillman , Norman A. ( 1979 ) The Jews of Arab Lands . Jewish Publication Society . p. 22 . ISBN 0827611552 Jump up ^ Breasted , J.H. Ancient Times a History of the Early World . Рипол Классик . p. 675 . ISBN 117400312X Jump up ^ Kelly , pp. 4ff . ^ Jump up to : Nicolet , pp. 1 , 15 Jump up ^ Brennan , T. Corey ( 2000 ) The Praetorship in the Roman Republic . Oxford University Press . p. 605 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 39 -- 40 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 179 . ^ Jump up to : Hekster , Olivier and Kaizer , Ted ( 2011 ) . Preface to Frontiers in the Roman World . Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire ( Durhan , 16 -- 19 April 2009 ) . Brill . p. viii . Jump up ^ Lintott , Andrew ( 1999 ) The Constitution of the Roman Republic . Oxford University Press . p. 114 Jump up ^ Eder , W. ( 1993 ) `` The Augustan Principate as Binding Link , '' in Between Republic and Empire . University of California Press . p. 98 . ISBN 0520084470 . Jump up ^ Richardson , John ( 2011 ) `` Fines provinciae '' , in Frontiers in the Roman World . Brill . p. 10 . Jump up ^ Richardson , John ( 2011 ) `` Fines provinciae '' , in Frontiers in the Roman World . Brill . pp. 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Syme , Ronald ( 1939 ) The Roman Revolution . Oford : Oxford University Press . pp. 3 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Boatwright , Mary T. ( 2000 ) Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire . Princeton University Press . p. 4 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 571 . Jump up ^ Dio Cassius 72.36. 4 , Loeb edition translated E. Cary Jump up ^ Gibbon , Edward ( 1776 ) , `` The Decline And Fall in the West -- Chapter 4 '' , The History of the Decline And Fall of the Roman Empire . Jump up ^ Brown , P. , The World of Late Antiquity , London 1971 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Adrian Goldsworth , How Rome Fell : Death of a Superpower ( Yale University Press , 2009 ) , pp. 405 -- 415 . Jump up ^ Potter , David . The Roman Empire at Bay . 296 -- 98 . Jump up ^ Starr , Chester G. ( 1974 ) A History of the Ancient World , Second Edition . Oxford University Press . pp. 670 -- 678 . Jump up ^ Isaac Asimov ( 1989 ) Asimov 's Chronology of the World , p. 110 , New York , NY , USA : HarperCollins . Jump up ^ Duiker , 2001 . page 347 . ^ Jump up to : The Byzantine Empire Archived 1999 - 02 - 24 at the Wayback Machine . by Richard Hooker . Washington State University . Written 6 June 1999 . Retrieved 8 April 2007 . Jump up ^ Bray , R.S. ( 2004 ) . Armies of Pestilence . Cambridge : James Clarke & Co. p. 26 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 227 - 17240 - 7 . Jump up ^ Kreutz , Barbara M. ( 1996 ) . Before the Normans : Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8122 - 1587 - 8 . Jump up ^ Duiker , 2001 . page 349 . Jump up ^ Basil II ( AD 976 -- 1025 ) by Catherine Holmes . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Written 1 April 2003 . Retrieved 22 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Gibbon , Edward . History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Chapter 61 . Retrieved 11 April 2007 . Jump up ^ Mehmet II by Korkut Ozgen . Theottomans.org . Retrieved 3 April 2007 . Jump up ^ Kelly , p. 3 . ^ Jump up to : Nicolet , p. 29 Jump up ^ Vergil , Aeneid 1.278 Jump up ^ Mattingly , David J. ( 2011 ) Imperialism , Power , and Identity : Experiencing the Roman Empire . Princeton University Press . p. 15 Jump up ^ Moretti , G. ( 1993 ) `` The Other World and the ' Antipodes ' : The Myth of Unknown Countries between Antiquity and the Renaissance , '' in The Classical Tradition and the Americas : European Images of the Americas . Walter de Gruyter . p. 257 ^ Jump up to : Southern , Pat ( 2001 ) . The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . Routledge . pp. 14 -- 16 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 23943 - 1 . Jump up ^ Nicolet , pp. 7 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Nicolet , pp. 9 , 16 . Jump up ^ Nicolet , pp. 10 -- 11 . ^ Jump up to : Kelly , p. 1 . ^ Jump up to : Morris , p. 184 . Jump up ^ Goldsmith , Raymond W. ( 2005 ) . `` An Estimate of the Size Anl Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire '' . Review of Income and Wealth. 30 ( 3 ) : 263 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1475 - 4991.1984. tb00552. x . Jump up ^ Scheidel , Walter ( April 2006 ) `` Population and demography '' in Princeton / Stanford Working Papers in Classics , p. 9 Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 721 . Jump up ^ Woolf , Greg ( ed . ) ( 2003 ) Cambridge Illustrated History of the Roman World . Cambridge : Ivy Press . p. 340 Jump up ^ Opper , Thorsten ( 2008 ) Hadrian : Empire and Conflict . Harvard University Press . p. 64 Jump up ^ Fields , Nic ( 2003 ) Hadrian 's Wall AD 122 -- 410 , which was , of course , at the bottom of Hadrian 's garden . Osprey Publishing . p. 35 . Jump up ^ Vergil , Aeneid 12.834 and 837 Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 549 , 563 Jump up ^ Adams , p. 184 . Jump up ^ Adams , pp. 186 -- 187 . Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 554 , 556 . Jump up ^ Rochette , p. 549 Jump up ^ Freeman , Charles ( 1999 ) The Greek Achievement : The Foundation of the Western World . New York : Penguin . pp. 389 -- 433 . Jump up ^ Rochette , p. 549 , citing Plutarch , Life of Alexander 47.6 . Jump up ^ Millar , Fergus ( 2006 ) A Greek Roman Empire : Power and Belief under Theodosius II ( 408 -- 450 ) . University of California Press . p. 279 . ISBN 0520941411 . ^ Jump up to : Treadgold , Warren ( 1997 ) A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford University Press . pp. 5 -- 7 . ISBN 0804726302 . Jump up ^ Rochette , p. 553 . Jump up ^ Cicero , In Catilinam 2.15 , P. Ryl . I 61 `` recto '' . Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 550 -- 552 . ^ Jump up to : Rochette , p. 552 . Jump up ^ Suetonius , Life of Claudius 42 . Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 553 -- 554 . Jump up ^ Rochette , p. 556 Jump up ^ Adams , p. 200 . Jump up ^ Adams , pp. 185 -- 186 , 205 . Jump up ^ Rochette , p. 560 . Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 562 -- 563 . Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 558 -- 559 . ^ Jump up to : Miles , Richard ( 2000 ) `` Communicating Culture , Identity , and Power , '' in Experiencing Power : Culture , Identity and Power in the Roman Empire . Routledge . pp. 58 -- 60 . ISBN 0415212855 . Jump up ^ Adams , p. 199 . Jump up ^ Rochette , pp. 553 -- 555 . Jump up ^ Rochette , p. 550 Jump up ^ Stefan Zimmer , `` Indo - European , '' in Celtic Culture : A Historical Encyclopedia ( ABC - Clio , 2006 ) , p. 961 ^ Jump up to : Curchin , Leonard A. ( 1995 ) . `` Literacy in the Roman Provinces : Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain '' . The American Journal of Philology. 116 ( 3 ) : 461 -- 476 ( 464 ) . doi : 10.2307 / 295333 . JSTOR 295333 . Jump up ^ Waquet , Françoise ( 2001 ) Latin , Or , The Empire of the Sign : From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century . Verso . pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 1859844022 . Jump up ^ Jensen , Kristian ( 1996 ) `` The Humanist Reform of Latin and Latin Teaching , '' in The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism . Cambridge University Press . pp. 63 -- 64 . ISBN 0521436249 . Jump up ^ Fine , John V.A. ; Fine , John Van Antwerp ( 1991 ) . The Early Medieval Balkans : A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century . University of Michigan Press . pp. 10 -- 11 . ISBN 0 - 472 - 08149 - 7 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 9 . ^ Jump up to : Garnsey , Peter and Saller , Richard ( 1987 ) The Roman Empire : Economy , Society and Culture . University of California Press . pp. 107 -- 111 . Jump up ^ Noreña , Carlos F. ( 2011 ) Imperial Ideals in the Roman West : Representation , Circulation , Power . Cambridge University Press . p. 7 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 4 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Winterling , pp. 11 , 21 . Jump up ^ Saller , Richard P. ( 1982 , 2002 ) Personal Patronage under the Early Empire . Cambridge University Press . pp. 123 , 176 , 183 Jump up ^ Duncan , Anne ( 2006 ) Performance and Identity in the Classical World . Cambridge University Press . p. 164 . Jump up ^ Reinhold , Meyer ( 2002 ) Studies in Classical History and Society . Oxford University Press . pp. 25ff. and 42 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 18 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 17 , 20 . Jump up ^ Millar , pp. 81 -- 82 Jump up ^ Carroll , Maureen ( 2006 ) Spirits of the Dead : Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe . Oxford University Press . pp. 45 -- 46 . Jump up ^ `` Infanticide Common in Roman Empire '' . DNews . Jump up ^ Frier , p. 14 Jump up ^ Gaius , Institutiones 1.9 = Digest 1.5. 3 . Jump up ^ Frier , pp. 31 -- 32 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Rawson ( 1987 ) , p. 18 . Jump up ^ Frier , pp. 19 -- 20 . Jump up ^ Eva Cantarella , Pandora 's Daughters : The Role and Status of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity ( Johns Hopkins University Press , 1987 ) , pp. 140 -- 141 Jump up ^ Sullivan , J.P. ( 1979 ) . `` Martial 's Sexual Attitudes '' . Philologus. 123 : 296 . Jump up ^ Rawson ( 1987 ) , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Frier , pp. 19 -- 20 , 22 . Jump up ^ Treggiari , Susan ( 1991 ) Roman Marriage : Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian . Oxford University Press . pp. 258 -- 259 , 500 -- 502 . ISBN 0198149395 . Jump up ^ Johnston , David ( 1999 ) Roman Law in Context . Cambridge University Press . Ch . 3.3 Jump up ^ Frier , Ch. IV Jump up ^ Thomas , Yan ( 1991 ) `` The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law , '' in A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints . Harvard University Press . p. 134 . Jump up ^ Severy , Beth ( 2002 ) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire . Routledge . p. 12 . ISBN 1134391838 . Jump up ^ Severy , Beth ( 2002 ) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire . Routledge . p. 4 . ISBN 1134391838 . Jump up ^ Frier , p. 461 Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 733 . Jump up ^ Woodhull , Margaret L. ( 2004 ) `` Matronly Patrons in the Early Roman Empire : The Case of Salvia Postuma , '' in Women 's Influence on Classical Civilization . Routledge . p. 77 . Jump up ^ Bradley , p. 12 . Jump up ^ The others are ancient Athens , and in the modern era Brazil , the Caribbean , and the United States ; Bradley , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Bradley , p. 15 . ^ Jump up to : Harris , W.V. ( 1999 ) . `` Demography , Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves '' . The Journal of Roman Studies . 89 : 62 -- 75 . doi : 10.2307 / 300734 . JSTOR 300734 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Timothy ( 2010 ) . `` Believing the ancients : Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia '' . World Archaeology. 33 : 27 -- 43 . doi : 10.1080 / 00438240120047618 . JSTOR 827887 . Jump up ^ Harper , Kyle ( 2011 ) Slavery in the Late Roman World , AD 275 -- 425 . Cambridge University Press . pp. 10 -- 16 . Jump up ^ Frier , p. 7 . Jump up ^ McGinn , Thomas A.J. ( 1998 ) Prostitution , Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome . Oxford University Press . p. 314 . ISBN 0195161327 . Jump up ^ Gardner , Jane F. ( 1991 ) Women in Roman Law and Society . Indiana University Press . p. 119 . Jump up ^ Frier , pp. 31 , 33 . Jump up ^ Fuhrmann , C.J. ( 2012 ) Policing the Roman Empire : Soldiers , Administration , and Public Order . Oxford University Press . pp. 21 -- 41 . ISBN 0199737843 . Jump up ^ Frier , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Gamauf , Richard ( 2009 ) . `` Slaves doing business : The role of Roman law in the economy of a Roman household '' . European Review of History : Revue europeenne d'histoire. 16 ( 3 ) : 331 . doi : 10.1080 / 13507480902916837 . Jump up ^ Bradley , pp. 2 -- 3 . Jump up ^ McGinn , Thomas A.J. ( 1998 ) Prostitution , Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome . Oxford University Press . pp. 288ff . ISBN 0195161327 . Jump up ^ Abusch , Ra'anan ( 2003 ) `` Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire , '' in The Covenant of Circumcision : New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite . Brandeis University Press . pp. 77 -- 78 Jump up ^ Schäfer , Peter ( 1983 , 2003 ) The History of the Jews in the Greco - Roman World . Routledge . p. 150 . Jump up ^ Frier , p. 15 Jump up ^ Goodwin , Stefan ( 2009 ) . Africa in Europe : Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion . Lexington Books . Vol. 1 , p. 41 , ISBN 0739117262 , noting that `` Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system '' . Jump up ^ Santosuosso , Antonio ( 2001 ) Storming the Heavens : Soldiers , Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire , Westview Press . pp. 43 -- 44 . ISBN 0 - 8133 - 3523 - X . Jump up ^ Noy , David ( 2000 ) . Foreigners at Rome : Citizens and Strangers . Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales . ISBN 9780715629529 . Jump up ^ Harper , James ( 1972 ) . `` Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome '' . American Journal of Philology. 93 : 341 -- 342 . Jump up ^ Rawson ( 1987 ) , pp. 186 -- 188 , 190 Jump up ^ Bradley , p. 34 , 48 -- 50 . Jump up ^ Bradley , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Millar , Fergus ( 1998 , 2002 ) The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic . University of Michigan . pp. 23 , 209 . ISBN 0472088785 . Jump up ^ Mouritsen , Henrik ( 2011 ) The Freedman in the Roman World . Cambridge University Press . p. 36 ^ Jump up to : Berger , Adolf ( 1953 , 1991 ) . libertus in Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law . American Philological Society . p. 564 . Jump up ^ Boardman , pp. 217 -- 218 Jump up ^ Syme , Ronald ( 1999 ) Provincial at Rome : and Rome and the Balkans 80 BC -- AD 14 . University of Exeter Press . pp. 12 -- 13 . ISBN 0859896323 . Jump up ^ Boardman , pp. 215 , 221 -- 222 Jump up ^ Millar , p. 88 . The standard complement of 600 was flexible ; twenty quaestors , for instance , held office each year and were thus admitted to the Senate regardless of whether there were `` open '' seats . ^ Jump up to : Millar , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Boardman , pp. 218 -- 219 . Jump up ^ His name was Tiberius Claudius Gordianus ; Boardman , p. 219 . Jump up ^ MacMullen , Ramsay ( 1966 ) . `` Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire '' . The American Journal of Philology. 87 : 1 . doi : 10.2307 / 292973 . JSTOR 292973 . Jump up ^ Wiseman , pp. 71 -- 72 , 76 Jump up ^ Wiseman , pp. 75 -- 76 , 78 . Jump up ^ Fear , Andrew ( 2007 ) `` War and Society , '' in The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare : Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire . Cambridge University Press , vol. 2 . pp. 214 -- 215 . ISBN 0521782740 . Jump up ^ Bennett , Julian ( 1997 ) . Trajan : Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times . Routledge . p. 5 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 16524 - 2 . Jump up ^ Morris , p. 188 Jump up ^ Millar , pp. 87 -- 88 . Jump up ^ Millar , p. 96 . Jump up ^ Liebeschuetz , Wolfgang ( 2001 ) `` The End of the Ancient City , '' in The City in Late Antiquity . Taylor & Francis . pp. 26 -- 27 . Jump up ^ Millar , p. 90 , calls them `` status - appellations . '' Jump up ^ Millar , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Millar , p. 90 . ^ Jump up to : Verboven , Koenraad ( 2007 ) . `` The Associative Order : Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen in Late Republic and Early Empire '' . Athenaeum. 95 : 870 -- 72 . hdl : 1854 / LU - 395187 . ^ Jump up to : Peachin , pp. 153 -- 154 Jump up ^ Perkins , Judith ( 2009 ) Early Christian and Judicial Bodies . Walter de Gruyter . pp. 245 -- 246 Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 475 . Jump up ^ Gaughan , Judy E. ( 2010 ) Murder Was Not a Crime : Homicide and Power in the Roman Republic . University of Texas Press . p. 91 . ISBN 0292725671 . Jump up ^ Kelly , Gordon P. ( 2006 ) A History of Exile in the Roman Republic . Cambridge University Press . p. 8 . ISBN 0521848601 . ^ Jump up to : Coleman , K.M. ( 2012 ) . `` Fatal Charades : Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments '' . Journal of Roman Studies . 80 : 44 . doi : 10.2307 / 300280 . JSTOR 300280 . Jump up ^ Robinson , O.F. ( 2007 ) Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome . Routledge . p. 108 . Jump up ^ The imperial cult in Roman Britain - Google docs Jump up ^ Bohec , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Bohec , pp. 14 -- 15 . Jump up ^ Plutarch , Moralia Moralia 813c and 814c Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 181 -- 182 Jump up ^ Luttwak , Edward ( 1976 / 1979 ) The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire , Johns Hopkins University Press . p. 30 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 2158 - 4 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 184 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 181 . Jump up ^ Abbott , p. 354 Jump up ^ Abbott , p. 345 Jump up ^ Abbott , p. 341 Jump up ^ Millar , Fergus ( 2004 ) `` Emperors at Work , '' in Rome , the Greek World , and the East : Government , Society , and Culture in the Roman Empire . University of North Carolina Press . Vol. 2 . ISBN 0807855200 . pp. 3 -- 22 , especially pp. 4 and 20 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 195ff . Jump up ^ Boardman , pp. 205 -- 209 . Jump up ^ Boardman , pp. 202 -- 203 , 205 , 210 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 211 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 212 . Jump up ^ Millar , p. 76 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 215 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 215 ^ Jump up to : Winterling , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Morris , p. 188 . Jump up ^ Goldsworthy , p. 80 . Jump up ^ Edmondson , pp. 111 -- 112 . Jump up ^ Hekster , Olivier J. ( 2007 ) `` Fighting for Rome : The Emperor as a Military Leader , '' in Impact of the Roman Army ( 200 BC -- AD 476 ) . Brill . p. 96 . Jump up ^ Bohec , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Bohec , pp. 10 -- 14 . Jump up ^ Roth , J. ( 1994 ) . `` The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Legion '' . Historia. 43 ( 3 ) : 346 -- 362 . JSTOR 4436338 . Jump up ^ Goldsworthy , p. 183 . ^ Jump up to : Morris , p. 196 . Jump up ^ Rome and Her Enemies published by Osprey , 2005 , part 3 : Early Empire 27BC -- AD235 , Ch. 9 : The Romans , section : Remuneration , p. 183 ; ISBN 978 - 1 - 84603 - 336 - 0 Jump up ^ Tacitus Annales IV. 5 Jump up ^ Goldsworthy , p. 51 . Jump up ^ Connolly , Peter ( 1986 ) . `` A Reconstruction of a Roman Saddle '' . Britannia. 17 : 353 . doi : 10.2307 / 526559 . JSTOR 526559 . Jump up ^ Connolly , Peter ; Van Driel - Murray , Carol ( 1991 ) . `` The Roman Cavalry Saddle '' . Britannia. 22 : 33 . doi : 10.2307 / 526629 . JSTOR 526629 . Jump up ^ Goldsworthy , p. 114 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 183 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 177 -- 179 . Most government records that are preserved come from Roman Egypt , where the climate preserved the papyri . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 179 . The exclusion of Egypt from the senatorial provinces dates to the rise of Octavian before he became Augustus : Egypt had been the stronghold of his last opposition , Mark Antony and his ally Cleopatra . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 180 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 179 , 187 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 180 Jump up ^ Fuhrmann , C.J. ( 2012 ) Policing the Roman Empire : Soldiers , Administration , and Public Order . Oxford University Press . pp. 197 , 214 , 224 . ISBN 0199737843 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 184 -- 185 . Jump up ^ Bozeman , Adda B. ( 2010 ) Politics and Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age . Transaction Publishers . 2nd ed ... pp. 208 -- 20 Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 184 -- 185 Jump up ^ This practice was established in the Republic ; see for instance the case of Contrebian water rights heard by G. Valerius Flaccus as governor of Hispania in the 90s -- 80s BC . Jump up ^ Digeser , Elizabeth DePalma ( 2000 ) The Making of a Christian Empire : Lactantius and Rome . Cornell University Press . p. 53 . Jump up ^ Morris , p. 183 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 187 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 185 -- 187 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 185 Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 185 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 188 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 186 . Jump up ^ Cassius Dio 55.31. 4 . Jump up ^ Tacitus , Annales 13.31. 2 . Jump up ^ This was the vicesima libertatis , `` the twentieth for freedom '' ; Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 187 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 283 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 285 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 286 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 292 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 285 -- 286 , 296ff . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 296 . 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Rufus ( 1981 ) `` The Theology of Victory at Rome : Approaches and Problem , '' Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II. 17.2 , pp. 752 and 824 , and in the same volume , `` The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology , '' p. 908 . Jump up ^ Andreau , Jean ( 1999 ) Banking and Business in the Roman World . Cambridge University Press . p. 2 . Jump up ^ Tacitus , Annales 6.17. 3 . Jump up ^ Duncan - Jones , Richard ( 1994 ) Money and Government in the Roman Empire . Cambridge University Press . pp. 3 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Bowersock , p. 579 . ^ Jump up to : Wilson , Andrew ( 2002 ) . `` Machines , Power and the Ancient Economy '' . The Journal of Roman Studies . 92 : 1 . doi : 10.2307 / 3184857 . JSTOR 3184857 . Jump up ^ Craddock , Paul T. ( 2008 ) : `` Mining and Metallurgy '' , in : Oleson , John Peter ( ed . ) : The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 518731 - 1 , p. 108 Jump up ^ Sim , David ; Ridge , Isabel ( 2002 ) Iron for the Eagles . The Iron Industry of Roman Britain , Tempus , Stroud , Gloucestershire , ISBN 0 - 7524 - 1900 - 5 . p. 23 Jump up ^ Healy , John F. ( 1978 ) Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World , Thames and Hudson , London , ISBN 0 - 500 - 40035 - 0 . p. 196 . Assumes a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita . ^ Jump up to : Hong , S. ; Candelone , J. - P. ; Patterson , C.C. ; Boutron , C.F. ( 1996 ) . `` History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice '' . Science . 272 ( 5259 ) : 246 . Bibcode : 1996Sci ... 272 ... 246H . doi : 10.1126 / science. 272.5259. 246 . ^ Jump up to : Hong , S ; Candelone , J.P. ; Patterson , C.C. ; Boutron , C.F. ( 1994 ) . `` Greenland ice evidence of hemispheric lead pollution two millennia ago by greek and roman civilizations '' ( PDF ) . Science . 265 ( 5180 ) : 1841 -- 3 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 265.5180. 1841 . PMID 17797222 . ^ Jump up to : De Callataÿ , François ( 2015 ) . `` The Graeco - Roman economy in the super long - run : Lead , copper , and shipwrecks '' . Journal of Roman Archaeology. 18 : 361 . doi : 10.1017 / S104775940000742X . Jump up ^ Settle , D.M. ; Patterson , C.C. ( 1980 ) . `` Lead in albacore : Guide to lead pollution in Americans '' . Science . 207 ( 4436 ) : 1167 -- 76 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 6986654 . PMID 6986654 . Jump up ^ Patterson , C.C. ( 1972 ) . `` Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times '' . The Economic History Review . 25 ( 2 ) : 205 -- 235 ( tables 2 , 6 ) . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1468 - 0289.1972. tb02173. x . JSTOR 2593904 . Jump up ^ Morris , p. 197 . Jump up ^ Marlière , Élise ( 2001 ) . `` Le tonneau en Gaule romaine '' ( PDF ) . Gallia. 58 : 181 -- 210 ( 184 ) . doi : 10.3406 / galia. 2001.3179 . JSTOR 43608343 . Jump up ^ Bowman , p. 404 . Jump up ^ Greene , Kevin ( 1990 ) . The Archaeology of the Roman Economy . University of California Press . p. 17 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 07401 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Boardman , p. 713 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 714 . Jump up ^ Ulrich , Roger Bradley ( 2007 ) . Roman Woodworking . Yale University Press . pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 0300103417 . ^ Jump up to : Stambaugh , p. 253 . Jump up ^ Ray Laurence , `` Land Transport in Roman Italy : Costs , Practice and the Economy , '' in Trade , Traders and the Ancient City ( Routledge , 1998 ) , p. 129 . Jump up ^ Morris , p. 187 . Jump up ^ Holleran , p. 142 . Jump up ^ An , Jiayao ( 2002 ) . `` When Glass Was Treasured in China '' . In Juliano , Annette L. ; Lerner , Judith A. Silk Road Studies VII : Nomads , Traders , and Holy Men Along China 's Silk Road . Turnhout : Brepols Publishers . pp. 83 -- 84 . ISBN 978 - 2 - 503 - 52178 - 7 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 710 . Jump up ^ Boardman , pp. 717 -- 729 . Jump up ^ Bowman , p. 404 Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 719 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 720 . Jump up ^ Holleran , pp. 146 -- 147 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 323 . Jump up ^ Temin , Peter ( 2004 ) . `` The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire '' . Journal of Interdisciplinary History . 34 ( 4 ) : 513 . doi : 10.1162 / 002219504773512525 . JSTOR 3656762 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 184 -- 185 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , p. 192 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 188 -- 189 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 190 -- 191 . Jump up ^ Scheidel , Walter ; Morris , Ian ; Saller , Richard , eds. ( 2007 ) : The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco - Roman World , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 78053 - 7 Jump up ^ Lo Cascio , Elio ; Malanima , Paolo ( 2009 ) . `` GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies ( 1 -- 1820 AD ) . A Revision of the Estimates '' . Rivista di storia economica. 25 ( 3 ) : 391 -- 420 ( 391 -- 401 ) . Jump up ^ Maddison , Angus ( 2007 ) Contours of the World Economy , 1 -- 2030 AD . Essays in Macro-Economic History , Oxford University Press . pp. 47 -- 51 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 922721 - 1 . Jump up ^ Scheidel , Walter ; Friesen , Steven J. ( 2010 ) . `` The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Roman Studies . 99 : 61 . doi : 10.3815 / 007543509789745223 . JSTOR 40599740 . Jump up ^ MacDonald , W.L. ( 1982 ) The Architecture of the Roman Empire . Yale University Press , New Haven , fig . 131B Jump up ^ Lechtman , H.N. ; Hobbs , L.W. ( 1987 ) . `` Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution '' . Ceramics and Civilization. 3 : 81 -- 128 . Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica , Apollodorus of Damascus , `` Greek engineer and architect who worked primarily for the Roman emperor Trajan . '' Sarton , George ( 1936 ) . `` The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World '' . Osiris. 2 : 406 -- 463 ( 430 ) . doi : 10.1086 / 368462 . JSTOR 301558 . Jump up ^ Calcani , Giuliana ; Abdulkarim , Maamoun ( 2003 ) . Apollodorus of Damascus and Trajan 's Column : From Tradition to Project . L'Erma di Bretschneider . p. 11 . ISBN 88 - 8265 - 233 - 5 ... focusing on the brilliant architect Apollodorus of Damascus . This famous Syrian personage represents ... Jump up ^ Hong - Sen Yan ; Marco Ceccarelli ( 2009 ) . International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms : Proceedings of HMM 2008 . Springer . p. 86 . ISBN 1 - 4020 - 9484 - 1 . He had Syrian origins coming from Damascus Jump up ^ Smith , Norman ( 1970 ) . `` The Roman Dams of Subiaco '' . Technology and Culture . 11 ( 1 ) : 58 -- 68 . doi : 10.2307 / 3102810 . JSTOR 3102810 . Jump up ^ Smith , Norman ( 1971 ) . A History of Dams . London : Peter Davies . p. 26 . ISBN 0 - 432 - 15090 - 0 . Jump up ^ Schnitter , Niklaus ( 1978 ) . `` Römische Talsperren '' . Antike Welt. 8 ( 2 ) : 25 -- 32 ( 28 ) . Jump up ^ Chandler , Fiona ( 2001 ) The Usborne Internet Linked Encyclopedia of the Roman World . Usborne Publishing . p. 80 . Jump up ^ Forman , Joan ( 1975 ) The Romans , Macdonald Educational Ltd. p. 34 . Jump up ^ Crow , J. ( 2007 ) `` Earth , walls and water in Late Antique Constantinople '' in Technology in Transition AD 300 -- 650 in ed . L. Lavan , E. Zanini & A. Sarantis Brill , Leiden Jump up ^ Greene , Kevin ( 1990 ) . The Archaeology of the Roman Economy . University of California Press . p. 39 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 07401 - 9 . Jump up ^ Jones , R.F.J. ; Bird , D.G. ( 2012 ) . `` Roman Gold - Mining in North - West Spain , II : Workings on the Rio Duerna '' . Journal of Roman Studies . 62 : 59 . doi : 10.2307 / 298927 . JSTOR 298927 . Jump up ^ Ritti , Tullia ; Grewe , Klaus ; Kessener , Paul ( 2007 ) . `` A Relief of a Water - powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications '' . Journal of Roman Archaeology. 20 : 138 -- 163 ( 156 , fn. 74 ) . doi : 10.1017 / S1047759400005341 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 192 . ^ Jump up to : Rehak , Paul ( 2006 ) Imperium and Cosmos : Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius . University of Wisconsin Press . pp. 4 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Stambaugh , pp. 23ff. and 244 Jump up ^ Raja , Rubina ( 2012 ) Urban Development and Regional Identity in the Eastern Roman Provinces 50 BC -- AD 250 . Museum Tusculanum Press . pp. 215 -- 218 Jump up ^ Sperber , Daniel ( 1998 ) The City in Roman Palestine . Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Stambaugh , pp. 252 -- 253 ^ Jump up to : Longfellow , Brenda ( 2011 ) Roman Imperialism and Civic Patronage : Form , Meaning and Ideology in Monumental Fountain Complexes . Cambridge University Press . pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 0521194938 Jump up ^ Millar , p. 79 . Jump up ^ Vergil , Aeneid 6.852 Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 185 -- 186 . Jump up ^ Tertullian , De anima 30.3 ( ubique domus , ubique populus , ubique respublica , ubique uita ) , as cited and framed in Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 185 . Jump up ^ Millar , pp. 76ff . Jump up ^ Jones , Mark Wilson ( 2000 ) Principles of Roman Architecture . New Haven : Yale University Press . Jump up ^ Evans , Harry B. ( 1994 ) Water Distribution in Ancient Rome , University of Michigan Press . pp. 9 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 366 . ^ Jump up to : Fagan , Garrett G. ( 2001 ) . `` The Genesis of the Roman Public Bath : Recent Approaches and Future Directions '' ( PDF ) . American Journal of Archaeology. 105 ( 3 ) : 403 . doi : 10.2307 / 507363 . JSTOR 507363 . Jump up ^ Ward , Roy Bowen ( 1992 ) . `` Women in Roman Baths '' . Harvard Theological Review . 85 ( 2 ) : 125 -- 147 . doi : 10.1017 / S0017816000028820 . JSTOR 1509900 . Jump up ^ Clarke , pp. 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Clarke , pp. 11 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Clarke , p. 2 . Jump up ^ Stambaugh , pp. 144 , 147 Jump up ^ Clarke , pp. 12 , 17 , 22ff . Jump up ^ Taylor , Rabun ( 2005 ) . `` Roman Oscilla : An Assessment '' . Res : Anthropology and aesthetics. 48 : 83 -- 105 . doi : 10.1086 / RESv48n1ms20167679 . JSTOR 20167679 . Jump up ^ Gazda , Elaine K. ( 1991 ) `` Introduction '' , in Roman Art in the Private Sphere : Architecture and Décor of the Domus , Villa , and Insula . University of Michigan Press . p. 9 . ISBN 047210196X . ^ Jump up to : Clarke , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Jashemski , Wilhelmina Feemster ; Meyer , Frederick G. ( 2002 ) . The Natural History of Pompeii . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 80054 - 9 . Jump up ^ Horace , Satire 2.6 Jump up ^ Holzberg , Niklas ( 2002 ) The Ancient Fable : An Introduction . Indiana University Press . p. 35 Jump up ^ Bovie , Smith Palmer ( 2002 ) Introduction to Horace . Satires and Epistles . University of Chicago Press . pp. 92 -- 93 . ^ Jump up to : Morris , p. 191 . Jump up ^ Boardman , p. 679 . Jump up ^ Morris , pp. 195 -- 196 . Jump up ^ Morris , p. 191 , reckoning that the surplus of wheat from the province of Egypt alone could meet and exceed the needs of the city of Rome and the provincial armies . Jump up ^ Wiseman , T.P. ( 2012 ) . `` The Census in the First Century B.C '' . Journal of Roman Studies . 59 : 59 . doi : 10.2307 / 299848 . JSTOR 299848 . Jump up ^ Keane , Catherine ( 2006 ) Figuring Genre in Roman Satire . Oxford University Press . p. 36 Jump up ^ Köhne , Eckhart ( 2000 ) `` Bread and Circuses : The Politics of Entertainment , '' in Gladiators and Caesars : The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome . University of California Press . p. 8 . Jump up ^ Juvenal , Satire 10.77 -- 81 . Jump up ^ Stambaugh , pp. 144 , 178 Jump up ^ Hinds , Kathryn ( 2010 ) Everyday Life in the Roman Empire . Marshall Cavendish . p. 90 . Jump up ^ Holleran , p. 136ff . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 299 . Jump up ^ Faas , Patrick ( 1994 , 2005 ) Around the Roman Table : Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome . University of Chicago Press . p. 29 . ^ Jump up to : Boardman , p. 681 . Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder , Natural History 19.83 -- 84 ; Emily Gowers , The Loaded Table : Representation of Food in Roman Literature ( Oxford University Press , 1993 , 2003 ) , p. 17 Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 198 . Jump up ^ Stambaugh , p. 144 . Jump up ^ Holleran , pp. 136 -- 137 . Jump up ^ Holleran , pp. 134 -- 135 . Jump up ^ Stambaugh , p. 146 Jump up ^ Holleran , p. 134 . Jump up ^ Grant , Mark ( 2000 ) Galen on Food and Diet . Routledge . pp. 7 , 11 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 354 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 356 . Jump up ^ Roller , Matthew B. ( 2006 ) Dining Posture in Ancient Rome . Princeton University Press . p. 96ff . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 359 . Jump up ^ Alcock , Joan P. ( 2006 ) Food in the Ancient World . Greenwood Press . p. 184 . Jump up ^ Donahue , John ( 2004 ) The Roman Community at Table during the Principate . University of Michigan Press . p. 9 . Jump up ^ Cathy K. Kaufman , `` Remembrance of Meals Past : Cooking by Apicius ' Book , '' in Food and the Memory : Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooker p. 125ff . Jump up ^ Suetonius , Life of Vitellius 13.2 ; Gowers , The Loaded Table , p. 20 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 201 . Jump up ^ Tacitus , Germania 23 ; Gowers , The Loaded Table , p. 18 . ^ Jump up to : Flandrin , Jean Louis ; Montanari , Massimo ( 1999 ) . Food : A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present . Columbia University Press . pp. 165 -- 167 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 11154 - 6 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 365 -- 366 . Jump up ^ Bowersock , p. 455 Jump up ^ Franklin , James L. Jr. ( 2001 ) Pompeis Difficile Est : Studies in the Political Life of Imperial Pompeii . University of Michigan Press . p. 137 Jump up ^ Laurence , Ray ( 2007 ) Roman Pompeii : Space and Society . Routledge . p. 173 ; recounted by Tacitus , Annals 14.17 . Jump up ^ Mary Beard , J.A. North , and S.R.F. Price , Religions of Rome : A History ( Cambridge University Press , 1998 ) , p. 66 . Jump up ^ Dyson , p. 240 . Jump up ^ Versnel , H.S. ( 1971 ) Triumphus : An Inquiry into the Origin , Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph . Brill . pp. 96 -- 97 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , pp. 235 -- 236 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , pp. 223 -- 224 . ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 303 . ^ Jump up to : Humphrey , pp. 1 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Edmondson , p. 112 . Jump up ^ Dyson , pp. 237 , 239 . Jump up ^ Edmondson , pp. 73 -- 74 , 106 Jump up ^ Auguet , p. 54 Jump up ^ McClelland , John ( 2007 ) Body and Mind : Sport in Europe from the Roman Empire to the Renaissance . Routledge . p. 67 . Jump up ^ Dyson , pp. 238 -- 239 ^ Jump up to : Gagarin , p. 85 Jump up ^ Humphrey , p. 461 Jump up ^ McClelland , John ( 2007 ) Body and Mind : Sport in Europe from the Roman Empire to the Renaissance . Routledge . p. 61 . Jump up ^ Thomas Wiedemann , Emperors and Gladiators ( Routledge , 1992 , 1995 ) , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Humphrey , pp. 459 , 461 , 512 , 630 -- 631 Jump up ^ Dyson , p. 237 Jump up ^ Dyson , p. 238 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 296 ^ Jump up to : Dyson , pp. 238 -- 239 . Jump up ^ Humphrey , p. 238 Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 299 . Jump up ^ Humphrey , pp. 18 -- 21 Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 84 . Jump up ^ Auguet , pp. 131 -- 132 Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 237 . Jump up ^ Auguet , p. 144 Jump up ^ Dickie , Matthew ( 2001 ) Magic and Magicians in the Greco - Roman World . Routledge . pp. 282 -- 287 Jump up ^ Eva D'Ambra , `` Racing with Death : Circus Sarcophagi and the Commemoration of Children in Roman Italy '' in Constructions of Childhood in Ancient Greece and Italy ( American School of Classical Studies at Athens , 2007 ) , pp. 348 -- 349 Jump up ^ Rüpke , p. 289 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 354 ^ Jump up to : Edwards , p. 59 ^ Jump up to : Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 305 . Jump up ^ Cassio Dio 54.2. 2 ; Res Gestae Divi Augusti 22.1 , 3 Jump up ^ Edwards , p. 49 Jump up ^ Edmondson , p. 70 . Jump up ^ Cassius Dio 66.25 ^ Jump up to : Edwards , p. 55 Jump up ^ Edwards , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Edwards , p. 50 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 307 Jump up ^ McClelland , Body and Mind , p. 66 , citing also Marcus Junkelmann . Jump up ^ Suetonius , Nero 12.2 Jump up ^ Edmondson , p. 73 . Jump up ^ Tertullian , De spectaculis 12 Jump up ^ Edwards , pp. 59 -- 60 Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 224 . Jump up ^ McDonald , Marianne and Walton , J. Michael ( 2007 ) Introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre . Cambridge University Press . p. 8 . Jump up ^ Kyle , Donald G. ( 1998 ) Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome . Routledge . p. 81 Jump up ^ Edwards , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Pliny , Panegyric 33.1 Jump up ^ Edwards , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Edwards , pp. 66 -- 67 , 72 . Jump up ^ Edwards , p. 212 . Jump up ^ Bowersock , G.W. ( 1995 ) Martyrdom and Rome . Cambridge University Press . pp. 25 -- 26 Jump up ^ Cavallo , p. 79 Jump up ^ Huber - Rebenich , Gerlinde ( 1999 ) `` Hagiographic Fiction as Entertainment , '' in Latin Fiction : The Latin Novel in Context . Routlege . pp. 158 -- 178 Jump up ^ Llewelyn , S.R. and Nobbs , A.M. ( 2002 ) `` The Earliest Dated Reference to Sunday in the Papyri , '' in New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity . Wm . B. Eerdmans . p. 109 Jump up ^ Hildebrandt , Henrik ( 2006 ) `` Early Christianity in Roman Pannonia -- Fact or Fiction ? '' in Studia Patristica : Papers Presented at the Fourteenth International Conference on Patristic Studies Held in Oxford 2003 . Peeters . pp. 59 -- 64 Jump up ^ Ando , p. 382 . Jump up ^ Oxford Latin Dictionary ( Oxford : Clarendon Press , 1982 , 1985 reprint ) , pp. 1048 -- 1049 Jump up ^ Habinek ( 2005 ) , pp. 5 , 143 . Jump up ^ Rawson ( 2003 ) , p. 128 . Jump up ^ McDaniel , Walton Brooks ( 1906 ) . `` Some Passages concerning Ball - Games '' . Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association . 37 : 121 . doi : 10.2307 / 282704 . JSTOR 282704 . Jump up ^ Rawson ( 2003 ) , pp. 129 -- 130 . Jump up ^ Eyben , Emiel ( 1977 ) Restless Youth in Ancient Rome . Routledge , pp. 79 -- 82 , 110 . Jump up ^ Dunbabin , Katherine M.D. ( 1999 ) Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World . Cambridge University Press . p. 133 . ISBN 0521002303 . Jump up ^ Hanson , Ann Ellis ( 1991 ) `` The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome , '' in Les écoles médicales à Rome . Université de Nantes . pp. 260 , 264 , particularly citing the Gynecology of Soranus . ^ Jump up to : Austin , R.G. ( 2009 ) . `` Roman Board Games . II '' . Greece and Rome . 4 ( 11 ) : 76 . doi : 10.1017 / S0017383500003119 . JSTOR 640979 . Jump up ^ Austin , R.G. ( 1934 ) . `` Roman Board Games . I '' . Greece and Rome . 4 ( 10 ) : 24 -- 34 . JSTOR 641231 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 230 . ^ Jump up to : Coon , Lynda L. ( 1997 ) Sacred Fictions : Holy Women and Hagiography in Late Antiquity . University of Pennsylvania Press . pp. 57 -- 58 . ^ Jump up to : Vout , p. 216 ^ Jump up to : Bieber , Margarete ( 1959 ) . `` Roman Men in Greek Himation ( Romani Palliati ) a Contribution to the History of Copying '' . Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society . 103 ( 3 ) : 374 -- 417 . JSTOR 985474 . Jump up ^ Vout , p. 218 . Jump up ^ Vout , pp. 204 -- 220 , especially pp. 206 , 211 Jump up ^ Métraux , Guy P.R. ( 2008 ) `` Prudery and Chic in Late Antique Clothing , '' in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture . University of Toronto Press . p. 286 . ^ Jump up to : Gagarin , p. 231 . Jump up ^ Quintilian , Institutio Oratoria 11.3. 137 -- 149 Jump up ^ Métraux , Guy P.R. ( 2008 ) `` Prudery and Chic in Late Antique Clothing , '' in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture . University of Toronto Press . pp. 282 -- 283 . Jump up ^ Cleland , Liza ( 2007 ) Greek and Roman Dress from A to Z . Routledge . p. 194 . Jump up ^ Modern copy of a 2nd - century original , from the Louvre . Jump up ^ Tertullian , De Pallio 5.2 Jump up ^ Vout , p. 217 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 232 . Jump up ^ D'Amato , Raffaele ( 2005 ) Roman Military Clothing ( 3 ) AD 400 to 640 . Osprey . pp. 7 -- 9 . ISBN 184176843X . Jump up ^ Wickham , Chris ( 2009 ) The Inheritance of Rome . Penguin Books . p. 106 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 670 - 02098 - 0 Jump up ^ Kousser , p. 1 Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 75 -- 76 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 82 -- 83 . Jump up ^ Gazda , Elaine K. ( 1991 ) `` Introduction '' , in Roman Art in the Private Sphere : Architecture and Décor of the Domus , Villa , and Insula . University of Michigan Press . pp. 1 -- 3 . ISBN 047210196X . Jump up ^ Paul Zanker , Pompeii : Public and Private Life , translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider ( Harvard University Press , 1998 , originally published 1995 in German ) , p. 189 . Jump up ^ Kousser , pp. 4 -- 5 , 8 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , pp. 312 -- 313 . Jump up ^ Toynbee , J.M.C. ( December 1971 ) . `` Roman Art '' . The Classical Review . 21 ( 3 ) : 439 -- 442 . doi : 10.1017 / S0009840X00221331 . JSTOR 708631 . Jump up ^ Zanker , Paul ( 1988 ) The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus . University of Michigan Press . p. 5ff . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 451 . Jump up ^ Fejfer , Jane ( 2008 ) Roman Portraits in Context . Walter de Gruyter . p. 10 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 453 . Jump up ^ Mattusch , Carol C. ( 2005 ) The Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum : Life and Afterlife of a Sculpture Collection . Getty Publications . p. 322 . Jump up ^ Kousser , p. 13 Jump up ^ Strong , Donald ( 1976 , 1988 ) Roman Art . Yale University Press . 2nd ed. , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , pp. 274 -- 275 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Kleiner , Fred S. ( 2007 ) A History of Roman Art . Wadsworth . p. 272 . Jump up ^ Newby , Zahra ( 2011 ) `` Myth and Death : Roman Mythological Sarcophagi , '' in A Companion to Greek Mythology . Blackwell . p. 301 . Jump up ^ Elsner , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Elsner , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Elsner , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Elsner , pp. 1 , 9 . Jump up ^ Hachlili , Rachel ( 1998 ) Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora . Brill . pp. 96ff . Jump up ^ Schreckenberg , Heinz and Schubert , Kurt ( 1991 ) Jewish Historiography and Iconography in Early and Medieval Christianity . Fortress Press . pp. 171ff . ^ Jump up to : Gagarin , p. 463 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 459 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , pp. 459 -- 460 . Jump up ^ Dunbabin , Katherine M.D. ( 1999 ) Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World . Cambridge University Press . p. 254ff . ISBN 0521002303 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 202 . Jump up ^ Butcher , Kevin ( 2003 ) Roman Syria and the Near East . Getty Publications . p. 201ff . ISBN 0892367156 . Jump up ^ Bowman , p. 421 . Jump up ^ Fantham , R. Elaine ( 1989 ) . `` Mime : The Missing Link in Roman Literary History '' . The Classical World . 82 ( 3 ) : 153 . doi : 10.2307 / 4350348 . JSTOR 4350348 . Jump up ^ Slater , William J. ( 2002 ) . `` Mime Problems : Cicero Ad fam. 7.1 and Martial 9.38 '' . Phoenix . 56 ( 3 / 4 ) : 315 . doi : 10.2307 / 1192603 . JSTOR 1192603 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 1999 ) , p. 257 . Jump up ^ Gian Biagio Conte ( 1994 ) Latin Literature : A History . Johns Hopkins University Press . p. 128 . Jump up ^ Franklin , James L. ( 1987 ) . `` Pantomimists at Pompeii : Actius Anicetus and His Troupe '' . The American Journal of Philology. 108 : 95 . doi : 10.2307 / 294916 . JSTOR 294916 . Jump up ^ Starks , John H. Jr. ( 2008 ) `` Pantomime Actresses in Latin Inscriptions , '' in New Directions in Ancient Pantomime . Oxford University Press . p. 95 ; p. 14ff . ^ Jump up to : Naerebout , p. 146 . ^ Jump up to : Ginsberg ‐ Klar , Maria E. ( 2010 ) . `` The archaeology of musical instruments in Germany during the Roman period '' . World Archaeology. 12 ( 3 ) : 313 . doi : 10.1080 / 00438243.1981. 9979806 . JSTOR 124243 . Jump up ^ Habinek ( 2005 ) , p. 90ff . Jump up ^ Naerebout , pp. 146ff . Jump up ^ Naerebout , pp. 154 , 157 . Jump up ^ Naerebout , pp. 156 -- 157 . Jump up ^ Richlin , Amy ( 1993 ) . `` Not before Homosexuality : The Materiality of the cinaedus and the Roman Law against Love between Men '' . Journal of the History of Sexuality. 3 ( 4 ) : 539 -- 540 . JSTOR 3704392 . Jump up ^ Csapo , Eric and Slater , William J. ( 1994 ) The Context of Ancient Drama . University of Michigan Press . p. 377 . Jump up ^ MacMullen , Ramsay ( 1984 ) Christianizing the Roman Empire : ( A.D. 100 -- 400 ) . Yale University Press . pp. 74 -- 75 , 84 . Jump up ^ As quoted by Alcuin , Epistula 175 ( Nescit homo , qui histriones et mimos et saltatores introduct in domum suam , quam magna eos immundorum sequitur turba spiritum ) Jump up ^ Hen , Yitzhak ( 1995 ) Culture and Religion in Merovingian Gaul , AD 481 -- 751 . Brill . p. 230 . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 5 Jump up ^ Johnson ( 2009 ) , pp. 3 -- 4 ^ Jump up to : Kraus , T.J. ( 2000 ) . `` ( Il ) literacy in Non-Literary Papyri from Graeco - Roman Egypt : Further Aspects of the Educational Ideal in Ancient Literary Sources and Modern Times '' . Mnemosyme. 53 ( 3 ) : 322 -- 342 ( 325 -- 327 ) . JSTOR 4433101 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 89 , 97 -- 98 . Jump up ^ Mattern , Susan P. ( 1999 ) Rome and the Enemy : Imperial Strategy in the Principate . University of California Press . p. 197 ^ Jump up to : Morgan , Teresa ( 1998 ) Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds . Cambridge University Press . pp. 1 -- 2 Jump up ^ Johnson ( 2009 ) , pp. 46ff . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 97 . Jump up ^ Clifford Ando poses the question as `` what good would ' posted edicts ' do in a world of low literacy ? ' in Ando , p. 101 ( see also p. 87 on `` the government 's obsessive documentation '' ) . Jump up ^ Ando , pp. 86 -- 87 . Jump up ^ Ando , p. 101 Jump up ^ Ando , pp. 152 , 210 . Jump up ^ Beard , Mary ( 1991 ) `` Ancient Literacy and the Written Word in Roman Religion , '' in Literacy in the Roman World . University of Michigan Press . p. 59ff Jump up ^ Dickie , Matthew ( 2001 ) Magic and Magicians in the Greco - Roman World . Routledge . pp. pp. 94 -- 95 , 181 -- 182 , and 196 Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 555 Jump up ^ Harris , pp. 29 , 218 -- 219 . Jump up ^ Phang , Sara Elise ( 2011 ) `` Military Documents , Languages , and Literacy , '' in A Companion to the Roman Army . Blackwell . pp. 286 -- 301 . Jump up ^ Mattern , Rome and the Enemy , p. 197 , citing Harris , pp. 253 -- 255 . Jump up ^ Harris , pp. 9 , 48 , 215 , 248 , 258 -- 269 Jump up ^ Johnson ( 2009 ) , pp. 47 , 54 , 290ff . Jump up ^ Mattern , Rome and the Enemy , p. 197 Jump up ^ Gagarin , pp. 19 -- 20 . ^ Jump up to : Johnson ( 2010 ) , pp. 17 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Martial , Epigrams 1.2 and 14.184 -- 92 , as cited by Johnson ( 2010 ) , p. 17 Jump up ^ Cavallo , pp. 83 -- 84 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , pp. 84 -- 85 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , p. 84 . ^ Jump up to : Marshall , p. 253 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , p. 71 Jump up ^ Marshall , p. 253 , citing on the book trade in the provinces Pliny the Younger , Epistulae 9.11. 2 ; Martial , Epigrams 7.88 ; Horace , Carmina 2.20. 13f. and Ars Poetica 345 ; Ovid , Tristia 4.9. 21 and 4.10. 128 ; Pliny the Elder , Natural History 35.2. 11 ; Sidonius , Epistulae 9.7. 1 . Jump up ^ Strabo 13.1. 54 , 50.13. 419 ; Martial , Epigrams 2.8 ; Lucian , Adversus Indoctum 1 Jump up ^ According to Seneca , Epistulae 27.6 f . Jump up ^ Marshall , p. 254 . Jump up ^ Marshall , pp. 252 -- 264 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , pp. 67 -- 68 . Jump up ^ Marshall , pp. 257 , 260 . Jump up ^ Pliny , Epistulae 1.8. 2 ; CIL 5.5262 ( = ILS 2927 ) Jump up ^ Marshall , p. 255 . Jump up ^ Marshall , 261 -- 262 Jump up ^ Cavallo , p. 70 . Jump up ^ Tacitus , Agricola 2.1 and Annales 4.35 and 14.50 ; Pliny the Younger , Epistulae 7.19. 6 ; Suetonius , Augustus 31 , Tiberius 61.3 , and Caligula 16 Jump up ^ Suetonius , Domitian 10 ; Quintilian , Institutio Oratoria 9.2. 65 Jump up ^ Marshall , p. 263 . Jump up ^ Johnson ( 2009 ) , pp. 114ff. , pp. 186ff . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 372 . Jump up ^ Johnson ( 2010 ) p. 14 . Jump up ^ Johnson ( 2009 ) , pp. 320ff . Jump up ^ Cavallo , pp. 68 -- 69 , 78 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , pp. 81 -- 82 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 95 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 84 -- 85 . Jump up ^ Laes , p. 108 ^ Jump up to : Peachin , p. 89 . Jump up ^ Laes , pp. 113 -- 116 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 90 , 92 Jump up ^ Laes , pp. 116 -- 121 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 87 -- 89 . Jump up ^ Laes , p. 122 . ^ Jump up to : Peachin , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Laes , pp. 107 -- 108 , 132 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 93 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 88 , 106 Jump up ^ Laes , p. 109 . Jump up ^ Laes , p. 132 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , pp. 439 , 442 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 102 -- 103 , 105 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 104 -- 105 . Jump up ^ Peachin , pp. 103 , 106 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 107 . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Saller , R.P. ( 2012 ) . `` Promotion and Patronage in Equestrian Careers '' . Journal of Roman Studies . 70 : 44 . doi : 10.2307 / 299555 . JSTOR 299555 . Jump up ^ Armstron , David ( 2010 ) `` The Biographical and Social Foundations of Horace 's Poetic Voice , '' in A Companion to Horace . Blackwell . p. 11 Jump up ^ Lyne , R.O.A.M. ( 1995 ) Horace : Beyond the Public Poetry . Yale University Press . pp. 2 -- 3 Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 94 . Jump up ^ Potter ( 2009 ) , p. 598 . Jump up ^ Laes , pp. 109 -- 110 . Jump up ^ Peachin , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Laes , p. 110 ^ Jump up to : Gagarin , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 18 . Jump up ^ The wide - ranging 21st - century scholarship on the Second Sophistic includes Being Greek under Rome : Cultural Identity , the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire , edited by Simon Goldhill ( Cambridge University Press , 2001 ) ; Paideia : The World of the Second Sophistic , edited by Barbara E. Borg ( De Gruyter , 2004 ) ; and Tim Whitmarsh , The Second Sophistic ( Oxford University Press , 2005 ) . ^ Jump up to : Habinek , Thomas N. ( 1998 ) The Politics of Latin Literature : Writing , Identity , and Empire in Ancient Rome . Princeton University Press . pp. 122 -- 123 Jump up ^ Rawson ( 2003 ) , p. 80 . Jump up ^ James , Sharon L. ( 2003 ) Learned Girls and Male Persuasion : Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy . University of California Press . pp. 21 -- 25 Jump up ^ Johnson , W.R. `` Propertius , '' pp. 42 -- 43 , and Sharon L. James , `` Elegy and New Comedy , '' p. 262 , both in A Companion to Roman Love Elegy . Blackwell , 2012 . Jump up ^ Gagarin , p. 20 . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , pp. 87 -- 89 . Jump up ^ Cavallo , p. 86 . Jump up ^ Roberts , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Aetas Ovidiana ; Charles McNelis , `` Ovidian Strategies in Early Imperial Literature , '' in A Companion to Ovid ( Blackwell , 2007 ) , p. 397 . Jump up ^ Roberts , p. 8 . Jump up ^ van Dam , Harm - Jan ( 2008 ) `` Wandering Woods Again : From Poliziano to Grotius , '' in The Poetry of Statius . Brill . p. 45ff . Jump up ^ Jonathan Master , `` The Histories , '' in A Companion to Tacitus ( Blackwell , 2012 ) , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Sage , Michael M. ( 1990 ) `` Tacitus ' Historical Works : A Survey and Appraisal , '' Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II. 33.2 , p. 853 . Jump up ^ Albrecht , p. 1294 . Jump up ^ Albrecht , p. 1443 . ^ Jump up to : Roberts , p. 70 . Jump up ^ Albrecht , p. 1359ff . Jump up ^ `` Not since Vergil had there been a Roman poet so effective at establishing a master narrative for his people '' : Marc Mastrangelo , The Roman Self in Late Antiquity : Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul ( Johns Hopkins University Press , 2008 ) , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Bowersock , p. 694 ^ Jump up to : Rüpke , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Apuleius , Florides 1.1 Jump up ^ Rüpke , p. 279 . Jump up ^ Matthew Bunson , A Dictionary of the Roman Empire ( Oxford University Press , 1995 ) , p. 246 . Jump up ^ The caesareum at Najaran was possibly known later as the `` Kaaba of Najran '' : جواد علي , المفصل في تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام ( Jawad Ali , Al - Mufassal fi Tarikh Al - ' Arab Qabl Al - Islam ; `` Commentary on the History of the Arabs Before Islam '' ) , Baghdad , 1955 -- 1983 ; P. Harland , `` Imperial Cults within Local Cultural Life : Associations in Roman Asia '' , originally published in Ancient History Bulletin / Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 17 ( 2003 ) 91 -- 103 . Jump up ^ Isaac , Benjamin H. ( 2004 ) The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity . Princeton University Press . p. 449 Jump up ^ Frend , W.H.C. ( 1967 ) Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church : A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus . Doubleday . p. 106 Jump up ^ Huskinson , Janet ( 2000 ) Experiencing Rome : Culture , Identity and Power in the Roman Empire . Routledge . p. 261 . See , for instance , the altar dedicated by a Roman citizen and depicting a sacrifice conducted in the Roman manner for the Germanic goddess Vagdavercustis in the 2nd century AD . Jump up ^ Momigliano , Arnaldo ( 1986 ) . `` The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State '' . Classical Philology. 81 ( 4 ) : 285 -- 297 . doi : 10.1086 / 367003 . JSTOR 269977 . Jump up ^ Fishwick , Duncan ( 1991 ) . The Imperial Cult in the Latin West : Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire , Vol. 1 , Brill . pp. 97 -- 149 . ISBN 90 - 04 - 07179 - 2 . Jump up ^ Ben - Sasson , H.H. ( 1976 ) A History of the Jewish People , Harvard University Press . pp. 254 -- 256 . ISBN 0 - 674 - 39731 - 2 Jump up ^ Bowman , p. 616 Jump up ^ Frend , W.H.C. ( 2006 ) `` Persecutions : Genesis and Legacy , '' Cambridge History of Christianity : Origins to Constantine . Cambridge University Press . Vol. 1 , p. 510 . ISBN 0521812399 . Jump up ^ Barnes , T.D. ( 2012 ) . `` Legislation against the Christians '' . Journal of Roman Studies . 58 : 32 . doi : 10.2307 / 299693 . JSTOR 299693 . Jump up ^ Sainte - Croix , G.E.M de ( 1963 ) . `` Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted ? '' . Past & Present. 26 : 6 -- 38 . Jump up ^ Musurillo , Herbert ( 1972 ) The Acts of the Christian Martyrs . Oxford : Clarendon Press . pp. lviii -- lxii Jump up ^ Sherwin - White , A.N. ( 1952 ) . `` The Early Persecutions and Roman Law Again '' . The Journal of Theological Studies ( 2 ) : 199 . doi : 10.1093 / jts / III. 2.199 . JSTOR 23952852 . Jump up ^ Tacitus , Annals XV. 44 Jump up ^ Eusebius of Caesarea ( 425 ) . Church History . Jump up ^ Smallwood , E.M. ( 1956 ) . `` ' Domitian 's attitude towards the Jews and Judaism '' . Classical Philology. 51 : 1 -- 13 . doi : 10.1086 / 363978 . Jump up ^ Pliny , Epistle to Trajan on the Christians Jump up ^ Frend , W.H.C. ( 1959 ) . `` The Failure of the Persecutions in the Roman Empire '' . Past and Present. 16 : 10 . doi : 10.1093 / past / 16.1. 10 . JSTOR 650151 . Jump up ^ Bowersock , p. 625 Jump up ^ Rüpke , pp. 406 -- 426 Jump up ^ On vocabulary , see Schilling , Robert ( 1992 ) `` The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion '' , Roman and European Mythologies . University of Chicago Press . p. 110 . Jump up ^ Burgan , Michael ( 2009 ) . Empire of Ancient Rome . Infobase Publishing . pp. 113 -- 114 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4381 - 2659 - 3 . Jump up ^ Noble , Thomas F.X. ; Strauss , Barry ; Osheim , Duane J. ; Neuschel , Kristen B. ; Accampo , Elinor Ann ( 2010 ) . Western Civilization : Beyond Boundaries , 1300 -- 1815 . Cengage Learning . p. 352 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4240 - 6959 - 0 . Jump up ^ Goffman , Daniel ( 2002 ) . The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe . Cambridge University Press . p. 107 . Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica , History of Europe , The Romans , 2008 , O. Ed . Jump up ^ Collier , Martin ( 2003 ) . Italian Unification , 1820 -- 71 . Heinemann . p. 22 . ISBN 0 - 435 - 32754 - 2 . Jump up ^ Briggs , Ward ( 2010 ) `` United States , '' in A Companion to the Classical Tradition . Blackwell . p. 279ff . ^ Jump up to : Meinig , D.W. ( 1986 ) The Shaping of America : A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History . Atlantic America , 1492 -- 1800 . Yale University Press . Vol. 1 . pp. 432 -- 435 . ISBN 0300038828 . ^ Jump up to : Vale , Lawrence J. ( 1992 ) Architecture , Power , and National Identity . Yale University Press . pp. 11 , 66 -- 67 Jump up ^ Mallgrave , Harry Francis ( 2005 ) Modern Architectural Theory : A Historical Survey , 1673 -- 1968 . Cambridge University Press . pp. 144 -- 145 ^ Jump up to : Kornwall , James D. ( 2011 ) Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America . Johns Hopkins University Press , vol. 3 . pp. 1246 , 1405 -- 1408 . ISBN 0801859867 . Jump up ^ Wood , pp. 73 -- 74 Jump up ^ Onuf , Peter S. and Cole , Nicholas P. introduction to Thomas Jefferson , the Classical World , and Early America . University of Virginia Press . p. 5 Jump up ^ Dietler , Michael ( 2010 ) . Archaeologies of Colonialism : Consumption , Entanglement , and Violence in Ancient Mediterranean France . University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 26551 - 6 . Jump up ^ Briggs , W. ( 2010 ) `` United States , '' in A Companion to the Classical Tradition . Blackwell . pp. 282 -- 286 Jump up ^ Wood , pp. 60 , 66 , 73 -- 74 , 239 . Jump up ^ Gelernter , Mark ( 1999 ) A History of American Architecture : Buildings in Their Cultural and Technological Context . University Press of New England . p. 13 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Richard Guy ( 2011 ) `` Thomas Jefferson 's Classical Architecture : An American Agenda , '' in Thomas Jefferson , the Classical World , and Early America . University of Virginia Press . p. 122 Jump up ^ Spahn , Hannah ( 2011 ) Thomas Jefferson , Time , and History . University of Virginia Press . pp. 144 -- 145 , 163 -- 167 Jump up ^ Wood , pp. 228 -- 330 Jump up ^ Lears , Jackson ( 2009 ) Rebirth of a Nation : The Making of Modern America , 1877 -- 1920 . HarperCollins . pp. 277 -- 278 Jump up ^ Gutheim , Frederick and Lee , Antoinette J. ( 2006 ) Worthy of the Nation : Washington , DC , from L'Enfant to the National Capital Planning Committee . Johns Hopkins University Press , 2nd ed . pp. 137 , 152 . Cited sources Abbott , Frank Frost ( 1901 ) . A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions . Elibron Classics . ISBN 0 - 543 - 92749 - 0 . Adams , J.N. ( 2003 ) . `` ' Romanitas ' and the Latin Language '' . The Classical Quarterly . 53 : 184 . doi : 10.1093 / cq / 53.1. 184 . JSTOR 3556490 . Albrecht , Michael von ( 1997 ) . A History of Roman Literature : From Livius Andronicus to Boethius : with Special Regard to Its Influence on World Literature. 2 . BRILL . ISBN 90 - 04 - 10709 - 6 . Ando , Clifford ( 2000 ) . Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire . University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 22067 - 6 . Auguet , Roland ( 2012 ) . Cruelty and Civilization : The Roman Games . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 1 - 135 - 09343 - 3 . Boardman , John , ed. ( 2000 ) . The Cambridge Ancient History : The High Empire , A.D. 70 -- 192 . Vol. 11 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0521263352 . Bohec , Yann Le ( 2000 ) . The Imperial Roman Army . Psychology Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 22295 - 2 . Bowersock , Glen Warren ; Brown , Peter ; Grabar , Oleg ( 1999 ) . Late Antiquity : A Guide to the Postclassical World . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 51173 - 6 . Bowman , Alan ; Garnsey , Peter ; Cameron , Averil , eds. ( 2005 ) . The Cambridge Ancient History : Volume 12 , The Crisis of Empire , AD 193 -- 337 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 30199 - 2 . Bradley , Keith ( 1994 ) . Slavery and Society at Rome . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 37887 - 1 . Cavallo , Guglielmo ; Chartier , Roger ( 1999 ) . A History of Reading in the West . Polity Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7456 - 1936 - 1 . Clarke , John R. ( 1991 ) . The Houses of Roman Italy , 100 B.C. - A.D. 250 : Ritual , Space , and Decoration . University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 08429 - 2 . Dyson , Stephen L. ( 2010 ) . Rome : A Living Portrait of an Ancient City . JHU Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0101 - 0 . Edmondson , J.C. ( 1996 ) . `` Dynamic Arenas : Gladiatorial Presentations in the City of Rome and the Construction of Roman Society during the Early Empire '' . Roman Theater and Society . University of Michigan Press . Edwards , Catharine ( 2007 ) . Death in Ancient Rome . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 11208 - 4 . Elsner , Jaś ; Huskinson , Janet ( 2011 ) . Life , Death and Representation : Some New Work on Roman Sarcophagi . Walter de Gruyter . ISBN 978 - 3 - 11 - 020213 - 7 . Frier , Bruce W. ; McGinn , Thomas A. ( 2004 ) . A Casebook on Roman Family Law . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 516185 - 4 . Gagarin , Michael , ed. ( 2010 ) . The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 517072 - 6 . Goldsworthy , Adrian ( 2003 ) . The Complete Roman Army . London : Thames & Hudson . ISBN 0 - 500 - 05124 - 0 . Habinek , Thomas N. ( 2005 ) . The World of Roman Song : From Ritualized Speech to Social Order . JHU Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8105 - 3 . Harris , W.V. ( 1989 ) . Ancient Literacy . Harvard University Press . ISBN 0674033817 . Holleran , Claire ( 2012 ) . Shopping in Ancient Rome : The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate . OUP Oxford . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 969821 - 9 . Humphrey , John H. ( 1986 ) . Roman Circuses : Arenas for Chariot Racing . University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 04921 - 5 . Johnson , William A ; Parker , Holt N ( 2009 ) . Ancient Literacies : The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 971286 - 1 . Johnson , William A. ( 2010 ) . Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire : A Study of Elite Communities . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 972105 - 4 . Jones , A.H.M. ( 1960 ) . `` The Cloth Industry Under the Roman Empire '' . The Economic History Review . 13 ( 2 ) : 183 -- 192 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1468 - 0289.1960. tb02114. x . Kelly , Christopher ( 2007 ) . The Roman Empire : A Very Short Introduction . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0192803913 . Kousser , Rachel Meredith ( 2008 ) . Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture : The Allure of the Classical . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 87782 - 4 . Laes , Christian ( 2011 ) . Children in the Roman Empire : Outsiders Within . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 89746 - 4 . Marshall , Anthony J. ( 1976 ) . `` Library Resources and Creative Writing at Rome '' . Phoenix . 30 ( 3 ) : 252 -- 264 . doi : 10.2307 / 1087296 . JSTOR 1087296 . Millar , Fergus ( 2012 ) . `` Empire and City , Augustus to Julian : Obligations , Excuses and Status '' . Journal of Roman Studies . 73 : 76 . doi : 10.2307 / 300073 . JSTOR 300073 . Morris , Ian ; Scheidel , Walter ( 2009 ) . The Dynamics of Ancient Empires : State Power from Assyria to Byzantium . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 970761 - 4 . Naerebout , Frederick G. ( 2009 ) . `` Dance in the Roman Empire and Its Discontents '' . Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire . Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire ( Heidelberg , July 5 -- 7 , 2007 ) , Brill . Nicolet , Claude ( 1991 ) . Space , Geography , and Politics in the Early Roman Empire . University of Michigan Press . ISBN 0 - 472 - 10096 - 3 . Peachin , Michael , ed. ( 2011 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 518800 - 4 . Potter , David Stone ; Mattingly , D.J. ( 1999 ) . Life , Death , and Entertainment in the Roman Empire . University of Michigan Press . ISBN 0 - 472 - 08568 - 9 . Potter , David S. , ed. ( 2009 ) . A Companion to the Roman Empire . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 9918 - 6 . Rochette , Bruno ( 2012 ) . `` Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire '' . A Companion to the Latin Language . doi : 10.1002 / 9781444343397. ch30 . ISBN 9781444343397 . Rawson , Beryl ( 1987 ) . The Family in Ancient Rome : New Perspectives . Cornell University Press . ISBN 0 - 8014 - 9460 - 5 . Rawson , Beryl ( 2003 ) . Children and Childhood in Roman Italy . OUP Oxford . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 151423 - 4 . Roberts , Michael John ( 1989 ) . The jeweled style : poetry and poetics in late antiquity . Cornell University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8014 - 2265 - 2 . Rüpke , Jörg ( 2007 ) . A Companion to Roman Religion . Wiley . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 76645 - 3 . Stambaugh , John E. ( 1988 ) . The Ancient Roman City . JHU Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 3692 - 3 . Vout , Caroline ( 2009 ) . `` The Myth of the Toga : Understanding the History of Roman Dress '' . Greece and Rome . 43 ( 2 ) : 204 -- 220 . doi : 10.1093 / gr / 43.2. 204 . JSTOR 643096 . Winterling , Aloys ( 2009 ) . Politics and Society in Imperial Rome . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 7969 - 0 . Wiseman , T.P. ( 1970 ) . `` The Definition of Eques Romanus '' . Historia. 19 ( 1 ) : 67 -- 83 . Wood , Gordon S. ( 2011 ) . The Idea of America : Reflections on the Birth of the United States . Penguin Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 1 - 101 - 51514 - 3 . External links Library resources about Roman Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Find more aboutRoman Empireat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Learning resources from Wikiversity Romans for Children , a BBC website on ancient Rome for children at primary - school level . Interactive map of the Roman Empire at Vici.org Historical Atlas showing the expansion of the Roman Empire . 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4 | document: Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 film ) - wikipedia Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 film ) Jump to : navigation , search Beauty and the Beast Theatrical release poster by John Alvin Directed by Gary Trousdale Kirk Wise Produced by Don Hahn Screenplay by Linda Woolverton Story by Roger Allers Brenda Chapman Chris Sanders Burny Mattinson Kevin Harkey Brian Pimental Bruce Woodside Joe Ranft Tom Ellery Kelly Asbury Robert Lence Based on Beauty and the Beast by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont Starring Paige O'Hara Robby Benson Richard White Jerry Orbach David Ogden Stiers Angela Lansbury Rex Everhart Jesse Corti Narrated by David Ogden Stiers ( prologue ) Music by Alan Menken Edited by John Carnochan Production companies Walt Disney Pictures Walt Disney Feature Animation Silver Screen Partners IV Distributed by Buena Vista Pictures Release date September 29 , 1991 ( 1991 - 09 - 29 ) ( New York Film Festival ) November 22 , 1991 ( 1991 - 11 - 22 ) ( United States ) Running time 84 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $25 million Box office $425 million Beauty and the Beast is a 1991 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . The 30th Disney animated feature film and the third released during the Disney Renaissance period , it is based on the French fairy tale of the same name by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont ( who was also credited in the English version as well as in the French version ) , and ideas from the 1946 French film of the same name directed by Jean Cocteau . Beauty and the Beast focuses on the relationship between the Beast ( voice of Robby Benson ) , a prince who is magically transformed into a monster and his servants into household objects as punishment for his arrogance , and Belle ( voice of Paige O'Hara ) , a young woman whom he imprisons in his castle . To become a prince again , Beast must learn to love Belle and earn her love in return to avoid remaining a monster forever . The film also features the voices of Richard White , Jerry Orbach , David Ogden Stiers , and Angela Lansbury . Walt Disney first attempted unsuccessfully to adapt Beauty and the Beast into an animated film during the 1930s and 1950s . Following the success of The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Walt Disney Pictures decided to adapt the fairy tale , which Richard Purdum originally conceived as a non-musical . Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg eventually dismissed Purdum 's idea and ordered that the film be a musical similar to The Little Mermaid instead . The film was directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise , with a screenplay by Linda Woolverton story first credited to Roger Allers . Lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken wrote the film 's songs . Ashman , who additionally served as the film 's executive producer , died of AIDS - related complications eight months before the film 's release , and the film is thus dedicated to his memory . Beauty and the Beast premiered as an unfinished film at the New York Film Festival on September 29 , 1991 , followed by its theatrical release as a completed film at the El Capitan Theatre on November 13 . The film was a box office success , grossing $425 million worldwide on a $25 million budget . Beauty and the Beast received positive reviews from critics ; it won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy and became the first animated film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . It won the Academy Award for Best Original Score and Best Original Song for its title song . In April 1994 , Beauty and the Beast became Disney 's first animated film to be adapted into a Broadway musical . The success of the film spawned two direct - to - video follow - ups : Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) and Beauty and the Beast : Belle 's Magical World ( 1998 ) , both of which take place in the timeline of the original . This was followed by a spin - off television series , Sing Me a Story with Belle . An IMAX version was released in 2002 that included `` Human Again '' , a new five - minute musical sequence . After the success of the 3D re-release of The Lion King , the film was reissued in 3D in 2012 . In 2002 , the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . A live - action remake of the film directed by Bill Condon was released on March 17 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Early versions 3.2 Script rewrite and musicalization 3.3 Casting and recording 3.4 Animation 3.5 Music 4 Release 4.1 Re-issues 4.2 Home media 5 Reception and legacy 5.1 Critical response 5.2 Box office 5.3 Accolades 6 Adaptations 6.1 Broadway musical 6.2 Live - action film 7 Merchandise 7.1 Video games 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Plot ( edit ) One winter 's night , an enchantress disguised as a beggar offers a cold - hearted prince a rose in exchange for shelter . When he refuses , she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects . She bestows the Beast with a magic mirror before hexing the rose and warning him that , unless he learns to love another and earns their love in return by the time the last petal falls , he and his servants will lose their humanity forever . Ten years later , a beautiful girl named Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston , an arrogant hunter . Lost in the forest while traveling to a fair to present his latest invention , Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle . After Maurice befriends the castle 's servants , however , the Beast imprisons him . Belle ventures out in search for him and finds him locked in the castle 's dungeon . The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place . Befriending the castle 's servants , Belle is treated to a spectacular dinner ( `` Be Our Guest '' ) . When she wanders into the forbidden West Wing ( where the rose is kept ) , the Beast flies into a rage , causing Belle to flee the castle and into the woods . She is cornered by wolves , but the Beast rescues Belle and gets injured in the process . He begins to develop feelings for her ( `` Something There '' ) while she nurses his wounds and he delights her by showing his extensive library . Returning to the village , Maurice tells the townsfolk of Belle 's predicament , but Gaston convinces the townsfolk to send Maurice to an insane asylum if Belle refuses to marry Gaston . After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast ( `` Beauty and the Beast '' ) , Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror . The Beast releases her to save Maurice , giving her the mirror to remember him with . Back at her village , Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the beast in the mirror to the townsfolk . Realizing that Belle loves the Beast , Gaston has her thrown into her basement with her father and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to kill the Beast ( `` The Mob Song '' ) . With Chip 's aid , Maurice and Belle escape and Belle rushes back to the castle . During the battle , the servants fend off the villagers . Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower , who is too depressed to fight back , but regains his will upon seeing Belle return . He spares Gaston 's life before reuniting with Belle . However , Gaston stabs the Beast , but he loses his footing and falls to his death . The Beast dies as the last petal falls . When Belle tearfully professes her love to him , the curse is broken , repairing the castle and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms . The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom , where they dance happily . Cast ( edit ) Main article : List of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast characters Paige O'Hara as Belle -- A bibliophilic young woman who seeks adventure , and offers her own freedom to the Beast in return for her father 's . In their effort to enhance the character from the original story , the filmmakers felt that Belle should be `` unaware '' of her own beauty and made her `` a little odd '' . Wise recalls casting O'Hara because of a `` unique tone '' she had , `` a little bit of Judy Garland '' , after whose appearance Belle was modeled . James Baxter and Mark Henn served as the supervising animators for Belle . Robby Benson as Beast -- A young prince who is transformed into a beast by an enchantress as punishment for his arrogance . The animators drew him with the head structure and horns of an American bison , the arms and body of a bear , the ears of a deer , the eyebrows of a gorilla , the jaws , teeth , and mane of a lion , the tusks of a wild boar , and the legs and tail of a wolf . Chris Sanders , one of the film 's storyboard artists , drafted the designs for the Beast and came up with designs based on birds , insects , and fish before coming up with something close to the final design . Glen Keane , supervising animator for the Beast , refined the design by going to the zoo and studying the animals on which the Beast was based . Benson commented , `` There 's a rage and torment in this character I 've never been asked to use before . '' The filmmakers commented that `` everybody was big fee - fi - fo - fum and gravelly '' while Benson 's voice had the `` big voice and the warm , accessible side '' and that `` you could hear the prince beneath the fur '' . Richard White as Gaston -- A vain hunter who vies for Belle 's hand in marriage and is determined not to let anyone else win her heart . He serves as a foil personality to the Beast , who was once as egotistic as Gaston prior to his transformation . Gaston 's supervising animator , Andreas Deja , was pressed by Jeffrey Katzenberg to make Gaston handsome in contrast to the traditional appearance of a Disney villain , an assignment he found difficult at first . In the beginning , Gaston is depicted as more of a narcissist than a villain , but later he leads all the villagers to kill the beast , enraged that Belle would love a Beast more than him . Jerry Orbach as Lumière -- The kind - hearted but rebellious valet of the Beast 's , who has been transformed into a candlestick . He has a habit of disobeying his master 's strict rules , sometimes causing tension between them , but the Beast often turns to him for advice . He is depicted as flirtatious , as he is frequently seen with the Featherduster and immediately takes a liking to Belle . A running gag throughout the movie is Lumière burning Cogsworth . Nik Ranieri served as the supervising animator for Lumière . David Ogden Stiers as Cogsworth -- Majordomo , the head of the household staff and Lumière 's best friend , who has been transformed into a clock . He is extremely loyal to the Beast so as to save himself and anyone else any trouble , often leading to friction between himself and Lumière . Will Finn served as the supervising animator for Cogsworth . Stiers also narrates the prologue . Angela Lansbury as Mrs. Potts -- The castle cook , turned into a teapot , who takes a motherly attitude toward Belle . The filmmakers went through several names for Mrs. Potts , such as `` Mrs. Chamomile '' , before Ashman suggested the use of simple and concise names for the household objects . David Pruiksma served as the supervising animator for Mrs. Potts . Bradley Pierce as Chip -- Mrs. Potts ' son , who has been turned into a teacup . Originally intended to only have one line , the filmmakers were impressed with Pierce 's performance and expanded the character 's role significantly , eschewing a mute Music Box character . Pruiksma also served as the supervising animator for Chip . Rex Everhart as Maurice -- Belle 's inventor father . The villagers see him as insane for crafting devices believed impossible to construct in reality , but his loyal daughter believes he will be famous one day . Ruben A. Aquino served as the supervising animator for Maurice . Jesse Corti as Le Fou -- Gaston 's often abused yet loyal sidekick . Chris Wahl served as the supervising animator for Le Fou . Hal Smith as Philippe -- Belle 's Belgian horse . Russ Edmonds served as the supervising animator for Philippe . Jo Anne Worley as the Wardrobe -- The castle 's authority over fashion , and a former opera singer , who has been turned into a wardrobe . The character of Wardrobe was introduced by visual development person Sue C. Nichols to the then entirely male cast of servants , and was originally a more integral character named `` Madame Armoire '' . Wardrobe is known as `` Madame de la Grande Bouche '' ( Madame Big Mouth ) in the stage adaptation of the film and is the only major enchanted object character whose human form does not appear in the film . Tony Anselmo served as the supervising animator for the Wardrobe . Mary Kay Bergman and Kath Soucie as the Bimbettes -- A trio of village maidens who constantly fawn over Gaston , known as the `` Silly Girls '' in the stage adaptation . Brian Cummings as the Stove -- The castle 's chef who has been transformed into a stove . He is named Chef Bouche in 1998 's Belle 's Magical World . Alvin Epstein as the Bookseller -- The owner of a book shop in Belle 's home town . Tony Jay as Monsieur D'Arque -- The sadistic warden of the Asylum de Loons . Gaston bribes him to help in his plan to blackmail Belle . Alec Murphy as the Baker -- The owner of a bakery in Belle 's home town . Kimmy Robertson as the Featherduster -- A maid and Lumière 's sweetheart , who has been turned into a feather duster . She is unnamed in the 1991 film ( listed as Featherduster in the credits ) ; Babette is the name given to this character later in the 1994 stage adaptation of the film ; Fifi in the 1998 animated musical film Belle 's Magical World and Plumette in the 2017 live - action remake . Frank Welker as Sultan -- The castle 's pet dog turned into a footstool . Production ( edit ) Early versions ( edit ) After the success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 , Walt Disney sought out other stories to adapt into feature films , with Beauty and the Beast being among the stories he considered . Attempts to develop the Beauty and the Beast story into a film were made in the 1930s and 1950s , but were ultimately given up because it `` proved to be a challenge '' for the story team . Peter M. Nichols states Disney may later have been discouraged by Jean Cocteau having already done his 1946 version . Decades later , during the production of Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1987 , the Disney studio resurrected Beauty and the Beast as a project for the satellite animation studio it had set up in London , England to work on Roger Rabbit . Richard Williams , who had directed the animated portions of Roger Rabbit , was approached to direct but declined in favor of continuing work on his long - gestating project The Thief and the Cobbler . In his place , Williams recommended his colleague , English animation director Richard Purdum , and work began under producer Don Hahn on a non-musical version of Beauty and the Beast set in 19th century France . At the behest of Disney CEO Michael Eisner , Beauty and the Beast became the first Disney animated film to use a screenwriter . This was an unusual production move for an animated film , which is traditionally developed on storyboards rather than in scripted form . Linda Woolverton wrote the original draft of the story before storyboarding began , and worked with the story team to retool and develop the film . Script re-write and musicalization ( edit ) Upon seeing the initial storyboard reels in 1989 , Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered that the film be scrapped and started over from scratch . Upon seeing the initial storyboard reels in 1989 , Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered that the film be scrapped and started over from scratch . A few months after starting anew , Purdum resigned as director . The studio had approached Ron Clements and John Musker to direct the film , but they turned down the offer , saying they were `` tired '' after just having finished directing Disney 's recent success The Little Mermaid . Disney then hired first - time feature directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale . Wise and Trousdale had previously directed the animated sections of Cranium Command , a short film for a Disney EPCOT theme park attraction . In addition , Katzenberg asked songwriters Howard Ashman and Alan Menken , who had written the song score for The Little Mermaid , to turn Beauty and the Beast into a Broadway - style musical film in the same vein as Mermaid . Ashman , who at the time had learned he was dying of complications from AIDS , had been working with Disney on a pet project of his , Aladdin , and only reluctantly agreed to join the struggling production team . To accommodate Ashman 's failing health , pre-production of Beauty and the Beast was moved from London to the Residence Inn in Fishkill , New York , close to Ashman 's New York City home . Here , Ashman and Menken joined Wise , Trousdale , Hahn , and Woolverton in retooling the film 's script . Since the original story had only two major characters , the filmmakers enhanced them , added new characters in the form of enchanted household items who `` add warmth and comedy to a gloomy story '' and guide the audience through the film , and added a `` real villain '' in the form of Gaston . These ideas were somewhat similar to elements of the 1946 French film version of Beauty and the Beast , which introduced the character of Avenant , an oafish suitor somewhat similar to Gaston , as well as inanimate objects coming to life in the Beast 's castle . The animated objects were , however , given distinct personalities in the Disney version . By early 1990 , Katzenberg had approved the revised script , and storyboarding began again . The production flew story artists back and forth between California and New York for storyboard approvals from Ashman , though the team was not told the reason why . Casting and recording ( edit ) Disney had originally considered casting Jodi Benson from The Little Mermaid as Belle . They eventually decided upon Broadway actress and singer Paige O'Hara in favor of having a heroine who sounded `` more like a woman than a girl '' . According to co-director Kirk Wise , O'Hara was given the role because she `` had a unique quality , a tone she would hit that made her special '' , reminiscent to that of American actress and singer Judy Garland . O'Hara , who , after reading about the film in The New York Times , competed for the role against 500 hopefuls , believes the fact that lyricist Howard Ashman admired her cast recording of the musical Show Boat proved integral in her being cast . Animation ( edit ) A frame from the `` Beauty and the Beast '' ballroom dance sequence . The background is animated using computer generated imagery which , when the traditionally animated characters are composited against it using Pixar 's CAPS system , gives the illusion of a dollying film camera . Production of Beauty and the Beast was to be completed on a compressed timeline of two years rather than the traditional four - year Disney Feature Animation production schedule ; this was due to the loss of production time spent developing the earlier Purdum version of the film . Most of the production was done at the main Feature Animation studio , housed in the Air Way facility in Glendale , California . A smaller team at the Disney - MGM Studios theme park in Lake Buena Vista , Florida assisted the California team on several scenes , particularly the `` Be Our Guest '' number . Beauty and the Beast was the second film , after The Rescuers Down Under , produced using CAPS ( Computer Animation Production System ) , a digital scanning , ink , paint , and compositing system of software and hardware developed for Disney by Pixar . The software allowed for a wider range of colors , as well as soft shading and colored line effects for the characters , techniques lost when the Disney studio abandoned hand inking for xerography in the late 1950s . CAPS also allowed the production crew to simulate multiplane effects : placing characters and / or backgrounds on separate layers and moving them towards / away from the camera on the Z - axis to give the illusion of depth , as well as altering the focus of each layer . In addition , CAPS allowed an easier combination of hand - drawn art with computer - generated imagery , which before had to be plotted to animation paper and then xeroxed and painted traditionally . This technique was put to significant use during the `` Beauty and the Beast '' waltz sequence , in which Belle and Beast dance through a computer - generated ballroom as the camera dollies around them in simulated 3D space . The filmmakers had originally decided against the use of computers in favor of traditional animation , but later , when the technology had improved , decided it could be used for the one scene in the ballroom . The success of the ballroom sequence helped convince studio executives to further invest in computer animation . Music ( edit ) See also : Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 soundtrack ) Ashman and Menken wrote the Beauty song score during the pre-production process in Fishkill , the opening operetta - styled `` Belle '' being their first composition for the film . Other songs included `` Be Our Guest , '' sung ( in its original version ) to Maurice by the objects when he becomes the first visitor to eat at the castle in a decade , `` Gaston , '' a solo for the swaggering villain , `` Human Again , '' a song describing Belle and Beast 's growing love from the objects ' perspective , the love ballad `` Beauty and the Beast ( Tale as Old as Time ) '' and the climactic `` The Mob Song . '' As story and song development came to a close , full production began in Burbank while voice and song recording began in New York City . The Beauty songs were mostly recorded live with the orchestra and the voice cast performing simultaneously rather than overdubbed separately , in order to give the songs a cast album - like `` energy '' the filmmakers and songwriters desired . During the course of production , many changes were made to the structure of the film , necessitating the replacement and re-purposing of songs . After screening a mostly animated version of the `` Be Our Guest '' sequence , story artist Bruce Woodside suggested that the objects should be singing the song to Belle rather than her father . Wise and Trousdale agreed , and the sequence and song were retooled to replace Maurice with Belle . The film 's title song went through a noted bit of uncertainty during production . Originally conceived as a rock - oriented song , it was changed to a slow , romantic ballad . Howard Ashman and Alan Menken asked Angela Lansbury to perform the song , but she did not think her voice was suited for the melody . When she voiced her doubts , Menken and Ashman asked her for at least one take and told her to perform the song as she saw fit . Lansbury reportedly reduced everyone in the studio to tears with her rendition , nailing the song in the one take asked of her . This version went on to win the Oscar for Best Original Song . `` Human Again '' was dropped from the film before animation began , as its lyrics caused story problems about the timeline over which the story takes place . This required Ashman and Menken to write a new song in its place . `` Something There , '' in which Belle and Beast sing ( via voiceover ) of their growing fondness for each other , was composed late in production and inserted into the script in place of `` Human Again . '' Menken would later revise `` Human Again '' for inclusion in the 1994 Broadway stage version of Beauty and the Beast , and another revised version of the song was added to the film itself in a new sequence created for the film 's Special Edition re-release in 2002 . Ashman died of AIDS - related complications at the age of 40 on March 14 , 1991 , eight months before the film 's release . He never saw the finished film , though he did get to see it in its unfinished format . Ashman 's work on Aladdin was completed by another lyricist , Tim Rice . Before Ashman 's death , members of the film 's production team visited him after the film 's well - received first screening , with Don Hahn commenting that `` the film would be a great success . Who 'd have thought it ? '' , to which Ashman replied with `` I would . '' A tribute to the lyricist was included at the end of the credits crawl : `` To our friend , Howard , who gave a mermaid her voice , and a beast his soul . We will be forever grateful . Howard Ashman : 1950 -- 1991 . '' A pop version of the `` Beauty and the Beast '' theme , performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson over the end credits , was released as a commercial single from the film 's soundtrack , supported with a music video . The Dion / Bryson version of `` Beauty and the Beast '' became an international pop hit and performed considerably well on charts around the world . The song became Dion 's second single to land within the top - 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number nine . The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , `` Beauty and the Beast '' peaked at number two . Outside of North America , the song peaked within the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom , while peaking within the top twenty in Australia , Netherlands , and Ireland . The song sold over a million copies worldwide . This version of the song was also nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year at the Grammys , and it won the Grammy for Dion and Bryson for Best Pop Duo / Group Vocal Performance . Release ( edit ) In a first - time accomplishment for The Walt Disney Company , an unfinished version of Beauty and the Beast was shown at the New York Film Festival on September 29 , 1991 . The film was deemed a `` work in progress '' because roughly only 70 % of the animation had been completed ; storyboards and pencil tests were used in replacement of the remaining 30 % . Additionally , certain segments of the film that had already been finished were reverted to previous stages of completion . At the end of the screening , Beauty and the Beast received a 10 - minute - long standing ovation from the film festival audience . The completed film was also screened out of competition at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival . The finished film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on November 13 , 1991 , beginning a limited release before expanding wide on November 22 . Reissues ( edit ) The film was restored and remastered for its New Year 's Day , 2002 re-release in IMAX theatres in a special edition edit , including a new musical sequence . For this version of the film , much of the animation was cleaned up , a new sequence set to the deleted song `` Human Again '' was inserted into the film 's second act , and a new digital master from the original CAPS production files was used to make the high resolution IMAX film negative . A sing along edition of the film , hosted by Jordin Sparks , was released in select theaters on September 29 and October 2 , 2010 . Prior to the showing of the film , Sparks showed an exclusive behind - the - scenes look at the newly restored film and the making of her new Beauty and the Beast music video . There was also commentary from producer Don Hahn , interviews with the cast and an inside look at how the animation was created . A Disney Digital 3D version of the film , the second of a traditionally animated film , was originally scheduled to be released in US theatres on February 12 , 2010 , but the project was postponed . On August 25 , 2011 , Disney announced that the 3D version of the film would make its American debut at Hollywood 's El Capitan Theatre from September 2 -- 15 , 2011 . Disney spent less than $10 million on the 3D conversion . After the successful 3D re-release of The Lion King , Disney announced a wide 3D re-release of Beauty and the Beast in North America beginning January 13 , 2012 . Home Media ( edit ) Blu - ray Diamond edition cover The film was released to VHS on October 30 , 1992 as part of the Walt Disney Classics series , and was later put on moratorium on April 30 , 1993 ; it was not included in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection line . This version contains a minor edit to the film : skulls that appear in Gaston 's pupils for two frames during his climactic fall to his death were removed for the original home video release . No such edit was made to later reissues of the film . The `` work - in - progress '' version screened at the New York Film Festival was also released on VHS and Laserdisc at this time ; however , said version was the only one available on the latter format until the fall of 1993 , when the completed theatrical version was released . This measure was to diminish the threat of video pirates making copies derived from the laserdisc ( which are not copy - protected ) and selling them in international markets , where the film was yet to be available for home release . Beauty and the Beast : Special Edition , as the enhanced version of the film released in IMAX / large - format is called , was released on two - disc `` Platinum Edition '' DVD and VHS on October 8 , 2002 . The DVD set features three versions of the film : the extended IMAX Special Edition with the `` Human Again '' sequence added , the original theatrical version , and the New York Film Festival `` work - in - progress '' version . This release went to `` Disney Vault '' moratorium status in January 2003 , along with its direct - to - video follow - ups Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas and Belle 's Magical World . The film was released from the vault on October 5 , 2010 as the second of Disney 's Diamond Editions , in the form of a three - disc Blu - ray Disc and DVD combination pack -- the first release of Beauty and the Beast on home video in high - definition format . This edition consists of four versions of the film : the original theatrical version , an extended version , the New York Film Festival storyboard - only version , and a fourth iteration displaying the storyboards via picture - in - picture alongside the original theatrical version . Upon its first week of release , the Blu - ray sold 1.1 million units , topping the Blu - ray sales chart and finishing in third place on the combined Blu - ray and DVD sales chart for the week ending on October 10 , 2010 . It was the second best - selling Blu - ray of 2010 , behind Avatar . A two - disc DVD edition was released on November 23 , 2010 . A five - disc combo pack , featuring Blu - ray 3D , Blu - ray 2D , DVD and a digital copy , was released on October 4 , 2011 . The 3D combo pack is identical to the original Diamond Edition , except for the added 3D disc and digital copy . The Blu - ray release went into the Disney Vault along with the two sequels on April 30 , 2012 . A 25th anniversary Signature Edition was released on Digital HD September 6 , 2016 and was followed by Blu - ray / DVD combo pack on September 20 , 2016 . Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S. , the film topped the Blu - ray Disc sales chart , and debuted at number 3 in the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart , which tracks overall disc sales , behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles : Out of the Shadows and Captain America : Civil War . Reception and legacy ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 93 % and an average of 8.4 out of 10 based on reviews from 103 critics . The website 's general consensus reads , `` Enchanting , sweepingly romantic , and featuring plenty of wonderful musical numbers , Beauty and the Beast is one of Disney 's most elegant animated offerings . '' The film also holds a 95 / 100 on Metacritic . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare `` A + '' grade . Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the film with the following statement , `` Two years ago , Walt Disney Pictures reinvented the animated feature , not only with an eye toward pleasing children , but also with an older , savvier audience in mind . Disney truly bridged a generation gap with The Little Mermaid ... Now , lightning has definitely struck twice with Beauty and the Beast . '' Awarding the film a perfect score of four stars , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times compared Beauty and the Beast positively to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Pinocchio , writing , `` Beauty and the Beast reaches back to an older and healthier Hollywood tradition in which the best writers , musicians and filmmakers are gathered for a project on the assumption that a family audience deserves great entertainment , too . '' In 2001 Ebert again gave the IMAX re-release a full 4 out of 4 stars . James Berardinelli of ReelViews rated the film similarly while hailing it as `` the finest animated movie ever made '' , writing , `` Beauty and the Beast attains a nearly - perfect mix of romance , music , invention , and animation . '' The use of computer animation , particularly in the ballroom sequence , was singled out in several reviews as one of the film 's highlights . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review , calling the film `` A delightfully satisfying modern fable , a near - masterpiece that draws on the sublime traditions of the past while remaining completely in sync with the sensibility of its time . '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a positive review , saying `` It is a surprise , in a time of sequels and retreads , that the new film is so fresh and altogether triumphant in its own right . '' Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three out of four stars , saying `` Beauty and the Beast is certainly adequate holiday entertainment for children and their more indulgent parents ... But the film has little of the technical facility , vivid characterization and emotional impact of Disney past . '' Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film four out of five stars , saying `` It 's not an especially scary movie , but right from the start , you can tell that this Beauty and the Beast has a beauty of a bite . '' John Hartl of The Seattle Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying `` It 's exceptionally difficult to make an audience care for animated characters unless they 're mermaids or anthropomorphized animals or insects , yet the Disney animators , with a big assist from the vocal talents of a superb cast , have pulled it off . '' Gene Siskel , also of the Chicago Tribune , gave the film four out of four stars , saying `` Beauty and the Beast is one of the year ` s most entertaining films for both adults and children . '' On their Beauty and the Beast edition of Siskel & Ebert , both Siskel and Roger Ebert proclaimed that the film is `` a legitimate contender for Oscar consideration as Best Picture of the Year . '' Michael Sragow of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review , saying `` It 's got storytelling vigor and clarity , bright , eclectic animation , and a frisky musical wit . '' Eric Smoodin writes in his book Animating Culture that the studio was trying to make up for earlier gender stereotypes with this film . Smoodin also states that , in the way it has been viewed as bringing together traditional fairy tales and feminism as well as computer and traditional animation , the film 's `` greatness could be proved in terms of technology narrative or even politics '' . Animation legend Chuck Jones praised the film , in a 1992 guest appearance on Later with Bob Costas he claimed he `` Loved it . I think it should have won ( Best Picture ) ... I think the animation on the beast is one of the greatest pieces of animation I 've seen . '' Animation historian Michael Barrier wrote that Belle `` becomes a sort of intellectual less by actually reading books , it seems , than by hanging out with them '' , but says that the film comes closer than other `` Disney - studio '' films to `` accepting challenges of the kind that the finest Walt Disney features met '' . David Whitley writes in The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation that Belle is different from earlier Disney heroines in that she is mostly free from the burdens of domestic housework , although her role is somewhat undefined in the same way that `` contemporary culture now requires most adolescent girls to contribute little in the way of domestic work before they leave home and have to take on the fraught , multiple responsibilities of the working mother '' . Whitley also notes other themes and modern influences , such as the film 's critical view of Gaston 's chauvinism and attitude towards nature , the cyborg - like servants , and the father 's role as an inventor rather than a merchant . In 2010 , IGN named Beauty and the Beast as the greatest animated film of all time , directly ahead of WALL - E , The Incredibles , Toy Story 2 , and The Iron Giant . Several critics regard the 1991 animated film as superior to the 2017 live - action remake . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 1991 film `` worked wonderfully because it was pure Broadway , written for the screen , blending comedy and romance and magic and just enough snark in the margins '' , while the 2017 remake got lost in translation since `` The movie takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted . It zips from one number to another , throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen , charmlessly . '' Phillips also wrote of the 2017 film that `` too often we 're watching highly qualified performers , plus a few less conspicuously talented ones ( Watson , primarily ) , stuck doing karaoke , or motion - capture work of middling quality '' . Dana Schwartz of the Observer criticized some of the 2017 film changes to the characters like Gaston and the Beast as regressive by watering down their distinguishing personalities from the 1991 film , also arguing that the added backstory to the characters in the 2017 version failed to `` advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' . David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film `` feels particularly egregious , in part , because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original ; every time it falls short of its predecessor ( which is quite often ) , it 's hard not to notice '' . Box Office ( edit ) During its initial release in 1991 , the film grossed $145.9 million in revenues in North America and $351.9 million worldwide . It ranked as the third most - successful film of 1991 in North America , surpassed only by the summer blockbusters Terminator 2 : Judgment Day and Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves . At the time Beauty and the Beast was the most successful animated Disney film release , and the first animated film to reach $100 million in North America . In its IMAX re-release , it earned $25.5 million in North America and $5.5 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $31 million . It also earned $9.8 million from its 3D re-release overseas . During the opening weekend of its North American 3D re-release in 2012 , Beauty and the Beast grossed $17.8 million , coming in at the No. 2 spot , behind Contraband , and achieved the highest opening weekend for an animated film in January . The film was expected to make $17.5 million over the weekend , however , the results topped its forecast and the expectations of box office analysts . The re-release ended its run on May 3 , 2012 , and earned $47.6 million , which brought the film 's total gross in North America to $219 million . It made an estimated $206 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $425 million . Accolades ( edit ) Alan Menken and Howard Ashman 's song `` Beauty and the Beast '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song , while Menken 's score won the award for Best Original Score . Two other Menken and Ashman songs from the film , `` Belle '' and `` Be Our Guest '' , were also nominated for Best Original Song . Beauty and the Beast was the first picture to receive three Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song , a feat that would be repeated by The Lion King ( 1994 ) , Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) , and Enchanted ( 2007 ) . Academy rules have since been changed to limit each film to two nominations in this category , due to the consecutive unintentional failures of Dreamgirls and Enchanted to win the award . The film was also nominated for Best Picture and Best Sound . It was the first animated film ever to be nominated for Best Picture , and remained the only animated film nominated until 2009 when the Best Picture field was widened to ten nominees , and it remains the only animated film nominated for the award when it had five nominees . It became the first musical in twelve years to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture of the Year , following All That Jazz ( 1979 ) , and the last one to be nominated until Moulin Rouge ! ( 2001 ) , ten years later . It lost the Best Picture award to The Silence of the Lambs . With six nominations , the film currently shares the record for the most nominations for an animated film with WALL - E ( 2008 ) , although , with three nominations in the Best Original Song category , Beauty and the Beast 's nominations span only four categories , while WALL - E 's nominations cover six individual categories . While The Little Mermaid was the first to be nominated , Beauty and the Beast became the first animated film to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy . This feat was later repeated by The Lion King and Toy Story 2 . List of awards and nominations Award Date of ceremony Recipients and nominees Result Academy Awards March 30 , 1992 Best Picture Don Hahn Nominated Best Sound Terry Porter , Mel Metcalfe , David J. Hudson & Doc Kane Best Original Score Alan Menken Won Best Original Song Alan Menken & Howard Ashman for `` Be Our Guest '' Nominated Alan Menken & Howard Ashman for `` Beauty and the Beast '' Won Alan Menken & Howard Ashman for `` Belle '' Nominated Chicago Film Critics Association February 1992 Best Picture Nominated Dallas -- Fort Worth Film Critics Association Best Film 3rd place Best Animated Film Won Golden Globe Awards January 18 , 1992 Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy Don Hahn Best Original Score -- Motion Picture Alan Menken Best Original Song -- Motion Picture Alan Menken and Howard Ashman For the song `` Be Our Guest '' Nominated Alan Menken and Howard Ashman For the song `` Beauty and the Beast '' Won Grammy Awards February 18 , 1993 Album of the Year Nominated Record of the Year Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson For the song `` Beauty and the Beast '' Nominated Best Album for Children Won Best Pop Performance by a Group or Duo With Vocal For `` Beauty and the Beast '' Song of the Year For `` Beauty and the Beast '' Nominated Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture Alan Menken Won Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television For `` Beauty and the Beast '' Best Pop Instrumental Performance For `` Beauty and the Beast '' Los Angeles Film Critics Association December 14 , 1991 Best Animated Film Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise Producers Guild of America March 4 , 1992 Darryl F. Zanuck Award for Outstanding Producer of Theatrical Motion Pictures Don Hahn Nominated In 2002 , Beauty and the Beast was added to the United States National Film Registry as being deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . '' In June 2008 , the American Film Institute revealed its `` Ten Top Ten '' lists of the best ten films in ten `` classic '' American film genres , based on polls of over 1,500 people from the creative community . Beauty and the Beast was acknowledged as the 7th best film in the animation genre . In previous lists , it ranked number 22 on the Institutes 's list of best musicals and number 34 on its list of the best romantic American films . On the list of the greatest songs from American films , Beauty and the Beast ranked number 62 . American Film Institute recognition : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies -- Nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions -- No. 34 AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains : Belle -- Nominated Hero AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs : `` Beauty and the Beast '' -- No. 62 `` Be Our Guest '' -- Nominated AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals -- No. 22 AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) -- Nominated AFI 's 10 Top 10 -- No. 7 Animated film Adaptations ( edit ) Broadway musical ( edit ) Main article : Beauty and the Beast ( musical ) According to an article in The Houston Chronicle , `` The catalyst for Disney 's braving the stage was an article by The New York Times theater critic Frank Rich that praised Beauty and the Beast as 1991 's best musical ... Theatre Under The Stars executive director Frank Young had been trying to get Disney interested in a stage version of Beauty about the same time Eisner and Katzenberg were mulling over Rich 's column . But Young could n't seem to get in touch with the right person in the Disney empire . Nothing happened till the Disney execs started to pursue the project from their end ... When they asked George Ives , the head of Actors Equity on the West Coast , which Los Angeles theater would be the best venue for launching a new musical , Ives said the best theater for that purpose would be TUTS . Not long after that , Disney 's Don Frantz and Bettina Buckley contacted Young , and the partnership was under way . '' A stage condensation of the film , directed by Robert Jess Roth and choreographed by Matt West , both of whom moved on to the Broadway development , had already been presented at Disneyland at what was then called the Videopolis stage . Beauty and the Beast premiered in a joint production of Theatre Under The Stars and Disney Theatricals at the Music Hall , Houston , Texas , from November 28 , 1993 , through December 26 , 1993 . On Monday , April 18 , 1994 , Beauty and the Beast premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre in New York City to mixed reviews . The show transferred to the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre on November 11 , 1999 . The commercial ( though not critical ) success of the show led to productions in the West End , Toronto , and all over the world . The Broadway version , which ran for over a decade , received a Tony Award , and became the first of a whole line of Disney stage productions . The original Broadway cast included Terrence Mann as the Beast , Susan Egan as Belle , Burke Moses as Gaston , Gary Beach as Lumière , Heath Lamberts as Cogsworth , Tom Bosley as Maurice , Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts , and Stacey Logan as Babette the feather duster . Many well - known actors and singers also starred in the Broadway production during its thirteen - year run , including Kerry Butler , Debbie Gibson , Toni Braxton , Andrea McArdle , Jamie - Lynn Sigler , Christy Carlson Romano , Ashley Brown , and Anneliese van der Pol as Belle ; Chuck Wagner , James Barbour , and Jeff McCarthy as the Beast ; Meshach Taylor , Patrick Page , Bryan Batt , Jacob Young , and John Tartaglia as Lumière ; and Marc Kudisch , Christopher Sieber , and Donny Osmond as Gaston . The show ended its Broadway run on July 29 , 2007 after 46 previews and 5,461 performances . As of 2017 , it is Broadway 's tenth longest - running show in history . Live - action film ( edit ) Main article : Beauty and the Beast ( 2017 film ) In June 2014 , Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action film adaptation of the original film was in the works , with Bill Condon directing and Evan Spiliotopoulos writing the script . Condon originally planned on not only drawing inspiration from the original film , but also to include most , if not all , of the Menken / Rice songs from the Broadway musical , with the intention of making the film as a `` straight - forward , live - action , large - budget movie musical '' . In September 2014 , it was announced that Stephen Chbosky ( The Perks of Being a Wallflower ) would re-write the script . In January 2015 , Emma Watson announced on her Facebook page that she would portray Belle in the new live action remake film . In March 2015 , Dan Stevens , Luke Evans , Emma Thompson , Josh Gad , Audra McDonald , and Kevin Kline joined the film as the Beast , Gaston , Mrs. Potts , LeFou , Garderobe , and Maurice , respectively . The following month , Ian McKellen , Ewan McGregor , Stanley Tucci , and Gugu Mbatha - Raw joined the cast , as Cogsworth , Lumière , Cadenza , and Plumette , respectively . Composer Alan Menken returned to score the film 's music , with new material written by Menken and Tim Rice . In June 2015 , Menken said the film would not include the songs that were written for the Broadway musical . Filming began on May 18 , 2015 in London , and production officially wrapped in August 2015 . The film was released on March 17 , 2017 . Merchandise ( edit ) Beauty and the Beast merchandise cover a wide variety of products , among them storybook versions of the film 's story , a comic book based on the film published by Disney Comics , toys , children 's costumes , and other items . In addition , the character of Belle has been integrated into the `` Disney Princess '' line of Disney 's Consumer Products division , and appears on merchandise related to that franchise . In 1995 , a live - action children 's series entitled Sing Me a Story with Belle began running in syndication , remaining on the air through 1999 . Two direct - to - video followups ( which take place during the timeline depicted in the original film ) were produced by Walt Disney Television Animation : Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas in 1997 and Belle 's Magical World in 1998 ; in contrast to the universal acclaim of the original , reception to the sequels was extremely negative . Disney on Ice produced an ice version of the movie that opened in 1992 in Lakeland , Florida . The show was such a huge commercial and critical success , touring around the world to sell - out crowds , that a television special was made when it toured Spain in 1994 . The show ended its run in 2006 , after 14 years . Video games ( edit ) `` Beauty and the Beast ( video game ) '' redirects here . For the 1996 sequel to The Last Ninja , see Beauty and the Beast ( Commodore 64 ) . There are several video games that are loosely based on the film : The first video game based on the film was titled Beauty and the Beast and is an action platformer developed by Probe Software and published by Hudson Soft for the NES . It was released in Europe in 1994 . Gaston is the final boss of the game because he wants to kill the Beast and marry Belle . The second video game based on the film was titled Beauty & The Beast : Belle 's Quest and is an action platformer for the Sega Genesis . Developed by Software Creations , the game was released in North America in 1993 . It is one of two video games based on the film that Sunsoft published for the Genesis , the other being Beauty & The Beast : Roar of the Beast . Characters from the film like Gaston can help the player past tricky situations . As Belle , the player must reach the Beast 's castle and break the spell to live happily ever after . To succeed , she must explore the village , forest , castle , and snowy forest to solve puzzles and mini-games while ducking or jumping over enemies . Belle 's health is represented by a stack of blue books , which diminishes when she touches bats , rats , and other hazards in the game . Extra lives , keys and other items are hidden throughout the levels . While there is no continue or game saving ability , players can use a code to start the game at any of the seven levels . The third video game based on the film was titled ' Beauty & The Beast : Roar of the Beast and is a side - scrolling video game for the Genesis . As the Beast , the player must successfully complete several levels , based on scenes from the film , in order to protect the castle from invading villagers and forest animals and rescue Belle from Gaston . The fourth video game based on the film was titled Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and is an action platformer for the SNES . It was developed by Probe Entertainment and published by Hudson Soft in North America in July 1994 and in Europe on February 23 , 1995 . The game was published by Virgin Interactive in Japan on July 8 , 1994 . The entire game is played through the perspective of the Beast . As the Beast , the player must get Belle to fall in love so that the curse cast upon him and his castle will be broken . The final boss of the game is Gaston . The Beast can walk , jump , swipe , stomp , super stomp , and roar , the last of which is used to both damage enemies and reveal hidden objects . The fifth video game based on the film was titled Disney 's Beauty & The Beast : A Boardgame Adventure and is a Disney Boardgame adventure for the Game Boy Color . It was released on October 25 , 1999 . The video game series Kingdom Hearts features a world based on the film , named `` Beast 's Castle '' , along with several of the film 's characters . In the first game , the world has been destroyed and Belle kidnapped by the Heartless , led by Maleficent , but the Beast travels to Maleficent 's stronghold and works with Sora to defeat Maleficent and rescue Belle and the other captured princesses . In Kingdom Hearts II , the world has since been restored following Ansem 's defeat , but Beast and Belle are having difficulties due to the enigmatic Xaldin of Organization XIII attempting to bring out the Beast 's darker side in order to turn him into a Heartless and a Nobody , but the Beast eventually comes to his senses and works with Sora once again to defeat Xaldin once and for all . In the game 's ending credits , the Beast turns back into the Prince . In Kingdom Hearts : 358 / 2 Days , the world is featured as a playable level but the story is not essential to the main plot . In Kingdom Hearts χ , the world is featured again and follows the plot of the movie more closely . The characters featured in the series are Beast , Belle , Lumiere , Gaston , Cogsworth , Mrs. Potts , Chip , Maurice , and the Wardrobe . Gaston and Maurice do not appear until Kingdom Hearts χ , which takes place before the main series . After Gaston is defeated , the world 's primary antagonist becomes Xaldin , an original character created for the series , but who shares several traits with Forte , the main antagonist of Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas . See also ( edit ) Disney portal Cartoon portal Animation portal 1990s portal List of Disney animated features List of Disney animated films based on fairy tales Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Speaking together , with some crosstalk , Gary Trousdale , Kirk Wise , Don Hahn and Alan Menken confirmed on the audio commentary that Gaston died after he fell off the rooftops . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Stewart , Jocelyn ( February 10 , 2008 ) . `` Artist created many famous film posters '' . Los Angeles Times . 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Jump up ^ `` Beauty And The Beast - Belle 's Magical World ( Special Edition ) : Jeff Bennett , Robby Benson , Paige O'Hara , Jim Cummings , Jerry Orbach , David Ogden Stiers , Gregory Grudt , Rob Paulsen , Kimmy Robertson , Anne Rogers , Frank Welker , April Winchell , Barbara Dourmashkin , Bob Kline , Burt Medall , Cullen Blaine , Dale Case , Daniel de la Vega , Mitch Rochon , Alice Brown : Movies & TV '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved March 18 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` You Cannot Resist The Joy Of ' Disney On Ice ' -- So Do n't Even Think About It ARTery '' . Artery.wbur.org . February 15 , 2014 . Retrieved March 18 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Release information '' . MobyGames . Retrieved May 16 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Release information '' . GameFAQs . Archived from the original on December 31 , 2009 . Retrieved May 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Release information '' . GameFAQs . Archived from the original on March 24 , 2009 . Retrieved August 27 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Beauty and the Beast : Belle 's Quest ( 1993 ) screenshots '' . MobyGames . Retrieved August 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Beauty and the Beast : Roar of the Beast for Genesis ( 1993 ) '' . MobyGames . Retrieved August 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Release information '' . GameFAQs . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2009 . Retrieved May 16 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` ProReview : Disney 's Beauty and the Beast '' . GamePro ( 61 ) . IDG . August 1994 . p. 58 . Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Beauty and the Beast : A Board Game Adventure : Video Games '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved March 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Part 1 - Beast 's Castle - Kingdom Hearts 2 Wiki Guide '' . IGN . March 28 , 2006 . Retrieved March 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Part 2 - Beast 's Castle - Kingdom Hearts 2 Wiki Guide '' . IGN . March 28 , 2006 . Retrieved March 18 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 film ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 film ) . Official website Beauty and the Beast on IMDb Beauty and the Beast at AllMovie Beauty and the Beast at Rotten Tomatoes Beauty and the Beast at Metacritic Beauty and the Beast at TV.com Beauty and the Beast at Box Office Mojo Beauty and the Beast at the TCM Movie Database Beauty and the Beast at The Big Cartoon DataBase Gabrielle - Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve 's Beauty and the Beast Film La Belle et la Bête ( 1946 ) The Scarlet Flower ( 1952 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1962 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1976 ) Panna a netvor ( 1978 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1987 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) soundtrack Beauty and the Beast ( 1992 ) Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) Beauty and the Beast ( or Blood of Beasts , 2005 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 2009 ) Beastly ( 2011 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 2014 ) Little Miss Perfect ( 2016 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 2017 ) soundtrack Television Series Beauty and the Beast , ( 1987 ) Exile ( 2003 ) Beauty & the Beast ( 2012 ) episodes Brahmarakshas ( 2016 ) Episodes `` Reptar on Ice '' ( 1992 ) `` Skin Deep '' ( 2012 ) `` Her Handsome Hero '' ( 2016 ) Literature The Scarlet Flower ( 1858 ) Beauty : A Retelling of the Story of Beauty and the Beast ( 1978 ) Lord of Scoundrels ( 1995 ) Rose Daughter ( 1997 ) The Quantum Rose ( 2000 ) Beastly ( 2007 ) Fashion Beast ( 2012 ) Stage Zémire et Azor ( opera ) Beauty and the Beast Live on Stage ( stage ) Beauty and the Beast ( musical ) Songs `` Beauty and the Beast '' ( 1983 ) `` Election Day '' ( 1985 ) `` Beauty and the Beast '' ( 1991 ) Other Disney Characters Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( video game ) Beauty and the Beast ( Disney franchise ) Films directed by Gary Trousdale Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) Atlantis : The Lost Empire ( 2001 ) The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper ( 2005 ) Shrek the Halls ( 2007 ) Scared Shrekless ( 2010 ) Rocky & Bullwinkle ( 2014 ) Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy An American in Paris ( 1951 ) With a Song in My Heart ( 1952 ) Carmen Jones ( 1954 ) Guys and Dolls ( 1955 ) The King and I ( 1956 ) Les Girls ( 1957 ) Gigi / Auntie Mame ( 1958 ) Porgy and Bess / Some Like It Hot ( 1959 ) Song Without End / The Apartment ( 1960 ) West Side Story / A Majority of One ( 1961 ) The Music Man / That Touch of Mink ( 1962 ) Tom Jones ( 1963 ) My Fair Lady ( 1964 ) The Sound of Music ( 1965 ) The Russians Are Coming , the Russians Are Coming ( 1966 ) The Graduate ( 1967 ) Oliver ! ( 1968 ) The Secret of Santa Vittoria ( 1969 ) MASH ( 1970 ) Fiddler on the Roof ( 1971 ) Cabaret ( 1972 ) American Graffiti ( 1973 ) The Longest Yard ( 1974 ) The Sunshine Boys ( 1975 ) A Star Is Born ( 1976 ) The Goodbye Girl ( 1977 ) Heaven Can Wait ( 1978 ) Breaking Away ( 1979 ) Coal Miner 's Daughter ( 1980 ) Arthur ( 1981 ) Tootsie ( 1982 ) Yentl ( 1983 ) Romancing the Stone ( 1984 ) Prizzi 's Honor ( 1985 ) Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) Hope and Glory ( 1987 ) Working Girl ( 1988 ) Driving Miss Daisy ( 1989 ) Green Card ( 1990 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) The Player ( 1992 ) Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) The Lion King ( 1994 ) Babe ( 1995 ) Evita ( 1996 ) As Good as It Gets ( 1997 ) Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) Almost Famous ( 2000 ) Moulin Rouge ! ( 2001 ) Chicago ( 2002 ) Lost in Translation ( 2003 ) Sideways ( 2004 ) Walk the Line ( 2005 ) Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street ( 2007 ) Vicky Cristina Barcelona ( 2008 ) The Hangover ( 2009 ) The Kids Are All Right ( 2010 ) The Artist ( 2011 ) Les Misérables ( 2012 ) American Hustle ( 2013 ) The Grand Budapest Hotel ( 2014 ) The Martian ( 2015 ) La La Land ( 2016 ) Disney 's Beauty and the Beast Films Animation Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) Belle 's Magical World ( 1998 ) Belle 's Tales of Friendship ( 1999 ) Live - action Beauty and the Beast ( 2017 ) Adaptations Musical ( 1994 ) The Fire Rose ( novel ) 1995 Live on Stage ( 1991 ) Sing Me a Story with Belle ( 1995 -- 1999 ) Be Our Guest Restaurant ( 2012 ) Video games Beauty & The Beast : Belle 's Quest ( 1993 ) Beauty & The Beast : Roar of the Beast ( 1993 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1994 ; NES ) Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1994 ; Super NES ) Disney 's Beauty and the Beast Print Kit ( 1994 ) Disney 's Beauty & The Beast : A Boardgame Adventure ( 1999 ) Disney 's Beauty and the Beast Magical Ballroom ( 2000 ) Music 1991 film soundtrack `` Belle '' `` Gaston '' `` Be Our Guest '' `` Something There '' `` Beauty and the Beast '' `` The Mob Song '' 1994 musical soundtrack `` If I Ca n't Love Her '' `` Human Again '' `` A Change in Me '' 2017 film soundtrack `` How Does a Moment Last Forever '' `` Days in the Sun '' `` Evermore '' Related The Music Behind the Magic Characters Belle Beast Gaston Disney theatrical animated features Walt Disney Animation Studios films Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) Pinocchio ( 1940 ) Fantasia ( 1940 ) Dumbo ( 1941 ) Bambi ( 1942 ) Saludos Amigos ( 1942 ) The Three Caballeros ( 1944 ) Make Mine Music ( 1946 ) Fun and Fancy Free ( 1947 ) Melody Time ( 1948 ) The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad ( 1949 ) Cinderella ( 1950 ) Alice in Wonderland ( 1951 ) Peter Pan ( 1953 ) Lady and the Tramp ( 1955 ) Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) One Hundred and One Dalmatians ( 1961 ) The Sword in the Stone ( 1963 ) The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) The Aristocats ( 1970 ) Robin Hood ( 1973 ) The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh ( 1977 ) The Rescuers ( 1977 ) The Fox and the Hound ( 1981 ) The Black Cauldron ( 1985 ) The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) Oliver & Company ( 1988 ) The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) The Rescuers Down Under ( 1990 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) Aladdin ( 1992 ) The Lion King ( 1994 ) Pocahontas ( 1995 ) The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) Hercules ( 1997 ) Mulan ( 1998 ) Tarzan ( 1999 ) Fantasia 2000 ( 1999 ) Dinosaur ( 2000 ) The Emperor 's New Groove ( 2000 ) Atlantis : The Lost Empire ( 2001 ) Lilo & Stitch ( 2002 ) Treasure Planet ( 2002 ) Brother Bear ( 2003 ) Home on the Range ( 2004 ) Chicken Little ( 2005 ) Meet the Robinsons ( 2007 ) Bolt ( 2008 ) The Princess and the Frog ( 2009 ) Tangled ( 2010 ) Winnie the Pooh ( 2011 ) Wreck - It Ralph ( 2012 ) Frozen ( 2013 ) Big Hero 6 ( 2014 ) Zootopia ( 2016 ) Moana ( 2016 ) Ralph Breaks the Internet : Wreck - It Ralph 2 ( 2018 ) Frozen 2 ( 2019 ) Live - action films with animation The Reluctant Dragon ( 1941 ) Victory Through Air Power ( 1943 ) Song of the South ( 1946 ) So Dear to My Heart ( 1948 ) Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) Bedknobs and Broomsticks ( 1971 ) Pete 's Dragon ( 1977 ) Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) Enchanted ( 2007 ) DisneyToon Studios films DuckTales the Movie : Treasure of the Lost Lamp ( 1990 ) A Goofy Movie ( 1995 ) The Tigger Movie ( 2000 ) Return to Never Land ( 2002 ) The Jungle Book 2 ( 2003 ) Piglet 's Big Movie ( 2003 ) Pooh 's Heffalump Movie ( 2005 ) Bambi II ( 2006 ) Planes ( 2013 ) Planes : Fire & Rescue ( 2014 ) Other Disney units films The Nightmare Before Christmas ( 1993 ) James and the Giant Peach ( 1996 ) Doug 's 1st Movie ( 1999 ) Recess : School 's Out ( 2001 ) Teacher 's Pet ( 2004 ) A Christmas Carol ( 2009 ) Gnomeo & Juliet ( 2011 ) Mars Needs Moms ( 2011 ) Frankenweenie ( 2012 ) Strange Magic ( 2015 ) Related lists Unproduced films Book Walt Disney Animation Studios List of feature films Released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) Pinocchio ( 1940 ) Fantasia ( 1940 ) Dumbo ( 1941 ) Bambi ( 1942 ) Saludos Amigos ( 1942 ) The Three Caballeros ( 1944 ) Make Mine Music ( 1946 ) Fun and Fancy Free ( 1947 ) Melody Time ( 1948 ) The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad ( 1949 ) Cinderella ( 1950 ) Alice in Wonderland ( 1951 ) Peter Pan ( 1953 ) Lady and the Tramp ( 1955 ) Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) One Hundred and One Dalmatians ( 1961 ) The Sword in the Stone ( 1963 ) The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) The Aristocats ( 1970 ) Robin Hood ( 1973 ) The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh ( 1977 ) The Rescuers ( 1977 ) The Fox and the Hound ( 1981 ) The Black Cauldron ( 1985 ) The Great Mouse Detective ( 1986 ) Oliver & Company ( 1988 ) The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) The Rescuers Down Under ( 1990 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) Aladdin ( 1992 ) The Lion King ( 1994 ) Pocahontas ( 1995 ) The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) Hercules ( 1997 ) Mulan ( 1998 ) Tarzan ( 1999 ) Fantasia 2000 ( 1999 ) Dinosaur ( 2000 ) The Emperor 's New Groove ( 2000 ) Atlantis : The Lost Empire ( 2001 ) Lilo & Stitch ( 2002 ) Treasure Planet ( 2002 ) Brother Bear ( 2003 ) Home on the Range ( 2004 ) Chicken Little ( 2005 ) Meet the Robinsons ( 2007 ) Bolt ( 2008 ) The Princess and the Frog ( 2009 ) Tangled ( 2010 ) Winnie the Pooh ( 2011 ) Wreck - It Ralph ( 2012 ) Frozen ( 2013 ) Big Hero 6 ( 2014 ) Zootopia ( 2016 ) Moana ( 2016 ) Upcoming films Ralph Breaks the Internet : Wreck - It Ralph 2 ( 2018 ) Frozen 2 ( 2019 ) Associated productions The Reluctant Dragon ( 1941 ) Victory Through Air Power ( 1943 ) Song of the South ( 1946 ) So Dear to My Heart ( 1949 ) Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) Bedknobs and Broomsticks ( 1971 ) Pete 's Dragon ( 1977 ) Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) Enchanted ( 2007 ) People Executives Edwin Catmull Roy Conli Roy E. Disney Walt Disney Don Hahn Jeffrey Katzenberg John Lasseter Peter Schneider Thomas Schumacher David Stainton Disney 's Nine Old Men Les Clark Marc Davis Ollie Johnston Milt Kahl Ward Kimball Eric Larson John Lounsbery Wolfgang Reitherman Frank Thomas Related topics History Disney animators ' strike Disney Renaissance Methods and technologies 12 basic principles of animation Computer Animation Production System Disney Animation : The Illusion of Life Multiplane camera Documentaries Frank and Ollie ( 1995 ) The Sweatbox ( 2001 ) Dream On Silly Dreamer ( 2005 ) Waking Sleeping Beauty ( 2009 ) Other Disney animation units Disney Television Animation DisneyToon Studios ( WDAS unit ) Lucasfilm Animation Marvel Animation Pixar Animation Studios Circle 7 ( defunct ) Miscellaneous Alice Comedies Laugh - O - Gram Studio List of Disney animated shorts List of Disney theatrical animated features unproduced Oswald the Lucky Rabbit Mickey Mouse ( film series ) Silly Symphonies Once Upon a Time Alan Menken Musicals God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1979 ) Little Shop of Horrors ( 1982 ) Weird Romance ( 1992 ) A Christmas Carol ( 1994 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1994 ) King David ( 1997 ) The Bellringer of Notre Dame ( 1999 ) Sister Act ( 2006 ) The Little Mermaid ( 2007 ) Leap of Faith ( 2010 ) Newsies ( 2011 ) Aladdin ( 2014 ) The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz ( 2015 ) A Bronx Tale ( 2016 ) Musical films Little Shop of Horrors ( 1986 ) The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) Newsies ( 1992 ) Aladdin ( 1992 ) Pocahontas ( 1995 ) The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) Hercules ( 1997 ) Home on the Range ( 2004 ) A Christmas Carol ( 2004 ) Enchanted ( 2007 ) Tangled ( 2010 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 2017 ) Aladdin ( 2019 ) Songs `` Part of Your World '' `` Under the Sea '' `` Kiss the Girl '' `` Be Our Guest '' `` Beauty and the Beast '' `` Friend Like Me '' `` A Whole New World '' `` Just Around the Riverbend '' `` Colors of the Wind '' `` If I Never Knew You '' `` If I Ca n't Love Her '' `` The Bells of Notre Dame '' `` Out There '' `` God Help the Outcasts '' `` Hellfire '' `` Someday '' `` Go the Distance '' `` I Wo n't Say ( I 'm in Love ) '' `` Happy Working Song '' `` That 's How You Know '' `` So Close '' `` Ever Ever After '' `` Mother Knows Best '' `` I See the Light '' Howard Ashman Musicals God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1979 ) Little Shop of Horrors ( 1982 ) Smile ( 1986 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1994 ) The Little Mermaid ( 2007 ) Aladdin ( 2014 ) Musical films Little Shop of Horrors ( 1986 ) Oliver & Company ( 1988 ) The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) Aladdin ( 1992 ) Beauty and the Beast ( 2017 ) Aladdin ( 2019 ) Related articles Alan Menken Howard Sings Ashman Annie Award for Best Animated Feature Beauty and the Beast ( 1992 ) Aladdin ( 1993 ) The Lion King ( 1994 ) Pocahontas ( 1995 ) Toy Story ( 1996 ) Cats Do n't Dance ( 1997 ) Mulan ( 1998 ) The Iron Giant ( 1999 ) Toy Story 2 ( 2000 ) Shrek ( 2001 ) Spirited Away ( 2002 ) Finding Nemo ( 2003 ) The Incredibles ( 2004 ) Wallace & Gromit : The Curse of the Were - Rabbit ( 2005 ) Cars ( 2006 ) Ratatouille ( 2007 ) Kung Fu Panda ( 2008 ) Up ( 2009 ) How to Train Your Dragon ( 2010 ) Rango ( 2011 ) Wreck - It Ralph ( 2012 ) Frozen ( 2013 ) How to Train Your Dragon 2 ( 2014 ) Inside Out ( 2015 ) Zootopia ( 2016 ) Disney portal Film in the United States portal 1990s portal Animation portal Cartoon portal United States portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beauty_and_the_Beast_(1991_film)&oldid=804634698 '' Categories : 1991 films English - language films 1990s American animated films 1990s comedy - drama films 1990s fantasy films 1990s musical films 1990s romantic musical films 1991 animated films 3D re-releases American animated fantasy films American children 's animated films American children 's fantasy films American comedy - drama films American films American musical fantasy films American romantic fantasy films American romantic musical films Animated films about death Animated musical films Animated romance films Annie Award winners Best Animated Feature Annie Award winners Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners Directorial debut films Disney Renaissance Disney 's Beauty and the Beast Feminist films Film scores by Alan Menken Films about bibliophilia Films about curses Films about narcissism Films about royalty Films about shapeshifting Films based on Beauty and the Beast Films based on fairy tales Films directed by Gary Trousdale Films directed by Kirk Wise Films featuring anthropomorphic characters Films produced by Don Hahn Films set in castles Films set in France Films set in the 18th century Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award IMAX films Screenplays by Joe Ranft Screenplays by Linda Woolverton United States National Film Registry films Walt Disney Animation Studios films Walt Disney Pictures films Witchcraft in film Hidden categories : Pages using web citations with no URL Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Good articles Use mdy dates from October 2015 Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - 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5 | document: Thersites - wikipedia Thersites Jump to : navigation , search For the gastropod of Camaenidae family , see Thersites ( gastropod ) . Trojan War Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus ( Attic red - figure kylix , c. 500 BC ) The war Setting : Troy ( modern Hisarlik , Turkey ) Period : Bronze Age Traditional dating : c. 1194 -- 1184 BC Modern dating : c. 1260 -- 1180 BC Outcome : Greek victory , destruction of Troy See also : Historicity of the Iliad Literary sources Iliad Epic Cycle Aeneid , Book 2 Iphigenia in Aulis Philoctetes Ajax The Trojan Women Posthomerica See also : Trojan War in popular culture Episodes Judgement of Paris Seduction of Helen Trojan Horse Sack of Troy The Returns Wanderings of Odysseus Aeneas and the Founding of Rome Greeks and allies Agamemnon Achilles Helen Menelaus Nestor Odysseus Ajax Diomedes Patroclus Thersites Achaeans Myrmidons See also : Catalogue of Ships Trojans and allies Priam Hecuba Hector Paris Cassandra Andromache Aeneas Memnon Troilus Penthesilea and the Amazons Sarpedon See also : Trojan Battle Order Participant gods Caused the war : Eris Zeus On the Greek side : Athena Hera Hephaestus Hermes Poseidon Thetis On the Trojan side : Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Leto Scamander Related topics Homeric question Archaeology of Troy Mycenae Mycenaean warfare This article contains special characters . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks , boxes , or other symbols . In Greek mythology , Thersites ( Greek : Θερσίτης ) was a soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War . In the Iliad , he does not have a father 's name , which may suggest that he should be viewed as a commoner rather than an aristocratic hero . However , a quotation from another lost epic in the Trojan cycle , the Aethiopis , gives his father 's name as Agrius . Homer described him in detail in the Iliad , Book II , even though he plays only a minor role in the story . He is said to be bow - legged and lame , to have shoulders that cave inward , and a head which is covered in tufts of hair and comes to a point . Vulgar , obscene , and somewhat dull - witted , Thersites disrupts the rallying of the Greek army : `` He got up in the assembly and attacked Agamemnon in the words of Achilles ( calling him greedy and a coward ) ... Odysseus then stood up , delivered a sharp rebuke to Thersites , which he coupled with a threat to strip him naked , and then beat him on the back and shoulders with Agamemnon 's sceptre ; Thersites doubled over , a warm tear fell from his eye , and a bloody welt formed on his back ; he sat down in fear , and in pain gazed helplessly as he wiped away his tear ; but the rest of the assembly was distressed and laughed ... There must be a figuration of wickedness as self - evident as Thersites -- the ugliest man who came to Troy -- who says what everyone else is thinking '' . He is not mentioned elsewhere in the Iliad , but it seems that in the lost Aethiopis , Achilles eventually killed him `` for having torn out the eyes of the Amazon Penthesilea that the hero had just killed in combat . '' In his Introduction to The Anger of Achilles , Robert Graves speculates that Homer might have made Thersites a ridiculous figure as a way of dissociating himself from him , because his remarks seem entirely justified . This was a way of letting these remarks , along with Odysseus ' brutal act of suppression , remain in the record . That Odysseus is described as beating Thersites , not with any object of his own , but rather with Agamemnon 's sceptre , certainly seems to leave the implications of the event open to the listener 's imagination or point of view . In later literature ( edit ) Thersites is also mentioned in Plato 's Gorgias ( 525e ) as an example of a soul that can be cured in the afterlife ; and in The Republic he chooses to be reborn as an ape . According to E.R. Dodds , `` There he is not so much the typical petty criminal as the typical buffoon ; and so Lucian describes him . '' Along with many of the major figures of the Trojan War , Thersites was a character in Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida ( 1602 ) in which he is described as `` a deformed and scurrilous Grecian '' and portrayed as a comic servant , in the tradition of the Shakespearian fool , but unusually given to abusive remarks to all he encounters . He begins as Ajax 's slave , telling Ajax , `` I would thou didst itch from head to foot and I had the scratching of thee ; I would make thee the loathsomest scab in Greece . '' Thersites soon leaves Ajax and puts himself into the service of Achilles ( portrayed by Shakespeare as a kind of bohemian figure ) , who appreciates his bitter , caustic humor . Shakespeare mentions Thersites again in his later play Cymbeline , when Guiderius says , `` Thersites ' body is as good as Ajax ' / When neither are alive . '' Laurence Sterne writes of Thersites in the last volume of his Tristram Shandy chapter 14 , declaring him to be the exemplar of abusive satire , as black as the ink it is written with . In Part Two of Goethe 's Faust ( 1832 ) , Act One , during the Masquerade , Thersites appears briefly and criticizes the goings - on . He says , `` When some lofty thing is done / I gird at once my harness on . / Up with what 's low , what 's high eschew , / Call crooked straight , and straight askew , '' The Herald , who acts as Master of Revels or Lord of Misrule , strikes Thersites with his mace , at which point he metamorphoses into an egg , from which a bat and an adder are hatched . As social critic ( edit ) The role of Thersites as a social critic has been advanced by several philosophers and literary critics , including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , Friedrich Nietzsche , Edward Said and Kenneth Burke . In the passage below from Language As Symbolic Action , Burke cites Hegel 's coinage of the term `` Thersitism , '' and he proceeds to describe a version of it as a process by which an author both privileges protest in a literary work but also disguises or disowns it , so as not to distract from the literary form of the work , which must push on toward other effects than the protest per se : If an audience is likely to feel that it is being crowded into a position , if there is any likelihood that the requirements of dramatic `` efficiency '' would lead to the blunt ignoring of a possible protest from at least some significant portion of the onlookers , the author must get this objection stated in the work itself . But the objection should be voiced in a way that the same breath disposes of it . A perfect example of this stratagem is the role of Thersites in the Iliad . For any Greeks who were likely to resent the stupidity of the Trojan War , the text itself provided a spokesman who voiced their resistance . And he was none other than the abominable Thersites , for whom no `` right - minded '' member of the Greek audience was likely to feel sympathy . As early as Hegel , however , his standard role was beginning to be questioned . Consider , for instance , these remarks in the introduction to Hegel 's Lectures on the Philosophy of History : The Thersites of Homer who abuses the kings is a standing figure for all times . He does not get in every age ... the blows that he gets in Homer . But his envy , his egotism , is the thorn which he has to carry in his flesh . And the undying worm that gnaws him is the tormenting consideration that his excellent views and vituperations remain absolutely without result in the world . But our satisfaction at the fate of Thersitism may also have its sinister side . Thersites also appears in the writings of Karl Marx ' and those of later Marxist literature in Soviet times much in the spirit of Hegel 's construal . Heiner Müller casts Thersites in the role of Shepherd who also shears his sheep reflecting the contradictions broached by Hegel . ... Came the talk in dining , meat and wine , to Thersites The reviled , the windbag , Homer stood in the gathering Using wisely the great quarrel for the greater prey , spoke : See the peoples shepherd who shears his flock and does them in as always does the shepherd , showed the soldiers bloody and empty , the bloody , empty hands of soldiers . Then asked the pupils : What is it with this Thersites , Master ? You give him the right words then with your own Words you put him in the wrong ... Notes and references ( edit ) Notes Jump up ^ The first attestation of this name in Greek could be the Mycenaean Linear B word 𐀵𐀯𐀲 , to - si - ta , a word found on the PY Cn 719 tablet . References Jump up ^ Thompson , Rupert ( 2010 ) . `` Mycenaean Greek '' . In Bakker , Egbert J. A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language . Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World . Wiley - Blackwell . p. 192 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 5326 - 3 . At Google Books . Jump up ^ Raymoure , K.A. `` to - si - ta '' . Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean . `` PY 719 Cn + frr. : 6 + fr . + fr . + fr . + frr. ( 1 ) '' . DĀMOS : Database of Mycenaean at Oslo . University of Oslo . Jump up ^ The Rhetoric of Morality and Philosophy by Seth Benardete , 1991 , pp. 100 -- 101 . Jump up ^ analyses et réflexions sur Gorgias by Luc Brisson , p152 Jump up ^ Gorgias , ed. by E.R. Dodds , 1959 , p. 382 . Jump up ^ Trans . Wayne , Philip , copyright 1959 ( Penguin Books ) . Jump up ^ Pages 110 - 111 Jump up ^ Marx , quoting Shakespeare and otherwise employing the trope of Thesites : Moralising Criticism and Critical Morality , Deutsche - Brüsseler - Zeitung Nos. 87 , October 31 , 1847 and No. 94 , November 25 , 1847 . http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/10/31.htm Jump up ^ e.g. Heiner Müller , Poem , Stories from Homer ( Geschichten von Homer ) , 1949 , Werke 1 , Shurkamp , 1998 , p16 . Characters in the Iliad Achaeans Acamas Achilles Agamemnon Agapenor Ajax the Greater Ajax the Lesser Alcimus Anticlus Antilochus Arcesilaus Ascalaphus Automedon Balius and Xanthus Bias Calchas Diomedes Elephenor Epeius Eudoros Euryalus Eurybates Eurydamas Eurypylus Guneus Helen Ialmenus Idomeneus Leitus Leonteus Lycomedes Machaon Medon Meges Menelaus Menestheus Meriones Neoptolemus Nestor Nireus Odysseus Palamedes Patroclus Peneleos Philoctetes Phoenix Podalirius Podarces Polites Polypoetes Promachus Protesilaus Prothoenor Schedius Stentor Sthenelus Talthybius Teucer Thersites Thoas Thrasymedes Tlepolemus Trojans Aeneas Aesepus Agenor Alcathous Amphimachus Anchises Andromache Antenor Antiphates Antiphus Archelochus Asius Asteropaios Astyanax Atymnius Axylus Briseis Calesius Caletor Cassandra Chryseis Chryses Clytius Coön Dares Phrygius Deiphobus Dolon Epistrophus Euphemus Euphorbus Glaucus Gorgythion Hector Hecuba Helenus Hyperenor Hypsenor Ilioneus Imbrius Iphidamas Kebriones Laocoön Lycaon Melanippus Mentes Mydon Mygdon of Phrygia Othryoneus Pandarus Panthous Paris Pedasus Peirous Phorcys Polites Polydamas Polybus Polydorus Priam Pylaemenes Pylaeus Pyraechmes Rhesus of Thrace Sarpedon Theano Ucalegon GND : 118998749 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thersites&oldid=747757996 '' Categories : People of the Trojan War Fictional jesters Characters in the Iliad Hidden categories : Articles containing Mycenaean Greek - language text Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2014 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 4 November 2016 , at 05 : 31 . 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6 | document: List of television stations in Michigan - wikipedia List of television stations in Michigan This is a list of broadcast television stations serving cities in the U.S. state of Michigan . Contents ( hide ) 1 Full - power stations 1.1 Defunct full - power stations 2 LPTV Stations 3 Translators 4 Cable - only stations 5 External links Full - power stations ( edit ) TV Market City of license Channel Number Digital Number Call Letters Network Affiliation Subchannels and Notes Alpena Alpena 6 24 WCML PBS Satellite of WCMU - TV ch. 14 Mount Pleasant Alpena Alpena 11 11 WBKB CBS FOX / MyNetworkTV on 11.2 , ABC on 11.3 Detroit Detroit 7 WJBK - DT FOX Movies ! on 2.2 , Buzzr on 2.3 , Heroes & Icons on 2.4 Detroit Detroit 45 WDIV - DT NBC This TV on 4.2 , MeTV on 4.3 Detroit Detroit 7 41 WXYZ - DT ABC Bounce TV on 7.2 , Laff on 7.3 Detroit Detroit 20 21 WMYD - DT My Network TV Antenna TV on 20.2 , Escape on 20.3 Detroit Ann Arbor 31 50 WPXD - DT ION Qubo on 31.2 , Ion Life on 31.3 , Ion Shop on 31.4 , QVC Over the Air on 31.5 , HSN on 31.6 Detroit Mount Clemens 38 39 WADL - DT Ind . Grit on 38.2 , Get TV on 38.3 , Cozi TV on 38.4 Detroit Detroit 50 14 WKBD - DT The CW Detroit Detroit 56 43 WTVS - DT PBS PBS Kids on 56.2 , Create on 56.3 , World on 56.4 Detroit Detroit 62 44 WWJ - DT CBS Decades on 62.2 Flint / Saginaw Bay City 5 22 WNEM CBS MyNetworkTV on 5.2 , Cozi TV on 5.3 Flint / Saginaw Flint 12 12 WJRT ABC MeTV on 12.2 , Weather Nation on 12.3 Flint / Saginaw Bad Axe 19 15 WDCQ PBS Flint / Saginaw Saginaw 25 30 WEYI NBC CW ( simulcast with WBSF ) on 25.2 , Bounce TV on 25.3 Flint / Saginaw Flint 28 28 WCMZ PBS satellite of WCMU - TV ch. 14 Mount Pleasant Flint / Saginaw Bay City 46 46 WBSF CW NBC ( simulcast with WEYI ) on 46.2 , Grit on 46.3 Flint / Saginaw Saginaw 49 48 WAQP TCT Flint / Saginaw Flint 66 16 WSMH Fox Antenna TV on 66.2 , Comet on 66.3 Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Kalamazoo 8 WWMT CBS The CW on 3.2 Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Grand Rapids 8 7 WOOD NBC Bounce TV on 8.2 , local weather radar on 8.3 Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Grand Rapids 13 13 WZZM ABC local weather on 13.2 , Justice Network on 13.3 Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Grand Rapids 17 19 WXMI Fox Antenna TV on 17.2 , This TV on 17.3 Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Grand Rapids 35 11 WGVU PBS Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Battle Creek 41 20 WOTV ABC Branded as `` WOTV 4 '' after its cable channel position local weather radar on 41.2 Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Battle Creek 43 44 WZPX ION Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Kalamazoo 52 5 WGVK PBS satellite of WGVU - TV ch. 35 Grand Rapids Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Muskegon 54 24 WTLJ TCT Grand Rapids / Kalamazoo Kalamazoo 64 45 WLLA My Family TV MeTV on 64.2 , RetroTV on 64.3 Lansing / Jackson Lansing 6 36 WLNS CBS Lansing / Jackson Onondaga 10 10 WILX NBC local weather on 10.2 , Antenna TV on 10.3 Lansing / Jackson East Lansing 23 40 WKAR PBS Lansing / Jackson Lansing 47 38 WSYM Fox MeTV on 47.2 , Bounce TV on 47.3 Lansing / Jackson Lansing 53 25 WLAJ ABC The CW on 53.2 Manistee Manistee 21 21 WCMW PBS satellite of WCMU - TV ch. 14 Mount Pleasant Marquette Escanaba 48 WJMN CBS semi-satellite of WFRV - TV , Green Bay , WI Marquette Calumet 5 5 WBKP CW ABC ( simulcast with WBUP ) on 5.2 Marquette Marquette 6 35 WLUC NBC Fox on 6.2 , Grit on 6.3 Marquette Ishpeming 10 10 WBUP ABC The CW ( simulcast with WBKP ) on 5.2 Marquette Marquette 13 13 WNMU PBS Marquette Marquette 19 19 WZMQ Me - TV MyNetworkTV / This TV on 19.2 , Antenna TV on 19.3 Mount Pleasant Mount Pleasant 14 26 WCMU PBS Traverse City / Cadillac Traverse City , Cadillac and Cheboygan , Michigan 7 / 4 47 / 35 WPBN / WTOM NBC ABC ( SD simulcast with WGTU / WGTQ ) on 7.2 / 4.2 Traverse City Cadillac Traverse City , Cadillac and Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan 29 / 8 29 / 8 WGTU / WGTQ ABC NBC ( SD simulcast with WPBN / WTOM ) on 29.2 / 8.2 Traverse City Cadillac Traverse City , Cadillac and Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan 9 / 10 9 / 10 WWTV / WWUP CBS Fox ( SD simulcast with WFQX / WFUP ) on 9.2 / 10.2 Traverse City / Cadillac Traverse City , Cadillac and Vanderbilt , Michigan 32 / 45 32 / 45 WFQX / WFUP Fox CBS ( SD simulcast with WWTV / WWUP ) on 45.2 Traverse City / Cadillac Cadillac 27 17 WCMV PBS Satellite of WCMU - TV ch. 14 Mount Pleasant Defunct full - power stations ( edit ) Channel 8 : WDHS - Iron Mountain ( 1986 - 11 / 19 / 2015 ) Channel 16 : WTAC - TV - ABC / DuMont - Flint ( 1953 - 1954 ) Channel 18 : WHTV - Bloomberg / UPN / MNT / JTV - Jackson ( 8 / 20 / 1999 - 8 / 31 / 2017 ) Channel 20 : WPAG - TV - Ann Arbor ( 4 / 3 / 1953 - 12 / 31 / 1957 ) Channel 20 : WJMY - TV - Allen Park ( 10 / 7 / 1962 - 6 / 10 / 1963 ) Channel 54 : WILS - TV / WTOM - TV - DuMont - Lansing ( 9 / 20 / 1953 - 10 / 9 / 1956 ) Channel 64 : WBKZ - TV - Battle Creek ( 5 / 22 / 1953 - 4 / 23 / 1954 ) LPTV Stations ( edit ) Area served City of license Call Sign Virtual Physical Network Affiliation Notes Detroit Detroit WHNE - LD 14 20 LATV / LC RTV at 14.2 , infomercials at 14.3 , Tuff TV at 14.4 and CSTV and JTV at 14.5 Detroit Detroit W33BY - D 33 33 IND 33.1 - IND , 33.2 - Simulcast of WHPR - FM , 33.3 - Simulcast of WVIE - FM , 33.4 - SD Simulcast of 33.1 Grand Rapids Muskegon WMKG - CD 38 49 Launch TV Lifehacks DRTV at 38.2 Translators ( edit ) Area served City of license Call Sign Virtual Physical Network Affiliation Notes Flint Midland WIEK - LD 23 23 Silent Flint Midland WCYA - LD 48 49 Silent ~ Wausau , WI Ironwood W32CV - D 21 32 FOX Antenna TV on 21.2 Cable - only stations ( edit ) WBAE - The CW - Alpena WBVC - The CW - Traverse City External links ( edit ) Station Listings / Dial Pages : Michigan 's Broadcast Guide hide Television stations in North America Canada AB BC MB NB NL NT NS NU ON PE QC SK YT United States AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE DC FL GA HI ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ NM NY NC ND OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY Mexico Ags . BC BCS Camp . Cd . de México Chis . Chih . Coah . Col . Dgo . Gto . Gro . Hgo . Jal . Mex . Mich . Mor . Nay . NL Oax . Pue . Qro . Q. Roo SLP Sin . Son . Tab . Tamps . Tlax . Ver . Yuc . Zac . American Territories AS GU PR VI By region Canada ( CB , CF - CK ) United States ( K ) United States ( W ) Mexico ( XE / XH ) Caribbean ( V / Z ) By channel number TV stations by channel number See also hide Additional resources on North American television North America List of local television stations in North America DTV transition North American TV mini-template Canada Canadian networks List of Canadian television networks List of Canadian television channels List of Canadian specialty channels Local Canadian TV stations List of United States stations available in Canada 2001 Vancouver TV realignment 2007 Canada broadcast TV realignment Mexico Mexican networks Local Mexican TV stations United States American networks List of American cable and satellite networks List of American over-the - air networks Local American TV stations ( W ) Local American TV stations ( K ) Spanish - language TV networks 1994 United States broadcast TV realignment 2006 United States broadcast TV realignment List of Canadian television stations available in the United States Insular Areas TV Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_television_stations_in_Michigan&oldid=830986301 '' Categories : Lists of television channels in the United States Television stations in Michigan Michigan - related lists Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 18 March 2018 , at 02 : 21 . 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7 | document: Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket - Wikipedia Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket Jump to : navigation , search Fox Sports West Prime Ticket Launched Prime Ticket : October 19 , 1985 ( 1985 - 10 - 19 ) Fox Sports West : November 1 , 1996 ( 1996 - 11 - 01 ) Network Fox Sports Networks Owned by Fox Entertainment Group ( 21st Century Fox ) Picture format 720p ( HDTV ) 480i ( SDTV ) Slogan We Are Fox Sports . We Are LA . Country United States Language English Spanish ( via SAP ) Broadcast area Southern California Las Vegas Valley Hawaii Nationwide ( via satellite ) Headquarters Los Angeles , California Formerly called Fox Sports West : Prime Ticket ( 1985 -- 94 ) Prime Sports West ( 1994 -- 96 ) Fox Sports West ( first era ; 1996 -- 2000 ) Fox Sports Net West ( 2000 -- 04 ) FSN West ( 2004 -- 08 ) Prime Ticket : Fox Sports West 2 ( 1997 -- 2000 ) Fox Sports Net West 2 ( 2000 -- 04 ) FSN West 2 ( 2004 -- 06 ) Replaced SportsChannel Los Angeles Sister channel ( s ) Cable / satellite : Fox Sports San Diego Broadcast : KTTV / Los Angeles KCOP - TV / Los Angeles Website www.foxsports.com/west Availability Satellite DirecTV 692 Fox Sports West ( SD / HD ) 693 Prime Ticket ( SD / HD ) Dish Network 411 Prime Ticket ( SD / HD ) 417 Fox Sports West ( SD / HD ) Cable Spectrum ( Los Angeles ) 41 Fox Sports West ( SD / HD ) 42 Prime Ticket ( SD / HD ) Spectrum ( Anaheim ) 33 Fox Sports West ( SD / HD ) 34 Prime Ticket ( SD / HD ) Cox Communications ( Las Vegas ) 49 Fox Sports West ( SD ) 50 Prime Ticket ( SD ) 1049 Fox Sports West ( HD ) 1050 Prime Ticket ( HD ) Oceanic Spectrum ( Hawaii ) 20 Fox Sports West ( analog ) 31 Prime Ticket ( analog ) 226 Fox Sports West ( SD ) 228 Prime Ticket ( SD ) 1226 Fox Sports West ( HD ) 1228 Prime Ticket ( HD ) Available on select other cable systems in primary broadcast area Consult your local cable provider or program listings source for channel availability Streaming media Fox Sports Go www.foxsportsgo.com/ ( U.S. cable internet subscribers only ; requires login from participating providers to stream content ; some events may not be available due to league rights restrictions ) Sling TV Internet Protocol television PlayStation Vue Internet Protocol television Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket are American regional sports networks that are owned by Fox Cable Networks , a unit of the Fox Entertainment Group division of 21st Century Fox , and operate as affiliates of Fox Sports Networks . The channels broadcast regional coverage of professional and collegiate sports events in California , focusing primarily on professional sports teams based in the Greater Los Angeles area . Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket maintain general offices and studios based at the Staples Center in Downtown Los Angeles . Both Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket are available on cable providers throughout Southern California , the Las Vegas Valley and Hawaii ; it is also available nationwide on satellite via DirecTV , Dish Network , and via IPTV providers Sling TV and PlayStation Vue . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 1980s 1.2 1990s 1.3 2000s 1.3. 1 Loss of contracts to Charter Communications 2 Programming 2.1 Team coverage 2.2 Overflow coverage 2.3 Courtside View 3 Notable on - air staff 3.1 Current 3.2 Former 4 Carriage issues 4.1 San Diego County 4.2 Las Vegas Valley 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History ( edit ) 1980s ( edit ) What is now Fox Sports West was launched under the Prime Ticket name on October 19 , 1985 ; the channel was originally co-owned by Dr. Jerry Buss , majority owner of the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings , and cable television pioneer Dr. Bill Daniels , who held a minority ownership interest in both franchises . Unlike many of the regional sports networks in operation at the time of Prime Ticket 's launch , the channel was ( and still is ) structured as a basic cable channel , instead of a premium service . The network originally broadcast for seven hours a day , each evening from 5 : 00 p.m. to 12 : 00 a.m. The first contract with Prime Ticket was negotiated and signed by Tony Acone , who was appointed as president of the channel , and Bob Kerstein , chief financial officer of Falcon Cable TV . Leslie Watson , a certified public accountant employed by the accounting firm of Coopers & Lybrand , joined Prime Ticket as its first financial controller through the early years of the channel . Prior to the launch of Prime Ticket , Los Angeles Lakers basketball and Los Angeles Kings hockey games ( primarily home games that were not televised nationally ) were carried within the Los Angeles market on the over-the - air subscription services ONTV and SelecTV . Its original general offices were located in a small office building located across the street from the Great Western Forum in Inglewood . Prime Ticket became one of the leading regional sports networks in the United States , rivaling the New York City - based Madison Square Garden Network . The network was founded at the height of the Lakers ' 1980s championship run , and also got a boost from the trade of Wayne Gretzky to the Kings in 1988 . In late 1988 , Daniels partnered with Tele - Communications Inc. to form a new group of regional sports networks , known as the Prime Sports Network . Prime Ticket served as the flagship charter affiliate , joined by the newly formed owned - and - operated outlet Prime Sports Rocky Mountain ( now AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain ) , and two networks that served as affiliates , Home Sports Entertainment ( now Fox Sports Southwest ) and the newly launched Sunshine Network ( now Fox Sports Sun ) . 1990s ( edit ) In 1990 , Prime Ticket acquired the cable television rights to the California Angels ( now the Los Angeles Angels ) and the Los Angeles Clippers . The channel carried the Clippers ' NBA games during the 1990 - 91 season , before the team struck a broadcasting agreement with SportsChannel Los Angeles ( originally Z Channel ) that went into effect the following season . SportsChannel Los Angeles later ceased operations in December 1992 , which left the city 's professional sports teams having to broadcast their locally televised games either over-the - air or in the form of select cable - exclusive telecasts for the next four years . In August 1994 , Buss and Daniels sold Prime Ticket to the Prime Network 's parent company , Liberty Media , which subsequently rechristened the channel Prime Sports West . In 1996 , News Corporation , which formed a sports division for the Fox network two years earlier after it obtained the broadcast rights to the National Football Conference , acquired a 50 % interest in the Prime Network from Liberty Media . On November 1 , 1996 , the Fox / Liberty joint venture relaunched the Prime Network affiliates as part of the new Fox Sports Net ; as a result , the channel was officially rebranded as Fox Sports West . The following year , Fox Sports Net expanded to other regions with the purchase of a 40 % interest in the SportsChannel networks through an asset trade with Cablevision Systems Corporation , forming the venture National Sports Partners to run the owned - and - operated regional networks . On January 27 , 1997 , Fox Sports Net launched a secondary channel , Fox Sports West 2 , to carry in - market cable broadcasts of Los Angeles Clippers , Los Angeles Dodgers and Anaheim Ducks games , as well as other events that FSN West could not fit onto its broadcast schedule . The launch of Fox Sports West 2 allowed Fox Sports West to focus its major league sports coverage of the Los Angeles Lakers , Los Angeles Kings and Anaheim Angels . 2000s ( edit ) Logos for Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket , used from 2009 to 2012 . In 2000 , Fox Sports West and Fox Sports West 2 were respectively rebranded as Fox Sports Net West and Fox Sports Net West 2 , as part of a collective brand modification of the FSN networks under the `` Fox Sports Net '' banner . In 2001 , Fox Sports West and West 2 relocated their offices and studios from the Century City section of Los Angeles to Downtown , in an office building two blocks east of the Staples Center . During this time , a streetside studio for the channel 's game telecasts opened at the exterior of the Staples Center , at the southwest corner of 11th ( Chick Hearn Court ) and South Figueroa Streets . In 2004 , the two channels respectively rebranded under the shortened names FSN West and FSN West 2 , as part of Fox Sports ' de-emphasis of the `` Fox Sports Net '' brand across its regional networks . On April 3 , 2006 , FSN West 2 rebranded as FSN Prime Ticket ( later shortened to simply Prime Ticket ) , beginning with the Dodgers season opener against the Atlanta Braves at Dodger Stadium . The network adopted a new philosophy to concentrate more on local originally - produced content ( such as the documentary series Before the Bigs and In My Own Words , and team - themed Insider shows ) and less on supplemental national programming provided by Fox Sports Net . FSN West reverted to the Fox Sports West moniker in 2008 . In the fall of 2009 , just as rival ESPN opened its new Los Angeles - based broadcast center directly across the street at the L.A. Live complex , Fox Sports West shut down its Staples Center streetside studio . The channel began to produce its pre-game and post-game shows at the site of each televised event shown on the two networks ; as weather permits , pre-game and postgame shows for most Clippers , Lakers and Kings home game are produced at Star Plaza , near the main entrance of Staples Center . The former Fox Sports Staples Center studio has since been converted into a conference center , with Nike as the corporate sponsor . In July 2013 , News Corporation spun off the Fox Sports Networks and most of its other U.S. entertainment properties into 21st Century Fox . In 2014 , Prime Ticket began broadcasting Arizona Diamondbacks games via Fox Sports Arizona which is available in the Las Vegas Valley only on Cox Communications . Loss of contracts to charter Communications ( edit ) In 2012 , Fox Sports West and independent station KCAL - TV ( channel 9 ) lost the television rights to the Lakers to Time Warner Cable SportsNet and Time Warner Cable Deportes , two new regional sports networks established as a result of a 20 - year agreement between the team and the cable provider , which began with the 2012 - 13 season . The networks also acquired the rights to air WNBA and Major League Soccer games featuring the Los Angeles Galaxy and Los Angeles Sparks . Fox Sports West 's deal with the Los Angeles Dodgers , whose games aired via sister network Prime Ticket , expired at the end of the 2013 MLB season . On June 20 , 2011 , MLB Commissioner Bud Selig rejected a proposed contract extension between the Los Angeles Dodgers and Prime Ticket , citing concerns that the deal was structured in a way that most of the proceeds would end up being assigned to beleaguered Dodgers owner Frank McCourt and not the team 's operations . Both Fox Sports West and the Dodgers were involved in separate lawsuits over the team 's broadcast rights as well as the sale of the club . On January 10 , 2012 , Fox and the Dodgers reached a settlement in court , clearing the way for the sale of the team . Fox 's exclusive negotiating period with the Dodgers expired on November 30 , 2012 -- leaving the team open to competing offers . On January 22 , 2013 , reports surfaced that Time Warner Cable had agreed to partner with the Dodgers to form a new regional sports network , SportsNet LA , which would be majority - owned by the team . The deal became official on January 28 . Time Warner Cable was acquired by Charter Communications on May 18 , 2016 . Programming ( edit ) Team coverage ( edit ) Team League Number of telecasts Anaheim Ducks NHL 65 Los Angeles Angels Major League Baseball American League 150 Los Angeles Clippers NBA 75 Los Angeles Kings NHL 72 Big West Conference NCAA Varies West Coast Conference NCAA Varies Overflow coverage ( edit ) In the Los Angeles market , in the case of scheduling conflicts , Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket will move a scheduled telecast of an Angels , Clippers , Ducks , or Kings game to KCOP - TV ( Channel 13 ) , the local MyNetworkTV owned - and - operated station and sister station to the two networks . Those KCOP Angels and Clippers telecasts may also be streamed via the Fox Sports Go application for those outside of the Los Angeles DMA ; Prior to the 2016 - 17 season , Kings and Ducks games were not streamed on the application , as Fox Sports and the National Hockey League did not come to a streaming rights agreement until the summer of 2016 . Courtside view ( edit ) Prime Ticket provides an alternate feed known as `` Courtside View '' during select Ducks and Kings home telecasts aired on Fox Sports West ; the feature provides distinct camera angles and does not incorporate commentary , providing a broadcast simulating the experience of a spectator at the arena . Notable on - air staff ( edit ) Current ( edit ) John Ahlers -- Anaheim Ducks announcer Bruce Bowen -- Los Angeles Clippers commentator Alex Curry -- Los Angeles Angels and Los Angeles Kings sideline reporter ( home games only ) , Angels Weekly and Kings Weekly host Daryl Evans -- Kings Live analyst ( road games only ) Alex Faust -- Los Angeles Kings announcer Jim Fox -- Los Angeles Kings commentator ( former analyst for Kings `` Break The Ice '' ) Kent French -- Angels Live and Ducks Live host Mark Gubicza -- Los Angeles Angels commentator and Angels Live analyst Brian Hayward -- Anaheim Ducks commentator and Duck Live analyst Guy Hebert -- Ducks Live analyst Mike Hill -- Clippers Live host Ralph Lawler -- Los Angeles Clippers announcer Don MacLean -- Clippers Live analyst ( former UCLA basketball commentator ) Corey Maggette -- Clippers Live analyst Michelle Margaux -- Los Angeles Clippers sideline reporter ( fil - in ) José Mota -- Los Angeles Angels commentator and reporter , Angels Live analyst Sean O'Donnell -- Kings Live analyst ( home games only ) Patrick O'Neal -- Angels Live and Kings Live host ( formerly host of Dodgers Live and Lakers Live , and Lakers sideline reporter ) Mike Pomeranz -- Ducks Live host ( rotating ) Kristina Pink -- Los Angeles Clippers sideline reporter Victor Rojas -- Los Angeles Angels announcer Jon Rosen -- Los Angeles Kings sideline reporter ( road games only ) Jarret Stoll -- Kings Live analyst ( home games only ) Jeanne Zelasko -- Clippers Live host ( rotating ) Former ( edit ) Heidi Androl -- Los Angeles Kings reporter Michael Cage -- Clippers Live analyst , former USC commentator and former analyst for Lakers Live and Bruins Live Eric Collins -- Dodgers road announcer ( games east of Arizona ) and Dodgers Live anchor Todd Donoho -- Southern California Sports Report anchor John Fricke -- Southern California Sports Report anchor Jack Haley -- Lakers Live analyst and Big West basketball commentator Chick Hearn -- Lakers play - by - play announcer ( deceased ) Rex Hudler -- Los Angeles Angels commentator , and analyst for Angels in the Infield and Angels Live Carolyn Hughes -- anchor of Southern California Sports Report and Dodgers Dugout ( 2005 ) Marques Johnson -- Pac - 12 basketball commentato and ( 2007 ) Trojans Live March Madness analyst Eric Karros -- Dodgers posteason studio analyst ( 2003 ) Kevin Kennedy -- Major League Baseball analyst Mark Langston -- 2002 Angels postseason studio analyst Stu Lantz -- Los Angeles Lakers commentator Steve Lyons -- Los Angeles Dodgers road commentator and Dodgers Live analyst Bill Macdonald -- baseball , basketball , football and hockey announcer Rory Markas -- Angels announcer ( deceased ) Adrian Garcia Marquez -- Dodgers Live reporter Chris McGee -- Lakers Live and Clippers Live reporter , and high school football announcer Marty McSorley -- NHL analyst ( 2006 ) Joel Meyers -- Los Angeles Lakers and Big 12 football announcer Bob Miller -- Los Angeles Kings announcer , 2000 Inductee into the Hockey Hall of Fame , Recipient of the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award ( retired ) Rick Monday -- Dodgers play - by - play announcer and Dugout analyst Norm Nixon -- Lakers Live analyst Petros Papadakis -- USC football analyst and Pac - 12 football commentator Steve Physioc -- Los Angeles Angels and Pac - 12 basketball announcer Ross Porter -- Dodgers play - by - play announcer Lindsay Rhodes -- sideline reporter , and anchor of Trojans Live and Southern California Sports Report Pooh Richardson -- Clippers Live analyst ( 2006 ) Ted Robinson -- Pac - 12 basketball announcer Vin Scully -- Los Angeles Dodgers announcer ( 2005 -- 2013 ) Suzy Shuster -- Southern California Sports Report anchor Charley Steiner -- Dodgers road announcer Matt Stevens -- UCLA football analyst Paul Sunderland -- Pac - 12 , Big West and Lakers basketball announcer Barry Tompkins -- Pac - 12 football and basketball announcer Jim Watson -- Pac - 12 and LA Galaxy announcer , sideline reporter , and anchor of `` Dodgers Live '' and `` Dodgers Dugout '' Paul Westphal -- NBA analyst , USC basketball commentator Van Earl Wright -- anchor of Southern California Sports Report , Dodgers Dugout ( 2004 ) and Kings `` Break the Ice '' ( 2004 ) Carriage issues ( edit ) San Diego County ( edit ) Main article : Fox Sports San Diego Fox Sports West maintains widespread cable carriage in San Diego County . However , the two major providers in the area , Time Warner Cable and Cox Communications , have refused to carry Prime Ticket since its launch in 1997 ; both cable providers claim that the network has asked for carriage fees they deemed to be too expensive for carriage on their expanded basic tiers . However , Prime Ticket is carried on some former systems that Time Warner Cable acquired in 2006 from Adelphia Communications . Adelphia had added the channel to their lineup in 2001 . On March 17 , 2012 , as part of a contract signed with FSN to acquire the local cable rights to the San Diego Padres , Fox Sports Networks created a separate regional network for the San Diego market , Fox Sports San Diego . Despite that channel 's launch , Fox Sports West remains available on cable providers in the San Diego area ; however , Fox Sports San Diego carries some programming ( including most live sporting events ) from Prime Ticket , which essentially makes striking any carriage agreement for that channel unnecessary . Because the San Diego Padres hold territorial rights for all of San Diego County , Los Angeles Angels games are blacked out in the county on Fox Sports West regardless of the cable or satellite provider , requiring a subscription to the MLB Extra Innings out - of - market sports package to view those telecasts . All other sports programming , with the exception of Angels baseball games carried on Fox Sports West , is available in San Diego County . Las Vegas Valley ( edit ) Main article : AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket maintains widespread cable carriage in the Las Vegas Valley . On May 23 , 2017 , it was announced that AT&T SportsNet had acquired the RSN rights to the new NHL Expansion Team , the Vegas Golden Knights to televise broadcast games in Southern Nevada on AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain starting in the 2017 - 2018 NHL Season . Because the Vegas Golden Knights hold territorial rights for all of Southern Nevada , Anaheim Ducks and Los Angeles Kings games are blacked out in the Las Vegas Valley on Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket regardless of the cable or satellite provider , requiring a subscription to the NHL Center Ice out - of - market sports package to view those telecasts . All other sports programming , with the exception of Ducks and Kings hockey games carried on Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket , is available in Southern Nevada . See also ( edit ) Broadcasting of sports events Fox Broadcasting Company Fox Sports Fox Sports Networks SportsChannel Los Angeles References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Dennis McDougal ( June 26 , 1989 ) . `` Getting Hooked on Cable Sports : Pay TV Competition Begins to Resemble Playing - Field Rivalry '' . Los Angeles Times . Times Mirror Company . Retrieved April 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` SportsChannel L.A. Quits on Dec. 31 '' . Los Angeles Times . Times Mirror Company . November 6 , 1992 . Jump up ^ R. Thomas Umstead ( July 8 , 1996 ) . `` Liberty Sports regionals will become Fox Sports net '' . Multichannel News . The Walt Disney Company . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 -- via HighBeam Research . Jump up ^ `` FOX SPORTS NET DEBUTS ON NOV. 1 '' . The Columbian . Columbian Publishing Company . Associated Press . September 13 , 1996 . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 -- via HighBeam Research . Jump up ^ `` ANOTHER FOX SPORTS OUTLET ? IT 'S YOUR CALL : THE 4TH ANNUAL BEST AND WORST OF THE L.A. SPORTS MEDIA SPORTS ANCHORS / REPORTERS. ( SPORTS ) '' . Los Angeles Daily News . January 17 , 1997 . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 -- via HighBeam Research . Jump up ^ `` Commish : TV deal not in Dodgers ' best interests '' . MLB.com . June 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Dodgers sue Fox Sports over alleged interference in team 's sale '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Publishing . November 16 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` FOX Sports reportedly sues Dodgers '' . Fox Sports . September 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Settlement with Fox removes obstacle to sale of Dodgers ( https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/dodgers/story/2012-01-11/fox-media-rights-lawsuit-settled/52493636/1 '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . January 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Dodgers , Fox Sports talking $6 - billion TV deal '' . Dodgers Now . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Publishing . November 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Dodgers , Time Warner Cable have a deal '' . Dodgers Now . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Publishing . January 22 , 2013 . Retrieved January 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dodgers announce deal with Time Warner , launch of SportsNet LA '' . CBS Sports . January 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Jay Posner ( February 16 , 2012 ) . `` Fox Sports San Diego to launch in March '' . U-T San Diego . Retrieved February 20 , 2012 . 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Defunct networks Fox Football Channel Fox Footy Channel Fox Sports Houston Fox Sports News Asia Fox Sports Türkiye Fox Sports World Canada Fox Soccer Fuel TV Australia Fuel TV Portugal ( sold to by Fuel TV Global ) FSN Chicago Prime Network Speed Speed Australia Speed Latin America SportsChannel America Links to related articles Anaheim Ducks Formerly the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim Founded in 1993 Based in Anaheim , California Franchise Team General managers Coaches Players Captains Draft picks ( Expansion draft ) Seasons Current season History History 1993 expansion Records Award winners Retired numbers Personnel Owners Henry and Susan Samueli General manager Bob Murray Head coach Randy Carlyle Team captain Ryan Getzlaf Current roster Arena Honda Center Rivalries Los Angeles Kings Affiliates AHL San Diego Gulls ECHL Utah Grizzlies Media TV Prime Ticket FS West KDOC FS San Diego Radio KLAA ( AM 830 ) Culture and lore Wild Wing The Mighty Ducks movies Mighty Ducks cartoons `` Bro Hymn '' 2011 NHL Premiere 2014 NHL Stadium Series WikiProject Anaheim Ducks at Wikimedia Commons Los Angeles Angels Formerly the California Angels , the Anaheim Angels , and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Based in Anaheim , California ( Greater Los Angeles ) Franchise History Expansion draft Seasons Records No - hitters Broadcasters Awards and league leaders Players Managers Owners and executives Opening Day starting pitchers Ballparks Wrigley Field Chávez Ravine ( Dodger Stadium ) Angel Stadium Spring training Angels Stadium Tempe Diablo Stadium Culture and lore Big A Sign Continental League Mike Witt 's perfect game 1995 AL West tie - breaker game Rally Monkey Thundersticks The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! 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8 | document: Pasig - Wikipedia Pasig This article is about the city . For the river , see Pasig River . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( December 2017 ) Highly urbanized city in National Capital Region ( NCR ) , Philippines Pasig Highly urbanized city Lungsod ng Pasig View of the Ortigas Center Seal Map of Metro Manila showing the location of Pasig Pasig Location within the Philippines Pasig Pasig ( Philippines ) Show map of Luzon Show map of Philippines Show all Coordinates : 14 ° 34 ′ 30 '' N 121 ° 05 ′ 00 '' E / 14.575 ° N 121.0833 ° E / 14.575 ; 121.0833 Coordinates : 14 ° 34 ′ 30 '' N 121 ° 05 ′ 00 '' E / 14.575 ° N 121.0833 ° E / 14.575 ; 121.0833 Country Philippines Region National Capital Region ( NCR ) District Lone District of Pasig City Founded 1573 Cityhood January 21 , 1995 Barangays 30 Government Mayor Robert `` Bobby '' C. Eusebio ( Nacionalista ) Vice Mayor Christian Caruncho Bernardo ( Liberal ) Sangguniang Panlungsod Councilors ( show ) 1st District Ian Sia Joy San Buenaventura Agustin Santiago Ferdinand Avis Richie Brown Ory Rupisan 2nd District Ricky Eusebio Olly Benito Reynaldo Raymundo Yoyong Martirez Willy Sityar Charmie Benavides Area Total 31.46 km ( 12.15 sq mi ) Population ( 2015 census ) Total 755,300 Density 24,000 / km ( 62,000 / sq mi ) Demonym ( s ) Pasigueño Time zone PST ( UTC + 8 ) ZIP code see § Zip Codes Area code + 63 ( 0 ) 02 Website www.pasigcity.gov.ph Pasig is a city in the Philippines . Located along the eastern border of Metro Manila , Pasig is bordered on the west by Quezon City and Mandaluyong ; to the north by Marikina ; to the south by Makati , Pateros , and Taguig ; and to the east by Antipolo , the municipality of Cainta and Taytay in the province of Rizal . A formerly rural settlement , Pasig is primarily residential and industrial , but has been becoming increasingly commercial in recent years , particularly after the construction of the Ortigas Center business district in its west . The city is also the see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig , making its cathedral ( formerly the Immaculate Conception Cathedral ) a landmark built around the same time as the town 's foundation in 1573 . Pasig was formerly part of Rizal province before the formation of Metro Manila , the National Capital Region of the country . The seat of government of Rizal was hosted in Pasig at the old Rizal Provincial Capitol until a new capitol was opened in Antipolo , within Rizal 's jurisdiction in 2009 . However it remains the de jure , or official capital of the province . Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early history 2.2 Colonial period 2.3 After World War II 3 Barangays 4 Demographics 4.1 Religion 5 Economy 5.1 19th century 5.2 Today 6 Education 7 Sports 8 Transportation 8.1 Road network 8.2 Water transportation 8.3 Bridges 8.4 Railway 9 Local government 9.1 List of mayors 9.2 List of vice mayors 9.3 City seal 10 Notable people 11 Sister cities 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Etymology ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The city 's name Pasig was believed to have come from the old Sanskrit word `` pasega '' , or `` sand '' , which refers to the tribal community beside the sandy edges of the river . Some historians believed that El Pasig came from `` Legazpi '' ( Miguel Lopez de Legazpi , the Basque explorer well known for being involved in the `` Sanduguan '' , and was the first Governor - General of the Spanish East Indies . It was pronounced `` mapaksik '' by the Pre-Hispanic Chinese inhabitants of Binondo , Manila ( `` Mabagsik '' is Tagalog for `` terrifying '' - depicting the river 's raging current during the typhoon season , causing massive floods on nearby towns and villages , destroying wide hectares of farmland , and even bringing huge amounts of logs and water lilies from Marikina River , Laguna de Bay , and San Juan River towards Colonial Manila ) . `` Mapaksik '' later became `` Pah - sik '' , and was then changed to what is now `` Pasig '' . It may have also come from the Tagalog word `` dalampasigan '' , which means `` riverbank '' . According to Jose Villa Panganiban , the former director of the Institute of National Language , `` Pasig '' is another ancient Sanskrit word meaning `` a waterway coming from one body of water to another , '' which briefly describes the river because its flow starts from Laguna de Bay , leading to Manila Bay . History ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Old center of Pasig at the Pasig City Museum and near the Immaculate Conception Cathedral Early history ( edit ) There are no surviving firsthand accounts of the history of Pasig before Spanish colonizers arrived in 1573 and established the settlement which they called the Ciudad - Municipal de Pasig . However , surviving genealogical records and folk histories speak of a thriving indigenous community ( Barangay ) on the banks of the Bitukang Manok river ( now nearly extinct , and known as Parian Creek ) , which eventually became modern - day Pasig . The greatest rulers of this pre-colonial polity are named Rajah Lontok and Dayang Kalangitan by the legends , which also say that they are closely related to the pre-colonial rulers of Tondo and Maynila . The creek was given the name `` Bitukang Manok '' ( Tagalog for `` Chicken Gut '' ) , due to the serpentine shape of its waterway . Among its early dwellers were Ethnic Malays , the Chinese from Southern China ( with their origins dating back from the Ming Dynasty ) , and the Indigenous Tinguian nomads who migrated from the deep jungles of the Sierra Madre Mountain Range . The Bitukang Manok was once a principal tributary of the Marikina River . The Spanish colonizers called the creek `` Rio de Pasig '' ; however , the natives still referred to it as the Bitukang Manok . The first stretch of the Bitukang Manok became known as the `` Pariancillo '' ( Estero de San Agustin ) , where its shoreline was once settled by Chinese and Malay merchants to trade their goods with the natives , until it developed up to the 1970s as the city 's main public market . Likewise , the creek contributed enormously to the economic growth of Pasig during the Spanish Colonial Era , through irrigation of its wide paddy fields , and by being the progressive center of barter trade . The Bitukang Manok , also known as the `` Parian Creek '' , had once linked the Marikina River with the `` Antipolo River '' . Before the Manggahan Floodway was built in 1986 , The Parian Creek was actually connected to the Sapang Bato - Buli Creek ( which serves as the boundary between Pasig 's barangays Dela Paz - Manggahan - Rosario - Sta . Lucia and the Municipality of Cainta ) , the Kasibulan Creek ( situated at Vista Verde , Brgy . San Isidro , Cainta ) , the Palanas Creek ( leaving Antipolo through Brgy . Muntindilao ) , the Bulaw Creek ( on Brgy . Mambungan , besides the Valley Golf and Country Club ) , and the Hinulugang Taktak Falls of Brgy . Dela Paz ( fed by the Taktak Creek passing close to the Antipolo Town Square ) , thus being the detached and long - abandoned Antipolo River . Colonial period ( edit ) Bahay na Tisa ( Tech House ) , the oldest existing bahay na bato in Pasig , was built in the 1850s . Since the early 1600s up to the period of Japanese Imperialism , over a thousand Catholic devotees coming from `` Maynilad '' ( Manila ) , `` Hacienda Pineda '' ( Pasay ) , `` San Juan del Monte '' , `` Hacienda de Mandaloyon '' ( Mandaluyong ) , `` Hacienda Mariquina '' ( Marikina ) , `` Barrio Pateros '' , `` Pueblo de Tagig '' ( Taguig ) , and `` San Pedro de Macati '' ( Makati ) , followed the trail of the Parian Creek to the Pilgrimage Cathedral on the mountainous pueblo of Antipolo , Morong ( the present - day Rizal Province ) . The Antipoleños and several locals from the far - reached barrios of `` Poblacion de San Mateo '' , `` Montalban '' ( Rodriguez ) , `` Monte de Tanhai '' ( Tanay ) , `` Santa Rosa - Oroquieta '' ( Teresa ) , and `` Punta Ibayo '' ( Baras ) , had also navigated this freshwater creek once to go down to the vast `` Kapatagan '' ( Rice plains ) of lowland Pasig . Even the marian processions of the Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage passed this route back and forth eleven times . The creek has been also used during the British Occupation of Manila in 1762 to 1764 by the Royal British army , under the leadership of General William Draper and Vice Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish , 1st Baronet , to transport their red troops ( and also the Sepoys they 've brought from East India ) upstream to take over the nearby forest - surrounded villages of Cainta and Taytay . They even did an ambush at the `` Plaza Central '' in front of the Pasig Cathedral , and turned the Roman Catholic Parish into their military headquarters , with the church 's fortress - like `` Campanilla '' ( belfry ) serving as a watchtower against Spanish defenders sailing from the walled city of Intramuros via the Pasig River . The Sepoys backstabbed their abusive British lieutenants and sided with the combined forces of the Spanish Conquistadors ( assigned by the Governor - General Simon de Anda y Salazar ) , local rice farmers , fisherfolk , and even Chinese traders . After the British Invasion , the Sepoys remained and intermarried with Filipina women , and that explains the Hindu features of some of today 's citizens of Pasig , especially Cainta and Taytay . In 1742 , an Augustinian friar named Fray Domingo Diaz , together with a group of wealthy `` Mestizos de Sangley '' ( Chinese Mestizos ) from Sagad , ordered a construction of a marble , roof - tiled cover bridge across the creek in the style of an oriental pagoda . It was named `` Puente del Pariancillo '' , and a few years later , it changed to `` Puente de Fray Felix Trillo '' , dedicated to the dynamic parochial curate of the Immaculate Conception Parish . Edmund Roberts visited Pasig in 1832 . On the night of May 2 , 1896 , more than 300 revolutionary Katipuneros , led by the Supremo Gat . Andres Bonifacio , Emilio Jacinto and Pio Valenzuela , secretly gained access in this very creek aboard a fleet of seventeen `` Bangkas '' ( canoes ) to the old residence of a notable Valentin Cruz at Brgy . San Nicolas , and formed the `` Asamblea Magna '' ( mass meeting ) . Remains of the American - era capitol building , when Pasig was the capital of Rizal province . Three months later on Saturday evening , 29 August , about less than 2,000 working - class Pasigueños ( along with a hundred Chinese `` Trabajadores '' ( laborers ) from the failed Sangley revolts of 1639 and throughout the 17th century ) , armed with coconuts , machetes and bayoneted muskets ( some were donated by the rich Ilustrado families , while many of those guns were looted from Spanish authorities ) , joined the Katipunan and made a surprise attack at the `` Municipio del Gobernadorcillo '' ( the current site of the Pasig City Hall ) and its adjacent garrison of the `` Guardias Civil '' ( Civil Guard ) , situated near the border of barangays Maybunga and Caniogan . Guanio residence , the site of the `` Nagsabado sa Pasig . '' That was the first and victorious rebellion ever accomplished by the Katipunan , and that particular event was popularly known as the `` Nagsabado sa Pasig '' ( the Saturday Uprising on Pasig ) . After they had managed to successfully out - thrown the seat of Spanish government on Pasig , the Katipuneros fled immediately and advanced towards a `` Sitio '' located at the neighboring `` Ciudad de San Juan '' called `` Pinaglabanan '' , and there they launched their second attempt to end the numerous cases of corruption made by the greedy Castilian `` Encomenderos '' ( town officials ) and `` Hacienderos '' ( landlords ) , which shall be commemorated as the Battle of San Juan del Monte . On June 11 , 1901 , during the Philippine - American War , the province of Rizal was created through Act No. 137 of the Philippine Commission . Pasig was incorporated into the province of Rizal , and was designated as the capital of the new province . In 1975 , Pasig was carved out of Rizal province and became part of Metro Manila when the Metro Manila Commission ( precursor of Metro Manila Authority and later Metropolitan Manila Development Authority ) was created by Pres . Ferdinand Marcos through Presidential Decree 824 . After World War II ( edit ) A section of the Bitukang Manok . After World War II , the Bitukang Manok was slowly exposing its ecological downfall . It resulted in water pollution due to rational ignorance . The worst came to the Bitukang Manok in the late 1960s when the disappearing waterway , instead of being revived was totally separated from the Marikina River , and was converted into an open sewage ditch , with its original flow now moving in reverse towards the direction of the Napindan Channel ( a portion of the Pasig River bordering between the barangays Kalawaan - Pinagbuhatan and Taguig City ) , to give way to public commercial facilities . In July 1994 , Pasig was converted into a highly urbanized city through Republic Act 7829 . And in December 1994 , President Fidel V. Ramos signed it into law , which was ratified through a plebiscite on January 21 , 1995 . On February 4 , 2006 , the ULTRA Stampede , in which 71 people died , happened during the first anniversary celebration of ABS - CBN 's noontime show Wowowee , because of the prizes that were to be given away . The anniversary of the show would be held on PhilSports Arena but the event has been already canceled due to the tragedy . Pasig was one of the areas struck by the high flood created by Typhoon Ondoy on September 26 , 2009 , which affected the Ortigas Avenue and the east city side of the Manggahan Floodway . It is the most destructive flood in Philippine history . Pasig is accessed by the Pasig River , wherein the waters of Marikina River channeled and the Manggahan Floodway routed to Laguna de Bay . Tanghalang Pasigueño and an observation tower at the Pasig City Hall compound In the first week of August 2012 , intense monsoon rain caused the 2012 Philippines flooding , which affected again Pasig and particularly the National Capital Region ( NCR ) , CALABARZON and the southwest part of Luzon . The nonstop eight - day monsoon rain , strengthened by Typhoon Gener , caused the Marikina River to overflow and destroyed the same places that were ruined by Typhoon Ondoy in 2009 . Barangays ( edit ) Political map of Pasig City Pasig is politically subdivided into 30 barangays . Its barangays are grouped into two districts for city council representation purposes . The first district encompasses the southern and western sections of the city , while the second district encompasses the northern and eastern sections . Among these barangays , 27 are located on the northern side or right bank of the Pasig River while 3 ( Buting , San Joaquin and Kalawaan ) are located on the river 's southern side or left bank . Barangays District Population Area ( ha ) Density ( / km2 ) Bagong Ilog 1st 15,454 124.95 12,368.1 Bagong Katipunan 1st 1,185 4.78 24,790.8 Bambang 1st 19,258 38.41 50,138.0 Buting 1st 9,073 20.33 44,628.6 Caniogan 1st 21,769 167.94 12,962.4 Dela Paz 2nd 13,047 199.79 6,530.4 Kalawaan 1st 23,442 209.91 11,167.6 Kapasigan 1st 6,569 21.15 31,059.1 Kapitolyo 1st 10,451 95.24 10,973.3 Malinao 1st 5,957 28.02 21,259.8 Manggahan 2nd 74,244 327.03 22,702.5 Maybunga 2nd 35,627 177.37 20,086.3 Oranbo 1st 4,395 43.61 10,078.0 Palatiw 1st 16,929 24.24 69,839.1 Pinagbuhatan 2nd 105,435 152.35 69,205.8 Pineda 1st 15,013 79.85 18,801.5 Rosario 2nd 50,690 414.54 12,228.0 Sagád 1st 6,887 12.00 57,391.7 San Antonio 1st 11,666 82.07 14,214.7 San Joaquín 1st 12,498 45.07 27,730.2 San José 1st 2,347 9.33 25,155.4 San Miguel 2nd 30,069 80.05 37,562.8 San Nicolas 1st 1,542 30.38 5,075.7 Santa Cruz 1st 4,367 7.28 59,986.3 Santa Lucia 2nd 40,553 178.31 22,743.0 Santa Rosa 1st 1,515 12.06 12,562.2 Santo Tomás 1st 6,375 10.43 61,121.8 Santolan 2nd 43,286 199.25 21,724.5 Sumilang 1st 5,392 17.18 31,385.3 Ugong 1st 22,266 375.38 5,931.6 Notes : ^ a Excludes 7,296 persons residing in the area disputed by Barangay San Isidro , Cainta , Rizal . ^ b Includes population separately enumerated in the 2007 Census as Barangay Napico . Its creation was annulled by the Supreme Court on September 10 , 1999 . Excludes 3,784 persons in the area disputed by Barangay San Isidro , Cainta , Rizal . Demographics ( edit ) Population census of Pasig Year Pop . ± % p.a. 1903 11,278 -- 1918 16,767 + 2.68 % 1939 27,541 + 2.39 % 1948 35,407 + 2.83 % 1960 62,130 + 4.80 % 1970 156,492 + 9.67 % 209,915 + 6.07 % 1980 268,570 + 5.05 % 397,679 + 4.00 % 1995 471,075 + 3.22 % 2000 505,058 + 1.50 % 2007 617,301 + 2.81 % 669,773 + 3.01 % 2015 755,300 + 2.31 % Source : Philippine Statistics Authority Population growth of Pasig has consistently been higher than the regional average . Thus , the percentage share of Pasig City in the total population of Metro Manila has significantly increased . Its share has grown from less than 3 % in 1960 to 4.5 % in 1980 and then to almost 6 % in 2015 . Pasig City 's population is projected to reach one million between the 2025 and 2030 census years . Religion ( edit ) The Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig was established in 2003 by Pope John Paul II as the diocese of the Catholic Church in the Philippines , with the Immaculate Conception Parish ( Pasig Cathedral ) as the seat . Pasig is the headquarters of the Presbyterian Church of the Philippines . Economy ( edit ) Pasig City public market Pasig Revolving Tower 19th century ( edit ) Historically , Pasig produced rice , fruit and sugarcane . Today ( edit ) The western part of the city is where most of Pasig 's financial resources are primarily concentrated . It includes numerous factories , warehouses , establishments and commercial facilities . Primarily they situated in the Ortigas Center , Pasig proper and along E. Rodriguez Jr . Avenue ( C - 5 ) and Ortigas Avenue . Real estate and commercial developments along Mercedes Avenue and other areas near the city center are developing . The eastern part was mostly dominated with residential areas but numerous commercial establishment are now developing along Marcos Highway . Per capita income ( GDP ) of Pasig is $12,032 per year . The barangay of San Antonio has the largest income in Pasig , second only to San Lorenzo of Makati as the largest single income - generated government unit in the Philippines . In the arguably more significant western part of Pasig , east of the city of Mandaluyong and as part of the barangay of San Antonio , lies the Ortigas Center . Ortigas Center The Ortigas Center is one of the top business districts in the country , numerous high - rise office buildings , residential condominiums , commercial establishments , schools and malls are situated here . The University of Asia and the Pacific is located here . The head office of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines was also established here . The headquarters of the Philippine Stock Exchange , which is also home to one of trading floors of the country , is located along ADB Avenue . The headquarters of San Miguel Corporation , owner of one of the largest producer of beer in Asia , is located along San Miguel Avenue . Situated along Ortigas Avenue lies the Crowne Plaza , a five - star hotel near Robinsons Galleria . Notable along Ortigas Avenue and E. Rodriguez Jr . Avenue ( C - 5 ) lies Frontera Verde , a newly privately owned development area which includes restaurants , pet shops , mall , park , village , office buildings and a small zoo . The shopping complex Tiendesitas was located here , a one spot hub that can rival the world - renowned Chatuchak market of Bangkok , Thailand . El - Pueblo , a colonial - themed commercial complex in Ortigas Center , provides new concept of cafes , restaurants and bars . Metrowalk ( formerly Payanig ) , a commercial hub along Ortigas Avenue and Meralco Avenue , was established in 2005 near Ortigas Center which comprises shops , depot warehouses , stalls , restaurants and bars . As of 2012 , the revenue of the city totaled ₱ 7.22 billion . Education ( edit ) This section may be too long and excessively detailed . Please consider summarizing the material while citing sources as needed . ( March 2017 ) Rizal High School Rizal High School ( RHS ) is located in Pasig . Named after the Philippine national hero José Rizal , it is one of the world 's largest secondary education by student population . Formerly hailed in the Guinness World Records as the largest school by overall enrolled students , it is now surpassed by the City Montessori School ( CMS ) in Lucknow , India . Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Pasig , a local university in Kapasigan , offers degree courses for poor , bright and deserving residents of Pasig . It is established under the mayoralty of Vicente C. Eusebio in 1999 . Pasig City Science High School ( PCSHS ) is the first science high school in Pasig recognized by the Department of Education for bright students of the city . It is located near Rainforest , a fully restored public resort and amusement park . Sacred Heart Academy of Pasig is the first school that offers a fusion of Progressive and Traditional System of education . It is one of the first private schools that was given the authority to accept and process foreign students by the Bureau of Immigration . The Sacred Heart Academy school system started offering quality Christian education in 1947 . The University of Asia and the Pacific ( UA&P ) in Ortigas Center traces back to the Center for Research and Communication ( CRC ) which started by two Harvard graduates in 1967 as an economic and social think - tank institution . Its spiritual and doctrinal formation is entrusted to Opus Dei . Along C. Raymundo Avenue lies the national headquarters of Parents for Education Foundation , Inc. which runs schools such as PAREF Southridge School , PAREF Woodrose School , PAREF Northfield School , PAREF Rosehill School , and seven other schools . St. Paul College Pasig was near the Philippine Institute of Sports Complex ( ULTRA ) . It was established in 1970 as one of the educational institutions administered by the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres . The Pasig branch of Arellano University ( Andres Bonifacio Campus ) located in Caniogan also provides intermediate , secondary and vocational courses . The main branch is located in Manila . Pasig Catholic College ( PCC ) is a private sectarian college located at the heart of Pasig . Established in 1913 as a small school managed by the CICM Fathers headed by Fr . Pierre Cornelis De Brouwer at the present Immaculate Conception Cathedral of Pasig , it is considered as the city 's center of Catholic educational institution of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig . Situated at Mercedes Avenue lies La Consolacion College -- Pasig . Founded by the Augustinian Sisters of Our Lady of Consolacion , it is one of the sister schools of La Consolacion College - Manila . At the heart of city proper , lies Colegio del Buen Consejo ( CBC ) . It is one of the oldest school in Pasig and one of the educational institutions promulgated by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig . La Immaculada Concepcion School ( LICS ) was situated in the outskirt of E. Caruncho Avenue near the Pasig 's municipal capitol . It provides preschool , primary and secondary educations . Saint Gabriel International School in Sandoval Avenue is the sister school of the Chinese - based Manila Xiamen International School . It provides Mandarin Chinese classes and ESL education for local and foreign students . MFI Foundation Inc. ( formerly Meralco Foundation Institute ) was located near the Ortigas Center along Ortigas Avenue . It is established in 1983 to serve and meet the industry 's demand for middle - level technical manpower . As a partner of Philippine government 's institution of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority ( Philippines ) or TESDA , it provided two main programs in the Industrial Technician Program ( ITP ) which targets the youth and the Technical Training and MFI Training ( formerly Testing Program ) for skilled workers and professionals . Domuschola International School ( DIS ) is located in Barangay Ugong and offers the International Baccalaureate PYP program for elementary students . Established in 2000 as a pre-school under the name Second Mom , it has expanded to primary and secondary education . The school is in partnership with the TAO Corporation and as of 2015 , became a candidate school of the IB Diploma Program . Victory Christian International School ( VCIS ) is located in Barangay Oranbo and is located near Ortigas . Sports ( edit ) PhilSports Complex or the Philippine Institute of Sports Complex ( formerly ULTRA ) is a notable national sports complex of the Philippines . Located in Meralco Avenue , it is where the offices of the Philippine Sports Commission , Philippine Olympic Committee and some national sports associations are . Transportation ( edit ) Road network ( edit ) Dr. Sixto Antonio Avenue is a major north -- south road in Pasig City . Pasig is accessed by the following major roads : Ortigas Avenue E. Rodriguez Avenue , Jr. ( C - 5 ) Pasig Boulevard Julia Vargas Avenue Shaw Boulevard Meralco Avenue Pioneer Street Marcos Highway Amang Rodriguez Avenue Water transportation ( edit ) Pasig is the location of the east end of Pasig River . It is accessed by Pasig River Ferry Service with 7 stations named after the Barangays of the city beside the river , these are the following : Pineda San Joaquin Bambang Kalawaan Pinagbuhatan Maybunga Nagpayong Bridges ( edit ) Pasig is accessed by Pasig River and Marikina River . The city has only ten bridges : C - 5 Bridge -- spans Pasig River Manalo Bridge -- spans Marikina River Rosario Bridge -- spans Marikina River Sandoval Bridge -- spans Marikina River Santa Rosa De Lima Bridge -- spans Marikina River Julia Vargas Bridge ( parallel bridges ) - spans Marikina River Bambang Bridge -- spans Napindan Channel Napindan Bridge -- spans Napindan Channel Kalawaan Bridge -- spans Pasig River Ortigas Bridge - spans Manggahan Floodway Manggahan Bridge ( Daan Pasig Bridge ) - spans Manggahan Floodway FB Legaspi Bridge - spans Manggahan Floodway Butting - Sumilang Bridge - spans Pasig River Railway ( edit ) This city is also served by Santolan Station of LRT - 2 along Marcos Highway located in Pasig - Marikina Boundary where the depot is also located . Long before the Manila Light Rail Transit System finally opened its services in Santolan in the Pasig - Marikina border in the early 2000s , Steam train services had once served those places in the past , even before World War II . In Marikina , there is a street named `` Daangbakal '' , also called by the names of `` Shoe Avenue Extension '' , `` Munding Avenue '' and `` Bagong Silang '' . There is also a similar `` Daangbakal '' in the San Mateo - Montalban ( Rodriguez ) area , and on the maps one can notice that the two roads should have been connected with each other . In fact , as the name suggests in Tagalog , these streets were once a single railway line . The two sides of the `` Daangbakal '' roads were once connected by a bridge in the San Mateo - Marikina border . However , as the railroad tracks have been largely ignored after the Japanese cccupation and was transformed into separate highways , the railway connection was abandoned . The old railroad tracks , called the Marikina Line , was connected from Tutuban station in Manila , passing through Tramo ( Brgy . Rosario , Pasig ) coming all the way to the town of Marikina up to Montalban . On the northern end of the `` Daangbakal '' road in Montablan is a basketball court . That basketball court which stands today , surrounded by the Montalban Catholic Church and Cemetery , was once the railway station terminus of that particular line . The present - day Santo Niño Elementary School in Marikina was said to be a train depot . And also it was said that a railroad station once stood in the Marikina City Sports Park . The Marikina Line was completed in 1906 , and continued its operation until 1936 . It was said that the Imperial Japanese Army made use of this railway line during the Second World War . These railways were dismantled during the 1960s and were converted into ordinary roads . Today , the citizens are dependent on Tricycles , Jeepneys , Taxis , FX , Buses , and AUV 's which contribute to the everyday unusual and unbearable traffic of Metropolitan Manila . Even now , there is uncertainty in the Northrail project , which links Manila to the northern provinces of Luzon , because of corruption within the project 's construction . Aside from the Marikina Line , two other railways have existed before but are now removed permanently . First is the Cavite Line , which passed through Paco , Parañaque , Bacoor and up to Naic , Cavite . Completed in 1908 , its operation continued until 1936 . Second is the Antipolo Line , which passed through Santa Mesa , Mandaluyong , Pasig , Cainta , Taytay , up to Antipolo near the `` Hinulugang Taktak '' Falls . There is also a street named `` Daangbakal '' in Antipolo , where like the `` Daangbakal '' roads on Marikina and San Mateo , a railway line once existed . The railroad tracks also passed through what is now the Ortigas Avenue Extension . Its operation ceased in 1917 . Local government ( edit ) List of mayors ( edit ) Aldrin Gersalia ( 1780s ) ( Gobernadorcillo ) Resurrecion Balmaceda ( 1850 ) Don Rafael Umali ( 1852 - 1853 , 1869 - 1870 ) Don Apolonio Santiago ( 1873 - 1884 ) Don Liberato Damian y Umali ( 1894 ) Hen . Valentin Cruz ( 1896 ) Don Pantalen Catanto ( 1897 ) Don Valentin Ruiz ( 1898 ) Felipe Benicio Gomez ( 1902 -- 1904 ) Julio Raymundo ( 1904 -- 1906 ) Jose Feliciano ( 1906 -- 1909 ) Lupo Miguel ( 1909 -- 1912 ) Francisco Reyes ( 1912 -- 1915 ) Alejandro Ramos y Agullon ( 1915 -- 1918 ) Don Fortunato Concepcion ( 1918 -- 1921 ) Don / Dr. Sixto J. Antonio ( 1924 -- 1935 ) Cipriano A. Raymundo ( 1936 -- 1945 ) Francisco B. Legaspi ( 1945 -- 1951 ) Cipriano A. Raymundo ( 1952 -- 1955 ) Emiliano R. Caruncho , Jr. ( 1956 -- 1986 ) Mario Raymundo ( 1986 -- 1992 ) Vicente Paulino Eusebio ( July 1 , 1992 -- June 30 , 2001 ; July 1 , 2004 -- June 30 , 2007 ) Soledad Cruz Eusebio ( July 1 , 2001 -- June 30 , 2004 ) Robert Cruz Eusebio ( July 1 , 2007 -- June 30 , 2013 , July 1 , 2016 -- present ) Maribel G. Andaya - Eusebio ( July 1 , 2013 -- June 30 , 2016 ) List of vice mayors ( edit ) Emiliano Santos ( 1956 -- 1972 ) no vice mayor during martial law Vicente P. Eusebio ( 1980 -- 1986 ) Boy Reyes ( 1986 -- 1988 ) appointed vice mayor during revolutionary government Mike Cayton ( 1988 -- 1992 ) Francisco S. De Guzman ( 1992 - 1995 ) Lorna Bernardo ( 1995 -- 2004 ) Rosalio D. Martires ( 2004 -- 2013 ) Christian `` Iyo '' Caruncho Bernardo ( 2013 -- present ) City seal ( edit ) The woman represents the Mutya ng Pasig , the idealism of perfection in all aspects that epitomizes loyalty , goodwill and splendor of the City of Pasig . The body of water on both sides of the woman is a suggestion of the Pasig River connecting two bodies of water , Laguna de Bay and Manila Bay both suggested by waves . Pasig is derived from a Hindu word meaning a body of water connecting two bodies of water . On the lower left portion is the Immaculate Conception Cathedral , one of the oldest edifices in the city . It is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig . On the lower right portion , it manifests prosperity and progress of the city . Notable people ( edit ) Atoy Co , actor and former basketball player Marlou Aquino , former basketball player Hero Angeles , actor of ABS - CBN Phoebe Walker , actress , model , singer , dancer and host Edgar Allan Guzman , actor Doug Kramer , basketball player Rachelle Ann Go , singer and model John Lloyd Cruz , actor in ABS - CBN Sam Milby , actor , singer , model in ABS - CBN Kean Cipriano , singer , actor and musician RJ Jimenez , acoustic singer , Pinoy Dream Academy scholar Jerome Ponce , actor in Be Careful with my Heart Xian Lim , Chinito actor , model , singer Rene Saguisag , Senator of the Republic elected in 1988 Jovito Salonga , former Senate President Vic Sotto , artist , host and TV Personality Raymond `` Abra '' Abracosa , hip hop artist , emcee , singer Paolo Ballesteros , actor and TV Host , Eat Bulaga ! Arjo Atayde , actor , Star Magic , ABS - CBN Aljo Bendijo , broadcast journalist , PTV 4 Dion Ignacio , actor , GMA Network Ely Buendia , Lead Vocalist for The Eraserheads Sister cities ( edit ) Local Marikina , Metro Manila International Marugame , Kagawa , Japan South San Francisco , California , United States See also ( edit ) Legislative district of Pasig City Roman Catholic Diocese of Pasig Pasig City Museum Candaba , Pampanga , a place where there is a barangay named Pasig . Balabac , Palawan , a place where there is a barangay named Pasig . Lambunao , Iloilo , a place where there is a barangay named Pasig . Sara , Iloilo , a place where there is a barangay named Pasig . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Cities '' . Quezon City , Philippines : Department of the Interior and Local Government . Archived from the original on 9 March 2013 . Retrieved 15 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` An Update on the Earthquake Hazards and Risk Assessment of Greater Metropolitan Manila Area '' ( PDF ) . Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. 14 November 2013 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 24 June 2016 . Retrieved 16 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Enhancing Risk Analysis Capacities for Flood , Tropical Cyclone Severe Wind and Earthquake for the Greater Metro Manila Area Component 5 -- Earthquake Risk Analysis '' ( PDF ) . Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology and Geoscience Australia . Retrieved 16 May 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Census of Population ( 2015 ) . `` National Capital Region ( NCR ) '' . Total Population by Province , City , Municipality and Barangay . PSA . Retrieved 20 June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Rosario , Ben ( 23 September 2017 ) . `` Bill seeks to make Antipolo City the capital of Rizal '' . Manila Bulletin . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` THE NEW RIZAL PROVINCIAL CAPITOL '' . Rizal Provincial Government . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Pasig Travel Tips and General Information Jump up ^ Scott , William Henry ( 1984 ) . `` Societies in Prehispanic Philippines '' . Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History . Quezon City : New Day Publishers . ISBN 978 - 9711002268 . Jump up ^ Dery , Luis Camara ( 2001 ) . A History of the Inarticulate . Quezon City : New Day Publishers . ISBN 971 - 10 - 1069 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Roberts , Edmund ( 1837 ) . Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin - China , Siam , and Muscat . New York : Harper & Brothers . p. 60 . Jump up ^ NSCB Philippine Standard Geographic Codes -- City of Pasig Jump up ^ Synchronized National and Local Elections Law -- Republic Act No. 7166 , Section 3 . Accessed on 31 October 2009 . Jump up ^ G.R. No. 125646 . Accessed on 20 October 2009 . Jump up ^ Census of Population and Housing ( 2010 ) . `` National Capital Region ( NCR ) '' . Total Population by Province , City , Municipality and Barangay . NSO . Retrieved 29 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Censuses of Population ( 1903 -- 2007 ) . `` National Capital Region ( NCR ) '' . Table 1 . Population Enumerated in Various Censuses by Province / Highly Urbanized City : 1903 to 2007 . NSO . Jump up ^ `` Province of Metro Manila , 2nd ( Not a Province ) '' . Municipality Population Data . Local Water Utilities Administration Research Division . Retrieved 17 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Mercurio , Richmond S. `` Philippine cities with over 1M population to nearly triple by 2025 '' . Philippine Star . Retrieved 6 April 2017 . Jump up ^ http://gapcp.org/?page_id=392 Jump up ^ `` List of Sister City Affiliations with Japan ( by country ) '' . Clair Singapore . Jump up ^ `` US - Asia Sister Cities by State '' . Asia Matters for America . Honolulu , Hawaii : East West Center . Retrieved 4 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Pasig City , Philippines & South San Francisco , California '' . Washington , D.C. : Sister Cities International . Retrieved 4 February 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pasig . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pasig . Official website Geographic data related to Pasig at OpenStreetMap Places adjacent to Pasig Quezon City Marikina Cainta , Rizal Mandaluyong Pasig Taytay , Rizal Makati Pateros Taguig Articles related to Pasig Metro Manila National Capital Region of the Philippines Manila ( capital city ) Administrative divisions Caloocan Las Piñas Makati Malabon Mandaluyong Manila Marikina Muntinlupa Navotas Parañaque Pasay Pasig Pateros Quezon City San Juan Taguig Valenzuela Barangays Legislative districts Geography Manila Bay Pasig River Marikina River Laguna de Bay Sierra Madre La Mesa Watershed Reservation Marikina Valley Fault System Rivers and esteros Islands Parks Beaches Bay City Manggahan Floodway Greater Manila Area Mega Manila History Prehistory Rajahnate of Maynila Tondo ( historical polity ) Namayan Intramuros Province of Manila Manila -- Acapulco Galleon British occupation of Manila 1880 Luzon earthquakes Battle of Manila Bay Province of Rizal Greater Manila Area Battle of Manila ( 1945 ) Metropolitan Manila Development Authority City of Man People Power Revolution World Youth Day 1995 Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission Rizal Day bombings Typhoon Ketsana Timeline Economy Makati CBD Ortigas Center Bonifacio Global City Philippine Stock Exchange Manila Commodity Exchange Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Tourism Attractions Gambling Entertainment City Mixed - use developments Skyscrapers Public services and utilities Hospitals Manila Electric Company ( Meralco ) Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System Manila Water Company Maynilad Water Services Education Universities and colleges University Belt Primary and secondary schools International schools Libraries Culture Museums Cultural properties Theaters and concert halls Art Deco theaters Sports venues Public art Historical markers Shopping malls Hotels Cinemas Places of worship Roman Catholic churches Newspapers Television stations Radio stations Annual events Imperial Manila Transportation Public transport Manila Mass Transit Network Stations Line 1 LRMC Line 2 LRTA Line 3 MRTC Line 4 Line 6 Line 7 ULC Line 9 Mega Manila Subway Metro South Commuter Line PNR SkyTrain Bicutan AGT UP Diliman AGT Bonifacio Transport Corporation Routes Airports Manila International Airport Authority Seaport Pasig River Ferry Metrostar Ferry Major roads Road space rationing Metro Manila Dream Plan Outline Index Portal Cities of the Philippines Highly Urbanized Cities Angeles Bacolod Baguio Butuan Cagayan de Oro Caloocan Cebu City Davao City General Santos Iligan Iloilo City Lapu - Lapu Las Piñas Lucena Makati Malabon Mandaluyong Mandaue Manila Marikina Muntinlupa Navotas Olongapo Parañaque Pasay Pasig Puerto Princesa Quezon City San Juan Tacloban Taguig Valenzuela Zamboanga City Independent Component Cities Cotabato City Dagupan Naga Ormoc Santiago Component Cities Alaminos Antipolo Bacoor Bago Bais Balanga Batac Batangas City Bayawan Baybay Bayugan Biñan Bislig Bogo Borongan Cabadbaran Cabanatuan Cabuyao Cadiz Calamba Calapan Calbayog Candon Canlaon Carcar Catbalogan Cauayan Cavite City Danao Dapitan Dasmariñas Digos Dipolog Dumaguete El Salvador Escalante Gapan General Trias Gingoog Guihulngan Himamaylan Ilagan Imus Iriga Isabela Kabankalan Kidapawan Koronadal La Carlota Lamitan Laoag Legazpi Ligao Lipa Maasin Mabalacat Malaybalay Malolos Marawi Masbate City Mati Meycauayan Muñoz Naga , Cebu Oroquieta Ozamiz Pagadian Palayan Panabo Passi Roxas Sagay Samal San Carlos , Negros Occidental San Carlos , Pangasinan San Fernando , La Union San Fernando , Pampanga San Jose San Jose del Monte San Pablo San Pedro Santa Rosa Silay Sipalay Sorsogon City Surigao City Tabaco Tabuk Tacurong Tagaytay Tagbilaran Tagum Talisay , Cebu Talisay , Negros Occidental Tanauan Tandag Tangub Tanjay Tarlac City Tayabas Toledo Trece Martires Tuguegarao Urdaneta Valencia Victorias Vigan Largest cities in the Philippines PSA Census August 2015 Rank Name Region Pop . Rank Name Region Pop . Quezon City Manila Quezon City National Capital Region 2,936,116 11 Parañaque National Capital Region 665,822 Davao City Caloocan Manila National Capital Region 1,780,148 12 Dasmariñas Calabarzon 659,019 Davao City Davao Region 1,632,991 13 Valenzuela National Capital Region 620,422 Caloocan National Capital Region 1,583,978 14 Bacoor Calabarzon 600,609 5 Cebu City Central Visayas 922,611 15 General Santos Soccsksargen 594,446 6 Zamboanga City Zamboanga Peninsula 861,799 16 Las Piñas National Capital Region 588,894 7 Taguig National Capital Region 804,915 17 Makati National Capital Region 582,602 8 Antipolo Calabarzon 776,386 18 San Jose del Monte Central Luzon 574,089 9 Pasig National Capital Region 755,300 19 Bacolod Western Visayas 561,875 10 Cagayan de Oro Northern Mindanao 675,950 20 Muntinlupa National Capital Region 504,509 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pasig&oldid=852747066 '' Categories : Pasig 1573 establishments in the Philippines Cities in Metro Manila Populated places established in 1573 Populated places on the Marikina River Populated places on the Pasig River Former provincial capitals of the Philippines Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from December 2017 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles in need of updating from December 2017 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Articles with short description Coordinates on Wikidata Articles needing additional references from September 2015 Articles needing additional references from February 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Bikol Central Cebuano Chavacano de Zamboanga Deutsch Español Esperanto Français 한국어 Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kapampangan Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Pangasinan Polski Português Русский Scots Simple English Ślůnski Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 23 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 July 2018 , at 02 : 37 ( UTC ) . 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9 | document: Thermohaline circulation - wikipedia Thermohaline circulation Jump to : navigation , search A summary of the path of the thermohaline circulation . Blue paths represent deep - water currents , while red paths represent surface currents . Play media Thermohaline circulation Thermohaline circulation ( THC ) is a part of the large - scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes . The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo - referring to temperature and - haline referring to salt content , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Wind - driven surface currents ( such as the Gulf Stream ) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean , cooling en route , and eventually sinking at high latitudes ( forming North Atlantic Deep Water ) . This dense water then flows into the ocean basins . While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean , the oldest waters ( with a transit time of around 1000 years ) upwell in the North Pacific . Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins , reducing differences between them and making the Earth 's oceans a global system . On their journey , the water masses transport both energy ( in the form of heat ) and matter ( solids , dissolved substances and gases ) around the globe . As such , the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth . The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt , the great ocean conveyor , or the global conveyor belt . On occasion , it is used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation ( often abbreviated as MOC ) . The term MOC is more accurate and well defined , as it is difficult to separate the part of the circulation which is driven by temperature and salinity alone as opposed to other factors such as the wind and tidal forces . Moreover , temperature and salinity gradients can also lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 1.1 Formation of deep water masses 1.2 Movement of deep water masses 1.3 Quantitative estimation 2 Gulf Stream 3 Upwelling 4 Effects on global climate 4.1 Shutdown of thermohaline circulation 5 See also 6 References 7 Other sources 8 External links Overview ( edit ) The global conveyor belt on a continuous - ocean map The movement of surface currents pushed by the wind is fairly intuitive . For example , the wind easily produces ripples on the surface of a pond . Thus the deep ocean -- devoid of wind -- was assumed to be perfectly static by early oceanographers . However , modern instrumentation shows that current velocities in deep water masses can be significant ( although much less than surface speeds ) . In general , ocean water velocities range from fractions of centimeters per second ( in the depth of the oceans ) to sometimes more than 1 m / s in surface currents like the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio . In the deep ocean , the predominant driving force is differences in density , caused by salinity and temperature variations ( increasing salinity and lowering the temperature of a fluid both increase its density ) . There is often confusion over the components of the circulation that are wind and density driven . Note that ocean currents due to tides are also significant in many places ; most prominent in relatively shallow coastal areas , tidal currents can also be significant in the deep ocean . There they are currently thought to facilitate mixing processes , especially diapycnal mixing . The density of ocean water is not globally homogeneous , but varies significantly and discretely . Sharply defined boundaries exist between water masses which form at the surface , and subsequently maintain their own identity within the ocean . But these sharp boundaries are not to be imagined spatially but rather in a T-S - diagram where water masses are distinguished . They position themselves above or below each other according to their density , which depends on both temperature and salinity . Warm seawater expands and is thus less dense than cooler seawater . Saltier water is denser than fresher water because the dissolved salts fill interstices between water molecules , resulting in more mass per unit volume . Lighter water masses float over denser ones ( just as a piece of wood or ice will float on water , see buoyancy ) . This is known as `` stable stratification '' as opposed to unstable stratification ( see Bruunt - Väisälä frequency ) where denser waters are located over less dense waters ( see convection or deep convection needed for water mass formation ) . When dense water masses are first formed , they are not stably stratified , so they seek to locate themselves in the correct vertical position according to their density . This motion is called convection , it orders the stratification by gravitation . Driven by the density gradients this sets up the main driving force behind deep ocean currents like the deep western boundary current ( DWBC ) . The thermohaline circulation is mainly driven by the formation of deep water masses in the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean caused by differences in temperature and salinity of the water . The great quantities of dense water sinking at high latitudes must be offset by equal quantities of water rising elsewhere . Note that cold water in polar zones sink relatively rapidly over a small area , while warm water in temperate and tropical zones rise more gradually across a much larger area . It then slowly returns poleward near the surface to repeat the cycle . The continual diffuse upwelling of deep water maintains the existence of the permanent thermocline found everywhere at low and mid-latitudes . This model was described by Henry Stommel and Arnold B. Arons in 1960 and is known as the Stommel - Arons box model for the MOC . This slow upward movement is approximated to be about 1 centimeter ( 0.5 inch ) per day over most of the ocean . If this rise were to stop , downward movement of heat would cause the thermocline to descend and would reduce its steepness . Formation of deep water masses ( edit ) The dense water masses that sink into the deep basins are formed in quite specific areas of the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean . In the North Atlantic , seawater at the surface of the ocean is intensely cooled by the wind and low ambient air temperatures . Wind moving over the water also produces a great deal of evaporation , leading to a decrease in temperature , called evaporative cooling related to latent heat . Evaporation removes only water molecules , resulting in an increase in the salinity of the seawater left behind , and thus an increase in the density of the water mass along with the decrease in temperature . In the Norwegian Sea evaporative cooling is predominant , and the sinking water mass , the North Atlantic Deep Water ( NADW ) , fills the basin and spills southwards through crevasses in the submarine sills that connect Greenland , Iceland and Great Britain which are known as the Greenland - Scotland - Ridge . It then flows very slowly into the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic , always in a southerly direction . Flow from the Arctic Ocean Basin into the Pacific , however , is blocked by the narrow shallows of the Bering Strait . Diagram showing relation between temperature and salinity for sea water density maximum and sea water freezing temperature . In the Southern Ocean , strong katabatic winds blowing from the Antarctic continent onto the ice shelves will blow the newly formed sea ice away , opening polynyas along the coast . The ocean , no longer protected by sea ice , suffers a brutal and strong cooling ( see polynya ) . Meanwhile , sea ice starts reforming , so the surface waters also get saltier , hence very dense . In fact , the formation of sea ice contributes to an increase in surface seawater salinity ; saltier brine is left behind as the sea ice forms around it ( pure water preferentially being frozen ) . Increasing salinity lowers the freezing point of seawater , so cold liquid brine is formed in inclusions within a honeycomb of ice . The brine progressively melts the ice just beneath it , eventually dripping out of the ice matrix and sinking . This process is known as brine rejection . The resulting Antarctic Bottom Water ( AABW ) sinks and flows north and east , but is so dense it actually underflows the NADW . AABW formed in the Weddell Sea will mainly fill the Atlantic and Indian Basins , whereas the AABW formed in the Ross Sea will flow towards the Pacific Ocean . The dense water masses formed by these processes flow downhill at the bottom of the ocean , like a stream within the surrounding less dense fluid , and fill up the basins of the polar seas . Just as river valleys direct streams and rivers on the continents , the bottom topography constrains the deep and bottom water masses . Note that , unlike fresh water , seawater does not have a density maximum at 4 ° C but gets denser as it cools all the way to its freezing point of approximately − 1.8 ° C . This freezing point is however a function of salinity and pressure and thus - 1.8 ° C is not a general freezing temperature for sea water ( see diagram to the right ) . Movement of deep water masses ( edit ) Formation and movement of the deep water masses at the North Atlantic Ocean , creates sinking water masses that fill the basin and flows very slowly into the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic . This high - latitude cooling and the low - latitude heating drives the movement of the deep water in a polar southward flow . The deep water flows through the Antarctic Ocean Basin around South Africa where it is split into two routes : one into the Indian Ocean and one past Australia into the Pacific . At the Indian Ocean , some of the cold and salty water from the Atlantic -- drawn by the flow of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific -- causes a vertical exchange of dense , sinking water with lighter water above . It is known as overturning . In the Pacific Ocean , the rest of the cold and salty water from the Atlantic undergoes haline forcing , and becomes warmer and fresher more quickly . The out - flowing undersea of cold and salty water makes the sea level of the Atlantic slightly lower than the Pacific and salinity or halinity of water at the Atlantic higher than the Pacific . This generates a large but slow flow of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific to the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Archipelago to replace the cold and salty Antarctic Bottom Water . This is also known as ' haline forcing ' ( net high latitude freshwater gain and low latitude evaporation ) . This warmer , fresher water from the Pacific flows up through the South Atlantic to Greenland , where it cools off and undergoes evaporative cooling and sinks to the ocean floor , providing a continuous thermohaline circulation . Hence , a recent and popular name for the thermohaline circulation , emphasizing the vertical nature and pole - to - pole character of this kind of ocean circulation , is the meridional overturning circulation . Quantitative estimation ( edit ) Direct estimates of the strength of the thermohaline circulation have been made at 26.5 ° N in the North Atlantic since 2004 by the UK - US RAPID programme . By combining direct estimates of ocean transport using current meters and subsea cable measurements with estimates of the geostrophic current from temperature and salinity measurements , the RAPID programme provides continuous , full - depth , basinwide estimates of the thermohaline circulation or , more accurately , the meridional overturning circulation . The deep water masses that participate in the MOC have chemical , temperature and isotopic ratio signatures and can be traced , their flow rate calculated , and their age determined . These include Pa / Th ratios . Gulf Stream ( edit ) Main article : Gulf Stream Benjamin Franklin 's map of the Gulf Stream The Gulf Stream , together with its northern extension towards Europe , the North Atlantic Drift , is a powerful , warm , and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates at the tip of Florida , and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean . The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America . At about 40 ° 0 ′ N 30 ° 0 ′ W / 40.000 ° N 30.000 ° W / 40.000 ; - 30.000 , it splits in two , with the northern stream crossing to northern Europe and the southern stream recirculating off West Africa . The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland , and the west coast of Europe . Although there has been recent debate , there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift , one of the branches from the tail of the Gulf Stream . It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre . Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types , both within the atmosphere and within the ocean . The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation . Upwelling ( edit ) Main article : Upwelling All these dense water masses sinking into the ocean basins displace the older deep water masses that were made less dense by ocean mixing . To maintain a balance , water must be rising elsewhere . However , because this thermohaline upwelling is so widespread and diffuse , its speeds are very slow even compared to the movement of the bottom water masses . It is therefore difficult to measure where upwelling occurs using current speeds , given all the other wind - driven processes going on in the surface ocean . Deep waters have their own chemical signature , formed from the breakdown of particulate matter falling into them over the course of their long journey at depth . A number of scientists have tried to use these tracers to infer where the upwelling occurs . Wallace Broecker , using box models , has asserted that the bulk of deep upwelling occurs in the North Pacific , using as evidence the high values of silicon found in these waters . Other investigators have not found such clear evidence . Computer models of ocean circulation increasingly place most of the deep upwelling in the Southern Ocean , associated with the strong winds in the open latitudes between South America and Antarctica . While this picture is consistent with the global observational synthesis of William Schmitz at Woods Hole and with low observed values of diffusion , not all observational syntheses agree . Recent papers by Lynne Talley at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Bernadette Sloyan and Stephen Rintoul in Australia suggest that a significant amount of dense deep water must be transformed to light water somewhere north of the Southern Ocean . Effects on global climate ( edit ) The thermohaline circulation plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions , and thus in regulating the amount of sea ice in these regions , although poleward heat transport outside the tropics is considerably larger in the atmosphere than in the ocean . Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on the Earth 's radiation budget . Insofar as the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters are exposed to the surface , it may also play an important role in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . While it is often stated that the thermohaline circulation is the primary reason that Western Europe is so temperate , it has been suggested that this is largely incorrect , and that Europe is warm mostly because it lies downwind of an ocean basin , and because of the effect of atmospheric waves bringing warm air north from the subtropics . However , the underlying assumptions of this particular analysis have likewise been challenged . Large influxes of low - density meltwater from Lake Agassiz and deglaciation in North America are thought to have led to a shifting of deep water formation and subsidence in the extreme North Atlantic and caused the climate period in Europe known as the Younger Dryas . Shutdown of thermohaline circulation ( edit ) Main article : Shutdown of thermohaline circulation See also : Deglaciation and Cold blob ( North Atlantic ) In 2005 , British researchers noticed that the net flow of the northern Gulf Stream had decreased by about 30 % since 1957 . Coincidentally , scientists at Woods Hole had been measuring the freshening of the North Atlantic as Earth becomes warmer . Their findings suggested that precipitation increases in the high northern latitudes , and polar ice melts as a consequence . By flooding the northern seas with lots of extra fresh water , global warming could , in theory , divert the Gulf Stream waters that usually flow northward , past the British Isles and Norway , and cause them to instead circulate toward the equator . If this were to happen , Europe 's climate would be seriously impacted . Downturn of AMOC ( Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ) , has been tied to extreme regional sea level rise . In 2013 , an unexpected significant weakening of the THC led to one of the quietest Atlantic hurricane seasons observed since 1994 . The main cause of the inactivity was caused by a continuation of the spring pattern across the Atlantic basin . See also ( edit ) Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) ( in regard to `` sea surface temperature '' ) Climate change Contourite Downwelling Halothermal circulation Hydrothermal circulation Shutdown of thermohaline circulation Upwelling References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Rahmstorf , S ( 2003 ) . `` The concept of the thermohaline circulation '' ( PDF ) . Nature . 421 ( 6924 ) : 699 . Bibcode : 2003Natur. 421 ... 699R . PMID 12610602 . doi : 10.1038 / 421699a . Jump up ^ Lappo , SS ( 1984 ) . `` On reason of the northward heat advection across the Equator in the South Pacific and Atlantic ocean '' . Study of Ocean and Atmosphere Interaction Processes . Moscow Department of Gidrometeoizdat ( in Mandarin ) : 125 -- 9 . Jump up ^ The global ocean conveyor belt is a constantly moving system of deep - ocean circulation driven by temperature and salinity ; What is the global ocean conveyor belt ? Jump up ^ Primeau , F ( 2005 ) . `` Characterizing transport between the surface mixed layer and the ocean interior with a forward and adjoint global ocean transport model '' . Journal of Physical Oceanography. 35 ( 4 ) : 545 -- 64 . Bibcode : 2005JPO ... 35 ... 545P . doi : 10.1175 / JPO2699. 1 . Jump up ^ Wunsch , C ( 2002 ) . `` What is the thermohaline circulation ? '' . Science . 298 ( 5596 ) : 1179 -- 81 . PMID 12424356 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1079329 . Jump up ^ Wyrtki , K ( 1961 ) . `` The thermohaline circulation in relation to the general circulation in the oceans '' . Deep - Sea Research . 8 ( 1 ) : 39 -- 64 . Bibcode : 1961DSR ... 8 ... 39W . doi : 10.1016 / 0146 - 6313 ( 61 ) 90014 - 4 . Jump up ^ Schmidt , G. , 2005 , Gulf Stream slowdown ? , RealClimate Jump up ^ Eden , Carsten ( 2012 ) . Ocean Dynamics . Springer . p. 177 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 642 - 23449 - 1 . Jump up ^ Stommel , H. , & Arons , A.B. ( 1960 ) . On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean . -- I. Stationary planetary flow patterns on a sphere . Deep Sea Research ( 1953 ) , 6 , 140 - 154 . Jump up ^ United Nations Environment Programme / GRID - Arendal , 2006 , ( 1 ) . Potential Impact of Climate Change Jump up ^ `` RAPID : monitoring the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation at 26.5 N since 2004 '' . Jump up ^ National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( 2009 ) . Investigating the Gulf Stream Archived 3 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine ... North Carolina State University Retrieved 6 May 2009 Jump up ^ Hennessy ( 1858 ) . Report of the Annual Meeting : On the Influence of the Gulf - stream on the Climate of Ireland . Richard Taylor and William Francis . Retrieved 6 January 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Satellites Record Weakening North Atlantic Current Impact '' . NASA . Retrieved 10 September 2008 . Jump up ^ The Institute for Environmental Research & Eductation . Tidal. pdf Retrieved on 28 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Jeremy Elton Jacquot . Gulf Stream 's Tidal Energy Could Provide Up to a Third of Florida 's Power Retrieved 21 September 2008 Jump up ^ Marshall , John ; Speer , Kevin ( 26 February 2012 ) . `` Closure of the meridional overturning circulation through Southern Ocean upwelling '' . Nature Geoscience. 5 ( 3 ) : 171 -- 180 . Bibcode : 2012NatGe ... 5 ... 171M . doi : 10.1038 / ngeo1391 . Jump up ^ Trenberth , K ; Caron , J ( 2001 ) . `` Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports '' . Journal of Climate. 14 ( 16 ) : 3433 -- 43 . Bibcode : 2001JCli ... 14.3433 T . doi : 10.1175 / 1520 - 0442 ( 2001 ) 014 < 3433 : EOMAAO > 2.0.CO ; 2 . Jump up ^ Seager , R. , 2006 , The Source of Europe 's Mild Climate , American Scientist Jump up ^ Rhines and Hakkinen , 2003 , Is the Oceanic Heat Transport in the North Atlantic Irrelevant to the Climate in Europe ? ASOF Newsletter Jump up ^ Broecker , WS ( 2006 ) . `` Was the Younger Dryas Triggered by a Flood ? '' . Science . 312 ( 5777 ) : 1146 -- 8 . PMID 16728622 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1123253 . Jump up ^ Garrison , Tom ( 2009 ) . Oceanography : An Invitation to Marine Science ( 7th ed . ) . Cengage Learning . p. 582 . ISBN 9780495391937 . Jump up ^ Bryden , H.L. ; H.R. Longworth ; S.A. Cunningham ( 2005 ) . `` Slowing of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 25 ° N '' . Nature . 438 ( 7068 ) : 655 -- 657 . Bibcode : 2005Natur. 438 ... 655B . PMID 16319889 . doi : 10.1038 / nature04385 . Jump up ^ Curry , R. ; C. Mauritzen ( 2005 ) . `` Dilution of the northern North Atlantic in recent decades '' . Science . 308 : 1772 -- 1774 . Bibcode : 2005Sci ... 308.1772 C. PMID 15961666 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1109477 . Jump up ^ Jianjun Yin ; Stephen Griffies ( 25 March 2015 ) . `` Extreme sea level rise event linked to AMOC downturn '' . CLIVAR . Other sources ( edit ) Apel , JR ( 1987 ) . Principles of Ocean Physics . Academic Press . ISBN 0 - 12 - 058866 - 8 . Gnanadesikan , A. ; R.D. Slater ; P.S. Swathi ; G.K. Vallis ( 2005 ) . `` The energetics of ocean heat transport '' . Journal of Climate. 18 ( 14 ) : 2604 -- 16 . Bibcode : 2005JCli ... 18.2604 G . doi : 10.1175 / JCLI3436. 1 . Knauss , JA ( 1996 ) . Introduction to Physical Oceanography . Prentice Hall . ISBN 0 - 13 - 238155 - 9 . `` Potential Impact of Climate Change '' . United Nations Environment Programme / GRID - Arendal. 2006 . Rahmstorf , S ( 2006 ) . `` Thermohaline Ocean Circulation '' ( PDF ) . In Elias , S.A. Encyclopedia of Quaternary Sciences . Elsevier Science . ISBN 0 - 444 - 52747 - 8 . External links ( edit ) Ocean Conveyor Belt THOR FP7 projects http://www.eu-thor.eu investigates on the topic `` Thermohaline overturning - at risk ? '' and the predictability of changes of the THC . THOR is financed by the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission . Atmospheric , oceanographic and climate models ( hide ) Model types Atmospheric model Climate model Numerical weather prediction Tropical cyclone forecast model Atmospheric dispersion modeling Chemical transport model Upper - atmospheric models Ensemble forecasting Model output statistics Meteorological reanalysis Parametrization ( hide ) Specific models Climate IGCM HadCM3 HadGEM1 GFDL CM2. X CGCM CCSM CESM CFSv2 ECHAM MPAS Global weather IFS ( ECMWF ) FIM GEM / GDPS GFS NAEFS NAVGEM UM JMA - GSM GME / ICON ARPEGE Regional and mesoscale atmospheric NAM RR / RAP RAMS WRF RAQMS HIRLAM LAPS RPM Regional and mesoscale oceanographic HyCOM ROMS POM MOM FVCOM MITgcm FESOM Atmospheric dispersion ADMS AERMOD ATSTEP AUSTAL2000 CALPUFF DISPERSION21 ISC3 MEMO MERCURE NAME OSPM PUFF - PLUME RIMPUFF SAFE AIR Chemical transport CLaMS MOZART GEOS - Chem Land surface parametrization JULES CLASS ISBA Discontinued AVN / MRF / GSM Eta LFM MM5 NGM NOGAPS RUC Mathematical model Statistical model Scientific modelling Computer simulation Ocean currents and gyres Currents Arctic Ocean East Greenland North Icelandic Norwegian Transpolar Drift Stream Atlantic Ocean Angola Antilles Azores Baffin Island Benguela Brazil Canary Cape Horn Caribbean East Greenland East Iceland Falkland Florida Guinea Gulf Stream Irminger Labrador Lomonosov Loop North Atlantic North Brazil North Equatorial Norwegian Portugal Slope Jet South Atlantic South Equatorial West Greenland West Spitsbergen Indian Ocean Agulhas Agulhas Return East Madagascar Equatorial Counter Indian Monsoon Indonesian Throughflow Leeuwin Madagascar Mozambique North Madagascar Somali South Australian South Equatorial West Australian Pacific Ocean Alaska Aleutian California Cromwell Davidson East Australian East Korea Warm Equatorial Counter Humboldt Indonesian Throughflow Kamchatka Kuroshio Mindanao North Equatorial North Korea Cold North Pacific Oyashio South Equatorial Tasman Front Southern Ocean Antarctic Circumpolar Tasman Outflow Gyres Major gyres Indian Ocean Gyre North Atlantic Gyre South Atlantic Gyre North Pacific Gyre South Pacific Gyre Other gyres Beaufort Gyre Ross Gyre Weddell Gyre Related Atmospheric circulation Boundary current Coriolis force Ekman transport Great Pacific garbage patch Indian Ocean garbage patch Marine debris North Atlantic garbage patch Thermohaline circulation Physical oceanography Waves Airy wave theory Ballantine scale Benjamin -- Feir instability Boussinesq approximation Breaking wave Clapotis Cnoidal wave Cross sea Dispersion Edge wave Equatorial waves Fetch Gravity wave Green 's law Infragravity wave Internal wave Iribarren number Kelvin wave Kinematic wave Longshore drift Luke 's variational principle Mild - slope equation Radiation stress Rogue wave Rossby wave Rossby - gravity waves Sea state Seiche Significant wave height Soliton Stokes boundary layer Stokes drift Stokes wave Swell Trochoidal wave Tsunami megatsunami Undertow Ursell number Wave action Wave base Wave height Wave power Wave radar Wave setup Wave shoaling Wave turbulence Wave -- current interaction Waves and shallow water one - dimensional Saint - Venant equations shallow water equations Wind wave model Circulation Atmospheric circulation Baroclinity Boundary current Coriolis force Coriolis -- Stokes force Craik -- Leibovich vortex force Downwelling Eddy Ekman layer Ekman spiral Ekman transport El Niño -- Southern Oscillation General circulation model Geostrophic current Global Ocean Data Analysis Project Gulf Stream Halothermal circulation Humboldt Current Hydrothermal circulation Langmuir circulation Longshore drift Loop Current Modular Ocean Model Ocean dynamics Ocean gyre Princeton Ocean Model Rip current Subsurface currents Sverdrup balance Thermohaline circulation shutdown Upwelling Whirlpool World Ocean Circulation Experiment Tides Amphidromic point Earth tide Head of tide Internal tide Lunitidal interval Perigean spring tide Rip tide Rule of twelfths Slack water Tidal bore Tidal force Tidal power Tidal race Tidal range Tidal resonance Tide gauge Tideline Landforms Abyssal fan Abyssal plain Atoll Bathymetric chart Coastal geography Cold seep Continental margin Continental rise Continental shelf Contourite Guyot Hydrography Oceanic basin Oceanic plateau Oceanic trench Passive margin Seabed Seamount Submarine canyon Submarine volcano Plate tectonics Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Fracture zone Hydrothermal vent Marine geology Mid-ocean ridge Mohorovičić discontinuity Vine -- Matthews -- Morley hypothesis Oceanic crust Outer trench swell Ridge push Seafloor spreading Slab pull Slab suction Slab window Subduction Transform fault Volcanic arc Ocean zones Benthic Deep ocean water Deep sea Littoral Mesopelagic Oceanic Pelagic Photic Surf Swash Sea level Deep - ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis Future sea level Global Sea Level Observing System North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System Sea - level curve Sea level rise World Geodetic System Acoustics Deep scattering layer Hydroacoustics Ocean acoustic tomography Sofar bomb SOFAR channel Underwater acoustics Satellites Jason - 1 Jason - 2 ( Ocean Surface Topography Mission ) Jason - 3 Related Argo Benthic lander Color of water DSV Alvin Marginal sea Marine energy Marine pollution Mooring National Oceanographic Data Center Ocean Ocean exploration Ocean observations Ocean reanalysis Ocean surface topography Ocean thermal energy conversion Oceanography Pelagic sediment Sea surface microlayer Sea surface temperature Seawater Science On a Sphere Thermocline Underwater glider Water column World Ocean Atlas Commons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&oldid=806554759 '' Categories : Physical oceanography Chemical oceanography Climate change Climate forcing agents Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from September 2015 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2017 Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Taqbaylit Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 October 2017 , at 19 : 52 . 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10 | document: Right to family life - wikipedia Right to family life The right to family life is the right of all individuals to have their established family life respected , and to have and maintain family relationships . This right is recognised in a variety of international human rights instruments , including Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , Article 23 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights . Contents 1 Definition 2 Relationship to the right to marry 3 Challenges 4 International instruments 4.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 4.2 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 4.2. 1 Case Law 4.3 International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights 5 Europe 5.1 European Convention on Human Rights 5.1. 1 Case Law 5.2 European Social Charter 6 Other international instruments 6.1 Americas 6.2 Africa 6.3 United Kingdom 7 References 8 External links Definition ( edit ) The changing concept of family requires a subjective definition of what family entails . There is no contest that the relationship between husband and wife , unmarried ( de facto ) partners , parents and children , siblings , and ' near relatives ' such as between grandparents and grandchildren represents family as required under the right to family life . Challenge exists where modern forms of family relationships have developed that the law has not yet explicitly recognised . The `` existence ... of family life is a question of fact '' and is decided subjectively under each factual scenario . The European Court of Human Rights has stated that when considering what constitutes family relationships the Court `` must necessarily take into account developments in society and changes in the perception of social , civil - status and relational issues , including the fact that there is not just one way or one choice in the sphere of leading and living one 's family or private life '' . Established family ties can be broken . Relationship to the right to marry ( edit ) The right to marry is closely related to the right to family life , however the two rights are not identical . The right to marry is explicitly provided for in all human rights instruments , essentially providing that all people have the right to marry and found a family . The right to family life predominantly refers to an individual 's right to create and maintain their family relationships . It was clarified in X , Y and Z v United Kingdom that in the situation where a spouse has been deported from their partner 's State due to their nationality , there is no infringement on the right to marry as the individuals are already married , and so the right to family life must be considered . Challenges ( edit ) The main area of conflict arises between the ability of States to control entry and residence within its borders and the impact this control has over an individual 's right to family life . Within international law the general principle holds that a State has the right to regulate entry and residence within its own territory . When this power of control results in the deportation of an individual , this may cause a breach of an individual 's right to stay with their family . This conflict occurs where the immigrant is the spouse , parent or relative of a State 's citizen , and the State wishes to remove or refuse entry to the immigrant . When a challenge is brought forward to the Courts or monitoring bodies , a balance must be struck between the rights of the State to enforce immigration laws and maintain public order , and the impact the enforcement of said laws will have on an individual 's right to family life . It has been emphasised that it is not the task of monitoring bodies to `` supervise the government 's immigration policy , but to examine whether the applicant 's right to respect for family life had been ensured without discrimination '' . International instruments ( edit ) Both Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 23 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provide basis for the right to family life as a fundamental human right . Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( edit ) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR ) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948 , clarifying universal rights held by all individuals regardless of subjective factors . Arguably the UDHR now represents customary international law , and as such has legally binding force over States . The pertinent provision relating to the right to family lies in Article 16 ( 3 ) of the UDHR : 3 . The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State . International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( edit ) The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on the 16 December 1966 , and came into force on the 23 March 1976 . As at May 2016 there are 168 State parties to the ICCPR , giving effect to the civil and political rights of individuals within their borders . Articles 17 and 23 ( 1 ) ICCPR refer to the right to family : Article 17 : 1 . No one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy , family , home or correspondence , nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation . 2 . Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks . Article 23 ( 1 ) : 1 . The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State . The Human Rights Committee has noted that the protection of the family and its members is also directly and indirectly guaranteed by other Articles within the Covenant in addition to Articles 17 and 23 , such as protection of the child under Article 24 . Case Law ( edit ) Winata v Australia This case was based on applications made by Hendrick Winata and So Lan Li under Articles 17 , 23 ( 1 ) and 24 ( 1 ) of the ICCPR alleging that the removal of Winata and Li from Australia , where their adolescent son held residency , would amount a violation of their fundamental human rights , specifically that of their right to family . Both Winata and Li were living illegally in Australia , and were facing deportation by the State . It was claimed that through either the separation of Winata and Li from their son through deportation , or the forced removal of the whole family unit to Indonesia , there would be interference with the fundamental family unit that was not compatible with the State 's protection obligations to the right to family under the ICCPR . Australia argued that the application was inadmissible and incompatible with the provisions of the ICCPR , emphasising the ICCPR provides protection `` only ( to ) a right to family life , not a right to family life in a particular country . '' The majority view of the Human Rights Committee found in favour of Winata and Li , holding that while individuals may not have the right to decide where they reside , States are obligated to protect all of the rights within the ICCPR . The Committee recognised the importance of State 's control over immigration within their territory , however this discretion is `` not unlimited '' . It was held that deportation of Winata and Li would constitute a violation of Article 17 and 23 ( 1 ) ICCPR . Prior to this case international practice indicated that it was for States to determine who could reside in their territory , even where an infringement of Article 23 would arguably occur . The Committee 's decision in this instance challenges this assumption , indicating that an individual 's right to family life receives precedence over States ' ability to control residence within their territory . International Covenant on economic , Social and Cultural Rights ( edit ) The International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights ( ICESCR ) was also adopted by the General Assembly on 16 December 1966 , however it did not enter into force till nine years after it opened for signature on 3 January 1976 . Article 10 ( 1 ) provides for the right to family : 1 . The widest possible protection and assistance should be accorded to the family , which is the natural and fundamental group unit of society , particularly for its establishment and while it is responsible for the care and education of dependant children . Europe ( edit ) Within Europe the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Social Charter stand as foundational human rights instruments . European Convention on Human Rights ( edit ) Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights ( ECHR ) states : 1 . Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life , his home and his correspondence . 2 . There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security , public safety or the economic well being of the country , for the prevention of disorder or crime , for the protection of health or morals , or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others . The Article imposes both positive and negative obligations on States ; not only is the State required to protect its constituents from arbitrary interference in family life by public authorities , it must also provide within its domestic legal system safeguards that allow the development of a `` normal family life '' . It is clear that Article 8 applies to both `` legitimate '' and `` illegitimate '' family , with no distinction between the two qualifications within the Convention . Case Law ( edit ) EM ( Lebanon ) ( FC ) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department This case involved a second appeal against a decision of the Secretary of State for the Home Department that EM and her son ( AF ) must return to Lebanon , the appellant 's country of origin . EM had fled from Lebanon with AF following a violent marriage and resulting divorce . Under Lebanese Shari'a law , the physical custody of the child must be transferred to the father or a male family member once the child reaches seven years of age . AF was over the age of seven , and so would have all custodial rights transferred to his paternal father upon return to Lebanon . EM argued that the forced removal to Lebanon by the United Kingdom would result in a direct breach of both her and AF 's right to family life under Article 8 of the ECHR . The Court held that removal of the appellant and her son to Lebanon would violate both EM and AF 's Article 8 rights , and granted the appeal . This decision is significant , representing the first successful Article 8 claim in a foreign case . European Social Charter ( edit ) The European Social Charter ( the Charter ) is the counterpart to the European Convention on Human Rights , providing for fundamental social and economic rights under a Council of Europe treaty . The Charter also provides for the right to family under Article 16 , reaffirming European parties commitment to the right : With a view to ensuring the necessary conditions for the full development of the family , which is a fundamental unit of society , the Contracting Parties undertake to promote the economic , legal and social protection of family life by such means as social and family benefits , fiscal arrangements , provision of family housing , benefits for the newly married , and other appropriate means . Other International instruments ( edit ) Americas ( edit ) The American Convention on Human Rights is a regional human rights treaty that similarly provides for the right to family life under Article 17 ( 1 ) : 1 . The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the state . Africa ( edit ) The protection of the family and vulnerable groups is specified under the African Charter on Human and People 's Rights in Article 18 , stating : 1 . The family shall be the natural unit and basis of society . It shall be protected by the State which shall take care of its physical health and moral . 2 . The State shall have the duty to assist the family which is the custodian of morals and traditional values recognized by the community . The African Charter on Human and Peoples ' Rights was adopted by the Organisation of African Unity in 1981 and entered into force on 21 October 1986 . United Kingdom ( edit ) Within the United Kingdom the right to family life is a ' qualified right ' under the Human Rights Act 1998 . This qualification allows a public authority to interfere with the right to family life if it is in protection of others ' rights or in the interest of the wider community . On 9 July 2012 new Immigration Rules came into effect within the United Kingdom , affording greater weight to the States ' ability to control entry and residence as compared to the individual right to family life . There is a presumption that decisions made under the Immigration Rules will breach Article 8 of the ECHR only in `` genuinely exceptional circumstances '' . This presumption significantly limits individual 's ability to successfully challenge decisions they believe have breached their fundamental right to family life . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Liberty `` Article 8 Right to a private and family life '' accessed at https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/law-and-rights/civil-rights/human-rights/what-rights-are-protected-under-the-human-rights-act/your-right-to-respect-for-private-and-family-life/ . Jump up ^ Citizens Advice `` Your right to respect for private and family life '' accessed at https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/law-and-rights/civil-rights/human-rights/what-rights-are-protected-under-the-human-rights-act/your-right-to-respect-for-private-and-family-life/ . Jump up ^ Cvetic , Goran ( 1987 ) . `` Immigration Cases in Strasbourg : The Right to Family Life Under Article 8 of the European Convention '' . International and Comparative Law Quarterly . 36 ( 3 ) : 650 . doi : 10.1093 / iclqaj / 36.3. 647 . Jump up ^ Johnston v Ireland ( 9697 / 82 ) ECHR 18 December 1986 Jump up ^ Berrehab v the Netherlands ( 3 / 1987 / 126 / 177 ; 10730 / 84 ) ECHR 28 May 1988 . Jump up ^ Olsson v Sweden ( 10465 / 83 ) ECHR 24 March 1988 . Jump up ^ Marckx v Belgium 2 EHRR 330 . Jump up ^ O'Donnell , Kath ( 1995 ) . `` The Unmarried Father and the Right to Family Life : Keegan v. Ireland '' . Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law . 2 ( 1 ) : 85 . doi : 10.1177 / 1023263X9500200107 . Jump up ^ Melehi , Nadia ( 2014 ) . `` The right to family life free from discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation : the European and Inter-American perspectives '' . American University International Law Review . 29 : 954 . Jump up ^ Villianatos and Others v Greece ( 29381 / 09 & 32684 / 09 ) ( 2013 ) ECHR ( 7 November 2013 ) , at ( 84 ) . Jump up ^ Ivana Roagna `` Protecting the right to respect for private and family life under the European Convention on Human Rights '' ( 2012 ) Council of Europe Human Rights Handbooks , at 30 . Jump up ^ European Convention on Human Rights , Article 12 ; American Convention on Human Rights , Article 17 ; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , Article 23 ( 1 ) ; African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights , Article 18 ; Universal Declaration on Human Rights , Article 16 ; European Social Charter , Article 16 ; International Convention on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights , Article 10 . Jump up ^ X , Y & Z v United Kingdom ( GC ) 22 April 1997 . Jump up ^ Burchill , Richard ( 2003 ) . `` The Right to Live Wherever You Want ? The Right to Family Life following the UN Human Rights Committee 's Decision in Winata '' . Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights . 21 ( 2 ) : 225 . doi : 10.1177 / 016934410302100204 . Jump up ^ Chahal v United Kingdom ( 22414 / 93 ) ( 1996 ) ECHR 54 ( 15 November 1996 ) , at ( 73 ) . Jump up ^ Emmet Whelan `` The right to family live v immigration control : the application of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights in Ireland '' ( 2006 ) Hibernian Law Journal 6 , at 93 . Jump up ^ Burchill 2003 , p. 234 . Jump up ^ Abdulaziz , Cabales and Balkandali v United Kingdom ( 1985 ) 7 EHRR 471 . Jump up ^ Daniel Moeckli , Sangeeta Shah and Sandesh Sivakumaran International Human Rights Law ( 2nd ed , Oxford University Press , United Kingdom , 2014 ) at 30 . Jump up ^ Universal Declaration on Human Rights , Article 16 ( 3 ) accessed at < http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ > . Jump up ^ Adam McBeth , Justine Nolan and Simon Rice The International Law of Human Rights ( Oxford University Press , Australia , 2011 ) at 251 . Jump up ^ International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , accessed at < https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-4&chapter=4&lang=en > . Jump up ^ Human Rights Committee `` General Comment No 19 of 1990 , Article 23 '' ( 1994 ) UN Doc HRI / GEN / 1 / Rev. 1 at 28 . Jump up ^ Winata v Australia Communication No. 930 / 2000 ( 16 August 2001 ) UN Doc . CCPR / C / 72 / D / 930 / 2000 . Jump up ^ Burchill 2003 , p. 227 . Jump up ^ Burchill 2003 , p. 229 . Jump up ^ Winata v Australia Communication No. 930 / 2000 ( 16 August 2001 ) UN Doc . CCPR / C / 72 / D / 930 / 2000 at 7.3 . Jump up ^ Burchill 2003 , p. 226 . Jump up ^ Adam McBeth , Justine Nolan and Simon Rice The International Law of Human Rights ( Oxford University Press , Australia , 2011 ) at 258 . Jump up ^ International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights , Article 10 accessed at < http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx > . Jump up ^ European Convention on Human Rights , Article 8 . Jump up ^ Belgian Linguistics case ( No. 2 ) ( 1968 ) 1 EHRR 252 , at 33 ( 7 ) . Jump up ^ Marckx v Belgium 2 EHRR. 330 , at ( 31 ) . Jump up ^ Marckx v Belgium 2 EHRR. 330 , at ( 31 ) . Jump up ^ EM ( Lebanon ) ( FC ) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ( 2008 ) UKHL 64 , ( 2008 ) 3 W.L.R. 931 . Jump up ^ Stephanie Palmer and A.T. H Smith `` Protecting the Right to Respect for Family Life in `` Foreign '' Cases '' ( 2009 ) The Cambridge Law Journal 68 ( 3 ) at 498 . Jump up ^ Council of Europe `` The European Social Charter '' ( 2016 ) accessed at < http://www.coe.int/en/web/turin-european-social-charter > . Jump up ^ The European Social Charter , Article 16 accessed at < https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000168007cf93 > . Jump up ^ American Convention on Human Rights . Jump up ^ Citizens Advice `` When can a public authority interfere with your human rights ? '' ( 2016 ) accessed at < https://www.citizensadvice.org.uk/law-and-rights/civil-rights/human-rights/when-can-a-public-authority-interfere-with-your-human-rights/ > ; Human Rights Act ( UK ) 1998 . Jump up ^ The London School of Economics and Political Science `` Deportation and the right to respect for private and family life under Article 8 HRA '' February 2013 , accessed from < http://www.lse.ac.uk/humanRights/documents/2011/KlugDeportation.pdf > . Jump up ^ The London School of Economics and Political Science `` Deportation and the right to respect for private and family life under Article 8 HRA '' February 2013 , accessed from < http://www.lse.ac.uk/humanRights/documents/2011/KlugDeportation.pdf > . External links ( edit ) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights European Convention on Human Rights International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_family_life&oldid=826257727 '' Categories : Human rights Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 18 February 2018 , at 03 : 38 ( UTC ) . 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11 | document: History of the Assyrian people - wikipedia History of the Assyrian people This article is part of the series on the History of the Assyrian people Early History Early Assyrian Period ( 2600 BCE -- 2025 BCE ) Old Assyrian Empire ( 2025 BC -- 1378 BCE ) Middle Assyrian Empire ( 1392 BC -- 934 BCE ) Neo-Assyrian Empire ( 911 BCE -- 609 BCE ) Achaemenid Assyria ( 539 BCE -- 330 BCE ) Classical Antiquity Seleucid Empire ( 312 BCE -- 63 BCE ) Parthian Empire ( 247 BCE -- 224 CE ) Osroene ( 132 BCE -- 244 CE ) Syrian Wars ( 66 BCE -- 217 CE ) Roman Syria ( 64 BCE -- 637 CE ) Adiabene ( 15 -- 116 ) Roman Assyria ( 116 -- 118 ) Christianization ( 1st to 3rd c . ) Nestorian Schism ( 5th c . ) Asōristān ( 226 -- 651 ) Byzantine -- Sasanian wars ( 502 -- 628 ) Middle Ages Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia ( 630s ) Muslim conquest of Syria ( 630s ) Abbasid Caliphate ( 750 -- 1258 ) Emirs of Mosul ( 905 -- 1383 ) Buyid amirate ( 945 -- 1055 ) Principality of Antioch ( 1098 -- 1268 ) Ilkhanate ( 1258 -- 1335 ) Jalairid Sultanate ( 1335 -- 1432 ) Kara Koyunlu ( 1375 -- 1468 ) Ağ Qoyunlu ( 1453 -- 1501 ) Modern History Safavid dynasty ( 1508 -- 1555 ) Ottoman Empire ( 1555 -- 1917 ) Schism of 1552 ( 16th c . ) Massacres of Badr Khan ( 1840s ) Massacres of Diyarbakir ( 1895 ) Rise of nationalism ( 19th c . ) Adana massacre ( 1909 ) Assyrian genocide ( 1914 -- 1920 ) Assyrian independence movement ( since 1919 ) Simele massacre ( 1933 ) Post-Saddam Iraq ( since 2003 ) See also Assyrian continuity Assyrian -- Chaldean -- Syriac diaspora This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia 's quality standards . You can help . The discussion page may contain suggestions . ( September 2016 ) The history of the Assyrian people begins with the appearance of Akkadian speaking peoples in Mesopotamia at some point between 3500 and 3000 BC , followed by the formation of Assyria in the 25th century BC . During the early bronze age period Sargon of Akkad united all the native Semitic - speakers and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia ( including the Assyrians ) under the Akkadian Empire ( 2335 -- 2154 BC ) . Assyria essentially existed as part of a unified Akkadian nation for much of the period from the 24th century BC to the 22nd century BC , and a nation state from the mid 21st century BC until its destruction as an independent state between 615 -- 599 BC . The Assyrians are culturally , linguistically , and ethnically distinct from their neighbours in the Middle East -- the Arabs , Syrians , Persians , Kurds , Turks , and Armenians . Assyrian nationalism emphasizes their indigeneity to the Assyrian homeland , together with cultural , historical and ethnic Assyrian continuity since the Iron Age Neo-Assyrian Empire , and Achaemenid Persian , Greek , Roman , Parthian and Sassanid ruled Athura / Assuristan . Assyria was a land stretching from Kirkuk in the south to Amida in the north , and from Edessa in the west to the border of Persia ( Iran ) in the east . The Assyrians are indigenous to modern northern Iraq , southeast Turkey , northwest Iran and , much recently , northeast Syria . The area which is northern Iraq today encompassed Assyria between the 21st century BC and 7th century AD . Much of this land is now inhabited by Kurds ( including Yezidis ) and to a lesser extent , Armenians . They are a Semitic people , with many ( estimates range between 575,000 and 1,000,000 ) still speaking , reading and writing Akkadian influenced dialects of East Aramaic . Today they are a Christian people , with most being followers of the Assyrian Church of the East , Chaldean Catholic Church , Syriac Orthodox Church , Ancient Church of the East , Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Assyrian Evangelical Church . Contents 1 Ancient Assyria 2 Post Assyrian Empire 3 Early Christian period 3.1 The Seleucid Greek hegemony 3.2 Roman Empire 3.3 Parthian hegemony 3.4 Sassanid Persian hegemony 4 Islamic empires 5 20th century 6 Post-Ba'thist Iraq 7 Assyrian continuity 8 Timeline 9 See also 10 External links 11 References Ancient Assyria ( edit ) Main article : Assyria In prehistoric times , the region that was to become known as Assyria ( and Subartu ) was home to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave . The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria were the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna , the centre of the Hassuna culture , c. 6000 BC . The cities of Assur ( also spelled Ashur or Aššur ) and Nineveh , together with a number of other towns and cities , existed as early as the 25th century BC , although they appear to have been Sumerian - ruled administrative centres at this time , rather than independent states . The Assyrian king list records kings dating from the 25th century BC onwards , the earliest being Tudiya , who was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla . However , many of these early kings would have been local rulers , and from the late 24th century BC to the early 22nd century BC , usually subject to the Akkadian Empire . The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian ( Assyro - Babylonian ) population . Assyria was for most of this period a powerful and highly advanced nation , and a major centre of Mesopotamian civilisation and Mesopotamian religion . Assyria had three periods of empire ; the Old Assyrian Empire ( 2025 -- 1750 BC ) which saw it emerge as the most powerful state in the region , extending colonies into south east Anatolia , the northern Levant , central Mesopotamia and north western Ancient Iran . The Middle Assyrian Empire ( 1365 -- 1020 BC ) saw Assyria emerge as the most powerful military and political force in the known world , destroying the Mitanni - Hurrian empire , largely annexing the Hittite Empire , forcing the Egyptian Empire from the region , conquering Babylonia and besting the Elamites , Kassites and Phrygians among others . Middle Assyrian Empire kings extended Assyrian domination from Mount Ararat in the north to Dilmun ( modern Bahrain ) in the south , and from the Eastern Mediterranean and Antioch in the west to the Zagros ( in modern northern Iran ) in the east . After the fall of the Akkadian Empire , the Akkadians once more fragmented into smaller nation states , with Assyria coming to dominate northern Mesopotamia , and states such as Ur , Kish , Isin and Larsa the south . In the 18th century BC the south Mesopotamian states were subsumed into a new power , that of Babylonia . However , Babylonia unlike Assyria , was founded and originally ruled by non indigenous Amorites , and was to be more often than not ruled by other waves of non indigenous peoples such as Kassites , Hittites , Elamites , Arameans and Chaldeans , as well as by the Assyrians . According to the Assyrian King List , the earliest king of Assyria was Tudiya . From the late 24th century BC it became a part of the Akkadian Empire , based in the city of Akkad , which united all of the Akkadian speaking Semites ( including the Assyrians ) under one rule . Assyria regained its independence in the early 21st century BC . Assyria became an imperial power with the Old Assyrian Empire ( 1975 -- 1750 BC ) , and the Middle Assyrian Empire ( 1365 -- 1020 BC ) , the latter of which became the most powerful state in the region , eclipsing Egypt , the Hittites , Mitanni , Babylonia and Elam . The Neo-Assyrian Empire ( 911 -- 605 BC ) was the largest the world had yet seen ; in the north , it extended to the Transcaucasia ( modern Armenia , Georgia and Azerbaijan ) , to the south it encompassed Egypt , northern Nubia ( modern Sudan ) , Libya and much of the Arabian peninsula , to the west it extended into parts of Ancient Greece ( Cyprus , Cilicia etc ) and the East Mediterranean , and to the east into Persia , Media , Gutium , Parthia , Elam and Mannea ( the modern western half of Iran ) . In 626 BC it descended into a bitter series of civil wars conducted by rival claimants to the throne , allowing it to be conquered by a coalition of former subject peoples . In 615 BC combined attacks by an alliance of its former subjects ; namely the Medes , Babylonians , Persians , Chaldeans , Scythians , Sagartians and Cimmerians , gradually led to its fall by 599 BC . However , Assyria was to survive as a geo - political entity until the mid 7th century AD . The Assyrians today speak dialects of Eastern Aramaic , which still contain an Akkadian grammatical structure and hundreds of Akkadian loanwords . This language was originally introduced to Assyria as the lingua franca of the Neo Assyrian Empire in the mid 8th century BC by Tiglath - pileser III . Post Assyrian Empire ( edit ) Further information : Achaemenid Assyria and Achaemenid Empire After the defeat of Ashur - uballit II in 608 BC at Haran , at Carchemish in 605 BC , and after the last centre of Assyrian imperial records at Dūr - Katlimmu in 599 BC , the Assyrian empire was divided up by the key invading forces , the Babylonians and the Medes , with the Medes ruling Assyria proper . The Assyrian people , after the fall of their empire , fell under foreign domination ever since . Assyria came under the rule of the short lived Median Empire until 546 BC . The last king of Babylon , Nabonidus ( together with his son and co-regent Belshazzar ) , was ironically an Assyrian from Harran . Assyria then became an Achaemenid province named Athura ( Assyria ) . The Median Empire was then conquered by Cyrus in 547 BC , under the Achaemenid dynasty , and the Persian Empire was thus founded , which consumed the entire Neo-Babylonian or `` Chaldean '' Empire in 539 BC . King Cyrus changed Assyria 's capital from Nineveh to Arbela . Assyrians became front line soldiers for the Persian empire under King Xerxes , playing a major role in the Battle of Marathon under King Darius I in 490 BC . Cyrus II returned the sacred images of the Assyrians to Nineveh and Assur , established for them permanent sanctuaries , gathered all their former inhabitants and returned them to their habitations . The news of the assassination of Bardiya ( son of Cyrus II ) , and this connection , Darius the Great declares that several satrapies including the Assyrian satrapy revolted . In 482 BC , Babylonia and Assyria were joined together in the same administrative division . The Assyrian people were Christianized in the 1st to 3rd centuries , in Roman Syria and Roman Assyria . They were divided by the Nestorian Schism in the 5th century , and from the 8th century , they became a religious minority following the Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia . They suffered a genocide at the collapse of the Ottoman Empire , and today to a significant extent live in diaspora . Early Christian period ( edit ) Funerary mosaic of an Edessa family , 3rd century . Further information : Syriac Christianity , History of Eastern Christianity , and Asuristan In Church tradition , the Assyrians are descended from Abraham 's grandson ( Dedan son of Jokshan ) , progenitor of the ancient Assyrians . Along with the Arameans , Phoenicians , Armenians , Greeks and Nabateans , they were among the first people to convert to Christianity and spread Eastern Christianity to the Far East . The Council of Seleucia of c. 325 dealt with jurisdictional conflicts among the leading bishops . At the subsequent Council of Seleucia - Ctesiphon of 410 , the Christian communities of Mesopotamia renounced all subjection to Antioch and the `` Western '' bishops and the Bishop of Seleucia - Ctesiphon assumed the rank of Catholicos . The Nestorian and Monophysite schisms of the 5th century divided the church into separate denominations . With the rise of Syriac Christianity , eastern Aramaic enjoyed a renaissance as a classical language in the 2nd to 8th centuries , and the modern Assyrian people continue to speak eastern Neo-Aramaic dialects which still retain a number of Akkadian loan words to this day . Whereas Latin and Greek Christian cultures became protected by the Roman and Byzantine empires respectively , Assyrian / Syriac Christianity often found itself marginalised and persecuted . Antioch was the political capital of this culture , and was the seat of the patriarchs of the church . However , Antioch was heavily Hellenized , and the cities of Edessa , Nisibis , Arbela and Ctesiphon became Syriac cultural centres . The Seleucid Greek hegemony ( edit ) Further information : Seleucid Empire At the end of the Achaemenid Persian rule in 330 BC , Mesopotamia was partitioned into the satrapy of Babylon in the south , while the northern part of Mesopotamia was joined with Syria in another satrapy . It is not know how long this division lasted , but by the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC , the north was removed from Syria and made into a separate satrapy . Generally speaking , the Seleucid rulers respected the native priesthood of Meosopotamia , and there is no record of persecutions . There is proof that the Parthians , when establishing their sovereignty over different parts in the empire , retained the dynasts that had become independent or had been acting on behalf of the Seleucids , as long as they accepted Parthian sovereignty . Full overlordship of the Parthians was established since the full establishment of the empire under Arsaces I of Parthia . Aramaic was the official language of the Achaemenid Persian Empire ; after the conquests of Alexander the Great , Greek replaced Aramaic , including up to the Seleucid empire . However both Greek and Aramaic were used throughout the empire , although Greek was the principal language of the government . Aramaic underwent changes in different parts of the empire , and in Mesopotamia under the subsequent rule of the Parthians it evolved into Syriac . Roman Empire ( edit ) Further information : Roman Syria Syria became a Roman province in 64 BC , following the Third Mithridatic War . The Assyria - based army accounted for three legions of the Roman army , defending the Parthian border . In the 1st century , it was the Assyria - based army that enabled Vespasian 's coup . Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the crisis of the third century . From the later 2nd century , the Roman senate included several notable Assyrians , including Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius . In the 3rd century , Assyrians even reached for imperial power , with the Severan dynasty . From the 1st century BC , Assyria was the theatre of the protracted Perso - Roman Wars . It would become a Roman province ( Assyria Provincia ) between 116 and 363 AD , although Roman control of this province was unstable and was often returned to the Parthians and Persians . Parthian hegemony ( edit ) Further information : Parthian Empire When the Seleucids passed , it were the Iranian Parthians who took their place , wielding the sceptre over much of West Asia for some 400 years . It is during the Parthian period that the Christianisation of Adiabene began . Despite the influx of foreign elements , despite the changes in architecture , the presence of Assyrians is confirmed by the worship of god Ashur , all proof of the continuity of the Assyrians . The conclusion to be drawn from this is that the Greeks , Parthians , and Romans had a rather low - level of integration with the local population in Mesopotamia , which allowed their cultures to survive . Therefore , the large influx of Greek and Iranian Parthian elements did not wipe out the local population and culture . The Parthians exercised only loose control over Assyria , and it saw a major cultural revival , with Ashur once more becoming independent , and other Assyrian states arising , such as Adiabene , Osroene , Beth Nuhadra and Beth Garmai , together with the partly Assyrian state of Hatra . At the dawn of Christianity the people living in Assyria were Assyrians , Medes , Parthians , Persians , Greeks , and Armenians . Sassanid Persian hegemony ( edit ) Further information : Sassanid Empire and Asorestan In 225 AD Parthian rule over the Assyrian territories straightly moved to the newly established and vibrant Sassanid Persian Empire . The population of Asorestan was a mixed one , composed of Assyrians , Arameans ( in the far south , and western deserts ) , and Persians . The Greek element in the cities , still strong in the Parthian period , was absorbed by the Semites in Sasanian times . The majority of the population were Assyrian people , speaking Eastern Aramaic dialects . As the breadbasket of the Sasanian Empire , most of the population were engaged in agriculture or worked as traders and merchants . The Persians were found in the administrative class of society , as army officers , civil servants , and feudal lords , living partly in the country , partly in Ctesiphon . At least three dialects of Eastern Aramaic were in spoken and liturgical use : Syriac mainly in the north and among Assyrian Christians , Mandaic in the south and among Mandaeans , and a dialect in the central region , of which the Judaic subvariety is known as Jewish Babylonian Aramaic . Aside from the liturgical scriptures of these religions which exist today , archaeological examples of all three of these dialects can be found in the collections of thousands of Aramaic incantation bowls -- ceramic artifacts dated to this era -- discovered in Iraq . While the Jewish Aramaic script retained the original `` square '' or `` block '' form of the Aramaic alphabet used in Imperial Aramaic ( the Ashuri alphabet ) , the Syriac alphabet and the Mandaic alphabet developed when cursive styles of Aramaic began to appear . The Mandaic script itself developed from the Parthian chancellery script . The religious demography of Mesopotamia was very diverse during Late Antiquity . From the 1st and 2nd centuries Syriac Christianity became the primary religion , while other groups practiced Mandaeism , Judaism , Manichaeism , Zoroastrianism , and the old Mesopotamian religion . Christians were probably the most numerous group in the province . The Sasanian state religion , Zoroastrianism , was largely confined to the Persian administrative class . Asorestan , and particularly Assyria proper , were the centers for the Church of the East ( now the Assyrian Church of the East ) , which at times ( partially due to the vast areas the Sasanian empire covered ) was the most widespread Christian church in the world , reaching well into Central Asia , China and India . The Church of the East went through major consolidation and expansion in 410 during the Council of Seleucia - Ctesiphon , held at the Sasanian capital ( in Asorestan ) . Selucia - Ctesiphon remained a location of the Patriarchate of the Church of the East for over 600 years . This period of Sassanid hegemony lasted all the way till the advent of the invading Rashidun Arabs between 633 and 638 AD after which Assuristan got annexed by the Islamic Arabs . Together with Mayshan became the province of al - ' Irāq . A century later , the area became the capital province of the Abbasid Caliphate and the centre of Islamic civilization for five hundred years ; from the 8th to the 13th centuries . Islamic empires ( edit ) See also : Muslim conquest of Persia After the Arab Islamic Conquest of the mid 7th century AD Assuristan ( Assyria ) was dissolved as an entity . The previously basic civilisation of the desert dwelling Arabs was greatly enhanced and enriched by the influence and knowledge of native Mesopotamian scientists , physicians , mathematicians , theologians , astronomers , architects , agriculturalists , artists and astrologers . Aramaic language and Syriac Christianity in the Middle East and Central Asia until being largely annihilated by Tamerlane in the 14th century . Assyrian Christians especially Nestorian contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Ummayads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic . They also excelled in philosophy , science ( such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq , Qusta ibn Luqa , Masawaiyh , Patriarch Eutychius , Jabril ibn Bukhtishu etc . ) and theology ( such as Tatian , Bar Daisan , Babai the Great , Nestorius , Toma bar Yacoub etc . ) and the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians such as the long serving Bukhtishu dynasty . However , despite this , indigenous Assyrians became second class citizens in a greater Arab Islamic state , and those who resisted Arabisation and conversion to Islam were subject to religious , ethnic and cultural discrimination , and had certain restrictions imposed upon them . They were excluded from specific duties and occupations reserved for Muslims , did not enjoy the same political rights as Muslims , their word was not equal to that of a Muslim in legal and civil matters , as Christians they were subject to payment of a special tax ( jizyah ) , they were banned from spreading their religion further in Muslim ruled lands , men were banned from marrying Muslim women , but at the same time they were also expected to adhere to the same laws of property , contract and obligation as the Muslim Arabs . The ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh had its own bishop of the Church of the East at the time of the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia . The Arabs still recognised Assyrian identity in the Medieval period , describing them as Ashuriyun . Assyrian people , still retaining Akkadian infused and influenced Eastern Aramaic and Assyrian Church of the East Christianity , remained dominant in the north of Mesopotamia ( what had been Assyria ) as late as the 14th century AD and the city of Assur was still occupied by Assyrians during the Islamic period until the mid-14th century when the Muslim Turco - Mongol ruler Tamurlane conducted a religiously motivated massacre of indigenous Assyrian Christians . After that , there are no traces of a settlement at Ashur in the archaeological and numismatic record , and from this point the Assyrian population was dramatically reduced in their homeland . A religious schism among the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries AD , when a large number of hitherto Assyrian Church of the East Assyrians from the far north of Mesopotamia entered communion with the Roman Catholic Church after becoming dissatisfied with the Abuna family 's leadership of the Assyrian Church , and after at first failing to gain acceptance within the Syriac Orthodox Church . Rome named this new church The Church of Assyria and Mosul and its first leader Patriarch of the East Assyrians in 1553 AD . However , in 1683 AD , Rome altered the name to the Chaldean Catholic Church , this group of Assyrians eventually became known as Chaldean Catholics or Chaldo - Assyrians despite having no ethnic , historical , linguistic or geographic connections whatsoever to the long extinct Chaldean tribe of south east Mesopotamia . Starting from the 19th century after the rise of nationalism in the Balkans , the Ottomans started viewing Assyrians and other Christians in their eastern front as a potential threat . Furthermore , constant wars between The Ottomans and the Shiite Safavids encouraged the Ottomans into settling their allies , the nomadic Sunni Kurds , in what is today Northern Iraq and South - eastern Turkey . Starting from then , Kurdish tribal chiefs established semi-independent emirates . The Kurdish Emirs sought to consolidate their power by attacking Assyrian communities which were already well established there . Scholars estimate that tens of thousands of Assyrian in the Hakkari region were massacred in 1843 when Badr Khan the emir of Bohtan invaded their region . After a later massacre in 1846 The Ottomans were forced by the western powers into intervening in the region , and the ensuing conflict destroyed the Kurdish emirates and reasserted the Ottoman power in the area . The Assyrians of Amid were also subject to the massacres of 1895 . 20th century ( edit ) Main articles : Assyrian genocide , Assyrianism , Assyrian naming dispute , and Assyrian diaspora The Assyrians suffered a further catastrophic series of massacres known as the Assyrian Genocide , at the hands of the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Arab allies from 1915 -- 1918 . The genocide ( committed in conjunction with the Armenian Genocide and Greek Genocide ) accounted for up to 750,000 unarmed Assyrian civilians , and the forced deportations of many more . The sizeable Assyrian presence in south eastern Asia Minor which had endured for over four millennia was reduced to a few thousand . As a consequence , the surviving Assyrians took up arms , and an Assyrian war of independence was fought during World War I , For a time , the Assyrians fought successfully against overwhelming numbers , scoring a number of victories over the Ottomans and Kurds , and also hostile Arab and Iranian groups ; then their Russian allies left the war following the Russian Revolution , and Armenian resistance broke . The Assyrians were left cut off , surrounded , and without supplies , forcing those in Asia Minor and Northwest Iran to fight their way , with civilians in tow , to the safety of British lines and their fellow Assyrians in the Assyrian homeland of northern Iraq . Assyrians prominently served in Iraq Levies organized by the British in 1919 , and after 1928 , these became the Assyrian Levies . Many Assyrians from Hakkari settled in Syria after they were displaced and driven out by Ottoman Turks in southeast Turkey in the early 20th century . During the 1930s and 1940s , many Assyrians resettled in northeastern Syrian villages , such as Tel Tamer , Al - Qahtaniyah Al Darbasiyah , Al - Malikiyah , Qamishli and a few other small towns in Al - Hasakah Governorate . In 1932 , Assyrians refused to become part of the newly formed state of Iraq and instead demanded their recognition as a nation within a nation . The Assyrian leader Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII asked the League of Nations to recognize the right of Assyrians to govern the area known as the `` Assyrian triangle '' in northern Iraq . The Assyrians suffered the Simele Massacre , where thousands of unarmed villagers ( men , women and children ) were slaughtered by joint Arab - Kurdish forces of the Iraqi Army . These massacres followed a clash between Assyrian tribesmen and the Iraqi army , where the Iraqi forces suffered a defeat after trying to disarm the Assyrians , whom they feared would attempt to secede from Iraq . Armed Assyrian Levies were prevented by the British from going to the aid of these defenceless civilians . Eventually this led to the Iraqi government to commit its first of many massacres against its unarmed minority populations ( see Simele massacre ) . The Assyrian Levies were founded by the British in 1928 , with ancient Assyrian military rankings , such as Rab - shakeh , Rab - talia and Tartan , being revived for the first time in millennia for this force . The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities , loyalty , bravery and discipline , and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs and Kurds , guard the borders with Iran and Turkey and protect British military installations . The Assyrians were allied with the British during World War II , with eleven Assyrian companies seeing action in Palestine / Israel and another four serving in Cyprus . The Parachute Company was attached to the Royal Marine Commando and Assyrian Paratroopers were involved in fighting in Albania , Italy and Greece . Assyrians played a major role in the victory over Arab - Iraqi forces at the Battle of Habbaniya and Anglo - Iraq war in 1941 , when the Iraqi government decided to join WW2 on the side of Nazi Germany . The British presence in Iraq lasted until 1954 , and Assyrian Levies remained attached to British forces until this time . The period from the 1940s through to 1963 saw a period of respite for the Assyrians . The regime of President Kassim in particular saw the Assyrians accepted into mainstream society . Many urban Assyrians became successful businessmen , others were well represented in politics and the military , their towns and villages flourished undisturbed , and Assyrians came to excel , and be over represented in sports such as Boxing , Football , Athletics , Wrestling and Swimming . However , in 1963 , the Ba'ath Party took power by force in Iraq . The Baathists , though secular , were Arab Nationalists , and set about attempting to Arabize the many non Arab peoples of Iraq , including the Assyrians . Other ethnic groups targeted for forced Arabization included Kurds , Armenians , Turcomans , Mandeans , Yezidi , Shabaki , Kawliya , Persians and Circassians . This policy included refusing to acknowledge the Assyrians as an ethnic group , banning the publication of written material in Eastern Aramaic , and banning its teaching in schools , banning parents giving Assyrian names to their children , banning Assyrian political parties , taking control of Assyrian churches , attempting to divide Assyrians on denominational lines ( e.g. Assyrian Church of the East vs Chaldean Catholic Church vs Syriac Orthodox ) and forced relocations of Assyrians from their traditional homelands to major cities . In response to Baathist persecution , the Assyrians of the Zowaa movement within the Assyrian Democratic Movement took up armed struggle against the Iraqi regime in 1982 under the leadership of Yonadam Kanna , and then joined up with the IKF in the early 1990s . Yonadam Kanna in particular was a target of the Saddam Hussein Ba'ath regime for many years . The policies of the Bathists have also long been mirrored in Turkey , whose governments have refused to acknowledge the Assyrians as an ethnic group since the 1920s , and have attempted to Turkify the Assyrians by calling them Semitic Turks and forcing them to adopt Turkic names . In Syria too , the Assyrian / Syriac Christians have faced pressure to identify as Arab Christians . Many persecutions have befallen the Assyrians since , such as the Anfal campaign and Baathist , Arab and Kurdish nationalist and Islamist persecutions . Post-ba'thist Iraq ( edit ) Further information : Assyrian independence movement With the fall of Saddam Hussein and the 2003 invasion of Iraq , no reliable census figures exist on the Assyrians in Iraq ( as they do not for Iraqi Kurds or Turkmen ) , though the number of Assyrians is estimated to be approximately 800,000 . The Assyrian Democratic Movement ( or ADM ) was one of the smaller political parties that emerged in the social chaos of the occupation . Its officials say that while members of the ADM also took part in the liberation of the key oil cities of Kirkuk and Mosul in the north , the Assyrians were not invited to join the steering committee that was charged with defining Iraq 's future . The ethnic make - up of the Iraq Interim Governing Council briefly ( September 2003 -- June 2004 ) guided Iraq after the invasion included a single Assyrian Christian , Younadem Kana , a leader of the Assyrian Democratic Movement and an opponent of Saddam Hussein since 1979 . In October 2008 many Iraqi Christians ( about 12,000 almost Assyrians ) have fled the city of Mosul following a wave of murders and threats targeting their community. The murder of at least a dozen Christians , death threats to others , the destruction of houses forced the Christians to leave their city in hurry . Some families crossed the borders to Syria and Turkey while others have been given shelters in Churches and Monasteries . Accusations and blames have been exchanged between Sunni fundamentalists and some Kurdish groups for being behind this new exodus . For the time the motivation of these culprits remains mysterious , but some claims related it to the provincial elections due to be held at the end of January 2009 , and especially connected to Christian 's demand for wider presentation in the provincial councils . In recent years , the Assyrians in northern Iraq and north east Syria have become the target of extreme unprovoked Islamic terrorism . As a result , Assyrians have taken up arms , alongside other groups ( such as the Kurds , Turcomans and Armenians ) in response to unprovoked attacks by Al Qaeda , ISIS / ISIL , Nusra Front and other terrorist Islamic Fundamentalist groups . In 2014 Islamic terrorists of ISIS attacked Assyrian towns and villages in the Assyrian Homeland of northern Iraq , together with cities such as Mosul and Kirkuk which have large Assyrian populations . There have been reports of atrocities committed by ISIS terrorists since , including ; beheadings , crucifixions , child murders , rape , forced conversions , Ethnic Cleansing , robbery , and extortion in the form of illegal taxes levied upon non Muslims . Assyrians in Iraq have responded by forming armed Assyrian militias to defend their territories . Assyrian continuity ( edit ) Thus far , the only people who have been attested with a high level of genetic , historical , linguistic and cultural research to be the descendants of the ancient Mesopotamians are the Assyrian Christians of Iraq and its surrounding areas in north west Iran , north east Syria and south eastern Turkey ( see Assyrian continuity ) , although others have made unsubstantiated claims of continuity . Assyria continued to exist as a geopolitical entity until the Arab - Islamic conquest in the mid-7th century , and Assyrian identity , personal , family and tribal names , and both spoken and written evolutions of Mesopotamian Aramaic ( which still contain many Akkadian loan words and an Akkadian grammatical structure ) have survived among the Assyrian people from ancient times to this day . ( see Assyrian people ) . Timeline ( edit ) Syriac history See also ( edit ) Assyrian continuity Assyrian people Assyria Old Assyrian Empire Middle Assyrian Empire Neo Assyrian Empire Akkadian Empire Sumer Achaemenid Assyria Athura Seleucid Syria Roman Province of Assyria Assuristan Adiabene Osroene Assur Beth Nuhadra Beth Garmai Hatra Babylonia Chaldea Assyrian homeland List of Assyrians Assyrian struggle for independence Archaeogenetics of the Near East Assyrian nationalism Syriac language Name of Syria Eastern Aramaic languages Syriac language Names of Syriac Christians History of Syriac Christianity Assyrian Genocide Assyrian diaspora Assyrian culture Assyrian cuisine Assyrian music Assyrian levies Mesopotamian Religion Assyrian Church of the East Syriac Orthodox Church Nestorian Church Chaldean Catholic Church Assyrian Pentecostal Church Ancient Church of the East Assyrian Evangelical Church External links ( edit ) Assyrians after Assyria Assyrians from the fall of Nineveh to Present References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Carl Skutsch ( 2013 ) . Encyclopedia of the World 's Minorities . Routledge . p. 149 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 135 - 19388 - 1 . Jump up ^ Deutscher , Guy ( 2007 ) . Syntactic Change in Akkadian : The Evolution of Sentential Complementation . Oxford University Press US . pp. 20 -- 21 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 953222 - 3 . Jump up ^ Woods C. 2006 `` Bilingualism , Scribal Learning , and the Death of Sumerian '' . In S.L. Sanders ( ed ) Margins of Writing , Origins of Culture : 91 -- 120 Chicago ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Assyrian Eponym List '' . Retrieved 23 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Frye , Richard N. ( 1992 ) . `` Assyria and Syria : Synonyms '' ( PhD. , Harvard University ) . Journal of Near Eastern Studies . The ancient Greek historian , Herodotus , wrote that the Greeks called the Assyrians , by the name Syrian , dropping the A and first S. And that 's the first instance we know of , of the distinction in the name , of the same people . Then the Romans , when they conquered the western part of the former Assyrian Empire , they gave the name Syria , to the province , they created , which is today Damascus and Aleppo . So , that is the distinction between Syria , and Assyria . They are the same people , of course . And the ancient Assyrian empire , was the first real , empire in history . What do I mean , it had many different peoples included in the empire , all speaking Aramaic , and becoming what may be called , `` Assyrian citizens . '' That was the first time in history , that we have this . For example , Elamite musicians , were brought to Nineveh , and they were ' made Assyrians ' which means , that Assyria , was more than a small country , it was the empire , the whole Fertile Crescent . Jump up ^ Olmatead , History of the Persian Empire , Chicago University Press , 1959 , p. 39 ^ Jump up to : `` Ancient and Modern Assyrians : A Scientific Analysis '' . Retrieved 16 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Artifacts show rivals Athens and Sparta , Yahoo News , December 5 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Parpola , Simo ( 2004 ) . `` National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies . JAAS. 18 ( 2 ) : 21 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 07 - 17 . From the 3rd century AD on , the Assyrians embraced Christianity in increasing numbers Jump up ^ Genesis 25 : 3 ^ Jump up to : `` The Assyrians and Their Neighbors '' . Retrieved 16 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Assyrians and Their Neighbors '' . Retrieved 16 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` ĀSŌRISTĀN '' . Encyclopædia Iranica . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . ĀSŌRISTĀN , name of the Sasanian province of Babylonia . Jump up ^ Buck , Christopher ( 1999 ) . Paradise and Paradigm : Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháí̕ Faith . SUNY Press . p. 69 . ISBN 9780791497944 . Jump up ^ Etheredge , Laura ( 2011 ) . Iraq . Rosen Publishing . p. 72 . ISBN 9781615303045 . Jump up ^ Hill , Donald . Islamic Science and Engineering . 1993 . Edinburgh Univ . Press . ISBN 0 - 7486 - 0455 - 3 , p. 4 Jump up ^ Rémi Brague , Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization Jump up ^ Britannica , Nestorian Jump up ^ Clinton Bennett ( 2005 ) . Muslims and Modernity : An Introduction to the Issues and Debates . Continuum International Publishing Group . p. 163 . ISBN 082645481X . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07 Jump up ^ H. Patrick Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World . Oxford University Press , 2007 , p. 219 . Jump up ^ Hannibal Travis Archived 2012 - 05 - 23 at Archive.is ( 2006 ) , `` Native Christians Massacred '' : The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I , Genocide Studies and Prevention : An International Journal , vol . 1.3 , pp. 329 Jump up ^ According to Georges Roux and Simo Parpola Jump up ^ `` History of Ashur '' . Assur.de . Retrieved 12 June 2012 . Jump up ^ Hirmis Aboona , Assyrians , Kurds , and Ottomans : Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire , pp. 105 Jump up ^ David Gaunt , Massacres , Resistance , Protectors : Muslim - Christian Relations in Eastern , pp. 32 Jump up ^ Betts , Robert Brenton , Christians in the Arab East ( Atlanta , 1978 ) Jump up ^ Dodge , Bayard , `` The Settlement of the Assyrians on the Khabur , '' Royal Central Asian Society Journal , July 1940 , pp. 301 - 320 . Jump up ^ Ye'or , Bat ; Miriam Kochan ; David Littman ( 2002 ) . Islam and Dhimmitude : Where Civilizations Collide . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press . p. 148 . ISBN 0 - 8386 - 3943 - 7 . OCLC 47054791 . Jump up ^ Iraq Between the Two World Wars : The Militarist Origins of Tyranny , by Reeva Spector Simon Jump up ^ Len Deighton ( 1993 ) , Blood , Tears and Folly Jump up ^ `` زوعا '' . www.zowaa.org . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Iraqi Christians ' fear of exile '' . BBC . 2008 - 10 - 28 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 10 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Assyrian_people&oldid=853597918 '' Categories : History of the Assyrians Hidden categories : Pages using Timeline Webarchive template archiveis links Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from September 2016 All articles needing rewrite Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Português Slovenčina Edit links This page was last edited on 5 August 2018 , at 21 : 40 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_166|> <|d1_221|> <|d2_117|> |
12 | document: Rectifier - wikipedia Rectifier Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Rectifier ( disambiguation ) . A rectifier diode ( silicon controlled rectifier ) and associated mounting hardware . The heavy threaded stud attaches the device to a heatsink to dissipate heat . A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current ( AC ) , which periodically reverses direction , to direct current ( DC ) , which flows in only one direction . The process is known as rectification , since it `` straightens '' the direction of current . Physically , rectifiers take a number of forms , including vacuum tube diodes , mercury - arc valves , stacks of copper and selenium oxide plates , semiconductor diodes , silicon - controlled rectifiers and other silicon - based semiconductor switches . Historically , even synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used . Early radio receivers , called crystal radios , used a `` cat 's whisker '' of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena ( lead sulfide ) to serve as a point - contact rectifier or `` crystal detector '' . Rectifiers have many uses , but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies and high - voltage direct current power transmission systems . Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power . As noted , detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers . In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame . Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave , the process of rectification alone produces a DC current that , though unidirectional , consists of pulses of current . Many applications of rectifiers , such as power supplies for radio , television and computer equipment , require a steady constant DC current ( as would be produced by a battery ) . In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter , which may be a capacitor , choke , or set of capacitors , chokes and resistors , possibly followed by a voltage regulator to produce a steady current . More complex circuitry that performs the opposite function , converting DC to AC , is called an inverter . Contents ( hide ) 1 Rectifier devices 2 Rectifier circuits 2.1 Single - phase rectifiers 2.1. 1 Half - wave rectification 2.1. 2 Full - wave rectification 2.2 Three - phase rectifiers 2.2. 1 Three - phase , half - wave circuit 2.2. 2 Three - phase , full - wave circuit using center - tapped transformer 2.2. 3 Three - phase bridge rectifier uncontrolled 2.2. 4 Three - phase bridge rectifier controlled 2.2. 5 Twelve - pulse bridge 2.3 Voltage - multiplying rectifiers 3 Quantification of rectifiers 4 Rectifier voltage drop 5 Harmonic distortion 6 Rectifier output smoothing 6.1 Performance with low impedance source 6.2 Capacitor input filter 6.3 Choke input filter 6.4 Resistor as input filter 6.5 Higher order and cascade filters 6.6 Voltage regulators 7 Applications 8 Rectification technologies 8.1 Electromechanical 8.1. 1 Synchronous rectifier 8.1. 2 Vibrating rectifier 8.1. 3 Motor - generator set 8.2 Electrolytic 8.3 Plasma type 8.3. 1 Mercury - arc 8.3. 2 Argon gas electron tube 8.4 Diode vacuum tube ( valve ) 8.5 Solid state 8.5. 1 Crystal detector 8.5. 2 Selenium and copper oxide rectifiers 8.5. 3 Silicon and germanium diodes 8.5. 4 High power : thyristors ( SCRs ) and newer silicon - based voltage sourced converters 9 Current research 10 See also 11 References Rectifier devices ( Edit ) Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers , vacuum tube thermionic diodes and copper oxide - or selenium - based metal rectifier stacks were used . With the introduction of semiconductor electronics , vacuum tube rectifiers became obsolete , except for some enthusiasts of vacuum tube audio equipment . For power rectification from very low to very high current , semiconductor diodes of various types ( junction diodes , Schottky diodes , etc . ) are widely used . Other devices that have control electrodes as well as acting as unidirectional current valves are used where more than simple rectification is required -- e.g. , where variable output voltage is needed . High - power rectifiers , such as those used in high - voltage direct current power transmission , employ silicon semiconductor devices of various types . These are thyristors or other controlled switching solid - state switches , which effectively function as diodes to pass current in only one direction . Rectifier circuits ( Edit ) Rectifier circuits may be single - phase or multi-phase ( three phase being the most common number of phases ) . Most low power rectifiers for domestic equipment are single - phase , but three - phase rectification is very important for industrial applications and for the transmission of energy as DC ( HVDC ) . Single - phase rectifiers ( Edit ) Half - wave rectification ( Edit ) In half - wave rectification of a single - phase supply , also called uncontrolled one - pulse midpoint circuit , either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed , while the other half is blocked . Mathematically , it is a ramp function ( for positive pass , negative block ) : passing positive corresponds to the ramp function being the identity on positive inputs , blocking negative corresponds to being zero on negative inputs . Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output , mean voltage is lower . Half - wave rectification requires a single diode in a single - phase supply , or three in a three - phase supply . Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current ; half - wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full - wave rectifiers , and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output . Half - wave rectifier The no - load output DC voltage of an ideal half - wave rectifier for a sinusoidal input voltage is : V r m s = V p e a k 2 V d c = V p e a k π ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) V_ ( \ mathrm ( rms ) ) & = ( \ frac ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( 2 ) ) \ \ ( 8pt ) V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) & = ( \ frac ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ end ( aligned ) ) ) where : V , V -- the DC or average output voltage , V , the peak value of the phase input voltages , V , the root mean square ( RMS ) value of output voltage . Full - wave rectification ( Edit ) Full - wave rectifier , with vacuum tube having two anodes . A full - wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity ( positive or negative ) at its output . Mathematically , this corresponds to the absolute value function . Full - wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC ( direct current ) , and yields a higher average output voltage . Two diodes and a center tapped transformer , or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source ( including a transformer without center tap ) , are needed . Single semiconductor diodes , double diodes with common cathode or common anode , and four - diode bridges , are manufactured as single components . Graetz bridge rectifier : a full - wave rectifier using four diodes . For single - phase AC , if the transformer is center - tapped , then two diodes back - to - back ( cathode - to - cathode or anode - to - anode , depending upon output polarity required ) can form a full - wave rectifier . Twice as many turns are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier , but the power rating is unchanged . Full - wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2 diodes . The average and RMS no - load output voltages of an ideal single - phase full - wave rectifier are : V d c = V a v = 2 ⋅ V p e a k π V r m s = V p e a k 2 ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) & = ( \ frac ( 2 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ \ ( 8pt ) V_ ( \ mathrm ( rms ) ) & = ( \ frac ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) ) \ end ( aligned ) ) ) Very common double - diode rectifier vacuum tubes contained a single common cathode and two anodes inside a single envelope , achieving full - wave rectification with positive output . The 5U4 and the 80 / 5Y3 ( 4 pin ) / ( octal ) were popular examples of this configuration . Three - phase rectifiers ( Edit ) Single - phase rectifiers are commonly used for power supplies for domestic equipment . However , for most industrial and high - power applications , three - phase rectifier circuits are the norm . As with single - phase rectifiers , three - phase rectifiers can take the form of a half - wave circuit , a full - wave circuit using a center - tapped transformer , or a full - wave bridge circuit . Thyristors are commonly used in place of diodes to create a circuit that can regulate the output voltage . Many devices that provide direct current actually generate three - phase AC . For example , an automobile alternator contains six diodes , which function as a full - wave rectifier for battery charging . Three - phase , half - wave circuit ( Edit ) Controlled three - phase half - wave rectifier circuit using thyristors as the switching elements , ignoring supply inductance An uncontrolled three - phase , half - wave midpoint circuit requires three diodes , one connected to each phase . This is the simplest type of three - phase rectifier but suffers from relatively high harmonic distortion on both the AC and DC connections . This type of rectifier is said to have a pulse - number of three , since the output voltage on the DC side contains three distinct pulses per cycle of the grid frequency : The peak values V p e a k ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) of this three - pulse DC voltage are calculated from the RMS value V L N ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) of the input phase voltage ( line to neutral voltage , 120 V in North America , 230 V within Europe at mains operation ) : V p e a k = 2 ⋅ V L N ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) = ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) . The average no - load output voltage V a v ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) ) results from the integral under the graph of a positive half - wave with the period duration of 2 3 π ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ) \ pi ) ( from 30 ° to 150 ° ) : V d c = V a v = 1 2 3 π ∫ 30 ∘ 150 ∘ V p e a k ⋅ sin φ ⋅ d φ = 3 ⋅ V p e a k 2 π ⋅ ( − cos 150 ∘ + cos 30 ∘ ) = 3 ⋅ V p e a k 2 π ⋅ ( − ( − 3 2 ) + 3 2 ) = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k 2 π ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ) \ pi ) ) \ int _ ( 30 ^ ( \ circ ) ) ^ ( 150 ^ ( \ circ ) ) V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ cdot \ sin \ varphi \ cdot \ mathrm ( d ) \ varphi = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) \ cdot \ left ( - \ cos 150 ^ ( \ circ ) + \ cos 30 ^ ( \ circ ) \ right ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) \ cdot ( \ Biggl ( ) - \ left ( - ( \ frac ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) ( 2 ) ) \ right ) + ( \ frac ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) ( 2 ) ) ( \ Biggl ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) ) ⇒ V d c = V a v = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ V L N 2 π ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) ) ⇒ V a v = 3 ⋅ 6 ⋅ V L N 2 π ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 6 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) ) ≈ 1 , 17 ⋅ V L N ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) Three - phase , full - wave circuit using center - tapped transformer ( Edit ) Controlled three - phase full - wave rectifier circuit using thyristors as the switching elements , with a center - tapped transformer , ignoring supply inductance If the AC supply is fed via a transformer with a center tap , a rectifier circuit with improved harmonic performance can be obtained . This rectifier now requires six diodes , one connected to each end of each transformer secondary winding . This circuit has a pulse - number of six , and in effect , can be thought of as a six - phase , half - wave circuit . Before solid state devices became available , the half - wave circuit , and the full - wave circuit using a center - tapped transformer , were very commonly used in industrial rectifiers using mercury - arc valves . This was because the three or six AC supply inputs could be fed to a corresponding number of anode electrodes on a single tank , sharing a common cathode . With the advent of diodes and thyristors , these circuits have become less popular and the three - phase bridge circuit has become the most common circuit . Three - phase bridge rectifier uncontrolled ( Edit ) Disassembled automobile alternator , showing the six diodes that comprise a full - wave three - phase bridge rectifier . For an uncontrolled three - phase bridge rectifier , six diodes are used , and the circuit again has a pulse number of six . For this reason , it is also commonly referred to as a six - pulse bridge . The B6 circuit can be seen simplified as a series connection of two three - pulse center circuits . For low - power applications , double diodes in series , with the anode of the first diode connected to the cathode of the second , are manufactured as a single component for this purpose . Some commercially available double diodes have all four terminals available so the user can configure them for single - phase split supply use , half a bridge , or three - phase rectifier . For higher - power applications , a single discrete device is usually used for each of the six arms of the bridge . For the very highest powers , each arm of the bridge may consist of tens or hundreds of separate devices in parallel ( where very high current is needed , for example in aluminium smelting ) or in series ( where very high voltages are needed , for example in high - voltage direct current power transmission ) . Controlled three - phase full - wave bridge rectifier circuit ( B6C ) using thyristors as the switching elements , ignoring supply inductance The pulsating DC voltage results from the differences of the instantaneous positive and negative phase voltages V L N ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) , phase - shifted by 30 ° : The ideal , no - load average output voltage V a v ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) ) of the B6 circuit results from the integral under the graph of a DC voltage pulse with the period duration of 1 3 π ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ) \ pi ) ( from 60 ° to 120 ° ) with the peak value v ^ D C = 3 ⋅ V p e a k ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( v ) ) _ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) = ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) : V d c = V a v = 1 1 3 π ∫ 60 ∘ 120 ∘ 3 ⋅ V p e a k ⋅ sin φ ⋅ d φ = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k π ⋅ ( − cos 120 ∘ + cos 60 ∘ ) = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k π ⋅ ( − ( − 1 2 ) + 1 2 ) = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k π ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ) \ pi ) ) \ int _ ( 60 ^ ( \ circ ) ) ^ ( 120 ^ ( \ circ ) ) ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ cdot \ sin \ varphi \ cdot \ mathrm ( d ) \ varphi = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot \ left ( - \ cos 120 ^ ( \ circ ) + \ cos 60 ^ ( \ circ ) \ right ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot ( \ Biggl ( ) - \ left ( - ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ) \ right ) + ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ) ( \ Biggl ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) ) ⇒ V d c = V a v = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ V L N π ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) ) ⇒ V a v = 3 ⋅ 6 ⋅ V L N π ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 6 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) ) ≈ 2 , 34 ⋅ V L N ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( LN ) ) ) 3 - phase AC input , half - wave and full - wave rectified DC output waveforms If the three - phase bridge rectifier is operated symmetrically ( as positive and negative supply voltage ) , the center point of the rectifier on the output side ( or the so - called isolated reference potential ) opposite the center point of the transformer ( or the neutral conductor ) has a potential difference in form of a triangular common - mode voltage . For this reason , the two centers must never be connected to each other , otherwise short - circuit currents would flow . The ground of the three - phase bridge rectifier in symmetrical operation is thus decoupled from the neutral conductor or the earth of the mains voltage . Powered by a transformer , earthing of the center point of the bridge is possible , provided that the secondary winding of the transformer is electrically isolated from the mains voltage and the star point of the secondary winding is not on earth . In this case , however , ( negligible ) leakage currents are flowing over the transformer windings . The common - mode voltage is formed out of the respective average values of the differences between the positive and negative phase voltages , which form the pulsating DC voltage . The peak value of the delta voltage v ^ c o m m o n − m o d e ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( v ) ) _ ( \ mathrm ( common - mode ) ) ) amounts 1⁄4 of the peak value of the phase input voltage V p e a k ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) and is calculated with V p e a k ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) minus half of the DC voltage at 60 ° of the period : v ^ c o m m o n − m o d e = V p e a k − 3 ⋅ V p e a k ⋅ sin 60 ∘ 2 = V p e a k ⋅ ( 1 − 3 ⋅ sin 60 ∘ 2 ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( v ) ) _ ( \ mathrm ( common - mode ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) - ( \ frac ( ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ cdot \ sin 60 ^ ( \ circ ) ) ( 2 ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ cdot ( \ Biggl ( ) 1 - ( \ frac ( ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot \ sin 60 ^ ( \ circ ) ) ( 2 ) ) ( \ Biggl ) ) ) = V p e a k ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) 0 , 25 The RMS value of the common - mode voltage is calculated from the form factor for triangular oscillations : V c o m m o n − m o d e = v ^ c o m m o n − m o d e 3 ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( common - mode ) ) = ( \ frac ( ( \ hat ( v ) ) _ ( \ mathrm ( common - mode ) ) ) ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) ) ) If the circuit is operated asymmetrically ( as a simple supply voltage with just one positive pole ) , both the positive and negative poles ( or the isolated reference potential ) are pulsating opposite the center ( or the ground ) of the input voltage analogously to the positive and negative waveforms of the phase voltages . However , the differences in the phase voltages result in the six - pulse DC voltage ( over the duration of a period ) . The strict separation of the transformer center from the negative pole ( otherwise short - circuit currents will flow ) or a possible grounding of the negative pole when powered by an isolating transformer apply correspondingly to the symmetrical operation . Three - phase bridge rectifier controlled ( Edit ) The controlled three - phase bridge rectifier uses thyristors in place of diodes . The output voltage is reduced by the factor cos ( α ) : V d c = V a v = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k π ⋅ cos α ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot \ cos \ alpha ) Or , expressed in terms of the line to line input voltage : V d c = V a v = 3 ⋅ V L L p e a k π ⋅ cos α ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LLpeak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot \ cos \ alpha ) Where : V , the peak value of the line to line input voltages , V , the peak value of the phase ( line to neutral ) input voltages , α , firing angle of the thyristor ( 0 if diodes are used to perform rectification ) The above equations are only valid when no current is drawn from the AC supply or in the theoretical case when the AC supply connections have no inductance . In practice , the supply inductance causes a reduction of DC output voltage with increasing load , typically in the range 10 -- 20 % at full load . The effect of supply inductance is to slow down the transfer process ( called commutation ) from one phase to the next . As result of this is that at each transition between a pair of devices , there is a period of overlap during which three ( rather than two ) devices in the bridge are conducting simultaneously . The overlap angle is usually referred to by the symbol μ ( or u ) , and may be 20 30 ° at full load . With supply inductance taken into account , the output voltage of the rectifier is reduced to : V d c = V a v = 3 ⋅ V L L p e a k π ⋅ cos ( α + μ ) ( \ displaystyle V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LLpeak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot \ cos ( \ alpha + \ mu ) ) The overlap angle μ is directly related to the DC current , and the above equation may be re-expressed as : V d c = V a v = 3 ⋅ V L L p e a k π ⋅ cos ( α ) − 6 f L c I d ( \ displaystyle ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( dc ) ) = V_ ( \ mathrm ( av ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( LLpeak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot \ cos ( \ alpha ) ) - ( 6fL_ ( \ mathrm ( c ) ) I_ ( \ mathrm ( d ) ) ) ) Where : L , the commutating inductance per phase I , the direct current Three - phase Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha = 0 ° without overlap Three - phase Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha = 0 ° with overlap angle of 20 ° Three - phase controlled Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha = 20 ° with overlap angle of 20 ° Three - phase controlled Graetz bridge rectifier at alpha = 40 ° with overlap angle of 20 ° Twelve - pulse bridge ( Edit ) Twelve pulse bridge rectifier using thyristors as the switching elements Although better than single - phase rectifiers or three - phase half - wave rectifiers , six - pulse rectifier circuits still produce considerable harmonic distortion on both the AC and DC connections . For very high - power rectifiers the twelve - pulse bridge connection is usually used . A twelve - pulse bridge consists of two six - pulse bridge circuits connected in series , with their AC connections fed from a supply transformer that produces a 30 ° phase shift between the two bridges . This cancels many of the characteristic harmonics the six - pulse bridges produce . The 30 degree phase shift is usually achieved by using a transformer with two sets of secondary windings , one in star ( wye ) connection and one in delta connection . Voltage - multiplying rectifiers ( Edit ) Main article : Voltage multiplier See also : Voltage doubler Switchable full bridge / voltage doubler . The simple half - wave rectifier can be built in two electrical configurations with the diodes pointing in opposite directions , one version connects the negative terminal of the output direct to the AC supply and the other connects the positive terminal of the output direct to the AC supply . By combining both of these with separate output smoothing it is possible to get an output voltage of nearly double the peak AC input voltage . This also provides a tap in the middle , which allows use of such a circuit as a split rail power supply . A variant of this is to use two capacitors in series for the output smoothing on a bridge rectifier then place a switch between the midpoint of those capacitors and one of the AC input terminals . With the switch open , this circuit acts like a normal bridge rectifier . With the switch closed , it act like a voltage doubling rectifier . In other words , this makes it easy to derive a voltage of roughly 320 V ( ± 15 % , approx . ) DC from any 120 V or 230 V mains supply in the world , this can then be fed into a relatively simple switched - mode power supply . However , for a given desired ripple , the value of both capacitors must be twice the value of the single one required for a normal bridge rectifier ; when the switch is closed each one must filter the output of a half - wave rectifier , and when the switch is open the two capacitors are connected in series with an equivalent value of half one of them . Cockcroft Walton voltage multiplier Cascaded diode and capacitor stages can be added to make a voltage multiplier ( Cockroft - Walton circuit ) . These circuits are capable of producing a DC output voltage potential up to about ten times the peak AC input voltage , in practice limited by current capacity and voltage regulation issues . Diode voltage multipliers , frequently used as a trailing boost stage or primary high voltage ( HV ) source , are used in HV laser power supplies , powering devices such as cathode ray tubes ( CRT ) ( like those used in CRT based television , radar and sonar displays ) , photon amplifying devices found in image intensifying and photo multiplier tubes ( PMT ) , and magnetron based radio frequency ( RF ) devices used in radar transmitters and microwave ovens . Before the introduction of semiconductor electronics , transformerless vacuum tube receivers powered directly from AC power sometimes used voltage doublers to generate roughly 300 VDC from a 100 -- 120 V power line . Quantification of rectifiers ( Edit ) It has been suggested that Transformer utilization factor be merged into this section . ( Discuss ) Proposed since November 2017 . This section is missing information about conversion ratios for at least three - phase half - wave and full - wave rectification , since these rectifiers have their own sections in this article ... Please expand the section to include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page . ( October 2017 ) Several ratios are used to quantify the function and performance of rectifiers or their output , including transformer utilization factor ( TUF ) , conversion ratio ( η ) , ripple factor , form factor , and peak factor . The two primary measures are DC voltage ( or offset ) and peak - peak ripple voltage , which are constituent components of the output . Conversion ratio ( also called `` rectification ratio '' , and confusingly , `` efficiency '' ) η is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the input power from the AC supply . Even with ideal rectifiers , the ratio is less than 100 % because some of the output power is AC power rather than DC which manifests as ripple superimposed on the DC waveform . The ratio can be improved with the use of smoothing circuits which reduce the ripple and hence reduce the AC content of the output . Conversion ratio is reduced by losses in transformer windings and power dissipation in the rectifier element itself . This ratio is of little practical significance because a rectifier is almost always followed by a filter to increase DC voltage and reduce ripple . In some three - phase and multi-phase applications the conversion ratio is high enough that smoothing circuitry is unnecessary . In other circuits , like filament heater circuits in vacuum tube electronics where the load is almost entirely resistive , smoothing circuitry may be omitted because resistors dissipate both AC and DC power , so no power is lost . For a half - wave rectifier the ratio is very modest . P A C = V p e a k 2 ⋅ I p e a k 2 ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( AC ) ) = ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over 2 ) \ cdot ( I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over 2 ) ) ( the divisors are 2 rather than √ 2 because no power is delivered on the negative half - cycle ) P D C = V p e a k π ⋅ I p e a k π ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) = ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over \ pi ) \ cdot ( I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over \ pi ) ) Thus maximum conversion ratio for a half - wave rectifier is , η = P D C P A C ≈ 40.5 % ( \ displaystyle \ eta = ( P_ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) \ over P_ ( \ mathrm ( AC ) ) ) \ approx 40.5 \ % ) Similarly , for a full - wave rectifier , P A C = V p e a k 2 ⋅ I p e a k 2 ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( AC ) ) = ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) ) \ cdot ( I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) ) ) P D C = 2 ⋅ V p e a k π ⋅ 2 ⋅ I p e a k π ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) = ( 2 \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over \ pi ) \ cdot ( 2 \ cdot I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over \ pi ) ) η = P D C P A C ≈ 81.0 % ( \ displaystyle \ eta = ( P_ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) \ over P_ ( \ mathrm ( AC ) ) ) \ approx 81.0 \ % ) Three - phase rectifiers , especially three - phase full - wave rectifiers , have much greater conversion ratios because the ripple is intrinsically smaller . For a three - phase half - wave rectifier , P A C = 3 ⋅ V p e a k 2 ⋅ I p e a k 2 ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( AC ) ) = 3 \ cdot ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over 2 ) \ cdot ( I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over 2 ) ) P D C = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k 2 π ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ I p e a k 2 π ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) \ cdot ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( 2 \ pi ) ) ) For a three - phase full - wave rectifier , P A C = 3 ⋅ V p e a k 2 ⋅ I p e a k 2 ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( AC ) ) = 3 \ cdot ( V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) ) \ cdot ( I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) \ over ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) ) ) P D C = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ V p e a k π ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ I p e a k π ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( DC ) ) = ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot V_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) \ cdot ( \ frac ( 3 \ cdot ( \ sqrt ( 3 ) ) \ cdot I_ ( \ mathrm ( peak ) ) ) ( \ pi ) ) ) Rectifier voltage drop ( Edit ) A real rectifier characteristically drops part of the input voltage ( a voltage drop , for silicon devices , of typically 0.7 volts plus an equivalent resistance , in general non-linear ) -- and at high frequencies , distorts waveforms in other ways . Unlike an ideal rectifier , it dissipates some power . An aspect of most rectification is a loss from the peak input voltage to the peak output voltage , caused by the built - in voltage drop across the diodes ( around 0.7 V for ordinary silicon p -- n junction diodes and 0.3 V for Schottky diodes ) . Half - wave rectification and full - wave rectification using a center - tapped secondary produces a peak voltage loss of one diode drop . Bridge rectification has a loss of two diode drops . This reduces output voltage , and limits the available output voltage if a very low alternating voltage must be rectified . As the diodes do not conduct below this voltage , the circuit only passes current through for a portion of each half - cycle , causing short segments of zero voltage ( where instantaneous input voltage is below one or two diode drops ) to appear between each `` hump '' . Peak loss is very important for low voltage rectifiers ( for example , 12 V or less ) but is insignificant in high - voltage applications such as HVDC power transmission systems . Harmonic distortion ( Edit ) Non-linear loads like rectifiers produce current harmonics of the source frequency on the AC side and voltage harmonics of the source frequency on the DC side , due to switching behavior . Rectifier output smoothing ( Edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) It has been suggested that Ripple ( electrical ) # Ripple voltage be merged into this section . ( Discuss ) Proposed since November 2017 . The AC input ( yellow ) and DC output ( green ) of a half - wave rectifier with a smoothing capacitor . Note the ripple in the DC signal . While half - wave and full - wave rectification deliver unidirectional current , neither produces a constant voltage . There is a large AC ripple voltage component at the source frequency for a half - wave rectifier , and twice the source frequency for a full - wave rectifier . Ripple voltage is usually specified peak - to - peak . Producing steady DC from a rectified AC supply requires a smoothing circuit or filter . In its simplest form this can be just a capacitor ( also called a filter , reservoir , or smoothing capacitor ) , choke , resistor , Zener diode and resistor , or voltage regulator placed at the output of the rectifier . In practice , most smoothing filters utilize multiple components to efficiently reduce ripple voltage to a level tolerable by the circuit . Full - wave diode - bridge rectifier with parallel RC shunt filter The filter capacitor releases its stored energy during the part of the AC cycle when the AC source does not supply any power , that is , when the AC source changes its direction of flow of current . Performance with low impedance source ( Edit ) The above diagram shows reservoir performance from a near zero impedance source , such as a mains supply . As the rectifier voltage increases , it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load . At the end of the quarter cycle , the capacitor is charged to its peak value Vp of the rectifier voltage . Following this , the rectifier voltage starts to decrease to its minimum value Vmin as it enters the next quarter cycle . This initiates the discharge of the capacitor through the load . The size of the capacitor C is determined by the amount of ripple r that can be tolerated , where r = ( Vp - Vmin ) / Vp . These circuits are very frequently fed from transformers , and have significant resistance . Transformer resistance modifies the reservoir capacitor waveform , changes the peak voltage , and introduces regulation issues . Capacitor input filter ( Edit ) It has been suggested that Filter capacitor be merged into this section . ( Discuss ) Proposed since November 2017 . It has been suggested that Capacitor - input filter be merged into this section . ( Discuss ) Proposed since November 2017 . For a given load , sizing of a smoothing capacitor is a tradeoff between reducing ripple voltage and increasing ripple current . The peak current is set by the rate of rise of the supply voltage on the rising edge of the incoming sine - wave , reduced by the resistance of the transformer windings . High ripple currents increase I R losses ( in the form of heat ) in the capacitor , rectifier and transformer windings , and may exceed the ampacity of the components or VA rating of the transformer . Vacuum tube rectifiers specify the maximum capacitance of the input capacitor , and SS diode rectifiers also have current limitations . Capacitors for this application need low ESR , or ripple current may overheat them . To limit ripple voltage to a specified value the required capacitor size is proportional to the load current and inversely proportional to the supply frequency and the number of output peaks of the rectifier per input cycle . Full - wave rectified output requires a smaller capacitor because it is double the frequency of half - wave rectified output . To reduce ripple to a satisfactory limit with just a single capacitor would often require a capacitor that 's infeasibly large . Choke input filter ( Edit ) It is also possible to put the rectified waveform into a choke - input filter . The advantage of this circuit is that the current waveform is smoother : current is drawn over the entire cycle , instead of being drawn in pulses at the peaks of AC voltage each half - cycle as in a capacitor input filter . The disadvantage is that the voltage output is much lower -- the average of an AC half - cycle rather than the peak ; this is about 90 % of the RMS voltage versus 2 ( \ displaystyle ( \ sqrt ( 2 ) ) ) times the RMS voltage ( unloaded ) for a capacitor input filter . Offsetting this is superior voltage regulation and higher available current , which reduce peak voltage and ripple current demands on power supply components . Inductors require cores of iron or other magnetic materials , and add weight and size . Their use in power supplies for electronic equipment has therefore dwindled in favour of semiconductor circuits such as voltage regulators . Resistor as input filter ( Edit ) In cases where ripple voltage is insignificant , like battery chargers , the input filter may be a single series resistor to adjust the output voltage to that required by the circuit . A resistor reduces both output voltage and ripple voltage proportionately . A disadvantage of a resistor input filter is that it consumes power in the form of waste heat that is not available to the load , so it is employed only in low current circuits . Higher order and cascade filters ( Edit ) To further reduce ripple , the initial filter element may be followed by additional alternating series and shunt filter components , or by a voltage regulator . Series filter components may be resistors or chokes ; shunt elements may be resistors or capacitors . The filter may raise DC voltage as well as reduce ripple . Filters are often constructed from pairs of series / shunt components called RC ( series resistor , shunt capacitor ) or LC ( series choke , shunt capacitor ) sections . Two common filter geometries are known as Pi ( capacitor , choke , capacitor ) and T ( choke , capacitor , choke ) filters . Sometimes the series elements are resistors - because resistors are smaller and cheaper - when a lower DC output is desirable or permissible . Another kind of special filter geometry is a series resonant choke or tuned choke filter . Unlike the other filter geometries which are low - pass filters , a resonant choke filter is a band - stop filter : it is a parallel combination of choke and capacitor which resonates at the frequency of the ripple voltage , presenting a very high impedance to the ripple . It may be followed by a shunt capacitor to complete the filter . Voltage regulators ( Edit ) A more usual alternative to additional filter components , if the DC load requires very low ripple voltage , is to follow the input filter with a voltage regulator . A voltage regulator operates on a different principle than a filter , which is essentially a voltage divider that shunts voltage at the ripple frequency away from the load . Rather , a regulator increases or decreases current supplied to the load in order to maintain a constant output voltage . A simple passive shunt voltage regulator may consist of a series resistor to drop source voltage to the required level and a Zener diode shunt with reverse voltage equal to the set voltage . When input voltage rises , the diode dumps current to maintain the set output voltage . This kind of regulator is usually employed only in low voltage , low current circuits because SS diodes have both voltage and current limitations . It is also very inefficient , because it dumps excess current , which is not available to the load . A more efficient alternative to a shunt voltage regulator is an active voltage regulator circuit . An active regulator employs reactive components to store and discharge energy , so that most or all current supplied by the rectifier is passed to the load . It may also use negative and positive feedback in conjunction with at least one voltage amplifying component like a transistor to maintain output voltage when source voltage drops . The input filter must prevent the troughs of the ripple dropping below the minimum voltage required by the regulator to produce the required output voltage . The regulator serves both to significantly reduce the ripple and to deal with variations in supply and load characteristics . Applications ( Edit ) See also : Capacitive power supply The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply ( AC to DC converter ) . Rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment . AC / DC power supplies may be broadly divided into linear power supplies and switched - mode power supplies . In such power supplies , the rectifier will be in series following the transformer , and be followed by a smoothing filter and possibly a voltage regulator . Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated . One method of DC - to - DC conversion first converts power to AC ( using a device called an inverter ) , then uses a transformer to change the voltage , and finally rectifies power back to DC . A frequency of typically several tens of kilohertz is used , as this requires much smaller inductance than at lower frequencies and obviates the use of heavy , bulky , and expensive iron - cored units . Another method of converting DC voltages uses a charge pump , using rapid switching to change the connections of capacitors ; this technique is generally limited to supplies up to a couple of watts , owing to the size of capacitors required . Output voltage of a full - wave rectifier with controlled thyristors Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals . The signal may be amplified before detection . If not , a very low voltage drop diode or a diode biased with a fixed voltage must be used . When using a rectifier for demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched : too low a capacitance makes the high frequency carrier pass to the output , and too high makes the capacitor just charge and stay charged . Rectifiers supply polarised voltage for welding . In such circuits control of the output current is required ; this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the diodes in a bridge rectifier with thyristors , effectively diodes whose voltage output can be regulated by switching on and off with phase fired controllers . Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that fine control of the traction motors can be achieved . Gate turn - off thyristors are used to produce alternating current from a DC supply , for example on the Eurostar Trains to power the three - phase traction motors . Rectification technologies ( Edit ) Electromechanical ( Edit ) Before about 1905 when tube type rectifiers were developed , power conversion devices were purely electro - mechanical in design . Mechanical rectification systems used some form of rotation or resonant vibration ( e.g. vibrators ) driven by electromagnets , which operated a switch or commutator to reverse the current . These mechanical rectifiers were noisy and had high maintenance requirements . The moving parts had friction , which required lubrication and replacement due to wear . Opening mechanical contacts under load resulted in electrical arcs and sparks that heated and eroded the contacts . They also were not able to handle AC frequencies above several thousand cycles per second . Synchronous rectifier ( Edit ) Main article : Synchronous rectification To convert alternating into direct current in electric locomotives , a synchronous rectifier may be used . It consists of a synchronous motor driving a set of heavy - duty electrical contacts . The motor spins in time with the AC frequency and periodically reverses the connections to the load at an instant when the sinusoidal current goes through a zero - crossing . The contacts do not have to switch a large current , but they must be able to carry a large current to supply the locomotive 's DC traction motors . Vibrating rectifier ( Edit ) Main article : Mechanical rectifier A vibrator battery charger from 1922 . It produced 6A DC at 6V to charge automobile batteries . These consisted of a resonant reed , vibrated by an alternating magnetic field created by an AC electromagnet , with contacts that reversed the direction of the current on the negative half cycles . They were used in low power devices , such as battery chargers , to rectify the low voltage produced by a step - down transformer . Another use was in battery power supplies for portable vacuum tube radios , to provide the high DC voltage for the tubes . These operated as a mechanical version of modern solid state switching inverters , with a transformer to step the battery voltage up , and a set of vibrator contacts on the transformer core , operated by its magnetic field , to repeatedly break the DC battery current to create a pulsing AC to power the transformer . Then a second set of rectifier contacts on the vibrator rectified the high AC voltage from the transformer secondary to DC . Motor - generator set ( Edit ) Main articles : Motor - generator and Rotary converter A small motor - generator set A motor - generator set , or the similar rotary converter , is not strictly a rectifier as it does not actually rectify current , but rather generates DC from an AC source . In an `` M-G set '' , the shaft of an AC motor is mechanically coupled to that of a DC generator . The DC generator produces multiphase alternating currents in its armature windings , which a commutator on the armature shaft converts into a direct current output ; or a homopolar generator produces a direct current without the need for a commutator . M-G sets are useful for producing DC for railway traction motors , industrial motors and other high - current applications , and were common in many high - power D.C. uses ( for example , carbon - arc lamp projectors for outdoor theaters ) before high - power semiconductors became widely available . Electrolytic ( Edit ) The electrolytic rectifier was a device from the early twentieth century that is no longer used . A home - made version is illustrated in the 1913 book The Boy Mechanic but it would only be suitable for use at very low voltages because of the low breakdown voltage and the risk of electric shock . A more complex device of this kind was patented by G.W. Carpenter in 1928 ( US Patent 1671970 ) . When two different metals are suspended in an electrolyte solution , direct current flowing one way through the solution sees less resistance than in the other direction . Electrolytic rectifiers most commonly used an aluminum anode and a lead or steel cathode , suspended in a solution of tri-ammonium ortho - phosphate . The rectification action is due to a thin coating of aluminum hydroxide on the aluminum electrode , formed by first applying a strong current to the cell to build up the coating . The rectification process is temperature - sensitive , and for best efficiency should not operate above 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . There is also a breakdown voltage where the coating is penetrated and the cell is short - circuited . Electrochemical methods are often more fragile than mechanical methods , and can be sensitive to usage variations , which can drastically change or completely disrupt the rectification processes . Similar electrolytic devices were used as lightning arresters around the same era by suspending many aluminium cones in a tank of tri-ammonium ortho - phosphate solution . Unlike the rectifier above , only aluminium electrodes were used , and used on A.C. , there was no polarization and thus no rectifier action , but the chemistry was similar . The modern electrolytic capacitor , an essential component of most rectifier circuit configurations was also developed from the electrolytic rectifier . Plasma type ( Edit ) The development of vacuum tube technology in the early 20th century resulted in the invention of various tube - type rectifiers , which largely replaced the noisy , inefficient mechanical rectifiers . Mercury - arc ( Edit ) Main article : Mercury - arc valve Early 3 - phase industrial mercury vapor rectifier tube 150 kV mercury - arc valve at Manitoba Hydro power station , Radisson , Canada converted AC hydropower to DC for transmission to distant cities . A rectifier used in high - voltage direct current ( HVDC ) power transmission systems and industrial processing between about 1909 to 1975 is a mercury - arc rectifier or mercury - arc valve . The device is enclosed in a bulbous glass vessel or large metal tub . One electrode , the cathode , is submerged in a pool of liquid mercury at the bottom of the vessel and one or more high purity graphite electrodes , called anodes , are suspended above the pool . There may be several auxiliary electrodes to aid in starting and maintaining the arc . When an electric arc is established between the cathode pool and suspended anodes , a stream of electrons flows from the cathode to the anodes through the ionized mercury , but not the other way ( in principle , this is a higher - power counterpart to flame rectification , which uses the same one - way current transmission properties of the plasma naturally present in a flame ) . These devices can be used at power levels of hundreds of kilowatts , and may be built to handle one to six phases of AC current . Mercury - arc rectifiers have been replaced by silicon semiconductor rectifiers and high - power thyristor circuits in the mid 1970s . The most powerful mercury - arc rectifiers ever built were installed in the Manitoba Hydro Nelson River Bipole HVDC project , with a combined rating of more than 1 GW and 450 kV . Argon gas electron tube ( Edit ) Tungar bulbs from 1917 , 2 ampere ( left ) and 6 ampere The General Electric Tungar rectifier was a mercury vapor ( ex. : 5B24 ) or argon ( ex. : 328 ) gas - filled electron tube device with a tungsten filament cathode and a carbon button anode . It operated similarly to the thermionic vacuum tube diode , but the gas in the tube ionized during forward conduction , giving it a much lower forward voltage drop so it could rectify lower voltages . It was used for battery chargers and similar applications from the 1920s until lower - cost metal rectifiers , and later semiconductor diodes , supplanted it . These were made up to a few hundred volts and a few amperes rating , and in some sizes strongly resembled an incandescent lamp with an additional electrode . The 0Z4 was a gas - filled rectifier tube commonly used in vacuum tube car radios in the 1940s and 1950s . It was a conventional full - wave rectifier tube with two anodes and one cathode , but was unique in that it had no filament ( thus the `` 0 '' in its type number ) . The electrodes were shaped such that the reverse breakdown voltage was much higher than the forward breakdown voltage . Once the breakdown voltage was exceeded , the 0Z4 switched to a low - resistance state with a forward voltage drop of about 24 V . Diode vacuum tube ( valve ) ( Edit ) See also : List of vacuum tubes Vacuum tube diodes The thermionic vacuum tube diode , originally called the Fleming valve , was invented by John Ambrose Fleming in 1904 as a detector for radio waves in radio receivers , and evolved into a general rectifier . It consisted of an evacuated glass bulb with a filament heated by a separate current , and a metal plate anode . The filament emitted electrons by thermionic emission ( the Edison effect ) , discovered by Thomas Edison in 1884 , and a positive voltage on the plate caused a current of electrons through the tube from filament to plate . Since only the filament produced electrons , the tube would only conduct current in one direction , allowing the tube to rectify an alternating current . Thermionic diode rectifiers were widely used in power supplies in vacuum tube consumer electronic products , such as phonographs , radios , and televisions , for example the All American Five radio receiver , to provide the high DC plate voltage needed by other vacuum tubes . `` Full - wave '' versions with two separate plates were popular because they could be used with a center - tapped transformer to make a full - wave rectifier . Vacuum tube rectifiers were made for very high voltages , such as the high voltage power supply for the cathode ray tube of television receivers , and the kenotron used for power supply in X-ray equipment . However , compared to modern semiconductor diodes , vacuum tube rectifiers have high internal resistance due to space charge and therefore high voltage drops , causing high power dissipation and low efficiency . They are rarely able to handle currents exceeding 250 mA owing to the limits of plate power dissipation , and can not be used for low voltage applications , such as battery chargers . Another limitation of the vacuum tube rectifier is that the heater power supply often requires special arrangements to insulate it from the high voltages of the rectifier circuit . In musical instrument amplification ( especially for electric guitars ) , the slight delay or `` sag '' between a signal increase ( for instance , when a guitar chord is struck hard and fast ) and the corresponding increase in output voltage is a notable effect of tube rectification , and results in compression . The choice between tube rectification and diode rectification is a matter of taste ; some amplifiers have both and allow the player to choose . Solid state ( Edit ) Crystal detector ( Edit ) Main article : cat 's - whisker detector Galena cat 's whisker detector The cat 's - whisker detector was the earliest type of semiconductor diode . It consisted of a crystal of some semiconducting mineral , usually galena ( lead sulfide ) , with a light springy wire touching its surface . Invented by Jagadish Chandra Bose and developed by G.W. Pickard around 1906 , it served as the radio wave rectifier in the first widely used radio receivers , called crystal radios . Its fragility and limited current capability made it unsuitable for power supply applications . It became obsolete around 1920 , but later versions served as microwave detectors and mixers in radar receivers during World War 2 . Selenium and copper oxide rectifiers ( Edit ) Main article : Metal rectifier Selenium rectifier Once common until replaced by more compact and less costly silicon solid - state rectifiers in the 1970s , these units used stacks of oxide - coated metal plates and took advantage of the semiconductor properties of selenium or copper oxide . While selenium rectifiers were lighter in weight and used less power than comparable vacuum tube rectifiers , they had the disadvantage of finite life expectancy , increasing resistance with age , and were only suitable to use at low frequencies . Both selenium and copper oxide rectifiers have somewhat better tolerance of momentary voltage transients than silicon rectifiers . Typically these rectifiers were made up of stacks of metal plates or washers , held together by a central bolt , with the number of stacks determined by voltage ; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive battery charger rectifier might have only one cell : the high - voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might have dozens of stacked plates . Current density in an air - cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per square inch of active area ( about 90 mA per square centimeter ) . Silicon and germanium diodes ( Edit ) Main article : Diode Due to their substantially lower forward voltage ( 0.3 V versus 0.7 V for silicon diodes ) germanium diodes have an inherent advantage over silicon diodes , especially in circuits like full - wave bridge rectifiers which result in 2X voltage drop because the current must pass through two diodes . In the modern world , silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers , and have largely replaced earlier germanium diodes . For very high voltages and powers , the added need for controllability has in practice led to replacing simple silicon diodes with high - power thyristors ( see below ) and their newer actively gate - controlled cousins . High power : thyristors ( scrs ) and newer silicon - based voltage sourced converters ( Edit ) Main article : Silicon controlled rectifier Two of three high - power thyristor valve stacks used for long distance transmission of power from Manitoba Hydro dams . Compare with mercury - arc system from the same dam - site , above . In high - power applications , from 1975 to 2000 , most mercury valve arc - rectifiers were replaced by stacks of very high power thyristors , silicon devices with two extra layers of semiconductor , in comparison to a simple diode . In medium - power transmission applications , even more complex and sophisticated voltage sourced converter ( VSC ) silicon semiconductor rectifier systems , such as insulated gate bipolar transistors ( IGBT ) and gate turn - off thyristors ( GTO ) , have made smaller high voltage DC power transmission systems economical . All of these devices function as rectifiers . As of 2009 it was expected that these high - power silicon `` self - commutating switches '' , in particular IGBTs and a variant thyristor ( related to the GTO ) called the integrated gate - commutated thyristor ( IGCT ) , would be scaled - up in power rating to the point that they would eventually replace simple thyristor - based AC rectification systems for the highest power - transmission DC applications . Current research ( Edit ) A major area of research is to develop higher frequency rectifiers , that can rectify into terahertz and light frequencies . These devices are used in optical heterodyne detection , which has myriad applications in optical fiber communication and atomic clocks . Another prospective application for such devices is to directly rectify light waves picked up by tiny antennas , called nantennas , to produce DC electric power . It is thought that arrays of nantennas could be a more efficient means of producing solar power than solar cells . A related area of research is to develop smaller rectifiers , because a smaller device has a higher cutoff frequency . Research projects are attempting to develop a unimolecular rectifier , a single organic molecule that would function as a rectifier . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to rectifiers . AC adapter Active rectification Vienna rectifier References ( Edit ) Jump up ^ Morris , Peter Robin ( 1990 ) . A History of the World Semiconductor Industry . p. 18 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 86341 - 227 - 1 . Jump up ^ Lander , Cyril W. ( 1993 ) . `` 2 . Rectifying Circuits '' . Power electronics ( 3rd ed . ) . London : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 707714 - 3 . Jump up ^ Williams , B.W. ( 1992 ) . `` Chapter 11 '' . Power electronics : devices , drivers and applications ( 2nd ed . ) . Basingstoke : Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 333 - 57351 - 8 . Jump up ^ Hendrik Rissik ( 1941 ) . Mercury - arc current convertors ( sic ) : an introduction to the theory and practice of vapour - arc discharge devices and to the study of rectification phenomena . Sir I. Pitman & sons , ltd . Retrieved 8 January 2013 . Jump up ^ Kimbark , Edward Wilson ( 1971 ) . Direct current transmission ( 4 . printing . ed . ) . New York : Wiley - Interscience . p. 508 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 471 - 47580 - 4 . Jump up ^ Wendy Middleton , Mac E. Van Valkenburg ( eds ) , Reference Data for Engineers : Radio , Electronics , Computer , and Communications , p. 14 . 13 , Newnes , 2002 ISBN 0 - 7506 - 7291 - 9 . Jump up ^ Cartwright , Kenneth ; Kaminsky , Edit ( 2017 ) . `` New equations for capacitance vs ripple in power supplies '' ( PDF ) . Latin American Journal of Physics Education . 11 ( 1 ) : 1301 - 01 1301 - 11 . Jump up ^ Mansell , A.D. ; Shen , J. ( 1 January 1994 ) . `` Pulse converters in traction applications '' . Power Engineering Journal . 8 ( 4 ) : 183 . doi : 10.1049 / pe : 19940407 . Jump up ^ Hawkins , Nehemiah ( 1914 ) . `` 54 . Rectifiers '' . Hawkins Electrical Guide : Principles of electricity , magnetism , induction , experiments , dynamo . New York : T. Audel . Retrieved 8 January 2013 . Jump up ^ `` How To Make An Electrolytic Rectifier '' . Chestofbooks.com . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 15 . Jump up ^ US patent 1671970 , Glenn W. Carpenter , `` Liquid Rectifier '' , issued 1928 - 06 - 05 Jump up ^ American Technical Society ( 1920 ) . Cyclopedia of applied electricity . 2 . American technical society . p. 487 . Retrieved 8 January 2013 . Jump up ^ Pictures of a mercury - arc rectifier in operation can be seen here : Belsize Park deep shelter rectifier 1 , Belsize Park deep shelter rectifier 2 Jump up ^ Sood , Vijay K. HVDC and FACTS Controllers : Applications Of Static Converters In Power Systems . Springer - Verlag . p. 1 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4020 - 7890 - 3 . The first 25 years of HVDC transmission were sustained by converters having mercury arc valves till the mid-1970s . The next 25 years till the year 2000 were sustained by line - commutated converters using thyristor valves . It is predicted that the next 25 years will be dominated by force - commutated converters ( 4 ) . Initially , this new force - commutated era has commenced with Capacitor Commutated Converters ( CCC ) eventually to be replaced by self - commutated converters due to the economic availability of high - power switching devices with their superior characteristics . Jump up ^ Hunter , Dave ( September 2013 ) . `` What 's The Big Deal About Tube Rectification ? '' . Guitar Player . p. 136 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ H.P. Westman et al. , ( ed ) , Reference Data for Radio Engineers , Fifth Edition , 1968 , Howard W. Sams and Co. , no ISBN , Library of Congress Card No. 43 - 14665 chapter 13 Jump up ^ Arrillaga , Jos ; Liu , Yonghe H ; Watson , Neville R ; Murray , Nicholas J. Self - Commutating Converters for High Power Applications . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 68212 - 8 . Jump up ^ Idaho National Laboratory ( 2007 ) . `` Harvesting the sun 's energy with antennas '' . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 03 . ( hide ) Electronic components Semiconductor devices Avalanche diode Transistor Tetrode transistor Pentode transistor Memistor Memristor Bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) FinFET CMOS MOSFET JFET Field - effect transistor ( FET ) Quantum circuit Constant - current diode ( CLD , CRD ) Darlington transistor DIAC Diode Heterostructure barrier varactor Insulated-gate bipolar transistor ( IGBT ) Integrated circuit ( IC ) Light - emitting diode ( LED ) Photodetector Photodiode PIN diode Schottky diode Silicon controlled rectifier ( SCR ) Thyristor TRIAC Unijunction transistor ( UJT ) Varicap Zener diode Voltage regulators Linear regulator Low - dropout regulator Switching regulator Buck Boost Buck -- boost Split - pi Ćuk SEPIC Charge pump Switched capacitor Vacuum tubes Acorn tube Audion Beam tetrode Barretter Compactron Diode Fleming valve Nonode Nuvistor Pentagrid ( Hexode , Heptode , Octode ) Pentode Photomultiplier Phototube Tetrode Triode Vacuum tubes ( RF ) Backward - wave oscillator ( BWO ) Cavity magnetron Crossed - field amplifier ( CFA ) Gyrotron Inductive output tube ( IOT ) Klystron Maser Sutton tube Traveling - wave tube ( TWT ) Cathode ray tubes Beam deflection tube Charactron Iconoscope Magic eye tube Monoscope Selectron tube Storage tube Trochotron Video camera tube Williams tube Gas - filled tubes Cold cathode Crossatron Dekatron Ignitron Krytron Mercury - arc valve Neon lamp Nixie tube Thyratron Trigatron Voltage - regulator tube Adjustable Potentiometer digital Variable capacitor Varicap Passive Connector audio and video electrical power RF Electrolytic detector Ferrite Fuse resettable Resistor Switch Thermistor Transformer Varistor Wire Wollaston wire Reactive Capacitor types Ceramic resonator Crystal oscillator Inductor Parametron Relay reed relay mercury switch LCCN : sh85041638 GND : 4021239 - 7 BNF : cb11966722s ( data ) NDL : 00570368 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rectifier&oldid=833401479 '' Categories : Electric power systems components Electric power conversion Rectifiers Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Articles to be merged from November 2017 All articles to be merged Articles to be expanded from October 2017 Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2017 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2009 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Use dmy dates from March 2012 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans বাংলা Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Seeltersk Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 43 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 March 2018 , at 09 : 26 . 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13 | document: Tower of London - wikipedia Tower of London A historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London For other uses , see Tower of London ( disambiguation ) . Coordinates : 51 ° 30 ′ 29 '' N 00 ° 04 ′ 34 '' W / 51.50806 ° N 0.07611 ° W / 51.50806 ; - 0.07611 Tower of London The Tower of London seen from The Shard Location London Borough of Tower Hamlets London , EC3 Area Castle : 12 acres ( 4.9 ha ) Tower Liberties : 6 acres ( 2.4 ha ) Height 27 metres ( 89 ft ) Built White Tower : 1078 Inner Ward : 1190s Re-built : 1285 Wharf expansion : 1377 -- 1399 Visitors 2,843,031 ( in 2017 ) Owner Queen Elizabeth II in right of the Crown UNESCO World Heritage Site Type Cultural Criteria ii , iv Designated 1988 ( 12th session ) Reference no . 488 Country United Kingdom Region Europe and North America Listed Building -- Grade I Listed Building -- Grade II Location of the castle in central London The Tower of London , officially Her Majesty 's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London , is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London . It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets , separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill . It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England . The White Tower , which gives the entire castle its name , was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression , inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite . The castle was used as a prison from 1100 ( Ranulf Flambard ) until 1952 ( Kray twins ) , although that was not its primary purpose . A grand palace early in its history , it served as a royal residence . As a whole , the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat . There were several phases of expansion , mainly under Kings Richard I , Henry III , and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries . The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site . The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history . It was besieged several times , and controlling it has been important to controlling the country . The Tower has served variously as an armoury , a treasury , a menagerie , the home of the Royal Mint , a public record office , and the home of the Crown Jewels of England . From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II , a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch . In the absence of the monarch , the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle . This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period . In the late 15th century , the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower . Under the Tudors , the Tower became used less as a royal residence , and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle , its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery . The peak period of the castle 's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries , when many figures who had fallen into disgrace , such as Elizabeth I before she became queen , Sir Walter Raleigh , and Elizabeth Throckmorton , were held within its walls . This use has led to the phrase `` sent to the Tower '' . Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death , popularised by 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century writers , only seven people were executed within the Tower before the World Wars of the 20th century . Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle , with 112 occurring there over a 400 - year period . In the latter half of the 19th century , institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations , leaving many buildings empty . Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance , clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures . In the First and Second World Wars , the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage . After the Second World War , damage caused during the Blitz was repaired , and the castle reopened to the public . Today , the Tower of London is one of the country 's most popular tourist attractions . Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower , and operated by the Resident Governor of the Tower of London and Keeper of the Jewel House , the property is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site . Contents 1 Architecture 1.1 Layout 1.2 White Tower 1.3 Innermost ward 1.4 Inner Ward 1.5 Outer Ward 2 Foundation and early history 3 Expansion 4 Later Medieval Period 5 Changing use 6 Restoration and tourism 7 Garrison 8 Crown Jewels 9 Royal Menagerie 10 Ghosts 11 See also 12 References 12.1 Notes 12.2 Citations 12.3 Bibliography 13 Further reading 14 External links Architecture ( edit ) Audio description of the Tower of London by Mike Gatting Layout ( edit ) Plan of the Tower of London The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London , which archaeologist Alan Vince suggests was deliberate . It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames . The castle is made up of three `` wards '' , or enclosures . The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle . Encircling it to the north , east , and west is the inner ward , built during the reign of Richard I ( 1189 -- 1199 ) . Finally , there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built under Edward I . Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London , the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285 . The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres ( 4.9 hectares ) with a further 6 acres ( 2.4 ha ) around the Tower of London constituting the Tower Liberties -- land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons . The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century when Henry III ordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear . Despite popular fiction , the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber , although the basement of the White Tower housed a rack in later periods . Tower Wharf was built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign of Richard II ( 1377 -- 1399 ) . White Tower ( edit ) Main article : White Tower ( Tower of London ) The White Tower is a keep ( also known as a donjon ) , which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle , and contained lodgings suitable for the lord -- in this case , the king or his representative . According to military historian Allen Brown , `` The great tower ( White Tower ) was also , by virtue of its strength , majesty and lordly accommodation , the donjon par excellence '' . As one of the largest keeps in the Christian world , the White Tower has been described as `` the most complete eleventh - century palace in Europe '' . The original entrance to the White Tower was at first - floor level The White Tower , not including its projecting corner towers , measures 36 by 32 metres ( 118 by 105 ft ) at the base , and is 27 m ( 90 ft ) high at the southern battlements . The structure was originally three storeys high , comprising a basement floor , an entrance level , and an upper floor . The entrance , as is usual in Norman keeps , was above ground , in this case on the south face , and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack . It was probably during Henry II 's reign ( 1154 -- 1189 ) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance , but it has not survived . Each floor was divided into three chambers , the largest in the west , a smaller room in the north - east , and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south - east . At the western corners of the building are square towers , while to the north - east a round tower houses a spiral staircase . At the south - east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel . As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold , latrines were built into the walls , and four fireplaces provided warmth . The main building material is Kentish rag - stone , although some local mudstone was also used . Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower 's facing , although little of the original material survives as it was replaced with Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries . As most of the Tower 's windows were enlarged in the 18th century , only two original -- albeit restored -- examples remain , in the south wall at the gallery level . The tower was terraced into the side of a mound , so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level . As was typical of most keeps , the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage . One of the rooms contained a well . Although the layout has remained the same since the tower 's construction , the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts . The basement is lit through small slits . St John 's Chapel , inside the White Tower The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower , Lieutenant of the Tower of London and other important officials . The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century , and not reopened until 1973 . Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east , also connected to the entrance floor . The crypt of St John 's Chapel occupied the south - east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber . There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt ; according to Geoffrey Parnell , Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries , `` the windowless form and restricted access , suggest that it was designed as a strong - room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents '' . The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east -- both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall -- and St John 's Chapel in the south - east . The top floor was added in the 15th century , along with the present roof . St John 's Chapel was not part of the White Tower 's original design , as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls . Due to changes in function and design since the tower 's construction , except for the chapel little is left of the original interior . The chapel 's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period . In the 13th century , during Henry III 's reign , the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold - painted cross , and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and the Holy Trinity . Innermost ward ( edit ) The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower , stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames . As was the case at other castles , such as the 11th - century Hen Domen , the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower 's foundation . Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain , although it had happened by the 1170s . The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s , becoming comparable with other palatial residences such as Windsor Castle . Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers -- located at the corners of the innermost ward 's wall along the river -- began around 1220 . They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively . The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III 's reign : the queen 's chamber was whitewashed , and painted with flowers and imitation stonework . A great hall existed in the south of the ward , between the two towers . It was similar to , although slightly smaller than , that also built by Henry III at Winchester Castle . Near Wakefield Tower was a postern gate which allowed private access to the king 's apartments . The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch , which had been filled in by the 1220s . Around this time , a kitchen was built in the ward . Between 1666 and 1676 , the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed . The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground . The Jewel House was demolished , and the Crown Jewels moved to Martin Tower . Interior of the innermost ward . Right of centre is the 11th - century White Tower ; the structure at the end of the walkway to the left is Wakefield Tower . Beyond that can be seen Traitors ' Gate . Inner ward ( edit ) See also : Church of St Peter ad Vincula The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart 's reign , when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward , effectively doubling the castle 's size . Henry III created the ward 's east and north walls , and the ward 's dimensions remain to this day . Most of Henry 's work survives , and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt . Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers , the innermost ward 's wall also serves as a curtain wall for the inner ward . The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through a gatehouse , most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower . The inner ward 's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I . The 13th - century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large - scale use of brick as a building material in Britain , since the 5th - century departure of the Romans . The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall . Clockwise from the south - west corner they are : Bell , Beauchamp , Devereux , Flint , Bowyer , Brick , Martin , Constable , Broad Arrow , Salt , Lanthorn , Wakefield , and the Bloody Tower . While these towers provided positions from which flanking fire could be deployed against a potential enemy , they also contained accommodation . As its name suggests , Bell Tower housed a belfry , its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack . The royal bow - maker , responsible for making longbows , crossbows , catapults , and other siege and hand weapons , had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower . A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night . The south face of the Waterloo Block As a result of Henry 's expansion , St Peter ad Vincula , a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower , was incorporated into the castle . Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows , and stalls for himself and his queen . It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £ 300 and again by Henry VIII in 1519 ; the current building dates from this period , although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century . Immediately west of Wakefield Tower , the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward 's curtain wall , and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames . It was a simple structure , protected by a portcullis and gate . The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century , as it was believed to be the site of the murder of the Princes in the Tower . Between 1339 and 1341 , a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers . During the Tudor period , a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward . The castle buildings were remodelled during the Stuart period , mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance . In 1663 just over £ 4,000 was spent building a new storehouse ( now known as the New Armouries ) in the inner ward . Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688 , on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses ; it was destroyed by fire in 1841 . The Waterloo Block , a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details , was built on the site and remains to this day , housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor . Outer ward ( edit ) A third ward was created during Edward I 's extension to the Tower , as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle . At the same time a bastion known as Legge 's Mount was built at the castle 's north - west corner . Brass Mount , the bastion in the north - east corner , was a later addition . The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres ( 49 ft ) apart were dismantled in 1843 . Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period , there is no evidence to support this ; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge 's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I. Blocked battlements ( also known as crenellations ) in the south side of Legge 's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London ( the rest are Victorian replacements ) . A new 50 - metre ( 160 ft ) moat was dug beyond the castle 's new limits ; it was originally 4.5 metres ( 15 ft ) deeper in the middle than it is today . With the addition of a new curtain wall , the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant ; a new entrance was created in the south - west corner of the external wall circuit . The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and a barbican , which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s . The Lion Tower itself no longer survives . Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames . In this wall , he built St Thomas 's Tower between 1275 and 1279 ; later known as Traitors ' Gate , it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle 's water-gate . The building is unique in England , and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at the Louvre in Paris . The dock was covered with arrowslits in case of an attack on the castle from the River ; there was also a portcullis at the entrance to control who entered . There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor . Edward also moved the Royal Mint into the Tower ; its exact location early on is unknown , although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower . By 1560 , the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower . Between 1348 and 1355 , a second water-gate , Cradle Tower , was added east of St Thomas 's Tower for the king 's private use . The Tower of London 's outer curtain wall , with the curtain wall of the inner ward just visible behind . In the centre is Legge 's Mount . Foundation and early History ( edit ) Victorious at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 , the invading Duke of Normandy , William the Conqueror , spent the rest of the year securing his holdings by fortifying key positions . He founded several castles along the way , but took a circuitous route toward London ; only when he reached Canterbury did he turn towards England 's largest city . As the fortified bridge into London was held by Saxon troops , he decided instead to ravage Southwark before continuing his journey around southern England . A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city 's supply lines and in December 1066 , isolated and intimidated , its leaders yielded London without a fight . Between 1066 and 1087 , William established 36 castles , although references in the Domesday Book indicate that many more were founded by his subordinates . The new ruling elite undertook what has been described as `` the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle - building in the whole history of feudal Europe '' . They were multi-purpose buildings , serving as fortifications ( used as a base of operations in enemy territory ) , centres of administration , and residences . William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance , to celebrate his victory and found a castle ; in the words of William 's biographer , William of Poitiers , `` certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace . For he ( William ) realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners '' . At the time , London was the largest town in England ; the foundation of Westminster Abbey and the old Palace of Westminster under Edward the Confessor had marked it as a centre of governance , and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement . The other two castles in London -- Baynard 's Castle and Montfichet 's Castle -- were established at the same time . The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south - east corner of the Roman town walls , using them as prefabricated defences , with the River Thames providing additional protection from the south . This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timber palisade , and probably had accommodation suitable for William . The White Tower dates from the late 11th century . Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber , but by the end of the 11th century a few , including the Tower of London , had been renovated or replaced with stone . Work on the White Tower -- which gives the whole castle its name -- is usually considered to have begun in 1078 , however the exact date is uncertain . William made Gundulf , Bishop of Rochester , responsible for its construction , although it may not have been completed until after William 's death in 1087 . The White Tower is the earliest stone keep in England , and was the strongest point of the early castle . It also contained grand accommodation for the king . At the latest , it was probably finished by 1100 when Bishop Ranulf Flambard was imprisoned there . Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes . Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower , he was also the first person to escape from it , using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine . He was held in luxury and permitted servants , but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors . After plying them with drink , when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber , and out of the Tower . The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft . The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle records that in 1097 King William II ordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London ; it was probably built from stone as a replacement for the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle , between the Roman wall and the Thames . The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class , but in the way the city was structured . Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans , who also brought over hundreds of Jews , for financial reasons . The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown , as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles . The Jews used the Tower as a retreat , when threatened by anti-Jewish violence . The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession ; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda , just a few days after Henry 's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne . The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London . The castle , which had not been used as a royal residence for some time , was usually left in the charge of a Constable , a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville . As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position , possession was highly valued . Mandeville exploited this , selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln . Once her support waned , the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen . Through his role as Constable of the Tower , Mandeville became `` the richest and most powerful man in England '' . When he tried the same ploy again , this time holding secret talks with Matilda , Stephen had him arrested , forced him to cede control of his castles , and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters . Until then the position had been hereditary , originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville ( a friend of William the Conqueror 's and ancestor of the Geoffrey that Stephen and Matilda dealt with ) , but the position 's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch . The position was usually given to someone of great importance , who might not always be at the castle due to other duties . Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison , from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty : the Lieutenant of the Tower . Constables also had civic duties relating to the city . Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes , enforcing the law and maintaining order . The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable 's civic powers , and at times led to friction between the two . Expansion ( edit ) The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign of Richard I ( 1189 -- 1199 ) . The castle was extended under William Longchamp , King Richard 's Lord Chancellor and the man in charge of England while he was on crusade . The Pipe Rolls record £ 2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190 , from an estimated £ 7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England . According to the contemporary chronicler Roger of Howden , Longchamp dug a moat around the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames . Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower , and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard 's younger brother , Prince John , who in Richard 's absence arrived in England to try to seize power . As Longchamp 's main fortress , he made the Tower as strong as possible . The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191 , when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history . Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days , deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege . The Tower of London from The Shard . The River Thames is to the south . The outer curtain walls were erected in the 13th century . In the moat is the art installation Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red . John succeeded Richard as king in 1199 , but his rule proved unpopular with many of his barons , who in response moved against him . In 1214 , while the king was at Windsor Castle , Robert Fitzwalter led an army into London and laid siege to the Tower . Although under - garrisoned , the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signed the Magna Carta . The king reneged on his promises of reform , leading to the outbreak of the First Barons ' War . Even after the Magna Carta was signed , Fitzwalter maintained his control of London . During the war , the Tower 's garrison joined forces with the barons . John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne to Prince Louis , the eldest son of the French king . However , after John 's death in October 1216 , many began to support the claim of his eldest son , Henry III . War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry , with Fitzwalter supporting Louis . Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower , both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III 's supporters would prevail . In the 13th century , Kings Henry III ( 1216 -- 1272 ) and Edward I ( 1272 -- 1307 ) extended the castle , essentially creating it as it stands today . Henry was disconnected from his barons , and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule . As a result , he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification ; at the same time Henry was an aesthete and wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live . From 1216 to 1227 nearly £ 10,000 was spent on the Tower of London ; in this period , only the work at Windsor Castle cost more ( £ 15,000 ) . Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward . The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower ( from which it derives its name ) began in 1240 . Beginning around 1238 , the castle was expanded to the east , north , and north - west . The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I , interrupted occasionally by civil unrest . New creations included a new defensive perimeter , studded with towers , while on the west , north , and east sides , where the wall was not defended by the river , a defensive ditch was dug . The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement , marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle 's defences . The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression , despised by Londoners , and Henry 's building programme was unpopular . So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240 , the locals celebrated the setback . The expansion caused disruption locally and £ 166 was paid to St Katherine 's Hospital and the prior of Holy Trinity in compensation . Henry III often held court at the Tower of London , and held parliament there on at least two occasions ( 1236 and 1261 ) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly . In 1258 , the discontented barons , led by Simon de Montfort , forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments . Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions . Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath . With the backing of mercenaries , Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261 . While negotiations continued with the barons , the King ensconced himself in the castle , although no army moved to take it . A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again . Henry won a significant victory at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 , allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London . Cardinal Ottobuon came to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious ; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower . Gilbert de Clare , 6th Earl of Hertford , marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle , declaring that custody of the Tower was `` not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner , much less of an ecclesiastic '' . Despite a large army and siege engines , Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle . The Earl retreated , allowing the King control of the capital , and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry 's reign . Although he was rarely in London , Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower , costing £ 21,000 between 1275 and 1285 , over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III 's reign . Edward I was a seasoned castle builder , and used his experience of siege warfare during the crusades to bring innovations to castle building . His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe , drawing on Eastern influences . At the Tower of London , Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line , creating a new enclosure . A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall . The western part of Henry III 's curtain wall was rebuilt , with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle 's old gatehouse . A new entrance was created , with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and a barbican . In an effort to make the castle self - sufficient , Edward I also added two watermills . Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278 , charged with coin clipping . Persecution of the country 's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued the Edict of Expulsion , forcing the Jews out of the country . Later medieval period ( edit ) A model of the Tower of London as it appeared after the final period of expansion under Edward I During Edward II 's reign ( 1307 -- 1327 ) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London . However , it was during this period that the Privy Wardrobe was founded . The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state 's arms . In 1321 , Margaret de Clare , Baroness Badlesmere became the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle and ordered her archers to fire upon Isabella , killing six of the royal escort . Generally reserved for high - ranking inmates , the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country . However it was not necessarily very secure , and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape . In 1323 Roger Mortimer , Baron Mortimer , was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer 's men inside . They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat . He fled to France where he encountered Edward 's Queen . They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King . One of Mortimer 's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there . For four years he ruled while Edward III was too young to do so himself ; in 1330 , Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him in the Tower . Under Edward III 's rule ( 1312 -- 1377 ) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father 's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French . Amongst Edward 's successes were the battles of Crécy and Poitiers where King John II of France was taken prisoner , and the capture of the King David II of Scotland at Neville 's Cross . During this period , the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war . Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair , and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place . The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons , for instance Windsor . Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated . One of the powerful French magnates held in the Tower during the Hundred Years ' War was Charles , Duke of Orléans , the nephew of the King of France . This late 15th - century image is the earliest surviving non-schematic picture of the Tower of London . It shows the White Tower and the water-gate , with Old London Bridge in the background . When Richard II was crowned in 1377 , he led a procession from the Tower to Westminster Abbey . This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660 . During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside . When Richard rode out to meet with Wat Tyler , the rebel leader , a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted the Jewel House . The Archbishop of Canterbury , Simon Sudbury , took refuge in St John 's Chapel , hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary . However , he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill . Six years later there was again civil unrest , and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual . When Henry Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399 , Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower . He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke , who became King Henry IV . In the 15th century , there was little building work at the Tower of London , yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge . When supporters of the late Richard II attempted a coup , Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London . During this period , the castle also held many distinguished prisoners . The heir to the Scottish throne , later King James I of Scotland , was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower . The reign of Henry V ( 1413 -- 1422 ) renewed England 's fortune in the Hundred Years ' War against France . As a result of Henry 's victories , such as the Battle of Agincourt , many high - status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed . Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by the Wars of the Roses between the claimants to the throne , the houses of Lancaster and York . The castle was once again besieged in 1460 , this time by a Yorkist force . The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered when Henry VI was captured at the Battle of Northampton . With the help of Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick ( nicknamed `` the Kingmaker '' ) Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470 . However , Edward IV soon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London , where he was probably murdered . During the wars , the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire , and provided with loopholes for cannons and handguns : an enclosure was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill , although it no longer survives . The Two Princes Edward and Richard in the Tower , 1483 by Sir John Everett Millais , 1878 Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483 , the notorious murder of the Princes in the Tower is traditionally believed to have taken place . The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London . Edward V 's uncle Richard , Duke of Gloucester was declared Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule . Traditional accounts have held that the 12 - year - old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother Richard . The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in June . The princes were last seen in public in June 1483 ; it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483 . Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th - century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished ; however , the reputed level at which the bones were found ( 10 ft or 3 m ) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the recently discovered Roman graveyard found 12 ft ( 4 m ) underneath the Minories a few hundred yards to the north . Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor , who ascended to the throne as Henry VII . Changing use ( edit ) The beginning of the Tudor period marked the start of the decline of the Tower of London 's use as a royal residence . As 16th - century chronicler Raphael Holinshed said the Tower became used more as `` an armouries and house of munition , and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in '' . The Yeoman Warders have been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509 . During the reign of Henry VIII , the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences . In 1532 , Thomas Cromwell spent £ 3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work . Even so , this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery . Although the defences were repaired , the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry 's death . Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable . From 1547 onwards , the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful , for instance each of Edward VI , Mary I , and Elizabeth I briefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations . In the 16th century , the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim , forbidding prison . This had not always been the case . As a royal castle , it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons , however these were usually high - status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people . Contrary to the popular image of the Tower , prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower . As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower -- as would have been the case for any castle -- there was no purpose - built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed , a `` Prison for Soldiers '' , was built to the north - west of the White Tower . The Tower 's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th - century religious propagandists and 19th - century romanticists . Although much of the Tower 's reputation is exaggerated , the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle 's zenith as a prison , with many religious and political undesirables locked away . The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture , so it was not often used ; between 1540 and 1640 , the peak of imprisonment at the Tower , there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture . The three most common forms used were the infamous rack , the Scavenger 's daughter , and manacles . The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter , the Constable of the Tower ; consequentially it was also known as the Duke of Exeter 's daughter . One of those tortured at the Tower was Guy Fawkes , who was brought there on 6 November 1605 ; after torture he signed a full confession to the Gunpowder Plot . Among those held and executed at the Tower was Anne Boleyn . Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard , by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners . The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as the Fleet , where disease was rife . High - status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside ; one such example was that while Walter Raleigh was held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family , including his son who was born there in 1605 . Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself , and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years . Before the 20th century , there had been seven executions within the castle on Tower Green ; as was the case with Lady Jane Grey , this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous . After Lady Jane Grey 's execution on 12 February 1554 , Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth , later Queen Elizabeth I , in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as Sir Thomas Wyatt had led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth 's name . The cobbled surface of Tower Hill to the north of the Tower of London . Over a period of 400 years , 112 people were executed on the hill . The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century , taking over the Privy Wardrobe 's duties of looking after the monarch 's arsenal and valuables . As there was no standing army before 1661 , the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war . The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454 , and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward . The Board of Ordnance ( successor to these Offices ) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage . In 1855 the Board was abolished ; its successor ( the Military Store Department of the War Office ) was also based there until 1869 , after which its headquarters staff were relocated to the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich ( where the recently closed Woolwich Dockyard was converted into a vast ordnance store ) . Political tensions between Charles I and Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents , including money and munitions . London 's Trained Bands , a militia force , were moved into the castle in 1640 . Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built , readying the Tower for war . The preparations were never put to the test . In 1642 , Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament . When this failed he fled the city , and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron , the Lieutenant of the Tower . The Trained Bands had switched sides , and now supported Parliament ; together with the London citizenry , they blockaded the Tower . With permission from the King , Byron relinquished control of the Tower . Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing , Sir John Conyers . By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642 , the Tower of London was already in Parliament 's control . The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned was Charles II in 1661 . At the time , the castle 's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation . Under the Stuart kings the Tower 's buildings were remodelled , mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance . Just over £ 4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse , now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward . In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower 's defences in the style of the trace italienne , however they were never acted on . Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose - built quarters for soldiers ( the `` Irish Barracks '' ) in 1670 , the general accommodations were still in poor condition . An engraving of the Tower of London in 1737 by Samuel and Nathaniel Buck When the Hanoverian dynasty ascended the throne , their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind , the Tower of London was repaired . Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed . The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45 , and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle `` would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege '' . For the most part , the 18th - century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal , although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774 . The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it . It was still an integral part of the castle 's defences , so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower , the Duke of Wellington , ordered a large - scale clearance of several feet of silt . However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply , resulting in several deaths . To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems , it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth . The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later . The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845 , when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone . The building could accommodate 1,000 men ; at the same time , separate quarters for the officers were built to the north - east of the White Tower . The building is now the headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers . The popularity of the Chartist movement between 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest . It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle . Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period . During the First World War , eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage . During the Second World War , the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war . One such person was Rudolf Hess , Adolf Hitler 's deputy , albeit just for four days in 1941 . He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle . The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spy Josef Jakobs who was shot on 15 August 1941 . The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricated miniature rifle range which stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969 . The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification . In the event of a German invasion , the Tower , together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses , was to have formed one of three `` keeps '' or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last - ditch defences of the capital . Restoration and tourism ( edit ) A recreation of Edward I 's bedchamber in the river - side St Thomas 's Tower above Traitors ' Gate . The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country . It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period , when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about . Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour . The Crown Jewels also garner much interest , and have been on public display since 1669 . The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century , despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors . Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose - built ticket office was erected . By the end of the century , over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year . Over the 18th and 19th centuries , the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished . Only the Wakefield and St Thomas 's Towers survived . The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England 's medieval past . One of the effects was the emergence of Gothic Revival architecture . In the Tower 's architecture , this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower . It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements . Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as `` castellated Gothic of the 15th century '' . Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites ; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished . In 1855 , the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office , which was gradually phased out of the castle . At the same time , there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London . Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers , of whom the work of William Harrison Ainsworth was particularly influential . In The Tower of London : A Historical Romance he created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination . Harrison also played another role in the Tower 's history , as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th - and 17th - century prisoners . Working on the suggestion , Anthony Salvin refurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest of Prince Albert . Salvin was succeeded in the work by John Taylor . When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it ; as a result , several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed . The main entrance to the Tower of London . Today the castle is a popular tourist attraction . Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War ( it landed harmlessly in the moat ) , the Second World War left a greater mark . On 23 September 1940 , during the Blitz , high - explosive bombs damaged the castle , destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower . After the war , the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public . A 1974 Tower of London bombing in the White Tower Mortar Room left one person dead and 41 injured . No one claimed responsibility for the blast , but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it . In the 21st century , tourism is the Tower 's primary role , the remaining routine military activities , under the Royal Logistic Corps , having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle . However , the Tower is still home to the ceremonial regimental headquarters of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers , and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor , the Royal Fusiliers . Also , a detachment of the unit providing the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower , and with the Yeomen Warders , takes part in the Ceremony of the Keys each day . On several occasions through the year gun salutes are fired from the Tower by the Honourable Artillery Company , these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions , and 41 on other occasions . Two of the ravens Since 1990 , the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity , Historic Royal Palaces , which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown . In 1988 , the Tower of London was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites , in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site . However , recent developments , such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby , have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations ' Heritage in Danger List . The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006 . Visitors can explore the chambers restored to their former glory , once used by past kings and queens . Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower , the responsibility of day - to - day administration is delegated to the Resident Governor . The Constable is appointed for a five year term ; this is primarily a ceremonial post today but the Constable is also a trustee of Historic Royal Palaces and of the Royal Armouries . General Sir Nick Houghton was appointed Constable in 2016 . At least six ravens are kept at the Tower at all times , in accordance with the belief that if they are absent , the kingdom will fall . They are under the care of the Ravenmaster , one of the Yeoman Warders . As well as having ceremonial duties , the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower . Over 2.8 million people visited the Tower of London in 2017 . Garrison ( edit ) See also : Tower division The Yeomen Warders provided the permanent garrison of the Tower , but the Constable of the Tower could call upon the men of the Tower Hamlets to supplement them when necessary . The Tower Hamlets , aka Tower Division was an area , significantly larger than the modern London Borough of the same name , which owed military service to the Constable in his ex officio role as Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets . Crown Jewels ( edit ) See also : Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom and Jewel House The Imperial State Crown ( side view ) The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III ( 1216 -- 1272 ) . The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia , including jewels , plate , and symbols of royalty such as the crown , sceptre , and sword . When money needed to be raised , the treasure could be pawned by the monarch . The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy , and consequently was closely guarded . A new position for `` keeper of the jewels , armouries and other things '' was created , which was well rewarded ; in the reign of Edward III ( 1327 -- 1377 ) the holder was paid 12d a day . The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels , gold , and silver , and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers . In 1649 , during the English Civil War , the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties , as decreed by Cromwell . Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used , and the crowns were `` totallie broken and defaced '' . When the monarchy was restored in 1660 , the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th - century spoon and three ceremonial swords . ( Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown . ) Detailed records of old regalia survived , and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I . For the coronation of Charles II , gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them . In 1669 , the Jewel House was demolished and the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower ( until 1841 ) . They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public . This was exploited two years later when Colonel Thomas Blood attempted to steal them . Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper . Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown , Sceptre and Orb , they were foiled when the keeper 's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm . Since 1994 , the Crown Jewels have been on display in the Jewel House in the Waterloo Block . Some of the pieces are used regularly by the Queen . The display includes 23,578 gemstones , the 800 - year - old Coronation Spoon , St. Edward 's Crown ( worn during all crownings at Westminster Abbey ) and the Imperial State Crown . Royal Menagerie ( edit ) Wire animal sculptures at the tower , Kendra Haste There is evidence that King John ( 1166 -- 1216 ) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower . Records of 1210 -- 1212 show payments to lion keepers . The Royal Menagerie is frequently referenced during the reign of Henry III . Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II presented Henry with three leopards , circa 1235 , which were kept in the Tower . In 1251 , the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of the King 's polar bear , a gift from Haakon IV of Norway in the same year ; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in the Thames while tied to the land by a chain . In 1254 or 1255 , Henry III received an African elephant from Louis IX of France depicted by Matthew Paris in his Chronica Majora . A wooden structure was built to house the elephant , 12.2 m ( 40 ft ) long by 6.1 m ( 20 ft ) wide . The animal died in 1258 , possibly because it was given red wine , but also perhaps because of the cold climate of England . In 1288 , Edward I added a lion and a lynx and appointed the first official Keeper of the animals . Edward III added other types of animals , two lions , a leopard and two wildcats . Under subsequent kings , the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types , jackals , hyenas , and an old brown bear , Max , gifted to Henry VIII by Emperor Maximilian . In 1436 , during the time of Henry V , all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated . Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure or barbican was built by Edward I in 1277 ; this area was later named the Lion Tower , to the immediate west of the Middle Tower . Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards , also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower . By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie . Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower . An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals , during lion baiting , for example in the time of James I. Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions , increasing to 11 by 1708 , in addition to other types of cats , eagles , owls and a jackal . Skull of a Barbary lion that was kept at Tower of London , Natural History Museum By the 18th century , the menagerie was open to the public ; admission cost three half - pence or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions . By the end of the century , that had increased to 9 pence . A particularly famous inhabitant was Old Martin , a large grizzly bear given to George III by the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1811 . An 1800 inventory also listed a tiger , leopards , a hyena , a large baboon , various types of monkeys , wolves and `` other animals '' . By 1822 , however , the collection included only a grizzly bear , an elephant and some birds . Additional animals were then introduced . In 1828 there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals . After the death of George IV in 1830 , a decision was made to close down the Menagerie . In 1831 , most of the stock was moved to the London Zoo which had opened in 1828 . The last of the animals left in 1835 , relocated to Regent 's Park . This decision was made after an incident , although sources vary as to the specifics : either a lion was accused of biting a soldier , or a sailor , Ensign Seymour , had been bitten by a monkey . The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life . Consequently , even though the animals had long since left the building , the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps , the last keeper , in 1853 . In 1999 , physical evidence of lion cages was found , one being 2x3 meters ( 6.5 x10 feet ) in size , very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters ( approximately 8 feet ) long . In 2008 , the skulls of two male Barbary lions ( now extinct in the wild ) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower . Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 -- 1385 and 1420 -- 1480 . During 2011 an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures by Kendra Haste . Ghosts ( edit ) Anne Boleyn was beheaded in 1536 for treason against Henry VIII ; her ghost supposedly haunts the Church of St Peter ad Vincula in the Tower , where she is buried , and has been said to walk around the White Tower carrying her head under her arm . This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song `` With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm '' . Other reported ghosts include Henry VI , Lady Jane Grey , Margaret Pole , and the Princes in the Tower . In January 1816 , a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him , and reportedly died of fright a few days later . In October 1817 , a tubular , glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in the Jewel House by the Keeper of the Crown Jewels , Edmund Lenthal Swifte . He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife , leading her to exclaim : `` Oh , Christ ! It has seized me ! '' Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported , more recently , by night staff at the Tower . See also ( edit ) London portal Criminal justice portal Castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of buildings that survived the Great Fire of London List of castles in England List of Keepers of the Records in the Tower of London List of prisoners of the Tower of London Tower of London in popular culture Zammitello Palace , built in imitation of the Tower of London References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Wakefield Tower was originally called Blundeville Tower . Jump up ^ Flambard , Bishop of Durham , was imprisoned by Henry I `` for the many injustices which Henry himself and the king 's other sons had suffered '' . Citations ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` ALVA Association of Leading Visitor Attractions '' . www.alva.org.uk . Retrieved 16 April 2018 . 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The Guardian . Retrieved 5 November 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Yeoman Warders , Historic Royal Palaces , archived from the original on 29 July 2010 , retrieved 21 July 2010 Jump up ^ Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 73 Jump up ^ Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 52 Jump up ^ Wilson 1998 , pp. 10 -- 11 ^ Jump up to : Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 91 ^ Jump up to : Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 92 Jump up ^ Black 1927 , p. 345 ^ Jump up to : Parnell 1993 , p. 117 ^ Jump up to : Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 94 Jump up ^ Plowden 2004 Jump up ^ Collinson 2004 Jump up ^ Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 47 Jump up ^ Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 57 Jump up ^ Semark , H.W. ( 1997 ) . The Royal Naval Armament Depots of Priddy 's Hard , Elson , Frater and Bedenham , 1768 -- 1977 . Winchester : Hampshire County Council . p. 124 . 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Hospitality and Catering News . 11 October 2016 . Retrieved 1 October 2018 . Jump up ^ Jerome 2006 , pp. 148 -- 149 Jump up ^ Why the Tower of London has a ravenmaster -- a man charged with keeping at least six ravens at the castle at all times , National Post , 30 September 2018 , retrieved 1 October 2018 Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica , 15th Edition , 1993 . Article on Tower Hamlets ^ Jump up to : Wilson 1998 , p. 29 ^ Jump up to : Impey & Parnell 2000 , p. 106 Jump up ^ `` British Crown Jewels -- Royal Exhibitions '' . royalexhibitions.co.uk . Jump up ^ Gibson , William ( 23 June 2011 ) . A Brief History of Britain 1660 - 1851 . Little , Brown Book Group -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Rennison , Nick ( 31 August 2010 ) . The Book Of Lists London . Canongate Books -- via Google Books . 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Jump up ^ Historic Royal Palaces . `` Discover The Incredible Tales Of The Tower Of London 's Royal Beasts '' . hrp.org.uk . Archived from the original on 4 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Matthew ( 15 October 2016 ) . Henry III : The Son of Magna Carta . Amberley Publishing Limited -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Mount , Toni ( 15 May 2016 ) . A Year in the Life of Medieval England . Amberley Publishing Limited -- via Google Books . ^ Jump up to : Jones , Nigel ( 2 October 2012 ) . Tower : An Epic History of the Tower of London . St. Martin 's Press -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ William Harrison Ainsworth . The Tower of London : An Historical Romance . Books.google.ca . p. 249 . Retrieved 21 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Blunt 1976 , p. 17 Jump up ^ `` The Tower of London : Discover The Wild Beasts That Once Roamed The Royal Menagerie '' . www.hrp.org.uk . Historic Royal Palaces . Retrieved 24 March 2017 . 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Jump up ^ Royal Beasts at Tower of London , View London , retrieved 14 April 2011 Jump up ^ Farson 1978 , pp. 14 -- 16 ^ Jump up to : Hole 1951 , pp. 61 -- 62 , 155 Jump up ^ Roud 2009 , pp. 60 -- 61 Bibliography ( edit ) Allen Brown , Reginald ( 1976 ) ( 1954 ) , Allen Brown 's English Castles , The Boydell Press , ISBN 1 - 84383 - 069 - 8 Allen Brown , Reginald ; Curnow , P ( 1984 ) , Tower of London , Greater London : Department of the Environment Official Handbook , Her Majesty 's Stationery Office , ISBN 0 - 11 - 671148 - 5 Bennett , Matthew ( 2001 ) , Campaigns of the Norman Conquest , Essential Histories , Osprey Publishing , ISBN 1 - 84176 - 228 - 8 Black , Ernest ( 1927 ) , `` Torture under English Law '' , University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register , University of Pennsylvania , 75 ( 4 ) : 344 -- 348 , doi : 10.2307 / 3307506 , JSTOR 3307506 Blunt , Wilfred ( 1976 ) , The Ark in the Park : The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century , Hamish Hamilton , ISBN 0 - 241 - 89331 - 3 Cathcart King , David James ( 1988 ) , The Castle in England and Wales : an Interpretative History , Croom Helm , ISBN 0 - 918400 - 08 - 2 Collinson , Patrick ( 2004 ) , `` Elizabeth I ( 1533 -- 1603 ) , Queen of England and Ireland '' , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Oxford University Press ( subscription required ) Costain , Thomas ( 1958 ) , The Three Edwards , Garden City Creighton , Oliver ( 2002 ) , Castles and Landscapes , Continuum , ISBN 0 - 8264 - 5896 - 3 Farson , Daniel ( 1978 ) , Ghosts in Fact and Fiction , Hamlyn Young Books , ISBN 978 - 0 - 600 - 34053 - 9 Friar , Stephen ( 2003 ) , The Sutton Companion to Castles , Sutton Publishing , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7509 - 3994 - 2 Gillingham , John ( 2002 ) ( 1999 ) , Richard I , Yale University Press , ISBN 0 - 300 - 09404 - 3 Hole , Christina ( 1951 ) , Haunted England : A Survey of English Ghost - Lore ( 3 ed . ) , Batsford Horrox , Rosemary ( 2004 ) , `` Edward V ( 1470 -- 1483 ) , king of England and lord of Ireland '' , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Oxford University Press ( subscription required ) Impey , Edward ; Parnell , Geoffrey ( 2000 ) , The Tower of London : The Official Illustrated History , Merrell Publishers in association with Historic Royal Palaces , ISBN 1 - 85894 - 106 - 7 Jerome , Fiona ( 2006 ) , Tales from the Tower : Secrets and Stories from a Gory and Glorious Past , Think Publishing , ISBN 978 - 1 - 84525 - 026 - 3 Lapper , Ivan ; Parnell , Geoffrey ( 2000 ) , The Tower of London : A 2000 - year History , Osprey Publishing , ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 170 - 1 Liddiard , Robert ( 2005 ) , Castles in Context : Power , Symbolism and Landscape , 1066 to 1500 , Windgather Press Ltd , ISBN 0 - 9545575 - 2 - 2 Parnell , Geoffrey ( 1993 ) , The Tower of London , Batsford , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7134 - 6864 - 9 Plowden , Alison ( 2004 ) , `` Grey ( married name Dudley ) , Lady Jane ( 1537 -- 1554 ) '' , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Oxford University Press ( subscription required ) Roud , Steve ( 2009 ) ( 2008 ) , London Lore : The Legends and Traditions of the World 's Most Vibrant City , Arrow Books , ISBN 978 - 0 - 09 - 951986 - 7 Sax , Boria ( 2007 ) , `` How Ravens Came to the Tower of London '' ( PDF ) , Society and Animals , 15 ( 3 ) : 269 -- 283 , doi : 10.1163 / 156853007X217203 , Archived from the original on 27 July 2011 CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Sellers , Leonard ( 1997 ) , Shot in the Tower : The Story of the Spies executed in the Tower of London during the First World War , Leo Cooper , ISBN 978 - 1 - 84884 - 026 - 3 Strickland , Agnes ( 1840 ) , Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest . Volume II , II , Henry Colburn Vince , Alan ( 1990 ) , Saxon London : An Archaeological Investigation , Seaby , ISBN 1 - 85264 - 019 - 7 Wilson , Derek ( 1998 ) ( 1978 ) , The Tower of London : A Thousand Years ( 2nd ed . ) , Allison & Busby , ISBN 0 - 7490 - 0332 - 4 Further reading ( edit ) Bennett , Edward Turner ( 1829 ) . The Tower Menagerie : Comprising the Natural History of the Animals Contained in that Establishment ; with Anecdotes of their Characters and History . Robert Jennings . Harman , A. ( 1864 ) . Sketches of the Tower of London as a Fortress , a Prison , and a Palace . J. Wheeler . Parnell , Geoffrey ( 2009 ) . The Tower of London : Past & Present . History Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7524 - 5036 - 0 . External links ( edit ) Listen to this article ( info / dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` Tower of London '' dated 2018 - 05 - 04 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles Wikimedia Commons has media related to : Tower of London ( category ) Wikivoyage has a listing for Tower of London . Official website Further reading recommended by Historic Royal Palaces Bibliography of sources relating to the Tower of London `` Tower of London , The '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . 1911 . 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14 | document: Statistical data type - wikipedia Statistical data type Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In statistics , groups of individual data points may be classified as belonging to any of various statistical data types , e.g. categorical ( `` red '' , `` blue '' , `` green '' ) , real number ( 1.68 , - 5 , 1.7 e + 6 ) , etc . The data type is a fundamental component of the semantic content of the variable , and controls which sorts of probability distributions can logically be used to describe the variable , the permissible operations on the variable , the type of regression analysis used to predict the variable , etc . The concept of data type is similar to the concept of level of measurement , but more specific : For example , count data require a different distribution ( e.g. a Poisson distribution or binomial distribution ) than non-negative real - valued data require , but both fall under the same level of measurement ( a ratio scale ) . Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of levels of measurement . The psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens defined nominal , ordinal , interval , and ratio scales . Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values , and permit any one - to - one transformation . Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values , but have a meaningful order to those values , and permit any order - preserving transformation . Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined , but the zero value is arbitrary ( as in the case with longitude and temperature measurements in Celsius or Fahrenheit ) , and permit any linear transformation . Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined , and permit any rescaling transformation . Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements can not be reasonably measured numerically , sometimes they are grouped together as categorical variables , whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as quantitative variables , which can be either discrete or continuous , due to their numerical nature . Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with data type in computer science , in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with the Boolean data type , polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned integers in the integral data type , and continuous variables with the real data type involving floating point computation . But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented . Other categorizations have been proposed . For example , Mosteller and Tukey ( 1977 ) distinguished grades , ranks , counted fractions , counts , amounts , and balances . Nelder ( 1990 ) described continuous counts , continuous ratios , count ratios , and categorical modes of data . See also Chrisman ( 1998 ) , van den Berg ( 1991 ) . The issue of whether or not it is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions . `` The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations . Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer '' ( Hand , 2004 , p. 82 ) . Simple data types ( edit ) The following table classifies the various simple data types , associated distributions , permissible operations , etc . Regardless of the logical possible values , all of these data types are generally coded using real numbers , because the theory of random variables often explicitly assumes that they hold real numbers . Data Type Possible values Example usage Level of measurement Distribution Scale of relative differences Permissible statistics Regression analysis binary 0 , 1 ( arbitrary labels ) binary outcome ( `` yes / no '' , `` true / false '' , `` success / failure '' , etc . ) nominal scale Bernoulli incomparable mode , Chi - squared logistic , probit categorical 1 , 2 , ... , K ( arbitrary labels ) categorical outcome ( specific blood type , political party , word , etc . ) categorical multinomial logit , multinomial probit ordinal integer or real number ( arbitrary scale ) relative score , significant only for creating a ranking ordinal scale categorical ? ? relative comparison ordinal regression ( ordered logit , ordered probit ) binomial 0 , 1 , ... , N number of successes ( e.g. yes votes ) out of N possible interval scale ? ? binomial , beta - binomial , etc . additive ? ? mean , median , mode , standard deviation , correlation binomial regression ( logistic , probit ) count nonnegative integers ( 0 , 1 , ... ) number of items ( telephone calls , people , molecules , births , deaths , etc . ) in given interval / area / volume ratio scale Poisson , negative binomial , etc . multiplicative All statistics permitted for interval scales plus the following : geometric mean , harmonic mean , coefficient of variation Poisson , negative binomial regression real - valued additive real number temperature , relative distance , location parameter , etc. ( or approximately , anything not varying over a large scale ) interval scale normal , etc. ( usually symmetric about the mean ) additive mean , median , mode , standard deviation , correlation standard linear regression real - valued multiplicative positive real number price , income , size , scale parameter , etc. ( especially when varying over a large scale ) ratio scale log - normal , gamma , exponential , etc. ( usually a skewed distribution ) multiplicative All statistics permitted for interval scales plus the following : geometric mean , harmonic mean , coefficient of variation generalized linear model with logarithmic link Multivariate data types ( edit ) Data that can not be described using a single number are often shoehorned into random vectors of real - valued random variables , although there is an increasing tendency to treat them on their own . Some examples : Random vectors . The individual elements may or may not be correlated . Examples of distributions used to describe correlated random vectors are the multivariate normal distribution and multivariate t - distribution . In general , there may be arbitrary correlations between any elements and any others ; however , this often becomes unmanageable above a certain size , requiring further restrictions on the correlated elements . Random matrices . Random matrices can be laid out linearly and treated as random vectors ; however , this may not be an efficient way of representing the correlations between different elements . Some probability distributions are specifically designed for random matrices , e.g. the matrix normal distribution and Wishart distribution . Random sequences . These are sometimes considered to be the same as random vectors , but in other cases the term is applied specifically to cases where each random variable is only correlated with nearby variables ( as in a Markov model ) . This is a particular case of a Bayes network and often used for very long sequences , e.g. gene sequences or lengthy text documents . A number of models are specifically designed for such sequences , e.g. hidden Markov models . Random processes . These are similar to random sequences , but where the length of the sequence is indefinite or infinite and the elements in the sequence are processed one - by - one . This is often used for data that can be described as a time series , e.g. the price of a stock on successive days . Random processes are also used to model values that vary continuously ( e.g. the temperature at successive moments in time ) , rather than at discrete intervals . Bayes networks . These correspond to aggregates of random variables described using graphical models , where individual random variables are linked in a graph structure with conditional distributions relating variables to nearby variables . Multilevel models are subclasses of Bayes networks that can be thought of as having multiple levels of linear regression . Random trees . These are a subclass of Bayes network , where the variables are linked in a tree structure . An example is the problem of parsing a sentence , when statistical parsing techniques are used , such as probabilistic context - free grammars ( PCFG 's ) . Random fields . These represent the extension of random processes to multiple dimensions , and are common in physics , where they are used in statistical mechanics to describe properties such as force or electric field that can vary continuously over three dimensions ( or four dimensions , when time is included ) . These concepts originate in various scientific fields and frequently overlap in usage . As a result , it is very often the case that multiple concepts could potentially be applied to the same problem . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mosteller , F. , & Tukey , J.W. ( 1977 ) . Data analysis and regression . Boston : Addison - Wesley . Jump up ^ Nelder , J.A. ( 1990 ) . The knowledge needed to computerise the analysis and interpretation of statistical information . In Expert systems and artificial intelligence : the need for information about data . Library Association Report , London , March , 23 -- 27 . Jump up ^ Chrisman , Nicholas R. ( 1998 ) . Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography . Cartography and Geographic Information Science , vol. 25 ( 4 ) , pp. 231 -- 242 Jump up ^ van den Berg , G. ( 1991 ) . Choosing an analysis method . Leiden : DSWO Press Jump up ^ Hand , D.J. ( 2004 ) . Measurement theory and practice : The world through quantification . London , UK : Arnold . 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15 | document: Percy Jackson ( film series ) - wikipedia Percy Jackson ( film series ) Jump to : navigation , search Percy Jackson & the Olympians Directed by Chris Columbus ( 1 ) Thor Freudenthal ( 2 ) Produced by Michael Barnathan ( 1 -- 2 ) Karen Rosenfelt ( 1 -- 2 ) Chris Columbus ( 1 ) Mark Radcliffe ( 1 ) Screenplay by Craig Titley ( 1 ) Marc Guggenheim ( 2 ) Based on Percy Jackson & the Olympians by Rick Riordan Starring Logan Lerman Brandon T. Jackson Alexandra Daddario Jake Abel Music by Christophe Beck ( 1 ) Andrew Lockington ( 2 ) Cinematography Stephen Goldblatt ( 1 ) Shelly Johnson ( 2 ) Edited by Peter Honess ( 1 ) Mark Goldblatt ( 2 ) Production company Fox 2000 Pictures ( 1 - 2 ) 1492 Pictures ( 1 -- 2 ) Sunswept Entertainment ( 1 -- 2 ) Dune Entertainment ( 1 ) TSG Entertainment ( 2 ) Distributed by 20th Century Fox Release date 2010 -- 2013 Running time 224 minutes Country United States Canada Language English Budget $185 million Box office $428.7 million Percy Jackson & the Olympians ( also known as Percy Jackson ) is an American feature film series based on the novel series of the same name by the author Rick Riordan . The series is distributed by 20th Century Fox , produced by 1492 Pictures and currently consists of two installments . The first film , Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) , was directed by Chris Columbus , and was released on February 12 , 2010 . The second installment , Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) , was originally intended to be released in March 2013 but was instead pushed back to August 7 , 2013 , and was directed by Thor Freudenthal . The series has grossed nearly $430 million at the worldwide box office . The films follow the adventures of demigod Percy Jackson and his comrades at the demigod training ground of Camp Half - Blood . In the first film , Percy must go on a quest to save his mother from the underworld and prove his innocence when he is accused of stealing lightning from Zeus . However , this first movie does not follow the plot of the first Percy Jackson book , the origin of inspiration for the Percy Jackson movie , by Rick Riordan . The second film revolves around Percy 's escapade as he must retrieve the legendary golden fleece from the sea of monsters , or the Bermuda triangle , which is the only thing that will save the camp from the forces of darkness . In December 2017 , The Walt Disney Company agreed to a 52.4 - billion - dollar deal to acquire 21st Century Fox , including the film rights for Percy Jackson & The Olympians ; it 's unknown if Disney ( the owners of Disney Hyperion ) will continue the series or reboot it . Contents ( hide ) 1 Production 1.1 The Lightning Thief 1.2 Sea of Monsters 2 Films 2.1 Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) 2.2 Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) 3 Crew 4 Criticism 5 Reception 5.1 Box office performance 5.2 Critical and public response 6 References Production ( edit ) The Lightning Thief ( edit ) In June 2004 , 20th Century Fox acquired the film rights to the book . In April 2007 , director Chris Columbus was hired to lead at the helm of the project . Filming began in April 2009 in Vancouver while other portions of the film were shot at the Parthenon in Nashville , Tennessee ; A full - scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens . Filming wrapped up on the morning of July 25 , 2009 in Vancouver , British Columbia . Digital intermediate work began in San Francisco in November 2009 . Christopher Beck composed the soundtrack . Chris Columbus has stated that each member of the cast were chosen specifically with sequels in mind . `` I think with Percy Jackson it was a matter of finding the right cast to fit into these roles , sort of the perfect cast for these roles , because hopefully , God willing , we will go on to do other Percy Jackson films and you want the cast to grow with their characters . '' All the lead actors had signed for three films during the shooting . Sea of Monsters ( edit ) It was revealed in the 749th issue of online subscription magazine Production Weekly that the film was in production . Another source said that the lead cast members from the first movie were expected to return for their roles . Chris Columbus did not return as director , though he produced the movie together with Karen Rosenfelt , producer of The Twilight Saga film series . Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski were hired as the scriptwriters . On June 16 , 2011 , it was announced that Thor Freudenthal would be directing the film with production beginning on April 12 , 2012 . On October 12 , 2011 , it was announced that the film would be released on March 26 , 2013 , but on May 31 , 2012 , it was announced that the movie had been pushed back to August 16 , 2013 . On April 6 , it was announced that the movie was pushed up to August 7 , 2013 . On January 13 , 2012 , a brand new production list was released and stated that the movie will film between April 26 , 2012 - July 11 , 2012 with scenes being filmed in Vancouver , B.C. and New Orleans , Louisiana . Filming wrapped up in July 2012 , but then started again in January 2013 for reshoots . Filming was officially wrapped up on January 20 , 2013 . Films ( edit ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : the Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) ( edit ) Main article : Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief In June 2004 , 20th Century Fox acquired feature film rights to the book . In April 2007 , director Chris Columbus was hired to helm the project . Filming began in April 2009 in Vancouver . The film was released on February 12 , 2010 and was met with mixed reviews upon release and was a commercial success and grossed almost $227 million at the worldwide box office against a budget of $95 million . The plot revolves around a sixteen - year - old Percy Jackson who discovers that he is the son of Poseidon , Greek God of the sea , and goes to Camp Half - Blood , a training camp for demigods , the half mortal children of Greek gods . When Percy 's mom is kidnapped by Hades , and Percy is accused of stealing Zeus ' lightning bolt , Percy and his friends go on a quest to rescue his mom from the underworld , leading them across America to find Persephone 's pearls , while proving that Percy is not the lightning thief and is innocent . Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) ( edit ) Main article : Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters In October 2011 , 20th Century Fox announced a sequel based on the second book , The Sea of Monsters . The film was released on August 7 , 2013 . Percy Jackson , son of Greek god Poseidon , discovers he has a half - brother , Tyson , and embarks on a journey with his friends to retrieve the Golden Fleece to save a magical tree containing the spirit of Zeus 's daughter Thalia who died at the gates of Camp Half - Blood while saving Annabeth , Luke and Grover . This tree protects their training ground , Camp Half - Blood . They must travel to the Sea of Monsters to save it , and find the challenges that may await them . The film grossed just over $199 million at the worldwide box office . Crew ( edit ) Film Director Producer Writer Composer Editor Cinematographer Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Chris Columbus Karen Rosenfelt Chris Columbus Michael Barnathan Mark Radcliffe Craig Titley Christophe Beck Peter Honess Stephen Goldblatt Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters Thor Freudenthal Karen Rosenfelt Chris Columbus Michael Barnathan Marc Guggenheim Andrew Lockington Mark Goldblatt Shelly Johnson Criticism ( edit ) Rick Riordan , the author of the book series , has mentioned in numerous interviews that he has never seen the movies , to keep them from influencing the way he views the characters . During March 2016 , Riordan wrote a letter asking teachers not to show the movie to students during class time . Reception ( edit ) For more details on the reception of each film , see Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief § Reception , and Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters § Reception . Box office performance ( edit ) # Film Release date Box office gross Box office ranking Budget Ref ( s ) North America Other territories Worldwide All time North America All time worldwide The Lightning Thief February 12 , 2010 $88,768,303 $137,728,906 $226,497,209 # 651 # 495 $95,000,000 Sea of Monsters August 7 , 2013 $68,519,879 $133,728,197 $202,247,751 # 937 # 581 $90,000,000 Total $157,288,182 $271,456,667 $428,744,970 $185,000,000 Critical and public response ( edit ) # Film Rotten Tomatoes Metacritic CinemaScore The Lightning Thief 49 % ( 141 reviews ) 47 % ( 31 reviews ) B+ Sea of Monsters 41 % ( 110 reviews ) 39 % ( 35 reviews ) B+ References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Zeitchik , Steven ( December 14 , 2017 ) . `` Disney buys much of Fox in megamerger that will shake world of entertainment and media '' . Retrieved December 29 , 2017 -- via www.WashingtonPost.com . Jump up ^ Brodesser , Claude ( June 23 , 2004 ) . `` ' Lightning Thief ' strikes Maverick '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Gilstrap , Peter ( April 17 , 2007 ) . `` Columbus struck by ' Lightning ' '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Siegel , Tatiana ( March 25 , 2009 ) . `` Fox 2000 bulks up ' Percy Jackson ' '' . Variety . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2009 . Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Frequently Asked Questions - Rick Riordan '' . RickRiordan.com . Retrieved December 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Rick Riordan writes open letter about ' Percy Jackson ' movies '' . Hypable.com . March 25 , 2016 . Retrieved December 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & The Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` CinemaScore '' . cinemascore.com . Retrieved March 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : Sea of Monsters '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Jackson & the Olympians : Sea of Monsters Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved August 31 , 2013 . The Camp Half - Blood Chronicles Percy Jackson & the Olympians Novels The Lightning Thief The Sea of Monsters The Titan 's Curse The Battle of the Labyrinth The Last Olympian The Demigod Files Films Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters Film cast members The Heroes of Olympus Novels The Lost Hero The Son of Neptune The Mark of Athena The House of Hades The Blood of Olympus The Demigod Diaries The Trials of Apollo Novels The Hidden Oracle The Dark Prophecy The Burning Maze Other Percy Jackson 's Greek Gods Percy Jackson 's Greek Heroes The Son of Sobek The Staff of Serapis The Crown of Ptolemy Characters Percy Jackson Chris Columbus Directed Adventures in Babysitting ( 1987 ) Heartbreak Hotel ( 1988 ) Home Alone ( 1990 ) Only the Lonely ( 1991 ) Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York ( 1992 ) Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) Nine Months ( 1995 ) Stepmom ( 1998 ) Bicentennial Man ( 1999 ) Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone ( 2001 ) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ( 2002 ) Rent ( 2005 ) I Love You , Beth Cooper ( 2009 ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) Pixels ( 2015 ) Produced only Jingle All the Way ( 1996 ) Monkeybone ( 2001 ) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban ( 2004 ) Christmas with the Kranks ( 2004 ) Fantastic Four ( 2005 ) Night at the Museum ( 2006 ) Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer ( 2007 ) Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian ( 2009 ) The Help ( 2011 ) Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) Night at the Museum : Secret of the Tomb ( 2014 ) The Young Messiah ( 2016 ) I Kill Giants ( 2018 ) Written only Reckless ( 1984 ) Gremlins ( 1984 ) The Goonies ( 1985 ) Young Sherlock Holmes ( 1985 ) Little Nemo : Adventures in Slumberland ( 1989 ) Christmas with the Kranks ( 2004 ) Television Galaxy High ( 1986 , wrote ) See also 1492 Pictures House of Secrets Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Percy_Jackson_(film_series)&oldid=818670458 '' Categories : English - language films Films directed by Chris Columbus American fantasy adventure films American films American teen films Films based on fantasy novels Films based on Greco - Roman mythology Films set in New York City Films shot in Tennessee Films shot in Vancouver Greco - Roman mythology in popular culture Percy Jackson & the Olympians 2010s fantasy films 1492 Pictures films Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from August 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Português Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2018 , at 22 : 21 . 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16 | document: Star of David - wikipedia Star of David This article is about the use of the hexagram as a Jewish symbol . For the Star of David in Islam , see Seal of Solomon . For use in Christianity and other Abrahamic religions , see Star of David in the Abrahamic religions . For other uses , see Hexagram . `` Jewish Star '' redirects here . For the newspaper , see The Jewish Star . `` Magen David '' redirects here . For the halakhic commentator , see David HaLevi Segal . Star of David The Star of David ( ✡ ) , known in Hebrew as the Shield of David or Magen David ( Hebrew מָגֵן דָּוִד ; Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ ( maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð ) , Tiberian ( mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið ) , Modern Hebrew ( maˈɡen daˈvid ) , Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid ( ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid ) or Mogen Dovid ) , is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism . Its shape is that of a hexagram , the compound of two equilateral triangles . Unlike the menorah , the Lion of Judah , the shofar and the lulav , the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol , although it had been used in that way as a printer 's colophon since the sixteenth century . The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community , and later the broader Jewish community , after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897 . The earliest Jewish usage of the symbol was inherited from medieval Arabic literature by Kabbalists for use in talismanic protective amulets ( segulot ) where it was known as the Seal of Solomon among Muslims . The symbol was also used in Christian churches as a decorative motif many centuries before its first known use in a Jewish synagogue . During the 19th century the symbol began to proliferate among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe , ultimately being used among the Jewish communities in the Pale of Settlement . A significant motivating factor , according to scholar Gershom Sholem , was the desire to represent Jewish religion and / or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion 's believers . Before the 19th century , official use in Jewish communities was generally known only in the region of today 's Czech Republic , Austria and possibly parts of Southern Germany , having begun in medieval Prague . The identification of the term `` Star of David '' or `` Shield of David '' with the hexagram shape dates to the 17th century . The term `` Shield of David '' is also used in the Siddur ( Jewish prayer book ) as a title of the God of Israel . Contents 1 History of Jewish usage 1.1 Early use as an ornament 1.2 Kabbalistic use 1.3 Official usage in Central European communities 1.4 As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community 1.5 The Holocaust 2 Contemporary use 2.1 Use in sports 3 Origin of the name 4 Miscellaneous 5 Gallery 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History of Jewish usage Early use as an ornament The Star of David in the oldest surviving complete copy of the Masoretic text , the Leningrad Codex , dated 1008 . The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity , apparently as a decorative motif . For example , in Israel , there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of a 3rd -- 4th century synagogue in the Galilee . Originally , the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues , as it is , for example , on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal , and on the Marktkirche at Hanover . A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum . In the synagogues , perhaps , it was associated with the mezuzah . The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century , in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript , the Leningrad Codex dated 1008 . Similarly , the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo , Spain . A Siddur dated 1512 from Prague displays a large hexagram on the cover with the phrase , `` He will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David . '' Kabbalistic use Page of segulot in a mediaeval Kabbalistic grimoire ( Sefer Raziel HaMalakh , 13th century ) A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto , Apulia in Southern Italy , which may date as early as the third century CE . The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah , which has been connected to the use of the Star of David . Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot , but without identifying them as `` Shield of David '' . In the Renaissance Period , in the 16th - century Land of Israel , the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha - Ari ( Rabbi Isaac Luria ) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles , where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts . The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate , while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself . However , these seder - plate triangles are parallel , one above the other , and do not actually form a hexagram . According to G.S. Oegema ( 1996 ) Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning . In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram : above the three sefirot `` Crown '' , `` Wisdom '' , and `` Insight '' , below the other seven . Similarly , M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram . Gershom Scholem ( 1990 ) disagrees with this view , arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram . The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah , and popular accounts associate it with the six directions of space plus the center ( under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira : Up , Down , East , West , South , North , and Center ) , or the Six Sefirot of the Male ( Zeir Anpin ) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female ( Nukva ) . Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin . It is also seen as a dalet and yud , the two letters assigned to Judah . There are 12 Vav , or `` men , '' representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel . Official usage in central european communities Historical flag of the Jewish Community in Prague In 1354 , King of Bohemia Charles IV prescribed for the Jews of Prague a red flag with both David 's shield and Solomon 's seal , while the red flag with which the Jews met King Matthias of Hungary in the 15th century showed two pentagrams with two golden stars . In 1460 , the Jews of Ofen ( Budapest , Hungary ) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars . In the first Hebrew prayer book , printed in Prague in 1512 , a large hexagram appears on the cover . In the colophon is written : `` Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers ... and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David . '' In 1592 , Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix `` a flag of King David , similar to that located on the Main Synagogue '' on his synagogue in Prague . Following the Battle of Prague ( 1648 ) , the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag , in recognition in their contribution to the city 's defense . That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background , with a star placed in the center of the hexagram . As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community Herzl 's proposed flag , as sketched in his diaries . Although he drew a Star of David , he did not describe it as such Max Bodenheimer 's ( top left ) and Herzl 's ( top right ) 1897 drafts of the Zionist flag , compared to the final version used at the 1897 First Zionist Congress ( bottom ) Béla Guttmann , footballer for Hakoah Vienna The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community , and later the broader Jewish community , after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897 . A year before the congress , Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat : We have no flag , and we need one . If we desire to lead many men , we must raise a symbol above their heads . I would suggest a white flag , with seven golden stars . The white field symbolizes our pure new life ; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working - day . For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor . David Wolffsohn ( 1856 -- 1914 ) , a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement , was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag , and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support , wrote : At the behest of our leader Herzl , I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress . Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem . What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall ? Then an idea struck me . We have a flag -- and it is blue and white . The talith ( prayer shawl ) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray : that is our symbol . Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations . So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it . That is how the national flag , that flew over Congress Hall , came into being . In the early 20th century , the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports . Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna , Austria , in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms , and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship . Similarly , The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia ( whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association ) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity , as they competed in the first half of the 20th century . In boxing , Benny `` the Ghetto Wizard '' Leonard ( who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews ) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s . World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well , notably , for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933 ; Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again . The Holocaust Main article : Yellow badge The yellow badge A Star of David , often yellow , was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews . After the German invasion of Poland in 1939 , there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs ( e.g. in the General Government , a white armband with a blue Star of David ; in the Warthegau , a yellow badge , in the form of a Star of David , on the left breast and on the back ) . If a Jew was found in public without the star , he could be severely punished . The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude ( German for Jew ) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ( by a decree issued on September 1 , 1941 and signed by Reinhard Heydrich ) and was gradually introduced in other Nazi - occupied areas . Others , however , wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism , as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten , who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy . Contemporary use The flag of Israel The flag of Israel , depicting a blue Star of David on a white background , between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28 , 1948 , five months after the country 's establishment . The origins of the flag 's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897 ; the flag has subsequently been known as the `` flag of Zion '' . Many Modern Orthodox synagogues , and many synagogues of other Jewish movements , have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls . Magen David Adom ( MDA ) ( `` Red Star of David '' or , translated literally , `` Red Shield of David '' ) is Israel 's only official emergency medical , disaster , ambulance service . It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006 . According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs , Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross , which refused to grant the organization membership because `` it was ( ... ) argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality . '' Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol , a Red Shield , alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent . Use in sports Since 1948 , the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel , and Jewish identity in general . In the United States especially , it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes . In baseball , Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000 , with the words `` strong - willed '' and `` strong - minded '' , major leaguer Mike `` SuperJew '' Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove , and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame . NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire , who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish , had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010 . NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck , near his shoulders . Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue - and - white magen david symbol on her golf apparel . In boxing , Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike `` The Jewish Bomber '' Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks , and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf . Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion , world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky , Barney Ross ( world champion as a lightweight , as a junior welterweight , and as a welterweight ) , world flyweight boxing champion Victor `` Young '' Peres , world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi , and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman , light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin , and light middleweight Boyd Melson . Welterweight Zachary `` Kid Yamaka '' Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach , and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname `` Star of David '' . Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems . Origin of the name The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th - century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called `` Magen Dawid '' ( without specifying its shape ) . The name ' Shield of David ' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel , independent of the use of the symbol . The phrase occurs independently as a Divine title in the Siddur , the traditional Jewish prayer book , where it poetically refers to the Divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house , perhaps based on Psalm 18 , which is attributed to David , and in which God is compared to a shield ( v. 31 and v. 36 ) . The term occurs at the end of the `` Samkhaynu / Gladden us '' blessing , which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays . The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the `` Shield of David '' is Eshkol Ha - Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi , in the mid-12th century CE : Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah : Michael , Gabriel , etc . ... Tetragrammaton protect you ! And likewise the sign , called the `` Shield of David '' , is placed beside the name of each angel . This book is of Karaite , and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin , and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way . Miscellaneous In Unicode , the `` Star of David '' symbol is U + 2721 ( ✡ ︎ ) . The world 's largest Star of David ( 2,400 metres ( 7,900 ft ) diameter ) is at Harold Holt Naval Communications Station , Exmouth , Australia at 21 ° 48 ′ 57 '' S 114 ° 09 ′ 57 '' E / 21.815927 ° S 114.165888 ° E / - 21.815927 ; 114.165888 . ( Google Earth view ) At London Heathrow Airport in the early 1950s were built six runways in ✡ ︎ layout , each a bit over a mile long . Some criminal gangs , including the Gangster Disciples and those affiliated with the Folk Nation , use the Star of David as their symbol . In the case of the Gangster Disciples this is a reference to the group 's founder , David Barksdale , also known as `` King David '' . The insignia of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service has included a hexagram since the end of the 19th century . Gallery Star in the Schneider Synagogue , Istanbul Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue , Safed The Magen David Adom emblem A synagogue in Karlsruhe , Germany , with the outline of a Star of David A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI . Daughter of Zion ( representing the Jewish people ) : Your Old New Land must have you ! Join the Jewish regiment . Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft , 1948 -- present Stained glass Star of David USVA headstone emblem 3 USVA headstone emblem 44 Morocco horse cover embroidery See also Judaism portal Anahata Chai symbol G2 ( mathematics ) Merkaba Shatkona , an identical Hindu symbol Kagome crest , an identical Japanese symbol Star of Bethlehem Star of David theorem Star of Lakshmi Stars of David : Prominent Jews Talk About Being Jewish , 2005 book Unicursal hexagram Zoigl , a make of German beer which uses ✡ as its symbol Seal of Solomon References Jump up ^ Yacov Newman , Gavriel Sivan , Judaism A-Z Jump up ^ `` The Flag and the Emblem '' , Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs , `` Unlike the menora ( candelabrum ) , the Lion of Judah , the shofar ( ram 's horn ) and the lulav ( palm frond ) , the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol . '' Jump up ^ `` The Flag and the Emblem '' , Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs , quote `` The Star of David became the emblem of Zionist Jews everywhere . Non-Jews regarded it as representing not only the Zionist current in Judaism , but Jewry as a whole . '' ^ Jump up to : Scholem 1949 , p. 251 : `` Then the Zionists came , seeking to restore the ancient glories -- or more correctly , to change the face of their people . When they chose it as a symbol for Zionism at the Basle Congress of 1897 , the Shield of David was possessed of two virtues that met the requirements of men in quest of a symbol : on the one hand , its wide diffusion during the previous century -- its appearance on every new synagogue , on the stationery of many charitable organizations , etc. -- had made it known to everybody ; and on the other , it was not explicitly identified with a religious association in the consciousness of their contemporaries . This lack became its virtue . The symbol did not arouse memories of the past : it could be filled with hope for the future . '' Jump up ^ Leonora Leet , `` The Hexagram and Hebraic Sacred Science '' in : The Secret Doctrine of the Kabbalah , 1999 , pp. 212 - 217 . Jump up ^ Scholem 1949 , p. 246 : `` In the beginning these designs had no special names or terms , and it is only in the Middle Ages that definite names began to be given to some of those most widely used . There is very little doubt that terms like these first became popular among the Arabs , who showed a tremendous interest in all the occult sciences , arranging and ordering them systematically long before the Practical Cabalists thought of doing so . It is not to be wondered at , therefore , that for a long time both the five - pointed and the six - pointed stars were called by one name , the `` Seal of Solomon , '' and that no distinction was made between them . This name is obviously related to the Jewish legend of Solomon 's dominion over the spirits , and of his ring with the Ineffable Name engraved on it . These legends expanded and proliferated in a marked fashion during the Middle Ages , among Jews and Arabs alike , but the name , `` Seal of Solomon , '' apparently originated with the Arabs . This term they did not apply to any one design exclusively ; they applied it to an entire series of seven seals to which they attributed extreme potency in putting to flight the forces of the Demon . '' Jump up ^ Scholem 1949 , p. 244 : `` It is not to be found at all in medieval synagogues or on medieval ceremonial objects , although it has been found in quite a number of medieval Christian churches again , not as a Christian symbol but only as a decorative motif . The appearance of the symbol in Christian churches long before its appearance in our synagogues should warn the overzealous interpreters . '' Jump up ^ `` The Flag and the Emblem '' , Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs , `` According to Sholem , the motive for the widespread use of the Star of David was a wish to imitate Christianity . During the Emancipation , Jews needed a symbol of Judaism parallel to the cross , the universal symbol of Christianity . '' Jump up ^ Scholem 1949 , p. 250 : `` From Prague this official use of the symbol spread out . In 1655 it is found on the seal of the Viennese community , and in 1690 on the seal of the community of Kremsier , in Moravia . On the wall of the old synagogue of the community of Budweis ( Southern Bohemia ) , which was abandoned by the Jews in 1641 , there are representations of Shields of David alternating with roses ; apparently this is the oldest synagogue outside of Prague on which this symbol is to be found . In his youth , R. Jonathan Eybeschuetz might have been able to see it on the seal of the community of EybeSchuetz . A number of communities in Moravia used as a seal the Shield of David alone , with the addition of the name of the community . Others had on their seals a lion holding the Shield of David , like the community of Weiskirchen at the beginning of the 18th century . In very isolated instances the figure of the Shield of David was used in southern Germany also , doubtless under the influence of the Prague community . In other countries , we do not generally find the Shield of David in use before the beginning of the 19th century , either on community seals , or on the curtains of the Ark , or on Torah mantles . '' Jump up ^ `` King Solomon - s Seal '' Archived October 16 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Jump up ^ Ulmann . Jump up ^ Herbert M. Adler , JQR , vol. 14 : 111 . Cited in `` Magen David '' , Jewish Encyclopedia , retrieved May 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2011 . Retrieved May 11 , 2011 . CS1 maint : Archived copy as title ( link ) Jump up ^ www.markfoster.net Archived July 22 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Rabbi Blumenkrantz , `` The Seder '' , The Laws of Pesach : A Digest 2010 : Chap. 9 . See also , ( 1 ) , retrieved May 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Yirmiyahu Ullman ( May 5 , 2008 ) . `` '' Magen David `` '' . Ohr Samayach . Retrieved May 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Simon Jacobson , op - ed , `` Tzav - Passover : The Seder Plate '' , A Meaningful Life , retrieved May 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Gershom Scholem shows conclusively they do not form a hexagram . See , Hatakh ha - Zahav , Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen - David ( Poalim , Hebrew ) 1990 : 156 . Jump up ^ G.S. Oegema , Realms of Judaism . The history of the Shield of David , the birth of a symbol ( Peter Lang , Germany , 1996 ) ISBN 3 - 631 - 30192 - 8 Jump up ^ Hatakh ha - Zahav , Hotam Shelomoh u-Magen - David ( Poalim , 1990 , Hebrew ) p. 156 Jump up ^ Rabbi Naftali Silberberg , `` What is the Mystical Significance of the Star of David ? '' Jump up ^ Schwandtner , Scriptores Rerum Hungaricarum , ii. 148 . Facsimile in M. Friedmann , Seder Eliyahu Rabbah ve - Seder Eliyahu Ztṭa , Vienna , 1901 Jump up ^ Reuven Kashani , `` The National Flag '' The Israel Review of Arts and Letters , 1998 / 107 -- 8 , Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( 1999 ) . `` In 1648 , the Jews of Prague were again allowed a flag , in acknowledgment of their part in defending the city against the Swedes . On a red background was a yellow Shield of David , in the centre of which was a Swedish star . '' Jump up ^ `` The Flag and the Emblem '' . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Jewish State , by Theodor Herzl '' . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Brenner , Michael ; Reuveni , Gideon ( 2006 ) . Emancipation through muscles : Jews and sports in Europe . ISBN 0803205422 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of American Jewish history . ABC - CLIO. 2007 . ISBN 9781851096381 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Outside the box : a memoir . Rodale. 2006 . ISBN 9781594862571 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Philadelphia Jewish life , 1940 -- 2000 . Temple University Press . 2006 . ISBN 9781566399999 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kirsch , George B ; Harris , Othello ; Nolte , Claire Elaine ( 2000 ) . Encyclopedia of ethnicity and sports in the United States . ISBN 9780313299117 . Retrieved February 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Polizeiverordnung über die Kennzeichnung der Juden ( Police Regulation on the identification of Jews ) '' . Verfassungen.de ( in German ) . September 1 , 1941 . Retrieved March 27 , 2015 . Der Judenstern besteht aus einem handtellergroßen , schwarz ausgezogenen Sechsstern aus gelbem Stoff mit der schwarzen Aufschrift ' Jude ' . Er ( sic ) ist sichtbar auf der linken Brustseite des Kleidungsstücks fest aufgenäht zu tragen . ( Translation : The Jews ' star consists of a palm - sized , black solid six - pointed star made of yellow fabric with a black inscription ( which says ) ' Jew ' . ( It must be ) visibly and firmly sewn on the left chest of the garment . ) ( This policy came into full force as of September 19 , 1941 ) Jump up ^ Geneva Vote Paves the Way for MDA Red Cross Membership , Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs , December 8 , 2005 Jump up ^ Magen David : Shield or Star ? On Language , by Philologos , The Forward June 30 , 2006 Jump up ^ Paul Lukas ( April 2 , 2007 ) . `` Uni Watch : Passover edition '' . ESPN . p. 2 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Beggy , Carol ; Shanahan , Mark ( September 24 , 2004 ) . `` Sox pair weigh holiday play ; councilor swept up '' . The Boston Globe . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Jewish Stars '' . Cleveland Jewish News . April 16 , 2010 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ain , Stewart ( September 8 , 2006 ) . `` Fast Balls Keep Flying At Mel '' . The Jewish Week . Archived from the original on July 17 , 2011 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` It started as a great idea , then fate stepped in '' . Jewish Tribune . September 29 , 2005 . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2009 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Salkin , Allen . `` Where have you gone , Sandy Koufax ? '' . Charlotte.creativeloafing.com . Archived from the original on July 8 , 2011 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Isabel Kershner and Harvey Araton `` Amar'e Stoudemire 's Quest to Israel '' , The New York Times , August 3 , 2010 Jump up ^ Klopman , Michael ( August 2 , 2010 ) . `` Is Amare Stoudemire Jewish ? Knick Shows Star Of David Tattoo , Wears Yarmulke ( VIDEO ) '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Knicks star Amar'e Stoudemire keeps things kosher '' . New York Post . August 20 , 2010 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Are you ready for some football ? '' Kaplan 's Korner on Jews and Sports `` . New Jersey Jewish News . September 14 , 2009 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Whisler , John ( August 1 , 2009 ) . `` Cowboys add muscle on defense with Olshanksy '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Tenacious D -- by Nisha Gopalan '' . Tablet Magazine . November 14 , 2008 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Yom Kippur a No Go for Young Golfer Laetitia Beck '' . Algemeiner Journal . October 7 , 2011 . Retrieved September 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sagui , Miki ( September 7 , 2011 ) . `` Laetitia Beck , Israel 's Tiger Woods '' . Ynetnews . Retrieved September 17 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : The Big Book of Jewish Sports Heroes : An Illustrated Compendium of Sports History and The 150 Greatest Jewish Sports Stars . SP Books . 2007 . ISBN 9781561719075 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Dodger - Giant Rivalry Downright Nostalgic '' , The Spokesman - Review , September 24 , 1978 Jump up ^ `` The Commander '' . New York . Vol. 39 . 2006 . p. 32 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Pat Putnam ( December 18 , 1978 ) . `` Mom is Jewish , Dad is Italian , and Mike Rossman -- the Star '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ The 1930s . Weigl Educational Publishers . 2000 . ISBN 9781896990644 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Schaap , Jeremy ( 2007 ) . Triumph : the untold story of Jesse Owens and Hitler 's Olympics . ISBN 0618688226 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` On the Rise : ' Hebrew Hammer ' Cletus Seldin Seeks to Join Ranks of Historic Jewish Boxers '' . Algemeiner Journal . Jump up ^ Ellis Island to Ebbets Field : Sport and the American Jewish Experience . Oxford University Press . 1993 . ISBN 9780195359008 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Vials , Chris ( 2009 ) . Realism for the masses : aesthetics , popular front pluralism , and U.S. culture , 1935 -- 1947 . ISBN 9781604733495 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wiggins , David . Sport in America eBook. II . ISBN 9781450409124 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Katz , Yossi ( 2010 ) . A Voice Called : Stories of Jewish Heroism . ISBN 9789652294807 . Retrieved February 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Papa Said Knock You Out : Issue 53 's Zachary Wohlman Fights This Thursday '' . Mass Appeal . November 11 , 2013 . Retrieved March 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Isaac Barrio ( July 19 , 2006 ) . `` Dmitriy `` STAR OF DAVID '' Salita in Main Event `` . Hardcoreboxing.net . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Football : a sociology of the global game . Wiley - Blackwell . 1999 . ISBN 9780745617695 . Retrieved February 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Magen Dawid '' , Jewish Encyclopida , retrieved May 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ A similar term , `` Shield of Abraham '' appears in the first blessing of the `` Amidah '' prayer , which was written in early Rabbinic times ( around year 1 , a millennium before the first documentation of the term in reference to a sixGpoint star ) . That term is probably based on Genesis 15 : 1 , where God promises to shield Abraham . Jump up ^ Eshkol Ha - Kofer by Judah Hadassi , 12th century CE Jump up ^ `` Australian Heritage Database '' . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The star of David '' . The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . Further reading Scholem , Gershom ( 1971 ) . `` The Star of David : History of a Symbol '' . The Messianic idea in Judaism and other essays on Jewish spirituality . Schocken Books . pp. 257 -- 281 . Scholem , Gershom ( 1949 ) . `` The Curious History of the Six - Pointed Star . How the `` Magen David '' Became the Jewish Symbol '' ( PDF ) . Commentary . Vol. 8 . pp. 243 -- 251 . Handelman , Don ; Shamgar - Handelman , Lea ( 1990 ) . `` Shaping Time : The Choice of the National Emblem of Israel '' . In Emiko Ohnuki - Tierney . Culture Through Time : Anthropological Approaches . Stanford University Press . pp. 193 -- 226 . ISBN 9780804717915 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Star of David . 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17 | document: James Earl Jones - wikipedia James Earl Jones Jump to : navigation , search James Earl Jones Jones in 2013 ( 1931 - 01 - 17 ) January 17 , 1931 ( age 86 ) Arkabutla , Mississippi , U.S. Nationality American Alma mater University of Michigan School of Music , Theatre & Dance Occupation Actor Years active 1953 -- present Spouse ( s ) Julienne Marie ( m . 1968 ; div. 1972 ) Cecilia Hart ( m . 1982 ; d . 2016 ) Children Parent ( s ) Robert Earl Jones Ruth Connolly James Earl Jones 's voice Recorded December 2009 from the BBC Radio 4 program Front Row James Earl Jones ( born January 17 , 1931 ) is an American actor . His career has spanned more than 60 years , and he has been described as `` one of America 's most distinguished and versatile '' actors and `` one of the greatest actors in American history '' . Since his Broadway debut in 1957 , Jones has won many awards , including a Tony Award and Golden Globe Award for his role in The Great White Hope . Jones has won three Emmy Awards , including two in the same year in 1991 , and he also earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in a Leading Role in the film version of The Great White Hope . He is also known for his voice roles as Darth Vader in the Star Wars film series and Mufasa in Disney 's The Lion King , as well as many other film , stage and television roles . Jones has been said to possess `` one of the best - known voices in show business , a stirring basso profondo that has lent gravel and gravitas '' to his projects , including live - action acting , voice acting , and commercial voice - overs . As a child , Jones had a stutter . In his episode of Biography , he said he overcame the affliction through poetry , public speaking , and acting , although it lasted for several years . A pre-med major in college , he went on to serve in the United States Army during the Korean War before pursuing a career in acting . On November 12 , 2011 , he received an Honorary Academy Award . On November 9 , 2015 , Jones received the Voice Arts Icon Award . On May 25 , 2017 , he received an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree from Harvard University and concluded the event 's benediction with `` May the Force be with you '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 1.1 Childhood 1.2 Education 1.3 Military 2 Film and stage career 2.1 Early career 2.2 Stage roles 2.3 Film roles 2.4 Voice roles 2.5 Television roles 3 List of performances 4 Personal life 5 Awards and nominations 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Early life ( edit ) Childhood ( edit ) Jones ' father , Robert Earl Jones , in promotional still for the Langston Hughes play Do n't You Want to be Free ? ( 1938 ) James Earl Jones was born in Arkabutla , Mississippi on January 17 , 1931 , to Ruth ( Williams ) Jones , a teacher and maid , and Robert Earl Jones , a boxer , butler , and chauffeur who left the family shortly after James Earl 's birth . He later became a stage and screen actor in New York and Hollywood . Jones and his father did not get to know each other until the 1950s but became reconciled then . His parents were African - American , and Jones has learned they also had Irish and Native American ancestry . From the age of five , Jones was raised by his maternal grandparents , John Henry and Maggie Williams , who had moved from Mississippi in the Great Migration and had a farm in Jackson , Michigan . Jones has described his grandmother , Maggie , as `` the most racist person I have ever known '' , having a `` double edged contempt for White folk '' . He had to develop his own independent thinking . His grandmother was of African - American , Cherokee and Choctaw ancestry . Jones found the transition to living with his grandparents in Michigan traumatic , and developed a stutter so severe that he refused to speak . When his family moved to the more rural Brethren , Michigan , a teacher helped him overcome his stutter . He remained functionally mute for eight years until he entered high school . He credits his English teacher , Donald Crouch , who discovered he had a gift for writing poetry , with helping him end his silence . Crouch urged him to challenge his reluctance to speak . `` I was a stutterer . I could n't talk . So my first year of school was my first mute year , and then those mute years continued until I got to high school . '' Education ( edit ) After being educated at the Browning School for boys in his high school years and graduating as vice president of his class from Dickson Rural Agricultural School ( now Brethren High School ) in Brethren , Michigan , Jones attended the University of Michigan where he was initially a pre-med major . He joined the Reserve Officer Training Corps and excelled . He felt comfortable within the structure of the military environment and enjoyed the camaraderie of his fellow cadets in the Pershing Rifles Drill Team and Scabbard and Blade Honor Society . During the course of his studies , Jones discovered he was not cut out to be a doctor . Instead , he focused on drama at the University of Michigan School of Music , Theatre & Dance with the thought of doing something he enjoyed , before , he assumed , he would have to go off to fight in the Korean War . After four years of college , Jones graduated from the university in 1955 . Military ( edit ) With the war intensifying in Korea , Jones expected to be deployed as soon as he received his commission as a second lieutenant . As he waited for his orders , he worked as a part - time stage crew hand at the Ramsdell Theatre in Manistee , Michigan , where he had earlier performed . Jones was commissioned in mid-1953 and reported to Fort Benning to attend Infantry Officers Basic Course . He attended Ranger School and received his Ranger Tab ( although he said during an interview on the BBC 's The One Show , screened on November 11 , 2009 , that he `` washed out '' of Ranger training ) . He was initially to report to Fort Leonard Wood , but his unit was instead sent to establish a cold weather training command at the former Camp Hale near Leadville , Colorado . His battalion became a training unit in the rugged terrain of the Rocky Mountains . Jones was promoted to first lieutenant prior to his discharge . He moved to New York , where he studied at the American Theatre Wing . He worked as a janitor to support himself . Film and stage career ( edit ) External audio James Earl Jones talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT ; 1968 / 02 , 49 : 25 , Studs Terkel Radio Archive Early career ( edit ) Jones began his acting career at the Ramsdell Theatre in Manistee , Michigan . In 1953 , he was a stage carpenter . During the 1955 -- 57 seasons , he was an actor and stage manager . He performed his first portrayal of Shakespeare 's Othello in this theater in 1955 . His early career also included an appearance in the ABC radio anthology series Theatre - Five . Stage roles ( edit ) Othello Play media Jones performs Othello 's Act I , scene III monologue from Shakespeare 's Othello at the White House Evening of Poetry , Music , and the Spoken Word on May 12 , 2009 . `` Othello '' Audio only Problems playing these files ? See media help . Jones is an accomplished stage actor ; he has won Tony awards in 1969 for The Great White Hope and in 1987 for Fences . He has acted in many Shakespearean roles : Othello , King Lear , Oberon in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , Abhorson in Measure for Measure , and Claudius in Hamlet . Jones played Lennie on Broadway in the 1974 Brooks Atkinson Theatre production of the adaptation of John Steinbeck 's novella , Of Mice and Men , with Kevin Conway as George and Pamela Blair as Curley 's Wife . Jones received Kennedy Center Honors in 2002 . On April 7 , 2005 , James Earl Jones and Leslie Uggams headed the cast in an African - American Broadway revival version of On Golden Pond , directed by Leonard Foglia and produced by Jeffrey Finn . In February 2008 , he starred on Broadway as Big Daddy in a limited - run , all - African - American production of Tennessee Williams 's Pulitzer Prize - winning drama Cat on a Hot Tin Roof , directed by Debbie Allen and mounted at the Broadhurst Theatre . In November 2009 , James reprised the role of Big Daddy in Cat On A Hot Tin Roof at the Novello Theatre in London 's West End . This production also stars Sanaa Lathan as Maggie , Phylicia Rashad as Big Mamma , and Adrian Lester as Brick . In October 2010 , Jones returned to the Broadway stage in Alfred Uhry 's Driving Miss Daisy along with Vanessa Redgrave at the Golden Theatre . In November 2011 , Jones starred in Driving Miss Daisy in London 's West End , and on November 12 received his honorary Oscar in front of the audience at the Wyndham 's Theatre , which was presented to him by Ben Kingsley . In March 2012 , Jones played the role of President Art Hockstader in Gore Vidal 's The Best Man on Broadway at the Schoenfeld Theatre . Earning Jones a Tony nomination for Best Performance in a Lead Role in a Play . The play also starred Angela Lansbury , John Larroquette ( as candidate William Russell ) , Candice Bergen , Eric McCormack ( as candidate Senator Joseph Cantwell ) , Jefferson Mays , Michael McKean , and Kerry Butler , with direction by Michael Wilson . In 2013 , Jones starred opposite Vanessa Redgrave in a production of Much Ado About Nothing directed by Mark Rylance at The Old Vic , London . In 2014 , Jones played the role of Grandpa in the comedy You Ca n't Take it With You at the Longacre Theatre , Broadway . On September 23 , 2015 , Jones opened in a new revival of The Gin Game opposite Cicely Tyson , in the same venue where the play originally premiered ( with Hume Cronyn and Jessica Tandy ) : the John Golden Theater . The play will have a limited run of 16 weeks . Film roles ( edit ) His first film role was as a young and trim Lt. Lothar Zogg , the B - 52 bombardier in Dr. Strangelove or : How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb in 1964 . In 1967 , Jones portrayed a surgeon and Haitian rebel leader in The Comedians . His first starring film role came with his portrayal of boxer Jack Jefferson in The Great White Hope ( 1970 ) , co-starring Jane Alexander . They had played these roles in the original stage production , too . For his role , Jones was nominated Best Actor by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , making him the second African - American male performer ( following Sidney Poitier ) to receive a nomination . In 1974 , Jones co-starred with Diahann Carroll in the film Claudine , the story of a woman who raises her six children alone after two failed and two `` almost '' marriages . Jones played the villain Thulsa Doom in Conan the Barbarian , `` Few Clothes '' Johnson in John Sayles ' Matewan , the author Terence Mann in Field of Dreams , role of ' Alice ' , USAF Command General , in By Dawn 's Early Light ( 1990 HBO film ) , the feared neighbor Mr. Mertle in The Sandlot , King Jaffe Joffer in Coming to America , Reverend Stephen Kumalo in Cry , the Beloved Country ( 1995 ) , Raymond Lee Murdock in A Family Thing , and Vice Admiral James Greer in The Hunt for Red October , Patriot Games and Clear and Present Danger , among many other roles . Voice roles ( edit ) Jones is also known as the voice of Darth Vader in the 1977 film Star Wars : A New Hope and its sequels The Empire Strikes Back ( 1980 ) and Return of the Jedi ( 1983 ) . Darth Vader was portrayed in costume by David Prowse in the film trilogy , with Jones dubbing Vader 's dialogue in postproduction because Prowse 's strong West Country accent was deemed unsuitable for the role by George Lucas . At his own request , Jones was uncredited for the original releases of the first two Star Wars films , though he later would be credited for the first film in its 1997 `` Special Edition '' re-release . As he explained in a 2008 interview : When Linda Blair did the girl in The Exorcist , they hired Mercedes McCambridge to do the voice of the devil coming out of her . And there was controversy as to whether Mercedes should get credit . I was one who thought no , she was just special effects . So when it came to Darth Vader , I said , no , I 'm just special effects . But it became so identified that by the third one , I thought , OK I 'll let them put my name on it . Although uncredited , Jones ' voice is possibly heard as Vader at the conclusion of Star Wars : Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) . When specifically asked whether he had supplied the voice , possibly from a previous recording , Jones told Newsday : `` You 'd have to ask Lucas about that . I do n't know . '' Jones reprised his voice role of Vader for the character 's appearances in the animated TV series Star Wars Rebels , and the live - action film Rogue One : A Star Wars Story ( 2016 ) . His other voice roles include Mufasa in the 1994 Disney film The Lion King and its direct - to - video sequel , The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride . Archive recordings from the film would later be used for the English version of the 2006 video game Kingdom Hearts II since Jones himself did not reprise the role . He more recently voiced Mufasa in the 2015 TV pilot movie The Lion Guard : Return of the Roar . In February 2017 , it was announced that Jones would again voice the character in the 2019 remake of The Lion King , which will be directed by Jon Favreau . In 1990 , Jones performed voice work for The Simpsons first `` Treehouse of Horror '' Halloween special , in which he was the narrator for the Simpsons ' version of Edgar Allan Poe 's poem `` The Raven '' . In 1992 , Jones was often seen as the host on the video monitor at SeaWorld Orlando , in Florida , US . He also voiced the Emperor of the Night in Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night and Ommadon in Flight of Dragons . In 1996 , he recited the classic baseball poem `` Casey at the Bat '' with the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra , and in 2007 before a Philadelphia Phillies home game on June 1 , 2007 . He also has done the CNN tagline , `` This is CNN '' , as well as `` This is CNN International '' , and the opening for CNN 's morning show New Day . Jones was also a longtime spokesman for Bell Atlantic and later Verizon . He also lent his voice to the opening for NBC 's coverage of the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics ; `` the Big PI in the Sky '' ( God ) in the computer game Under a Killing Moon ; a Claymation film , The Creation ; and several other guest spots on The Simpsons . Jones also lent his voice for a narrative part in the Adam Sandler comedy Click , released in June 2006 . Jones narrated all 27 books of the New Testament in the audiobook James Earl Jones Reads the Bible . Television roles ( edit ) Jones has the distinction of being the only actor to win two Emmys in the same year , in 1991 as Best Actor for his role in Gabriel 's Fire and as Best Supporting Actor for his work in Heat Wave . Jones portrayed the older version of author Alex Haley , in the television mini-series Roots : The Next Generations ; the GDI 's commanding general James Solomon in the live - action sequences of the video game Command & Conquer : Tiberian Sun ; and widowed police officer Neb Langston in the television program Under One Roof , for which he received an Emmy nomination . He also appeared in television and radio advertising for Verizon Business DSL and Verizon Online DSL from Verizon Communications . Jones appeared in the 1963 -- 64 television season in an episode of ABC 's drama series about college life , Channing , starring Jason Evers and Henry Jones . He appeared on the soap opera Guiding Light . He portrayed Thad Green on `` Mathnet , '' a parody of Dragnet that appeared in the PBS program Square One Television . In 1969 , Jones participated in making test films for the children 's education series Sesame Street ; these shorts , combined with animated segments , were shown to groups of children to gauge the effectiveness of the then - groundbreaking Sesame Street format . As cited by production notes included in the DVD release Sesame Street : Old School 1969 -- 1974 , the short that had the greatest impact with test audiences was one showing bald - headed Jones counting slowly to ten . This and other segments featuring Jones were eventually aired as part of the Sesame Street series itself when it debuted later in 1969 and Jones is often cited as the first celebrity guest on that series , although a segment with Carol Burnett was the first to actually be broadcast . He has played lead characters on television in three series . First , he appeared on the short - lived CBS police drama Paris , which aired during autumn 1979 . That show was notable as the first program on which Steven Bochco served as executive producer . The second show aired on ABC between 1990 and 1992 , the first season being titled Gabriel 's Fire and the second ( after a format revision ) Pros and Cons . In both formats of that show , Jones played a former policeman wrongly convicted of murder who , upon his release from prison , became a private eye . In 1995 , Jones starred in Under One Roof as Neb Langston , a widowed African - American police officer sharing his home in Seattle with his daughter , his married son with his children , and Neb 's newly adopted son . The show was a mid-season replacement and lasted only six weeks . From 1989 to 1993 , Jones served as the host of the children 's TV series Long Ago and Far Away . In 1996 , James guest starred in the CBS drama Touched by an Angel as the Angels of Angels in the episode `` Clipped Wings '' . In 1998 , Jones starred in the widely acclaimed syndicated program An American Moment ( created by James R. Kirk and Ninth Wave Productions ) . Jones took over the role left by Charles Kuralt , upon Kuralt 's death . He also made a cameo appearance in a penultimate episode of Lois & Clark : The New Adventures of Superman and has guest - starred on such sitcoms as NBC 's Frasier and Will & Grace , CBS 's Two and a Half Men , and the WB drama Everwood . In 2009 , Jones guest starred in the Fox medical drama House , M.D. , in season 6 , episode 4 , entitled `` The Tyrant '' , as a brutal African dictator named Dibala who has fallen ill . The dictator had made threats of ethnic cleansing against an ethnic minority , the Sitibi , and the team deals with ethical issues of treating a potential mass murderer . In 2013 - 14 , he appeared alongside Malcolm McDowell in a series of commercials for Sprint in which the two recited mundane phone and text - message conversations in a dramatic way . Jones appeared as himself on the season 7 episode of The Big Bang Theory entitled `` The Convention Conundrum '' . In 2015 , Jones starred as the Chief Justice Caleb Thorne in the American drama series Agent X alongside actress Sharon Stone , Jeff Hephner , Jamey Sheridan , and others . The television series was aired by TNT from November 8 to December 27 , 2015 , running only one season and 10 episodes . List of performances ( edit ) See also : List of James Earl Jones performances Personal life ( edit ) Jones married American actress / singer Julienne Marie in 1968 , whom he met while performing as Othello in 1964 . They had no children , and divorced in 1972 . In 1982 , he married actress Cecilia Hart , with whom he had one child , son Flynn Earl Jones . Hart died on October 16 , 2016 , after a one - year battle with ovarian cancer . In April 2016 , Jones spoke publicly for the first time in nearly 20 years about his long - term health challenge with type 2 diabetes . He has been dealing with diabetes since the mid 1990s . Awards and nominations ( edit ) Year Nominated work Award Result 1963 East Side / West Side Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Nominated 1969 The Great White Hope Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play Won 1970 The Great White Hope Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year -- Actor Won 1970 The Great White Hope Academy Award for Best Actor Nominated 1970 The Great White Hope Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Drama Nominated Claudine Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Nominated Matewan Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male Nominated Fences Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play Won 1990 By Dawn 's Early Light Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie Nominated 1990 Heat Wave Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie Won 1990 Gabriel 's Fire Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Won 1990 Gabriel 's Fire Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Television Series Drama Nominated 1991 Pros and Cons Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Television Series Drama Nominated Picket Fences Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Nominated 1995 Under One Roof Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Nominated 1995 Cry , the Beloved Country Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Nominated Frasier Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series Nominated 1999 Summer 's End Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children 's Special Won 2003 Everwood Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Nominated 2005 On Golden Pond Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play Nominated 2008 N / A Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award Won 2011 N / A Academy Honorary Award Won 2012 The Best Man Tony Award for Best Leading Actor in a Play Nominated Other awards 1985 Induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame 1987 First recipient of the National Association for Hearing and Speech Action 's Annie Glenn Award 1991 Common Wealth Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Dramatic Arts 1992 National Medal of Arts 1996 Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs , California , Walk of Stars 2000 Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Performance in a Children 's Special Summer 's End 2011 Eugene O'Neill Theater Center Monte Cristo Award Recipient 2012 Marian Anderson Award Recipient 2014 Voice Icon Award sponsored by Society of Voice Arts and Sciences at the Museum of Moving Image 2017 Honorary Doctor of Arts from Harvard University References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Black Celebrities with White Partners '' . 19 May 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Cecilia Hart , wife of James Earl Jones , has died ( LA Times ) Jump up ^ `` Cecilia Hart , Actress and Wife of James Earl Jones , Dies at 68 '' . ^ Jump up to : Marx , Rebecca Flint . `` James Earl Jones Biography '' . All Movie Guide . Retrieved April 12 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Sperling , Nicole ; Susan King ( November 12 , 2011 ) . `` Oprah shines , Ratner controversy fades at honorary Oscars gala '' . LA Times.com . Retrieved November 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Hornaday , Ann ( September 25 , 2014 ) . `` James Earl Jones : A voice for the ages , aging gracefully '' -- via washingtonpost.com . Jump up ^ Moore , Caitlin ( September 25 , 2014 ) . `` James Earl Jones might have the most recognizable voice in film and television '' -- via washingtonpost.com . Jump up ^ `` Voice Arts Awards '' . sovas . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Harvard awards 10 honorary degrees '' . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : `` James Earl Jones Biography ( 1931 -- ) '' . FilmReference.com . Retrieved February 20 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones Biography ( 1931 -- ) '' . Film Reference . Retrieved February 20 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Bandler , Michael J. ( March 2008 ) . `` This is James Earl Jones '' . NWA World Traveler . Northwest Airlines . Archived from the original on March 20 , 2008 . Retrieved April 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Levesque , Carl ( August 1 , 2002 ) . `` Unconventional wisdom : James Earl Jones speaks out '' . Association Management . The Gale Group . Archived from the original on November 18 , 2017 . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Davis , Dorothy ( February 2005 ) . `` Speaking with James Earl Jones '' . Education Update . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2017 . Retrieved February 20 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones -- Academy of Achievement '' . A Museum of Living History . Academy of Achievement . Archived from the original on July 20 , 2008 . Retrieved April 3 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` James Earl Jones on his ' racist grandmother ' '' , interview with Stephen Sackur , BBC News , December 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Andrew Davies - Cole . `` The daddy of them all '' . Herald Scotland . Retrieved November 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ ( Audio / Transcript ) . Interview : James Earl Jones , with the American Academy of Achievement for the National Medal of Arts Archived September 6 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine ... June 29 , 1996 . Sun Valley , Idaho . Jump up ^ Ensian ( Yearbook of the University of Michigan ) , p. 156 ( 1952 ) . Jump up ^ `` Notable Alumni '' . University of Michigan . Archived from the original on February 26 , 2012 . Retrieved February 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Soldiers to Celebrities : James Earl Jones -- U.S. Army '' . Hollywood Hired Guns . Hired Guns Productions . January 20 , 2008 . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2008 . Retrieved February 20 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones talks with Studs Terkel on WFMT ; 1968 / 02 '' . Studs Terkel Radio Archive . February 1968 . Retrieved September 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ramsdell Theatre History '' . Ramsdell-theater.org . Archived from the original on January 4 , 2009 . Retrieved March 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Theater Five - Single Episodes '' . Internet Archive . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones and Vanessa Redgrave to Star in Broadway 's Driving Miss Daisy '' . Playbill . Archived from the original on August 3 , 2010 . Retrieved March 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Actor James Earl Jones receives Oscar in London '' , BBC News . Retrieved November 13 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Gore Vidal 's The Best Man '' at IBDB . Jump up ^ Gans , Andrew and Jones , Kenneth . '' ' The Best Man ' , Tony Nominee as Best Revival of a Play , Extends Booking a Second Time '' Archived September 4 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Playbill.com , May 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Trueman , Matt ( December 4 , 2012 ) . `` Vanessa Redgrave and James Earl Jones to reunite for Old Vic 's Much Ado '' . The Guardian . London . Jump up ^ `` The Gin Game at John Golden Theater '' . New York City Theater . Jump up ^ `` The Green force '' . BBC News . February 14 , 2006 . Retrieved March 1 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Lovece , Frank ( March 12 , 2008 ) . `` Fast Chat : James Earl Jones '' . Newsday . New York . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2012 . Retrieved March 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Sragow , Michael ( February 6 , 1997 ) . `` Is n't That Spacial ? Back to the future with ' Star Wars : The Special Edition ' '' . Phoenix New Times . Phoenix , Arizona . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2015 . Retrieved January 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones to Voice Darth Vader in Star Wars : Rebels ' Premiere on ABC ! '' Star Wars Episode VII News , October 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones confirmed as Darth Vader '' Blastr , April 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Skrebels , Joe ( June 23 , 2016 ) . `` Rogue One 's Darth Vader Will Be Played by James Earl Jones and `` A Variety of Large - Framed Performers '' `` . Jump up ^ `` Mufasa ( and James Earl Jones ) returns in exclusive The Lion Guard clip '' . Jump up ^ Couch , Aaron ( February 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' Lion King ' Remake Casts Donald Glover as Simba , James Earl Jones as Mufasa '' . Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ Drayer , Shannon ( June 3 , 2013 ) . `` Audio treasure : Dave Niehaus reads ' Casey at the Bat ' '' . KTTH / 710 ESPN Seattle . Archived from the original on September 20 , 2014 . Retrieved January 31 , 2015 . James Earl Jones more than did the piece justice in a recording with the Cincinnati Pops in 1996 ... Jump up ^ `` Actor James Earl Jones smiles before reading ... '' Townhall.com . Reuters . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2015 . Retrieved January 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones Reads The New Testament - Digital Edition '' . Jump up ^ James Earl Jones -- Awards & Nominations , Television Academy . Jump up ^ Tim Nudd , `` Inside James Earl Jones and Malcolm McDowell 's Dramatic Readings for Sprint '' , AdWeek , December 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Sprint Commercial ( 2013 - 2014 ) '' . popisms.com . Jump up ^ `` As He Readies For His Latest Broadway Return , We Celebrate Over 50 Years of James Earl Jones Onstage - Playbill '' . Jump up ^ Jones , James Earl . Encyclopedia of African American History : 5 - Volume Set . Oxford University Press . pp. 53 -- 54 . ISBN 9780195167795 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones : I 'll just keep going until I fall over '' . Metro News . Retrieved March 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones Biography : Film Actor , Theater Actor , Television Actor ( 1931 -- ) '' . Biography.com ( FYI / A&E Networks ) . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2016 . Retrieved April 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Barnes , Mike ( October 22 , 2016 ) . `` Cecilia Hart , Actress and Wife of James Earl Jones , Dies at 68 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on October 22 , 2016 . Retrieved October 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Learn more about James Earl Jones and INVOKANA ® '' . 2016 - 02 - 17 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : `` James Earl Jones -- Nominee for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play '' . Broadway.com . Retrieved May 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Broadway 's Best '' . New York Times . March 5 , 1985 . Retrieved February 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Theater Hall of Fame members '' . Retrieved February 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ John and Annie Glenn Museum : About : `` Annie Glenn '' ( 1 ) John and Annie Glenn Museum : About : `` Annie Glenn '' Jump up ^ Palm Springs Walk of Stars by date dedicated Jump up ^ Adam Hetrick , `` James Earl Jones Receives O'Neill Center 's Monte Cristo Award May 9 '' , Playbill , May 9 , 2011 . Retrieved January 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Carrie Rickey , `` Actor James Earl Jones wins Marian Anderson Award '' , Philly.com , June 5 , 2012 . Retrieved January 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` James Earl Jones to Receive Philadelphia 's 2012 Marian Anderson Award '' , Broadway World , June 5 , 2012 . Retrieved January 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Harvard awards 10 honorary degrees at 366th Commencement '' , Harvard Gazette , May 25 , 2017 . Retrieved May 30 , 2017 . Further reading ( edit ) Anne Hornaday , `` James Earl Jones : A Voice for the Ages , Aging Gracefully , '' Washington Post , Sept. 27 , 2014 . Jones , James Earl , and Penelope Niven . James Earl Jones : Voices and Silences ( New York : Charles Scribner 's Sons , 1993 ) ISBN 0 - 684 - 19513 - 5 Lifetime Honors -- National Medal of Arts External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to James Earl Jones . James Earl Jones on IMDb James Earl Jones at the Internet Broadway Database James Earl Jones at the Internet Off - Broadway Database James Earl Jones at the TCM Movie Database James Earl Jones at AllMovie James Earl Jones at Emmys.com TonyAwards.com Interview with James Earl Jones Cat on a Hot Tin Roof All African - American Production Website Awards for James Earl Jones Academy Honorary Award 1928 -- 1950 Warner Bros. / Charlie Chaplin ( 1928 ) Walt Disney ( 1932 ) Shirley Temple ( 1934 ) D.W. Griffith ( 1935 ) The March of Time / W. Howard Greene and Harold Rosson ( 1936 ) Edgar Bergen / W. Howard Greene / Museum of Modern Art Film Library / Mack Sennett ( 1937 ) J. Arthur Ball / Walt Disney / Deanna Durbin and Mickey Rooney / Gordon Jennings , Jan Domela , Devereaux Jennings , Irmin Roberts , Art Smith , Farciot Edouart , Loyal Griggs , Loren L. Ryder , Harry D. Mills , Louis Mesenkop , Walter Oberst / Oliver T. 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Robinson 1970 : Gregory Peck 1971 : Charlton Heston 1972 : Frank Sinatra 1973 : Martha Raye 1974 : Walter Pidgeon 1975 : Rosalind Russell 1976 : Pearl Bailey 1977 : James Cagney 1978 : Edgar Bergen 1979 : Katharine Hepburn 1980 : Leon Ames 1982 : Danny Kaye 1983 : Ralph Bellamy 1984 : Iggie Wolfington 1985 : Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward 1986 : Nanette Fabray 1987 : Red Skelton 1988 : Gene Kelly 1989 : Jack Lemmon 1990 : Brock Peters 1991 : Burt Lancaster 1992 : Audrey Hepburn 1993 : Ricardo Montalbán 1994 : George Burns 1995 : Robert Redford 1996 : Angela Lansbury 1997 : Elizabeth Taylor 1998 : Kirk Douglas 1999 : Sidney Poitier 2000 : Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee 2001 : Ed Asner 2002 : Clint Eastwood 2003 : Karl Malden 2004 : James Garner 2005 : Shirley Temple 2006 : Julie Andrews 2007 : Charles Durning 2008 : James Earl Jones 2009 : Betty White 2010 : Ernest Borgnine 2011 : Mary Tyler Moore 2012 : Dick Van Dyke 2013 : Rita Moreno 2014 : Debbie Reynolds 2015 : Carol Burnett 2016 : Lily Tomlin 2017 : Morgan Freeman Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play José Ferrer / Fredric March ( 1947 ) Henry Fonda / Paul Kelly / Basil Rathbone ( 1948 ) Rex Harrison ( 1949 ) Sidney Blackmer ( 1950 ) Claude Rains ( 1951 ) José Ferrer ( 1952 ) Tom Ewell ( 1953 ) David Wayne ( 1954 ) Alfred Lunt ( 1955 ) Paul Muni ( 1956 ) Fredric March ( 1957 ) Ralph Bellamy ( 1958 ) Jason Robards , Jr. ( 1959 ) Melvyn Douglas ( 1960 ) Zero Mostel ( 1961 ) Paul Scofield ( 1962 ) Arthur Hill ( 1963 ) Alec Guinness ( 1964 ) Walter Matthau ( 1965 ) Hal Holbrook ( 1966 ) Paul Rogers ( 1967 ) Martin Balsam ( 1968 ) James Earl Jones ( 1969 ) Fritz Weaver ( 1970 ) Brian Bedford ( 1971 ) Cliff Gorman ( 1972 ) Alan Bates ( 1973 ) Michael Moriarty ( 1974 ) John Kani and Winston Ntshona ( 1975 ) John Wood ( 1976 ) Al Pacino ( 1977 ) Barnard Hughes ( 1978 ) Tom Conti ( 1979 ) John Rubinstein ( 1980 ) Ian McKellen ( 1981 ) Roger Rees ( 1982 ) Harvey Fierstein ( 1983 ) Jeremy Irons ( 1984 ) Derek Jacobi ( 1985 ) Judd Hirsch ( 1986 ) James Earl Jones ( 1987 ) Ron Silver ( 1988 ) Philip Bosco ( 1989 ) Robert Morse ( 1990 ) Nigel Hawthorne ( 1991 ) Judd Hirsch ( 1992 ) Ron Leibman ( 1993 ) Stephen Spinella ( 1994 ) Ralph Fiennes ( 1995 ) George Grizzard ( 1996 ) Christopher Plummer ( 1997 ) Anthony LaPaglia ( 1998 ) Brian Dennehy ( 1999 ) Stephen Dillane ( 2000 ) Richard Easton ( 2001 ) Alan Bates ( 2002 ) Brian Dennehy ( 2003 ) Jefferson Mays ( 2004 ) Bill Irwin ( 2005 ) Richard Griffiths ( 2006 ) Frank Langella ( 2007 ) Mark Rylance ( 2008 ) Geoffrey Rush ( 2009 ) Denzel Washington ( 2010 ) Mark Rylance ( 2011 ) James Corden ( 2012 ) Tracy Letts ( 2013 ) Bryan Cranston ( 2014 ) Alex Sharp ( 2015 ) Frank Langella ( 2016 ) Kevin Kline ( 2017 ) Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album ( 1970s ) 1970 Art Linkletter , Diane Linkletter - We Love You Call Collect 1971 Martin Luther King Jr . - Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam 1972 Les Crane - Desiderata 1973 Bruce Botnick ( producer ) - Lenny performed by the original Broadway cast Richard Harris - Jonathan Livingston Seagull Peter Cook , Dudley Moore - Good Evening 1976 James Whitmore - Give ' em Hell , Harry ! 1977 Henry Fonda , Helen Hayes , James Earl Jones , Orson Welles - Great American Documents 1978 Julie Harris - The Belle of Amherst 1979 Orson Welles - Citizen Kane Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Complete list ( 1959 & 1960s ) ( 1970s ) ( 1980s ) ( 1990s ) ( 2000s ) ( 2010s ) People who have won Academy , Emmy , Grammy , and Tony Awards Competitive EGOTs Mel Brooks John Gielgud Whoopi Goldberg Marvin Hamlisch Helen Hayes Audrey Hepburn Robert Lopez Rita Moreno Mike Nichols Richard Rodgers Scott Rudin Jonathan Tunick Honorary recipients Harry Belafonte James Earl Jones Quincy Jones Alan Menken Liza Minnelli Barbra Streisand Book : EGOT winners VIAF : 90666196 LCCN : n84002480 ISNI : 0000 0001 2030 4456 GND : 134802497 SUDOC : 086261665 BNF : cb13987977j ( data ) MusicBrainz : cfb8476b - 625a - 4de1 - a508 - 84c91ba22bc3 BNE : XX1266114 IATH : w62231mr Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Earl_Jones&oldid=815932599 '' Categories : 1931 births Living people Academy Honorary Award recipients Male actors from Michigan Male actors from Mississippi American male film actors African - American male actors Activists for African - American civil rights American male video game actors American male voice actors American people of Cherokee descent American people of Choctaw descent American people of Irish descent American male soap opera actors American Theater Hall of Fame inductees Audio book narrators Kennedy Center honorees Obie Award recipients New Star of the Year ( Actor ) Golden Globe winners Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners Tony Award winners Drama Desk Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners Daytime Emmy Award winners Grammy Award winners People from Manistee County , Michigan People from Tate County , Mississippi Pershing Riflemen American male Shakespearean actors United States Army officers American military personnel of the Korean War United States National Medal of Arts recipients University of Michigan alumni Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 20th - century American male actors 21st - century American male actors American male stage actors American male television actors African - American military personnel Hidden categories : CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Webarchive template wayback links Use mdy dates from April 2014 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2015 Articles with IBDb links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2015 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - ID identifiers Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Aragonés Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Winaray Yorùbá Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2017 , at 04 : 11 . 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18 | document: Sleep Dirt - wikipedia Sleep Dirt Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the album by Frank Zappa . For crusts formed on the eyelids during sleep , see Rheum . Sleep Dirt Studio album by Frank Zappa Released January 19 , 1979 Recorded December 5 -- 26 , 1974 and 1976 at the Record Plant , LA , and Caribou Studios , Nederland , Colorado Genre Jazz fusion experimental rock instrumental rock progressive rock Length 39 : 13 Label DiscReet Producer Frank Zappa Frank Zappa chronology Studio Tan # 24 ( 1978 ) Studio Tan String Module Error : Match not found Sleep Dirt # 25 ( 1979 ) Sheik Yerbouti # 26 ( 1979 ) Sheik Yerbouti String Module Error : Match not found Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating Allmusic Robert Christgau B − Sleep Dirt is an album by Frank Zappa released on January 19 , 1979 , on his own DiscReet Records label . It reached # 175 on the Billboard 200 album chart in the United States . The album 's creation was spurred by Warner Bros . ' rejection of Zappa 's Läther album . After demanding more albums than Zappa was contractually obliged to provide and reediting the live album Zappa in New York , a lawsuit ensued , during which Studio Tan , Sleep Dirt and Orchestral Favorites were issued without Zappa 's permission . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Content 3 Track listing 4 Personnel 5 Charts 6 References Background ( edit ) In early 1976 , Zappa 's relationship with manager and business partner Herb Cohen ended in litigation . Zappa and Cohen 's company DiscReet Records was distributed by Warner Bros. Records . When Zappa asked for a reassignment of his contract from DiscReet to Warner in order to advance the possibility of doing special projects without Cohen 's involvement , Warner briefly agreed . This led to the 1976 release of Zoot Allures on Warner . Early in 1977 , Zappa delivered the master tapes for a quadruple - LP set , entitled Läther . However , Warner changed its position following legal action from Cohen , and refused to release the album , claiming that Zappa was contractually bound to deliver four more albums to Warner for the DiscReet label . During 1977 , Zappa created the individual albums Zappa In New York , Studio Tan , Sleep Dirt and Orchestral Favorites by re-editing recordings from same batch of tapes that made up the 4 - LP configuration . After Warner Bros. released Zappa In New York , they told him that he still owed them four more albums . He then attempted to get a distribution deal with Phonogram Inc. to release Läther on the new Zappa Records label . This led Warner to threaten legal action , preventing the release of Läther and forcing Zappa to shelve the project . In 1978 and 1979 , Warner finally decided to release the three remaining individual albums they still held , Studio Tan , Sleep Dirt and Orchestral Favorites . As Zappa had delivered the tapes only , these three individual albums were released with no musical credits . Warner also commissioned sleeve art by Gary Panter , which was not approved by Zappa . When this material was first released on CD in 1991 , Zappa chose to release the individual albums ( along with the Panter artwork ) . Much of the material on Sleep Dirt was made available to the public again in a different form when Läther was finally officially released to the public in 1996 , after Zappa 's death . Content ( edit ) Five of the album 's seven tracks were intended for the shelved album Läther . `` Flambay '' and `` The Ocean Is the Ultimate Solution '' originally appeared in significantly shortened versions , but are presented in their original edits on the released Sleep Dirt . Zappa 's intended title for the album was Hot Rats III . The change in title by Warner was also in violation of Zappa 's contract . When Zappa re-issued the recordings he did not change the title . The 1979 LP version of Sleep Dirt was entirely instrumental . However , with the CD release in 1991 , Zappa added new overdubs to the recordings . Zappa asked singer Thana Harris to add vocals to three songs . Zappa had originally envisioned `` Flambay '' , `` Spider of Destiny '' , and `` Time is Money '' as part of his abandoned 1972 musical , Hunchentoot , and thus , these songs were originally intended to be sung . Chad Wackerman also overdubbed drums on Flambay , Spider of Destiny and Regyptian Strut . Wackerman 's parts replaced the original drum tracks . The first Barking Pumpkin CDs retained the original version of `` Regyptian Strut '' , but this was changed for later releases . Both versions of the track can now be found on the Läther CD . Wackerman did not overdub drums on `` Time is Money '' even though he is credited for this in the CD notes . The 2012 Universal Music reissue reverts to the original vinyl version of the album . It 's worth noting that this was the first completely instrumental album released in Zappa 's career ( However , there is some incidental talking on `` Sleep Dirt '' ) . The creature shown on the cover is Hedorah from the 1971 Toho film Godzilla vs. Hedorah . Track listing ( edit ) All songs written , composed and arranged by Frank Zappa . Side one No . Title Length 1 . `` Filthy Habits '' 7 : 33 2 . `` Flambay '' 5 : 02 3 . `` Spider of Destiny '' 2 : 54 4 . `` Regyptian Strut '' 4 : 15 Side two No . Title Length 5 . `` Time Is Money '' 2 : 52 6 . `` Sleep Dirt '' 3 : 20 7 . `` The Ocean Is the Ultimate Solution '' 13 : 20 Personnel ( edit ) Frank Zappa -- guitar , percussion , keyboards , synthesizer Patrick O'Hearn -- bass guitar Terry Bozzio -- drums George Duke -- keyboards , vocals Bruce Fowler -- brass Stephen Marcussen -- mastering , equalization Gary Panter -- art director Dave Parlato -- bass guitar Bob Stone -- mastering , remastering , equalization Chester Thompson -- drums Ruth Underwood -- percussion , keyboards James `` Bird Legs '' Youman -- bass guitar , rhythm guitar Thana Harris -- vocals ( CD remix ) Chad Wackerman -- drum overdubs ( CD remix ) Charts ( edit ) Album - Billboard ( United States ) Year Chart Position 1979 Billboard 200 175 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Couture , F. ( 2011 ) . `` Sleep Dirt - Frank Zappa AllMusic '' . allmusic.com . Retrieved 21 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Christgau , R. ( 2011 ) . `` Robert Christgau : CG : Artist 4155 '' . robertchristgau.com . Retrieved 21 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Gail Zappa 's liner notes for Läther Jump up ^ FZ vs. Warner Brs . Story or Lather / Laether / Leather , Zappa in New York , Arf.ru Jump up ^ Aiken , Keith . `` Long Evolution of Godzilla 3D '' . Long Evolution of Godzilla 3D . SciFi Japan . Retrieved 19 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Official Discography , Sleep Dirt '' . Zappa.com . Retrieved 1 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Charts and Awards for Sleep Dirt '' . Allmusic . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 22 . ( hide ) Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention album discography 1960s Freak Out ! Absolutely Free Lumpy Gravy We 're Only in It for the Money Cruising with Ruben & the Jets Uncle Meat Hot Rats 1970s Burnt Weeny Sandwich Weasels Ripped My Flesh Chunga 's Revenge Fillmore East -- June 1971 200 Motels Just Another Band from L.A. Waka / Jawaka The Grand Wazoo Over-Nite Sensation Apostrophe ( ' ) Roxy & Elsewhere One Size Fits All Bongo Fury Zoot Allures Zappa in New York Studio Tan Sleep Dirt Sheik Yerbouti Orchestral Favorites Joe 's Garage Act I Joe 's Garage Acts II & III 1980s Tinsel Town Rebellion Shut Up ' n Play Yer Guitar Shut Up ' n Play Yer Guitar Some More Return of the Son of Shut Up ' n Play Yer Guitar You Are What You Is Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch The Man from Utopia Baby Snakes London Symphony Orchestra , Vol . I Boulez Conducts Zappa : The Perfect Stranger Them or Us Thing - Fish Francesco Zappa The Old Masters , Box I Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention Does Humor Belong in Music ? The Old Masters , Box II Jazz from Hell London Symphony Orchestra , Vol. II The Old Masters , Box III Guitar You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol. 1 You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol. 2 Broadway the Hard Way You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol. 3 1990s The Best Band You Never Heard in Your Life Make a Jazz Noise Here You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol. 4 You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol. 5 You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol. 6 Playground Psychotics Ahead of Their Time The Yellow Shark Posthumous Civilization Phaze III The Lost Episodes Läther Frank Zappa Plays the Music of Frank Zappa : A Memorial Tribute Have I Offended Someone ? Mystery Disc Everything Is Healing Nicely 2000s FZ : OZ Halloween Joe 's Corsage Joe 's Domage QuAUDIOPHILIAc Joe 's XMASage Imaginary Diseases The MOFO Project / Object Trance - Fusion Buffalo The Dub Room Special ! Wazoo One Shot Deal Joe 's Menage Lumpy Money Project / Object Philly ' 76 2010s Greasy Love Songs Project / Object Congress Shall Make No Law ... Hammersmith Odeon Feeding the Monkies at Ma Maison Carnegie Hall Understanding America Road Tapes , Venue # 1 Finer Moments AAAFNRAA Baby Snakes The Compleat Soundtrack Road Tapes , Venue # 2 A Token Of His Extreme Soundtrack Joe 's Camouflage Roxy by Proxy Dance Me This 200 Motels : The Suites Roxy The Soundtrack Road Tapes , Venue # 3 The Crux Of The Biscuit Project / Object Frank Zappa For President Meat Light Chicago ' 78 Little Dots Other comps . Mothermania The * * * * of the Mothers The Guitar World According to Frank Zappa Beat the Boots Beat the Boots II Strictly Commercial Strictly Genteel Cucamonga Cheap Thrills Son of Cheep Thrills The Frank Zappa AAAFNRAA Birthday Bundle 2006 The Frank Zappa AAAFNRAAA Birthday Bundle 2008 Beat the Boots III The Frank Zappa AAAFNRAAAA Birthday Bundle 2010 Penguin In Bondage / The Little Known History Of The Mothers Of Invention The Frank Zappa AAAFNRAAAAAM Birthday Bundle 2011 The Frank Zappa AAAFNRAA Birthday Bundle 21.12. 2014 ZAPPAtite Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sleep_Dirt&oldid=798105421 '' Categories : 1979 albums Albums produced by Frank Zappa DiscReet Records albums Frank Zappa albums Hidden categories : Music infoboxes with Module : String errors Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Hrvatski Italiano Magyar 日本 語 Norsk nynorsk Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 31 August 2017 , at 01 : 05 . 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19 | document: FIFA World Cup hosts - wikipedia FIFA World Cup hosts Logo of FIFA Map of FIFA World Cup final hosts , 1930 -- 2018 . Dark green : twice ; middle green : once ; light green : planned until 2026 Seventeen countries have been FIFA World Cup hosts in the competition 's twenty tournaments since the inaugural World Cup in 1930 . The organization at first awarded hosting to countries at meetings of FIFA 's congress . The choice of location was controversial in the earliest tournaments , given the three - week boat journey between South America and Europe , the two centers of strength in football at the time . The decision to hold the first cup in Uruguay , for example , led to only four European nations competing . The next two World Cups were both held in Europe . The decision to hold the second of these , the 1938 FIFA World Cup , in France was controversial , as the South American countries had been led to understand that the World Cup would rotate between the two continents . Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the tournament . The first tournament following World War II , held in Brazil in 1950 , had three teams withdraw for either financial problems or disagreements with the organization . To avoid any future boycotts or controversy , FIFA began a pattern of alternation between the Americas and Europe , which continued until the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Asia . The system evolved so that the host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA 's Congress . This is done under an exhaustive ballot system . The decision is currently made roughly seven years in advance of the tournament , though the hosts for the 2022 tournament were chosen at the same time as those for the 2018 tournament . Only Mexico , Italy , France , Germany ( West Germany until shortly after the 1990 World Cup ) and Brazil have hosted the event on two occasions . Mexico City 's Estadio Azteca and Rio de Janeiro 's Maracanã are the only venues ever to have hosted two FIFA World Cup finals . Only the 2002 FIFA World Cup had more than one host , being split between Japan and South Korea . Upon the selection of Canada -- Mexico -- United States bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup , the tournament will be the first to be hosted by more than two countries . Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca , should it be selected , will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments . Contents 1 List of hosts 2 Results of hosts 3 1930 FIFA World Cup 4 1934 FIFA World Cup 5 1938 FIFA World Cup 6 Cancelled FIFA World Cups 1942 and 1946 7 1950 and 1954 FIFA World Cups 7.1 1950 bid 7.2 1954 bid 8 1958 FIFA World Cup 9 1962 FIFA World Cup 10 1966 FIFA World Cup 11 1970 FIFA World Cup 12 1974 , 1978 , 1982 FIFA World Cups 12.1 1974 results 12.2 1978 results 12.3 1982 results 13 1986 FIFA World Cup 14 1990 FIFA World Cup 15 1994 FIFA World Cup 16 1998 FIFA World Cup 17 2002 FIFA World Cup 18 2006 FIFA World Cup 18.1 Controversy 19 2010 FIFA World Cup 19.1 Controversy 20 2014 FIFA World Cup 21 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups 22 2026 FIFA World Cup 23 2030 FIFA World Cup 24 2034 FIFA World Cup 25 Total bids by country 26 Host country performances 27 Notes 28 References 29 External links List of hosts ( edit ) Year Host Continent Winner 1930 Uruguay South America Uruguay 1934 Italy Europe Italy 1938 France Europe Italy 1942 Cancelled because of World War II * 1946 Cancelled because of World War II 1950 Brazil South America Uruguay 1954 Switzerland Europe Germany 1958 Sweden Europe Brazil 1962 Chile South America Brazil 1966 England Europe England 1970 Mexico North America Brazil Germany Europe Germany 1978 Argentina South America Argentina 1982 Spain Europe Italy 1986 Mexico North America Argentina 1990 Italy Europe Germany 1994 United States North America Brazil 1998 France Europe France 2002 Japan South Korea Asia Brazil 2006 Germany Europe Italy South Africa Africa Spain 2014 Brazil South America Germany 2018 Russia Europe France 2022 Qatar Asia 2026 Canada Mexico United States North America 2030 TBD 2034 TBD 1 . In 1942 , Germany was expected to be the host country , but because of the World War II , the World Cup was cancelled . Results of hosts ( edit ) Except 1934 , host nations are granted an automatic spot in the World Cup group stages . The first host ever to fail to advance past the first round was South Africa in 2010 . denotes the best result in the team 's history , - the best result at the time of the competition ( improved later ) . No . Year Host nation Finish 1930 Uruguay Champions 1934 Italy Champions 1938 France Quarter - final ‡ -- 1942 Germany ( expected ) Tournament is canceled due to World War II -- 1946 Tournament canceled , during the World War II 1950 Brazil Runners - up 5 1954 Switzerland Quarter - final † 6 1958 Sweden Runners - up 7 1962 Chile Third place 8 1966 England Champions 9 1970 Mexico Quarter - final † 10 West Germany Champions 11 1978 Argentina Champions 12 1982 Spain Round 2 ( Top 12 ) ( Format was different from other cups . ) 13 1986 Mexico Quarter - final † 14 1990 Italy Third place 15 1994 United States Round of 16 16 1998 France Champions 17 2002 South Korea Fourth place Japan Round of 16 † 18 2006 Germany Third place 19 South Africa Group stage 20 2014 Brazil Fourth place 21 2018 Russia Quarter - final 22 2022 Qatar TBD 23 2026 Canada TBD Mexico TBD United States TBD 1930 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1930 FIFA World Cup Bids : Hungary Italy Netherlands Spain Sweden Uruguay Before the FIFA Congress could vote on the first - ever World Cup host , a series of withdrawals led to the election of Uruguay . The Netherlands and Hungary withdrew , followed by Sweden withdrawing in favour of Italy . Then both Italy and Spain withdrew , in favour of the only remaining candidate , Uruguay . The FIFA Congress met in Barcelona , Spain on 18 May 1929 to ratify the decision , and Uruguay was chosen without a vote . Results : Uruguay Italy withdrew Spain withdrew Sweden withdrew Netherlands withdrew Hungary withdrew Notice that the celebration of the first World Cup coincided with the centennial anniversary of the first Constitution of Uruguay . For that reason , the main stadium built in Montevideo for the World Cup was named Estadio Centenario . 1934 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1934 FIFA World Cup Bids : Italy Sweden Sweden decided to withdraw before the vote , allowing the only remaining candidate Italy to take the hosting job for the 1934 World Cup . The decision was ratified by the FIFA Congress in Stockholm , Sweden and Zürich , Switzerland on 14 May 1932 . The Italian Football Federation accepted the hosting duties on 9 October 1932 . Results : Italy Sweden withdrew 1938 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1938 FIFA World Cup Bids : Argentina France Germany Without any nations withdrawing their bids , the FIFA Congress convened in Berlin , Germany on 13 August 1936 to decide the next host . Electing France took only one ballot , as France had more than half of the votes in the first round . Results : France , 19 votes Argentina , 3 votes Germany , 1 vote Cancelled FIFA World Cups 1942 and 1946 ( edit ) Bids for 1942 : Argentina Brazil Germany Cancelled FIFA election of the host for the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 . Bids for 1946 : none 1950 and 1954 FIFA World Cups ( edit ) Main articles : 1950 FIFA World Cup and 1954 FIFA World Cup 1950 bid ( edit ) Bid : Brazil Brazil , Argentina , and Germany had officially bid for the 1942 World Cup , but the Cup was cancelled after the outbreak of World War II . The 1950 World Cup was originally scheduled for 1949 , but the day after Brazil was selected by the FIFA Congress on 26 July 1946 in Luxembourg City , Luxembourg , the World Cup was rescheduled for 1950 . Result : Brazil 1954 bid ( edit ) Bid : Switzerland The 1954 World Cup hosting duty was decided on 26 July 1946 , the same day that Brazil was selected for the 1949 World Cup , in Luxembourg City . On 27 July , the FIFA Congress pushed back the 5th World Cup finals by three years , deciding it should take place in 1954 . Result : Switzerland 1958 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main articles : 1958 FIFA World Cup § Host selection , and 1958 FIFA World Cup Bid : Sweden Argentina , Chile , Mexico , and Sweden expressed interest in hosting the tournament . Swedish delegates lobbied other countries at the FIFA Congress held in Rio de Janeiro around the opening of the 1950 World Cup finals . Sweden was awarded the 1958 tournament unopposed in on 23 June 1950 . Result : Sweden 1962 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1962 FIFA World Cup Bids : Argentina Chile West Germany West Germany withdrew before the vote , which took place in Lisbon , Portugal on 10 June 1956 , leaving two remaining bids . In one round of voting , Chile won over Argentina . Results : Chile , 31 votes Argentina , 12 votes West Germany withdrew 1966 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1966 FIFA World Cup Bids : England West Germany Spain Spain withdrew from the bidding prior to voting by the FIFA Congress , held in Rome , Italy on 22 August 1960 . Again , there was only one round of voting , with England defeating West Germany . Results : England , 34 votes West Germany , 27 votes Spain withdrew 1970 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1970 FIFA World Cup Bids : Argentina Australia Colombia Japan Mexico Peru The FIFA Congress convened in Tokyo , Japan on 8 October 1964 . One round of voting saw Mexico win the hosting duties over Argentina . Results : Mexico , 56 votes Argentina , 32 votes Australia withdrew Colombia withdrew Japan withdrew Peru withdrew 1974 , 1978 , 1982 FIFA World Cups ( edit ) Main articles : 1974 FIFA World Cup , 1978 FIFA World Cup , and 1982 FIFA World Cup Three hosts for the 1974 , 1978 , and 1982 World Cups were chosen in London , England on 6 July 1966 by the FIFA Congress . Spain and West Germany , both facing each other in the running for hosting duties for the 1974 and 1982 World Cups , agreed to give one another a hosting job . Germany withdrew from the 1982 bidding process while Spain withdrew from the 1974 bidding process , essentially guaranteeing each a hosting spot . Mexico , who had won the 1970 hosting bid over Argentina just two years prior , agreed to withdraw and let Argentina take the 1978 hosting position . 1974 results ( edit ) West Germany Spain withdrew in exchange for 1982 hosting duties Italy withdrew Netherlands withdrew 1978 results ( edit ) Argentina Colombia withdrew Mexico withdrew , as they had won hosting for 1970 1982 results ( edit ) Spain West Germany withdrew in exchange for 1974 hosting duties Italy withdrew 1986 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1986 FIFA World Cup Bid : Colombia Host voting , handled by the then - FIFA Executive Committee ( or Exco ) , met in Stockholm on 9 June 1974 and ratified the unopposed Colombian bid . Result : Colombia However , Colombia withdrew after being selected to host the World Cup for financial problems on 5 November 1982 , less than four years before the event was to start . A call for bids was sent out again , and FIFA received intent from three nations : Canada Mexico United States In Zürich on 20 May 1983 , Mexico won the bidding unanimously as voted by the Executive Committee , for the first time in FIFA World Cup bidding history ( except those nations who bid unopposed ) . Results : Mexico unanimous vote United States 0 votes Canada 0 votes 1990 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1990 FIFA World Cup Bids : Austria England France Greece Iran Italy Soviet Union West Germany Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Except Italy and the Soviet Union , all nations withdrew before the vote , which was to be conducted by Exco in Zürich on 19 May 1984 . Once again , only one round of voting was required , as Italy won more votes than the Soviet Union . Results : Italy , 11 votes Soviet Union , 5 votes Austria withdrew England withdrew France withdrew Greece withdrew Iran withdrew West Germany withdrew Yugoslavia withdrew 1994 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1994 FIFA World Cup Bids : Brazil Morocco United States Chile Despite having three nations bidding , voting only took one round . The vote was held in Zürich ( for the third straight time ) on 4 July 1988 . The United States gained a majority of votes of the Exco members . Results : United States , 10 votes Morocco , 7 votes Brazil , 2 votes Chile withdrew 1998 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 1998 FIFA World Cup Bids : England France Germany Morocco Switzerland This vote was held in Zürich for the fourth straight time on 1 July 1992 . Only one round of voting was required to have France assume the hosting job over Morocco . Result : France , 12 votes Morocco , 7 votes Switzerland withdrew England withdrew Germany withdrew 2002 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 2002 FIFA World Cup Bids : South Korea / Japan Mexico On 31 May 1996 , the hosting selection meeting was held in Zürich for the fifth straight time . A joint bid was formed between Japan and South Korea , and the bid was `` voted by acclamation '' , an oral vote without ballots . The first joint bid of the World Cup was approved , edging out Mexico . Results : South Korea / Japan ( joint bid , voted by acclamation ) Mexico The 2002 FIFA World Cup was co-hosted in Asia for the first time by South Korea and Japan ( the final was held in Japan ) . Initially , the two Asian countries were competitors in the bidding process . But just before the vote , they agreed with FIFA to co-host the event . However , the rivalry and distance between them led to organizational and logistical problems . FIFA has said that co-hosting is not likely to happen again , and in 2004 officially stated that its statutes did not allow co-hosting bids . 2006 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 2006 FIFA World Cup Further information : List of 2006 FIFA World Cup controversies Bids : Brazil England Germany Morocco South Africa On 6 July 2000 , the host selection meeting was held for the sixth straight time in Zürich . Brazil withdrew its bid three days before the vote , and the field was narrowed to four . This was the first selection in which more than one vote round was required . Three votes were eventually needed . Germany was at least tied for first in each of the three votes , and ended up defeating South Africa by only one vote after an abstention ( see below ) . Results Nation Vote Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Germany 10 11 12 South Africa 6 11 11 England 5 Eliminated Morocco Eliminated Eliminated Total votes 23 24 23 Controversy ( edit ) The controversy over the decision to award the 2006 FIFA World Cup to Germany led to a further change in practice . The final tally was 12 votes to 11 in favour of Germany over the contenders South Africa , who had been favorites to win . New Zealand FIFA member Charlie Dempsey , who was instructed to vote for South Africa by the Oceania Football Confederation , abstained from voting at the last minute . If he had voted for the South African bid , the tally would have been 12 -- 12 , giving the decision to FIFA President Sepp Blatter , who , it was widely believed , would then have voted for South Africa . Dempsey was among eight members of the Executive Committee to receive a fax by editors of the German satirical magazine Titanic on Wednesday , the night before the vote , promising a cuckoo clock and Black Forest ham in exchange for voting for Germany . He argued that the pressure from all sides including `` an attempt to bribe '' him had become too much for him . On 4 August 2000 , consequently , FIFA decided to rotate the hosting of the final tournaments between its constituent confederations . This was until October 2007 , during the selection of the host for the 2014 FIFA World Cup , when they announced that they will no longer continue with their continental rotation policy ( see below ) . 2010 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 2010 FIFA World Cup Further information : List of 2010 FIFA World Cup controversies Bids : Egypt Morocco Nigeria South Africa Tunisia / Libya The first World Cup bidding process under continental rotation ( the process of rotating hosting of the World Cup to each confederation in turn ) was the 2010 FIFA World Cup , the first World Cup to be held in Africa . On 7 July 2001 , during the FIFA Congress in Buenos Aires , a decision was ratified , which was that the rotation will begin in Africa . On 23 September 2002 , FIFA 's Executive Committee confirmed that only African member associations , would be invited to submit bids to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup . In January 2003 , Nigeria entered the bidding process , but withdrew their bid in September . In March 2003 , Sepp Blatter initially said Nigeria 's plan to co host the 2010 FIFA World Cup with four African countries would not work . Nigeria had originally hoped to bid jointly with West African neighbours Benin , Ghana , and Togo . After it was confirmed by FIFA that joint bidding would not be allowed in the future , Libya and Tunisia withdrew both of their bids on 8 May 2004 . On 15 May 2004 in Zürich ( the seventh consecutive time that a host selection has been made there ) , South Africa , after a narrow loss in the 2006 bidding , defeated perennial candidate Morocco to host , 14 votes to 10 . Egypt received no votes . Results Nation Vote Round 1 South Africa 14 Morocco 10 Egypt 0 Tunisia / Libya Withdrew Nigeria Withdrew Total votes 24 Controversy ( edit ) On 28 May 2015 , media covering the 2015 FIFA corruption case reported that high - ranking officials from the South African bid committee had secured the right to host the World Cup by paying US $10 million in bribes to then - FIFA Vice President Jack Warner and to other FIFA Executive Committee members . On 4 June 2015 , FIFA executive Chuck Blazer , having co-operated with the FBI and the Swiss authorities , confirmed that he and the other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African 1998 and 2010 World Cups . Blazer stated , `` I and others on the FIFA executive committee agreed to accept bribes in conjunction with the selection of South Africa as the host nation for the 2010 World Cup . '' On 6 June 2015 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Morocco had received the most votes , but South Africa was awarded the tournament instead . 2014 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main articles : 2014 FIFA World Cup bids and 2014 FIFA World Cup Further information : List of 2014 FIFA World Cup controversies Bids : Argentina Brazil Colombia FIFA continued its continental rotation procedure by earmarking the 2014 World Cup for South America . FIFA initially indicated that it might back out of the rotation concept , but later decided to continue it through the 2014 host decision , after which it was dropped . Colombia had expressed interest in hosting the 2014 World Cup , but withdrew undertaking the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup . Brazil also expressed interest in hosting the World Cup . CONMEBOL , the South American Football Federation , indicated their preference for Brazil as a host . Brazil was the only nation to submit a formal bid when the official bidding procedure for CONMEBOL member associations was opened in December 2006 , as by that time , Colombia , Chile and Argentina had already withdrawn , and Venezuela was not allowed to bid . Brazil made the first unopposed bid since the initial selection of the 1986 FIFA World Cup ( when Colombia was selected as host , but later withdrew for financial problems ) . The FIFA Executive Committee confirmed it as the host country on 30 October 2007 by a unanimous decision . Result : 2014 FIFA bidding ( majority 12 votes ) Bidders Votes Round 1 Round 2 Brazil N / A N / A Argentina Withdrew Colombia Withdrew 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups ( edit ) Main articles : 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup bids , 2018 FIFA World Cup , and 2022 FIFA World Cup Further information : List of 2018 FIFA World Cup controversies and 2022 FIFA World Cup controversies 2018 Bids : Belgium / Netherlands England Spain / Portugal Russia 2022 Bids : Australia Japan South Korea Qatar United States Wikinews has related news : FIFA receives eleven bids for 2018 and 2022 World Cups FIFA announced on 29 October 2007 that it will no longer continue with its continental rotation policy , implemented after the 2006 World Cup host selection . The newest host selection policy is that any country may bid for a World Cup , provided that their continental confederation has not hosted either of the past two World Cups . For the 2018 World Cup bidding process , this meant that bids from Africa and South America were not allowed . For the 2022 World Cup bidding process , this meant that bids from South America and Europe were not allowed . Also , FIFA formally allowed joint bids once more ( after they were banned in 2002 ) , because there was only one organizing committee per joint bid , unlike Korea -- Japan , which had two different organizing committees . Countries that announced their interest included Australia , England , Indonesia , Japan , Qatar , Russia , South Korea , United States , the joint bid of Spain and Portugal and the joint bid of Belgium and Netherlands . The hosts for both World Cups were announced by the FIFA Executive Committee on 2 December 2010 . Russia was selected to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup , making it the first time that the World Cup will be hosted in Eastern Europe and making it the biggest country geographically to host the World Cup . Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup , making it the first time a World Cup will be held in the Arab World and the second time in Asia since the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan . Also , the decision made it the smallest country geographically to host the World Cup . 2018 Results Nation Vote Round 1 Round 2 Russia 9 13 Spain / Portugal 7 7 Netherlands / Belgium England Eliminated Total votes 22 22 2022 results Nation Vote Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Qatar 11 10 11 14 United States 5 6 8 South Korea 5 5 Eliminated Japan Eliminated Eliminated Australia Eliminated Eliminated Eliminated Total votes 22 22 22 22 2026 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main articles : 2026 FIFA World Cup bids and 2026 FIFA World Cup Bids : Canada / Mexico / USA Morocco Under FIFA rules as of 2016 , the 2026 Cup could not be in either Europe ( UEFA ) or Asia ( AFC ) , leaving an African ( CAF ) bid , a North American ( CONCACAF ) bid , a South American ( CONMEBOL ) bid or an Oceanian ( OFC ) bid as other possible options . In March 2017 , FIFA 's president Gianni Infantino confirmed that `` Europe ( UEFA ) and Asia ( AFC ) had been excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively . '' The bidding process was originally scheduled to start in 2015 , with the appointment of hosts scheduled for the FIFA Congress on 10 May 2017 in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . On 10 June 2015 , FIFA announced that the bid process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup was postponed . However , following the FIFA Council meeting on 10 May 2016 , a new bid schedule was announced for May 2020 as the last in a four - phase process . On 14 October 2016 , FIFA said it would accept a tournament - sharing bid by CONCACAF members Canada , Mexico and the United States . On 10 April 2017 , Canada , the United States , and Mexico announced their intention to submit a joint bid to co-host , with three - quarters of the games to be played in the U.S. , including the final . On 11 August 2017 , Morocco officially announced a bid to host . Therefore , the official 2026 FIFA World Cup bids were from two football confederations . The first one was from CONCACAF , which was triple bid by Canada , United States and Mexico , and the second one was from CAF with a bid by Morocco . The host was announced on 13 June 2018 at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow , Russia . The United Bid from Canada , Mexico and the United States was selected over the Morocco bid by 134 votes to 65 with 1 selecting neither and 3 abstentions . This will be the first World Cup to be hosted by more than two countries . Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca , should selected , will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments . On the other hand , Canada becomes the fifth country to host both the men 's and women 's World Cups , after Sweden ( Men 's : 1958 / Women 's : 1995 ) , United States ( Men 's : 1994 / Women 's : 1999 , 2003 ) , Germany ( Men 's : 1974 , 2006 / Women 's : 2011 ) , and France ( Men 's : 1934 , 1998 / Women 's : 2019 ) . The United States becomes the first country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup twice each . 2026 Results Nation Vote Round 1 Canada / Mexico / United States 134 Morocco 65 None of the Bids Total votes 200 2030 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main article : 2030 FIFA World Cup The bidding process for the world cup is yet to start . Two early bids for the 2030 FIFA World Cup - the Centennial World Cup - have however been proposed . The first proposed bid has been a collective bid by the members of the Argentine Football Association and Uruguayan Football Association into a proposed joint bid from Uruguay and Argentina . The second bid has been a proposed bid by The Football Association of England . Under FIFA rules as of 2017 , the 2030 World Cup can not be held in Asia ( AFC ) because the Asian Football Confederation is excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022 . Also in June 2017 , UEFA 's president Aleksander Čeferin stated that Europe ( UEFA ) will definitely fight for its right to host the 2030 World Cup . The Uruguay -- Argentina proposed bid would not coincide with the centennial anniversary of the first FIFA World Cup final , and the bicentennial of the first Constitution of Uruguay , but if selected the tournament dates would coincide . The Uruguay - Argentina bid was officially confirmed on 29 July 2017 . A joint bid was announced by the Argentine Football Association and the Uruguayan Football Association on 29 July 2017 . Before Uruguay and Argentina played out a goalless draw in Montevideo , FC Barcelona players Luis Suárez and Lionel Messi promoted the bid with commemorative shirts . On 31 August 2017 , it was suggested Paraguay would join as a third host . CONMEBOL , the South American confederation ( which can not bid under current FIFA rules ) , confirmed the joint three - way bid in September 2017 . English FA vice chairman David Gill has proposed that his country could bid for 2030 , provided the bidding process is made more transparent . `` England is one of few countries that could stage even a 48 - nation event in its entirety , while Football Association chief executive Martin Glenn made it clear earlier this year bidding for 2030 was an option . '' In June 2017 , UEFA stated that `` it would support a pan-British bid for 2030 or even a single bid from England . '' Moreover , a possible English bid for 2030 was also backed by the German Football Association . On 15 July 2018 , Deputy Leader of the UK Labour Party , Tom Watson , said in an interview that he and his party backed a 2030 World Cup bid for the UK saying that `` I hope it 's one of the first things a Labour government does , which is work with our FA to try and put a World Cup bid together . '' On 16 July 2018 , British Prime Minister Theresa May expressed her support of the bid and her openness about discussions with football authorities . Although there had been no prior discussion with the Football Association , the Scottish FA also expressed its interest about joining a Home Nations bid . Former Scottish First Minister Henry McLeish has called the Scottish government and the Scottish Football Association to bid for the 2030 FIFA World Cup with the other British nations . On 17 June 2018 , the Royal Moroccan Football Federation announced its co-bidding for the 2030 World Cup . There are two possible joint bids one with the Tunisia and the Algeria or the other with two UEFA members Spain and Portugal . On 17 June 2018 , the English Football Association announced that they are in talks with home nations over a UK - wide bid to host 2030 World Cup . On 1 August 2018 , it was reported that the FA was preparing a bid for England to host the World Cup in 2030 . A decision is expected to be made in 2019 , after the FA will conduct a feasibility work on a potential bid . On 10 July 2018 , Egypt 's Sports Minister expressed interest in bidding to host . The original bid logo for the Uruguay - Argentina World Cup Bid . Confirmed plan to bid : CONMEBOL : Uruguay / Argentina / Paraguay : Uruguay -- Argentina -- Paraguay 2030 FIFA World Cup bid CAF / UEFA : Morocco ( pending on Algeria and Tunisia or pending on Spain and Portugal ) : Morocco 2030 FIFA World Cup bid Potential bid : UEFA : United Kingdom ( England / Scotland / Northern Ireland / Wales ) : United Kingdom 2030 FIFA World Cup bid Expressed interest in bidding : CAF : Egypt 2034 FIFA World Cup ( edit ) Main articles : 2034 FIFA World Cup bids and 2034 FIFA World Cup The first bid for the 2034 FIFA World Cup has been proposed as a collective bid by the members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations . The idea of a combined ASEAN bid had been mooted as early as January 2011 , when the Football Association of Singapore 's then - President , Zainudin Nordin , said in a statement that the proposal had been made at an ASEAN Foreign Ministers meeting . In 2013 , Nordin and Special Olympics Malaysia President , Datuk Mohamed Feisol Hassan , recalled the idea for ASEAN to jointly host a World Cup . Under FIFA rules as of 2017 , the 2030 World Cup can not be held in Asia ( AFC ) as Asian Football Confederation members are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022 . Therefore , the earliest bid by an AFC member could be made for 2034 . Later , Malaysia has withdrawn from involvement but Singapore and other ASEAN countries continued the campaign to submit a joint bid for the World Cup in 2034 . In February 2017 , ASEAN held talks on launching a joint bid during a visit by FIFA chief Gianni Infantino to Yangon , Myanmar . In July 2017 , Joko Driyono , the Vice-President of Indonesia 's Football Association , during the meeting in Vietnam said that Indonesia and Thailand were set to lead a consortium of South - East Asian nations in the bid . Driyono added that , for geographic and infrastructure considerations and the expanded format ( 48 teams ) , at least two or three ASEAN countries combined would be in a position necessary to host matches . In September 2017 , the Football Association of Thailand 's Deputy CEO , Benjamin Tan , at the ASEAN Football Federation ( AFF ) Council meeting , confirmed that his Association has `` put in their interest to bid and co-host '' the 2034 World Cup with Indonesia . On the same occasion , the General Secretary of the AFF , Dato Sri Azzuddin Ahmad , confirmed that Indonesia and Thailand will submit a joint bid . Indonesia is the only Southeast Asian country to have participated in the World Cup ; its national team was the first from Asia to do so and it became one of the fewest World Cup teams to qualify without playing a match because of opponents ' withdrawals . The 1938 World Cup is the Indonesians ' only appearance to date when they were known as the Dutch East Indies . A loss to Hungary made Indonesia the only national team in World Cup history to have played a single match . Far from ever hosting the World Cup , no other Southeast Asian country has ever played at the tournament . As of June 2018 , Indonesia is ranked by FIFA at 164th place . China has announced its interest in bidding several times and reports stated `` that China is likely to host the World Cup for the first time in 2034 . '' In July 2018 Egypt 's sports minister Ashraf Sobhy expressed interest in bidding to host . Expressed interest in bidding : AFC : Indonesia , Thailand and Vietnam China CAF : Egypt Zimbabwe Total bids by country ( edit ) World Cup - winning bids are bolded . Planned but not - yet - official bids for 2030 and beyond are not included . Country Bids Years Germany 6 1938 , 1962 , 1966 , 1974 , 1982 , 2006 Morocco 1994 , 1998 , 2006 , 2010 , 2026 , 2030 Spain 1930 , 1966 , 1974 , 1982 , 2018 , , 2030 Argentina 5 1938 , 1962 , 1970 , 1978 , 2030 Mexico 1970 , 1978 , 1986 , 2002 , 2026 Brazil 1950 , 1994 , 2006 , 2014 England 1966 , 1990 , 2006 , 2018 United States 1986 , 1994 , 2022 , 2026 Italy 1930 , 1934 , 1990 Japan 1970 , 2002 , 2022 Australia 1970 , 2022 Canada 1986 , 2026 Chile 1962 , 2014 Colombia 1986 , 2014 Egypt 2010 , 2030 France 1938 , 1998 Netherlands 1930 , 2018 Portugal 2018 , , 2030 , Russia 1990 , 2018 South Africa 2006 , 2010 South Korea 2002 , 2022 Switzerland 1954 , 1998 Sweden 1934 , 1958 Tunisia 2010 , 2030 Uruguay 1930 , 2030 Algeria 2030 Belgium 2018 Greece 1990 Hungary 1930 Iran 1990 Libya Paraguay 2030 Qatar 2022 ^ Jump up to : Bid by West Germany , which was joined by East Germany in 1990 to form the reunified nation of Germany . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Morocco , Tunisia and Algeria . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Morocco , Spain and Portugal . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Portugal and Spain . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Argentina , Paraguay and Uruguay . ^ Jump up to : Colombia was originally chosen to host the 1986 World Cup , but withdrew from hosting for economic concerns . After a second bidding , Mexico was selected as the replacement host . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Canada , Mexico and the United States . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Japan and South Korea . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Belgium and the Netherlands . Jump up ^ Bid by the Soviet Union , which dissolved into multiple countries in 1991 and whose records are inherited by Russia . ^ Jump up to : Joint bid by Libya and Tunisia . Host country performances ( edit ) Further information : National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup It is widely considered that home advantage is common in the World Cup , with the host team usually performing above average . Of the eight countries that have won the tournament , only Brazil and Spain have not been champions while hosting , and England has their only title as hosts . Further , Sweden got to its only final as hosts of the 1958 tournament , and only the Swedes and Brazilians finished as runner - up in home soil . The host country reached the semi-finals thirteen times in twenty tournaments , and both Chile and South Korea had their only finishes on the top four at home . Only South Africa in 2010 managed to not go past the group stage . # Performance Team Year Pld Win % GF GA GD GD / M GF / M Champion Uruguay 1930 0 0 100 % 15 12 3.8 Champion France 1998 7 6 0 93 % 15 13 1.9 2.1 Champion England 1966 6 5 0 92 % 11 8 1.3 1.8 Champion Italy 1934 5 0 90 % 12 9 1.8 2.4 5 Champion West Germany 7 6 0 86 % 13 9 1.3 1.9 6 Champion Argentina 1978 7 5 79 % 15 9 1.3 2.1 7 Runner - up Brazil 1950 6 75 % 22 6 16 2.7 3.7 8 Runner - up Sweden 1958 6 75 % 12 7 5 0.8 9 Third place Italy 1990 7 6 0 93 % 10 8 1.1 1.4 10 Third place Germany 2006 7 5 79 % 14 6 8 1.1 11 Third place Chile 1962 6 0 67 % 10 8 0.33 1.3 12 Fourth place South Korea 2002 7 57 % 8 6 0.3 1.1 13 Fourth place Brazil 2014 7 57 % 11 14 − 3 − 0.4 1.57 14 Quarter - final Russia 2018 5 60 % 11 7 0.8 15 Quarter - final Mexico 1986 5 0 80 % 6 0.8 16 Quarter - final Mexico 1970 63 % 6 0.5 1.5 17 Quarter - final Switzerland 1954 0 50 % 11 11 0 0 2.8 18 Quarter - final France 1938 0 50 % 0 0 19 Second round Spain 1982 5 40 % 5 − 1 − 0.2 0.8 20 Round of 16 Japan 2002 63 % 5 0.5 1.25 21 Round of 16 United States 1994 38 % − 1 − 0.3 0.8 22 Group stage South Africa 50 % 5 − 2 − 0.7 Win % → Every draw counted as a half win . Wins on penalty shootouts are counted as draws . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Qatar will debut in the competition in 2022 , so its result will also be its best result in history . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` History of 1930 World Cup '' . BBC Sport. April 11 , 2002 . Retrieved 13 April 2006 . Jump up ^ France 1938 , FIFA World Cup site . Retrieved on April 13 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Brazil 1950 , FIFA World Cup site . Retrieved on April 13 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA World Cup TM host announcement decision '' ( PDF ) . FIFA.com . Retrieved 1 March 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Norlin , pp. 24 -- 25 Jump up ^ `` FIFA World Cup : host announcement decision '' ( PDF ) . FIFA. 12 March 2009 . Retrieved 2 October 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Host nation of 2010 FIFA World Cup -- South Africa Archived 12 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine . World Cup 2018 Russia Archived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine. , FIFA Media Release , May 15 , 2004 . Retrieved on January 8 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA president Blatter a big loser with Germany getting 2006 World Cup '' by Robert Wagman , SoccerTimes , July 7 , 2000 . Retrieved on January 8 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` German magazine takes credit for bribery hoax '' , IOL , July 7 , 2000 . Retrieved on January 8 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Fifa to rotate World Cup '' . 4 August 2000 . Retrieved 29 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Australia can host World Cup , by Matthew Hall , published 18 September 2005 Jump up ^ `` Six African associations announce interest in hosting 2010 FIFA World Cup TM '' . FIFA. 6 January 2003 . Jump up ^ `` 2010 FIFA World Cup TM : bidding process opens '' . FIFA. 23 October 2002 . Jump up ^ `` Nigeria bid for 2010 '' . bbc.co.uk. 6 January 2003 . Jump up ^ `` Nigeria ends World Cup bid '' . bbc.co.uk. 29 September 2003 . Jump up ^ `` Fifa slams Nigeria 's 2010 plan '' . bbc.co.uk. 18 March 2003 . Jump up ^ `` South Africa is shaken by FIFA corruption probe '' , Los Angeles Times , 28 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Vicki Hodges , Giles Mole , JJ Bull , Luke Brown and Rob Crilly , `` Fifa whistleblower Chuck Blazer - bribes accepted for 1998 and 2010 World Cups : as it happened '' , The Telegraph , 3 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 Jump up ^ Owen Gibson , Paul Lewis , `` Fifa informant Chuck Blazer : I took bribes over 1998 and 2010 World Cups '' , The Guardian , 3 June 2015 . Retrieved 4 June 2015 Jump up ^ `` Fifa in crisis : ' Morocco won 2010 World Cup vote - not South Africa ' '' . The Telegraph . London . 6 June 2015 . Retrieved 7 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Games win inspires bid to host 2018 World Cup '' by John Goodbody , The Times , November 16 , 2005 . Retrieved on January 8 , 2006 . Jump up ^ BBC News , Colombia bids for 2014 World Cup , 17 July 2006 Jump up ^ FIFA , Brazil confirms bid -- Colombia withdraws Archived 29 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine. , 13 April 2007 Jump up ^ `` Brazil set to host World Cup '' . BBC News . 2003 - 03 - 18 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Clear declaration to defend the autonomy of sport '' ( Press release ) . FIFA. 6 December 2006 . Archived from the original on 31 October 2007 . Retrieved 6 December 2006 . ^ Jump up to : `` The end of the rotation policy : the press conference explaining the decision '' . Fifa.com -- News Centre . 29 October 2007 . Archived from the original on 27 October 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Fifa abandons World Cup rotation '' . BBC SPORT. 29 October 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Blatter announces what 's to come '' . FIFA. 7 June 2010 . Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Iberian threat to England 's 2018 World Cup bid '' . ESPNsoccernet. 27 November 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Australia Drops Out of Race to Host 2018 World Cup '' . BBC . 10 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Russia and Qatar to host 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups , respectively '' . FIFA. 2 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA blocks Europe from hosting 2026 World Cup , lifting Canada 's chances '' . CBC . Associated Press . 14 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Gastelum , Andrew . `` CONCACAF president is pushing hard to land 2026 World Cup '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 17 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` No Rest for the Curious : Looking Ahead To World Cup 2026 '' . World Cup Blog . Archived from the original on 19 February 2014 . Retrieved 17 November 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Tim Hill in New York ( 2017 - 03 - 09 ) . `` Trump travel ban could prevent United States hosting World Cup '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` 2022 FIFA World Cup to be played in November / December '' . FIFA.com. 20 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA defers decision on continental rotation for WCup bids '' . Yahoo ! News . Associated Press . 25 May 2015 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Fifa 2026 World Cup bidding process delayed '' . BBC News . 10 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Statement on 2026 FIFA World Cup bidding '' . FIFA.com. 10 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA Council agrees on four - phase bidding process for 2026 FIFA World Cup '' . FIFA.com. 10 May 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` World Cup 2026 may be co-hosted in North America after FIFA says it will accept tournament - sharing '' . Mirror.co.uk. 2016 - 10 - 14 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. , Mexico and Canada officially launch bid to co-host 2026 World Cup '' . ESPNFC.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Le Maroc dépose officiellement sa candidature pour le Mondial 2026 '' . Le360. 11 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` FIFA open to 40 - team World Cup , Canada as co-hosts '' . Sportsnet.ca. 2016 - 09 - 06 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ Graham Dunbar ( 2016 - 09 - 06 ) . `` FIFA president Infantino open to 40 - team World Cup , co-hosts '' . Ca.sports.yahoo.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ Graham Dunbar ( 2016 - 10 - 14 ) . `` FIFA blocks Europe from hosting 2026 World Cup '' . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Morocco Seeks to Host the 2026 FIFA World Cup bid '' . Morocco world news . Retrieved 7 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` المغرب يتقدم رسميا بطلب استضافة كأس العالم 2026 - الموقع الرسمي للجامعة الملكية المغربية لكرة القدم '' . www.frmf.ma . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` World Cup 2026 : Canada , US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament '' . BBC . 13 June 2018 . Retrieved 13 June 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Coupe du Monde 2030 : l'Argentine et l'Uruguay confirment leur intérêt '' . Mondial - 2030 ( in French ) . January 2016 . Retrieved 23 June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` England 's hopes of hosting 2030 World Cup given boost '' . Retrieved 14 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` UEFA will ' fight ' for Europe 's right to host 2030 World Cup '' . Retrieved 2 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Dudko , James ( 29 July 2017 ) . `` Argentina , Uruguay Announce Bid to Host 2030 FIFA World Cup '' . Bleacher Report . Turner Broadcasting System . Jump up ^ Gadd , Mick ( 1 September 2017 ) . `` Lionel Messi and Luis Suarez campaign for Uruguay and Argentina 's 2030 World Cup bid before 0 - 0 draw '' . Daily Mirror . Jump up ^ `` Es oficial : Paraguay se suma a la candidatura de Argentina y Uruguay para el Mundial 2030 '' ( It 's official : Paraguay adds itself to the Argentina and Uruguay bid ) ( in Spanish ) . 5 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Sin Messi ni Suárez , así es el primer video promocional para la candidatura del Mundial 2030 '' ( Without Messi and Suarez , here is the first promotional video for the 2030 World Cup bid ) ( in Spanish ) . 5 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` England could bid for 2030 World Cup , says FA vice-chairman David Gill '' . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : McMahon , Bobby . `` Uruguay , Argentina And Paraguay Bid For 2030 FIFA World Cup Finals Will Be Hard To Beat '' . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` England amazingly backed by Germany in World Cup 2030 bid '' . 13 November 2017 . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Watson : Labour would back an England - led bid to host the World Cup in 2030 '' . ITV News . Retrieved 15 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Theresa May backs bid to bring football home by holding World Cup 2030 in Britain '' . Daily Mirror. 16 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` World Cup 2030 : UK bid to host tournament backed by government '' . The Independent . 16 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` World Cup 2030 : Scottish FA ' open - minded ' to joining home nations bid '' . BBC . 17 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Henry McLeish : Scotland should lead home nations bid for World Cup 2030 '' . Herald Scotland . 21 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Zetchi : Pour une coupe du monde `` Algérie - Tunisie - Maroc '' en 2030 -- Algerie Direct `` . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Morocco to Allegedly Team up with Spain , Portugal to Host 2030 World Cup '' . Retrieved 22 August 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` FA in talks with home nations over UK - wide bid to host 2030 World Cup '' . The Guardian . 14 June 2018 . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` England preparing bid to host 2030 World Cup , FA confirms '' . Sky Sports . 1 August 2018 . Retrieved 1 August 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` EGYPT PLANNING TO BID TO HOST 2030 WORLD CUP '' . FourFourTwo. 10 July 2018 . Jump up ^ ElPais . `` Valdez : `` La candidatura original es Uruguay - Argentina '' `` . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . Jump up ^ ElPais . `` Molestia en Uruguay por video de Conmebol '' . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Barreiro , Ramiro ( 2 September 2017 ) . `` Messi y Suárez apadrinan el Mundial Uruguay Argentina 2030 '' . EL PAÍS . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Potential 2030 World Cup hosts '' . The Guardian . 14 June 2018 . Retrieved 14 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Zetchi : Pour une coupe du monde `` Algérie - Tunisie - Maroc '' en 2030 -- Algerie Direct `` . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Morocco to Allegedly Team up with Spain , Portugal to Host 2030 World Cup '' . Retrieved 22 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` England amazingly backed by Germany in World Cup 2030 bid '' . 13 November 2017 . Retrieved 17 June 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Singapore Strong ' Host ' Candidate for Joint 2034 World Cup Finals Bid , '' Today , ( 14 November 2017 ) , http://www.todayonline.com/sports/football/singapore-strong-host-candidate-joint-2034-world-cup-finals-bid Jump up ^ `` ASEAN mulling 2034 World Cup bid : Myanmar '' . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . Jump up ^ hermes ( 6 July 2017 ) . `` Indonesia ready to lead Asean bid for 2034 World Cup '' . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Seng Foo , `` Indonesia - Thailand to Bid for 2034 World Cup , '' ( 23 September 2017 ) , http://www.stadiumastro.com/sports/football/article/indonesia-thailand-to-bid-for-2034-world-cup/59608 ^ Jump up to : `` Indonesia - Thailand to Bid for 2034 World Cup , '' Football Tribe , ( 24 September 2017 ) , http://football-tribe.com/asia/2017/09/24/indonesia-thailand-bid-2034-world-cup/ ^ Jump up to : George Deudley , `` AFF Backs Indonesia - Thailand Bid for 2034 FIFA World Cup , '' SportsPro , ( 26 September 2017 ) , http://www.sportspromedia.com/news/aff-backs-indonesia-thailand-bid-for-2034-fifa-world-cup Jump up ^ `` ASEAN Mulling 2034 World Cup Bid : Myanmar , '' Myanmar Times , ( 12 February 2017 ) , https://www.mmtimes.com/sports/25019-asean-mulling-2034-world-cup-bid-myanmar.html Jump up ^ `` Football : Indonesia to Lead South - East Asian 2034 World Cup Bid , '' Straits Times , ( 5 July 2017 ) , http://www.straitstimes.com/sport/football/football-indonesia-to-lead-southeast-asian-2034-world-cup-bid Jump up ^ `` 1938 FIFA World Cup France '' . FIFA.com . FIFA . Retrieved 6 June 2018 . ^ Jump up to : 90Min ( 15 February 2018 ) . `` World Cup countdown : 18 weeks to go - When the Dutch East Indies flew the flag for Asia '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved 10 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Indonesia Ready Leads Regional Bid to Co-Host 2034 World Cup , '' Asian Review , ( 7 July 2017 ) , https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/International-Relations/Indonesia-leads-regional-bid-to-co-host-2034-World-Cup ^ Jump up to : TODAY , ASIA ( 19 June 2017 ) . `` China to Overtake US economy and Host World Cup in 2034 '' . Retrieved 15 March 2018 . Jump up ^ name = `` telegraph.uk 14 Jan 2017 '' > `` Egypt hopes to host the 2034 FIFA World Cup '' . Retrieved 18 June 2018 . Jump up ^ name = `` telegraph.uk 14 Jan 2017 '' > `` Egypt hopes to host the 2034 FIFA World Cup '' . Retrieved 18 June 2018 . Jump up ^ Thornycroft , Peta ; Laing , Aislinn ( 17 July 2014 ) . `` Zimbabwe 's tourism minister reveals ambitious plan to host Fifa World Cup in 2034 '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved 30 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Chris Anderson & David Sally ( 12 June 2014 ) . `` How Big Is Brazil 's Home - Field Advantage at the World Cup ? '' . Deadspin . Retrieved 2 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` What can econometrics tell us about World Cup performance ? '' ( PDF ) . PricewaterhouseCoopers . May 2010 . pp. 6 -- 7 . Retrieved 2 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Smallwood , John ( 11 June 2014 ) . `` Ultimate home field advantage : Host nation luck '' . Philadelphia Daily News . Retrieved 2 August 2014 . External links ( edit ) FIFA World Cup Host Announcement Decision ( PDF ) FIFA World Cup Tournaments Uruguay 1930 Italy 1934 France 1938 Brazil 1950 Switzerland 1954 Sweden 1958 Chile 1962 England 1966 Mexico 1970 West Germany 1974 Argentina 1978 Spain 1982 Mexico 1986 Italy 1990 United States 1994 France 1998 South Korea -- Japan 2002 Germany 2006 South Africa 2010 Brazil 2014 Russia 2018 Qatar 2022 Canada -- Mexico -- United States 2026 2030 2034 Qualification 1930 1934 1938 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 Finals 1930 1934 1938 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 Squads 1930 1934 1938 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 Seedings 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 Broadcasters 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 Bids 2014 2018 and 2022 2026 2030 Statistics 2002 2006 2014 2018 Disciplinary record 1994 1998 2002 2006 2014 2018 Team appearances AFC CAF CONCACAF CONMEBOL OFC UEFA Teams with no appearances Overall records All - time table Goalscorers top goalscorers finals goalscorers hat - tricks own goals Penalty shoot - outs Player appearances Red cards Referees Winners Miscellaneous Openings Stadiums Awards Balls Economics Final draw History Hosts Mascots Official films Official anthems & songs Organisers Trophy Video games Notes : There was no qualification for the 1930 World Cup as places were given by invitation only . In 1950 , there was no final ; the article is about the decisive match of the final group stage . FIFA World Cup bids 1930 Hungary Italy Netherlands Spain Sweden Uruguay 1934 Italy Sweden 1938 Argentina France Germany 1942 Brazil Germany 1946 None 1950 Brazil 1954 Switzerland 1958 Sweden 1962 Argentina Chile West Germany 1966 England West Germany Spain 1970 Argentina Mexico Italy Netherlands Spain West Germany 1978 Argentina Mexico 1982 Spain West Germany 1986 Canada Colombia Mexico United States 1990 Austria England France Greece Italy Soviet Union West Germany Iran Yugoslavia 1994 Brazil Morocco United States 1998 France Morocco Switzerland 2002 Japan -- South Korea Mexico 2006 Brazil England Germany Morocco South Africa Egypt Libya -- Tunisia Morocco Nigeria South Africa 2014 Brazil Colombia 2018 Belgium -- Netherlands England Portugal -- Spain Russia 2022 Australia Japan Qatar South Korea United States 2026 Canada -- Mexico -- United States Morocco 2030 Uruguay -- Argentina -- Paraguay Morocco -- Algeria -- Tunisia or Morocco -- Spain -- Portugal 2034 Indonesia - Thailand China Notes : Bold entries are those chosen as hosts Event cancelled due to World War II Colombia withdrew after being awarded event , which was re-awarded to Mexico Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FIFA_World_Cup_hosts&oldid=856619147 '' Categories : FIFA World Cup FIFA World Cup bids FIFA World Cup - related lists Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Use dmy dates from November 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia অসমীয়া বাংলা Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar मराठी Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Português Română Русский Српски / srpski ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 16 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 August 2018 , at 14 : 13 ( UTC ) . 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20 | document: List of schools in Victoria , Australia - wikipedia List of schools in Victoria , Australia Jump to : navigation , search Below are lists of schools in Victoria , Australia : List of government schools in Victoria , Australia List of Non-Government Schools in Victoria , Australia Contents ( hide ) 1 Other schools and colleges 2 Largest Victorian schools 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Other schools and colleges ( edit ) Discover English - ESL education ( Bourke St , Melbourne ) Foresee Education Group - professional tutoring , education ( Nunawading , Melbourne ) Oakwood Park Primary School Largest victorian schools ( edit ) Based on enrolment size , this is a list of 50 of the largest schools in Victoria , Australia . No . School Student enrolment no . No. of Campuses Campus Locations Type 1 . Haileybury College 3,670 5 Keysborough , Brighton , Berwick , Melbourne and Beijing ( China ) Independent 2 . Wesley College , Melbourne 3,100 Elsternwick , Glen Waverley and Melbourne Independent 3 . Caulfield Grammar School 3,059 5 Wheelers Hill , Malvern , Caulfield , Yarra Junction and Nanjing ( China ) Independent 4 . St Francis Xavier College 3,008 Berwick , Beaconsfield and Officer Catholic 5 . Padua College 2,404 Mornington , Rosebud and Tyabb Catholic 6 . Carey Baptist Grammar School 2,166 Kew and Donvale Independent 7 . Overnewton Anglican Community College 2,142 Keilor and Taylors Lakes Independent 8 . Lilydale High School 2,126 Lilydale Government 9 . Balwyn High School 2,038 Balwyn Government 10 . Xavier College 2,080 Kew , Kew and Brighton Catholic 11 . Glen Waverley Secondary College 1,985 Glen Waverley Government 12 . St Kevin 's , Toorak 1,976 Catholic 13 . Ivanhoe Grammar School 1,961 Ivanhoe , Ivanhoe , Mernda Independent 14 . Scotch College 1,886 Hawthorn , Healesville , Phillip Island , Mansfield Independent 15 . St Monica 's College 1,864 Epping Catholic 16 . Parade College 1,863 Preston , Bundoora Catholic 17 . McKinnon Secondary College 1,855 McKinnon Government 18 . Rowville Secondary College 1,814 Rowville Government 19 . Mount Waverley Secondary College 1,804 Mount Waverley Government 20 . Melbourne Grammar School 1,803 Anglican 21 . Bacchus Marsh Grammar School 1,776 22 Frankston High 1,750 23 . Emmanuel College , Altona 1,745 24 . Kardinia International College 1,713 25 . The Grange P - 12 College 1,698 26 . Aquinas College 1,637 27 . Northcote High School 1,613 28 . Mill Park Secondary College 1,603 29 . Gladstone Park Secondary College 1,594 30 . Elisabeth Murdoch College 1,576 31 . Penola Catholic College 1,589 32 . East Doncaster Secondary College 1,532 33 . Wellington Secondary College 1,505 34 . Strathmore Secondary College 1,502 35 . Mount Ridley Secondary College 1,536 36 . Mount Lilydale Mercy College 1,467 37 . Williamstown High School 1,463 38 . Berwick Secondary College 1,463 39 . St Helena Secondary College 1,455 40 . Brentwood Secondary College 1,439 41 . Geelong Grammar School 1,431 42 . Ringwood Secondary College 1,427 43 . Presbyterian Ladies ' College 1,409 44 . Ballarat High School 1,388 45 . Melbourne High School 1,365 46 . The Peninsula School 1,363 47 . St Leonards College 1,341 48 . Westbourne Grammar School 1,338 49 . Melbourne Girls ' College 1,323 50 . Ballarat Grammar 1,322 See also ( edit ) Light Timber Construction schools List of schools in Australia List of high schools in Victoria References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Foresee Education Group Jump up ^ http://www.haileybury.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/27606/2015_Statutory_Report_FINAL.pdf Jump up ^ `` Campuses '' . Haileybury. 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Wesley College Annual Report 2013 '' . emag.allardice.com.au . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Wesley College Elsternwick Campus '' . Wesley College . 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Wesley College Glen Waverley Campus '' . Wesley College . 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Wesley College St Kilda Road Campus '' . Wesley College . 2017 . Jump up ^ http://emag.allardice.com.au/wesley/collegear2013 Jump up ^ `` Our Campuses '' . Caulfield Grammar School . 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Berwick Campus '' . St Francis Xavier College . Jump up ^ `` Beaconsfield Campus '' . St Francis Xavier College . 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Officer Campus '' . St Francis Xavier College . 2017 . Jump up ^ ( www.softwarewizards.com.au ) , Software Wizards Pty Ltd . `` OACC - Keilor Campus Map & Facilities '' . www.overnewton.vic.edu.au . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ ( www.softwarewizards.com.au ) , Software Wizards Pty Ltd . `` OACC - Taylors Lakes Campus Map & Facilities '' . www.overnewton.vic.edu.au . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Annual Report to the Community 2015 '' ( PDF ) . Lilydale High School . 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Contact Us '' . Lilydale High School . 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Our Campuses '' . Xavier College . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ https://www.myschool.edu.au/SchoolProfile/Index/108784/ElisabethMurdochCollege/45506/2016#caveatFootnote Jump up ^ `` Annual Report '' ( PDF ) . web.mlmc.vic.edu.au . External links ( edit ) Schools Online listing Schools and Studies Search - VCAA website Search all Victorian schools Melbourne School Zones This list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_schools_in_Victoria,_Australia&oldid=808156619 '' Categories : Schools in Victoria ( Australia ) Victoria ( Australia ) - related lists Lists of schools in Victoria ( Australia ) Hidden categories : Incomplete lists from August 2008 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 1 November 2017 , at 06 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_141|> <|d1_40|> <|d2_181|> |
21 | document: Babylonian religion - wikipedia Babylonian religion Jump to : navigation , search Part of a series on Ancient Mesopotamian religion Primordial beings ( show ) Abzu and Tiamat Lahmu and Lahamu Anshar and Kishar Mummu Seven gods who decree ( show ) Four primary Anu Enlil Enki Ninhursag Three sky gods Inanna / Ishtar Nanna / Sin Utu / Shamash Other major deities ( show ) Adad Dumuzid / Tammuz Enkimdu Ereshkigal Kingu Geshtinanna Lahar Marduk Nergal Ninurta Minor deities ( show ) Agasaya Anunnaki Asaruludu Ashnan Bel Enbilulu Isimud Lahar Mami / Nintu Mamitu Nabu Namtar Nanshe Nidaba Ningal Ninkasi Ninlil Ninshubur Ninsun Nusku Sarpanit Uttu Demigods and heroes ( show ) Adapa Enkidu Enmerkar Gilgamesh Lugalbanda Shamhat Siduri Atra - Hasis Spirits and monsters ( show ) Utukku Lamassu / Shedu Asakku Edimmu Siris Anzû Humbaba Asag Hanbi Kur Lamashtu Pazuzu Rabisu Tales ( show ) Atra - Hasis Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta Enûma Eliš Epic of Gilgamesh Related topics Ancient Near Eastern religions Sumerian religion Babylonian religion Babylonian religion is the religious practice of Babylonia . Babylonian mythology was greatly influenced by their Sumerian counterparts , and was written on clay tablets inscribed with the cuneiform script derived from Sumerian cuneiform . The myths were usually either written in Sumerian or Akkadian . Some Babylonian texts were translations into Akkadian from the Sumerian language of earlier texts , although the names of some deities were changed . Some of the stories of the Tanakh are believed to have been based on , influenced by , or inspired by the legendary mythological past of the Near East . Contents ( hide ) 1 Mythology and cosmology 2 Religious festivals 3 Importance of idols 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Mythology and cosmology ( edit ) Main article : Mesopotamian mythology Further information : Enûma Eliš Babylonian mythology is a set of stories depicting the activities of Babylonian deities , heroes , and mythological creatures . These stories served many social , political , ceremonial purposes , and at times tried to explain natural phenomena . Babylonian myths were greatly influenced by their Sumerian counterparts , and were written on clay tablets inscribed with the cuneiform script derived from Sumerian cuneiform . The myths were usually either written in Sumerian or Akkadian . Some Babylonian texts were even translations into Akkadian from the Sumerian language of earlier texts , though the names of some deities were changed in Babylonian texts . Many Babylonian deities , myths and religious writings are singular to that culture ; for example , the uniquely Babylonian deity , Marduk , replaced Enlil as the head of the mythological pantheon . The Enûma Eliš , a creation myth epic was an original Babylonian work . Religious festivals ( edit ) Further information : Akitu A relief image , part of the Babylonian Ishtar gate Tablet fragments from the Neo-Babylonian period describe a series of festival days celebrating the New Year . The Festival began on the first day of the first Babylonian month , Nisannu , roughly corresponding to April / May in the Gregorian calendar . This festival celebrated the re-creation of the Earth , drawing from the Marduk - centered creation story described in the Enûma Eliš . Importance of idols ( edit ) In Babylonian religion , the ritual care and worship of the statues of deities was considered sacred ; the gods resided simultaneously in their statues in temples and in the natural forces they embodied . An elaborate ceremony of washing the mouths of the statues appeared sometime in the Old Babylonian period . The pillaging or destruction of idols was considered to be LOSS of divine patronage ; during the Neo-Babylonian period , the Chaldean prince Marduk - apla - iddina II fled into the southern marshes of Mesopotamia with the statues of Babylon 's gods to save them from the armies of Sennacherib of Assyria . See also ( edit ) Ancient Mesopotamian religion Assyrian religion Religions of the ancient Near East Sumerian religion Tower of Babel Zoroastrianism References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Morris Jastrow Jr. ; et al. `` Babylon '' . Jewish Encyclopedia . Jump up ^ McIntosh , Jane R. `` Ancient Mesopotamia : New Perspectives '' . ABC - CLIO , Inc : Santa Barbara , CA , 2005 . p. 221 Jump up ^ McIntosh , Jane R. `` Ancient Mesopotamia : New Perspectives '' . ABC - CLIO , Inc : Santa Barbara , CA , 2005 . pp. 35 - 43 Further reading ( edit ) Renger , Johannes ( 1999 ) , `` Babylonian and Assyrian Religion '' , in Fahlbusch , Erwin , Encyclopedia of Christianity , 1 , Grand Rapids : Wm . B. Eerdmans , pp. 177 -- 178 , ISBN 0802824137 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_religion&oldid=802558275 '' Categories : Babylonia Mesopotamian mythology Polytheism Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Deutsch Español Polski Română Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 26 September 2017 , at 23 : 15 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_40|> <|d1_121|> <|d2_57|> <|d3_0|> |
22 | document: Road speed limits in the United Kingdom - wikipedia Road speed limits in the United Kingdom Jump to : navigation , search Speed limit sign on a single - carriageway road indicating a speed limit of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) Road speed limits in the United Kingdom are used to define the maximum legal speed ( which may be variable ) for vehicles using public roads in the UK , and are one of the measures available to attempt to control traffic speeds . The speed limit in each location is indicated on a nearby traffic sign or by the presence of street lighting . Signs show speed limits in miles per hour ( mph ) or use the national speed limit ( NSL ) symbol . The national speed limit is 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) on motorways , 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) on dual carriageways , 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) on single carriageways and generally 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) in areas with street lighting ( restricted roads ) . These limits may be changed by road signs and apply to cars , motorcycles , car - derived vans up to 2 tonnes maximum laden weight ( MLW ) , and to motorhomes or motor caravans not more than 3.05 tonnes maximum unladen weight . Other classes of vehicles are subject to lower limits on some roads . Speed limits in the UK are used to define maximum desirable traffic speeds for the purposes of road safety ( to reduce the number of road casualties ) , to reduce negative environmental impacts of traffic , to increase fuel use efficiency and to satisfy local community wishes . Enforcement of UK road speed limits was traditionally done using police ' speed traps ' set up and operated by the police who now increasingly use speed guns , automated in - vehicle systems and automated roadside traffic cameras . Some vehicle categories have various lower maximum limits enforced by speed limiters . Ever since they have been introduced , speed limits have been controversial . They have either been opposed or supported from various sources ; including motoring advocacy groups , anti-motoring groups and others who either consider them to be irrelevant , set too low or set too high . Contents ( hide ) 1 Current regulations 1.1 National speed limits 1.2 Speed limiters 2 Types of speed limit 2.1 Fixed speed limits 2.2 Variable speed limits 2.3 Minimum speed limits 3 Justification 3.1 Safety 3.2 Environmental and accessibility 4 Effectiveness 4.1 20 mph speed limits and zones 4.1. 1 20 mph speed limits 4.1. 2 20 mph zones 4.1. 3 Shared space 4.2 The introduction of the 70 mph speed limit 5 Enforcement 6 Advocacy 7 History 7.1 Early years 7.2 World War II 7.3 1945 -- 1969 7.4 1973 oil crisis 7.5 1977 -- present 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading Current regulations ( edit ) National speed limits ( edit ) NSL sign on a single - track road implying a speed limit of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) or 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) depending on vehicle type Default maximum speed limits apply to all roads where no specific lower numeric speed limit is already in force . The default speed limit is known as the national speed limit ( NSL ) . The NSLs vary by road type and for vehicle types . National speed limits by vehicle type and road type Restricted road Single - track road Single carriageway Dual carriageway Motorway Cars and motorcycles ( including car - derived vans up to 2 tonnes max laden weight ) 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) Vehicles towing caravans or trailers inc cars , motorcycles , goods vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes MLW 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Buses , coaches , minibuses up to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) Goods vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes MLW 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) Goods vehicles over 7.5 tonnes MLW ( in England and Wales ) 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Goods vehicles over 7.5 tonnes MLW ( in Scotland , except A9 Perth to Inverness ) 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Goods vehicles over 7.5 tonnes MLW ( on A9 Perth to Inverness ) 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) n / a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) n / a Speed limiters ( edit ) Some classes of vehicles are required to have speed limiters which enforce a maximum speed by physical means . Older vehicles still in use do not have limiters fitted or have them set at a higher speeds . New vehicles should be fitted with limiters as follows : Buses and coaches , including Minibuses : 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) HGVs : 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) or 85 km / h ( 53 mph ) depending on class . Mopeds : 45 km / h ( 28 mph ) Some other vehicles , especially light commercial or service vehicles , may be voluntarily fitted with limiters by their owners ( either private businesspeople or company fleets ) , generally set at 90 , 97 , 100 , 110 or 113 km / h ( 56 , 60 , 62 , 68 or 70 mph ) , though some ultralight citybound service vehicles may be limited to 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) or less . In all cases , a warning sticker must be displayed on the rear of the vehicle . Types of speed limit ( edit ) Fixed speed limits ( edit ) 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) sign on a dual - carriageway road Speed limit road signs are used to inform road users where speed limits other than the applicable national speed limit apply . For some types of vehicles , on some types of road , speed limits lower than the signed limit apply . Numeric speed limit exceptions by vehicle type and road type Signed Vehicle type Speed limit if other than signed Single carriageway Dual carriageway Motorway 20 - 50 ( special cases only ) 60 Any Vehicle under 7.5 tonnes towing caravans or trailers ; buses , coaches and minibuses up to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) and Goods vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes MLW 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) Goods vehicles over 7.5 tonnes MLW 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 70 Buses , coaches and minibuses up to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) and Goods vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes MLW ( modern vehicles also have speed limiters which limit speed further - see below ) n / a * 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Cars , motorcycles and Goods vehicles up to 7.5 tonnes MLW and towing caravans or trailers n / a * 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Goods vehicles over 7.5 tonnes MLW n / a * 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) * a small , decreasing number of single - carriageway motorways do exist , both technical / `` secret '' and overtly signed , but they are almost universally either subject to a signed limit below 70 mph , or too short for any but the most powerful vehicles to exceed 60 mph for any significant distance . Variable speed limits ( edit ) An advisory maximum speed sign . Variable speed limits are used on some major traffic roads . These can be changed in response to weather , traffic levels , time of day or for other reasons with the currently applicable speed limit is displayed using an electronic road sign . Signs with the speed shown in a red circle are compulsory , signs where the speed is not within a red circle are advisory and exceeding these speeds while driving safely within the applicable national speed limit is not in itself an offence . Variable speed limits were introduced on some congested major routes as an element of controlled motorway techniques to improve traffic flows for given prevailing conditions . Part - time variable speed limits may also be used outside schools . Minimum speed limits ( edit ) Rarely , minimum speed limits are used , such as through the Mersey Tunnels , to maintain free flow and safe passage through otherwise hazardous or enclosed areas . Circular blue signs with white numbers indicate the start of these limits , and similar signs with a red diagonal line indicate their end . Contrary to popular belief , there is no minimum speed limit on motorways , although certain classes of slow vehicles ( as well as those of any class that can not maintain 25 mph on the level whilst unladen ) are prohibited on safety grounds and drivers are expected to not cause unnecessary obstruction by driving unusually slowly . Justification ( edit ) According to the government , speed limits are used to help achieve appropriate traffic speeds for safety , and environmental and accessibility reasons . The Department for Transport state that `` speed limits play a fundamental role '' in the effective management of traffic speeds in relation to the safety of both drivers and all other road users . Safety ( edit ) See also : Reported Road Casualties Great Britain and Road Traffic Safety The 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) speed limit in built - up areas was introduced in 1930 in response to high casualty levels . The 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) limit on previously unrestricted roads was introduced in 1965 following a number of serious motorway accidents in fog earlier the same year . The Department for Transport believes that effective speed management involves many components but that speed limits play a ' fundamental role ' and are ' a key source of information to road users ' particularly as an indicator of the nature and risks posed by that road to both themselves and other motorised and non-motorised road users . The Parliamentary Select Committee for Transport Safety published a report entitled ' The Ending the Scandal of Complacency ' in 2007 which highlighted how casualty levels rise with increasing speed and recommended reducing speed limits on streets with high pedestrian populations and on dangerous rural roads . The report highlights that when two cars crash at 60 mph a driver there is a 90 % chance of death which falls to 65 % at 50 mph . While recommending 20 mph speed zones the committee noted that these zones ' should not rely on heavy - handed enforcement measures ' . The World Health Organisation published a report in 2004 highlighting that a total of 22 % of all ' injury mortality ' worldwide were from road traffic injuries in 2002 and that the speed of vehicles was ' at the core of the problem Road incidents are said to be the leading cause of deaths among children 10 -- 19 years of age ( 260,000 children die a year , 10 million are injured ) . In 2008 14 % of collisions reported to the police had a speed related contributory factor ( either `` exceeding the speed limit '' or `` travelling too fast for conditions '' ) reported rising to 24 % for fatal accidents and 25 % of all road deaths . `` Exceeding the speed limit '' was reported as a contributory factor in 5 % of collisions and 14 % of fatal collisions . `` Travelling too fast for conditions '' ( but within the prevailing speed limit ) was recorded as one of the contributory factors in a further 8 % of all collisions ( and 9 % of all fatal , 9 % of all serious and 8 % of all slight accidents ) , The UK government publishes Reported Road Casualties Great Britain ( RRCGB ) each year , based on road traffic casualties data ( STATS19 ) reported to the police , which has been collected since 1949 , and with additional data going back to 1926 . The highest number of road fatalities recorded in a single year in GB was 9,196 in 1941 . The highest number of fatalities during peacetime was 7,985 for 1966 , following the introduction of the national 70 mph speed limit in 1965 and the year before the legal drink drive limit and the associated Breathalyzer laws were introduced . The 2009 edition also summarised the characteristics of speed related fatal collisions as typically occurring on unclassified rural 60 mph speed limit roads , the driver being a male under the age of 30 , with the collision types being head - on , lost control or cornering and the cause being loss of control whilst cornering or overtaking and the contributory factors being excess or inappropriate speed , loss of control , aggressive , careless or reckless behaviour or in a hurry . Environmental and accessibility ( edit ) Speed limits are also used where reduced vehicle speeds are desired to help reduce vehicle emissions and traffic noise , and to improve the accessibility conditions for more vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and cyclists and to reduce the perceived traffic risk for local people . During the 1973 oil crisis a temporary maximum national speed limit of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) was introduced on all roads , including motorways to reduce fuel consumption , which was later progressively raised on Motorways ( to 70 mph ) and dual carriageways ( to 60 mph ) , before a final change to single and dual carriageway non-motorway roads that produced the current NSL situation . Effectiveness ( edit ) Parliament estimates that `` Most drivers and pedestrians think speeds are generally too high but 95 % of all drivers admit to exceeding speed limits '' . DfT guidance makes it clear that setting speed limits in isolation , or setting ones that are `` unrealistically low '' may be ineffective and lead to disrespect for the speed limit . Bath and North East Somerset Council say that speed limits on their own do not necessarily reduce traffic speeds and should be supported by enforcement to target `` irresponsible drivers '' or traffic calming . 20 mph speed limits and zones ( edit ) The Department for Transport encourages the use of either ' 20 mph speed limits ' or ' 20 mph speed limit zones ' in urban situations where vulnerable road users are at particular risk . In 1998 the TRL reported that signed 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) speed limits only reduced traffic speeds by about 1 mph and delivered no discernible reduction in accident numbers but that 20 mph zones achieved average speed reductions of 10 mph with child pedestrian accident reductions of 70 % and child cyclist accident reductions of 48 % . The report noted that the cost of wide area traffic calming was prohibitive . 20 mph speed limits ( edit ) 20 mph speed limits are based on signage alone and are used where 85th percentile speeds are already below 24 mph . A report published in 2010 by the Department for Transport regarding Portsmouth City Council 's 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) speed limit on 410 km ( 250 mi ) of the city 's 438 km ( 272 mi ) of roads found a small ( 1.3 mph ) reduction in traffic speed and a small 8 % increase in the number of serious accidents -- neither of which were statistically significant -- and a 21 % reduction in the number of accidents . There was a 6 % increase in the numbers killed or seriously injured ( KSI ) -- also not statistically significant due to the small numbers involved -- and a 22 % reduction in the total number of road casualties . 20 mph zones ( edit ) Road sign used to mark the start of a 20 mph zone In places where 20 mph speeds are desired but where excessive speeds ( 85th percentile speed of 24 mph or above ) occur , 20 mph zones are recommended . These have to use traffic calming measures to reduce speeds to below 20 mph . In 1992 David Harding - Price a parish councillor in Barrow - Upon - Humber proposed a 20 mph speed limit outside the local school . This was rejected by the council . By August 2002 , Kingston upon Hull had introduced 112 20 - mph zones and 190 km of roads subject to a 20 mph limit covering 26 % of the city 's streets which they described as contributing to `` dramatic reductions in road casualties '' . Total collisions were reduced by 56 % , Killed & seriously injured collisions down 90 % , child casualties collisions down 64 % and all pedestrian collisions down 54 % and child pedestrian collisions down 74 % . A report published in 2008 estimated that following the introduction of 20 mph zones in London , a reduction of casualties by 45 % and KSI by 57 % occurred . Shared space ( edit ) Research carried out for the Department for Transport , to provide supporting evidence for Local Transport Note 1 / 11 on shared space , showed that in all of the ten shared space sites that were studied , that although they all had speed limits of 30 mph , that the average speeds on them was around 20 mph . The introduction of the 70 mph speed limit ( edit ) In 1966 , at the end of the 4 - month trial of a blanket 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) speed limit on previously unrestricted roads and motorways , speed checks on the M6 in Cheshire suggested that although cars were actually being driven about 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) faster , they were still usually travelling at speeds below the new limit . The crash rate was lower on the M6 in Staffordshire ( the better weather was noted too ) and continued to fall on the M5 in Worcestershire as it had before the new limit was imposed , and there was no change in the crash rate on the M6 in Cheshire or on the M1 in Northamptonshire . Enforcement ( edit ) Main article : Road speed limit enforcement in the United Kingdom Speed limit enforcement is used to check that road vehicles are complying with the speed limits . Methods used include Fixed speed cameras , Average speed cameras and also police operated LIDAR speed guns and older radar speed guns . In addition Vehicle activated sign and Community Speed Watch groups also encourage compliance . For lower speed limits , physical Traffic Calming is normally required . Fixed speed cameras are controversial with various advocacy groups supporting and opposing their use . The Nottingham Safety Camera Pilot achieved `` virtually complete compliance '' on the major ring road into the city using average speed cameras , and across all Nottinghamshire SPECS installations their KSI figures have fallen by an average of 65 % . Advocacy ( edit ) Since they have been introduced various groups have campaigned on the subject who either consider them to be irrelevant , set too low or set too high . Advocacy groups include Association of British Drivers , The Automobile Association , Living Streets ( The Pedestrians ' Association ) , RAC Foundation , RoadPeace , Royal Automobile Club ( originally the Automobile Club ) , Twenty is Plenty ( 20 's Plenty for Us ) , Safe Speed and others . History ( edit ) Early years ( edit ) The first speed limits in the United Kingdom were set by a series of restrictive Locomotive Acts ( in 1861 , 1865 and 1878 ) . The 1861 Act introduced a 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) limit ( powered passenger vehicles were then termed `` light locomotives '' ) . The 1865 ' Red Flag Act ' reduced the speed limit to 4 mph ( 6 km / h ) in the country and 2 mph ( 3 km / h ) in towns and required a man with a red flag or lantern to walk 60 yards ( 50 m ) ahead of each vehicle , and warn horse riders and horse drawn traffic of the approach of a self - propelled machine . The 1878 Act removed the need for the flag and reduced the distance of the escort to 20 yards ( 20 m ) . Following intense advocacy by motor vehicle enthusiasts , including Harry J. Lawson of the Daimler Company the most restrictive parts of the acts were lifted by the Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 . which raised the speed limit to 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) and removed the need for the escort . A celebratory run from London to Brighton was held soon after the act was passed and has been commemorated each year since 1927 by the London to Brighton Veteran Car Run . 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) repeater sign as used to remind drivers of the speed limit on a road without street lighting . On built - up roads with street lighting , the lights themselves serve as the 30 mph reminder and repeater signs are prohibited . The speed limit for motor cars was raised to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) by the Motor Car Act 1903 which stood until 1 January 1931 when all speed limits for cars and motorcycles were abolished under the Road Traffic Act 1930 . Lord Buckmaster 's opinion at the time was that the speed limit was removed because `` the existing speed limit was so universally disobeyed that its maintenance brought the law into contempt '' . Between 1930 and 1935 the number of annual road fatalities dropped from 7,305 to 6,502 . The same act also introduced a 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) speed limits for UK coach services , UK bus services and most HGVs . Buses were not necessarily fitted with Speedometers at this stage . A ' Road traffic ( speedometer ) bill ' was debated in 1933 relating only to vehicles to which current speed limits applied . The Road Traffic Act 1934 , created by Leslie Hore - Belisha , the then Minister of Transport , introduced a speed limit of 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) in built - up areas for cars and motorcycles which came into effect on 18 March 1935 . The definition of a built - up area was based on the presence of street lighting , which had previously been mandated by the Public Health Act 1875 . The re-introduction of a speed limit for cars was in response to concern at increased road casualties . The number of fatalities had increased to 7,343 deaths , half of the deaths were pedestrians and of three - quarters of these occurred in built - up areas . Between 1935 and 1940 the number of annual road fatalities increased from 6,502 to 8,609 . Speedometers were made compulsory for new cars in 1937 . World War II ( edit ) A 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) night - time speed limit for built - up areas was introduced in 1940 as an attempt to halt the increase in the number of road casualties occurring during the World War II blackouts . Following the introduction of blackouts fatalities rose on speed - limited roads from 289 in March 1939 to 325 in March 1940 . For October 1940 the total number of deaths during daylight ( when the speed limit did n't apply ) fell , in relation to those for October 1939 , from 511 to 462 , whereas the figures for the black - out hours ( when the speed limit did apply ) rose from 501 to 684 . The highest number of deaths in any one year in the UK occurred the following year ( 9,196 people in 1941 ) . 1945 -- 1969 ( edit ) On 1 October 1956 , the 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) speed limit for built - up areas became permanent under the Road Traffic Act 1956 . The speed limit , introduced on a trial basis in 1935 , had relied on being renewed by Parliament each year . The maximum speed limit for goods vehicles was raised from 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) to 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) in 1957 . In addition , around 1958 some 30 mph roads had the limit raised to 40 mph to improve transit times , an early example being on Croydon Road in Mitcham , Surrey , saving , it was estimated , 33 seconds in journey time across Mitcham common . Following a series of serious motorway multiple crashes in the fog in 1965 , Tom Fraser , the then Minister of Transport , following consultations in early November with the police and with the National Road Safety Advisory Council ( NRSAC ) , concluded that the crashes were caused by vehicles travelling too fast for the prevailing conditions . The NRSAC advised that a 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) motorway speed limit should be imposed on motorway stretches affected by fog and that a general speed limit of 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) should be experimentally applied for the winter months . On 25 November 1965 the government announced that a temporary 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) speed limit would be applied to sections of motorway ( there were 350 miles ( 560 km ) of it at that time ) affected by fog , ice or snow and that a general maximum speed limit of 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) would be applied to all otherwise unrestricted roads , including motorways , for a trial period of four months starting just before Christmas . The four - month trial 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) speed limit on 100,000 miles ( 160,000 km ) of previously unrestricted roads and motorways was introduced at noon on 22 December 1965 . Also on that day , the power for the police to apply advisory speed limits of 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) to motorways affected by bad weather was also introduced . The advisory limit was activated by the use of flashing amber lights placed at 1 mile ( 1.6 km ) intervals along the motorways . In April 1966 Barbara Castle , the new Minister of Transport , decided to extend the experimental 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) limit for a further two months to allow the Road Research Laboratory ( RRL ) time to collect data as there was still no conclusive evidence of its effectiveness . In May 1966 Barbara Castle extended the experimental period by a further fifteen months to 3 September 1967 as `` the case is not proven '' but there were signs of crash rate reduction . In July 1966 the speed limit for `` public service vehicles '' ( notably buses ) was raised from 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . During 1966 , the highest number of fatalities during peacetime at 7,985 deaths , was recorded . In July 1967 , Castle announced that 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) was to become the permanent maximum speed limit for all roads and motorways . She had accepted RRL evidence that the speed limit had reduced the number of casualties on motorways . She ruled out minimum speed limits for motorways which would also reduce the danger of slow traffic as being too difficult to enforce and likely to increase congestion off the motorways . The two major motoring organisations at the time , The Automobile Association and the R.A.C. welcomed the maximum speed limits for all - purpose roads , but the R.A.C. would have preferred more flexibility for motorways . The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents suggested that a lower speed limit would be more appropriate for all - purpose roads and the Pedestrian 's Association for Road Safety condemned the new limits as being too high , preferring 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) limits for all roads . Castle 's decision and acceptance of the RRL research at face value was controversial . Peter Walker 's motion in Parliament to annul the speed limit on motorways was negatived . 1973 oil crisis ( edit ) Due to the 1973 oil crisis , a temporary maximum national speed limit of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) for all roads , including motorways , was introduced on 8 December 1973 . The 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) limit was restored on motorways in March 1974 and on all other roads on 8 May 1974 . As an initiative to reduce energy consumption , the national speed limits for otherwise unrestricted single - carriageway and dual - carriageway roads were temporarily reduced to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) respectively ( motorway speed limits were left unchanged at 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) ) from 14 December 1974 . In November 1976 the temporary speed limits were extended at least until the end of May 1977 . In April 1977 , the government announced that the national speed limits for single - carriageway roads was to be increased to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and that the 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) speed limit was to be restored on dual - carriageways on 1 June 1977 . 1977 -- present ( edit ) A speed limiter requirement for mopeds was introduced in 1977 , with the speed cap being progressively redefined from 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) , to 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , back up to 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) and finally to 45 km / h ( 28 mph ) in the late 2000s . The 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) speed limit was made permanent in 1978 . The Road Traffic Regulation Act , which was passed in 1984 , includes legislation relating to speed limits . Part VI of the Act defines the default speed limit for ' regularly ' - lit roads , gives local authorities powers to create ' speed limit orders ' , and exempts emergency vehicles from speed limits ; the Act also defines speeding offences . The first 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) speed limits for residential areas were introduced in 1991 and then speed limiters for buses and coaches set at 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and also for HGVs set at 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) in 1994 . It was made easier for local authorities to introduce a 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) limit in 1999 . In March 2009 the Government consulted on reducing speed limits on rural roads ( on which 52 % of fatalities had occurred in the previous year ) to 50 mph . It explained that ' crashes were more likely on rural parts of the road network , upon most of which the national speed limit of 60 mph applies ' . The Conservative opposition party and the AA were both opposed . The president of the AA said that speed limits that are too low can result in a greater number of accidents and that a `` blanket reduction of speed limits would not make roads safer , given that many accidents on rural roads involved only one car '' . In February 2010 the Department for Transport undertook a consultation to set a 65 mph speed limit for all buses , minibuses and coaches with more than eight passenger seats . These proposals were not taken up . In April 2015 the speed limit for Heavy Goods Vehicles over 7.5 tonnes was increased from 40 to 50 mph on single carriageways and from 50 mph to 60 mph on dual carriageways in England and Wales , but not Scotland . Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 181 `` Speed limiter settings lowered to 65 mph for new buses and coaches and to 56 mph for HGVs . '' ^ Jump up to : Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 179 `` Mopeds redefined to 30 mph maximum design speed '' Jump up ^ World Health Organisation ( 2004 ) p. 34 fig 2.1 Jump up ^ World Health Organisation ( 2004 ) p. 76 Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 41 `` Fourteen per cent of accidents had a speed related contributory factor reported , either exceeding the speed limit or travelling too fast for conditions . This increased to 24 % for fatal accidents , accounting for 25 % of all road deaths . '' Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 45 `` Exceeding the speed limit was reported as a contributory factor in 5 % of all accidents . However , the factor became more significant with the severity of the accident . It was reported in 14 % of fatal accidents and these accidents accounted for 362 fatalities , 15 % of all deaths ... The factor travelling too fast for conditions was a contributory factor in 8 % of accidents . Again , the proportion of accidents where it was reported rose with the severity of the accident and 9 % of fatal resulting in 224 fatalities , 10 % of all deaths ( Excluding accidents and casualties in accidents which had exceeding the speed limit reported as a contributory factor ) '' Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 106 `` The highest record road death figure was 9,196 in 1941 '' ^ Jump up to : Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 106 table 2 Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2010 ) , pdf p. 91 , table 7a Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 106 `` The highest record road death figure was 9,196 in 1941 '' Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 179 `` 60 and 70 mph speed limits are made permanent '' Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2009 ) , p. 180 `` First 20mph zones introduced '' References ( edit ) Documents referenced from ' Notes ' section Department for Transport ( 2009 ) . `` Reported Road Casualties Great Britain : 2008 Annual Report '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 05 - 03 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 30 . Department for Transport ( 2010 ) . `` Reported Road Casualties Great Britain : 2009 Annual Report '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 05 - 03 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 30 . World Health Organisation ( 2004 ) . `` World report on road traffic injury prevention '' . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 13 . Other references for article Jump up ^ `` Speed Limits '' . GOV.UK . UK Government . Retrieved 6 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rule 124 : Speed Limits '' . The Official Highway Code . TSO. 2007 . p. 41 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 11 - 552814 - 9 . Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-tayside-central-29708280 Jump up ^ `` A GUIDE TO SPEED LIMITER REQUIREMENTS '' ( PDF ) . Department for Transport . Jump up ^ `` Light signals controlling traffic '' ( PDF ) . Direct Gov . Jump up ^ `` Variable Speed Limits '' . UK government . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Tunnel Byelaws '' ( PDF ) . Mersey Tunnels . Retrieved 22 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Traffic signs '' ( PDF ) . Highway Code . Retrieved 22 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Speed limits - how they are set '' . UK government . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Speed limits are an important part of achieving appropriate speeds on the road and are adopted for safety , environmental and accessibility reasons . ^ Jump up to : `` DfT Circular 1 / 06 , new guidance on setting local speed limits '' ( PDF ) . Department for Transport . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 07 . Effective speed management involves many components designed to work together to encourage , help and require road users to adopt appropriate and safe speeds . Speed limits play a fundamental role . They are a key source of information to road users , particularly as an indicator of the nature and risks posed by that road to both themselves and other motorised and non-motorised road users . Speed limits should , therefore , be evidence - led , self - explaining and seek to reinforce people 's assessment of what is a safe speed to travel . They should also encourage self - compliance and not be seen by drivers as being a target speed at which to drive in all circumstances . ^ Jump up to : `` Road accidents '' . Hansard. 1934 - 07 - 16 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . I presume that my hon. and gallant Friend refers to the weekly records of persons killed or injured in road accidents which have been obtained since the middle of March . I regret that the most recent returns have shown an increase in the number of accidents , but while I do not wish to detract from the seriousness of the situation it must be borne in mind , in comparing the figures for successive weeks , that there is now a seasonal increase in the amount of traffic on the roads combined with an increase in the number of new registrations . ^ Jump up to : `` 70 M.P.H. Limit For Four Months '' . The Times . 1965 - 11 - 25 . p. 12 . Jump up ^ `` The Ending the Scandal of Complacency : Road Safety beyond 2010 : Further Government Response to the Committee 's Eleventh Report of Session 2007 -- 08 '' ( PDF ) . PACT . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 07 . The proposals in our consultation document aimed at achieving lower speeds in streets with high pedestrian populations and on the more dangerous rural single carriageways with poor casualty records , for example , are based on problems which we have identified in the system ( p. 4 ) ... For example , in a head - on collision in which two cars crashed at 60 mph a driver has a 90 % chance of dying . This is reduced to 65 % at 50 mph . That is why we are making sure that highway authorities have the accurate risk information and the support they need to alter speed limits and zones where this is the right thing to do . Jump up ^ `` UN raises child accidents alarm '' . BBC News . 2008 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Road Casualties Great Britain : 2006 - Annual Report '' . Department for Transport . p. 92 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 02 - 09 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` Roads - Speed Limits '' . Bath & North East Somerset Council . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . It is recognised that speed limits on their own do not necessarily reduce the speed of vehicles , particularly if they are set at a level substantially below that at which the majority of drivers would choose to drive . Therefore , lower speed limits do not necessarily result in lower speeds . To effect this , the character of the road needs to be altered . Measures other than signing are required if speeds are to be reduced to a level where drivers understand and accept the need for the limit . Police enforcement can then target those irresponsible drivers . ^ Jump up to : `` Driving over 50 mph banned from tonight '' . The Times . 1973 - 12 - 07 . p. 4 . Jump up ^ `` Select Committee on Transport , Local Government and the Regions Ninth Report - Introduction '' . Parliament . The problem is that : `` Most drivers and pedestrians think speeds are generally too high but 95 per cent of all drivers admit to exceeding speed limits Jump up ^ DfT Circular 01 / 2006 : Setting Local Speed Limits ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Department for Transport . 2006 - 08 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Indeed , if a speed limit is set in isolation , or is unrealistically low , it is likely to be ineffective and lead to disrespect for the speed limit . As well as requiring significant , and avoidable , enforcement costs , this may also result in substantial numbers of drivers continuing to travel at unacceptable speeds , thus increasing the risk of collisions and injuries . ^ Jump up to : DfT Circular 01 / 2006 Setting Local Speed Limits ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Department for Transport . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ TRL363 Urban speed management methods ( PDF ) ( Report ) . 1998 . Jump up ^ `` Written Answers to Questions : Road Accidents '' . Hansard . House of Commons . 2003 - 01 - 31 . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 23 . TRL research on urban speed management methods published in 1998 ( TRL Report 363 ) found only an average 1 mph drop in speeds and no discernible accident reduction in accidents in 20 mph limits using only signs . Advisory speed limits are not normally approved in England and Wales . However , the more successful 20 mph zones that use self enforcing traffic calming features achieved average speed reductions of around 10 mph which produced a 70 % reduction in child pedestrian accidents and a 48 % reduction in child cyclist accidents . Jump up ^ Atkins ( 2010 - 09 - 16 ) . Interim Evaluation of the Implementation of 20 mph Speed Limits in Portsmouth : Final Report ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Department for Transport . Jump up ^ `` 20 mph speed limits and zones - Traffic Advisory Leaflet 9 / 99 '' ( PDF ) . Department for Transport . Jump up ^ `` Memorandum by Kingston upon Hull City Council ( RTS 152 ) '' . Parliament . Jump up ^ `` London Road Safety Unit : Safety Research Report No. 2 - Review of 20 mph Zones in London Boroughs '' ( PDF ) . allowing for background changes in KSI casualty frequencies , the installation of 20 mph zones has reduced the frequency of road user casualties within the zones by about 45 % and reduced the frequency of fatal or serious ( KSI ) casualties by about 57 % . Jump up ^ `` 2.16 '' . Local Transport Note 1 / 11 : Shared Space ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Department for Transport . October 2011 . p. 14 . Retrieved 7 February 2012 . Jump up ^ `` M6 Radar Shows Faster Family Driving '' . The Times . 1967 - 04 - 27 . p. 6 . Jump up ^ `` Effectiveness of speed cameras in preventing road traffic collisions and related casualties '' . BMJ . However , owing to the highly controversial nature of the debate about speed cameras in high income countries , we would expect any published negative studies to be highly publicised . Jump up ^ `` Speed Cameras '' . Icons of England . Speed cameras are highly controversial and attacks on them regularly make the news . Jump up ^ `` Annex 6 TECHNOLOGY FOR ENFORCEMENT '' . A notable example is in the Nottingham Safety Camera Pilot where virtually complete compliance was achieved on the major ring road into the city Jump up ^ `` Permanent Casualty Reduction Scheme '' ( PDF ) . Across all Nottinghamshire SPECS installations , KSI figures have fallen by an average of 65 % Jump up ^ `` MVRUS - Legislation : A summary of important legislation '' . UK Department of the Environment . Archived from the original on 2009 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Highways and Locomotives ( Amendment ) Act 1878 section 29 '' . legislation.gov.uk . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 09 . shall precede by at least twenty yards the locomotive on foot Jump up ^ `` The early years of the automobile in Britain '' . Dailmer . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 09 . Meanwhile British Motor Syndicate began a public relations campaign to lobby for the repeal of the `` Highways and Locomotive Act '' , still the main obstacle to the introduction of the car in Britain ^ Jump up to : `` History '' . London to Brighton Veteran Car Run 2010 . Archived from the original on 2008 - 03 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` New Motoring Law '' . The Times . 1930 - 12 - 01 . p. 14 . Jump up ^ `` MOTOR VEHICLES AND SPEEDOMETERS '' . Hansard . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02 . It is sufficient to say that the reason why the speed limit was abolished was not that anybody thought the abolition would tend to the greater security of foot passengers , but that the existing speed limit was so universally disobeyed that its maintenance brought the law into contempt Jump up ^ `` Road traffic Act 1930 '' ( PDF ) . opsi . p. 102 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2009 - 12 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` MOTOR VEHICLES AND SPEEDOMETERS '' . Hansard . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02 . My Lords , the Motion that stands in my name is directed to secure that motor vehicles that are now under statutory restriction as to the pace at which they are permitted to travel should be compelled to carry a trustworthy speedometer so that the driver of the vehicle may know when he is exceeding the limit . Jump up ^ `` ROAD TRAFFIC ( SPEEDOMETER ) BILL '' . Hansard . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Speed Limit To - Day '' . The Times . 1935 - 03 - 18 . p. 12 . Jump up ^ Department for Transport ( 2006 - 08 - 08 ) . `` DfT Circular 01 / 2006 : Setting Local Speed Limits '' . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2007 - 02 - 06 . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` History - Government and Public Health '' . BBC Bitesize . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` How the Thirties saw Britain fall in love with the car ... and become a nation of road hogs '' . Daily Mail . London . 2010 - 02 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Road Safety History 1922 - 1937 '' . RoadSafetyUK . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ Schlesinger , Fay ( 2009 - 03 - 29 ) . `` Pensioner booked for speeding ... in a 1923 Model T Ford that does n't even have a speedo '' . Daily Mail . London . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Speed Limit in Black - Out '' . The Times . 1940 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` More Deaths on the Road : Disappointing Result of Speed Limit '' . The Times . 1940 - 04 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Rising Death - Rate on the Roads : 1,146 Persons Killed Last Month '' . The Times . 1940 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` New road rules next week '' . The Times . 1956 - 09 - 28 . p. 10 . Jump up ^ Grahame Boyes ( May 2004 ) . `` The British Road Haulage Industry since 1954 '' ( PDF ) . Journal of the Railway and Canal Historical Society . Railway & Canal Historical Society : 514 -- 524 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Croydon Road , Mitcham , 40mph speed limit signs '' . Merton Memories Photographic Archive. 20 March 1958 . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Saving motorists from themselves '' . The Times . 1965 - 11 - 11 . p. 16 . ^ Jump up to : `` Most Drivers Stay Within 70 M.P.H. Limit '' . The Times . 1965 - 12 - 23 . p. 8 . Jump up ^ `` More Experience Needed '' . The Times . 1966 - 04 - 07 . p. 13 . Jump up ^ `` 70 M.P.H. limit for another 15 months '' . The Times . 1966 - 05 - 18 . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` Safer by bus ? '' . Autocar . Vol. 127 ( nbr 3744 ) . 16 November 1967 . p. 5 . Jump up ^ `` 60 M.P.H. limit for some roads ? '' . The Times . 1967 - 07 - 13 . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` Effectiveness of 70 mph limit '' . The Times . 1967 - 11 - 07 . p. 15 . Jump up ^ `` 50 mph limit to end '' . The Times . 1974 - 05 - 07 . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` Slower driving '' . The Times . 1974 - 12 - 13 . p. 20 . Jump up ^ `` Fresh look at 50 mph - 60 mph speed limits '' . The Times . 1976 - 11 - 18 . p. 30 . Jump up ^ `` Speed limits will be raised from June 1 '' . The Times . 1977 - 04 - 07 . p. 4 . Jump up ^ `` Speed : Know your limits '' ( PDF ) . Department for Transport . p. 8 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 1 February 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984 , part IV : Speed Limits ; accessed 2011 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ A road 's speed limit is 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) if the road 's street lights are `` ( not placed ) more than 200 yards apart '' in England and Wales or `` not more than 185 metres '' in Scotland ; a local authority can choose whether or not a ' restricted road ' remains as such ( for a road within the aforementioned street lighting requirements ) -- cf . Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984 , section 82 : What roads are restricted roads . Jump up ^ Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984 , section 89 : Speeding offences generally ; accessed 2011 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Traffic Advisory Leaflet 9 / 99 '' ( PDF ) . Department for Transport . June 1999 . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 13 . Jump up ^ Gray , Sadie ( 2009 - 03 - 09 ) . `` Rural speed limits may be reduced to 50mph '' . The Independent . London . Jump up ^ `` DfT releases consultation on simplification of speed limit rules for buses , coaches and heavy goods '' . CIHT. 2 February 2010 . Retrieved 19 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Changes to bus and coach speed limits proposed '' . Coach Broker . Archived from the original on 2011 - 08 - 23 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` New higher speed limits for lorries in England and Wales '' . highwaycodeuk.co.uk . Retrieved 22 December 2015 . 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23 | document: Sound localization - Wikipedia Sound localization Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the biological process of sound localization . For sound localization via mechanical or electrical means , see acoustic location . Sound localization is a listener 's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound in direction and distance . It may also refer to the methods in acoustical engineering to simulate the placement of an auditory cue in a virtual 3D space ( see binaural recording , wave field synthesis ) . The sound localization mechanisms of the mammalian auditory system have been extensively studied . The auditory system uses several cues for sound source localization , including time - and level - differences ( or intensity - difference ) between both ears , spectral information , timing analysis , correlation analysis , and pattern matching . These cues are also used by other animals , but there may be differences in usage , and there are also localization cues which are absent in the human auditory system , such as the effects of ear movements . Animals with the ability to localize sound have a clear evolutionary advantage . Contents ( hide ) 1 How sound reaches the brain 2 Neural interactions 3 The cone of confusion 4 Sound localization by the human auditory system 4.1 General Introduction 4.2 Duplex Theory 4.2. 1 Duplex Theory 4.2. 2 ITD and IID 4.2. 3 Evaluation for low frequencies 4.2. 4 Evaluation for high frequencies 4.3 Pinna Filtering Effect Theory 4.3. 1 Motivations 4.3. 2 Math Model 4.3. 3 HRTF Database 4.4 Other Cues for 3D Space Localization 4.4. 1 Monaural cues 4.4. 2 Dynamic binaural cues 4.5 Distance of the sound source 4.6 Signal processing 4.7 Localization in enclosed rooms 5 Specific techniques with applications 5.1 Auditory transmission stereo system 5.2 3D para-virtualization stereo system 5.3 Multichannel stereo virtual reproduction 6 Animals 6.1 Lateral information ( left , ahead , right ) 6.2 Odontocetes 6.3 In the median plane ( front , above , back , below ) 6.4 Head tilting 6.5 Localization with coupled ears ( flies ) 6.6 Bi-coordinate sound localization ( owls ) 7 History 8 See also 9 References 10 External links How sound reaches the brain ( edit ) Sound is the perceptual result of mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or water . Through the mechanisms of compression and rarefaction , sound waves travel through the air , bounce off the pinna and concha of the exterior ear , and enter the ear canal . The sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane ( ear drum ) , causing the three bones of the middle ear to vibrate , which then sends the energy through the oval window and into the cochlea where it is changed into a chemical signal by hair cells in the organ of corti , which synapse onto spiral ganglion fibers that travel through the cochlear nerve into the brain . Neural interactions ( edit ) In vertebrates , inter-aural time differences are known to be calculated in the superior olivary nucleus of the brainstem . According to Jeffress , this calculation relies on delay lines : neurons in the superior olive which accept innervation from each ear with different connecting axon lengths . Some cells are more directly connected to one ear than the other , thus they are specific for a particular inter-aural time difference . This theory is equivalent to the mathematical procedure of cross-correlation . However , because Jeffress ' theory is unable to account for the precedence effect , in which only the first of multiple identical sounds is used to determine the sounds ' location ( thus avoiding confusion caused by echoes ) , it can not be entirely used to explain the response . Furthermore , a number of recent physiological observations made in the midbrain and brainstem of small mammals have shed considerable doubt on the validity of Jeffress ' original ideas Neurons sensitive to inter-aural level differences ( ILDs ) are excited by stimulation of one ear and inhibited by stimulation of the other ear , such that the response magnitude of the cell depends on the relative strengths of the two inputs , which in turn , depends on the sound intensities at the ears . In the auditory midbrain nucleus , the inferior colliculus ( IC ) , many ILD sensitive neurons have response functions that decline steeply from maximum to zero spikes as a function of ILD . However , there are also many neurons with much more shallow response functions that do not decline to zero spikes . The cone of confusion ( edit ) Most mammals are adept at resolving the location of a sound source using interaural time differences and interaural level differences . However , no such time or level differences exist for sounds originating along the circumference of circular conical slices , where the cone 's axis lies along the line between the two ears . Consequently , sound waves originating at any point along a given circumference slant height will have ambiguous perceptual coordinates . That is to say , the listener will be incapable of determining whether the sound originated from the back , front , top , bottom or anywhere else along the circumference at the base of a cone at any given distance from the ear . Of course , the importance of these ambiguities are vanishingly small for sound sources very close to or very far away from the subject , but it is these intermediate distances that are most important in terms of fitness . These ambiguities can be removed by tilting the head , which can introduce a shift in both the amplitude and phase of sound waves arriving at each ear . This translates the vertical orientation of the interaural axis horizontally , thereby leveraging the mechanism of localization on the horizontal plane . Moreover , even with no alternation in the angle of the interaural axis ( i.e. without tilting one 's head ) the hearing system can capitalize on interference patterns generated by pinnae , the torso , and even the temporary re-purposing of a hand as extension of the pinna ( e.g. , cupping one 's hand around the ear ) . As with other sensory stimuli , perceptual disambiguation is also accomplished through integration of multiple sensory inputs , especially visual cues . Having localized a sound within the circumference of a circle at some perceived distance , visual cues serve to fix the location of the sound . Moreover , prior knowledge of the location of the sound generating agent will assist in resolving its current location . Sound localization by the human auditory system ( edit ) Sound localization is the process of determining the location of a sound source . Objectively speaking , the major goal of sound localization is to simulate a specific sound field , including the acoustic sources , the listener , the media and environments of sound propagation . The brain utilizes subtle differences in intensity , spectral , and timing cues to allow us to localize sound sources . In this section , to more deeply understand the human auditory mechanism , we will briefly discuss about human ear localization theory . General introduction ( edit ) Localization can be described in terms of three - dimensional position : the azimuth or horizontal angle , the elevation or vertical angle , and the distance ( for static sounds ) or velocity ( for moving sounds ) . The azimuth of a sound is signaled by the difference in arrival times between the ears , by the relative amplitude of high - frequency sounds ( the shadow effect ) , and by the asymmetrical spectral reflections from various parts of our bodies , including torso , shoulders , and pinnae . The distance cues are the loss of amplitude , the loss of high frequencies , and the ratio of the direct signal to the reverberated signal . Depending on where the source is located , our head acts as a barrier to change the timbre , intensity , and spectral qualities of the sound , helping the brain orient where the sound emanated from . These minute differences between the two ears are known as interaural cues . Lower frequencies , with longer wavelengths , diffract the sound around the head forcing the brain to focus only on the phasing cues from the source . Helmut Haas discovered that we can discern the sound source despite additional reflections at 10 decibels louder than the original wave front , using the earliest arriving wave front . This principle is known as the Haas effect , a specific version of the precedence effect . Haas measured down to even a 1 millisecond difference in timing between the original sound and reflected sound increased the spaciousness , allowing the brain to discern the true location of the original sound . The nervous system combines all early reflections into a single perceptual whole allowing the brain to process multiple different sounds at once . The nervous system will combine reflections that are within about 35 milliseconds of each other and that have a similar intensity . Duplex theory ( edit ) To determine the lateral input direction ( left , front , right ) , the auditory system analyzes the following ear signal information : Duplex Theory ( edit ) In 1907 , Lord Rayleigh utilized tuning forks to generate monophonic excitation and studied the lateral sound localization theory on a human head model without auricle . He first presented the interural clue difference based sound localization theory , which is known as Duplex Theory . Human ears are on the different sides of the head , thus they have different coordinates in space . As shown in fig. 2 , since the distances between the acoustic source and ears are different , there are time difference and intensity difference between the sound signals of two ears . We call those kinds of differences as Interaural Time Difference ( ITD ) and Interaural Intensity Difference ( IID ) respectively . fig. 2 Duplex Theory ITD and IID ( edit ) Interaural Time Difference ( ITD ) between left ear ( top ) and right ear ( bottom ) . ( sound source : 100 ms white noise from right ) Interaural Level Difference ( ILD ) between left ear ( left ) and right ear ( right ) . ( sound source : a sweep from right ) From fig. 2 we can see that no matter for source B1 or source B2 , there will be a propagation delay between two ears , which will generate the ITD . Simultaneously , human head and ears may have shadowing effect on high frequency signals , which will generate IID . Interaural Time Difference ( ITD ) Sound from the right side reaches the right ear earlier than the left ear . The auditory system evaluates interaural time differences from : ( a ) Phase delays at low frequencies and ( b ) group delays at high frequencies . Massive experiments demonstrate that ITD relates to the signal frequency f . Suppose the angular position of the acoustic source is θ , the head radius is r and the acoustic velocity is c , the function of ITD is given by : I T D = ( 300 × r × sin θ / c , if f ≤ 4000Hz 200 × r × sin θ / c , if f > 4000Hz ( \ displaystyle ITD = ( \ begin ( cases ) 300 \ times ( \ text ( r ) ) \ times \ sin \ theta / ( \ text ( c ) ) , & ( \ text ( if ) ) f \ leq ( \ text ( 4000Hz ) ) \ \ 200 \ times ( \ text ( r ) ) \ times \ sin \ theta / ( \ text ( c ) ) , & ( \ text ( if ) ) f > ( \ text ( 4000Hz ) ) \ end ( cases ) ) ) . In above closed form , we assumed that the 0 degree is in the right ahead of the head and counter-clockwise is positive . Interaural Intensity Difference ( IID ) or Interaural Level Difference ( ILD ) Sound from the right side has a higher level at the right ear than at the left ear , because the head shadows the left ear . These level differences are highly frequency dependent and they increase with increasing frequency . Massive theoretical researches demonstrate that IID relates to the signal frequency f and the angular position of the acoustic source θ . The function of IID is given by : I I D = 1.0 + ( f / 1000 ) 0.8 × sin θ ( \ displaystyle IID = 1.0 + ( f / 1000 ) ^ ( 0.8 ) \ times \ sin \ theta ) For frequencies below 1000 Hz , mainly ITDs are evaluated ( phase delays ) , for frequencies above 1500 Hz mainly IIDs are evaluated . Between 1000 Hz and 1500 Hz there is a transition zone , where both mechanisms play a role . Localization accuracy is 1 degree for sources in front of the listener and 15 degrees for sources to the sides . Humans can discern interaural time differences of 10 microseconds or less . Evaluation for low frequencies ( edit ) For frequencies below 800 Hz , the dimensions of the head ( ear distance 21.5 cm , corresponding to an interaural time delay of 625 μs ) are smaller than the half wavelength of the sound waves . So the auditory system can determine phase delays between both ears without confusion . Interaural level differences are very low in this frequency range , especially below about 200 Hz , so a precise evaluation of the input direction is nearly impossible on the basis of level differences alone . As the frequency drops below 80 Hz it becomes difficult or impossible to use either time difference or level difference to determine a sound 's lateral source , because the phase difference between the ears becomes too small for a directional evaluation . Evaluation for high frequencies ( edit ) For frequencies above 1600 Hz the dimensions of the head are greater than the length of the sound waves . An unambiguous determination of the input direction based on interaural phase alone is not possible at these frequencies . However , the interaural level differences become larger , and these level differences are evaluated by the auditory system . Also , group delays between the ears can be evaluated , and is more pronounced at higher frequencies ; that is , if there is a sound onset , the delay of this onset between the ears can be used to determine the input direction of the corresponding sound source . This mechanism becomes especially important in reverberant environments . After a sound onset there is a short time frame where the direct sound reaches the ears , but not yet the reflected sound . The auditory system uses this short time frame for evaluating the sound source direction , and keeps this detected direction as long as reflections and reverberation prevent an unambiguous direction estimation . The mechanisms described above can not be used to differentiate between a sound source ahead of the hearer or behind the hearer ; therefore additional cues have to be evaluated . Pinna filtering effect theory ( edit ) fig. 4 HRTF Motivations ( edit ) Duplex theory clearly points out that ITD and IID play significant roles in sound localization but they can only deal with lateral localizing problems . For example , based on duplex theory , if two acoustic sources are symmetrically located on the right front and right back of the human head , they will generate equal ITDs and IIDs , which is called as cone model effect . However , human ears can actually distinguish this set of sources . Besides that , in natural sense of hearing , only one ear , which means no ITD or IID , can distinguish the sources with a high accuracy . Due to the disadvantages of duplex theory , researchers proposed the pinna filtering effect theory . The shape of human pinna is very special . It is concave with complex folds and asymmetrical no matter horizontally or vertically . The reflected waves and the direct waves will generate a frequency spectrum on the eardrum , which is related to the acoustic sources . Then auditory nerves localize the sources by this frequency spectrum . Therefore , a corresponding theory was proposed and called as pinna filtering effect theory . Math model ( edit ) These spectrum clue generated by pinna filtering effect can be presented as Head - Related Transfer Functions ( HRTF ) . The corresponding time domain expressions are called as Head - Related Impulse Response ( HRIR ) . HRTF is also called as the transfer function from the free field to a specific point in the ear canal . We usually recognize HRTFs as LTI systems : H L = H L ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) = P L ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) / P 0 ( r , ω ) ( \ displaystyle H_ ( L ) = H_ ( L ) ( r , \ theta , \ varphi , \ omega , \ alpha ) = P_ ( L ) ( r , \ theta , \ varphi , \ omega , \ alpha ) / P_ ( 0 ) ( r , \ omega ) ) H R = H R ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) = P R ( r , θ , φ , ω , α ) / P 0 ( r , ω ) ( \ displaystyle H_ ( R ) = H_ ( R ) ( r , \ theta , \ varphi , \ omega , \ alpha ) = P_ ( R ) ( r , \ theta , \ varphi , \ omega , \ alpha ) / P_ ( 0 ) ( r , \ omega ) ) , where L and R represent the left ear and right ear respectively . P L ( \ displaystyle P_ ( L ) ) and P R ( \ displaystyle P_ ( R ) ) represent the amplitude of sound pressure at entrances of left and right ear canal . P 0 ( \ displaystyle P_ ( 0 ) ) is the amplitude of sound pressure at the center of the head coordinate when listener does not exist . In general , HRTFs H L ( \ displaystyle H_ ( L ) ) and H R ( \ displaystyle H_ ( R ) ) are functions of source angular position θ ( \ displaystyle \ theta ) , elevation angle φ ( \ displaystyle \ varphi ) , distance between source and center of the head r ( \ displaystyle r ) , the angular velocity ω ( \ displaystyle \ omega ) and the equivalent dimension of the head α ( \ displaystyle \ alpha ) . HRTF database ( edit ) At present , the main institutes that work on measuring HRTF database includes CIPIC International Lab , MIT Media Lab , The Graduate School in Psychoacoustics at the University of Oldenburg , Neurophysiology Lab in University of Wisconsin - Madison and Ames Lab of NASA . They carefully measures the HRIRs from both humans and animals and share the results on Internet for people who want to study . fig. 5 HRIR Other cues for 3D space localization ( edit ) Monaural cues ( edit ) The human outer ear , i.e. the structures of the pinna and the external ear canal , form direction - selective filters . Depending on the sound input direction in the median plane , different filter resonances become active . These resonances implant direction - specific patterns into the frequency responses of the ears , which can be evaluated by the auditory system ( directional bands ) for vertical sound localization . Together with other direction - selective reflections at the head , shoulders and torso , they form the outer ear transfer functions . These patterns in the ear 's frequency responses are highly individual , depending on the shape and size of the outer ear . If sound is presented through headphones , and has been recorded via another head with different - shaped outer ear surfaces , the directional patterns differ from the listener 's own , and problems will appear when trying to evaluate directions in the median plane with these foreign ears . As a consequence , front -- back permutations or inside - the - head - localization can appear when listening to dummy head recordings , or otherwise referred to as binaural recordings . It has been shown that human subjects can monaurally localize high frequency sound but not low frequency sound . Binaural localization , however , was possible with lower frequencies . This is likely due to the pinna being small enough to only interact with sound waves of high frequency . It seems that people can only accurately localize the elevation of sounds that are complex and include frequencies above 7,000 Hz , and a pinna must be present . Dynamic binaural cues ( edit ) When the head is stationary , the binaural cues for lateral sound localization ( interaural time difference and interaural level difference ) do not give information about the location of a sound in the median plane . Identical ITDs and ILDs can be produced by sounds at eye level or at any elevation , as long as the lateral direction is constant . However , if the head is rotated , the ITD and ILD change dynamically , and those changes are different for sounds at different elevations . For example , if an eye - level sound source is straight ahead and the head turns to the left , the sound becomes louder ( and arrives sooner ) at the right ear than at the left . But if the sound source is directly overhead , there will be no change in the ITD and ILD as the head turns . Intermediate elevations will produce intermediate degrees of change , and if the presentation of binaural cues to the two ears during head movement is reversed , the sound will be heard behind the listener . Hans Wallach artificially altered a sound 's binaural cues during movements of the head . Although the sound was objectively placed at eye level , the dynamic changes to ITD and ILD as the head rotated were those that would be produced if the sound source had been elevated . In this situation , the sound was heard at the synthesized elevation . The fact that the sound sources objectively remained at eye level prevented monaural cues from specifying the elevation , showing that it was the dynamic change in the binaural cues during head movement that allowed the sound to be correctly localized in the vertical dimension . The head movements need not be actively produced ; accurate vertical localization occurred in a similar setup when the head rotation was produced passively , by seating the blindfolded subject in a rotating chair . As long as the dynamic changes in binaural cues accompanied a perceived head rotation , the synthesized elevation was perceived . Distance of the sound source ( edit ) The human auditory system has only limited possibilities to determine the distance of a sound source . In the close - up - range there are some indications for distance determination , such as extreme level differences ( e.g. when whispering into one ear ) or specific pinna ( the visible part of the ear ) resonances in the close - up range . The auditory system uses these clues to estimate the distance to a sound source : Direct / Reflection ratio : In enclosed rooms , two types of sound are arriving at a listener : The direct sound arrives at the listener 's ears without being reflected at a wall . Reflected sound has been reflected at least one time at a wall before arriving at the listener . The ratio between direct sound and reflected sound can give an indication about the distance of the sound source . Loudness : Distant sound sources have a lower loudness than close ones . This aspect can be evaluated especially for well - known sound sources . Sound spectrum : High frequencies are more quickly damped by the air than low frequencies . Therefore , a distant sound source sounds more muffled than a close one , because the high frequencies are attenuated . For sound with a known spectrum ( e.g. speech ) the distance can be estimated roughly with the help of the perceived sound . ITDG : The Initial Time Delay Gap describes the time difference between arrival of the direct wave and first strong reflection at the listener . Nearby sources create a relatively large ITDG , with the first reflections having a longer path to take , possibly many times longer . When the source is far away , the direct and the reflected sound waves have similar path lengths . Movement : Similar to the visual system there is also the phenomenon of motion parallax in acoustical perception . For a moving listener nearby sound sources are passing faster than distant sound sources . Level Difference : Very close sound sources cause a different level between the ears . Signal processing ( edit ) Sound processing of the human auditory system is performed in so - called critical bands . The hearing range is segmented into 24 critical bands , each with a width of 1 Bark or 100 Mel . For a directional analysis the signals inside the critical band are analyzed together . The auditory system can extract the sound of a desired sound source out of interfering noise . This allows the listener to concentrate on only one speaker if other speakers are also talking ( the cocktail party effect ) . With the help of the cocktail party effect sound from interfering directions is perceived attenuated compared to the sound from the desired direction . The auditory system can increase the signal - to - noise ratio by up to 15 dB , which means that interfering sound is perceived to be attenuated to half ( or less ) of its actual loudness . Localization in enclosed rooms ( edit ) In enclosed rooms not only the direct sound from a sound source is arriving at the listener 's ears , but also sound which has been reflected at the walls . The auditory system analyses only the direct sound , which is arriving first , for sound localization , but not the reflected sound , which is arriving later ( law of the first wave front ) . So sound localization remains possible even in an echoic environment . This echo cancellation occurs in the Dorsal Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus ( DNLL ) . In order to determine the time periods , where the direct sound prevails and which can be used for directional evaluation , the auditory system analyzes loudness changes in different critical bands and also the stability of the perceived direction . If there is a strong attack of the loudness in several critical bands and if the perceived direction is stable , this attack is in all probability caused by the direct sound of a sound source , which is entering newly or which is changing its signal characteristics . This short time period is used by the auditory system for directional and loudness analysis of this sound . When reflections arrive a little bit later , they do not enhance the loudness inside the critical bands in such a strong way , but the directional cues become unstable , because there is a mix of sound of several reflection directions . As a result , no new directional analysis is triggered by the auditory system . This first detected direction from the direct sound is taken as the found sound source direction , until other strong loudness attacks , combined with stable directional information , indicate that a new directional analysis is possible . ( see Franssen effect ) Specific techniques with applications ( edit ) Auditory transmission stereo system ( edit ) This kind of sound localization technique provides us the real virtual stereo system . It utilizes `` smart '' manikins , such as KEMAR , to glean signals or use DSP methods to simulate the transmission process from sources to ears . After amplifying , recording and transmitting , the two channels of received signals will be reproduced through earphones or speakers . This localization approach uses electroacoustic methods to obtain the spatial information of the original sound field by transferring the listener 's auditory apparatus to the original sound field . The most considerable advantages of it would be that its acoustic images are lively and natural . Also , it only needs two independent transmitted signal to reproduce the acoustic image of a 3D system . fig. 6 Sound Localization with Manikin 3D para-virtualization stereo system ( edit ) The representatives of this kind of system are SRS Audio Sandbox , Spatializer Audio Lab and Qsound Qxpander . They use HRTF to simulate the received acoustic signals at the ears from different directions with common binary - channel stereo reproduction . Therefore , they can simulate reflected sound waves and improve subjective sense of space and envelopment . Since they are para-virtualization stereo systems , the major goal of them is to simulate stereo sound information . Traditional stereo systems use sensors that are quite different from human ears . Although those sensors can receive the acoustic information from different directions , they do not have the same frequency response of human auditory system . Therefore , when binary - channel mode is applied , human auditory systems still can not feel the 3D sound effect field . However , the 3D para-virtualization stereo system overcome such disadvantages . It uses HRTF principles to glean acoustic information from the original sound field then produce a lively 3D sound field through common earphones or speakers . Multichannel stereo virtual reproduction ( edit ) Since the multichannel stereo systems require lots of reproduction channels , some researchers adopted the HRTF simulation technologies to reduce the number of reproduction channels . They use only two speakers to simulate multiple speakers in a multichannel system . This process is called as virtual reproduction . Essentially , such approach uses both interaural difference principle and pinna filtering effect theory . Unfortunately , this kind of approach can not perfectly substitute the traditional multichannel stereo system , such as 5.1 surround sound system . That is because when the listening zone is relatively larger , simulation reproduction through HRTFs may cause invert acoustic images at symmetric positions . Animals ( edit ) Since most animals have two ears , many of the effects of the human auditory system can also be found in other animals . Therefore , interaural time differences ( interaural phase differences ) and interaural level differences play a role for the hearing of many animals . But the influences on localization of these effects are dependent on head sizes , ear distances , the ear positions and the orientation of the ears . Lateral information ( left , ahead , right ) ( edit ) If the ears are located at the side of the head , similar lateral localization cues as for the human auditory system can be used . This means : evaluation of interaural time differences ( interaural phase differences ) for lower frequencies and evaluation of interaural level differences for higher frequencies . The evaluation of interaural phase differences is useful , as long as it gives unambiguous results . This is the case , as long as ear distance is smaller than half the length ( maximal one wavelength ) of the sound waves . For animals with a larger head than humans the evaluation range for interaural phase differences is shifted towards lower frequencies , for animals with a smaller head , this range is shifted towards higher frequencies . The lowest frequency which can be localized depends on the ear distance . Animals with a greater ear distance can localize lower frequencies than humans can . For animals with a smaller ear distance the lowest localizable frequency is higher than for humans . If the ears are located at the side of the head , interaural level differences appear for higher frequencies and can be evaluated for localization tasks . For animals with ears at the top of the head , no shadowing by the head will appear and therefore there will be much less interaural level differences , which could be evaluated . Many of these animals can move their ears , and these ear movements can be used as a lateral localization cue . Odontocetes ( edit ) Dolphins ( and other odontocetes ) rely on echolocation to aid in detecting , identifying , localizing , and capturing prey . Dolphin sonar signals are well suited for localizing multiple , small targets in a three - dimensional aquatic environment by utilizing highly directional ( 3 dB beamwidth of about 10 deg ) , broadband ( 3 dB bandwidth typically of about 40 kHz ; peak frequencies between 40 kHz and 120 kHz ) , short duration clicks ( about 40 μs ) . Dolphins can localize sounds both passively and actively ( echolocation ) with a resolution of about 1 deg . Cross-modal matching ( between vision and echolocation ) suggests dolphins perceive the spatial structure of complex objects interrogated through echolocation , a feat that likely requires spatially resolving individual object features and integration into a holistic representation of object shape . Although dolphins are sensitive to small , binaural intensity and time differences , mounting evidence suggests dolphins employ position - dependent spectral cues derived from well - developed head - related transfer functions , for sound localization in both the horizontal and vertical planes . A very small temporal integration time ( 264 μs ) allows localization of multiple targets at varying distances . Localization adaptations include pronounced asymmetry of the skull , nasal sacks , and specialized lipid structures in the forehead and jaws , as well as acoustically isolated middle and inner ears . In the median plane ( front , above , back , below ) ( edit ) For many mammals there are also pronounced structures in the pinna near the entry of the ear canal . As a consequence , direction - dependent resonances can appear , which could be used as an additional localization cue , similar to the localization in the median plane in the human auditory system . There are additional localization cues which are also used by animals . Head tilting ( edit ) For sound localization in the median plane ( elevation of the sound ) also two detectors can be used , which are positioned at different heights . In animals , however , rough elevation information is gained simply by tilting the head , provided that the sound lasts long enough to complete the movement . This explains the innate behavior of cocking the head to one side when trying to localize a sound precisely . To get instantaneous localization in more than two dimensions from time - difference or amplitude - difference cues requires more than two detectors . Localization with coupled ears ( flies ) ( edit ) The tiny parasitic fly Ormia ochracea has become a model organism in sound localization experiments because of its unique ear . The animal is too small for the time difference of sound arriving at the two ears to be calculated in the usual way , yet it can determine the direction of sound sources with exquisite precision . The tympanic membranes of opposite ears are directly connected mechanically , allowing resolution of sub-microsecond time differences and requiring a new neural coding strategy . Ho showed that the coupled - eardrum system in frogs can produce increased interaural vibration disparities when only small arrival time and sound level differences were available to the animal 's head . Efforts to build directional microphones based on the coupled - eardrum structure are underway . Bi-coordinate sound localization ( owls ) ( edit ) Main article : Sound localization in owls Most owls are nocturnal or crepuscular birds of prey . Because they hunt at night , they must rely on non-visual senses . Experiments by Roger Payne have shown that owls are sensitive to the sounds made by their prey , not the heat or the smell . In fact , the sound cues are both necessary and sufficient for localization of mice from a distant location where they are perched . For this to work , the owls must be able to accurately localize both the azimuth and the elevation of the sound source . History ( edit ) The term ' binaural ' literally signifies ' to hear with two ears ' , and was introduced in 1859 to signify the practice of listening to the same sound through both ears , or to two discrete sounds , one through each ear . It was not until 1916 that Carl Stumpf ( 1848 -- 1936 ) , a German philosopher and psychologist , distinguished between dichotic listening , which refers to the stimulation of each ear with a different stimulus , and diotic listening , the simultaneous stimulation of both ears with the same stimulus . Later , it would become apparent that binaural hearing , whether dichotic or diotic , is the means by which sound localization occurs . Scientific consideration of binaural hearing began before the phenomenon was so named , with speculations published in 1792 by William Charles Wells ( 1757 -- 1817 ) based on his research into binocular vision . Giovanni Battista Venturi ( 1746 -- 1822 ) conducted and described experiments in which people tried to localize a sound using both ears , or one ear blocked with a finger . This work was not followed up on , and was only recovered after others had worked out how human sound localization works . Lord Rayleigh ( 1842 -- 1919 ) would do these same experiments and come to the results , without knowing Venturi had first done them , almost seventy - five years later . Charles Wheatstone ( 1802 -- 1875 ) did work on optics and color mixing , and also explored hearing . He invented a device he called a `` microphone '' that involved a metal plate over each ear , each connected to metal rods ; he used this device to amplify sound . He also did experiments holding tuning forks to both ears at the same time , or separately , trying to work out how sense of hearing works , that he published in 1827 . Ernst Heinrich Weber ( 1795 -- 1878 ) and August Seebeck ( 1805 -- 1849 ) and William Charles Wells also attempted to compare and contrast what would become known as binaural hearing with the principles of binocular integration generally . Understanding how the differences in sound signals between two ears contributes to auditory processing in such a way as to enable sound localization and direction was considerably advanced after the invention of the stethophone by Somerville Scott Alison in 1859 , who coined the term ' binaural ' . Alsion based the stethophone on the stethoscope , which had been invented by René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec ( 1781 -- 1826 ) ; the stethophone had two separate `` pickups '' , allowing the user to hear and compare sounds derived from two discrete locations . See also ( edit ) Acoustic location Animal echolocation Binaural fusion Coincidence detection in neurobiology Human echolocation Perceptual - based 3D sound localization Psychoacoustics Spatial hearing loss References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jeffress L.A. ( 1948 ) . `` A place theory of sound localization '' . Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology . 41 : 35 -- 39 . doi : 10.1037 / h0061495 . PMID 18904764 . Jump up ^ Schnupp J. , Nelken I & King A.J. , 2011 . Auditory Neuroscience , MIT Press , chapter 5 . Jump up ^ Blauert , J. : Spatial hearing : the psychophysics of human sound localization ; MIT Press ; Cambridge , Massachusetts ( 1983 ) ^ Jump up to : Thompson , Daniel M. Understanding Audio : Getting the Most out of Your Project or Professional Recording Studio . Boston , MA : Berklee , 2005 . Print . ^ Jump up to : Roads , Curtis . The Computer Music Tutorial . Cambridge , MA : MIT , 2007 . Print . ^ Jump up to : Benade , Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics . New York : Oxford UP , 1976 . Print . Jump up ^ Rayleigh L. XII . On our perception of sound direction ( J ) . The London , Edinburgh , and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science , 1907 , 13 ( 74 ) : 214 - 232 . ^ Jump up to : Zhou X . Virtual reality technique ( J ) . Telecommunications Science , 1996 , 12 ( 7 ) : 46 - 50 . Jump up ^ Ian Pitt . `` Auditory Perception '' . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 10 . Jump up ^ DeLiang Wang ; Guy J. Brown ( 2006 ) . Computational auditory scene analysis : principles , algorithms and applications . Wiley interscience . ISBN 9780471741091 . For sinusoidal signals presented on the horizontal plane , spatial resolution is highest for sounds coming from the median plane ( directly in front of the listener ) with about 1 degree MAA , and it deteriorates markedly when stimuli are moved to the side -- e.g. , the MAA is about 7 degrees for sounds originating at 75 degrees to the side . Jump up ^ http://acousticslab.org/psychoacoustics/PMFiles/Module07a.htm ^ Jump up to : Wallach , , H ; Newman , E.B. ; Rosenzweig , M.R. ( July 1949 ) . `` The precedence effect in sound localization '' . American Journal of Psychology . 62 ( 3 ) : 315 -- 336 . doi : 10.2307 / 1418275 . ^ Jump up to : Wallach , Hans ( October 1940 ) . `` The role of head movements and vestibular and visual cues in sound localization '' . Journal of Experimental Psychology . 27 ( 4 ) : 339 -- 368 . doi : 10.1037 / h0054629 . Jump up ^ Batteau D W . The role of the pinna in human localization ( J ) . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B : Biological Sciences , 1967 , 168 ( 1011 ) : 158 - 180 . Jump up ^ Musicant AD , Butler R A . The influence of pinnae - based spectral cues on sound localization ( J ) . The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , 1984 , 75 ( 4 ) : 1195 - 1200 . Jump up ^ `` The CIPIC HRTF Database '' . Jump up ^ Robert A. BUTLER ; Richard A. HUMANSKI ( 1992 ) . `` Localization of sound in the vertical plane with and without high - frequency spectral cues '' ( PDF ) . Perception & Psychophysics. 51 ( 2 ) : 182 -- 186 . doi : 10.3758 / bf03212242 . Jump up ^ Roffler Suzanne K. ; Butler Robert A. ( 1968 ) . `` Factors That Influence the Localization of Sound in the Vertical Plane '' . J. Acoust . Soc . Am. 43 ( 6 ) : 1255 -- 1259 . doi : 10.1121 / 1.1910976 . Jump up ^ Thurlow , W.R. `` Audition '' in Kling , J.W. & Riggs , L.A. , Experimental Psychology , 3rd edition , Holt Rinehart & Winston , 1971 , pp. 267 -- 268 . Jump up ^ Wallach , H ( 1939 ) . `` On sound localization '' . Journal of the Acoustical Society of America . 10 ( 4 ) : 270 -- 274 . doi : 10.1121 / 1.1915985 . ^ Jump up to : Zhao R. Study of Auditory Transmission Sound Localization System ( D ) , University of Science and Technology of China , 2006 . Jump up ^ Miles RN , Robert D , Hoy RR ( Dec 1995 ) . `` Mechanically coupled ears for directional hearing in the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea '' . J Acoust Soc Am. 98 ( 6 ) : 3059 -- 70 . doi : 10.1121 / 1.413830 . PMID 8550933 . Jump up ^ Robert D , Miles RN , Hoy RR ( 1996 ) . `` Directional hearing by mechanical coupling in the parasitoid fly Ormia ochracea '' . J Comp Physiol ( A ) . 179 ( 1 ) : 29 -- 44 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00193432 . PMID 8965258 . Jump up ^ Mason AC , Oshinsky ML , Hoy RR ( Apr 2001 ) . `` Hyperacute directional hearing in a microscale auditory system '' . Nature . 410 ( 6829 ) : 686 -- 90 . doi : 10.1038 / 35070564 . PMID 11287954 . Jump up ^ Ho CC , Narins PM ( Apr 2006 ) . `` Directionality of the pressure - difference receiver ears in the northern leopard frog , Rana pipiens pipiens '' . J Comp Physiol ( A ) . 192 ( 4 ) : 417 -- 29 . doi : 10.1007 / s00359 - 005 - 0080 - 7 . Jump up ^ Payne , Roger S. , 1962 . How the Barn Owl Locates Prey by Hearing . The Living Bird , First Annual of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology , 151 - 159 ^ Jump up to : Wade , NJ ; Ono , H ( 2005 ) . `` From dichoptic to dichotic : historical contrasts between binocular vision and binaural hearing '' . Perception. 34 ( 6 ) : 645 -- 68 . doi : 10.1068 / p5327 . PMID 16042189 . Jump up ^ Beyer , Robert T. ( 1999 ) . Sounds of our times : two hundred years of acoustics . New York : Springer . ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 98435 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Wade , Nicholas J. ; Deutsch , Diana ( July 2008 ) . `` Binaural Hearing -- Before and After the Stethophone '' ( PDF ) . Acoustics Today : 16 -- 27 . External links ( edit ) auditoryneuroscience.com : Collection of multimedia files and flash demonstrations related to spatial hearing Collection of references about sound localization Scientific articles about the sound localization abilities of different species of mammals Interaural Intensity Difference Processing in Auditory Midbrain Neurons : Effects of a Transient Early Inhibitory Input Online learning center - Hearing and Listening HearCom : Hearing in the Communication Society , an EU research project Research on `` Non-line - of - sight ( NLOS ) Localisation for Indoor Environments '' by CMR at UNSW An introduction to sound localization Sound and Room An introduction to acoustic holography An introduction to acoustic beamforming ( hide ) Neuroethology Concepts Feedforward Coincidence detector Umwelt Instinct Feature detection Central pattern generator ( CPG ) NMDA receptor Lateral inhibition Fixed action pattern Krogh 's Principle Hebbian theory Anti-Hebbian learning Sound localization Ultrasound avoidance in insects People Theodore Holmes Bullock Walter Heiligenberg Niko Tinbergen Konrad Lorenz Donald Griffin Donald Kennedy Karl von Frisch Erich von Holst Jörg - Peter Ewert Franz Huber Bernhard Hassenstein Werner E. Reichardt Eric Knudsen Eric Kandel Nobuo Suga Masakazu Konishi Fernando Nottebohm Methods Patch clamp Slice preparation Systems Animal echolocation Waggle dance Jamming avoidance response Vision in toads Frog hearing and communication Infrared sensing in snakes Caridoid escape reaction Vocal learning Surface wave detection Electroreception Mechanoreception Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sound_localization&oldid=815974847 '' Categories : Acoustics Neuroethology Hearing Sound Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013 All Wikipedia articles needing clarification Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2013 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Nederlands 日本 語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 December 2017 , at 12 : 22 . 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24 | document: Cell biology - Wikipedia Cell biology Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Part of a series on Biochemistry Key components Biomolecules Metabolism Index Outline History and topics History Biochemistry Cell biology Bioinformatics Enzymology Genetics Immunology Molecular biology Plant biochemistry Structural biology Branches of biochemistry List of biochemists Portals : Biology , MCB Cell biology or cytology or cytobiology , ( from the Greek κυτος , kytos , `` vessel '' ) is a branch of biology that studies the different structures and functions of the cell and focuses mainly on the idea of the cell as the basic unit of life . Cell biology explains the structure , organization of the organelles they contain , their physiological properties , metabolic processes , Signaling pathways , life cycle , and interactions with their environment . This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells . Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences ; it is also essential for research in bio-medical fields such as cancer , and other diseases . Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics , biochemistry , molecular biology , immunology , and developmental biology . Contents ( hide ) 1 Internal cellular structures 1.1 Chemical and molecular environment 1.2 Organelles 2 Processes 2.1 Growth and development 2.2 Other cellular processes 3 Techniques used to study cells 4 Career and related fields 5 Notable cell biologists 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Internal cellular structures ( edit ) The generalized structure and molecular components of a cell Chemical and molecular environment ( edit ) The study of the cell is done on a molecular level ; however , most of the processes within the cell are made up of a mixture of small organic molecules , inorganic ions , hormones , and water . Approximately 75 -- 85 % of the cell 's volume is due to water making it an indispensable solvent as a result of its polarity and structure . These molecules within the cell , which operate as substrates , provide a suitable environment for the cell to carry out metabolic reactions and signalling . The cell shape varies among the different types of organisms , and are thus then classified into two categories : eukaryotes and prokaryotes . In the case of eukaryotic cells -- which are made up of animal , plant , fungi , and protozoa cells -- the shapes are generally round and spherical , while for prokaryotic cells -- which are composed of bacteria and archaea -- the shapes are : spherical ( cocci ) , rods ( bacillus ) , curved ( vibrio ) , and spirals ( spirochetes ) . Cell biology focuses more on the study of eukaryotic cells , and their signalling pathways , rather than on prokaryotes which is covered under microbiology . The main constituents of the general molecular composition of the cell includes : proteins and lipids which are either free - flowing or membrane - bound , along with different internal compartments known as organelles . This environment of the cell is made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions which allows for the exchange of the above - mentioned molecules and ions . The hydrophilic regions of the cell are mainly on the inside and outside of the cell , while the hydrophobic regions are within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane . The cell membrane consists of lipids and proteins , which accounts for its hydrophobicity as a result of being non-polar substances . Therefore , in order for these molecules to participate in reactions , within the cell , they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to get into the cell . They accomplish this process of gaining access to the cell via : osmotic pressure , diffusion , concentration gradients , and membrane channels . Inside of the cell are extensive internal sub-cellular membrane - bounded compartments called organelles . Organelles ( edit ) Centrosome -- an associated pair of cylindrical shaped protein structures ( centrioles ) that organize microtubules and aid in forming the mitotic spindle during cell division in eukaryotes Cell membrane ( plasma membrane ) -- the part of the cell which separates the cells from the outside environment and protects the cell , as well as regulating what goes in and out of the cell Cell wall -- extra layer of protection and gives structural support ( only found in plant cells ) Chloroplast -- key organelle for photosynthesis ( only found in plant cells ) Cilium -- motile structure of eukaryotes having a cytoskeleton , the axoneme . Cytoplasm -- contents of the main fluid - filled space inside cells , chemical reactions also happen in this jelly - like substance . Cytoskeleton -- protein filaments inside cells ( microfilaments , microtubules , and intermediate filaments ) Endoplasmic reticulum ( rough ) -- major site of membrane protein synthesis Endoplasmic reticulum ( smooth ) -- major site of lipid synthesis Endosomes -- vesicles that traffic membrane and intra and extra cellular contents for recycling or degradation by lysosomes Flagellum -- motile structure of bacteria , archaea and eukaryotes Golgi apparatus -- site of protein glycosylation in the endomembrane system Lipid bilayer -- fundamental organizational structure of cell membranes Lysosome -- acidic organelle that breaks down cellular waste products and debris into simple compounds ( only found in animal cells ) Microvilli -- increases surface area for absorption of nutrients from surrounding medium Mitochondrion -- major energy - producing organelle by releasing energy in the form of ATP Nucleus -- contains chromosomes composed of DNA , the building block of life . Nuclear Architecture is important for dictating nuclear function . Organelle -- term used for major subcellular structures Peroxisomes -- a very small organelle that uses oxygen to breakdown and detoxify long fatty acids and other molecules Pili -- also called fimbria is used for conjugation and sometimes movement Ribosome -- RNA and protein complex required for protein synthesis in cells Starch grain -- found in the cytoplasm of a typical plant cell , it stores chemical energy of the plant . Vacuole -- contain cell sap or other storage material . Vesicle -- small membrane - bounded spheres inside cells which transport substances . Processes ( edit ) Growth and development ( edit ) The growth process of the cell does not refer to the size of the cell , but instead the density of the number of cells present in the organism at a given time . Cell growth pertains to the increase in the number of cells present in an organism as it grows and develops ; as the organism gets larger so too does the number of cells present . Cells are the foundation of all organisms , they are the fundamental unit of life . The growth and development of the cell are essential for the maintenance of the host , and survival of the organisms . For this process the cell goes through the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell growth , DNA replication , cell division , regeneration , specialization , and cell death . The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases , G1 , S , G2 , and M. The G phases -- which is the cell growth phase -- makes up approximately 95 % of the cycle . The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors , the cells then differentiate to become specialized , where specialized cells of the same type aggregate to form tissues , then organs and ultimately systems . The G phases along with the S phase -- DNA replication , damage and repair -- are considered to be the interphase portion of the cycle . While the M phase ( mitosis and cytokinesis ) is the cell division portion of the cycle . The cell cycle is regulated by a series of signalling factors and complexes such as CDK 's , kinases , and p53 . to name a few . When the cell has completed its growth process , and if it is found to be damaged or altered it undergoes cell death , either by apoptosis or necrosis , to eliminate the threat it causes to the organism 's survival . Other cellular processes ( edit ) Active transport and passive transport -- The movement of molecules into and out of cells . Autophagy -- The process whereby cells `` eat '' their own internal components or microbial invaders . Adhesion -- Holding together cells and tissues . Cell movement -- Cell migration , Chemotaxis , contraction , cilia and flagella . Cell signaling -- Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside . Division -- By which cells reproduce either by mitosis ( to produce clones of the parent cell ) or Meiosis ( to produce haploid gametes ) DNA repair -- Cell death and cell senescence . Metabolism -- Glycolysis , respiration , photosynthesis , and chemosynthesis . Signalling -- The process by which the activities in the cell are regulated Transcription and mRNA splicing -- Gene expression . Techniques used to study cells ( edit ) See also : Green fluorescent protein and Fluorescence microscope Electron micrograph of blood cells clotting . Cell division studied using fluorescence to stain specific structures Cells may be observed under the microscope , using several different techniques ; these include optical microscopy , transmission electron microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , fluorescence microscopy , correlative light - electron microscopy , and confocal microscopy . There are several different methods used in the study of cells : Cell culture is the basic technique of growing cells in a laboratory independent of an organism . Immunostaining , also known as immunohistochemistry , is a specialized histological method used to localize proteins in cells or tissue slices . Unlike regular histology , which uses stains to identify cells , cellular components or protein classes , immunostaining requires the reaction of an antibody directed against the protein of interest within the tissue or cell . Through the use of proper controls and published protocols ( need to add reference links here ) , specificity of the antibody - antigen reaction can be achieved . Once this complex is formed , it is identified via either a `` tag '' attached directly to the antibody , or added in an additional technical step . Commonly used `` tags '' include fluorophores or enzymes . In the case of the former , detection of the location of the `` immuno - stained '' protein occurs via fluorescence microscopy . With an enzymatic tag , such as horse radish peroxidase , a chemical reaction is carried out that results in a dark color in the location of the protein of interest . This darkened pattern is then detected using light microscopy . Computational genomics is used to find patterns in genomic information DNA microarrays identify changes in transcript levels between different experimental conditions . Gene knockdown mutates a selected gene . In situ hybridization shows which cells are expressing a particular RNA transcript . PCR can be used to determine how many copies of a gene are present in a cell . Transfection introduces a new gene into a cell , usually an expression construct Purification of cells and their parts Purification may be performed using the following methods : Cell fractionation Release of cellular organelles by disruption of cells . Separation of different organelles by centrifugation . Flow cytometry Immunoprecipitation The binding of an antibody to a target protein Collection of the target protein through elution Proteins extracted from cell membranes by detergents and salts or other kinds of chemicals . Career and related fields ( edit ) Practical job applications for a degree in Cell Molecular Biology includes the following . Agriculture Bioinformatics and medical informatics Biomedical research Biotechnology Biotechnology policy Brewery production Business Cellular agriculture Clinical diagnostics College and university reaching Crop improvement Elementary , middle and high school teaching Environmental technician / consultant Food production and safety Forensic scientist Geneticist Genetic engineering Government jobs Healthcare industries Health policies Health law Laboratory technician Medical research Medical school Medical technology Microbiologist Nutrition Patent law Patient care Pest control Pharmaceutical science Pharmaceutical sales representative Physician assistant Product quality and safety Research assistant Research coordinator Research scientist Research technician Science administration Science education Science journalism Science policy Scientific editing Scientific illustrator Scientific instrumentation companies Scientific supply representative Teacher Technical writing Toxicology Training and outreach in industry and government Notable cell biologists ( edit ) Jean Baptiste Carnoy Peter Agre Günter Blobel Robert Brown Geoffrey M. Cooper Christian de Duve Robert Hooke H. Robert Horvitz Marc Kirschner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Ira Mellman Peter D. Mitchell Rudolf Virchow Paul Nurse George Emil Palade Keith R. Porter Jan Evangelista Purkyně Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně is best known for his 1837 discovery of Purkinje cells . Ray Rappaport Michael Swann Roger Tsien Edmund Beecher Wilson Kenneth R. Miller Matthias Jakob Schleiden Theodor Schwann Yoshinori Ohsumi Camillo Golgi See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cell biology . Biology portal Molecular and Cellular Biology portal Science portal Main article : Outline of cell biology Autophagy Cell biophysics Cell disruption Cellular microbiology Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology ( disambiguation ) Prokaryotic cell The American Society for Cell Biology Cell physiology References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Lodish , Harvey ( 2013 ) . Molecular Cell Biology . W.H. Freeman and Company . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4292 - 3413 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` The Morphology of Eukaryotic Cells : Shape , Number and Size '' . YourArticleLibrary.com : The Next Generation Library . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` The Size , Shape , And Arrangement of Bacterial Cells '' . classes.midlandstech.edu . Archived from the original on 9 August 2016 . Retrieved 22 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Hardin , Jeff . Becker 's World of the Cell . ISBN 978 - 0 - 321 - 71602 - 6 . Jump up ^ Cristianini , N. and Hahn , M. Introduction to Computational Genomics , Cambridge University Press , 2006 . ( ISBN 9780521671910 ISBN 0 - 521 - 67191 - 4 ) Jump up ^ `` Immunoprecipitation ( IP ) '' . Thermofisher.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Wikipedia editing basics : Citing sources ( part 1 ) '' . YouTube . 19 December 2012 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 26 . Bibliography ( edit ) Bechtel , William ( 2006 ) . Discovering Cell Mechanisms : the Creation of Modern Cell Biology . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge . link . Karp , G. Cell and Molecular Biology , 5th Ed. , ISBN 0 - 471 - 46580 - 1 Penner - Hahn , James E. ( 2013 ) . `` Chapter 2 . Technologies for Detecting Metals in Single Cells . Section 4 . Intrinsic X-Ray Fluorescence '' . In Bani , Lucia ( Ed . ) . Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences . 12 . Springer . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 94 - 007 - 5561 - 1_2 . ISBN 978 - 94 - 007 - 5560 - 4 . CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list ( link ) electronic - book ISBN 978 - 94 - 007 - 5561 - 1 ISSN 1559 - 0836 electronic - ISSN 1868 - 0402 This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document `` Science Primer '' . External links ( edit ) Wikibooks has more on the topic of : Cell biology Wikiversity has learning resources about Cell biology Library resources about Cell biology Resources in your library Cell Centered Database Cell Biology at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) Aging Cell `` Francis Harry Compton Crick ( 1916 -- 2004 ) '' by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia ( hide ) Biology Subdisciplines Anatomy Astrobiology Biochemistry Biogeography Biological anthropology Biological classification Biomechanics Biophysics Bioinformatics Biostatistics Botany Cell biology Cellular microbiology Chemical biology Chronobiology Cognitive biology Computational biology Conservation biology Developmental biology Ecology Epidemiology Epigenetics Evolutionary biology Evolutionary developmental biology Genetics Genomics Histology Human biology Immunology Lipidology Marine biology Mathematical biology Microbiology Molecular biology Mycology Nanobiotechnology Neuroscience Nutrition Origin of life Paleontology Parasitology Pathology Pharmacology Physiology Quantum biology Reproductive biology Sociobiology Structural biology Systematics Systems biology Toxicology Virology Virophysics Zoology Hierarchy of life Biosphere > Ecosystem > Community ( Biocoenosis ) > Population > Organism > Organ system > Organ > Tissue > Cell > Organelle > Biomolecular complex > Molecule ( Macromolecule , Biomolecule ) > Atom Foundations Cell theory Ecology Energy Transformation Evolution Genetics Homeostasis Synthetic biology Taxonomy Principles Evolution Adaptation Earliest known life forms Function Genetic drift Gene flow Macroevolution Microevolution Mutation Natural selection Speciation Ecology Biodiversity Biological interaction Community Ecosystem Habitat Niche Population dynamics Resources Molecular biology Cell signaling Development Epigenetics Gene regulation Meiosis Mitosis Post-transcriptional modification Biochemistry Carbohydrates Lipids Metabolism Nucleic acids Photosynthesis Proteins Glossaries Botanical terms Ecological terms Plant morphology terms Commons Portal WikiProject GND : 4070177 - 3 NDL : 00569968 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell_biology&oldid=816060251 '' Categories : Cell biology Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from April 2017 Articles needing additional references from November 2011 All articles needing additional references CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States National Library of Medicine Articles with DMOZ links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikibooks Wikiversity Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Қазақша Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски მარგალური Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Novial Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Português Română Русский Саха тыла Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 December 2017 , at 00 : 15 . 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25 | document: Monopoly - wikipedia Monopoly Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the economic term . For the board game , see Monopoly ( game ) . For other uses , see Monopoly ( disambiguation ) . Competition law Basic concepts History of competition law Monopoly Coercive monopoly Natural monopoly Barriers to entry Herfindahl -- Hirschman Index Market concentration Market power SSNIP test Relevant market Merger control Anti-competitive practices Monopolization Collusion Formation of cartels Price fixing Bid rigging Product bundling and tying Refusal to deal Group boycott Essential facilities Exclusive dealing Dividing territories Conscious parallelism Predatory pricing Misuse of patents and copyrights Enforcement authorities and organizations International Competition Network List of competition regulators `` I Like a Little Competition '' -- J.P. Morgan by Art Young . Cartoon relating to the answer J.P. Morgan gave when asked whether he disliked competition at the Pujo Committee . A monopoly ( from Greek μόνος mónos ( `` alone '' or `` single '' ) and πωλεῖν pōleîn ( `` to sell '' ) ) exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity . This contrasts with a monopsony which relates to a single entity 's control of a market to purchase a good or service , and with oligopoly which consists of a few sellers dominating a market . Monopolies are thus characterized by a lack of economic competition to produce the good or service , a lack of viable substitute goods , and the possibility of a high monopoly price well above the seller 's marginal cost that leads to a high monopoly profit . The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors . In economics , a monopoly is a single seller . In law , a monopoly is a business entity that has significant market power , that is , the power to charge overly high prices . Although monopolies may be big businesses , size is not a characteristic of a monopoly . A small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry ( or market ) . A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony , in which there is only one buyer of a product or service ; a monopoly may also have monopsony control of a sector of a market . Likewise , a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel ( a form of oligopoly ) , in which several providers act together to coordinate services , prices or sale of goods . Monopolies , monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in which one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers ( monopoly or oligopoly ) , or suppliers ( monopsony ) in ways that distort the market . Monopolies can be established by a government , form naturally , or form by integration . In many jurisdictions , competition laws restrict monopolies . Holding a dominant position or a monopoly in a market is often not illegal in itself , however certain categories of behavior can be considered abusive and therefore incur legal sanctions when business is dominant . A government - granted monopoly or legal monopoly , by contrast , is sanctioned by the state , often to provide an incentive to invest in a risky venture or enrich a domestic interest group . Patents , copyrights , and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government - granted monopolies . The government may also reserve the venture for itself , thus forming a government monopoly . Contents ( hide ) 1 Market structures 2 Characteristics 3 Sources of monopoly power 4 Monopoly versus competitive markets 5 The inverse elasticity rule 5.1 Market power 6 Price discrimination 6.1 Example 6.2 Classifying customers 7 Monopoly and efficiency 7.1 Natural monopoly 7.2 Government - granted monopoly 8 Monopolist shutdown rule 9 Breaking up monopolies 10 Law 11 Historical monopolies 11.1 Origin 11.2 Monopolies of resources 11.2. 1 Salt 11.2. 2 Coal 11.2. 3 Petroleum 11.2. 4 Steel 11.2. 5 Diamonds 11.3 Utilities 11.4 Transportation 11.5 Foreign trade 11.6 Professional sports 11.7 Other examples of monopolies 12 Countering monopolies 13 See also 14 Notes and references 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Market structures ( edit ) In economics , the idea of monopoly is important in the study of management structures , which directly concerns normative aspects of economic competition , and provides the basis for topics such as industrial organization and economics of regulation . There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis : perfect competition , monopolistic competition , oligopoly and monopoly . A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces and sells a given product . If there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product , then the market structure is that of a `` pure monopoly '' . Sometimes , there are many sellers in an industry and / or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced , but nevertheless companies retain some market power . This is termed monopolistic competition , whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically . In general , the main results from this theory compare price - fixing methods across market structures , analyze the effect of a certain structure on welfare , and vary technological / demand assumptions in order to assess the consequences for an abstract model of society . Most economic textbooks follow the practice of carefully explaining the perfect competition model , mainly because this helps to understand `` departures '' from it ( the so - called imperfect competition models ) . The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis . In a general equilibrium context , a good is a specific concept including geographical and time - related characteristics ( `` grapes sold during October 2009 in Moscow '' is a different good from `` grapes sold during October 2009 in New York '' ) . Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good , allowing for more flexibility in the identification of substitute goods . Characteristics ( edit ) Profit Maximizer : Maximizes profits . Price Maker : Decides the price of the good or product to be sold , but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm . High Barriers : Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly . Single seller : In a monopoly , there is one seller of the good , who produces all the output . Therefore , the whole market is being served by a single company , and for practical purposes , the company is the same as the industry . Price Discrimination : A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product . He or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market , and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market . Sources of monopoly power ( edit ) Monopolies derive their market power from barriers to entry -- circumstances that prevent or greatly impede a potential competitor 's ability to compete in a market . There are three major types of barriers to entry : economic , legal and deliberate . Economic barriers : Economic barriers include economies of scale , capital requirements , cost advantages and technological superiority . Economies of scale : Decreasing unit costs for larger volumes of production . Decreasing costs coupled with large initial costs , often due to large fixed costs , give monopolies an advantage over would - be competitors . Monopolies are often in a position to reduce prices below a new entrant 's operating costs and thereby prevent them from competing . Thus the size of the industry relative to the minimum efficient scale may limit the number of companies that can effectively compete within the industry . If for example the industry is large enough to support one company of minimum efficient scale then other companies entering the industry will operate at a size that is less than MES , and so can not produce at an average cost that is competitive with the dominant company . Finally , if long - term average cost is constantly decreasing , the least cost method to provide a good or service is by a single company . Capital requirements : Production processes that require large investments of capital , perhaps in the form of large research and development costs or substantial sunk costs , limit the number of companies in an industry : this is an example of economies of scale . Technological superiority : A monopoly may be better able to acquire , integrate and use the best possible technology in producing its goods while entrants either do not have the expertise or are unable to meet the large fixed costs ( see above ) needed for the most efficient technology . Thus one large company can often produce goods cheaper than several small companies . No substitute goods : A monopoly sells a good for which there is no close substitute . The absence of substitutes makes the demand for that good relatively inelastic , enabling monopolies to extract positive profits . Control of natural resources : A prime source of monopoly power is the control of resources ( such as raw materials ) that are critical to the production of a final good . Network externalities : The use of a product by a person can affect the value of that product to other people . This is the network effect . There is a direct relationship between the proportion of people using a product and the demand for that product . In other words , the more people who are using a product , the greater the probability that another individual will start to use the product . This reflects fads , fashion trends , social networks etc . It also can play a crucial role in the development or acquisition of market power . The most famous current example is the market dominance of the Microsoft office suite and operating system in personal computers . Legal barriers : Legal rights can provide opportunity to monopolise the market in a good . Intellectual property rights , including patents and copyrights , give a monopolist exclusive control of the production and selling of certain goods . Property rights may give a company exclusive control of the materials necessary to produce a good . Manipulation : A company wanting to monopolise a market may engage in various types of deliberate action to exclude competitors or eliminate competition . Such actions include collusion , lobbying governmental authorities , and force ( see anti-competitive practices ) . In addition to barriers to entry and competition , barriers to exit may be a source of market power . Barriers to exit are market conditions that make it difficult or expensive for a company to end its involvement with a market . High liquidation costs are a primary barrier to exiting . Market exit and shutdown are sometimes separate events . The decision whether to shut down or operate is not affected by exit barriers . A company will shut down if price falls below minimum average variable costs . Monopoly versus competitive markets ( edit ) While monopoly and perfect competition mark the extremes of market structures there is some similarity . The cost functions are the same . Both monopolies and perfectly competitive ( PC ) companies minimize cost and maximize profit . The shutdown decisions are the same . Both are assumed to have perfectly competitive factors markets . There are distinctions , some of the most important distinctions are as follows : Marginal revenue and price : In a perfectly competitive market , price equals marginal cost . In a monopolistic market , however , price is set above marginal cost . Product differentiation : There is zero product differentiation in a perfectly competitive market . Every product is perfectly homogeneous and a perfect substitute for any other . With a monopoly , there is great to absolute product differentiation in the sense that there is no available substitute for a monopolized good . The monopolist is the sole supplier of the good in question . A customer either buys from the monopolizing entity on its terms or does without . Number of competitors : PC markets are populated by an infinite number of buyers and sellers . Monopoly involves a single seller . Barriers to Entry : Barriers to entry are factors and circumstances that prevent entry into market by would - be competitors and limit new companies from operating and expanding within the market . PC markets have free entry and exit . There are no barriers to entry , or exit competition . Monopolies have relatively high barriers to entry . The barriers must be strong enough to prevent or discourage any potential competitor from entering the market Elasticity of Demand : The price elasticity of demand is the percentage change of demand caused by a one percent change of relative price . A successful monopoly would have a relatively inelastic demand curve . A low coefficient of elasticity is indicative of effective barriers to entry . A PC company has a perfectly elastic demand curve . The coefficient of elasticity for a perfectly competitive demand curve is infinite . Excess Profits : Excess or positive profits are profit more than the normal expected return on investment . A PC company can make excess profits in the short term but excess profits attract competitors , which can enter the market freely and decrease prices , eventually reducing excess profits to zero . A monopoly can preserve excess profits because barriers to entry prevent competitors from entering the market . Profit Maximization : A PC company maximizes profits by producing such that price equals marginal costs . A monopoly maximises profits by producing where marginal revenue equals marginal costs . The rules are not equivalent . The demand curve for a PC company is perfectly elastic -- flat . The demand curve is identical to the average revenue curve and the price line . Since the average revenue curve is constant the marginal revenue curve is also constant and equals the demand curve , Average revenue is the same as price ( AR = TR / Q = P x Q / Q = P ) . Thus the price line is also identical to the demand curve . In sum , D = AR = MR = P . P - Max quantity , price and profit : If a monopolist obtains control of a formerly perfectly competitive industry , the monopolist would increase prices , reduce production , and realise positive economic profits . Supply Curve : in a perfectly competitive market there is a well defined supply function with a one - to - one relationship between price and quantity supplied . In a monopolistic market no such supply relationship exists . A monopolist can not trace a short term supply curve because for a given price there is not a unique quantity supplied . As Pindyck and Rubenfeld note , a change in demand `` can lead to changes in prices with no change in output , changes in output with no change in price or both '' . Monopolies produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs . For a specific demand curve the supply `` curve '' would be the price / quantity combination at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost . If the demand curve shifted the marginal revenue curve would shift as well and a new equilibrium and supply `` point '' would be established . The locus of these points would not be a supply curve in any conventional sense . The most significant distinction between a PC company and a monopoly is that the monopoly has a downward - sloping demand curve rather than the `` perceived '' perfectly elastic curve of the PC company . Practically all the variations mentioned above relate to this fact . If there is a downward - sloping demand curve then by necessity there is a distinct marginal revenue curve . The implications of this fact are best made manifest with a linear demand curve . Assume that the inverse demand curve is of the form x = a − by . Then the total revenue curve is TR = ay − by2 and the marginal revenue curve is thus MR = a − 2by . From this several things are evident . First the marginal revenue curve has the same y intercept as the inverse demand curve . Second the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice that of the inverse demand curve . Third the x intercept of the marginal revenue curve is half that of the inverse demand curve . What is not quite so evident is that the marginal revenue curve is below the inverse demand curve at all points . Since all companies maximise profits by equating MR and MC it must be the case that at the profit - maximizing quantity MR and MC are less than price , which further implies that a monopoly produces less quantity at a higher price than if the market were perfectly competitive . The fact that a monopoly has a downward - sloping demand curve means that the relationship between total revenue and output for a monopoly is much different than that of competitive companies . Total revenue equals price times quantity . A competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve meaning that total revenue is proportional to output . Thus the total revenue curve for a competitive company is a ray with a slope equal to the market price . A competitive company can sell all the output it desires at the market price . For a monopoly to increase sales it must reduce price . Thus the total revenue curve for a monopoly is a parabola that begins at the origin and reaches a maximum value then continuously decreases until total revenue is again zero . Total revenue has its maximum value when the slope of the total revenue function is zero . The slope of the total revenue function is marginal revenue . So the revenue maximizing quantity and price occur when MR = 0 . For example , assume that the monopoly 's demand function is P = 50 − 2Q . The total revenue function would be TR = 50Q − 2Q and marginal revenue would be 50 − 4Q . Setting marginal revenue equal to zero we have 50 − 4 Q = 0 ( \ displaystyle 50 - 4Q = 0 ) − 4 Q = − 50 ( \ displaystyle - 4Q = - 50 ) Q = 12.5 ( \ displaystyle Q = 12.5 ) So the revenue maximizing quantity for the monopoly is 12.5 units and the revenue maximizing price is 25 . A company with a monopoly does not experience price pressure from competitors , although it may experience pricing pressure from potential competition . If a company increases prices too much , then others may enter the market if they are able to provide the same good , or a substitute , at a lesser price . The idea that monopolies in markets with easy entry need not be regulated against is known as the `` revolution in monopoly theory '' . A monopolist can extract only one premium , and getting into complementary markets does not pay . That is , the total profits a monopolist could earn if it sought to leverage its monopoly in one market by monopolizing a complementary market are equal to the extra profits it could earn anyway by charging more for the monopoly product itself . However , the one monopoly profit theorem is not true if customers in the monopoly good are stranded or poorly informed , or if the tied good has high fixed costs . A pure monopoly has the same economic rationality of perfectly competitive companies , i.e. to optimise a profit function given some constraints . By the assumptions of increasing marginal costs , exogenous inputs ' prices , and control concentrated on a single agent or entrepreneur , the optimal decision is to equate the marginal cost and marginal revenue of production . Nonetheless , a pure monopoly can -- unlike a competitive company -- alter the market price for its own convenience : a decrease of production results in a higher price . In the economics ' jargon , it is said that pure monopolies have `` a downward - sloping demand '' . An important consequence of such behaviour is worth noticing : typically a monopoly selects a higher price and lesser quantity of output than a price - taking company ; again , less is available at a higher price . The inverse elasticity rule ( edit ) A monopoly chooses that price that maximizes the difference between total revenue and total cost . The basic markup rule ( as measured by the Lerner index ) can be expressed as P − M C P = − 1 E d ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( P - MC ) ( P ) ) = ( \ frac ( - 1 ) ( E_ ( d ) ) ) ) , where E d ( \ displaystyle E_ ( d ) ) is the price elasticity of demand the firm faces . The markup rules indicate that the ratio between profit margin and the price is inversely proportional to the price elasticity of demand . The implication of the rule is that the more elastic the demand for the product the less pricing power the monopoly has . Market power ( edit ) Market power is the ability to increase the product 's price above marginal cost without losing all customers . Perfectly competitive ( PC ) companies have zero market power when it comes to setting prices . All companies of a PC market are price takers . The price is set by the interaction of demand and supply at the market or aggregate level . Individual companies simply take the price determined by the market and produce that quantity of output that maximizes the company 's profits . If a PC company attempted to increase prices above the market level all its customers would abandon the company and purchase at the market price from other companies . A monopoly has considerable although not unlimited market power . A monopoly has the power to set prices or quantities although not both . A monopoly is a price maker . The monopoly is the market and prices are set by the monopolist based on their circumstances and not the interaction of demand and supply . The two primary factors determining monopoly market power are the company 's demand curve and its cost structure . Market power is the ability to affect the terms and conditions of exchange so that the price of a product is set by a single company ( price is not imposed by the market as in perfect competition ) . Although a monopoly 's market power is great it is still limited by the demand side of the market . A monopoly has a negatively sloped demand curve , not a perfectly inelastic curve . Consequently , any price increase will result in the loss of some customers . Price discrimination ( edit ) Price discrimination allows a monopolist to increase its profit by charging higher prices for identical goods to those who are willing or able to pay more . For example , most economic textbooks cost more in the United States than in developing countries like Ethiopia . In this case , the publisher is using its government - granted copyright monopoly to price discriminate between the generally wealthier American economics students and the generally poorer Ethiopian economics students . Similarly , most patented medications cost more in the U.S. than in other countries with a ( presumed ) poorer customer base . Typically , a high general price is listed , and various market segments get varying discounts . This is an example of framing to make the process of charging some people higher prices more socially acceptable . Perfect price discrimination would allow the monopolist to charge each customer the exact maximum amount he would be willing to pay . This would allow the monopolist to extract all the consumer surplus of the market . While such perfect price discrimination is a theoretical construct , advances in information technology and micromarketing may bring it closer to the realm of possibility . It is very important to realize that partial price discrimination can cause some customers who are inappropriately pooled with high price customers to be excluded from the market . For example , a poor student in the U.S. might be excluded from purchasing an economics textbook at the U.S. price , which the student may have been able to purchase at the Ethiopian price ' . Similarly , a wealthy student in Ethiopia may be able to or willing to buy at the U.S. price , though naturally would hide such a fact from the monopolist so as to pay the reduced third world price . These are deadweight losses and decrease a monopolist 's profits . As such , monopolists have substantial economic interest in improving their market information and market segmenting . There is important information for one to remember when considering the monopoly model diagram ( and its associated conclusions ) displayed here . The result that monopoly prices are higher , and production output lesser , than a competitive company follow from a requirement that the monopoly not charge different prices for different customers . That is , the monopoly is restricted from engaging in price discrimination ( this is termed first degree price discrimination , such that all customers are charged the same amount ) . If the monopoly were permitted to charge individualised prices ( this is termed third degree price discrimination ) , the quantity produced , and the price charged to the marginal customer , would be identical to that of a competitive company , thus eliminating the deadweight loss ; however , all gains from trade ( social welfare ) would accrue to the monopolist and none to the consumer . In essence , every consumer would be indifferent between ( 1 ) going completely without the product or service and ( 2 ) being able to purchase it from the monopolist . As long as the price elasticity of demand for most customers is less than one in absolute value , it is advantageous for a company to increase its prices : it receives more money for fewer goods . With a price increase , price elasticity tends to increase , and in the optimum case above it will be greater than one for most customers . A company maximizes profit by selling where marginal revenue equals marginal cost . A company that does not engage in price discrimination will charge the profit maximizing price , P * , to all its customers . In such circumstances there are customers who would be willing to pay a higher price than P * and those who will not pay P * but would buy at a lower price . A price discrimination strategy is to charge less price sensitive buyers a higher price and the more price sensitive buyers a lower price . Thus additional revenue is generated from two sources . The basic problem is to identify customers by their willingness to pay . The purpose of price discrimination is to transfer consumer surplus to the producer . Consumer surplus is the difference between the value of a good to a consumer and the price the consumer must pay in the market to purchase it . Price discrimination is not limited to monopolies . Market power is a company 's ability to increase prices without losing all its customers . Any company that has market power can engage in price discrimination . Perfect competition is the only market form in which price discrimination would be impossible ( a perfectly competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve and has zero market power ) . There are three forms of price discrimination . First degree price discrimination charges each consumer the maximum price the consumer is willing to pay . Second degree price discrimination involves quantity discounts . Third degree price discrimination involves grouping consumers according to willingness to pay as measured by their price elasticities of demand and charging each group a different price . Third degree price discrimination is the most prevalent type . There are three conditions that must be present for a company to engage in successful price discrimination . First , the company must have market power . Second , the company must be able to sort customers according to their willingness to pay for the good . Third , the firm must be able to prevent resell . A company must have some degree of market power to practice price discrimination . Without market power a company can not charge more than the market price . Any market structure characterized by a downward sloping demand curve has market power -- monopoly , monopolistic competition and oligopoly . The only market structure that has no market power is perfect competition . A company wishing to practice price discrimination must be able to prevent middlemen or brokers from acquiring the consumer surplus for themselves . The company accomplishes this by preventing or limiting resale . Many methods are used to prevent resale . For example , persons are required to show photographic identification and a boarding pass before boarding an airplane . Most travelers assume that this practice is strictly a matter of security . However , a primary purpose in requesting photographic identification is to confirm that the ticket purchaser is the person about to board the airplane and not someone who has repurchased the ticket from a discount buyer . The inability to prevent resale is the largest obstacle to successful price discrimination . Companies have however developed numerous methods to prevent resale . For example , universities require that students show identification before entering sporting events . Governments may make it illegal to resale tickets or products . In Boston , Red Sox baseball tickets can only be resold legally to the team . The three basic forms of price discrimination are first , second and third degree price discrimination . In first degree price discrimination the company charges the maximum price each customer is willing to pay . The maximum price a consumer is willing to pay for a unit of the good is the reservation price . Thus for each unit the seller tries to set the price equal to the consumer 's reservation price . Direct information about a consumer 's willingness to pay is rarely available . Sellers tend to rely on secondary information such as where a person lives ( postal codes ) ; for example , catalog retailers can use mail high - priced catalogs to high - income postal codes . First degree price discrimination most frequently occurs in regard to professional services or in transactions involving direct buyer / seller negotiations . For example , an accountant who has prepared a consumer 's tax return has information that can be used to charge customers based on an estimate of their ability to pay . In second degree price discrimination or quantity discrimination customers are charged different prices based on how much they buy . There is a single price schedule for all consumers but the prices vary depending on the quantity of the good bought . The theory of second degree price discrimination is a consumer is willing to buy only a certain quantity of a good at a given price . Companies know that consumer 's willingness to buy decreases as more units are purchased . The task for the seller is to identify these price points and to reduce the price once one is reached in the hope that a reduced price will trigger additional purchases from the consumer . For example , sell in unit blocks rather than individual units . In third degree price discrimination or multi-market price discrimination the seller divides the consumers into different groups according to their willingness to pay as measured by their price elasticity of demand . Each group of consumers effectively becomes a separate market with its own demand curve and marginal revenue curve . The firm then attempts to maximize profits in each segment by equating MR and MC , Generally the company charges a higher price to the group with a more price inelastic demand and a relatively lesser price to the group with a more elastic demand . Examples of third degree price discrimination abound . Airlines charge higher prices to business travelers than to vacation travelers . The reasoning is that the demand curve for a vacation traveler is relatively elastic while the demand curve for a business traveler is relatively inelastic . Any determinant of price elasticity of demand can be used to segment markets . For example , seniors have a more elastic demand for movies than do young adults because they generally have more free time . Thus theaters will offer discount tickets to seniors . Example ( edit ) Assume that by a uniform pricing system the monopolist would sell five units at a price of $10 per unit . Assume that his marginal cost is $5 per unit . Total revenue would be $50 , total costs would be $25 and profits would be $25 . If the monopolist practiced price discrimination he would sell the first unit for $50 the second unit for $40 and so on . Total revenue would be $150 , his total cost would be $25 and his profit would be $125.00 . Several things are worth noting . The monopolist acquires all the consumer surplus and eliminates practically all the deadweight loss because he is willing to sell to anyone who is willing to pay at least the marginal cost . Thus the price discrimination promotes efficiency . Secondly , by the pricing scheme price = average revenue and equals marginal revenue . That is the monopolist behaving like a perfectly competitive company . Thirdly , the discriminating monopolist produces a larger quantity than the monopolist operating by a uniform pricing scheme . Qd Price 50 40 30 20 5 10 Classifying customers ( edit ) Successful price discrimination requires that companies separate consumers according to their willingness to buy . Determining a customer 's willingness to buy a good is difficult . Asking consumers directly is fruitless : consumers do n't know , and to the extent they do they are reluctant to share that information with marketers . The two main methods for determining willingness to buy are observation of personal characteristics and consumer actions . As noted information about where a person lives ( postal codes ) , how the person dresses , what kind of car he or she drives , occupation , and income and spending patterns can be helpful in classifying . Monopoly and efficiency ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Surpluses and deadweight loss created by monopoly price setting The price of monopoly is upon every occasion the highest which can be got . The natural price , or the price of free competition , on the contrary , is the lowest which can be taken , not upon every occasion indeed , but for any considerable time together . The one is upon every occasion the highest which can be squeezed out of the buyers , or which it is supposed they will consent to give ; the other is the lowest which the sellers can commonly afford to take , and at the same time continue their business . ... Monopoly , besides , is a great enemy to good management . -- Adam Smith ( 1776 ) , The Wealth of Nations According to the standard model , in which a monopolist sets a single price for all consumers , the monopolist will sell a lesser quantity of goods at a higher price than would companies by perfect competition . Because the monopolist ultimately forgoes transactions with consumers who value the product or service more than its price , monopoly pricing creates a deadweight loss referring to potential gains that went neither to the monopolist nor to consumers . Given the presence of this deadweight loss , the combined surplus ( or wealth ) for the monopolist and consumers is necessarily less than the total surplus obtained by consumers by perfect competition . Where efficiency is defined by the total gains from trade , the monopoly setting is less efficient than perfect competition . It is often argued that monopolies tend to become less efficient and less innovative over time , becoming `` complacent '' , because they do not have to be efficient or innovative to compete in the marketplace . Sometimes this very loss of psychological efficiency can increase a potential competitor 's value enough to overcome market entry barriers , or provide incentive for research and investment into new alternatives . The theory of contestable markets argues that in some circumstances ( private ) monopolies are forced to behave as if there were competition because of the risk of losing their monopoly to new entrants . This is likely to happen when a market 's barriers to entry are low . It might also be because of the availability in the longer term of substitutes in other markets . For example , a canal monopoly , while worth a great deal during the late 18th century United Kingdom , was worth much less during the late 19th century because of the introduction of railways as a substitute . Natural monopoly ( edit ) Main article : Natural monopoly A natural monopoly is an organization that experiences increasing returns to scale over the relevant range of output and relatively high fixed costs . A natural monopoly occurs where the average cost of production `` declines throughout the relevant range of product demand '' . The relevant range of product demand is where the average cost curve is below the demand curve . When this situation occurs , it is always cheaper for one large company to supply the market than multiple smaller companies ; in fact , absent government intervention in such markets , will naturally evolve into a monopoly . An early market entrant that takes advantage of the cost structure and can expand rapidly can exclude smaller companies from entering and can drive or buy out other companies . A natural monopoly suffers from the same inefficiencies as any other monopoly . Left to its own devices , a profit - seeking natural monopoly will produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs . Regulation of natural monopolies is problematic . Fragmenting such monopolies is by definition inefficient . The most frequently used methods dealing with natural monopolies are government regulations and public ownership . Government regulation generally consists of regulatory commissions charged with the principal duty of setting prices . To reduce prices and increase output , regulators often use average cost pricing . By average cost pricing , the price and quantity are determined by the intersection of the average cost curve and the demand curve . This pricing scheme eliminates any positive economic profits since price equals average cost . Average - cost pricing is not perfect . Regulators must estimate average costs . Companies have a reduced incentive to lower costs . Regulation of this type has not been limited to natural monopolies . Average - cost pricing does also have some disadvantages . By setting price equal to the intersection of the demand curve and the average total cost curve , the firm 's output is allocatively inefficient as the price is less than the marginal cost ( which is the output quantity for a perfectly competitive and allocatively efficient market ) . Government - granted monopoly ( edit ) Main article : Government - granted monopoly A government - granted monopoly ( also called a `` de jure monopoly '' ) is a form of coercive monopoly by which a government grants exclusive privilege to a private individual or company to be the sole provider of a commodity ; potential competitors are excluded from the market by law , regulation , or other mechanisms of government enforcement . Samuel Insull , a British - born American electrical industry business magnate invented regulated monopoly . This came from a combination of his business persona and his political one . On the one hand , he abhorred the waste of competing power producers , whose inefficiency would often double the cost of production . On the other hand , he believed in the citizen 's right to fair treatment . So while he bought up rival companies and created a monopoly , he kept his prices low and campaigned vigorously for regulation . Monopolist shutdown rule ( edit ) A monopolist should shut down when price is less than average variable cost for every output level -- in other words where the demand curve is entirely below the average variable cost curve . Under these circumstances at the profit maximum level of output ( MR = MC ) average revenue would be less than average variable costs and the monopolists would be better off shutting down in the short term . Breaking up monopolies ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In a free market , monopolies can be ended at any time by new competition , breakaway businesses , or consumers seeking alternatives . In a highly regulated market environment a government will often either regulate the monopoly , convert it into a publicly owned monopoly environment , or forcibly fragment it ( see Antitrust law and trust busting ) . Public utilities , often being naturally efficient with only one operator and therefore less susceptible to efficient breakup , are often strongly regulated or publicly owned . American Telephone & Telegraph ( AT&T ) and Standard Oil are debatable examples of the breakup of a private monopoly by government : When AT&T , a monopoly previously protected by force of law , was broken up into various components in 1984 , MCI , Sprint , and other companies were able to compete effectively in the long distance phone market . Law ( edit ) Main article : Competition law The existence of a very high market share does not always mean consumers are paying excessive prices since the threat of new entrants to the market can restrain a high - market - share company 's price increases . Competition law does not make merely having a monopoly illegal , but rather abusing the power a monopoly may confer , for instance through exclusionary practices ( i.e. pricing high just because you are the only one around . ) It may also be noted that it is illegal to try to obtain a monopoly , by practices of buying out the competition , or equal practices . If one occurs naturally , such as a competitor going out of business , or lack of competition , it is not illegal until such time as the monopoly holder abuses the power . First it is necessary to determine whether a company is dominant , or whether it behaves `` to an appreciable extent independently of its competitors , customers and ultimately of its consumer '' . As with collusive conduct , market shares are determined with reference to the particular market in which the company and product in question is sold . The Herfindahl - Hirschman Index ( HHI ) is sometimes used to assess how competitive an industry is . In the US , the merger guidelines state that a post-merger HHI below 1000 is viewed as unconcentrated while HHIs above that will provoke further review . By European Union law , very large market shares raise a presumption that a company is dominant , which may be rebuttable . If a company has a dominant position , then there is `` a special responsibility not to allow its conduct to impair competition on the common market '' . The lowest yet market share of a company considered `` dominant '' in the EU was 39.7 % . Certain categories of abusive conduct are usually prohibited by a country 's legislation . The main recognised categories are : Limiting supply Predatory pricing or undercutting Price discrimination Refusal to deal and exclusive dealing Tying ( commerce ) and product bundling Despite wide agreement that the above constitute abusive practices , there is some debate about whether there needs to be a causal connection between the dominant position of a company and its actual abusive conduct . Furthermore , there has been some consideration of what happens when a company merely attempts to abuse its dominant position . Historical monopolies ( edit ) Origin ( edit ) The term `` monopoly '' first appears in Aristotle 's Politics . Aristotle describes Thales of Miletus 's cornering of the market in olive presses as a monopoly ( μονοπώλιον ) . Another early reference to the concept of `` monopoly '' in a commercial sense appears in tractate Demai of the Mishna ( 2nd century C.E. ) , regarding the purchasing of agricultural goods from a dealer who has a monopoly on the produce ( chapter 5 ; 4 ) . The meaning and understanding of the English word ' monopoly ' has changed over the years . Monopolies of resources ( edit ) Salt ( edit ) See also : Salt March Vending of common salt ( sodium chloride ) was historically a natural monopoly . Until recently , a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for producing salt from the sea , the most plentiful source . Changing sea levels periodically caused salt `` famines '' and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs , which were often in hostile areas ( e.g. the Sahara desert ) requiring well - organised security for transport , storage , and distribution . The Salt Commission was a legal monopoly in China . Formed in 758 , the Commission controlled salt production and sales in order to raise tax revenue for the Tang Dynasty . The `` Gabelle '' was a notoriously high tax levied upon salt in the Kingdom of France . The much - hated levy had a role in the beginning of the French Revolution , when strict legal controls specified who was allowed to sell and distribute salt . First instituted in 1286 , the Gabelle was not permanently abolished until 1945 . Coal ( edit ) Robin Gollan argues in The Coalminers of New South Wales that anti-competitive practices developed in the coal industry of Australia 's Newcastle as a result of the business cycle . The monopoly was generated by formal meetings of the local management of coal companies agreeing to fix a minimum price for sale at dock . This collusion was known as `` The Vend '' . The Vend ended and was reformed repeatedly during the late 19th century , ending by recession in the business cycle . `` The Vend '' was able to maintain its monopoly due to trade union assistance , and material advantages ( primarily coal geography ) . During the early 20th century , as a result of comparable monopolistic practices in the Australian coastal shipping business , the Vend developed as an informal and illegal collusion between the steamship owners and the coal industry , eventually resulting in the High Court case Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd v. R. & AG . Petroleum ( edit ) Standard Oil was an American oil producing , transporting , refining , and marketing company . Established in 1870 , it became the largest oil refiner in the world . John D. Rockefeller was a founder , chairman and major shareholder . The company was an innovator in the development of the business trust . The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics , lowered costs , and undercut competitors . `` Trust - busting '' critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened consumers . Its controversial history as one of the world 's first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911 , when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard was an illegal monopoly . The Standard Oil trust was dissolved into 33 smaller companies ; two of its surviving `` child '' companies are ExxonMobil and the Chevron Corporation . Steel ( edit ) U.S. Steel has been accused of being a monopoly . J.P. Morgan and Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 by combining Andrew Carnegie 's Carnegie Steel Company with Gary 's Federal Steel Company and William Henry `` Judge '' Moore 's National Steel Company . At one time , U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world . In its first full year of operation , U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States . However , U.S. Steel 's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911 , and anti-trust prosecution that year failed . Diamonds ( edit ) De Beers settled charges of price fixing in the diamond trade in the 2000s . De Beers is well known for its monopoloid practices throughout the 20th century , whereby it used its dominant position to manipulate the international diamond market . The company used several methods to exercise this control over the market . Firstly , it convinced independent producers to join its single channel monopoly , it flooded the market with diamonds similar to those of producers who refused to join the cartel , and lastly , it purchased and stockpiled diamonds produced by other manufacturers in order to control prices through limiting supply . In 2000 , the De Beers business model changed due to factors such as the decision by producers in Russia , Canada and Australia to distribute diamonds outside the De Beers channel , as well as rising awareness of blood diamonds that forced De Beers to `` avoid the risk of bad publicity '' by limiting sales to its own mined products . De Beers ' market share by value fell from as high as 90 % in the 1980s to less than 40 % in 2012 , having resulted in a more fragmented diamond market with more transparency and greater liquidity . In November 2011 the Oppenheimer family announced its intention to sell the entirety of its 40 % stake in De Beers to Anglo American plc thereby increasing Anglo American 's ownership of the company to 85 %. ( 30 ) The transaction was worth £ 3.2 billion ( $5.1 billion ) in cash and ended the Oppenheimer dynasty 's 80 - year ownership of De Beers . Utilities ( edit ) A public utility ( or simply `` utility '' ) is an organization or company that maintains the infrastructure for a public service or provides a set of services for public consumption . Common examples of utilities are electricity , natural gas , water , sewage , cable television , and telephone . In the United States , public utilities are often natural monopolies because the infrastructure required to produce and deliver a product such as electricity or water is very expensive to build and maintain . Western Union was criticized as a `` price gouging '' monopoly in the late 19th century . American Telephone & Telegraph was a telecommunications giant . AT&T was broken up in 1984 . In the case of Telecom New Zealand , local loop unbundling was enforced by central government . Telkom is a semi-privatised , part state - owned South African telecommunications company . Deutsche Telekom is a former state monopoly , still partially state owned . Deutsche Telekom currently monopolizes high - speed VDSL broadband network . The Long Island Power Authority ( LIPA ) provided electric service to over 1.1 million customers in Nassau and Suffolk counties of New York , and the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens . The Comcast Corporation is the largest mass media and communications company in the world by revenue . It is the largest cable company and home Internet service provider in the United States , and the nation 's third largest home telephone service provider . Comcast has a monopoly in Boston , Philadelphia , and many other small towns across the US . Transportation ( edit ) The United Aircraft and Transport Corporation was an aircraft manufacturer holding company that was forced to divest itself of airlines in 1934 . Iarnród Éireann , the Irish Railway authority , is a current monopoly as Ireland does not have the size for more companies . The Long Island Rail Road ( LIRR ) was founded in 1834 , and since the mid-1800s has provided train service between Long Island and New York City . In the 1870s , LIRR became the sole railroad in that area through a series of acquisitions and consolidations . In 2013 , the LIRR 's commuter rail system is the busiest commuter railroad in North America , serving nearly 335,000 passengers daily . Foreign trade ( edit ) Dutch East India Company was created as a legal trading monopoly in 1602 . The Vereenigde Oost - Indische Compagnie enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century . The British East India Company was created as a legal trading monopoly in 1600 . The East India Company was formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent , North - West Frontier Province , and Balochistan . The Company traded in basic commodities , which included cotton , silk , indigo dye , salt , saltpetre , tea and opium . Professional sports ( edit ) Major League Baseball survived U.S. anti-trust litigation in 1922 , though its special status is still in dispute as of 2009 . The National Football League survived anti-trust lawsuit in the 1960s but was convicted of being an illegal monopoly in the 1980s . Other examples of monopolies ( edit ) Microsoft has been the defendant in multiple anti-trust suits on strategy embrace , extend and extinguish . They settled anti-trust litigation in the U.S. in 2001 . In 2004 Microsoft was fined 493 million euros by the European Commission which was upheld for the most part by the Court of First Instance of the European Communities in 2007 . The fine was US $1.35 billion in 2008 for noncompliance with the 2004 rule . Monsanto has been sued by competitors for anti-trust and monopolistic practices . They have between 70 % and 100 % of the commercial GMO seed market in a small number of crops . AAFES has a monopoly on retail sales at overseas U.S. military installations . The Walt Disney Company seeks to acquire the large media company 21st Century Fox in 2017 , despite the company owning numerous other firms related to animation , comics and media . The State retail alcohol monopolies of Norway ( Vinmonopolet ) , Sweden ( Systembolaget ) , Finland ( Alko ) , Iceland ( Vínbúð ) , Ontario ( LCBO ) , Quebéc ( SAQ ) , British Columbia ( Liquor Distribution Branch ) , among others . Google is widely considered a monopoly for search engines in Europe and North America , where `` to google '' has even become a word used in everyday language . Countering monopolies ( edit ) The neutrality of this article is questioned because it may show systemic bias . In particular , there may be a strong bias in favor of Capitalism . Please see the discussion on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until the issue is resolved . ( June 2017 ) According to professor Milton Friedman , laws against monopolies cause more harm than good , but unnecessary monopolies should be countered by removing tariffs and other regulation that upholds monopolies . A monopoly can seldom be established within a country without overt and covert government assistance in the form of a tariff or some other device . It is close to impossible to do so on a world scale . The De Beers diamond monopoly is the only one we know of that appears to have succeeded ( and even De Beers are protected by various laws against so called `` illicit '' diamond trade ) . -- In a world of free trade , international cartels would disappear even more quickly . -- Milton Friedman , Free to Choose , p. 53 -- 54 However , professor Steve H. Hanke believes that although private monopolies are more efficient than public ones , often by a factor of two , sometimes private natural monopolies , such as local water distribution , should be regulated ( not prohibited ) by , e.g. , price auctions . Thomas DiLorenzo asserts , however , that during the early days of utility companies where there was little regulation , there were no natural monopolies and there was competition . Only when companies realized that they could gain power through government did monopolies begin to form . See also ( edit ) Business and economics portal Complementary monopoly De facto standard Demonopolization Dominant design Flag carrier History of monopoly Market segmentation index , used to measure the degree of monopoly power Ramsey problem , a policy rule concerning what price a monopolist should set . Simulations and games in economics education that model monopolistic markets . State monopoly capitalism Unfair competition Notes and references ( edit ) Jump up ^ Michael Burgan ( 2007 ) . J. Pierpont Morgan : Industrialist and Financier . p. 93 . ISBN 9780756519872 . Jump up ^ Milton Friedman . `` VIII : Monopoly and the Social Responsibility of Business and Labor '' . Capitalism and Freedom ( paperback ) ( 40th anniversary ed . ) . The University of Chicago Press . p. 208 . ISBN 0 - 226 - 26421 - 1 . Jump up ^ Blinder , Alan S ; Baumol , William J ; Gale , Colton L ( June 2001 ) . `` 11 : Monopoly '' . Microeconomics : Principles and Policy ( paperback ) . Thomson South - Western . p. 212 . ISBN 0 - 324 - 22115 - 0 . A pure monopoly is an industry in which there is only one supplier of a product for which there are no close substitutes and in which is very difficult or impossible for another firm to coexist ^ Jump up to : Orbach , Barak ; Campbell , Grace ( 2012 ) . `` The Antitrust Curse of Bigness '' . Southern California Law Review . SSRN 1856553 . Jump up ^ Binger and Hoffman ( 1998 ) , p. 391 . Jump up ^ Goodwin , N ; Nelson , J ; Ackerman , F ; Weisskopf , T ( 2009 ) . Microeconomics in Context ( 2nd ed . ) . Sharpe . pp. 307 -- 308 . Jump up ^ Samuelson , William F. ; Marks , Stephen G. ( 2003 ) . Managerial Economics ( 4th ed . ) . Wiley . pp. 365 -- 366 . ^ Jump up to : Nicholson , Walter ; Snyder , Christopher ( 2007 ) . Intermediate Microeconomics . Thomson . p. 379 . Jump up ^ Frank ( 2009 ) , p. 274 . Jump up ^ Samuelson & Marks ( 2003 ) , p. 365 . Jump up ^ Ayers , Rober M. ; Collinge , Robert A. ( 2003 ) . Microeconomics . Pearson . p. 238 . Jump up ^ Pindyck and Rubinfeld ( 2001 ) , p. 127 . Jump up ^ Png , Ivan ( 1999 ) . Managerial Economics . Blackwell . p. 271 . ISBN 1 - 55786 - 927 - 8 . Jump up ^ Png ( 1999 ) , p. 268 . Jump up ^ Negbennebor , Anthony ( 2001 ) . Microeconomics , The Freedom to Choose . CAT Publishing . Jump up ^ Mankiw ( 2007 ) , p. 338 . ^ Jump up to : Hirschey , M ( 2000 ) . Managerial Economics . Dreyden . p. 426 . Jump up ^ Pindyck , R ; Rubinfeld , D ( 2001 ) . Microeconomics ( 5th ed . ) . Prentice - Hall . p. 333 . Jump up ^ Melvin and Boyes ( 2002 ) , p. 245 . Jump up ^ Varian , H ( 1992 ) . Microeconomic Analysis ( 3rd ed . ) . Norton . p. 235 . Jump up ^ Pindyck and Rubinfeld ( 2001 ) , p. 370 . Jump up ^ Frank ( 2008 ) , p. 342 . Jump up ^ Pindyck and Rubenfeld ( 2000 ) , p. 325 . Jump up ^ Nicholson ( 1998 ) , p. 551 . Jump up ^ Perfectly competitive firms are price takers . Price is exogenous and it is possible to associate each price with unique profit maximizing quantity . Besanko , David , and Ronald Braeutigam , Microeconomics 2nd ed. , Wiley ( 2005 ) , p. 413 . ^ Jump up to : Binger , B. ; Hoffman , E. ( 1998 ) . Microeconomics with Calculus ( 2nd ed . ) . Addison - Wesley . ^ Jump up to : Frank ( 2009 ) , p. 377 . Jump up ^ Frank ( 2009 ) , p. 378 . Jump up ^ Depken , Craig ( November 23 , 2005 ) . `` 10 '' . Microeconomics Demystified . 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Jump up ^ Perloff ( 2009 ) , p. 404 . ^ Jump up to : Perloff ( 2009 ) , p. 394 . ^ Jump up to : Besanko and Beautigam ( 2005 ) , p. 449 . Jump up ^ Wessels , p. 159 . ^ Jump up to : Boyes and Melvin , p. 449 . Jump up ^ Varian ( 1992 ) , p. 241 . ^ Jump up to : Perloff ( 2009 ) , p. 393 . Jump up ^ Besanko and Beautigam ( 2005 ) , p. 448 . Jump up ^ Hall , Robert E. ; Liberman , Marc ( 2001 ) . Microeconomics : Theory and Applications ( 2nd ed . ) . South_Western . p. 263 . Jump up ^ Besanko and Beautigam ( 2005 ) , p. 451 . Jump up ^ If the monopolist is able to segment the market perfectly , then the average revenue curve effectively becomes the marginal revenue curve for the company and the company maximizes profits by equating price and marginal costs . That is the company is behaving like a perfectly competitive company . The monopolist will continue to sell extra units as long as the extra revenue exceeds the marginal cost of production . The problem that the company has is that the company must charge a different price for each successive unit sold . Jump up ^ Varian ( 1992 ) , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Perloff ( 2009 ) , p. 396 . Jump up ^ Because MC is the same in each market segment the profit maximizing condition becomes produce where MR = MR = MC . Pindyck and Rubinfeld ( 2009 ) , pp. 398 -- 99 . Jump up ^ As Pindyck and Rubinfeld note , managers may find it easier to conceptualize the problem of what price to charge in each segment in terms of relative prices and price elasticities of demand . Marginal revenue can be written in terms of elasticities of demand as MR = P ( 1 + 1 / PED ) . Equating MR1 and MR2 we have P1 ( 1 + 1 / PED ) = P2 ( 1 + 1 / PED ) or P1 / P2 = ( 1 + 1 / PED2 ) / ( 1 + 1 / PED1 ) . Using this equation the manager can obtain elasticity information and set prices for each segment . ( Pindyck and Rubinfeld ( 2009 ) , pp. 401 -- 02 . ) Note that the manager may be able to obtain industry elasticities , which are far more inelastic than the elasticity for an individual firm . As a rule of thumb the company 's elasticity coefficient is 5 to 6 times that of the industry . ( Pindyck and Rubinfeld ( 2009 ) pp. 402 . ) Jump up ^ Colander , David C. , p. 269 . Jump up ^ Note that the discounts apply only to tickets not to concessions . The reason there is not any popcorn discount is that there is not any effective way to prevent resell . A profit maximizing theater owner maximizes concession sales by selling where marginal revenue equals marginal cost . ^ Jump up to : Lovell ( 2004 ) , p. 266 . Jump up ^ Frank ( 2008 ) , p. 394 . Jump up ^ Frank ( 2008 ) , p. 266 . ^ Jump up to : Smith , Adam ( 1776 ) , Wealth of Nations , Penn State Electronic Classics edition , republished 2005 Jump up ^ McEachern , William A. ( 20 - 08 ) . Economics : A Contemporary Introduction . Cengage Learning . pp. 216 -- 218 . ISBN 0324579217 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Binger and Hoffman ( 1998 ) , p. 406 . Jump up ^ Samuelson , P. & Nordhaus , W. : Microeconomics , 17th ed . McGraw - Hill 2001 Jump up ^ Samuelson , W ; Marks , S ( 2005 ) . Managerial Economics ( 4th ed . ) . Wiley . p. 376 . ^ Jump up to : Samuelson and Marks ( 2003 ) , p. 100 . Jump up ^ Evans ( 2004 ) , p. 390 - 412 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , Robert H. ( 2008 ) . Microeconomics and Behavior ( 7th ed . ) . McGraw - Hill . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 126349 - 8 . Jump up ^ Case 27 / 76 : United Brands Company and United Brands Continentaal BV v Commission of the European Communities ( ECR 207 ) , 14 February 1978 Jump up ^ Kerber , Wolfgang ; Kretschmer , Jürgen - Peter ; von Wangenheim , Georg ( September 23 , 2009 ) , Market Share Thresholds and Herfindahl - Hirschman - Index ( HHI ) as Screening Instruments in Competition Law : A Theoretical Analysis ( PDF ) , Department of Economics , University of Vienna Jump up ^ `` 1.5 Concentration and Market Shares '' , Horizontal Merger Guidelines , U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission , April 8 , 1997 Jump up ^ Case 85 / 76 : Hoffmann - La Roche & Co . AG v Commission of the European Communities ( ECR 461 ) , 13 February 1979 Jump up ^ AKZO Chemie BV v Commission of the European Communities , 3 July 1991 Jump up ^ Case 322 / 81 : NV Nederlandsche Banden Industrie Michelin v Commission of the European Communities , 9 November 1983 Jump up ^ COMMISSION DECISION of 14 July 1999 relating to a proceeding under Article 82 of the EC Treaty ( IV / D - 2 / 34.780 -- Virgin / British Airways , 14 July 1999 , p . L30 / 1 Jump up ^ Case 6 - 72 : Europemballage Corporation and Continental Can Company Inc. v Commission of the European Communities , 21 February 1973 Jump up ^ Aristotle . Politics ( 350 B.C.E ed . ) . Jump up ^ Aristotle . Politics . p. 1252α . Jump up ^ Segal , M.H. ( 1948 ) . `` Demai : Translated into English with Notes '' . In Epstein , I . The Talmud . Zeraim vol. II . London : The Soncino Press . p. 69 . ISBN 9789562913447 . Rabbi Judah agrees that if a man bought from a monopolist , he must tithe every heap . Jump up ^ Richardson , Gary ( June 2001 ) . `` A Tale of Two Theories : Monopolies and Craft Guilds in Medieval England and Modern Imagination '' . Journal of the History of Economic Thought . Jump up ^ Chazelas , Jean ( 1968 ) . `` La suppression de la gabelle du sel en 1945 '' . Le rôle du sel dans l'histoire : travaux préparés sous la direction de Michel Mollat . Presses universitaires de France : 263 -- 65 . Jump up ^ Gollan , Robin ( 1963 ) . The Coalminers of New South Wales : a history of the union , 1860 -- 1960 . Melbourne : Melbourne University Press . pp. 45 -- 134 . Jump up ^ `` Exxon Mobil - Our history '' . Exxon Mobil Corp . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 03 . Jump up ^ Morris , Charles R . The Tycoons : How Andrew Carnegie , John D. Rockefeller , Jay Gould , and J.P. Morgan invented the American supereconomy , H. Holt and Co. , New York , 2005 , pp. 255 - 258 . ISBN 0 - 8050 - 7599 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` United States Steel Corporation History '' . FundingUniverse . Retrieved 3 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Boselovic , Len ( February 25 , 2001 ) . `` Steel Standing : U.S. Steel celebrates 100 years '' . PG News - Business & Technology . post-gazette.com - PG Publishing . Retrieved 6 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` West 's Encyclopedia of American Law '' . Answers.com . 2009 - 06 - 28 . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 11 . Jump up ^ Lasar , Matthew ( May 13 , 2011 ) , How Robber Barons hijacked the `` Victorian Internet '' : Ars revisits those wild and crazy days when Jay Gould ruled the telegraph and ... , Ars technica Jump up ^ Kevin J. O'Brien , IHT.com , Regulators in Europe fight for independence , International Herald Tribune , November 9 , 2008 , Accessed November 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ IfM - Comcast / NBCUniversal , LLC . Mediadb.eu ( 2013 - 11 - 15 ) . Retrieved on 2013 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Dickens , Matthew ( 24 May 2013 ) , TRANSIT RIDERSHIP REPORT : First Quarter 2013 ( PDF ) , American Public Transportation Association , retrieved 3 January 2014 Jump up ^ Van Boven , M.W. `` Towards A New Age of Partnership ( TANAP ) : An Ambitious World Heritage Project ( UNESCO Memory of the World -- reg. form , 2002 ) '' . VOC Archives Appendix 2 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ EU competition policy and the consumer Archived 2009 - 03 - 10 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Leo Cendrowicz ( 2008 - 02 - 27 ) . `` Microsoft Gets Mother Of All EU Fines '' . Forbes . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` EU fines Microsoft record $1.3 billion '' . Time Warner . 2008 - 02 - 27 . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ Proposed acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` In Praise of Private Infrastructure '' , Globe Asia , April 2008 Jump up ^ Thomas J. DiLorenzo . `` The Myth of Natural Monopoly -- Thomas J. DiLorenzo -- Mises Daily '' . Mises.org . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 02 . References ( edit ) Evans , Harold , ed. ( 2004 ) . They Made America : From the Steam Engine to the Search Engine : Two Centuries of Innovators . Little , Brown and Company . p. 496 . ISBN 0 - 316 - 27766 - 5 . Further reading ( edit ) Guy Ankerl , Beyond Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Socialism . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Schenkman Pbl. , 1978 . ISBN 0 - 87073 - 938 - 7 External links ( edit ) Media related to Monopoly at Wikimedia Commons Look up monopoly in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . 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26 | document: The Parent Trap ( 1998 film ) - wikipedia The Parent Trap ( 1998 film ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Parent Trap Theatrical release poster Directed by Nancy Meyers Produced by Charles Shyer Screenplay by David Swift Nancy Meyers Charles Shyer Based on Lottie and Lisa by Erich Kästner Starring Dennis Quaid Natasha Richardson Lindsay Lohan Music by Alan Silvestri Cinematography Dean Cundey Edited by Stephen A. Rotter Production company Walt Disney Pictures Distributed by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution Release date July 29 , 1998 ( 1998 - 07 - 29 ) ( United States ) December 11 , 1998 ( 1998 - 12 - 11 ) ( United Kingdom ) Running time 128 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $15 million Box office $92.1 million The Parent Trap is a 1998 American romantic comedy - drama film co-written and directed by Nancy Meyers , and produced and co-written by Charles Shyer . It is a remake of the 1961 film of the same name and an adaptation of Erich Kästner 's German novel Lottie and Lisa ( Das doppelte Lottchen ) . Dennis Quaid and Natasha Richardson star as a divorced couple who separated shortly after their identical twin daughters ' birth ; Lindsay Lohan stars ( in her film debut ) as both twins , Hallie Parker and Annie James , who are fortuitously reunited at summer camp after being separated at birth . David Swift wrote the screenplay for the original 1961 film based on Lottie and Lisa . The story is comparable to that of the 1936 Deanna Durbin film Three Smart Girls . Swift is credited along with Meyers and Shyer as co-writers of the 1998 version . Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast and characters 3 Production 4 Music 4.1 Soundtrack 4.2 Film score 4.3 Notes 5 Reception 5.1 Critical response 5.2 Box office 6 Deleted scenes 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) In 1986 , American winery owner Nicholas `` Nick '' Parker ( Dennis Quaid ) and British wedding gown designer Elizabeth `` Liz '' James ( Natasha Richardson ) meet , fall in love , and get married during an ocean cruise on the Queen Elizabeth 2 . After the birth of their identical twin daughters , Annie and Hallie ( Lindsay Lohan ) , they get divorced and each has custody of one girl . Nick raises Hallie in Napa Valley , California and Elizabeth raises Annie in London , England . Eleven years and nine months later in the summer of 1998 , Nick and Elizabeth coincidentally send their daughters to Camp Walden , a girls sleep away camp in Maine . Annie and Hallie , who do not know each other , take an immediate dislike to one another . After a fight of pranks , they are isolated together as punishment until camp is over . They eventually discover that they are twins and hatch a plan for each to meet the parent they have never met . Hallie imitates Annie 's British accent and flies to London to meet their mother , grandfather , Charles ( Ronnie Stevens ) and Martin ( Simon Kunz ) the butler . Annie imitates Hallie 's American accent and flies to Napa Valley to meet their father , Chessy ( Lisa Ann Walter ) the housekeeper , and Sammy the dog . After discovering that their father is engaged to child - hating , gold - digger Meredith Blake ( Elaine Hendrix ) , Annie and Hallie plot to reunite Elizabeth and Nick by falsely telling Elizabeth that Nick wants to meet her in San Francisco . Chessy , Martin , and Charles discover the girls ' secret plan . Nick is shocked , but delighted to see Elizabeth after so many years . Meanwhile , Chessy and Martin are growing romantically attracted to each other . Despite the girls ' best efforts , which include recreating the night their parents met , they fail to reunite Nick and Elizabeth . They resort to a last - ditch effort by demanding a three - day family camping trip , refusing to reveal which twin is which until after they return . Elizabeth tricks Meredith into taking in her place on the camping trip . Annie and Hallie play a number of pranks on Meredith , who becomes enraged after waking up in the middle of the lake on her air mattress and gives Nick an ultimatum ; choose either the girls or her . Nick , finally seeing Meredith for who she truly is , chooses the girls over Meredith , but being a responsible father , still punishes them for their shenanigans . Nick and Elizabeth realize they still have feelings for one another , but decide it is better to go their separate ways . Elizabeth and Annie later board a flight for London , but when they arrive , they find Nick and Hallie waiting for them ( them having taken a faster flight on Concorde ) . Nick realizes his previous mistake was not going after Elizabeth when she left him , and proposes her . Photos show Nick and Elizabeth getting remarried aboard the `` Queen Elizabeth 2 '' , with Annie and Hallie as bridesmaids , and Martin proposing to Chessy . Cast and characters ( edit ) Lindsay Lohan as Hallie Parker and Annie James , preteen twin sisters who were separated after birth . Following their parents ' divorce , they were raised separately with no knowledge of each other -- until they meet at summer camp by chance . Dennis Quaid as Nicholas `` Nick '' Parker , Annie and Hallie 's father , a wealthy American winemaker . Natasha Richardson as Elizabeth `` Liz '' James , Annie and Hallie 's mother , a famous wealthy British wedding gown designer . Simon Kunz as Martin , the James family 's butler , who falls in love with Chessy . Ronnie Stevens as Charles James , Elizabeth 's father and Annie and Hallie 's maternal grandfather . After he catches Hallie on the phone with Annie , she tells him about switching places . Lisa Ann Walter as Chessy , the Parker family 's housekeeper , who meets and falls in love with Martin . She also discovers that `` Hallie '' is actually Annie after noticing her strange behavior . J. Patrick McCormack as Les Blake , Meredith 's father . Joanna Barnes as Vicki Blake , Meredith 's mother . Elaine Hendrix as Meredith Blake , a 26 - year - old publicist and child - hating gold - digger who is planning to marry Nick . Polly Holliday as Marva Kulp Sr. , the owner and manager of Camp Walden . Maggie Wheeler as Marva Kulp Jr. , Marva Kulp Sr. 's daughter and assistant . Lindsay 's mother , Dina , and siblings , Michael , Ali and Cody , all appear in uncredited cameos at the airport . Michael also appears in the movie as a boy who accidentally winds up at Camp Walden , mistaking it for a boys ' camp . Erin Mackey was Lindsay 's stunt double for Annie and Hallie . Joanna Barnes , who in the original 1961 film played Vicki Robinson , child - hating gold - digger who wanted to marry the girls ' father for his money , appears in this film as Vicki Blake , the mother of child - hating gold - digger Meredith . The characters of Marva Kulp Sr. and Marva Kulp Jr. were most likely named after actress Nancy Kulp , who played the camp counselor in the original 1961 film . The scene where Nick sees Elizabeth and leans over in the elevator is a repeat of Cary Grant and Irene Dunne 's classic scene from My Favorite Wife . Production ( edit ) Principal photography started on July 15 , 1997 , in London , United Kingdom , and continued in Napa Valley AVA , San Francisco , Lake Arrowhead , and Los Angeles , California . Music ( edit ) The song used in the opening sequence in which glimpses of Nick and Elizabeth 's first wedding is seen is Nat King Cole 's `` L-O-V-E '' . The song used in the end credits , in which photos of Nick and Elizabeth 's second wedding is seen , is his daughter Natalie Cole 's `` This Will Be ( An Everlasting Love ) '' . The instrumental music featured prominently in the hotel scene where the girls and their parents cross paths serendipitously is `` In the Mood '' , which was previously made famous by the Glenn Miller band . Later in the hotel , Hallie sings a few bars of `` Let 's Get Together '' , a tune from the first version of the film that was a hit for its star , Hayley Mills . The song is also quoted over the Walt Disney Pictures logo , and at the end of Alan Silvestri 's closing credits suite . When Hallie shows up at Annie 's poker game at Camp Walden , the music used is `` Bad to the Bone '' by George Thorogood and the Destroyers . The background song heard in the campfire scene is `` How Bizarre '' by the music group OMC . The tune playing as Hallie and Annie are making their way up to the Isolation Cabin is the main theme from `` The Great Escape '' by Elmer Bernstein . Soundtrack ( edit ) The Parent Trap Soundtrack album by Various artists Released July 28 , 1998 Length 54 : 08 Label Hollywood The Parent Trap ( Original Soundtrack ) No . Title Writer ( s ) Original artist Length 1 . `` L-O-V-E '' Bert Kaempfert ; Milt Gabler Nat King Cole 2 : 32 2 . `` Do You Believe in Magic '' John Sebastian The Lovin ' Spoonful 2 : 05 3 . `` There She Goes '' Lee Mavers The La 's 2 : 43 4 . `` Top of the World '' Fred Busby ; John Bettis Shonen Knife 3 : 56 5 . `` Here Comes the Sun '' George Harrison Bob Khaleel 3 : 08 6 . `` ( I Love You ) For Sentimental Reasons '' Deek Watson ; William Best Linda Ronstadt 3 : 44 7 . `` Soulful Strut '' Eugene Record ; Sonny Sanders Young - Holt Unlimited 3 : 00 8 . `` Never Let You Go '' Christian Berman ; Frank Berman ; Gabriel Gilbert ; Jeff Coplan ; Matthias Hass ; Nick Laird - Clowes Jakaranda 3 : 07 9 . `` Bad to the Bone '' George Thorogood George Thorogood & The Destroyers 4 : 49 10 . `` The Happy Club '' Bob Geldof ; Karl Wallinger Bob Geldof 4 : 05 11 . `` Suite from The Parent Trap '' Alan Silvestri 7 : 13 12 . `` This Will Be ( An Everlasting Love ) '' Chuck Jackson ; Marvin Yancy Natalie Cole 2 : 49 13 . `` Dream Come True '' Milton Davis Ta - Gana 3 : 50 14 . `` Groovin ' '' Eddie Brigati ; Felix Cavaliere Pato Banton & The Reggae Revolution 3 : 50 15 . `` Let 's Get Together '' Richard M. Sherman ; Robert B. Sherman Nobody 's Angel 3 : 08 Total length : 54 : 08 Film score ( edit ) The Parent Trap Film score by Alan Silvestri Released September 1 , 1998 Length 39 : 46 Label Hollywood Alan Silvestri chronology The Odd Couple II ( 1998 ) The Odd Couple II 1998 The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) Practical Magic ( 1998 ) Practical Magic 1998 All tracks written by Alan Silvestri . The Parent Trap ( Original Score ) No . Title Length 1 . `` The Disney Logo '' 0 : 16 2 . `` Suite from The Parent Trap '' 7 : 12 3 . `` Annie and Martin '' 1 : 00 4 . `` Shake Hands , Girls '' 0 : 34 5 . `` Like Twins '' 3 : 39 6 . `` Changes '' 2 : 41 7 . `` Hallie Meets Mom '' 3 : 43 8 . `` Annie Meets Dad '' 2 : 11 9 . `` Vineyard Suite '' 1 : 38 10 . `` I Am Annie '' 1 : 17 11 . `` Dad 's Getting Married '' 1 : 01 12 . `` Hallie Breaks the News '' 1 : 49 13 . `` You 'll Kill in It '' 0 : 53 14 . `` Table for Two '' 1 : 51 15 . `` She 's Gone '' 2 : 05 16 . `` Where Dreams Have No End '' 2 : 18 17 . `` We Actually Did It '' 1 : 38 18 . `` Finale '' 3 : 52 Total length : 39 : 46 Notes ( edit ) 1. ^ Not featured in the motion picture . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 86 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.8 / 10 based on 50 reviews . The website 's consensus states : `` Writer - director Nancy Meyers takes the winning formula of the 1961 original and gives it an amiable modern spin , while young star Lindsay Lohan shines in her breakout role . '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 64 / 100 , based on reviews from 19 critics , indicating `` generally favorable '' reviews . Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert each gave the film three stars . Critic Kenneth Turan called Lindsay Lohan `` the soul of this film as much as Hayley Mills was of the original '' , going on to say that `` she is more adept than her predecessor at creating two distinct personalities '' . Lohan won a Young Artist Award for best performance in a feature film . Box office ( edit ) In its opening weekend , the film grossed $11,148,497 in 2,247 theaters in the United States and Canada , ranking # 2 at the box office , behind Saving Private Ryan . By the end of its run , The Parent Trap grossed $66,308,518 domestically and $25,800,000 internationally , totaling $92,108,518 worldwide . The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 11 , 1998 , and opened on # 3 , behind Rush Hour and The Mask of Zorro . Deleted scenes ( edit ) The scene slots between Hallie and Martin meeting at Heathrow Airport , and Hallie meeting her mother and grandfather . Hallie is in a limo and they come across Buckingham Palace . She gets out and tries to get one of the guards to move . The guards then crowd around in formation as Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom exits Buckingham Palace in a car . The window rolls down and Hallie speaks to the Queen , getting confused with ' Your Highness ' or ' Your Majesty ' or whether to curtsy . The Queen promises not to tell a soul and moves off . Director Nancy Meyers had a difficult time getting the uniforms , location , and an actress to play the Queen . The scene was deleted due to pacing problems . Another deleted scene appears in the trailer that debuted in 1998 . The scene shows Hallie standing out on the deck of her vineyard - estate house . She sees a shooting star and sings the rhyme `` Star Light , Star Bright '' . Annie appears standing outside her window , too . In the original draft of the script , many scenes are altered or deleted . An extended ear - piercing scene is in . While putting the needle through Annie 's earlobe , Hallie screams and passes out . Annie gently smacks Hallie in the face , trying to wake her up . After Hallie wakes up , she asks Annie , `` Are you bleeding to death ? Did it hurt ? '' Annie tells her no to both questions and shows Hallie the needle again , and tells her to finish with the other because she ( Annie ) will not go through life with just one pierced ear . Hallie passes out again . In an extended scene , Elizabeth delves further into why she and Nick did not stay together long . She says , `` I tried living in California , he tried living in London ... '' . Hallie replies , `` So you broke up ? '' Elizabeth tells Hallie that she and Annie were the best thing about the whole situation and they continue to stroll down the streets of London . There is an extended ending where Hallie tells Annie : `` You guys are going to love living in California . '' To which Annie replies : `` California ? You guys are going to love living in London . '' Then Hallie replies `` London ? '' In the front yard , Sammy is barking to the poodle next door as Chessy and Martin are kissing and Charles is getting home . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Parent Trap : 128 minutes ( Starz 01 / 2010 Schedule , Page 4 ) '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on May 26 , 2015 . Retrieved November 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Parent Trap '' . AFI Catalog . American Film Institute . Retrieved 25 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) '' . British Film Institute . Retrieved 25 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Knott , Matthew Hammett ( May 29 , 2014 ) . `` Heroines of Cinema : These 10 Female Filmmakers Prove Why Hollywood Studios Should Change Their Tune IndieWire '' . IndieWire . Retrieved December 25 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ Kawano , Kelley ( June 26 , 2012 ) . `` Let 's Get Together : An In - Depth Look at the Ongoing Appeal of Hayley Mills ' ' The Parent Trap ' '' . Wordandfilm.com . Retrieved November 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Parent Trap - Production Notes - About the locations '' . CinemaReview.com . Retrieved August 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved February 8 , 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/movie/the-parent-trap Jump up ^ Siskel , Gene ( July 31 , 1998 ) . `` Parent Trap Repeat a Worthy Trip '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved November 28 , 2017 . Ebert , Roger ( July 29 , 1998 ) . `` The Parent Trap '' . RogerEbert.com . Retrieved November 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kenneth Turan : The Parent Trap '' . Los Angeles Times . July 29 , 1998 . Archived from the original on August 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Celebrity Central : Lindsay Lohan '' . People.com . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2010 . Retrieved January 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Lindsay Lohan : Biography : Rolling Stone '' . Rolling Stone . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2010 . Retrieved October 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 20th Annual Awards '' . The Young Artist Foundation . Retrieved October 18 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Weekend box office 11th December 1998 - 13th December 1998 '' . www.25thframe.co.uk . Retrieved 21 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Continuity photos of this scene exist , so it can be assumed that some filming took place . External links ( edit ) Official website The Parent Trap on IMDb The Parent Trap at AllMovie The Parent Trap at the TCM Movie Database The Parent Trap at the American Film Institute Catalog The Parent Trap at Box Office Mojo The Parent Trap at Rotten Tomatoes Films directed by Nancy Meyers The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) What Women Want ( 2000 ) Something 's Gotta Give ( 2003 ) The Holiday ( 2006 ) It 's Complicated ( 2009 ) The Intern ( 2015 ) Erich Kästner 's Lottie and Lisa Films Two Times Lotte Hibari no komoriuta Twice Upon a Time Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum Leta Manasulu Do Kaliyaan Makkala Bhagya Charlie & Louise -- Das doppelte Lottchen Kuch Khatti Kuch Meethi The Parent Trap ( film series ) The Parent Trap ( 1961 ) The Parent Trap II Parent Trap III Parent Trap : Hawaiian Honeymoon The Parent Trap ( 1998 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Parent_Trap_(1998_film)&oldid=856908660 '' Categories : 1998 films English - language films 1990s adventure films 1990s comedy - drama films 1990s romantic comedy films 1990s romantic drama films American adventure comedy films American adventure drama films American children 's adventure films American children 's comedy films American children 's drama films American comedy - drama films American films American romantic comedy films American romantic drama films Children 's comedy - drama films Comedy of remarriage films Directorial debut films Disney film remakes Films about families Films about twin sisters Films about weddings Films based on German novels Films directed by Nancy Meyers Films scored by Alan Silvestri Films set in London Films set in Maine Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area Films shot in California Films shot in London Films shot in Los Angeles Films shot in San Francisco The Parent Trap films Screenplays by Charles Shyer Screenplays by Nancy Meyers Summer camps in films Walt Disney Pictures films Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from January 2018 All articles needing additional references Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Scots Slovenščina Suomi Svenska ไทย 中文 22 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 August 2018 , at 09 : 22 ( UTC ) . 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27 | document: Ivan L. Moody - wikipedia Ivan L. Moody Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . No cleanup reason has been specified . Please help improve this article if you can . ( December 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification . Please help by adding reliable sources . Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately , especially if potentially libelous or harmful . ( September 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Ivan L. Moody Ivan Moody performing at Rock on the Range 2010 in Columbus , Ohio Background information Birth name Ivan Lewis Greening Also known as Ghost ( 1980 - 01 - 07 ) January 7 , 1980 ( age 37 ) Denver , Colorado , U.S. Genres Heavy metal groove metal alternative metal hard rock nu metal industrial metal Occupation ( s ) Singer musician music producer actor Instruments Vocals Labels Firm Music / EMI Prospect Park Rise Spinefarm / Universal Elektra / No Name Corporate Punishment Associated acts Five Finger Death Punch Motograter Ghost Machine Toiz Black Blood Orchestra Ivan L. Moody ( born Ivan Lewis Greening ) , ( born January 7 , 1980 ) known by the pseudonym Ghost during his time with Motograter , is the lead vocalist for American heavy metal band Five Finger Death Punch . He had performed for several bands before settling down with Five Finger Death Punch ( often abbreviated to FFDP or 5FDP ) . As an actor , he also starred in the films Bled as Incubus , and The Devil 's Carnival as the hobo clown . Contents ( hide ) 1 Career 2 Personal life 3 Alcoholism 4 Awards and nominations 5 Discography 5.1 Motograter 5.2 Ghost Machine 5.3 Five Finger Death Punch 5.4 Guest appearances 6 Filmography 7 References 8 External links Career ( edit ) Moody moved from his hometown Denver to Los Angeles in 2001 , where he joined his first band called Toiz . The band played a few shows around the Los Angeles area in 2002 and made a demo which was not released . The following year , he joined the nu metal band Motograter . They released their self - titled studio album of the same name on June 24 , 2003 . They gained some mainstream success playing the second stage at Ozzfest 2003 and touring with bands like Korn , Disturbed , Marilyn Manson , Nothingface , Slipknot , Mushroomhead , and Killswitch Engage . Motograter went on a hiatus in 2005 but played a one - time re-union show in 2006 at the Delicious Rox Festival and Moody made it perfectly clear to fans and band members alike that he was finished with the band . Moody also made songs with old roommates and family members , Ryan Morrow ( bass ) , Bill Stonebraker ( guitar ) , and Jim `` Dugan '' Demongey ( drums ) , calling themselves Black Blood Orchestra . Soon after , Moody joined the heavy metal band Five Finger Death Punch and his side project Ghost Machine released their debut self - titled album on July 26 , 2005 . Ghost Machine released their second album , Hypersensitive , on November 21 , 2006 . On the same year , Five Finger Death Punch entered the studio to record their debut album at Next Level Studios and Complex Studios in Los Angeles , California with Steve Bruno and Mike Sarkisyan . The album was produced by guitarist Zoltan Bathory and drummer Jeremy Spencer and was mixed by former Machine Head and Soulfly guitarist Logan Mader . Ivan also starred in the 2009 horror film Bled , playing the role of Incubus . They achieved rapid commercial success : their debut album , The Way of the Fist ( 2007 ) has currently sold over 600,000 copies in the United States and spawned three top 10 hit singles . Their second album , War is the Answer ( 2009 ) , sold more than 44,000 copies in its first week of release , spawned 5 top 10 singles and has gone on to sell more than 700,000 copies to date . Their even more successful third record American Capitalist debuted # 3 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold over 90,000 copies in its first week of release . It was the band 's third consecutive RIAA - certified Gold record , however , has sold less copies than War is the Answer overall , with total sales to date around 550,000 . Then , on July 30 , 2013 , The Wrong side of Heaven and Righteous side of Hell Volume One was released , having sold over 210,000 copies so far , and is debuted as the # 1 rock album across the globe . Roughly four months later , The Wrong Side of Heaven and Righteous Side of Hell Volume Two was released , landing # 2 on the billboard 200 , and widely recognized for its extremely popular single , Battle Born . They have played many major tours and festivals including Korn 's Family Values and Bitch We Have a Problem Tours , the Jägermeister Stage ( second stage ) at Mayhem Festival in 2008 and the main stage at Mayhem Festival in 2010 and 2013 . They also performed at Download Festival during 2009 , 2010 , 2013 & 2015 and the Monster Stage ( main stage ) at Rock on the Range in Columbus , Ohio in 2008 , 2010 , 2012 and 2014 as well as at Rockfest 2012 in Kansas City . He is featured in the new book Full Metal : The 50 Most Influential Heavy Metal Songs of the 1980s and the True Stories Behind Their Lyrics . In a new interview conducted exclusively for the book , Moody discusses the impact of Metallica 's `` Fade to Black '' on him as a lyricist , in a full chapter about the song that also examines its social and cultural significance , both back during 1984 and today . Moody co-starred with Shawn Crahan in Darren Lynn Bousman 's short horror musical film The Devil 's Carnival , which screened on tour in April 2012 . On April 21 , 2017 , Moody announced that he would be forming a new band , called `` Villain '' , after his 2017 tour and his lawsuit with Prospect Park had concluded . On June 12 , 2017 , Ivan publicly stated during their set in Tilburg , Netherlands that it will be his last show with Five Finger Death Punch . However , the band have since released a statement via their Facebook page stating that bands that tour as heavily as they do will `` inevitably have a few derailments , but the train always keeps on moving '' , implying that all shows will proceed as planned and that Moody will remain as the band 's frontman . Moody checked himself into rehab and will sit out for the rest of the tour with Five Finger Death Punch , which will see vocalist Tommy Vext filling in for Moody . Personal life ( edit ) Although born in Denver , Colorado on January 7 , 1980 , Moody shared to a crowd in La Crosse , Wisconsin , that he used to spend several summers with his grandmother in Somerset , Wisconsin . `` My grandmother put me in choir when I was about seven years old . I was only in it about two or three years . Music 's always been real close to my heart . Like anybody else , there were ups and downs in my life and music just always seemed to be consistent , so it was easy to latch on to . I started singing in bands when I was 16 years old . They used to kick me out of bars after my set was done . '' Ivan currently resides in Las Vegas , Nevada and has an 18 - year - old daughter back in Colorado . Alcoholism ( edit ) In 2012 , Ivan Moody revealed that his alcohol problem had nearly got him fired from the band . Other members of Five Finger Death Punch would n't answer his phone calls and they had lost many tour managers , all harming the band and themselves . Ivan had even performed while drunk ; he claimed he would perform in front of large crowds and not remember any of it the next day . He started to cut down on the alcohol and drink with more responsibility , before stopping completely . Ivan says that he `` felt like a junkie and from that extreme , it takes a lot of effort to go back . '' Moody appears to reference his alcoholism and its battles in the video `` I Apologize , '' where Moody is walking through a graveyard filled with artists that have died struggling with addiction ; including Janis Joplin , Jimi Hendrix , Scott Weiland , Layne Staley , Kurt Cobain , John Bonham , Jim Morrison and many others . Awards and nominations ( edit ) Motograter was voted the best band of 2003 by Hit Parader . Five Finger Death Punch has won several awards including The Best New Band award at the 2009 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards , the Most Promising Artist award from FMQB 's 2009 year - end Metal poll . They were also nominated for the Best International Newcomer award at 2009 Kerrang ! Awards and won the Best Breakthrough Band award at the 2010 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards . Best Song for `` Lift Me Up '' at the 2014 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards . Discography ( edit ) Motograter ( edit ) 2003 : Motograter There are also four Motograter demos with Moody on lead vocals , including `` Down ( 2002 Demo ) , `` No Name ( 2002 Demo ) , `` Red ( 2002 Demo ) '' , and `` Failure ( Live 2004 ) '' . Ghost Machine ( edit ) 2005 : Ghost Machine 2006 : Hypersensitive After Hypersensitive , Ghost Machine started working on a remix album that they had to put on the back burner because of the success of Five Finger Death Punch . Four remixes were released for stream on the band 's MySpace music remix page : `` God Forbid ( Black Cape Remix ) '' , `` Vegas Moon ( Pete Murray Remix ) '' , `` Siesta Loca ( Steven 's Organic Drum Remix ) '' and `` Burning Bridges ( Depression Remix ) '' . Five Finger Death Punch ( edit ) 2007 : The Way of the Fist 2009 : War Is the Answer 2011 : American Capitalist 2013 : The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell , Volume 1 2013 : The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell , Volume 2 2015 : Got Your Six Guest appearances ( edit ) List of guest appearances in other types of album with other performing artists , showing year released and album name . Year Title Other performer ( s ) Album 2012 `` A Penny for a Tale '' N / A The Devil 's Carnival Filmography ( edit ) Bled ( 2009 ) ( as Incubus ) The Devil 's Carnival ( 2012 ) ( as the hobo clown ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Greening , Ivan Lewis . `` Songwriter / Composer : GREENING IVAN LEWIS '' . Broadcast Music , Inc . ( BMI ) . Retrieved August 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Devil 's Carnival ( 2012 ) '' . IMDb.com . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ http://www.deadpress.co.uk/71619/news-ivan-moody-calls-tilburg-his-last-show-in-five-finger-death-punch Jump up ^ http://www.metalinjection.net/latest-news/drama/ivan-moody-to-sit-out-five-finger-death-punch-european-tour-checks-back-into-rehab Jump up ^ `` Ivan L. Moody '' . imdb.com/ . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` TGetting friendly with Five Finger Death Punch ( 2007 ) '' . Dabelly.com/ . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` TGIvan Moody of Five Finger Death Punch grew up here and still has a love for Colorado '' . westword.com/ . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` Five Finger Spencer thought drugs had killed him - Metal Hammer '' . Metalhammer.teamrock.com . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Five Finger Death Punch 's Ivan Moody Digs Own Grave in ' I Apologize ' Video '' . loudwire.com . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Former MOTOGRATER Frontman Resurfaces In FIVE FINGER DEATH PUNCH '' . Roadrunnerreocrds.com . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 05 . External links ( edit ) Five Finger Death Punch 's official website Five Finger Death Punch Zoltan Bathory Jason Hook Chris Kael Ivan Moody Jeremy Spencer Caleb Bingham Darrell Roberts Matt Snell Studio albums The Way of the Fist War Is the Answer American Capitalist The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell Volume 1 Volume 2 Got Your Six Extended plays Pre-Emptive Strike Singles `` The Bleeding '' `` Never Enough '' `` Stranger than Fiction '' `` Hard to See '' `` Walk Away '' `` Dying Breed '' `` No One Gets Left Behind '' `` Bad Company '' `` Far from Home '' `` Under and Over It '' `` Back for More '' `` Remember Everything '' `` Coming Down '' `` The Pride '' `` Lift Me Up '' `` Battle Born '' `` House of the Rising Sun '' `` Wrong Side of Heaven '' `` Jekyll and Hyde '' `` Wash It All Away '' `` My Nemesis '' Related articles Discography Invidia Motograter Matt `` Nuke '' Nunes Mylon Guy Noah `` Shark '' Robertson James Anthony Legion Dustin `` Skunk '' Anderson Jesse Stamper Zak `` The Waz '' Ward Bruce `` Grater '' Butler Chris `` Crispy '' Binns Joey `` Smur '' Krzywonski Eric Gonzales Neil Godfrey Ivan `` Ghost '' Moody JR Swartz Ty Fury Aaron `` A-Bomb '' Abalos Tyler Hole Jeremy `` Twitch '' Scheller Mark Nosler Casey `` KC Kaos '' Cahill Michael `` Angel '' Woodruff Kery `` Venom '' Glennon Michael `` The Kidd '' Stewart Carlos `` Crow '' Pagan Derek `` D '' Campbell Joey Vice Albums Studio Motograter EPs Hugh Chardon Indy Pre-Release Singles `` Suffocate '' `` Down '' `` No Name '' Related bands Five Finger Death Punch Ghost Machine MusicBrainz : 3c7bfb9f - 668a - 48aa - befe - b7d0a0a9ba0c Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivan_L._Moody&oldid=805906481 '' Categories : 1980 births American male singers Living people American heavy metal singers Alternative metal musicians Nu metal singers American hard rock musicians Industrial metal musicians Singers from Denver Singers from Colorado Hidden categories : Articles needing cleanup from December 2011 All pages needing cleanup Cleanup tagged articles without a reason field from December 2011 Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from December 2011 BLP articles lacking sources from September 2015 All BLP articles lacking sources Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Official website not in Wikidata Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch فارسی Français Italiano Magyar Polski Русский Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2017 , at 11 : 32 . 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28 | document: Least common multiple - wikipedia Least common multiple Jump to : navigation , search LCMs of numbers 1 through 10 with numbers 2 through 10 . Line labels = first number . X axis = second number minus 1 . Y axis = LCM of the two numbers . A Venn Diagram showing the least common multiples of combinations of 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 7 ( 6 is skipped as it is 2 × 3 , both of which are already represented ) . For example , a card game which requires its cards to be divided equally among up to 5 players requires at least 60 cards , the number at the intersection of the 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 sets , but not the 7 set . In arithmetic and number theory , the least common multiple , lowest common multiple , or smallest common multiple of two integers a and b , usually denoted by LCM ( a , b ) , is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a and b . Since division of integers by zero is undefined , this definition has meaning only if a and b are both different from zero . However , some authors define lcm ( a , 0 ) as 0 for all a , which is the result of taking the lcm to be the least upper bound in the lattice of divisibility . The LCM is the `` lowest common denominator '' ( LCD ) that must be determined before fractions can be added , subtracted or compared . The LCM of more than two integers is also well - defined : it is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by each of them . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 1.1 Notation 1.2 Example 1.3 Applications 1.4 Gears problem 2 Computing the least common multiple 2.1 Reduction by the greatest common divisor 2.2 Finding least common multiples by prime factorization 2.3 A simple algorithm 2.4 A method using a table 3 Formulas 3.1 Fundamental theorem of arithmetic 3.2 Lattice - theoretic 3.3 Other 4 The LCM in commutative rings 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Overview ( edit ) A multiple of a number is the product of that number and an integer . For example , 10 is a multiple of 5 because 5 × 2 = 10 , so 10 is divisible by 5 and 2 . Because 10 is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both 5 and 2 , it is the least common multiple of 5 and 2 . By the same principle , 10 is the least common multiple of − 5 and − 2 as well . Notation ( edit ) In this article we will denote the least common multiple of two integers a and b as lcm ( a , b ) . Some older textbooks use ( a , b ) . The programming language J uses a *. b Example ( edit ) What is the LCM of 4 and 6 ? Multiples of 4 are : 4 , 8 , 12 , 16 , 20 , 24 , 28 , 32 , 36 , 40 , 44 , 48 , 52 , 56 , 60 , 64 , 68 , 72 , 76 , ... and the multiples of 6 are : 6 , 12 , 18 , 24 , 30 , 36 , 42 , 48 , 54 , 60 , 66 , 72 , ... Common multiples of 4 and 6 are simply the numbers that are in both lists : 12 , 24 , 36 , 48 , 60 , 72 , ... So , from this list of the first few common multiples of the numbers 4 and 6 , their least common multiple is 12 . Applications ( edit ) When adding , subtracting , or comparing vulgar fractions , it is useful to find the least common multiple of the denominators , often called the lowest common denominator , because each of the fractions can be expressed as a fraction with this denominator . For instance , 2 21 + 1 6 = 4 42 + 7 42 = 11 42 ( \ displaystyle ( 2 \ over 21 ) + ( 1 \ over 6 ) = ( 4 \ over 42 ) + ( 7 \ over 42 ) = ( 11 \ over 42 ) ) where the denominator 42 was used because it is the least common multiple of 21 and 6 . Gears problem ( edit ) Suppose there are two meshing gears in a machine , having m and n teeth , respectively , and the gears are marked by a line segment drawn from the center of the first gear to the center of the second gear . When the gears begin rotating , we can determine how many rotations the first gear must complete to realign the line segment by making use of LCM ( m , n ) . The first gear must complete LCM ( m , n ) / m rotations for the realignment . By that time , the second gear will have made LCM ( m , n ) / n rotations . Computing the least common multiple ( edit ) Reduction by the greatest common divisor ( edit ) The following formula reduces the problem of computing the least common multiple to the problem of computing the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) , also known as the greatest common factor : lcm ( a , b ) = a ⋅ b gcd ( a , b ) . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) = ( \ frac ( a \ cdot b ) ( \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( a , b ) ) ) . ) This formula is also valid when exactly one of a and b is 0 , since gcd ( a , 0 ) = a . However , if both a and b are 0 , this formula would cause division by zero ; lcm ( 0 , 0 ) = 0 is a special case . There are fast algorithms for computing the GCD that do not require the numbers to be factored , such as the Euclidean algorithm . To return to the example above , lcm ( 21 , 6 ) = 21 ⋅ 6 gcd ( 21 , 6 ) = 21 ⋅ 6 gcd ( 3 , 6 ) = 21 ⋅ 6 3 = 126 3 = 42 . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( 21 , 6 ) = ( 21 \ cdot 6 \ over \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( 21 , 6 ) ) = ( 21 \ cdot 6 \ over \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( 3 , 6 ) ) = ( 21 \ cdot 6 \ over 3 ) = ( \ frac ( 126 ) ( 3 ) ) = 42 . ) Because gcd ( a , b ) is a divisor of both a and b , it is more efficient to compute the LCM by dividing before multiplying : lcm ( a , b ) = ( a gcd ( a , b ) ) ⋅ b = ( b gcd ( a , b ) ) ⋅ a . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) = \ left ( ( a \ over \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( a , b ) ) \ right ) \ cdot b = \ left ( ( b \ over \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( a , b ) ) \ right ) \ cdot a . ) This reduces the size of one input for both the division and the multiplication , and reduces the required storage needed for intermediate results ( overflow in the a × b computation ) . Because gcd ( a , b ) is a divisor of both a and b , the division is guaranteed to yield an integer , so the intermediate result can be stored in an integer . Done this way , the previous example becomes : lcm ( 21 , 6 ) = 21 gcd ( 21 , 6 ) ⋅ 6 = 21 gcd ( 3 , 6 ) ⋅ 6 = 21 3 ⋅ 6 = 7 ⋅ 6 = 42 . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( 21 , 6 ) = ( 21 \ over \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( 21 , 6 ) ) \ cdot 6 = ( 21 \ over \ operatorname ( gcd ) ( 3 , 6 ) ) \ cdot 6 = ( 21 \ over 3 ) \ cdot 6 = 7 \ cdot 6 = 42 . ) Finding least common multiples by prime factorization ( edit ) The unique factorization theorem says that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written in only one way as a product of prime numbers . The prime numbers can be considered as the atomic elements which , when combined together , make up a composite number . For example : 90 = 2 1 ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ 5 1 = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 . ( \ displaystyle 90 = 2 ^ ( 1 ) \ cdot 3 ^ ( 2 ) \ cdot 5 ^ ( 1 ) = 2 \ cdot 3 \ cdot 3 \ cdot 5 . ) Here we have the composite number 90 made up of one atom of the prime number 2 , two atoms of the prime number 3 and one atom of the prime number 5 . This knowledge can be used to find the LCM of a set of numbers . Example : Find the value of lcm ( 8 , 9 , 21 ) . First , factor each number and express it as a product of prime number powers . 8 = 2 3 9 = 3 2 21 = 3 1 ⋅ 7 1 ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) 8& = 2 ^ ( 3 ) \ \ 9& = 3 ^ ( 2 ) \ \ 21& = 3 ^ ( 1 ) \ cdot 7 ^ ( 1 ) \ end ( aligned ) ) ) The lcm will be the product of multiplying the highest power of each prime number together . The highest power of the three prime numbers 2 , 3 , and 7 is 2 , 3 , and 7 , respectively . Thus , lcm ( 8 , 9 , 21 ) = 2 3 ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ 7 1 = 8 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 7 = 504 . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( 8 , 9 , 21 ) = 2 ^ ( 3 ) \ cdot 3 ^ ( 2 ) \ cdot 7 ^ ( 1 ) = 8 \ cdot 9 \ cdot 7 = 504 . ) This method is not as efficient as reducing to the greatest common divisor , since there is no known general efficient algorithm for integer factorization , but is useful for illustrating concepts . This method can be illustrated using a Venn diagram as follows . Find the prime factorization of each of the two numbers . Put the prime factors into a Venn diagram with one circle for each of the two numbers , and all factors they share in common in the intersection . To find the LCM , just multiply all of the prime numbers in the diagram . Here is an example : 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 , 180 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 , and what they share in common is two `` 2 '' s and a `` 3 '' : Least common multiple = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 720 Greatest common divisor = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12 This also works for the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) , except that instead of multiplying all of the numbers in the Venn diagram , one multiplies only the prime factors that are in the intersection . Thus the GCD of 48 and 180 is 2 × 2 × 3 = 12 . A simple algorithm ( edit ) This method works as easily for finding the LCM of several integers . Let there be a finite sequence of positive integers X = ( x , x , ... , x ) , n > 1 . The algorithm proceeds in steps as follows : on each step m it examines and updates the sequence X = ( x , x , ... , x ) , X = X , where X is the mth iteration of X , i.e. X at step m of the algorithm , etc . The purpose of the examination is to pick the least ( perhaps , one of many ) element of the sequence X . Assuming x is the selected element , the sequence X is defined as x = x , k ≠ k x = x + x . In other words , the least element is increased by the corresponding x whereas the rest of the elements pass from X to X unchanged . The algorithm stops when all elements in sequence X are equal . Their common value L is exactly LCM ( X ) . A method using a table ( edit ) This method works for any number of factors . One begins by listing all of the numbers vertically in a table ( in this example 4 , 7 , 12 , 21 , and 42 ) : 4 7 12 21 42 The process begins by dividing all of the factors by 2 . If any of them divides evenly , write 2 at the top of the table and the result of division by 2 of each factor in the space to the right of each factor and below the 2 . If a number does not divide evenly , just rewrite the number again . If 2 does not divide evenly into any of the numbers , try 3 . x 7 7 12 6 21 21 42 21 Now , check if 2 divides again : x 7 7 7 12 6 21 21 21 42 21 21 Once 2 no longer divides , divide by 3 . If 3 no longer divides , try 5 and 7 . Keep going until all of the numbers have been reduced to 1 . x 7 7 7 7 7 12 6 21 21 21 7 42 21 21 7 Now , multiply the numbers on the top and you have the LCM . In this case , it is 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 84 . You will get to the LCM the quickest if you use prime numbers and start from the lowest prime , 2 . As a general computational algorithm , the above is quite inefficient . One would never want to implement it in software : it takes too many steps , and requires too much storage space . A far more efficient numerical algorithm can be obtained simply by using Euclid 's algorithm to compute the gcd first , and then obtaining the lcm by division . Formulas ( edit ) Fundamental theorem of arithmetic ( edit ) According to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic a positive integer is the product of prime numbers , and , except for their order , this representation is unique : n = 2 n 2 3 n 3 5 n 5 7 n 7 ⋯ = ∏ p p n p , ( \ displaystyle n = 2 ^ ( n_ ( 2 ) ) 3 ^ ( n_ ( 3 ) ) 5 ^ ( n_ ( 5 ) ) 7 ^ ( n_ ( 7 ) ) \ cdots = \ prod _ ( p ) p ^ ( n_ ( p ) ) , ) where the exponents n , n , ... are non-negative integers ; for example , 84 = 2 3 5 7 11 13 ... Given two positive integers a = ∏ p p a p ( \ displaystyle \ ; a = \ prod _ ( p ) p ^ ( a_ ( p ) ) ) and b = ∏ p p b p ( \ displaystyle \ ; b = \ prod _ ( p ) p ^ ( b_ ( p ) ) ) their least common multiple and greatest common divisor are given by the formulas gcd ( a , b ) = ∏ p p min ( a p , b p ) ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , b ) = \ prod _ ( p ) p ^ ( \ min ( a_ ( p ) , b_ ( p ) ) ) ) and lcm ( a , b ) = ∏ p p max ( a p , b p ) . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) = \ prod _ ( p ) p ^ ( \ max ( a_ ( p ) , b_ ( p ) ) ) . ) Since min ( x , y ) + max ( x , y ) = x + y , ( \ displaystyle \ min ( x , y ) + \ max ( x , y ) = x + y , ) this gives gcd ( a , b ) lcm ( a , b ) = a b . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , b ) \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) = a \ , b . ) In fact , any rational number can be written uniquely as the product of primes if negative exponents are allowed . When this is done , the above formulas remain valid . For example : 4 = 2 2 3 0 , 6 = 2 1 3 1 , gcd ( 4 , 6 ) = 2 1 3 0 , lcm ( 4 , 6 ) = 2 2 3 1 . 1 3 = 2 0 3 − 1 5 0 , 2 5 = 2 1 3 0 5 − 1 , gcd ( 1 3 , 2 5 ) = 2 0 3 − 1 5 − 1 , lcm ( 1 3 , 2 5 ) = 2 1 3 0 5 0 , 1 6 = 2 − 1 3 − 1 , 3 4 = 2 − 2 3 1 , gcd ( 1 6 , 3 4 ) = 2 − 2 3 − 1 , lcm ( 1 6 , 3 4 ) = 2 − 1 3 1 . ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( array ) ( llll ) 4 = 2 ^ ( 2 ) 3 ^ ( 0 ) , &6 = 2 ^ ( 1 ) 3 ^ ( 1 ) , & \ gcd ( 4 , 6 ) = 2 ^ ( 1 ) 3 ^ ( 0 ) , & \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( 4 , 6 ) = 2 ^ ( 2 ) 3 ^ ( 1 ). \ \ ( 8pt ) ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ) = 2 ^ ( 0 ) 3 ^ ( - 1 ) 5 ^ ( 0 ) , & ( \ tfrac ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ) = 2 ^ ( 1 ) 3 ^ ( 0 ) 5 ^ ( - 1 ) , & \ gcd ( ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ) , ( \ tfrac ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ) ) = 2 ^ ( 0 ) 3 ^ ( - 1 ) 5 ^ ( - 1 ) , & \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ) , ( \ tfrac ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ) ) = 2 ^ ( 1 ) 3 ^ ( 0 ) 5 ^ ( 0 ) , \ \ ( 8pt ) ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ) = 2 ^ ( - 1 ) 3 ^ ( - 1 ) , & ( \ tfrac ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ) = 2 ^ ( - 2 ) 3 ^ ( 1 ) , & \ gcd ( ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ) , ( \ tfrac ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ) ) = 2 ^ ( - 2 ) 3 ^ ( - 1 ) , & \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ) , ( \ tfrac ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ) ) = 2 ^ ( - 1 ) 3 ^ ( 1 ). \ end ( array ) ) ) Lattice - theoretic ( edit ) The positive integers may be partially ordered by divisibility : if a divides b ( i.e. if b is an integer multiple of a ) write a ≤ b ( or equivalently , b ≥ a ) . ( Forget the usual magnitude - based definition of ≤ in this section - it is n't used . ) Under this ordering , the positive integers become a lattice with meet given by the gcd and join given by the lcm . The proof is straightforward , if a bit tedious ; it amounts to checking that lcm and gcd satisfy the axioms for meet and join . Putting the lcm and gcd into this more general context establishes a duality between them : If a formula involving integer variables , gcd , lcm , ≤ and ≥ is true , then the formula obtained by switching gcd with lcm and switching ≥ with ≤ is also true . ( Remember ≤ is defined as divides ) . The following pairs of dual formulas are special cases of general lattice - theoretic identities . Commutative laws lcm ( a , b ) = lcm ( b , a ) , ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) = \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( b , a ) , ) gcd ( a , b ) = gcd ( b , a ) . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , b ) = \ gcd ( b , a ) . ) Associative laws lcm ( a , lcm ( b , c ) ) = lcm ( lcm ( a , b ) , c ) , ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( b , c ) ) = \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) , c ) , ) gcd ( a , gcd ( b , c ) ) = gcd ( gcd ( a , b ) , c ) . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , \ gcd ( b , c ) ) = \ gcd ( \ gcd ( a , b ) , c ) . ) Absorption laws lcm ( a , gcd ( a , b ) ) = a , ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , \ gcd ( a , b ) ) = a , ) gcd ( a , lcm ( a , b ) ) = a . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) ) = a . ) Idempotent laws lcm ( a , a ) = a , ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , a ) = a , ) gcd ( a , a ) = a . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , a ) = a . ) . Define divides in terms of lcm and gcd a ≥ b ⟺ a = lcm ( a , b ) , ( \ displaystyle a \ geq b \ iff a = \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) , ) a ≤ b ⟺ a = gcd ( a , b ) . ( \ displaystyle a \ leq b \ iff a = \ gcd ( a , b ) . ) It can also be shown that this lattice is distributive , i.e. that lcm distributes over gcd and , dually , that gcd distributes over lcm : lcm ( a , gcd ( b , c ) ) = gcd ( lcm ( a , b ) , lcm ( a , c ) ) , ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , \ gcd ( b , c ) ) = \ gcd ( \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) , \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , c ) ) , ) gcd ( a , lcm ( b , c ) ) = lcm ( gcd ( a , b ) , gcd ( a , c ) ) . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( a , \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( b , c ) ) = \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( \ gcd ( a , b ) , \ gcd ( a , c ) ) . ) This identity is self - dual : gcd ( lcm ( a , b ) , lcm ( b , c ) , lcm ( a , c ) ) = lcm ( gcd ( a , b ) , gcd ( b , c ) , gcd ( a , c ) ) . ( \ displaystyle \ gcd ( \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , b ) , \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( b , c ) , \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( a , c ) ) = \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( \ gcd ( a , b ) , \ gcd ( b , c ) , \ gcd ( a , c ) ) . ) Other ( edit ) Let D be the product of ω ( D ) distinct prime numbers ( i.e. D is squarefree ) . Then ( ( x , y ) : lcm ( x , y ) = D ) = 3 ω ( D ) , ( \ displaystyle \ ( ( x , y ) \ ; : \ ; \ operatorname ( lcm ) ( x , y ) = D \ ) = 3 ^ ( \ omega ( D ) ) , ) where the absolute bars denote the cardinality of a set . The lcm in commutative rings ( edit ) The least common multiple can be defined generally over commutative rings as follows : Let a and b be elements of a commutative ring R. A common multiple of a and b is an element m of R such that both a and b divide m ( i.e. there exist elements x and y of R such that ax = m and by = m ) . A least common multiple of a and b is a common multiple that is minimal in the sense that for any other common multiple n of a and b , m divides n . In general , two elements in a commutative ring can have no least common multiple or more than one . However , any two least common multiples of the same pair of elements are associates . In a unique factorization domain , any two elements have a least common multiple . In a principal ideal domain , the least common multiple of a and b can be characterised as a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by a and b ( the intersection of a collection of ideals is always an ideal ) . See also ( edit ) Anomalous cancellation Chebyshev function Greatest common divisor Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Hardy & Wright , § 5.1 , p. 48 ^ Jump up to : Long ( 1972 , p. 39 ) Jump up ^ Pettofrezzo & Byrkit ( 1970 , p. 56 ) Jump up ^ The next three formulas are from Landau , Ex . III. 3 , p. 254 Jump up ^ Crandall & Pomerance , ex . 2.4 , p. 101 . References ( edit ) Crandall , Richard ; Pomerance , Carl ( 2001 ) , Prime Numbers : A Computational Perspective , New York : Springer , ISBN 0 - 387 - 94777 - 9 Hardy , G.H. ; Wright , E.M. ( 1979 ) , An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers ( Fifth edition ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 853171 - 5 Landau , Edmund ( 1966 ) , Elementary Number Theory , New York : Chelsea Long , Calvin T. ( 1972 ) , Elementary Introduction to Number Theory ( 2nd ed . ) , Lexington : D.C. Heath and Company , LCCN 77 - 171950 Pettofrezzo , Anthony J. ; Byrkit , Donald R. ( 1970 ) , Elements of Number Theory , Englewood Cliffs : Prentice Hall , LCCN 77 - 81766 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Least_common_multiple&oldid=800630793 '' Categories : Elementary arithmetic Arithmetic Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 September 2017 , at 18 : 55 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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29 | document: New Mexico - wikipedia New Mexico Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the U.S. state of New Mexico . For other uses , see New Mexico ( disambiguation ) . State of New Mexico Nuevo México ( Spanish ) Yootó Hahoodzo ( Navajo ) Flag Seal Nickname ( s ) : Land of Enchantment Motto ( s ) : Crescit eundo ( English : It grows as it goes ) State song ( s ) : `` O Fair New Mexico '' Spoken languages English 69.7 % Spanish 28.5 % Navajo 3.5 % other 4.1 % Demonym New Mexican Capital Santa Fe Largest city Albuquerque Largest metro Albuquerque metropolitan area ( CSA ) Area Ranked 5th Total 121,699 sq mi ( 315,198 km ) Width 343 miles ( 551 km ) Length 370 miles ( 595 km ) % water 0.2 Latitude 31 ° 20 ′ N to 37 ° N Longitude 103 ° W to 109 ° 3 ′ W Population Ranked 36th Total 2,081,015 ( 2016 est . ) Density 17.2 / sq mi ( 6.62 / km ) Ranked 45th Median household income $45,119 ( 46th ) Elevation Highest point Wheeler Peak 13,167 ft ( 4013.3 m ) Mean 5,700 ft ( 1,740 m ) Lowest point Red Bluff Reservoir on Texas border 2,844 ft ( 867 m ) Before statehood Nuevo México ( 1598 - 1848 ) New Mexico Territory ( 1850 - 1912 ) Admission to Union January 6 , 1912 ( 47th ) Governor Susana Martinez ( R ) Lieutenant Governor John Sanchez ( R ) Legislature New Mexico Legislature Upper house Senate Lower house House of Representatives U.S. Senators Tom Udall ( D ) Martin Heinrich ( D ) U.S. House delegation 1 : Michelle Grisham ( D ) 2 : Steve Pearce ( R ) 3 : Ben R. Luján ( D ) ( list ) Time zones all of state ( legally ) Mountain : UTC − 7 / − 6 Nara Visa ( informally ) Central : UTC - 8 / - 7 ISO 3166 US - NM Abbreviations NM , N.M. , N. Mex . Website www.newmexico.gov ( show ) New Mexico state symbols The Flag of New Mexico The Seal of New Mexico Living insignia Bird Greater roadrunner Fish Rio Grande cutthroat trout Flower Yucca Grass Blue grama Mammal American black bear Reptile New Mexico whiptail Tree Two - needle piñon Inanimate insignia Colors Red and yellow Food Chile peppers , pinto beans , and biscochitos Fossil Coelophysis Gemstone Turquoise Motto Crescit eundo Nickname The Land of Enchantment Song `` O ' Fair New Mexico '' State route marker State quarter Released in 2008 Lists of United States state symbols New Mexico ( Spanish : Nuevo México pronounced ( ˈnweβo ˈmexiko ) , Navajo : Yootó Hahoodzo pronounced ( jòːtxó xɑ̀xwòːtsò ) ) is a state in the Southwestern Region of the United States of America . With a population of approximately two million , New Mexico is the 36th most populous state . With a total area of 121,590 sq mi ( 314,900 km ) , it is the fifth largest and fifth least densely populated of the fifty states . It is one of the Mountain States and shares the Four Corners region with Utah , Colorado , and Arizona . Its capital and cultural center is Santa Fe , while its largest city is Albuquerque . Due to its geographic location , Northern and Eastern New Mexico exhibits a colder , alpine climate while Western and Southern New Mexico exhibits a warmer , arid climate . The economy of New Mexico is dependent on oil drilling , mineral extraction , dryland farming , cattle ranching , lumber milling , and retail trade . As of 2016 - 17 , its total gross domestic product ( GDP ) was $95 billion with a GDP per capital of $45,465 . A tax haven , New Mexico collects low to moderate personal income taxes on residents and military personnel , and gives tax credits and exemptions to favorable industries . Because of this , its film industry has grown and contributed $1.23 billion to its overall economy . Due to its large area and economic climate , New Mexico has a large U.S. military presence marked notably with the White Sands Missile Range . Various U.S. national security agencies base their research and testing arms in New Mexico such as the Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories . Its history has given New Mexico the highest percentage of Hispanic and Latino Americans , and the second - highest percentage of Native Americans as a population proportion ( after Alaska ) . Three federally - protected Native American tribes -- the Navajo , Pueblo , and Apache peoples -- inhabit New Mexico ; historically the Ancestral Puebloans , Mogollon , and the modern extant Comanche inhabited the state . The largest Hispanic and Latino groups represented include the Hispanos of New Mexico ( of Iberian , Mediterranean , or Mestizo descent ) , Chicanos , and Mexican Americans . The flag of New Mexico emphatically features the state 's Spanish and Native American origins with the same scarlet and gold coloration as Spain 's Cross of Burgundy , along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia , a Pueblo - related tribe . Inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration , it was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 as part of the Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain . Contrary to popular belief , the present - day state of New Mexico is not part of , nor is it even named for , the present - day nation of Mexico . In fact , New Mexico was so named as early as 1561 , whereas the country of Mexico did not receive that name until 1821 . It was named Nuevo México after the Aztec Valley of Mexico by Spanish settlers , 223 years before the establishment of the present - day country of Mexico . Being on the periphery of two empires -- Spanish and Comancheria -- made settlement and effective political control difficult , even when it became part of Mexico after 1821 . New Mexico 's longstanding economic ties to the Comanche made integration with Mexico difficult , which helped spark the Revolt of 1837 and a growing economic association with the expanding United States . The 1848 Mexican -- American War indirectly capitalized on this tension and created the U.S. New Mexico Territory . It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6 , 1912 . During the 1940s , Project Y of the Manhattan Project developed and built the world 's first atomic bomb and nuclear test , Trinity , in northern and central New Mexico , respectively . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Geography 2.1 Adjacent states 2.2 Climate 2.3 Flora and fauna 3 History 3.1 1848 cession of land 3.2 20th century to present 4 Demography 4.1 Population 4.2 Birth data 4.3 Settlements 4.4 Ancestry 4.5 Languages 4.5. 1 Official language 4.6 Religion 5 Economy 5.1 Economic indicators 5.2 Oil and gas production 5.3 Federal government 5.4 Economic incentives 5.5 State taxes 6 Transportation 6.1 Road 6.2 Urban mass transit 6.3 Rail 6.3. 1 Freight 6.3. 2 Passenger 6.4 Aerospace 7 Government and politics 7.1 Government 7.2 Politics 8 Education 8.1 Primary and secondary education 8.2 Colleges and universities 8.2. 1 Major state universities 9 Culture 9.1 Art and literature 9.2 Sports 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 State Government 13.2 US Government 13.3 Tourism Etymology ( edit ) New Mexico received its name long before the present - day nation of Mexico won independence from Spain and adopted that name in 1821 . Spanish explorers recorded this region as New Mexico ( Nuevo México in Spanish ) in 1563 . In 1581 , the Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition named the region north of the Rio Grande `` San Felipe del Nuevo México . '' The Spaniards hoped to find wealthy Mexican Indian cultures there similar to those of the Aztec ( Mexica ) Empire of the Valley of Mexico . The indigenous cultures of New Mexico , however , proved to be unrelated to the Aztecs and were not wealthy . Before statehood , the name `` New Mexico '' was applied to various configurations of the U.S. Territory , to a Mexican state , and to a province of New Spain , all in the same general area but of varying extensions . Geography ( edit ) Further information : List of counties in New Mexico See also : Delaware Basin Wheeler Peak in the Sangre de Cristo Range Chaco Canyon Carlsbad Caverns White Sands National Monument Rio Grande Gorge Shiprock At total area 121,699 square miles ( 315,200 km ) , the state is fifth largest state of the US and slightly larger than British Isles . New Mexico 's eastern border lies along 103 ° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma , and ( due to a 19th - century surveying error ) 2.2 miles ( 3.5 km ) west of 103 ° W longitude with Texas . On the southern border , Texas makes up the eastern two - thirds , while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third , with Chihuahua making up about 90 % of that . The western border with Arizona runs along the 109 ° 03 ' W longitude . The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel . The 37 ° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado . The states of New Mexico , Colorado , Arizona , and Utah come together at the Four Corners in New Mexico 's northwestern corner . New Mexico , although a large state , has very little water . Its surface water area is about 250 square miles ( 650 km ) . The New Mexican landscape ranges from wide , rose - colored deserts to broken mesas to high , snow - capped peaks . Despite New Mexico 's arid image , heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state , especially towards the north . The Sangre de Cristo Mountains , the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains , run roughly north - south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged , pastoral north . The most important of New Mexico 's rivers are the Rio Grande , Pecos , Canadian , San Juan , and Gila . The Rio Grande is tied for the fourth - longest river in the United States . The U.S. government protects millions of acres of New Mexico as national forests , including : Carson National Forest Cibola National Forest ( headquartered in Albuquerque ) Lincoln National Forest Santa Fe National Forest ( headquartered in Santa Fe ) Gila National Forest Gila Wilderness Areas managed by the National Park Service include : Aztec Ruins National Monument at Aztec Bandelier National Monument in Los Alamos Capulin Volcano National Monument near Capulin Carlsbad Caverns National Park near Carlsbad Chaco Culture National Historical Park at Nageezi El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail El Malpais National Monument in Grants El Morro National Monument in Ramah Fort Union National Monument at Watrous Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument near Silver City Old Spanish National Historic Trail Pecos National Historical Park in Pecos Petroglyph National Monument near Albuquerque Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument at Mountainair Santa Fe National Historic Trail White Sands National Monument near Alamogordo Rio Grande del Norte National Monument near Taos Valles Caldera National Preserve Visitors also frequent the surviving native pueblos of New Mexico . Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state . Other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha - Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state . Adjacent states ( edit ) Colorado ( north ) Oklahoma ( northeast ) Utah ( northwest ) Chihuahua , Mexico ( south ) Sonora , Mexico ( soutwest ) Texas ( east and south ) Arizona ( west ) Climate ( edit ) Köppen climate types of New Mexico The climate of New Mexico is generally semiarid to arid , though areas of continental and alpine climates exist , and its territory is mostly covered by mountains , high plains , and desert . The Great Plains ( High Plains ) are in Eastern New Mexico , similar to the Colorado high plains in eastern Colorado . The two states share similar terrain , with both having plains , mountains , basins , mesas , and desert lands . New Mexico 's average precipitation rate is 13.9 inches ( 350 mm ) a year . The average annual temperatures can range from 64 ° F ( 18 ° C ) in the southeast to below 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in the northern mountains . During the summer , daytime temperatures can often exceed 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) at elevations below 5,000 feet ( 1,500 m ) , the average high temperature in July ranges from 97 ° F ( 36 ° C ) at the lower elevations down to 78 ° F ( 26 ° C ) at the higher elevations . Many cities in New Mexico can have temperature lows in the teens . The highest temperature recorded in New Mexico was 122 ° F ( 50 ° C ) at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant near Loving on June 27 , 1994 , and the lowest recorded temperature is − 50 ° F ( − 46 ° C ) at Gavilan on February 1 , 1951 . Astronomical observatories in New Mexico take advantage of unusually clear skies , including the Apache Point Observatory , the Very Large Array , the Magdalena Ridge Observatory , and others . Flora and fauna ( edit ) Greater roadrunner ( the state bird of NM ) New Mexico contains extensive habitat for many plants and animals , especially in desert areas and piñon - juniper woodlands . Creosote bush , mesquite , cacti , yucca , and desert grasses , including black grama , purple three - awn , tobosa , and burrograss , cover the broad , semiarid plains of the southern portion of the state . The northern portion of the state is home to many tree species such as ponderosa pine , aspen , cottonwood , spruce , fir , and Russian olive , which is an invasive species . Native birds include the greater roadrunner ( Geococcyx californianus , the state bird of New Mexico ) and wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) . Other fauna present in New Mexico include black bears , cougars , jaguars , coyotes , porcupines , skunks , Mexican gray wolves , deer , elk , Plains bison , collared peccary , bighorn sheep , squirrels , chipmunks , pronghorns , western diamondbacks , kangaroo rats , jackrabbits , and a multitude of other birds , reptiles , and rodents . The black bear native to New Mexico , Ursus americanus amblyceps , was formally adopted as the state 's official animal in 1953 . See also : List of taxa described from New Mexico History ( edit ) Main article : History of New Mexico See also : Territorial evolution of New Mexico Ancestral Pueblo territory shown in pink over New Mexico The first known inhabitants of New Mexico were members of the Clovis culture of Paleo - Indians . Later inhabitants include American Indians of the Mogollon and Ancestral Pueblo peoples cultures . By the time of European contact in the 16th century , the region was settled by the villages of the Pueblo peoples and groups of Navajo , Apache , and Ute . Francisco Vásquez de Coronado assembled an enormous expedition at Compostela in 1540 -- 1542 to explore and find the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola as described by Fray Marcos de Niza . The name Nuevo México was first used by a seeker of gold mines named Francisco de Ibarra , who explored far to the north of New Spain in 1563 and reported his findings as being in `` a New Mexico '' . Juan de Oñate officially established the name when he was appointed the first governor of the new Province of New Mexico in 1598 . The same year , he founded the San Juan de los Caballeros colony , the first permanent European settlement in the future state of New Mexico , on the Rio Grande near Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo . Oñate extended El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro , Royal Road of the Interior , by 700 miles ( 1,100 km ) from Santa Bárbara , Chihuahua , to his remote colony . The settlement of Santa Fe was established at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains , the southernmost subrange of the Rocky Mountains , around 1608 . The city , along with most of the settled areas of the state , was abandoned by the Spanish for 12 years ( 1680 -- 92 ) as a result of the successful Pueblo Revolt . After the death of the Pueblo leader Popé , Diego de Vargas restored the area to Spanish rule . While developing Santa Fe as a trade center , the returning settlers founded Albuquerque in 1706 from existing surrounding communities , naming it for the viceroy of New Spain , Francisco Fernández de la Cueva , 10th Duke of Alburquerque . Province of New Mexico when it belonged to Mexico in 1824 As a part of New Spain , the claims for the province of New Mexico passed to independent Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence . The Republic of Texas claimed the portion east of the Rio Grande when it seceded from Mexico in 1836 , when it incorrectly assumed the older Hispanic settlements of the upper Rio Grande were the same as the newly established Mexican settlements of Texas . Texas ' only attempt to establish a presence or control in the claimed territory was the failed Texan Santa Fe Expedition . Their entire army was captured and jailed by Hispanic New Mexico militia . At the turn of the 19th century , the extreme northeastern part of New Mexico , north of the Canadian River and east of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains , was still claimed by France , which sold it in 1803 to the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase . The United States assigned this portion of New Mexico as part of the Louisiana Territory until 1812 ; that year Louisiana was admitted as a state . The US then reclassified this area as part of the Missouri Territory . This region of the state ( along with territory that makes up present - day southeastern Colorado , the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles , and southwestern Kansas ) was ceded to Spain under the Adams - Onis Treaty in 1819 . The independent Republic of Texas also claimed this portion of New Mexico . By 1800 , the Spanish population had reached 25,000 , but Apache and Comanche raids on Hispanic settlers were common until well into the period of U.S. occupation . 1848 cession of land ( edit ) Following the victory of the United States in the Mexican -- American War ( 1846 -- 48 ) , under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 , Mexico ceded its northern holdings , today known as the American Southwest and California , to the United States of America . The United States vowed to accept the residents ' claims to their lands and to accept them as full citizens with rights of suffrage . This acquisition of territory and residents resulted in Mexicans legally being classified as white , since at that time , in most of the southern United States , only whites could vote . Nevertheless , Texas and other western states raised barriers to voting and political participation by ethnic Mexicans , including barring them from serving on juries . After Texas was admitted as a state to the Union , it continued to claim the northeastern portion of present - day New Mexico . Finally , in the Compromise of 1850 , Texas ceded these claims to the United States of the area in New Mexico lying east of the Rio Grande , in exchange for $10 million . Congress established the separate New Mexico Territory in September 1850 . It included most of the present - day states of Arizona and New Mexico , and part of Colorado . When the boundary was fixed , a surveyor 's error awarded the Permian Basin to the State of Texas . New Mexico dropped its claims to the Permian in a bid to gain statehood in 1911 . In 1853 , the United States acquired the mostly desert southwestern boot heel of the state and southern Arizona below the Gila River in the Gadsden Purchase . It wanted to control lands needed for the right - of - way in order to encourage construction of a transcontinental railroad . Civil war effects in New Mexico New Mexico territory included Arizona , 1860 Territories now divided , 1867 New Mexico played a role in the Trans - Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War . Both Confederate and Union governments claimed ownership and territorial rights over New Mexico Territory . In 1861 , the Confederacy claimed the southern tract as its own Arizona Territory and waged the ambitious New Mexico Campaign in an attempt to control the American Southwest and open up access to Union California . Confederate power in the New Mexico Territory was effectively broken after the Battle of Glorieta Pass in 1862 . However , the Confederate territorial government continued to operate out of Texas , and Confederate troops marched under the Arizona flag until the end of the war . Additionally , more than 8,000 men from New Mexico Territory served in the Union Army . In the late 19th century , the majority of officially European - descended residents in New Mexico were ethnic Mexicans , many of whom had deep roots in the area from early Spanish colonial times . Politically , they still controlled most of the town and county offices through area elections , and wealthy sheepherder families commanded considerable influence . The Anglo - Americans tended to have more ties to the territorial governor and judges , who were appointed by officials out of the region . The two groups struggled for power and the future of the territory . The Anglo minority was `` outnumbered , but well - organized and growing . '' Anglo - Americans made distinctions between the wealthy Mexicans and poor , ill - educated laborers . 20th century to present ( edit ) Homesteader and his children in Pie Town , New Mexico , 1940 Congress admitted New Mexico as the 47th state in the Union on January 6 , 1912 . European - American settlers in the state had an uneasy relationship with the large Native American tribes , most of whose members lived on reservations at the beginning of the 20th century . Although Congress passed a law in 1924 that granted all Native Americans with US citizenship , as well as the right to vote in federal and state elections , New Mexico was among several states that restricted Indian voting by raising barriers to voter registration . Their constitution said that Indians who did not pay taxes could not vote , in their interpretation disqualifying those Native Americans who lived on reservations ( but only the land was tax free . ) A major oil discovery in 1928 brought prosperity to the state , especially Lea County and the town of Hobbs . The town was named after James Hobbs , a homesteader there in 1907 . The Midwest State No. 1 well , begun in late 1927 with a standard cable - tool drilling rig , revealed the first signs of oil from the Hobbs field on June 13 , 1928 . Drilled to 4,330 feet and completed a few months later , the well produced 700 barrels of oil per day on state land . The Midwest Refining Company 's Hobbs well produced oil until 2002 . The New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources called it `` the most important single discovery of oil in New Mexico 's history '' . During World War II , the first atomic bombs were designed and manufactured at Los Alamos , a site developed by the federal government specifically to support a high - intensity scientific effort to rapidly complete research and testing of this weapon . The first bomb was tested at Trinity site in the desert between Socorro and Alamogordo on what is now White Sands Missile Range . Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1850 61,547 -- 1860 93,516 51.9 % 1870 91,874 − 1.8 % 1880 119,565 30.1 % 1890 160,282 34.1 % 1900 195,310 21.9 % 1910 327,301 67.6 % 1920 360,350 10.1 % 1930 423,317 17.5 % 1940 531,818 25.6 % 1950 681,187 28.1 % 1960 951,023 39.6 % 1970 1,017,055 6.9 % 1980 1,303,302 28.1 % 1990 1,515,069 16.2 % 2000 1,819,046 20.1 % 2,059,179 13.2 % Est. 2017 2,088,070 1.4 % Source : 1910 -- 2010 2015 estimate Native Americans from New Mexico fought for the United States in both the First and Second World Wars . Veterans were disappointed to return and find their civil rights limited by state discrimination . In Arizona and New Mexico , veterans challenged state laws or practices prohibiting them from voting . In 1948 , after veteran Miguel Trujillo , Sr. of Isleta Pueblo was told by the county registrar that he could not register to vote , he filed suit against the county in federal district court . A three - judge panel overturned as unconstitutional New Mexico 's provisions that Indians who did not pay taxes ( and could not document if they had paid taxes ) could not vote . Judge Phillips wrote : Any other citizen , regardless of race , in the State of New Mexico who has not paid one cent of tax of any kind or character , if he possesses the other qualifications , may vote . An Indian , and only an Indian , in order to meet the qualifications to vote must have paid a tax . How you can escape the conclusion that makes a requirement with respect to an Indian as a qualification to exercise the elective franchise and does not make that requirement with respect to the member of any race is beyond me . New Mexico has benefited greatly from federal government spending on major military and research institutions in the state . It is home to three Air Force bases , White Sands Missile Range , and the federal research laboratories Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories . The state 's population grew rapidly after World War II , growing from 531,818 in 1940 to 1,819,046 in 2000 . Both residents and businesses moved to the state ; some northerners came at first for the mild winters ; others for retirement . In the late 20th century , Native Americans were authorized by federal law to establish gaming casinos on their reservations under certain conditions , in states which had authorized such gaming . Such facilities have helped tribes close to population centers to generate revenues for reinvestment in economic development and welfare of their peoples . In the 21st century , employment growth areas in New Mexico include microelectronics , call centers , and Indian casinos . Demography ( edit ) See also : List of settlements in New Mexico by population and New Mexico locations by per capita income New Mexico population density map Population ( edit ) The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of New Mexico was 2,085,109 on July 1 , 2015 , a 1.26 % increase since the 2010 United States Census . The 2000 United States Census recorded the population of New Mexico to be 1,819,046 ; ten years later the 2010 United States Census recorded a population of 2,059,179 , an 11.7 % increase . Of the people residing in New Mexico , 51.4 % were born in New Mexico , 37.9 % were born in a different US state , 1.1 % were born in Puerto Rico , U.S. Island areas , or born abroad to American parent ( s ) , and 9.7 % were foreign born . As of May 1 , 2010 , 7.5 % of New Mexico 's population was reported as under 5 years of age , 25 % under 18 , and 13 % were 65 or older ; women make up around 51 % of the population . As of 2000 , 8 % of the residents of the state were foreign - born . Among U.S. states , New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanic ancestry , at 47 % ( as of July 1 , 2012 ) . This classification covers people of very different cultures and histories , including descendants of Spanish colonists with deep roots in the region , and recent immigrants from a variety of nations in Latin America , each with their own cultures . According to the United States Census Bureau Model - based Small Area Income & Poverty Estimates , the number of persons in poverty has increased to 400,779 ( 19.8 % of the population ) persons in 2010 from 2000 . At that time , the estimated number of persons in poverty was recorded at 309,193 ( 17.3 % of the population ) . The latest available estimates for 2014 estimate the number of persons in poverty at 420,388 ( 20.6 % of the population ) . Birth Data ( edit ) Note : Births in table do not add up , because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race , giving a higher overall number . Live Births by Race / Ethnicity of Mother Race 2013 2014 2015 White 21,325 ( 80.9 % ) 21,161 ( 81.2 % ) 21,183 ( 82.0 % ) > Non-Hispanic White 7,428 ( 28.2 % ) 7,222 ( 27.7 % ) 7,157 ( 27.7 % ) Native 3,763 ( 14.3 % ) 3,581 ( 13.7 % ) 3,452 ( 13.4 % ) Black 669 ( 2.5 % ) 732 ( 2.8 % ) 664 ( 2.6 % ) Asian 597 ( 2.3 % ) 578 ( 2.2 % ) 517 ( 2.0 % ) Hispanic ( of any race ) 14,402 ( 54.6 % ) 14,449 ( 55.5 % ) 14,431 ( 55.9 % ) Total New Mexico 26,354 ( 100 % ) 26,052 ( 100 % ) 25,816 ( 100 % ) Settlements ( edit ) See also : List of municipalities in New Mexico , List of census - designated places in New Mexico , and List of counties in New Mexico Largest cities or towns in New Mexico Source : 2016 U.S. Census Bureau Estimate Rank Name County Pop . Albuquerque Las Cruces Albuquerque Bernalillo 559,277 Rio Rancho Santa Fe Las Cruces Dona Ana 101,759 Rio Rancho Sandoval / Bernalillo 96,028 Santa Fe Santa Fe 83,875 5 Roswell Chaves 48,184 6 Farmington San Juan 41,629 7 Clovis Curry 39,373 8 Hobbs Lea 38,143 9 Alamogordo Otero 31,283 10 Carlsbad Eddy 28,914 Ancestry ( edit ) Race / Ethnicity in New Mexico ( 2010 ) White 68.4 % Non-Hispanic white 40.5 % White Hispanic 28.1 % American Indian 9.4 % Black / African American 2.1 % Asian 1.4 % Pacific Islander 0.1 % Other 15.0 % Two or more races 3.7 % Hispanic / Latino 46.3 % New Mexico is a majority -- minority state . The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that 48 % of the total 2015 population was Hispanic or Latino of any race , the highest of any state . The majority of Hispanics in New Mexico claim to be descendants of Spanish colonists who settled here during the 16th , 17th , and 18th centuries . They speak New Mexican Spanish or English at home . The state also has a large Native American population , second in percentage behind that of Alaska . The 2016 racial composition of the population was estimated to be : 82.6 % White American 10.6 % American Indian and Alaska Native 2.5 % Black or African American 1.7 % Asian 0.2 % Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander 2.5 % Two or more races 48.5 % Hispanic or Latino 38.1 % White alone New Mexico Racial Breakdown of Population ( hide ) Racial composition 1970 1990 2000 White 90.1 % 75.6 % 66.7 % 68.6 % Native 7.2 % 8.9 % 9.5 % 9.4 % Black 1.9 % 2.0 % 1.9 % 2.1 % Asian 0.2 % 0.9 % 1.1 % 1.4 % Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander -- -- 0.1 % 0.1 % Other race 0.6 % 12.6 % 17.0 % 15.0 % Two or more races -- -- 3.6 % 3.7 % According to the United States Census Bureau , 1.5 % of the population identifies as multiracial / mixed - race , a population larger than both the Asian and NHPI population groups . In 2008 , New Mexico had the highest percentage ( 47 % ) of Hispanics ( of any race ) of any state , with 83 % native - born and 17 % foreign - born . According to the 2000 United States Census , the most commonly claimed ancestry groups in New Mexico were : Mexican ( 16.3 % ) American Indian ( 10.3 % ) German ( 9.8 % ) , Spanish ( 9.3 % ) and English ( 7.2 % ) . Languages ( edit ) Languages Spoken in New Mexico English only 64 % Spanish 28 % Navajo 4 % According to the 2010 U.S. Census , 28.45 % of the population aged 5 and older speak Spanish at home , while 3.50 % speak Navajo . Speakers of New Mexican Spanish dialect are mainly descendants of Spanish colonists who arrived in New Mexico in the 16th , 17th , and 18th centuries . New Mexican Spanish is an archaic form of 17th century Castilian Spanish . Official language ( edit ) The original state constitution of 1912 provided for a bilingual government with laws being published in both English and Spanish ; this requirement was renewed twice , in 1931 and 1943 . Nonetheless , the constitution does not declare any language as `` official '' . While Spanish was permitted in the legislature until 1935 , all state officials are required to have a good knowledge of English . Cobarrubias and Fishman therefore argue that New Mexico can not be considered a bilingual state as not all laws are published in both languages . Others , such as Juan Perea , claim that the state was officially bilingual until 1953 . In either case , Hawaii is the only state that remains officially bilingual in the 21st century . With regard to the judiciary , witnesses have the right to testify in either of the two languages , and monolingual speakers of Spanish have the same right to be considered for jury - duty as do speakers of English . In public education , the state has the constitutional obligation to provide for bilingual education and Spanish - speaking instructors in school districts where the majority of students are hispanophone . In 1995 , the state adopted an official bilingual song , `` New Mexico -- Mi Lindo Nuevo México '' . In 1989 , New Mexico became the first state to officially adopt the English Plus resolution , and in 2008 , the first to officially adopt a Navajo textbook for use in public schools . Religion ( edit ) San Miguel Chapel , built in 1610 in Santa Fe , is the oldest church structure in the U.S. Religion in New Mexico ( 2014 ) Religion Percent Protestant 38 % Catholic 34 % None 21 % Mormon 2 % Jehovah 's Witness 1 % Buddhist 1 % Other faith 3 % According to Association of Religion Data Archives ( ARDA ) , the largest denominations in 2010 were the Catholic Church with 684,941 ; the Southern Baptist Convention with 113,452 ; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints with 67,637 , and the United Methodist Church with 36,424 adherents . According to a 2008 survey by the Pew Research Center , the most common self - reported religious affiliation of New Mexico residents are mentioned in reference . Within the hierarchy of the Catholic Church , New Mexico belongs to the Ecclesiastical Province of Santa Fe . New Mexico has three dioceses , one of which is an archdiocese : Archdiocese of Santa Fe , Diocese of Gallup , Diocese of Las Cruces . Economy ( edit ) Main article : Economy of New Mexico See also : New Mexico locations by per capita income New Mexico state quarter circulated in April 2008 . Oil and gas production , tourism , and federal government spending are important drivers of the state economy . State government has an elaborate system of tax credits and technical assistance to promote job growth and business investment , especially in new technologies . Economic indicators ( edit ) In 2010 New Mexico 's Gross Domestic Product was $80 billion and an estimated $85 billion for 2013 . In 2007 the per capita personal income was $31,474 ( rank 43rd in the nation ) . In 2005 the percentage of persons below the poverty level was 18.4 % . The New Mexico Tourism Department estimates that in Fiscal Year 2006 the travel industry in New Mexico generated expenditures of $6.5 billion . As of April 2012 , the state 's unemployment rate was 7.2 % . During the Late 2000s Recession New Mexico 's unemployment rate peaked at 8.0 % for the period June -- October 2010 . Oil and gas production ( edit ) New Mexico is the fourth leading crude oil and eighth leading natural gas producer ( EIA.gov 2015 ) in the United States . The Permian Basin ( part of the Mid-Continent Oil Field ) and San Juan Basin lie partly in New Mexico . In 2006 New Mexico accounted for 3.4 % of the crude oil , 8.5 % of the dry natural gas , and 10.2 % of the natural gas liquids produced in the United States . In 2000 the value of oil and gas produced was $8.2 billion . Federal government ( edit ) The F - 22 Raptor is flown by the 49th Fighter Wing at Holloman AFB . Federal government spending is a major driver of the New Mexico economy . In 2005 the federal government spent $2.03 on New Mexico for every dollar of tax revenue collected from the state . This rate of return is higher than any other state in the Union . Many of the federal jobs relate to the military ; the state hosts three air force bases ( Kirtland Air Force Base , Holloman Air Force Base , and Cannon Air Force Base ) ; a testing range ( White Sands Missile Range ) ; and an army proving ground and maneuver range ( Fort Bliss -- McGregor Range ) . A May 2005 estimate by New Mexico State University is that 11.65 % of the state 's total employment arises directly or indirectly from military spending . Other federal installations include the technology labs of Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories . Economic incentives ( edit ) Albuquerque Studios , built in 2007 for rising demand of film production in the state . New Mexico provides a number of economic incentives to businesses operating in the state , including various types of tax credits and tax exemptions . Most of the incentives are based on job creation . New Mexico law allows governments to provide land , buildings , and infrastructure to businesses to promote job creation . Several municipalities have imposed an Economic Development Gross Receipts Tax ( a form of Municipal Infrastructure GRT ) that is used to pay for these infrastructure improvements and for marketing their areas . The state provides financial incentives for film production . The New Mexico Film Office estimated at the end of 2007 that the incentive program had brought more than 85 film projects to the state since 2003 and had added $1.2 billion to the economy . State taxes ( edit ) Main article : Taxation in New Mexico Since 2008 , personal income tax rates for New Mexico have ranged from 1.7 % to 4.9 % , within four income brackets . As of 2007 , active - duty military salaries are exempt from state income tax . New Mexico imposes a Gross Receipts Tax ( GRT ) on many transactions , which may even include some governmental receipts . This resembles a sales tax but , unlike the sales taxes in many states , it applies to services as well as tangible goods . Normally , the provider or seller passes the tax on to the purchaser , however legal incidence and burden apply to the business , as an excise tax . GRT is imposed by the state and there may an additional locality component to produce a total tax rate . As of July 1 , 2013 the combined tax rate ranged from 5.125 % to 8.6875 % . Property tax is imposed on real property by the state , by counties , and by school districts . In general , personal - use personal property is not subject to property taxation . On the other hand , property tax is levied on most business - use personal property . The taxable value of property is 1 / 3 of the assessed value . A tax rate of about 30 mills is applied to the taxable value , resulting in an effective tax rate of about 1 % . In the 2005 tax year the average millage was about 26.47 for residential property and 29.80 for non-residential property . Assessed values of residences can not be increased by more than 3 % per year unless the residence is remodeled or sold . Property tax deductions are available for military veterans and heads of household . Transportation ( edit ) Santa Fe Trail in Cimarron , New Mexico . In this photo , the US - Mexico border divides Sunland Park and the Mexican state of Chihuahua . New Mexico has long been an important corridor for trade and migration . The builders of the ruins at Chaco Canyon also created a radiating network of roads from the mysterious settlement . Chaco Canyon 's trade function shifted to Casas Grandes in the present - day Mexican state of Chihuahua , however , north - south trade continued . The pre-Columbian trade with Mesoamerican cultures included northbound exotic birds , seashells and copper . Turquoise , pottery , and salt were some of the goods transported south along the Rio Grande . Present - day New Mexico 's pre-Columbian trade is especially remarkable for being undertaken on foot . The north - south trade route later became a path for colonists with horses arriving from New Spain as well as trade and communication . The route was called El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro . The Santa Fe Trail was the 19th century US territory 's vital commercial and military highway link to the Eastern United States . All with termini in Northern New Mexico , the Camino Real , the Santa Fe Trail and the Old Spanish Trail are all recognized as National Historic Trails . New Mexico 's latitude and low passes made it an attractive east - west transportation corridor . As a territory , the Gadsden Purchase increased New Mexico 's land area for the purpose of the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad , that of the Southern Pacific Railroad . Another transcontinental railroad was completed by the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway . The railroads essentially replaced the earlier trails but brought on a population boom . Early transcontinental auto trails later crossed the state bringing more migrants . Railroads were later supplemented or replaced by a system of highways and airports . Today , New Mexico 's Interstate Highways approximate the earlier land routes of the Camino Real , the Santa Fe Trail and the transcontinental railroads . Road ( edit ) See also : Speed limits in the United States by jurisdiction § New Mexico , and List of New Mexico highways Map of New Mexico highways . New Mexico has had a problem with drunk driving , but that has lessened . According to the Los Angeles Times , for years the state had the highest alcohol - related crash rates in the U.S. , but ranked 25th in alcohol - related fatal crash rates , as of July 2009 . The automobile changed the character of New Mexico , marking the start of large scale immigration to the state from elsewhere in the United States . Settlers moving West during the Great Depression and post-World War II American culture immortalized the National Old Trails Highway , later U.S. Route 66 . Today , the automobile is heavily relied upon in New Mexico for transportation . New Mexico had 59,927 route miles of highway as of 2000 , of which 7,037 receive federal - aid . In that same year there were 1,003 miles ( 1,614 km ) of freeways , of which 1000 were the route miles of Interstate Highways 10 , 25 and 40 . The former number has increased with the upgrading of roads near Pojoaque , Santa Fe and Las Cruces to freeways . The highway traffic fatality rate was 1.9 fatalities per million miles traveled in 2000 , the 13th highest rate among U.S. states . Notable bridges include the Rio Grande Gorge Bridge near Taos . As of 2001 , 703 highway bridges , or one percent , were declared `` structurally deficient '' or `` structurally obsolete '' . Rural and intercity public transportation by road is provided by Americanos USA , LLC , Greyhound Lines and several government operators . The New Mexico Rail Runner Express is a commuter rail operation train that runs along the Central Rio Grande Valley . Urban mass transit ( edit ) See also : Category : Bus transportation in New Mexico The New Mexico Rail Runner Express is a commuter rail system serving the metropolitan area of Albuquerque , New Mexico . It began operation on July 14 , 2006 . The system runs from Belen to downtown Santa Fe . Larger cities in New Mexico typically have some form of public transportation by road ; ABQ RIDE is the largest such system in the state . Rail ( edit ) See also : List of New Mexico railroads The Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad There were 2,354 route miles of railroads in the year 2000 , this number increased with the opening of the Rail Runner 's extension to Santa Fe . In addition to local railroads and other tourist lines , the state jointly owns and operates a heritage narrow - gauge steam railroad , the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railway , with the state of Colorado . Narrow gauge railroads once connected many communities in the northern part of the state , from Farmington to Santa Fe . No fewer than 100 railroads of various names and lineage have operated in the jurisdiction at some point . New Mexico 's rail transportation system reached its height in terms of length following admission as a state ; in 1914 eleven railroads operated 3124 route miles . Railroad surveyors arrived in New Mexico in the 1850s . The first railroads incorporated in 1869 . The first operational railroad , the Atchison , Topeka & Santa Fe Railway ( ATSF ) , entered the territory by way of the lucrative and contested Raton Pass in 1878 . It eventually reached El Paso , Texas in 1881 and with the Southern Pacific Railroad created the nation 's second transcontinental railroad with a junction at Deming . The Southern Pacific Railroad entered the territory from the Territory of Arizona in 1880 . The Denver & Rio Grande Railway , who would generally use narrow gauge equipment in New Mexico , entered the territory from Colorado and began service to Española on December 31 , 1880 . These first railroads were built as long - distance corridors , later railroad construction also targeted resource extraction . Freight ( edit ) New Mexico is served by two class I railroads , the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad . Combined , they operate 2,200 route miles of railway in the state . Passenger ( edit ) Downtown Santa Fe train station A commuter rail operation , the New Mexico Rail Runner Express , connects the state 's capital , its largest city , and other communities . The privately operated state owned railroad began operations in July 2006 . The BNSF Railway 's entire line from Belen to Raton , New Mexico was sold to the state , partially for the construction of phase II of this operation , which opened in December 2008 . Phase II of Rail Runner extended the line northward to Santa Fe from the Sandoval County station , the northernmost station under Phase I service . The service now connects Santa Fe , Sandoval , Bernalillo , and Valencia counties . The trains connect Albuquerque 's population base and central business district to downtown Santa Fe with up to eight roundtrips in a day . The section of the line running south to Belen is served less frequently . Rail Runner operates scheduled service seven days per week . The railway station in Tucumcari With the rise of rail transportation many settlements grew or were founded and the territory became a tourist destination . As early as 1878 , the ATSF promoted tourism in the region with emphasis on Native American imagery . Named trains often reflected the territory they traveled : Super Chief , the streamlined successor to the Chief ; Navajo , an early transcontinental tourist train ; and Cavern , a through car operation connecting Clovis and Carlsbad ( by the early 1950s as train 23 -- 24 ) , were some of the named passenger trains of the ATSF that connoted New Mexico . Passenger train service once connected nine of New Mexico 's present ten most populous cities ( the exception is Rio Rancho ) , while today passenger train service connects two : Albuquerque and Santa Fe . With the decline of most intercity rail service in the United States in the late 1960s , New Mexico was left with minimal services . No less than six daily long - distance roundtrip trains supplemented by many branch line and local trains served New Mexico in the early 1960s . Declines in passenger revenue , but not necessarily ridership , prompted many railroads to turn over their passenger services in truncated form to Amtrak , a state owned enterprise . Amtrak , also known as the National Passenger Railroad Corporation , began operating the two extant long - distance routes in May 1971 . Resurrection of passenger rail service from Denver to El Paso , a route once plied in part by the ATSF 's El Pasoan , has been proposed over the years . As early as the 1980s former Governor Toney Anaya proposed building a high - speed rail line connecting the two cities with New Mexico 's major cities . Front Range Commuter Rail is a project to connect Wyoming and New Mexico with high - speed rail . Amtrak 's Southwest Chief passes through daily at stations in Gallup , Albuquerque , Lamy , Las Vegas , and Raton , offering connections to Los Angeles , Chicago and intermediate points . The Southwest Chief is a fast Amtrak long distance train , being permitted a maximum speed of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) in various places on the tracks of the BNSF Railway . It also operates on New Mexico Rail Runner Express trackage . The Southwest Chief is the successor to the Super Chief and El Capitan . The streamliner Super Chief , a favorite of early Hollywood stars , was one of the most famous named trains in the United States and one of the most esteemed for its luxury and exoticness -- train cars were named for regional Native American tribes and outfitted with the artwork of many local artists -- but also for its speed : as few as 39 hours 45 minutes westbound . A sign in Southern New Mexico indicating `` The Future site of the New Mexico Spaceport '' The Sunset Limited makes stops three times a week in both directions at Lordsburg , and Deming , serving Los Angeles , New Orleans and intermediate points . The Sunset Limited is the successor to the Southern Pacific Railroad 's train of the same name and operates exclusively on Union Pacific trackage in New Mexico . Aerospace ( edit ) See also : List of airports in New Mexico The Albuquerque International Sunport is the state 's primary port of entry for air transportation . Upham , near Truth or Consequences is the location of the world 's first operational and purpose - built commercial spaceport , Spaceport America . Rocket launches began in April 2007 . It is undeveloped and has one tenant , UP Aerospace , launching small payloads . Virgin Galactic , a space tourism company , plans to make this their primary operating base . Government and Politics ( edit ) Governor Susana Martinez ( R ) Government ( edit ) Main article : Government of New Mexico The Constitution of New Mexico established New Mexico 's governmental structure . The executive branch of government is fragmented as outlined in the state constitution . The executive is composed of the Governor and other statewide elected officials including the Lieutenant Governor ( elected on the same ticket as the Governor ) , Attorney General , Secretary of State , State Auditor , State Treasurer , and Commissioner of Public Lands . The governor appoints a cabinet that leads agencies statutorily designated under his / her jurisdiction . The New Mexico Legislature consists of the House of Representatives and Senate . The judiciary is composed of the New Mexico Supreme Court and lower courts . There is also local government , consisting of counties , municipalities and special districts . Politics ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Elections in New Mexico and Political party strength in New Mexico Current Governor Susana Martinez ( R ) and Lieutenant Governor John Sanchez ( R ) , were first elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014 . Terms for both the Governor and Lieutenant Governor expire in January 2019 . Governors serve a term of four years and may seek re-election for one additional term ( limit of two terms ) . Other constitutional officers , all of whose terms also expire in January 2019 , include Secretary of State Maggie Toulouse Oliver ( D ) , Attorney General Hector Balderas ( D ) , State Auditor Wayne Johnson ( R ) , State Land Commissioner Aubrey Dunn ( L ) , and State Treasurer Tim Eichenberg ( D ) . State Executive Officers Office Name Party Governor Susana Martinez Republican Lieutenant Governor John Sanchez Republican Secretary of State Maggie Toulouse Oliver Democrat Attorney General Hector Balderas Democrat Auditor Wayne Johnson Republican Treasurer Tim Eichenberg Democrat Land Commissioner Aubrey Dunn Jr . Libertarian Voter Registration and Party Enrollment as of November 3 , 2016 Party Number of Voters Percentage Democratic 599,813 47 % Republican 399,930 31 % Unaffiliated 242,106 19 % Minor parties 47,571 4 % Total 1,289,420 100 % Currently , both chambers of the New Mexico State Legislature have Democratic majorities . There are 26 Democrats and 16 Republicans in the Senate , and 38 Democrats and 32 Republicans in the House of Representatives . New Mexico 's members of the United States Senate are Democrats Martin Heinrich and Tom Udall . Democrats Michelle Lujan Grisham , and Ben R. Luján represent the first and third congressional districts , respectively , and Republican Steve Pearce represents the second congressional district in the United States House of Representatives . See New Mexico congressional map . New Mexico had been considered a swing state , whose population has favored both Democratic and Republican presidential candidates , but it became more of a Democratic stronghold after the presidential election of 2008 . The governor is Susana Martinez ( R ) , who succeeded Bill Richardson ( D ) on January 1 , 2011 after he served two terms as governor from 2003 to 2011 . Before Richardson , Gary Johnson served as governor from 1995 to 2003 . Johnson served as a Republican , but in 2012 and 2016 , he ran for President from the Libertarian Party . In previous presidential elections , Al Gore carried the state ( by 366 votes ) in 2000 ; George W. Bush won New Mexico 's five electoral votes in 2004 , and the state 's electoral votes were won by Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton in 2008 , 2012 , and 2016 . Since achieving statehood in 1912 , New Mexico has been carried by the national popular vote victor in every presidential election of the past 104 years except 1976 when Gerald Ford won the state by 2 % but lost the national popular vote by 2 % . Gubernatorial election results Year Republican Democratic 2014 57.34 % 288,549 42.66 % 214,636 53.29 % 321,219 46.55 % 280,614 2006 31.18 % 174,364 68.82 % 384,806 2002 39.05 % 189,074 55.49 % 268,693 1998 54.53 % 271,948 45.47 % 226,755 49.81 % 232,945 39.92 % 186,686 1990 45.15 % 185,692 54.61 % 224,564 1986 53.05 % 209,455 46.95 % 185,378 Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic 2016 40.04 % 319,685 48.25 % 385,232 2012 42.84 % 335,788 52.99 % 415,335 2008 41.78 % 346,832 56.91 % 472,422 49.8 % 376,930 49.1 % 370,942 2000 47.85 % 286,417 47.91 % 286,783 42 % 232,751 49 % 273,495 37 % 212,617 46 % 261,617 51 % 270,341 46 % 244 , 49 1984 59 % 307,101 39 % 201,769 1980 55 % 250,779 36 % 167,826 1976 50 % 211,419 48 % 201,148 1972 60 % 235,606 36 % 141,084 Democratic strongholds in the state include the Santa Fe Area , various areas of the Albuquerque Metro Area ( such as the southeast and central areas , including the affluent Nob Hill neighborhood and the vicinity of the University of New Mexico ) , Northern and West Central New Mexico , and most of the Native American reservations , particularly the Navajo Nation . Republicans have traditionally had their strongholds in the eastern and southern parts of the state , the Farmington area , Rio Rancho , and the newly developed areas in the Northwest mesa . Albuquerque 's Northeast Heights have historically leaned Republican , but have become a key swing area for Democrats in recent election cycles . While registered Democrats outnumber registered Republicans by nearly 200,000 , New Mexico voters have favored moderate to conservative candidates of both parties at the state and federal levels . On major political issues , New Mexico abolished its death penalty statute , though not retroactively , effective July 1 , 2009 . This means individuals on New Mexico 's Death Row can still be executed . On March 18 , 2009 , then Governor Bill Richardson signed the law abolishing the death penalty in New Mexico following the assembly and senate vote the week before , thus becoming the 15th U.S. state to abolish the penalty . On gun control , New Mexico arguably has some of the least restrictive firearms laws in the country . State law pre-empts all local gun control ordinances . Unlike states with strong gun control laws , a New Mexico resident may purchase any firearm deemed legal under federal law . There are no waiting periods under state law for picking up a firearm after it has been purchased , and there are no restrictions on magazine capacity . Additionally , New Mexico allows open carry of a loaded firearm without a permit , and is `` shall - issue '' for concealed carry permits . Before December 2013 New Mexico law neither explicitly allowed nor prohibited same - sex marriage . Policy concerning the issuance of marriage licenses to same - sex couples was determined at the county level ; that is , some county clerks issued marriage licenses to same - sex couples , while others did not . In December 2013 , the New Mexico Supreme Court issued a unanimous ruling directing all county clerks to issue marriage licenses to same - sex couples , thereby making New Mexico the 17th state to recognize same - sex marriage at the statewide level . Education ( edit ) The New Mexico Public Education Department is situated in Santa Fe . Due to its relatively low population in combination with numerous federally funded research facilities , New Mexico had the highest concentration of PhD holders of any state in 2000 . Despite this , the state routinely ranks near the bottom in surveys of quality of primary and secondary school education . New Mexico has a higher concentration of persons who do not finish high school or have some college without a degree than the nation as a whole . For the state , 23.9 % of people over 25 years of age have gone to college but not earned a degree . This is compared with 21.0 % of the nation as a whole according to United States Census Bureau 2014 American Community Survey estimates . Los Alamos County has the highest number percent of post secondary degree holders of any county in New Mexico with 38.7 % of the population ( 4,899 persons ) estimated by the 2010 - 2014 American Community Survey . Primary and secondary education ( edit ) See also : List of high schools in New Mexico The New Mexico Public Education Department oversees the operation of primary and secondary schools . Colleges and universities ( edit ) Main article : List of colleges and universities in New Mexico Major state universities ( edit ) University of New Mexico at Albuquerque New Mexico State University at Las Cruces Eastern New Mexico University at Portales New Mexico Highlands University at Las Vegas Western New Mexico University at Silver City New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology at Socorro Four campus libraries Zimmerman Library at The University of New Mexico Zuhl Library at New Mexico State University Walkway outside Golden Library at Eastern New Mexico University Donnelly Library at New Mexico Highlands University Culture ( edit ) See also : List of people from New Mexico , New Mexican cuisine , New Mexico chile , New Mexico wine , List of breweries in New Mexico , Music of New Mexico , and New Mexico music Symbols of the Southwest : a string of chili peppers ( a ristra ) and a bleached white cow 's skull hang in a market near Santa Fe With a Native American population of 134,000 in 1990 , New Mexico still ranks as an important center of Native American culture . Both the Navajo and Apache share Athabaskan origin . The Apache and some Ute live on federal reservations within the state . With 16 million acres ( 6,500,000 ha ) , mostly in neighboring Arizona , the reservation of the Navajo Nation ranks as the largest in the United States . The prehistorically agricultural Pueblo Indians live in pueblos scattered throughout the state . Almost half of New Mexicans claim Hispanic origin ; many are descendants of colonial settlers . They settled in the state 's northern portion . Most of the Mexican immigrants reside in the southern part of the state . Also 10 - 15 % of the population , mainly in the north , may contain Hispanic Jewish ancestry . Many New Mexicans speak a unique dialect of Spanish . Because of the historical isolation of New Mexico from other speakers of the Spanish language , some of the vocabulary of New Mexican Spanish is unknown to other Spanish speakers . It uses numerous Native American words for local features and includes anglicized words that express American concepts and modern inventions . Albuquerque has the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science , the National Hispanic Cultural Center , and the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History , as well as hosts the famed annual Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta every fall . Art and literature ( edit ) The earliest New Mexico artists whose work survives today are the Mimbres Indians , whose black and white pottery could be mistaken for modern art , except for the fact that it was produced before 1130 CE . See Mimbres culture . Many examples of this work can be seen at the Deming Luna Mimbres Museum and at the Western New Mexico University Museum . A large artistic community thrives in Santa Fe , and has included such people as Bruce Nauman , Richard Tuttle , John Connell and Steina Vasulka . The capital city has several art museums , including the New Mexico Museum of Art , Museum of Spanish Colonial Art , Museum of International Folk Art , Museum of Indian Arts and Culture , Museum of Contemporary Native Arts , SITE Santa Fe and others . Colonies for artists and writers thrive , and the small city teems with art galleries . In August , the city hosts the annual Santa Fe Indian Market , which is the oldest and largest juried Native American art showcase in the world . Performing arts include the renowned Santa Fe Opera which presents five operas in repertory each July to August , the Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival held each summer , and the restored Lensic Theater a principal venue for many kinds of performances . Santa Fe is also home to Frogville Records , an indie record label . The weekend after Labor Day boasts the burning of Zozobra , a 50 ft ( 15 m ) marionette , during Fiestas de Santa Fe . The interior of the Crosby Theater at the Santa Fe Opera ; viewed from the mezzanine . Art is also a frequent theme in Albuquerque , New Mexico 's largest city . The National Hispanic Cultural Center has held hundreds of performing arts events , art showcases , and other events related to Spanish culture in New Mexico and worldwide in the centerpiece Roy E Disney Center for the Performing Arts or in other venues at the 53 acre facility . New Mexico residents and visitors alike can enjoy performing art from around the world at Popejoy Hall on the campus of the University of New Mexico . Popejoy Hall hosts singers , dancers , Broadway shows , other types of acts , and Shakespeare . Albuquerque also has the unique and memorable KiMo Theater built in 1927 in the Pueblo Revival Style architecture . The KiMo presents live theater and concerts as well as movies and simulcast operas . In addition to other general interest theaters , Albuquerque also has the African American Performing Arts Center and Exhibit Hall which showcases achievements by people of African descent and the Indian Pueblo Cultural Center which highlights the cultural heritage of the First Nations people of New Mexico . New Mexico holds strong to its Spanish heritage . Old Spanish traditions such zarzuelas and flamenco are popular in New Mexico . Flamenco dancer and native New Mexican María Benítez founded the Maria Benítez Institute for Spanish Arts `` to present programs of the highest quality of the rich artistic heritage of Spain as expressed through music , dance , visual arts and other art forms . '' There is also the Festival Flamenco Internacional de Alburquerque held each year in which native Spanish and New Mexican flamenco dancers perform at the University of New Mexico . In the mid-20th century there was a thriving Hispano school of literature and scholarship being produced in both English and Spanish . Among the more notable authors were : Angélico Chávez , Nina Otero - Warren , Fabiola Cabeza de Baca , Aurelio Espinosa , Cleofas Jaramillo , Juan Bautista Rael , and Aurora Lucero - White Lea . As well , writer D.H. Lawrence lived near Taos in the 1920s at the D.H. Lawrence Ranch where there is a shrine said to contain his ashes . New Mexico 's strong Spanish , Native American , and Wild West frontier motifs have provided material for many authors in the state , including internationally recognized Rudolfo Anaya and Tony Hillerman . Silver City , in the southwestern mountains of the state , was originally a mining town , and at least one nearby mine still operates . It is perhaps better known now as the home of and / or exhibition center for large numbers of artists , visual and otherwise . Another former mining town turned art haven is Madrid , New Mexico . It was brought to national fame as the filming location for the movie Wild Hogs in 2007 . The City of Las Cruces , in southern New Mexico , has a museum system that is affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution Affiliations Program . Las Cruces also has a variety of cultural and artistic opportunities for residents and visitors . Aside from the aforementioned Wild Hogs , other movies filmed in New Mexico include Sunshine Cleaning and Vampires . The various seasons of the A&E / Netflix series Longmire have been filmed in several locations in New Mexico , including Las Vegas , Santa Fe , Eagle Nest , and Red River . Sports ( edit ) The New Mexico Stars play in the Santa Ana Star Center No major league professional sports teams are based in New Mexico , but the Albuquerque Isotopes are a Pacific Coast League Triple - A baseball affiliate of the MLB Colorado Rockies . New Mexico is home to several baseball teams of the Pecos League : Santa Fe Fuego , Roswell Invaders and the White Sands Pupfish . The Duke City Gladiators of the CIF are an indoor football team that plays their home games at the Tingley Coliseum . The Albuquerque Sol F.C are a soccer club that plays in the PDL ( the 4th tier of the American soccer pyramid ) . Collegiate athletics in New Mexico involve various University of New Mexico Lobos and New Mexico State Aggies teams in many sports . For many years the two universities have had a rivalry often referred to as the `` Rio Grande Rivalry '' or the `` Battle of I - 25 '' in recognition of the campuses both located along that interstate highway . NMSU also has a rivalry with the University of Texas at El Paso that is called `` The Battle of I - 10 . '' The winner of the NMSU - UTEP football game receives the Silver Spade trophy . Olympic gold medalist Tom Jager , who is an advocate of controversial high - altitude training for swimming , has conducted training camps in Albuquerque ( elevation 5,312 ft ( 1,619.1 m ) ) and Los Alamos ( 7,320 ft ( 2,231 m ) ) . NRA Whittington Center in Raton is the United States ' largest and most comprehensive competitive shooting range and training facility . See also ( edit ) New Mexico portal Index of New Mexico - related articles Outline of New Mexico -- organized list of topics about New Mexico References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Most spoken languages in New Mexico in 2010 '' . MLA Data Center . Retrieved November 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Population and Housing Unit Estimates '' . U.S. Census Bureau . June 22 , 2017 . Retrieved June 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Median Annual Household Income '' . The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation . Retrieved December 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Wheeler '' . NGS data sheet . U.S. National Geodetic Survey . Retrieved October 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Elevations and Distances in the United States '' . United States Geological Survey . 2001 . Archived from the original on October 15 , 2011 . Retrieved October 24 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988 . Jump up ^ `` Which State Has the Highest Income Taxes ? '' . The Balance . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Norris , Tina ; Vines , Paula L. ; Hoeffel , Elizabeth M. ( February 2012 ) . `` The American Indian and Alaska Native Population : 2010 '' ( PDF ) . Census 2010 Brief . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved May 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico State Flag -- About the New Mexico Flag , its adoption and history from '' . Netstate.Com . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Origin of State Names '' . www.infoplease.com . Sandbox Networks . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` How Did New Mexico Get Its Name '' . mexica.org . Word Press . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` How did New Mexico get its name ? '' . Quora.com . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` How All 50 States Got Their Names '' . www.todayifoundout.com . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Is New Mexico a State ? Some Americans Do n't Know '' . npr.org . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Video : How did the 50 States get their names ? United States Name Origins '' . youtube.com . Free School . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 30 Things To Know About New Mexico Before You Move There '' . movoto.com . Movoto Real Estate . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico State Name Origin '' . statesymbolusa.com . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Map : Viceroyalty of New Spain '' . legacy.lib.utexas.edu . University of Texas . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Weber , David J. ( 1992 ) . The Spanish Frontier in North America . New Haven and London : Yale University Press . p. 79 . Jump up ^ Sanchez , Joseph P. ( 1987 ) . The Rio Abajo Frontier , 1540 -- 1692 : A History of Early Colonial New Mexico . Albuquerque : Museum of Albuquerque History Monograph Series . p. 51 . Jump up ^ Stewart , George ( 2008 ) ( 1945 ) . Names on the Land : A Historical Account of Place - Naming in the United States . New York : NYRB Classics . pp. 23 -- 24 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59017 - 273 - 5 . There was Francisco de Ibarra , a great seeker after gold mines . In 1563 he went far to the north ... when he returned south , Ibarra boasted that he had discovered a New Mexico . Doubtless , like others , he stretched the tale , and certainly the land of which he told was well south of the one now so called . Yet men remembered the name Nuevo México , though not at first as that of the region which Coronado had once conquered . Jump up ^ Rivera , José A. , Acequia Culture : Water , Land , and Community in the Southwest , University of New Mexico Press , 1998 . ^ Jump up to : `` CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO '' . New Mexico State University . Archived from the original on July 8 , 2004 . Retrieved March 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ http://www.amerisurv.com/PDF/TheAmericanSurveyor_Roeder-TX-NMLine_December2006.pdf Jump up ^ `` MAPS '' . NM Partnership . Archived from the original on September 14 , 2014 . Retrieved September 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Rivers of the World '' . USGS . Archived from the original on March 5 , 2009 . Retrieved May 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Find a Forest by State '' . USDA Forest Service . Retrieved March 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico '' . National Park Service . Archived from the original on July 9 , 2008 . Retrieved July 17 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` All - Time Climate Extremes for NM '' . National Climatic Data Center . Archived from the original on May 28 , 2010 . Retrieved March 18 , 2011 . Jump up ^ John W. Briggs. `` Making it in Magdalena ''. `` Reflector ''. 2016 . Jump up ^ Lauren Villagran . `` New Mexico 's window to the stars '' . Albuquerque Journal . 2017 . Jump up ^ Merriam Bailey , Florence ( 1928 ) . Birds of New Mexico . The University of Michigan . Jump up ^ Hogan , C. Michael ( 2008 ) . `` Wild turkey : Meleagris gallopavo '' . GlobalTwitcher.com . Archived from the original on July 25 , 2017 . Retrieved April 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ New Mexico ; New Mexico Compilation Commission ( 1966 ) . New Mexico statutes , 1953 , annotated. 2 . Indianapolis : A. Smith Co. p. 68 . OCLC 28494004 . Retrieved July 31 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Murphy , Dan ( 2000 ) . New Mexico , the distant land : an illustrated history . photo research by John O. Baxter ( 2000 ed . ) . Sun Valley , CA : American Historical Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 892724 - 09 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Simmons , Marc ( 1988 ) . New Mexico : An Interpretive History ( New ed . ) . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press . ISBN 0 - 8263 - 1110 - 5 . Jump up ^ Stewart , George ( 2008 ) ( 1945 ) . Names on the Land : A Historical Account of Place - Naming in the United States . New York : NYRB Classics . pp. 23 -- 24 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59017 - 273 - 5 . There was Francisco de Ibarra , a great seeker after gold mines . In 1563 he went far to the north ... when he returned south , Ibarra boasted that he had discovered a New Mexico . Doubtless , like others , he stretched the tale , and certainly the land of which he told was well south of the one now so called . Yet men remembered the name Nuevo México , though not at first as that of the region which Coronado had once conquered . Jump up ^ `` Cuarto Centenario : 400 Years of New Mexico Culture and History '' . New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs . 1999 . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2008 . Retrieved October 12 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Simmons , Mark ( 1991 ) . The Last Conquistador : Juan De Oñate and the Settling of the Far Southwest . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 2368 - 0 . Jump up ^ Resistance and Accommodation in New Mexico . Source : C.W. Hackett , ed. , Historical Documents relating to New Mexico , Nueva Vizcaya , and Approaches Thereto , to 1773 , vol . III ( Washington : Carnegie Institution of Washington , 1937 ) pp. 327 -- 35 . Jump up ^ `` The Founding of Albuquerque -- The Albuquerque Museum '' . City of Albuquerque . Archived from the original on May 29 , 2012 . Retrieved October 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ New Mexico ( state ) . Britannica Online Encyclopedia . Jump up ^ `` Boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase as Recognized Today '' . Louisiana : European Explorations and the Louisiana Purchase . Library of Congress . December 2001 . Retrieved December 6 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` American Civil War Research Database statistics '' . Civilwardata.com . March 4 , 2012 . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Charles Montgomery , `` Becoming ' Spanish - American ' : Race and Rhetoric in New Mexico Politics , 1880 - 1928 '' , Journal of American Ethnic History Vol. 20 , No. 4 ( Summer , 2001 ) , pp. 59 - 84 ( published by University of Illinois Press for Immigration and Ethnic History Society ) ; accessed via JSTOR , 20 July 2016 ^ Jump up to : Willard Hughes Rollings , `` Citizenship and Suffrage : The Native American Struggle for Civil Rights in the American West , 1830 - 1965 '' , Nevada Law Journal Vol. 5 : 126 , Fall 2004 ; accessed 18 July 2016 Jump up ^ `` New Mexico Oil Discovery '' . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Wells , Bruce . `` New Mexico Oil Discovery '' . American Oil & Gas Historical Society . Retrieved June 8 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Resident Population Data . `` Resident Population Data -- 2010 Census '' . 2010.census.gov . Archived from the original on October 19 , 2013 . Retrieved December 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Table 1 . Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States , Regions , States , and Puerto Rico : April 1 , 2010 to July 1 , 2015 '' . U.S. Census Bureau . December 26 , 2015 . Archived from the original ( CSV ) on December 23 , 2015 . Retrieved December 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Table 16 . Population : 1790 to 1990 '' . Population and Housing Unit Counts. 1990 Census of Population and Housing . CPH - 2 - 1 . U.S. Department of Commerce , Bureau of the Census . pp. 26 -- 27 . ISBN 99946 - 41 - 25 - 5 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 28 , 2011 . Retrieved July 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Reynis , Lee A. ; Marshall J. Vest ( 2005 ) . `` The Southwest Heartland : The Good , the Bad & the Ugly '' ( PDF ) . University of New Mexico , Bureau of Business and Economic Research . p. 12 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on February 25 , 2009 . Retrieved October 12 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` New Mexico Bureau of Business and Economic Research UNM '' . bber.unm.edu . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ Bureau , U.S. Census . `` American FactFinder -- Results '' . Archived from the original on August 15 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` New Mexico QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau '' . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on February 11 , 2010 . Retrieved March 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr64/nvsr64_01.pdf Jump up ^ https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr64/nvsr64_12.pdf Jump up ^ https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr66/nvsr66_01.pdf Jump up ^ `` 2010 Census Data '' . U.S. Census Bureau . Archived from the original on March 24 , 2011 . Retrieved March 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Of The Four Majority - Minority States In America , Minorities Do Best In Texas '' . forbes.com . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Alaska QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau '' . US Census Bureau . Retrieved April 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Quick Facts - New Mexico Population Estimates , July 1 , 2016 '' . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 7 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race , 1790 to 1990 , and By Hispanic Origin , 1970 to 1990 , For The United States , Regions , Divisions , and States '' . Census.gov . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2014 . Retrieved April 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Population of New Mexico : Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map , Demographics , Statistics , Quick Facts Jump up ^ 2010 Census Data . `` 2010 Census Data '' . Census.gov . Retrieved April 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Demographic Profile of Hispanics in New Mexico , 2007 . Pew Hispanic Center . Jump up ^ Brittingham , Angela ; de la Cruz , G. Patricia ( June 2004 ) . `` Table 3 . Largest Ancestries for the United States , Regions , States , and for Puerto Rico : 2000 '' ( PDF ) . Ancestry : 2000 ; Census 2000 Brief . US Census Bureau . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2004 - 09 - 20 . Retrieved November 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` MLA Language Map Data Center : Most spoken languages in New Mexico '' . Mla.org . July 17 , 2007 . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Spanish language in New Mexico and southern Colorado '' . Archive.org . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Rubén Cobos . A Dictionary of New Mexico & Southern Colorado Spanish . Santa Fe : Museum of New Mexico Press , 2003 Jump up ^ Crawford , John ( 1992 ) . Language loyalties : a source book on the official English controversy . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . p. 62 . ^ Jump up to : Cobarrubias , Juan ; Fishman , Joshua A ( 1983 ) . Progress in Language Planning : International Perspectives . Walter de Gruyter . p. 195 . ^ Jump up to : Constitution of the State of New Mexico . Adopted January 21 , 1911 . Jump up ^ Perea , Juan F. Los Olvidados : On the Making of Invisible People . New York University Law Review , 70 ( 4 ) , 965 - 990 . ^ Jump up to : Joseph , John Earl ( 2006 ) . Language and Politics . Edinburgh University Press . p. 63 . Jump up ^ Roberts , Calvin A. ( 2006 ) . Our New Mexico : A Twentieth Century History . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press . p. 23 . Jump up ^ `` State Symbols '' . New Mexico Blue Book 2007 -- 2008 . New Mexico Secretary of State . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on November 29 , 2008 . Retrieved January 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Felicia Fonseca ( July 31 , 2008 ) . `` New Mexico first state to adopt Navajo textbook '' . Seattle Times . Retrieved October 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ The Pew Forum - America 's Changing Religious Landscape Jump up ^ `` The Association of Religion Data Archives State Membership Report '' . www.thearda.com . Retrieved November 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ARCHDIOSF.ORG '' . Retrieved April 11 , 2010 . There is one Eastern Catholic parish in the state , which is under the Byzantine Catholic Eparchy of Phoenix . Jump up ^ `` GDP by State '' . Greyhill Advisors . Retrieved September 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Per Capita Personal Income by State '' . University of New Mexico , Bureau of Business and Economic Research . April 4 , 2008 . Archived from the original on March 2 , 2009 . Retrieved October 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Persons Below Poverty by New Mexico County '' . University of New Mexico , Bureau of Business and Economic Research . January 18 , 2008 . Archived from the original on June 24 , 2010 . Retrieved October 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Travel Economic Impact Model '' ( PDF ) . New Mexico Tourism Department . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 28 , 2008 . Retrieved October 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Local Area Unemployment Statistics '' . Jump up ^ `` Local Area Unemployment Statistics '' . Retrieved May 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` EIA State Energy Profiles : New Mexico '' . US Department of Energy , Energy Information Administration . October 9 , 2008 . Retrieved October 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Oil & Gas Program '' . New Mexico Institute of Technology , New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources . Retrieved October 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Federal Spending Received Per Dollar of Taxes Paid by State , 2005 '' . Tax Foundation . October 9 , 2007 . Retrieved September 21 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Dr. Chris Erickson ; Erin Ward ( May 2005 ) . `` Economic Impact of the Closure of Cannon Air Force Base '' . New Mexico Business Outlook . New Mexico State University . Archived from the original on September 2 , 2006 . Retrieved October 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Business Assistance : Incentives '' . State of New Mexico Economic Development Department . Archived from the original on April 6 , 2008 . Retrieved June 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Domrzalski , Dennis ( September 19 , 2003 ) . 28 New Mexico towns tap into $45 M in incentives . New Mexico Business Weekly . OCLC 30948175 . Retrieved June 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Governor Signs Film Production Tax Incentives '' . New Mexico Economic Development Department . March 4 , 2002 . Archived from the original on November 14 , 2006 . Retrieved September 12 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico 's Film Incentives '' . New Mexico Film Office . Archived from the original on May 9 , 2008 . Retrieved June 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Hay , Kiera ( December 10 , 2007 ) . State 's Incentives Keep Film Industry Growing . Albuquerque Journal . OCLC 9392114 . Retrieved June 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Personal Income Tax Rates '' ( PDF ) . State of New Mexico Taxation and Revenue Department . August 25 , 2008 . p. 3 . Retrieved September 4 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Governor Richardson Announces New Laws to Take Effect ; New State laws go into effect June 15 , 2007 '' ( PDF ) ( Press release ) . Office of the Governor , State of New Mexico . June 14 , 2008 . Retrieved September 5 , 2008 . HB 436 Working Families Tax Credit ... eliminates taxes on active duty military salaries . Jump up ^ `` Gross Receipts Taxes FAQ '' ( PDF ) . State of New Mexico , Taxation and Revenue Department . August 6 , 2006 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 31 , 2007 . Retrieved October 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived October 24 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Property Tax FAQ '' ( PDF ) . State of New Mexico , Taxation and Revenue Department . August 7 , 2007 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 31 , 2007 . Retrieved October 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Chaco Canyon Archived June 4 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Suina , Kim . `` Indigenous trade '' . Digital History Project -- Book of Migrations . New Mexico Office of the State Historian . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2007 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Santa Fe Trail Association Archived March 5 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Santa Fe National Historic Trail ( U.S. National Park Service ) '' . Nps.gov . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Los Angeles Times , New Mexico turns a corner on drunk driving , July 7 , 2009 , by Kate Linthicum , http://articles.latimes.com/2009/jul/07/nation/na-new-mexico-dwi7 Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics , Table 1 - 2 : New Mexico Public Road Length , Miles by Ownership 2000 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics , Table 1 - 1 : New Mexico Public Road Length , by Functional System ( 3 ) Jump up ^ `` U.S. Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics , Table 2 - 1 : Highway Traffic Fatalities and Fatality Rates : 2000 '' . Bts.gov . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics , Table 1 - 5 : Highway Bridge Condition : 2001 ( 4 ) ^ Jump up to : Holmes , Sue Major ( January 14 , 2009 ) . `` Mass . firm sues state over Railrunner name '' . Boston Globe . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` ABQ RIDE -- City of Albuquerque '' . City of Albuquerque . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2010 . Retrieved April 12 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Department of Transportation Bureau of Transportation Statistics , Table 1 - 9 : Freight Railroads in New Mexico and the United States : 2000 ( 5 ) ^ Jump up to : Myrick , David F. ( 1970 ) . New Mexico 's Railroads -- An Historical Survey . Golden , Colorado : Colorado Railroad Museum . ISBN 0 - 8263 - 1185 - 7 . Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 70 - 116915 . ^ Jump up to : `` New Mexico and its Railroads '' . La Crónica de Nuevo México / New Mexico Office of the State Historian : Digital History Project -- The Book of Mapping . Historical Society of New Mexico . August 1984 . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2007 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Stations -- New Mexico Rail Runner Express '' . Nmrailrunner.com . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Grimm , Julie Ann ( December 17 , 2008 ) . `` Delays , struck cow mark Rail Runner 's first day , but riders optimistic '' . The Santa Fe New Mexican . Archived from the original on September 8 , 2012 . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico Rail Runner Express weekday schedule '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 25 , 2009 . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Rail Runner schedule page '' . Nmrailrunner.com. April 12 , 2010 . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Richards , C Fenton Jr ( 2001 ) . Santa Fe -- The Chief Way . Second Printing , 2005 . Robert Strein & John Vaughn . New Mexico Magazine . ISBN 0 - 937206 - 71 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Dorin , Patrick C. ( 2004 ) . Santa Fe Passenger Trains in the Streamlined Era . design and layout by Megan Johnson . USA : TLC Publishing , Inc . ISBN 1 - 883089 - 99 - 9 . Jump up ^ Herron , Gary ( December 22 , 2008 ) . `` Media and politicians enjoy inaugural ride , public opening met with delays '' . The Observer . UK . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Proctor , Cathy ( May 15 , 2005 ) . `` Idea floated for Front Range rail line '' . Jump up ^ `` Southwest Chief passenger timetable '' ( PDF ) . Amtrak . October 2008 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 4 , 2009 . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Blaszak , Michael W. ( 2009 ) . `` Speed , Signals , and Safety '' . Fast Trains . Classic Trains Special Edition No. 7 . Waukesha , Wisconsin : Kalmbach Publishing Co. : 47 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89024 - 763 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Sunset Limited passenger timetable '' ( PDF ) . Amtrak . January 2009 . Retrieved February 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ohtake , Miyoko ( August 25 , 2007 ) . `` Virgin Galactic Preps for Liftoff at World 's First Commercial Spaceport '' . Wired Magazine ( 15 : 10 ) . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2008 . Retrieved January 24 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Robinson - Avila ( December 31 , 2008 ) . `` NM Spaceport , Virgin Galactic sign 20 - year lease '' . New Mexico Business Weekly . Retrieved January 24 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : AFP ( December 19 , 2008 ) . `` First Commercial Spaceport Gets Green Light '' . Discovery Channel . Retrieved January 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ UP Aerospace does launches ' quickly and cheaply ' , DenverBiz Journal , October 2008 ( 6 ) Jump up ^ `` News Release 03.04. 2008 / Spaceport Sweden and Virgin Galactic '' . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2008 . Retrieved June 26 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` NM Secretary of State 's Office official web site '' . Sos.state.nm.us . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NM Attorney General 's Office official web site '' . Ago.state.nm.us . Archived from the original on August 17 , 2007 . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` NM State Auditor 's Office official web site '' . Saonm.org . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` NM State Lands official web site '' . Nmstatelands.org . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` NM State Treasurer 's Office official web site '' . Stonm.org . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Voter Registration Statistics '' ( PDF ) . New Mexico Secretary of State Elections Bureau . Retrieved November 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico Presidential Election Voting History '' . 270towin.com . Retrieved April 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Le Nouveau - Mexique abolit la peine de mort ( archive ) in Le Monde of March 19 , 2009 Jump up ^ `` Venture Capitals '' . Wired . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` These Are The States With The Best And Worst School Systems , According To New Rankings '' . Huffington Post . 4 August 2014 . Retrieved 22 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Data Bureau of Business and Economic Research UNM '' . bber.unm.edu . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` County Data Bureau of Business and Economic Research UNM '' . bber.unm.edu . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` The American Indian and Alaska Native Population : 2000 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved January 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Deming Luna County Museum '' . Lunacountyhistoricalsociety.com . Retrieved April 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Western New Mexico University Museum '' . Wnmumuseum.org . Retrieved April 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Popejoy Hall '' . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` KiMo Theater '' . Archived from the original on May 16 , 2012 . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` African American Performing Arts Center , Albuquerque , New Mexico '' . Aapacnm.org . Archived from the original on April 18 , 2012 . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Indian Pueblo Cultural Center '' . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Zarzuela in New Mexico '' . Zarzuela.net . Retrieved June 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ ( 7 ) Archived March 7 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` New Mexico Authors Page '' . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Silver City Art '' . Archived from the original on April 21 , 2012 . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Madrid Art '' . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` City of Las Cruces '' . Archived from the original on April 13 , 2012 . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Las Cruces Convention and Visitors Bureau '' . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Christine ( 2012 - 01 - 16 ) . `` A & E will film the new series ' Longmire ' , starring Katee Sackhoff & Lou Diamond Phillips , in New Mexico this spring '' . Onlocationvacations.com . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` High Hopes : Altitude Training for Swimmers '' , by Michael Scott , SwimmingWorldMagazine.com magazine archives ( 8 ) ( 10 - 15 - 08 ) Jump up ^ Associated Press . `` The N.R.A. Whittington Center Shooting Range in New Mexico Caters to All in the Middle of Nowhere '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 12 October 2017 . Further reading ( edit ) Beck , Warren . Historical Atlas of New Mexico 1969 . Chavez , Thomas E. An Illustrated History of New Mexico , 267 pages , University of New Mexico Press 2002 , ISBN 0 - 8263 - 3051 - 7 Bullis , Don . New Mexico : A Biographical Dictionary , 1540 -- 1980 , 2 vol , ( Los Ranchos de Albuquerque : Rio Grande , 2008 ) 393 pp. ISBN 978 - 1 - 890689 - 17 - 9 Gonzales - Berry , Erlinda , David R. Maciel , eds . The Contested Homeland : A Chicano History of New Mexico , University of New Mexico Press 2000 , ISBN 0 - 8263 - 2199 - 2 , 314 pp . Gutiérrez , Ramón A. When Jesus Came , the Corn Mothers Went Away : Marriage , Sexuality , and Power in New Mexico , 1500 -- 1846 ( 1991 ) Hain , Paul L. , F. Chris Garcia , Gilbert K. St. Clair ; New Mexico Government 3rd ed. ( 1994 ) Horgan , Paul , Great River , The Rio Grande in North American History , 1038 pages , Wesleyan University Press 1991 , 4th Reprint , ISBN 0 - 585 - 38014 - 7 , Pulitzer Prize 1955 Larson , Robert W. New Mexico 's Quest for Statehood , 1846 -- 1912 ( 1968 ) Nieto - Phillips , John M. The Language of Blood : The Making of Spanish - American Identity in New Mexico , 1880s -- 1930s , University of New Mexico Press 2004 , ISBN 0826324231 Simmons , Marc . New Mexico : An Interpretive History , University of New Mexico Press 1988 , ISBN 0 - 8263 - 1110 - 5 , 221 pp , good introduction Szasz , Ferenc M. , and Richard W. Etulain , eds . Religion in Modern New Mexico ( 1997 ) Trujillo , Michael L. Land of Disenchantment : Latina / o Identities and Transformations in Northern New Mexico ( 2010 ) 265 pp ; an experimental ethnography that contrasts life in the Espanola Valley with the state 's commercial image as the `` land of enchantment . '' Weber ; David J. Foreigners in Their Native Land : Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans ( 1973 ) , primary sources to 1912 Primary sources Ellis , Richard , ed . New Mexico Past and Present : A Historical Reader. 1971 . primary sources Tony Hillerman , The Great Taos Bank Robbery and other Indian Country Affairs , University of New Mexico Press , Albuquerque , 1973 , trade paperback , 147 pages , ( ISBN 0 - 8263 - 0530 - X ) , fiction External links ( edit ) Find more aboutNew Mexicoat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Texts from Wikisource Travel guide from Wikivoyage New Mexico at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) State government ( edit ) New Mexico Government New Mexico State Databases -- Annotated list of searchable databases produced by New Mexico state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association . Bureau of Business and Economic Research ( BBER ) at University of New Mexico -- Exists to provide credible and objective data and research to inform economic development and public policy in New Mexico . 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30 | document: NCAA Division I women 's basketball tournament - wikipedia NCAA Division I women 's basketball tournament NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament Most recent season or competition : 2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament Sport Basketball Founded 1982 No. of teams 64 Country NCAA Division I ( USA ) Most recent champion ( s ) Notre Dame ( 2nd ) Most titles Connecticut ( 11 ) TV partner ( s ) ESPN , ESPN2 , ESPNU , WatchESPN Official website NCAA.com The NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament is an annual college basketball tournament for women . Held each March , the Women 's Championship was inaugurated in the 1981 -- 82 season . The NCAA tournament was preceded by the AIAW Women 's Basketball Tournament , which was held annually from 1972 to 1982 . Basketball was one of 12 women 's sports added to the NCAA championship program for the 1981 -- 82 school year , as the NCAA engaged in battle with the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women for sole governance of women 's collegiate sports . The AIAW continued to conduct its established championship program in the same 12 ( and other ) sports ; however , after a year of dual women 's championships , the NCAA prevailed , while the AIAW disbanded . Attendance and interest in the Women 's Division I Championship have grown over the years , especially from 2003 to 2016 , when the final championship game was moved to the Tuesday following the Monday men 's championship game . The women 's championship game is the penultimate overall game of the college basketball season since 2017 . From 1982 to 1990 , 1996 to 2002 , and since 2017 the Women 's Final Four is usually played on the Friday before the Men 's Final Four or the hours before the men played on the final Saturday of the tournament . The final was usually played the Sunday afternoon following the Men 's Final Four ; since 2017 , Sunday evening . The tournament bracket is made up of champions from each Division I conference , which receive automatic bids . The remaining slots are at - large bids , with teams chosen by an NCAA selection committee . The selection process and tournament seedings are based on several factors , including team rankings , win - loss records , and Ratings Percentage Index ( RPI ) data . Unlike the men 's tournament , there are only 32 at - large bids ( since 2014 ) , and no play - in game . The women 's tournament , like the men 's , is staged in a single elimination format and is part of the media and public frenzy known colloquially as March Madness or The Big Dance . All 63 games have been broadcast on television since 2003 on ESPN and ESPN2 . Similar to the pre-2011 men 's tournament coverage on CBS , local teams are shown on each channel when available , with `` whip - around '' coverage designed to showcase the most competitive contests in the rest of the country . Contents ( hide ) 1 Tournament format 2 Number of teams , and seeding 3 Selection process 4 Women 's NCAA Division I basketball champions 4.1 Team titles 4.2 NCAA Final Fours by school 4.3 Multiple NCAA championship coaches 4.4 NCAA Championship by Conference 4.5 NCAA Final Four locations 5 Tournament trends 5.1 Top - ranked teams 5.2 Champions excluded the next year 5.3 # 1 seeds 5.4 High seeds 5.5 Low seeds 5.6 Best Performances by # 14 & # 15 Seeds 5.7 First - round games 5.8 Second - round games 5.9 Teams entering the tournament unbeaten 5.10 Home state 5.11 Championship margins 5.12 Same - conference championship games 6 Result by school and by year 7 See also 8 References Tournament format ( edit ) Main article : NCAA basketball tournament selection process A total of 64 teams qualify for the tournament played in March and April . Of these teams , 32 earn automatic bids by winning their respective conference tournaments . Since 2017 the Ivy League conducts their own post-season tournament . The remaining teams are granted `` at - large '' bids , which are extended by the NCAA Selection Committee . Dr. Marilyn McNeil , vice president / director of athletics at Monmouth University is the current chairwoman . On March 1 , 2011 , Bowling Green State University 's director of intercollegiate athletics , Greg Christopher , was appointed chair of the NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Committee during the 2011 -- 12 academic year . The tournament is split into four regional tournaments , and each regional has teams seeded from 1 to 16 , with the committee ostensibly making every region as comparable to the others as possible . The top - seeded team in each region plays the # 16 team , the # 2 team plays the # 15 , etc . Number of teams , and seeding ( edit ) The first NCAA women 's basketball tournament was held in 1982 . The AIAW also held a basketball tournament in 1982 , but most of the top teams , including defending AIAW champion Louisiana Tech , decided to participate in the NCAA tournament . The championship consisted of 32 teams from 1982 -- 1985 ( in 1983 , 36 ) , 40 teams from 1986 -- 1988 , and 48 teams from 1989 -- 1993 . Since 1994 , 64 teams compete in each tournament . Prior to 1996 , seeding was conducted on a regional basis . The top teams ( eight in the 32 - , 40 - , and 48 - team formats , and 16 in the 64 - team format ) were ranked and seeded on a national basis . The remaining teams were then seeded based on their geographic region . Teams were moved outside of its geographic region only if it was necessary to balance the bracket , or if the proximity of an opponent outside of its region would be comparable and a more competitive game would result . In 1993 , all teams except for the top four were explicitly unseeded . The regional seeding resumed in 1994 . In 1996 , seeds were assigned on a national basis using an `` S - Curve '' format similar to the process used in selecting the field for the men 's tournament . The following table summarizes some of the key attributes of the seeding process : Number of teams selected Year Automatic At - Large Total Location of first round ( s ) Seeding Basis 1982 12 20 32 Higher seed Regional 14 22 36 Higher seed † 1984 17 15 32 1985 18 14 Higher seed 1986 17 23 40 Higher seed † 18 22 1988 1989 19 29 48 1990 21 27 1991 1992 22 26 1993 23 25 1994 32 32 64 1995 31 33 Higher seed National 1997 30 34 Higher seed † 1998 Higher seed 1999 2000 Higher seed † 2001 31 33 2002 Higher seed 2003 16 Sites ‡ 2005 8 Sites ‡ 2006 2007 2008 2009 16 Sites ‡ 2011 2012 2013 2014 32 32 2015 Higher seed † 2016 2017 2018 2019 † Some exceptions . Due to venue availability , in some cases , the lower seed hosted , or the game was played at a neutral site . ‡ From 2003 -- 2014 , sixteen predetermined sites were selected for first and second - round games . Teams were allowed to play at home , if hosting . Between 2005 and 2008 , eight sites were used for first - round games . Selection process ( edit ) Further information : NCAA basketball tournament selection process A special selection committee appointed by the NCAA determines which 64 teams will enter the tournament , and where they will be seeded and placed in the bracket . Because of the automatic bids , only 32 teams ( the at - large bids ) rely on the selection committee to secure them a spot in the tournament . Women 's NCAA Division I basketball champions ( edit ) Year Winner Score Opponent Venue Other Semifinalists 1982 Louisiana Tech 76 -- 62 Cheyney State Norfolk Scope ( Norfolk , Virginia ) Tennessee & Maryland USC 69 -- 67 Louisiana Tech Old Dominion & Georgia 1984 USC 72 -- 61 Tennessee Pauley Pavilion ( Los Angeles , California ) Cheyney State & Louisiana Tech 1985 Old Dominion 70 -- 65 Georgia Frank Erwin Center ( Austin , Texas ) Western Kentucky & Northeast Louisiana 1986 Texas 97 -- 81 USC Rupp Arena ( Lexington , Kentucky ) Western Kentucky & Tennessee Tennessee 67 -- 44 Louisiana Tech Frank Erwin Center ( Austin , Texas ) Texas & Long Beach State 1988 Louisiana Tech 56 -- 54 Auburn Tacoma Dome ( Tacoma , Washington ) Long Beach State & Tennessee 1989 Tennessee 76 -- 70 Auburn Louisiana Tech & Maryland 1990 Stanford 88 -- 81 Auburn Thompson -- Boling Arena ( Knoxville , Tennessee ) Virginia & Louisiana Tech 1991 Tennessee 70 -- 67 ( OT ) Virginia Lakefront Arena ( New Orleans , Louisiana ) Connecticut & Stanford 1992 Stanford 78 -- 62 Western Kentucky Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena ( Los Angeles , California ) Southwest Missouri State & Virginia 1993 Texas Tech 84 -- 82 Ohio State Omni Coliseum ( Atlanta , Georgia ) Iowa & Vanderbilt 1994 North Carolina 60 -- 59 Louisiana Tech Richmond Coliseum ( Richmond , Virginia ) Purdue & Alabama 1995 Connecticut 70 -- 64 Tennessee Target Center ( Minneapolis , Minnesota ) Stanford & Georgia Tennessee 83 -- 65 Georgia Charlotte Coliseum ( Charlotte , North Carolina ) Connecticut & Stanford 1997 Tennessee 68 -- 59 Old Dominion Riverfront Coliseum ( Cincinnati , Ohio ) Notre Dame & Stanford 1998 Tennessee 93 -- 75 Louisiana Tech Kemper Arena ( Kansas City , Missouri ) Arkansas & North Carolina State 1999 Purdue 62 -- 45 Duke San Jose Arena ( San Jose , California ) Louisiana Tech & Georgia 2000 Connecticut 71 -- 52 Tennessee First Union Center ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ) Rutgers & Penn State 2001 Notre Dame 68 -- 66 Purdue Savvis Center ( St. Louis , Missouri ) Connecticut & Southwest Missouri State 2002 Connecticut 82 -- 70 Oklahoma Alamodome ( San Antonio , Texas ) Tennessee & Duke 2003 Connecticut 73 -- 68 Tennessee Georgia Dome ( Atlanta , Georgia ) Texas & Duke Connecticut 70 -- 61 Tennessee New Orleans Arena ( New Orleans , Louisiana ) Minnesota & LSU 2005 Baylor 84 -- 62 Michigan State RCA Dome ( Indianapolis , Indiana ) LSU & Tennessee 2006 Maryland 78 -- 75 ( OT ) Duke TD Garden ( Boston , Massachusetts ) North Carolina & LSU 2007 Tennessee 59 -- 46 Rutgers Quicken Loans Arena ( Cleveland , Ohio ) 2008 Tennessee 64 -- 48 Stanford St. Pete Times Forum ( Tampa , Florida ) LSU & Connecticut 2009 Connecticut 76 -- 54 Louisville Scottrade Center ( St. Louis , Missouri ) Stanford & Oklahoma Connecticut 53 -- 47 Stanford Alamodome ( San Antonio , Texas ) Baylor & Oklahoma 2011 Texas A&M 76 -- 70 Notre Dame Conseco Fieldhouse ( Indianapolis , Indiana ) Connecticut & Stanford 2012 Baylor 80 -- 61 Notre Dame Pepsi Center ( Denver , Colorado ) Stanford & Connecticut 2013 Connecticut 93 -- 60 Louisville New Orleans Arena ( New Orleans , Louisiana ) Notre Dame & California 2014 Connecticut 79 -- 58 Notre Dame Bridgestone Arena ( Nashville , Tennessee ) Stanford & Maryland 2015 Connecticut 63 -- 53 Notre Dame Amalie Arena ( Tampa , Florida ) South Carolina & Maryland 2016 Connecticut 82 -- 51 Syracuse Bankers Life Fieldhouse ( Indianapolis , Indiana ) Oregon State & Washington 2017 South Carolina 67 -- 55 Mississippi State American Airlines Center ( Dallas , Texas ) Connecticut & Stanford 2018 Notre Dame 61 -- 58 Mississippi State Nationwide Arena ( Columbus , Ohio ) Connecticut & Louisville 2019 Amalie Arena ( Tampa , Florida ) 2020 Smoothie King Center ( New Orleans , Louisiana ) Team titles ( edit ) Baylor Connecticut Louisiana Tech Maryland North Carolina Notre Dame Old Dominion Purdue South Carolina Stanford Tennessee Texas Texas A&M Texas Tech USC Schools who have won the NCAA Championship -- 11 championships -- 8 championships -- 2 championships -- 1 championship Team Titles Year Won Connecticut 11 1995 , 2000 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2009 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016 Tennessee 8 1987 , 1989 , 1991 , 1996 , 1997 , 1998 , 2007 , 2008 Baylor 2005 , 2012 Louisiana Tech 1982 , 1988 Notre Dame 2001 , 2018 Stanford 1990 , 1992 USC 1983 , 1984 Maryland 2006 North Carolina 1994 Old Dominion 1985 Purdue 1999 South Carolina 2017 Texas 1986 Texas A&M 2011 Texas Tech 1993 NCAA Final Fours by school ( edit ) School Final Four Years Number of Appearances Championships Connecticut 1991 , 1995 , 1996 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016 , 2017 , 2018 19 11 Tennessee 1982 , 1984 , 1986 , 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 1991 , 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 1998 , 2000 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2005 , 2007 , 2008 18 8 Stanford 1990 , 1991 , 1992 , 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2014 , 2017 13 Louisiana Tech 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1987 , 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1994 , 1998 , 1999 10 Notre Dame 1997 , 2001 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2018 8 Georgia 1983 , 1985 , 1995 , 1996 , 1999 5 0 LSU 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 5 0 Maryland 1982 , 1989 , 2006 , 2014 , 2015 5 Duke 1999 , 2002 , 2003 , 2006 0 Auburn 1988 , 1989 , 1990 0 Baylor 2005 , 2010 , 2012 Louisville 2009 , 2013 , 2018 0 North Carolina 1994 , 2006 , 2007 Oklahoma 2002 , 2009 , 2010 0 Old Dominion 1983 , 1985 , 1997 Purdue 1994 , 1999 , 2001 Texas 1986 , 1987 , 2003 USC 1983 , 1984 , 1986 Virginia 1990 , 1991 , 1992 0 Western Kentucky 1985 , 1986 , 1992 0 Cheyney St . 1982 , 1984 0 Long Beach St . 1987 , 1988 0 Mississippi St . 2017 , 2018 0 Missouri St . 1992 , 2001 0 Rutgers 2000 , 2007 0 South Carolina 2015 , 2017 Alabama 1994 0 Arkansas 1998 0 California 2013 0 Iowa 1993 0 Louisiana - Monroe 1985 0 Michigan St . 2005 0 Minnesota 0 North Carolina St . 1998 0 Ohio St . 1993 0 Oregon St . 2016 0 Penn St . 2000 0 Syracuse 2016 0 Texas A&M 2011 Texas Tech 1993 Vanderbilt 1993 0 Washington 2016 0 Multiple NCAA championship coaches ( edit ) Coach School Championships Geno Auriemma Connecticut 11 Pat Summitt Tennessee 8 Muffet McGraw Notre Dame Kim Mulkey Baylor Linda Sharp USC Tara VanDerveer Stanford NCAA championship by conference ( edit ) Note : Conferences are listed by all champions ' affiliations at that time ; these do not necessarily match current affiliations . Conference Year Championships Big East 1995 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2009 , 2010 , 2013 9 Southeastern 1987 , 1989 , 1991 , 1996 , 1997 , 1998 , 2007 , 2008 , 2017 American Athletic 2014 , 2015 , 2016 Atlantic Coast 1994 , 2006 , 2018 Big 12 2005 , 2011 , 2012 Pac - 12 1990 , 1992 Southwest 1986 , 1993 Western Collegiate 1983 , 1984 American South 1988 Big Ten 1999 Independent 1982 Sun Belt 1985 Jump up ^ The Big East Conference operated in its original form from 1979 until 2013 . During that time , Connecticut won eight championships , and Notre Dame won one . Following the three - way 2013 split of that conference and subsequent settlement between the non-FBS schools and the remaining schools , the conference legally changed its name to the American Athletic Conference . Three schools ( among them Notre Dame ) left for the Atlantic Coast Conference in 2013 , with a fourth doing the same in 2014 ; one school left for the Big Ten in 2014 ; and the non-FBS schools retained the Big East name . However , the current Big East now maintains the history of the original conference in all sports that it sponsors , including women 's basketball . The American no longer claims any of the original Big East 's competition history , even in the two sports that it sponsors and the current Big East does not ( football and women 's rowing ) . Jump up ^ Known as the Pacific - 10 Conference , or Pac - 10 , when both of its titles were won . NCAA Final Four locations ( edit ) 1982 -- Norfolk , Virginia 1983 -- Norfolk , Virginia 1984 -- Los Angeles , California 1985 -- Austin , Texas 1986 -- Lexington , Kentucky 1987 -- Austin , Texas 1988 -- Tacoma , Washington 1989 -- Tacoma , Washington 1990 -- Knoxville , Tennessee 1991 -- New Orleans , Louisiana 1992 -- Los Angeles , California 1993 -- Atlanta , Georgia 1994 -- Richmond , Virginia 1995 -- Minneapolis , Minnesota 1996 -- Charlotte , North Carolina 1997 -- Cincinnati , Ohio 1998 -- Kansas City , Missouri 1999 -- San Jose , California 2000 -- Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 2001 -- St. Louis , Missouri 2002 -- San Antonio , Texas 2003 -- Atlanta , Georgia 2004 -- New Orleans , Louisiana 2005 -- Indianapolis , Indiana 2006 -- Boston , Massachusetts 2007 -- Cleveland , Ohio 2008 -- Tampa Bay , Florida 2009 -- St. Louis , Missouri 2010 -- San Antonio , Texas 2011 -- Indianapolis , Indiana 2012 -- Denver , Colorado 2013 -- New Orleans , Louisiana 2014 -- Nashville , Tennessee 2015 -- Tampa Bay , Florida 2016 -- Indianapolis , Indiana 2017 -- Dallas , Texas 2018 -- Columbus , Ohio 2019 -- Tampa Bay , Florida 2020 -- New Orleans , Louisiana 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 NCAA Final Four locations ( hover over city to see arena ) Tournament trends ( edit ) Top - ranked teams ( edit ) Since the women 's tournament began in 1982 , 16 teams have entered the tournament ranked # 1 in at least 1 poll and gone on to win the tournament : 1982 : Louisiana Tech 1983 : USC 1986 : Texas 1989 : Tennessee 1995 : Connecticut 1998 : Tennessee 1999 : Purdue 2000 : Connecticut 2002 : Connecticut 2003 : Connecticut 2009 : Connecticut 2010 : Connecticut 2012 : Baylor 2014 : Connecticut 2015 : Connecticut 2016 : Connecticut Champions excluded the next year ( edit ) Only once has the reigning champion ( the previous year 's winner ) not made it to the tournament the next year . 1985 champion Old Dominion went 15 -- 13 in 1986 . # 1 seeds ( edit ) Since 1982 , at least one # 1 seed has made the Final Four every year . Under coach Geno Auriemma , Connecticut has been seeded # 1 a record 22 times . Tennessee is second with 21 # 1 seeds . All four # 1 seeds have made it to the Final Four 4 times ( champion in bold ) : 1989 Auburn , Louisiana Tech , Maryland , Tennessee 2012 Baylor , Connecticut , Notre Dame , Stanford 2015 Connecticut , Maryland , Notre Dame , South Carolina 2018 Connecticut , Mississippi State , Notre Dame , Louisville The championship game has matched two # 1 seeds 13 times : 1983 USC beat Louisiana Tech 1986 Texas beat USC 1989 Tennessee beat Auburn 1991 Tennessee beat Virginia 1995 Connecticut beat Tennessee 2000 Connecticut beat Tennessee 2002 Connecticut beat Oklahoma 2003 Connecticut beat Tennessee 2010 Connecticut beat Stanford 2012 Baylor beat Notre Dame 2014 Connecticut beat Notre Dame 2015 Connecticut beat Notre Dame 2018 Notre Dame beat Mississippi State Three teams have beaten three # 1 seeds during the course of a tournament ( the largest number of such teams that can be faced ) ( all three teams won the national championship as beating a 3rd # 1 seed in a single tournament can only happen in the finals ) : 1987 Tennessee ( beat Auburn , Long Beach State , Louisiana Tech ) 1988 Louisiana Tech ( beat Auburn , Tennessee , Texas ) 2005 Baylor ( beat LSU , Michigan State , North Carolina ) Prior to the expansion of the tournament to 64 teams , all four # 1 seeds advanced to the Sweet Sixteen with three exceptions . Notably , the first two times this occurred were at the hands of the same school : 1986 East # 1 seed Virginia lost to # 8 seed James Madison 1991 East # 1 seed Penn State lost to # 8 seed James Madison 1992 Midwest # 1 seed Iowa lost to # 8 seed Southwest Missouri State High seeds ( edit ) 1999 was the first time in tournament history ( since the expansion to 64 teams ) that all top seeds ( 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 seeds ) made it to the Sweet Sixteen . Low seeds ( edit ) See also : NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Championship upsets Lowest seeds to reach each round since the expansion to 64 teams : Second Round : # 16 seed Harvard in 1998 ( the only # 16 seed to beat a # 1 seed in either the women 's or men 's tournament until 2018 , and still the only one to do so in the women 's tournament ) Regional Semifinals ( Sweet Sixteen ) : # 13 seed Texas A&M in 1994 Liberty in 2005 Marist in 2007 Regional Finals ( Elite Eight ) : # 11 seed Gonzaga in 2011 National Semifinals ( Final Four ) : # 9 seed Arkansas in 1998 National Finals ( Championship Game ) : # 5 seed Louisville in 2013 National Champion : # 3 seed North Carolina in 1994 Tennessee in 1997 Best performances by # 14 & # 15 seeds ( edit ) Unlike in the men 's tournament , no # 14 seed has beaten a # 3 and no # 15 seed has beaten a # 2 seed , but they have come close . 2 points : # 14 Seed Austin Peay lost to UNC in 2003 ( 2 points , 72 -- 70 ) Eastern Michigan lost to Boston College in 2004 ( 2 points , 58 -- 56 ) Creighton lost to St. John 's in 2012 ( 2 points , 69 -- 67 ) Overtime games : # 15 Seed UTSA lost to Baylor in 2009 ( 5 points , 87 -- 82 ) . UTSA is the only # 15 seed to take a game into overtime . 1 point : # 15 Seed Long Beach State lost to Oregon State in 2017 ( 1 point , 56 -- 55 ) First - round games ( edit ) Since the expansion to 64 teams in 1994 , each seed - pairing has played 100 first - round games with these results : The # 1 seed is 99 -- 1 against the # 16 seed (. 990 ) . The # 2 & # 3 seeds are 100 -- 0 against the # 15 & # 14 seeds , respectively ( 1.000 ) . The # 4 seed is 94 -- 6 against the # 13 seed (. 940 ) . The # 5 seed is 78 -- 22 against the # 12 seed (. 780 ) . The # 6 seed is 69 -- 31 against the # 11 seed (. 690 ) . The # 7 seed is 65 -- 35 against the # 10 seed (. 650 ) . The # 9 seed is 53 -- 47 against the # 8 seed (. 530 ) . Second - round games ( edit ) Since the expansion to 64 teams in 1994 , the following results have occurred for each pairing : In the 1 / 16 / 8 / 9 bracket : vs. # 8 vs. # 9 # 1 45 -- 1 (. 978 ) 46 -- 2 (. 958 ) # 16 -- 0 -- 1 (. 000 ) note : The 3 losses by the # 1 seed vs # 8 / 9 were : Duke ( vs Michigan St , 2009 ) , Ohio St ( vs Boston College , 2006 ) , Texas Tech ( vs Notre Dame , 1998 ) . note : The # 9 vs. # 16 game was Arkansas over Harvard in 1998 . In the 2 / 15 / 7 / 10 bracket : vs. # 7 vs. # 10 # 2 49 -- 13 (. 790 ) 31 -- 3 (. 912 ) # 15 -- -- In the 3 / 14 / 6 / 11 bracket : vs. # 6 vs. # 11 # 3 45 -- 22 (. 672 ) 17 -- 12 (. 586 ) # 14 -- -- In the 4 / 13 / 5 / 12 bracket : vs. # 5 vs. # 12 # 4 42 -- 27 (. 609 ) 18 -- 3 (. 857 ) # 13 3 -- 3 (. 500 ) -- Teams entering the tournament unbeaten ( edit ) Of the 18 teams who have entered the tournament unbeaten , 9 went on to win the National Championship . In 1986 , Texas entered the tournament 30 -- 0 , beat USC for the national title , and ended the season 34 -- 0 . In 1990 , Louisiana Tech entered the tournament 29 -- 0 , but lost in the Final Four to Auburn . In 1992 , Vermont entered the tournament 29 -- 0 , but lost in the first round to George Washington . In 1993 , Vermont entered the tournament 28 -- 0 , but lost in the first round to Rutgers . In 1995 , Connecticut entered the tournament 29 -- 0 , beat Tennessee for the national title , and ended the season 35 -- 0 . In 1997 , Connecticut entered the tournament 30 -- 0 , but lost in the Midwest Regional Final to Tennessee . In 1998 , Tennessee ( 33 -- 0 ) and Liberty ( 28 -- 0 ) both entered the tournament unbeaten ; Liberty lost in the first round to Tennessee , which went on to beat Louisiana Tech for the national title and ended the season 39 -- 0 . In 2002 , 2009 , and 2010 , Connecticut entered the tournament 33 -- 0 , won the national title in each , and ended those seasons 39 -- 0 . They respectively beat Oklahoma , Louisville , and Stanford in those championship games . In 2012 , Baylor entered the tournament 34 -- 0 , beat Notre Dame for the national title , and ended the season 40 -- 0 . The Lady Bears became the first team in NCAA college basketball history , for either women or men , to win 40 games in a season . Notably , Louisiana Tech went 40 -- 5 during the 1979 -- 80 season . This was during the AIAW era for women 's basketball . In 2014 , Connecticut ( 34 -- 0 ) and Notre Dame ( 32 -- 0 ) both entered the tournament unbeaten ; Connecticut beat Notre Dame 79 -- 58 for the national title , ended the season 40 -- 0 and is the 8th team to end the season unbeaten . In 2015 , Princeton entered the tournament 30 -- 0 , but lost in the second round to Maryland . In 2016 , Connecticut entered the tournament 32 -- 0 , beat Syracuse for the national title , ending the season 38 -- 0 . In 2017 , Connecticut entered the tournament 32 -- 0 , but lost in the Final Four to Mississippi State , ending their 111 - game winning streak to finish 36 -- 1 . In 2018 , Connecticut entered the tournament 32 -- 0 , but lost in the Final Four to Notre Dame , ending their 36 - game winning streak to finish 36 -- 1 . Home State ( edit ) Only one team has ever played the Final Four on its home court . Two other teams have played the Final Four in their home cities , and seven others have played the Final Four in their home states . The only team to play on its home court was Texas in 1987 , which lost its semifinal game at the Frank Erwin Special Events Center . Old Dominion enjoyed nearly as large an advantage in 1983 when the Final Four was played at the Norfolk Scope in its home city of Norfolk , Virginia , but also lost its semifinal . The Scope has never been the Lady Monarchs ' regular home court . ODU has always used on - campus arenas , first the ODU Fieldhouse and since 2002 the Ted Constant Convocation Center . The following year , USC won the national title at Pauley Pavilion , the home court of its Los Angeles arch - rival UCLA . Of the other teams to play in their home states , Stanford ( 1992 ) won the national title ; Notre Dame ( 2011 ) lost in the championship game ; and Western Kentucky ( 1986 ) , Penn State ( 2000 ) , Missouri State ( 2001 ) , LSU ( 2004 ) , and Baylor ( 2010 ) lost in the semifinals . Championship margins ( edit ) Overtime games in a championship game : Tennessee 70 , Virginia 67 / OT ( 1991 ) Maryland 78 , Duke 75 / OT ( 2006 ) Smallest margin of victory in a championship game : 1 point North Carolina 60 , Louisiana Tech 59 ( 1994 ) Biggest margin of victory in a championship game : 33 points Connecticut 93 , Louisville 60 ( 2013 ) Margin of 10 points : Louisiana Tech ( 1982 ) , Tennessee ( 1987 & 1989 ) , Purdue ( 1999 ) , Connecticut ( 2000 , 2002 , 2009 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 & 2016 ) , and Baylor ( 2012 ) are teams to win every game in the tournament by 10 points or more on their way to a championship . The 2016 UConn team won every game by more than 20 points . Top 8 largest point differentials accumulated over the entire tournament by tournament champion . Notably , Louisiana Tech 's differential is prior to the expansion of 64 teams and the addition of one more round of play . 2016 Connecticut ( + 239 ) 2010 Connecticut ( + 214 ) 2013 Connecticut ( + 208 ) 2015 Connecticut ( + 197 ) 2000 Connecticut ( + 187 ) 2002 Connecticut ( + 161 ) 1982 Louisiana Tech ( + 158 ) 2014 Connecticut ( + 156 ) Same - conference championship games ( edit ) 6 championship games have featured two teams from the same conference ( winner in bold ) : 1989 SEC , Tennessee and Auburn 1996 SEC , Tennessee and Georgia 2006 ACC , Maryland and Duke 2009 Big East , Connecticut and Louisville 2013 Big East , Connecticut and Louisville 2017 SEC , South Carolina and Mississippi State Result by school and by year ( edit ) 267 teams have appeared in the NCAA Tournament in at least a year , since 1982 ( the initial year that the post-season tournament was under the auspices of the NCAA ) . The results for all years are shown in this table below . The code in each cell represents the furthest the team made it in the respective tournament : < blank > Not in tournament O Opening Round ( only in 1983 ) 1 First round 2 Second Round S Sweet 16 E Elite 8 F Final 4 R National Runner - up C National Champion Year - > 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Team Akron 1 ! 1 Alabama 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 5 ! F 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 Alabama St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Albany ( NY ) 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Alcorn St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 American 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Appalachian St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Arizona 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Arizona St . 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Arkansas 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 5 ! F 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Army 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Auburn 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 6 ! R 6 ! R 6 ! R 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Austin Peay 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Ball St . 2 ! 2 Baylor 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 7 ! C 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 5 ! F 4 ! E 7 ! C 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S Belmont 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Boise St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Boston College 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S Boston U . 1 ! 1 Bowling Green 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Brown 1 ! 1 Bucknell 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Buffalo 1 ! 1 3 ! S Butler 1 ! 1 BYU 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Cal Poly 1 ! 1 Cal St. Fullerton 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Cal St. Northridge 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 California 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 5 ! F 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Campbell 1 ! 1 Canisius 1 ! 1 Central Arkansas 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Central Mich . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S Charlotte 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Chattanooga 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Cheyney 6 ! R 3 ! S 5 ! F Cincinnati 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Clemson 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Cleveland St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Colgate 1 ! 1 Colorado 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Colorado St . 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Connecticut 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 5 ! F 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 7 ! C 5 ! F 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 7 ! C 5 ! F 7 ! C 7 ! C 7 ! C 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 5 ! F 7 ! C 7 ! C 5 ! F 5 ! F 7 ! C 7 ! C 7 ! C 7 ! C 6 ! F 5 ! F Coppin St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Cornell 1 ! 1 Creighton 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Dartmouth 0 ! O 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Dayton 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Delaware 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S Delaware St . 1 ! 1 Denver 1 ! 1 DePaul 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Detroit 1 ! 1 Drake 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Drexel 1 ! 1 Duke 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 6 ! R 3 ! S 3 ! S 5 ! F 5 ! F 4 ! E 4 ! E 6 ! R 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S Duquesne 2 ! 2 East Carolina 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 East Tenn . St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Eastern Ill . 1 ! 1 Eastern Ky . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Eastern Mich . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Eastern Wash . 1 ! 1 Elon 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Evansville 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Fairfield 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 FGCU 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 FIU 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Fla . Atlantic 1 ! 1 Florida 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Florida A&M 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Florida St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 Fordham 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Fresno St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Furman 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Ga . Southern 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Gardner - Webb 1 ! 1 George Washington 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Georgetown 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 Georgia 1 ! 1 5 ! F 4 ! E 6 ! R 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 5 ! F 6 ! R 4 ! E 1 ! 1 5 ! F 4 ! E 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 4 ! E 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Georgia St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Georgia Tech 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 Gonzaga 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Grambling 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Green Bay 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Hampton 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Hartford 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Harvard 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Hawaii 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Holy Cross 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Houston 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Howard 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Idaho 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Idaho St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Illinois 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Illinois St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Indiana 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Iona 1 ! 1 Iowa 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 5 ! F 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 Iowa St . 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Jackson St . 1 ! 1 0 ! O 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Jacksonville 1 ! 1 James Madison 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Kansas 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S Kansas St . 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Kent St . 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Kentucky 4 ! E 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 La. - Monroe 1 ! 1 3 ! S 5 ! F La Salle 0 ! O 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 La. - Lafayette 1 ! 1 Lamar 4 ! E 1 ! 1 Lehigh 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Liberty 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Lipscomb 1 ! 1 Little Rock 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 LIU Brooklyn 1 ! 1 Long Beach St . 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 5 ! F 5 ! F 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Louisiana Tech 7 ! C 6 ! R 5 ! F 4 ! E 4 ! E 6 ! R 7 ! C 5 ! F 5 ! F 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 4 ! E 6 ! R 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 6 ! R 5 ! F 4 ! E 4 ! E 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Louisville 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 6 ! R 3 ! S 2 ! 2 6 ! R 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 5 ! F Loyola Marymount 1 ! 1 Loyola ( MD ) 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 LSU 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 5 ! F 5 ! F 5 ! F 5 ! F 5 ! F 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Maine 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Manhattan 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Marist 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Marquette 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Marshall 1 ! 1 Maryland 5 ! F 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 4 ! E 5 ! F 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 7 ! C 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 5 ! F 5 ! F 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 Massachusetts 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 McNeese St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Memphis 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Mercer 1 ! 1 Miami ( FL ) 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Miami ( OH ) 1 ! 1 Michigan 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Michigan St . 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 6 ! R 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Middle Tenn . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Milwaukee 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Minnesota 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 5 ! F 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Ole Miss 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 4 ! E 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 4 ! E Mississippi St . 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 3 ! S 6 ! R 6 ! R Missouri 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Missouri State 2 ! 2 5 ! F 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 5 ! F 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Monmouth 1 ! 1 Montana 0 ! O 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Montana State 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Mount St. Mary 's 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Murray St . 1 ! 1 N.C. A&T 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Navy 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Nebraska 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 New Mexico 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 New Mexico St . 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 New Orleans 2 ! 2 Nicholls St . 1 ! 1 Norfolk St . 1 ! 1 North Carolina 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 7 ! C 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 5 ! F 5 ! F 4 ! E 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S North Carolina St . 3 ! S 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 5 ! F 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S North Dakota 1 ! 1 North Texas 1 ! 1 Northeastern 1 ! 1 Northern Ariz . 1 ! 1 Northern Colorado 1 ! 1 Northern Ill . 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Northern Iowa 1 ! 1 Northwestern 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Northwestern St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Notre Dame 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 5 ! F 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 7 ! C 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 3 ! S 6 ! R 6 ! R 5 ! F 6 ! R 6 ! R 3 ! S 4 ! E 7 ! C Oakland 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Ohio 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Ohio St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 4 ! E 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 6 ! R 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 Oklahoma 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 6 ! R 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 5 ! F 5 ! F 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Oklahoma St . 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Old Dominion 3 ! S 5 ! F 4 ! E 7 ! C 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 6 ! R 3 ! S 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 4 ! E 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S Oral Roberts 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Oregon 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E Oregon St . 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 5 ! F 3 ! S 4 ! E Penn 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Penn St . 3 ! S 4 ! E 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 5 ! F 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S Pepperdine 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Pittsburgh 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 Portland 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Portland St . 1 ! 1 Prairie View 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Princeton 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Providence 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Purdue 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 5 ! F 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 4 ! E 7 ! C 2 ! 2 6 ! R 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Quinnipiac 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 Radford 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Rhode Island 1 ! 1 Rice 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Richmond 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Robert Morris 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Rutgers 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 4 ! E 5 ! F 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 3 ! S 6 ! R 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Sacred Heart 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Samford 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 San Diego 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 San Diego St . 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 San Francisco 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Santa Clara 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Savannah St . 1 ! 1 Seton Hall 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Siena 1 ! 1 SMU 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 South Ala . 1 ! 1 South Carolina 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 5 ! F 3 ! S 7 ! C 4 ! E South Carolina St . 1 ! 1 South Dakota 1 ! 1 South Dakota St . 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 South Fla . 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Southeast Mo . St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Southern California 4 ! E 7 ! C 7 ! C 3 ! S 6 ! R 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Southern Ill . 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Southern Miss 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Southern U . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 St. Bonaventure 3 ! S 2 ! 2 St. Francis Brooklyn 1 ! 1 Saint Francis ( PA ) 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 St. John 's 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Saint Joseph 's 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Saint Mary 's 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Saint Peter 's 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Seattle 1 ! 1 Stanford 1 ! 1 3 ! S 4 ! E 7 ! C 5 ! F 7 ! C 3 ! S 4 ! E 5 ! F 5 ! F 5 ! F 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 2 ! 2 6 ! R 5 ! F 6 ! R 5 ! F 5 ! F 3 ! S 5 ! F 3 ! S 4 ! E 6 ! F 3 ! S Stephen F. Austin 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Stetson 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Syracuse 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 6 ! R 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 TCU 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Temple 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 Tennessee 5 ! F 4 ! E 6 ! R 3 ! S 5 ! F 7 ! C 5 ! F 7 ! C 4 ! E 7 ! C 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 6 ! R 7 ! C 7 ! C 7 ! C 4 ! E 6 ! R 3 ! S 5 ! F 6 ! R 6 ! R 5 ! F 4 ! E 7 ! C 7 ! C 1 ! 1 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Tennessee St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Tennessee Tech 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Texas 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 7 ! C 5 ! F 4 ! E 4 ! E 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 5 ! F 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S Texas A&M 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 7 ! C 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S Texas Southern 1 ! 1 Texas St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Texas Tech 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 7 ! C 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Texas - Arlington 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Toledo 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Troy 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Tulane 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Tulsa 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 UAB 1 ! 1 3 ! S UC Davis 1 ! 1 UC Irvine 1 ! 1 UC Riverside 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 UC Santa Barb . 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 UCF 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 UCLA 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E UMBC 1 ! 1 UNC Asheville 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 UNC Greensboro 1 ! 1 UNI 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 UNLV 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 UT Martin 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Utah 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 UTEP 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 UTSA 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Valparaiso 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Vanderbilt 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 5 ! F 3 ! S 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 4 ! E 4 ! E 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 VCU 1 ! 1 Vermont 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Villanova 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 4 ! E 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Virginia 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 3 ! S 4 ! E 3 ! S 5 ! F 6 ! R 5 ! F 4 ! E 3 ! S 4 ! E 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Virginia Tech 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 Wake Forest 2 ! 2 Washington 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 2 ! 2 4 ! E 3 ! S 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 4 ! E 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 5 ! F 3 ! S Washington St . 1 ! 1 Weber St . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 West Virginia 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 Western Caro . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Western Ill . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Western Ky . 5 ! F 5 ! F 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 3 ! S 6 ! R 3 ! S 2 ! 2 3 ! S 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Western Mich . 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Wichita State 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Winthrop 1 ! 1 Wisconsin 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 Wright St . 1 ! 1 Wyoming 1 ! 1 Xavier 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 4 ! E 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 1 ! 1 4 ! E 2 ! 2 Youngstown St . 1 ! 1 2 ! 2 1 ! 1 See also ( edit ) College basketball portal AIAW Women 's Basketball Tournament NAIA Women 's Basketball Championships NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` NCAA may move Women 's Final Four dates '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ Official 2012 NCAA Women 's Final Four Record p 75 Jump up ^ `` Greg Christopher named chair of DI Women 's Basketball Committee '' . NCAA . Mar 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` 2013 NCAA Women 's Final Four Records '' ( PDF ) . NCAA . Retrieved 15 Apr 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Official 2012 NCAA Women 's Final Four Record p 58 Jump up ^ Official 2012 NCAA Women 's Final Four Record p 67 Jump up ^ Official 2012 NCAA Women 's Final Four Record p 6 , 7 ^ Jump up to : Official 2012 NCAA Women 's Final Four Record p 9 Jump up ^ Nixon , Rick . `` Official 2017 NCAA Women 's Final Four Records Book '' ( PDF ) . NCAA . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 02 . NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament AIAW Tournaments 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 NCAA Tournaments 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Records & statistics AIAW Tournament ( pre-NCAA ) Appearances Broadcasters NCAA women 's college basketball tournaments Division I postseason conference tournaments ACC America East The American Atlantic 10 Atlantic Sun Big 12 Big East Big Sky Big South Big Ten Big West CAA Conference USA Horizon Ivy MAAC MEAC Mid-American Missouri Valley Mountain West Northeast Ohio Valley Pac - 12 Patriot SEC Southern Southland SWAC Sun Belt Summit WAC West Coast Division I postseason tournaments AIAW Women 's Basketball Tournament NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament Women 's National Invitation Tournament Women 's Basketball Invitational Division II and III postseason tournaments NCAA Division II Women 's Basketball Tournament NCAA Division III Women 's Basketball Tournament National Collegiate Athletic Association NCAA Awards Hall of Champions Conferences Division I Institutions Athletic directors Baseball Championship CWS Basketball Men Women Cross Country Men Women Field hockey Championship Football FBS FCS Golf Men Women Ice hockey Men Women Lacrosse Men Women Rowing Women Soccer Men Women Softball Championship WCWS Swimming & Diving Men Women Tennis Men Women Track and Field Men 's indoor and outdoor Women 's indoor and outdoor Volleyball Men Women Wrestling Championship Division II Institutions Baseball Championship Basketball Men Women Cross Country Men Women Field hockey Championship Football Championship Golf Men Women Gymnastics Men Women Ice hockey Men Lacrosse Men Women Rowing Women Soccer Men Women Softball Championship / WCWS Swimming & Diving Men Women Tennis Men Women Track and Field Men 's indoor and outdoor Women 's indoor and outdoor Volleyball Women Wrestling Championship Division III Institutions Baseball Championship Basketball Men Women Cross Country Men Women Field hockey Championship Football Championship Golf Men Women Ice hockey Men Women Lacrosse Men Women Rowing Women Soccer Men Women Softball Championship / WCWS Swimming & Diving Men Women Tennis Men Women Track and Field Men 's indoor and outdoor Women 's indoor and outdoor Volleyball Men Women Wrestling Championship Single - division sports and championships Beach volleyball Women Bowling Women Boxing Championship Fencing Championships Gymnastics Men Women Rifle Championship Skiing Championships Trampoline Championship Water polo Men Women Events listed in italics have been discontinued . Major women 's sport leagues in North America Women 's basketball Women 's National Basketball Association ( WNBA ) Women 's American Basketball Association ( WABA ) Women 's Blue Chip Basketball League ( WBCBL ) American Basketball League ( defunct ) National Women 's Basketball League ( defunct ) Women 's Professional Basketball League ( defunct ) NCAA Division I NCAA Division II NCAA Division III NAIA U Sports Women 's ice hockey Canadian Women 's Hockey League ( CWHL ) National Women 's Hockey League ( NWHL ) Western Women 's Hockey League ( defunct ) NCAA Women 's Ice Hockey Tournament NCAA Division III women 's ice hockey ( NCAA ) U Sports women 's ice hockey Women 's soccer National Women 's Soccer League ( NWSL ) Liga MX Femenil Women 's Premier Soccer League ( WPSL ) United Women 's Soccer ( UWS ) Liga Mexicana de Fútbol Femenil NCAA Women 's Soccer Championship NAIA Women 's Soccer Championship U Sports women 's soccer Women 's Professional Soccer ( WPS ) ( defunct ) Women 's United Soccer Association ( WUSA ) ( defunct ) Women 's League Soccer ( WLS ) ( defunct ) Women 's Premier Soccer League Elite ( defunct ) USL W - League ( defunct ) Women 's softball National Pro Fastpitch ( NPF ) NCAA Division I Softball Tournament Women 's College World Series ( WCWS ) NAIA Softball Championship Women 's gridiron football Independent Women 's Football League ( IWFL ) Women 's Football Alliance ( WFA ) United States Women 's Football League ( USWFL ) Legends Football League ( LFL ) Maritime Women 's Football League ( MWFL ) Western Women 's Canadian Football League ( WWCFL ) LFL Canada ( LFL ) American Football Women 's League ( AFWL ) ( defunct ) Women 's American Football League ( WAFL ) ( defunct ) Women 's Football Association ( WFA ) ( defunct ) Ladies Tackle Football League ( LTFL ) ( defunct ) Women 's Football League ( WFL ) ( defunct ) Women 's Professional Football League ( WPFL ) ( defunct ) National Women 's Football Association ( NWFA ) ( defunct ) Other sports Ladies Professional Golf Association ( LPGA ) Women 's Flat Track Derby Association ( WFTDA ) National Ringette League ( NRL ) United Women 's Lacrosse League ( UWLX ) National Collegiate Athletic Association NCAA Beach Volleyball Championship NCAA Bowling Championship NCAA Women 's Division I Cross Country Championship NCAA Division I Field Hockey Championship NCAA Division I Women 's Golf Championships NCAA Women 's Gymnastics Championships NCAA Division I Women 's Lacrosse Championship NCAA Division I Rowing Championship NCAA Division I Women 's Swimming and Diving Championships NCAA Women 's Tennis Championship NCAA Women 's Indoor Track and Field Championship NCAA Women 's Outdoor Track and Field Championship NCAA Women 's Volleyball Championship NCAA Women 's Water Polo Championship National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics NAIA Women 's Cross Country Championship NAIA Women 's Golf Championship NAIA Women 's Swimming and Diving Championships NAIA Women 's Tennis Championship NAIA Women 's Indoor Track and Field Championship NAIA Women 's Outdoor Track and Field Championship NAIA Volleyball Championship NAIA lacrosse Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NCAA_Division_I_Women%27s_Basketball_Tournament&oldid=842683497 '' Categories : NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament Recurring sporting events established in 1982 Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from February 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2009 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2009 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Ελληνικά Français 日本 語 Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2018 , at 00 : 31 . 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31 | document: Card security code - wikipedia Card security code The card security code is located on the back of MasterCard , Visa , Discover , Diners Club , and JCB credit or debit cards and is typically a separate group of three digits to the right of the signature strip . On American Express cards , the card security code is a printed , not embossed , group of four digits on the front towards the right . A card security code ( CSC ; also called card verification data ( CVD ) , card verification number , card verification value ( CVV ) , card verification value code , card verification code ( CVC ) , verification code ( V - code or V code ) , or signature panel code ( SPC ) ) is a security feature for `` card not present '' payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud . The CSC is in addition to the bank card number which is embossed or printed on the card . The CSC is used as a security feature , in situations where a PIN can not be used . The PIN is not printed or embedded on the card but is manually entered by the cardholder during point - of - sale ( card present ) transactions . Contactless card and chip cards may electronically generate their own code , such as iCVV or a dynamic CVV . CSC was originally developed in the UK as an eleven character alphanumeric code by Equifax employee Michael Stone in 1995 . After testing with the Littlewoods Home Shopping group and NatWest bank , the concept was adopted by APACS ( the UK Association of Payment Clearing Services ) and streamlined to the three - digit code known today . MasterCard started issuing CVC2 numbers in 1997 and Visa in the United States issued them by 2001 . American Express started to use the CSC in 1999 , in response to growing Internet transactions and card member complaints of spending interruptions when the security of a card has been brought into question . In 2016 , a new e-commerce technology called Motioncode was introduced , designed to automatically refresh the CVV code to a new one every hour or so . Contents 1 Description 2 Types of codes 3 Location of code 4 Security benefits 5 Limitations 6 Generation 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Description ( edit ) The codes have different names : `` CID '' : `` Card Id '' , `` Card Identification Number '' , or `` Card Identification Code '' -- Discover , American Express ( four digits on front of card ) `` CSC '' or `` Card Security Code '' -- debit cards , American Express ( three digits on back of card ) `` CVC2 '' or `` Card Validation Code '' -- MasterCard `` CVD '' or `` Card Verification Data '' -- Discover , sometimes used as the common initialism for this kind of code `` CVE '' or `` Elo Verification Code '' -- Elo in Brazil `` CVN2 '' or `` Card Validation Number 2 '' -- China UnionPay `` CVV2 '' or `` Card Verification Value 2 '' -- Visa Types of codes ( edit ) There are several types of security codes : The first code , called CVC1 or CVV1 , is encoded on track two of the magnetic stripe of the card and used for card present transactions . The purpose of the code is to verify that a payment card is actually in the hand of the merchant . This code is automatically retrieved when the magnetic stripe of a card is swiped on a point - of - sale ( card present ) device and is verified by the issuer . A limitation is that if the entire card has been duplicated and the magnetic stripe copied , then the code is still valid . ( See credit card fraud § skimming . ) The second code , and the most cited , is CVV2 or CVC2 . This code is often sought by merchants for card not present transactions occurring by mail , fax , telephone or Internet . In some countries in Western Europe , card issuers require a merchant to obtain the code when the cardholder is not present in person . Contactless cards and chip cards may supply their own electronically generated codes , such as iCVV or a dynamic CVV . Location of code ( edit ) The card security code is typically the last three or four digits printed , not embossed like the card number , on the signature strip on the back of the card . On American Express cards , the card security code is the four digits printed ( not embossed ) on the front towards the right . The card security code is not encoded on the magnetic stripe but is printed flat . American Express cards have a four - digit code printed on the front side of the card above the number . Diners Club , Discover , JCB , MasterCard , and Visa credit and debit cards have a three - digit card security code . The code is the final group of numbers printed on the back signature panel of the card . New North American MasterCard and Visa cards feature the code in a separate panel to the right of the signature strip . This has been done to prevent overwriting of the numbers by signing the card . Security benefits ( edit ) As a security measure , merchants who require the CVV2 for `` card not present '' payment card transactions are required by the card issuer not to store the CVV2 once the individual transaction is authorized . This way , if a database of transactions is compromised , the CVV2 is not included , and the stolen card numbers are less useful . Virtual terminals and payment gateways do not store the CVV2 code ; therefore , employees and customer service representatives with access to these web - based payment interfaces , who otherwise have access to complete card numbers , expiration dates , and other information , still lack the CVV2 code . The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard ( PCI DSS ) also prohibits the storage of CSC ( and other sensitive authorisation data ) post transaction authorisation . This applies globally to anyone who stores , processes or transmits card holder data . Since the CSC is not contained on the magnetic stripe of the card , it is not typically included in the transaction when the card is used face to face at a merchant . However , some merchants in North America , such as Sears and Staples , require the code . For American Express cards , this has been an invariable practice ( for `` card not present '' transactions ) in European Union ( EU ) countries like Ireland and the United Kingdom since the start of 2005 . This provides a level of protection to the bank / cardholder , in that a fraudulent merchant or employee can not simply capture the magnetic stripe details of a card and use them later for `` card not present '' purchases over the phone , mail order or Internet . To do this , a merchant or its employee would also have to note the CVV2 visually and record it , which is more likely to arouse the cardholder 's suspicion . Supplying the CSC code in a transaction is intended to verify that the customer has the card in their possession . Knowledge of the code proves that the customer has seen the card , or has seen a record made by somebody who saw the card . Limitations ( edit ) The use of the CSC can not protect against phishing scams , where the cardholder is tricked into entering the CSC among other card details via a fraudulent website . The growth in phishing has reduced the real - world effectiveness of the CSC as an anti-fraud device . There is now also a scam where a phisher has already obtained the card account number ( perhaps by hacking a merchant database or from a poorly designed receipt ) and gives this information to the victims ( lulling them into a false sense of security ) before asking for the CSC ( which is all that the phisher needs and the purpose of the scam in the first place ) . Since the CSC may not be stored by the merchant for any length of time ( after the original transaction in which the CSC was quoted and then authorized ) , a merchant who needs to regularly bill a card for a regular subscription would not be able to provide the code after the initial transaction . Payment gateways , however , have responded by adding `` periodic bill '' features as part of the authorization process . Some card issuers do not use the CSC . However , transactions without CSC are possibly subjected to higher card processing cost to the merchants , and fraudulent transactions without CSC are more likely to be resolved in favour of the cardholder . It is not mandatory for a merchant to require the security code for making a transaction , hence the card may still be prone to fraud even if only its number is known to phishers . It is possible for a fraudster to guess the CSC by using a distributed attack . Generation ( edit ) The CSC for each card ( form 1 and 2 ) is generated by the card issuer when the card is issued . It is calculated by encrypting the bank card number and expiration date ( two fields printed on the card ) with encryption keys known only to the card issuer , and decimalising the result . See also ( edit ) Credit card fraud ISO 8583 ( data element # 44 carries the Security Code response ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ American Express usually uses the four - digit code on the front of the card , referred to as the Card Identification Code ( CID ) , but also has a three - digit code on the back of the card , referred to as the Card Security Code ( CSC ) . American Express also sometimes refers to a `` Unique Card Code '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` CIBC MasterCard - MasterCard SecureCode '' . Archived from the original on 24 April 2014 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` This card is being rolled out by French banks to eliminate fraud '' . thememo.com. 27 September 2016 . Retrieved 10 April 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Do I need to do anything before using my Gift Card or Business Gift Card ? , `` four digit Card Identification Code ( CID ) located on the front of the Card , three digit Card Security Code ( CSC ) on the back of the Card '' Jump up ^ `` Card Security Features '' ( PDF ) . Visa . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2012 - 02 - 16 . ^ Jump up to : `` Rules for Visa Merchants '' ( doc ) . p. 1 . Jump up ^ `` Official Source of PCI DSS Data Security Standards Documents and Payment Card Compliance Guidelines '' . Pcisecuritystandards.org . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Urban Legends Reference Pages : Visa Fraud Investigation Scam '' . Snopes.com . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ Ducklin , Paul ( 5 December 2016 ) . `` How to guess credit card security codes '' . naked security by SOPHOS . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` z / OS Integrated Cryptographic Service Facility Application Programmer 's Guide '' . IBM . March 2002 . p. 209 . Jump up ^ `` z / OS Integrated Cryptographic Service Facility Application Programmer 's Guide '' . IBM . March 2002 . p. 258 . `` Find CVV Code on Visa , Amex and Discover and MasterCard '' . CVV Code . Credit , charge and debit cards Major cards American Express Diners Club Mastercard Debit Mastercard Maestro Visa Visa Debit Visa Electron UnionPay Regional and specialty cards Bancomat BC Card BCA Card Cabcharge Dankort Discover EFTPOS Electronic Payment Services ( EPS ) Forbrugsforeningen Girocard Interac Isracard JCB Mir MEPS NETS RuPay UATP V Pay Verve Defunct cards Access Bankcard Carte Blanche Carte Bleue Choice enRoute Eurocard Everything Laser Rail Travel Card Revolution Card Solo Switch PIN Accounts Payment card number Card association Card enclosure Credit card balance transfer Credit limit Installment credit Revolving account Deposit account Current / checking account Savings account ATM card Debt Cash advance Charge - off Maxed out Interest Grace period Introductory rate Universal default Payment Card not present transaction Chargeback Controlled payment number Dispute Interchange fee Interchange fee Surcharge Security Card security code Chargeback fraud Credit card fraud Credit card hijacking Technology Cash machine Chip and PIN Contactless payment Credit card terminal Interbank network Magnetic stripe card Smart card Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Card_security_code&oldid=856767687 '' Categories : E-commerce Merchant services Credit card terminology Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from August 2011 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from November 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Русский Slovenčina Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 August 2018 , at 12 : 00 ( UTC ) . 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32 | document: List of Tectonic Plate interactions - wikipedia List of Tectonic Plate interactions Jump to : navigation , search Further information : plate tectonics This article relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources . ( January 2016 ) Three types of plate boundary . Transform boundary Divergent boundary Convergent boundary Tectonic plate interactions are of three different basic types : Divergent boundaries are areas where plates move away from each other , forming either mid-oceanic ridges or rift valleys . These are also known as constructive boundaries . Convergent boundaries are areas where plates move toward each other and collide . These are also known as compressional or destructive boundaries . Subduction zones occur where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate and is pushed underneath it . Subduction zones are marked by oceanic trenches . The descending end of the oceanic plate melts and creates pressure in the mantle , causing volcanoes to form . Obduction occurs when the continental plate is pushed under the oceanic plate , but this is unusual as the relative densities of the tectonic plates favours subduction of the oceanic plate . This causes the oceanic plate to buckle and usually results in a new mid ocean ridge forming and turning the obduction into subduction Orogenic belts occur where two continental plates collide and push upwards to form large mountain ranges . These are also known as collision boundaries . Transform boundaries occur when two plates grind past each other with only limited convergent or divergent activity . Contents ( hide ) 1 Divergent boundaries 2 Convergent boundaries ( subduction zone ) 3 Orogenic belts 4 Transform boundaries 5 See also 6 References Divergent boundaries ( edit ) Plate tectonics map The East African Rift ( Great Rift Valley ) in eastern Africa The Mid-Atlantic Ridge system separates the North American Plate and South American Plate in the west from the Eurasian Plate and African Plate in the east The Gakkel Ridge is a slow spreading ridge located in the Arctic Ocean The East Pacific Rise , extending from the South Pacific to the Gulf of California The Baikal Rift Zone in eastern Russia The Red Sea Rift The Aden Ridge along the southern shore of the Arabian Peninsula The Carlsberg Ridge in the eastern Indian Ocean The Gorda Ridge off the northwest coast of North America The Explorer Ridge off the northwest coast of North America The Juan de Fuca Ridge off the northwest coast of North America The Chile Rise off the southeast Pacific Convergent boundaries ( subduction zone ) ( edit ) The oceanic Nazca Plate subducts beneath the continental South American Plate at the Peru -- Chile Trench . Just north of the Nazca Plate , the oceanic Cocos Plate subducts under the Caribbean Plate and forms the Middle America Trench . The Cascadia subduction zone is where the oceanic Juan de Fuca , Gorda and Explorer Plates subduct under the continental North American plate . The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts under the North American Plate ( composed of both continental and oceanic sections ) forming the Aleutian Trench . The oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate at the Japan Trench . The oceanic Philippine Sea Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate at the Ryukyu Trench . The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts under the oceanic Philippine Sea Plate forming the Mariana Trench . The oceanic Philippine Sea Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt forming the Philippine Trench and the East Luzon Trench . The Eurasian Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Manila Trench . The Sunda Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Negros Trench and the Cotobato Trench . The oceanic Indo - Australian Plate is subducted beneath the continental Sunda Plate along the Sunda Trench . The oceanic Pacific Plate is subducting under the Indo - Australian Plate north and east of New Zealand , but the direction of subduction reverses south of the Alpine Fault where the Indo - Australian Plate starts subducting under the Pacific Plate . The South American Plate is subducting under the South Sandwich Plate , forming the South Sandwich Trench . Orogenic belts ( edit ) Main article : List of orogenies The most dramatic orogenic belt on the planet is the one between the Indo - Australian Plate and African Plate on one side ( to the South ) and the Eurasian Plate on the other side ( to the North ) . This belt runs from New Zealand in the East - SouthEast , through Indonesia , along the Himalayas , through the Middle East up to the Mediterranean in the West - Northwest . It is also called the `` Tethyan '' Zone , as it constitutes the zone along which the ancient Tethys Ocean was deformed and disappeared . The following mountain belts can be distinguished : The European Alps The Carpathians The Pyrenees The Apennines The Dinarides The North African mountain belts such as the Atlas Mountains The Karst Plateau of the Balkan Peninsula The Caucasus The Zagros The Himalayas The Indonesian Archipelago The Southern Alps of New Zealand The Andes orogenic belt is the latest of a series of orogenies along the western margin of the South American Plate . Transform boundaries ( edit ) The San Andreas Fault in California is an active transform boundary . The Pacific Plate ( carrying the city of Los Angeles ) is moving northwards with respect to the North American Plate . The Queen Charlotte Fault on the Pacific Northwest coast of North America The Motagua Fault , which crosses through Guatemala , is a transform boundary between the southern edge of the North American Plate and the northern edge of the Caribbean Plate . New Zealand 's Alpine Fault is another active transform boundary . The Dead Sea Transform ( DST ) fault which runs through the Jordan River Valley in the Middle East . The Owen Fracture Zone along the southeastern boundary of the Arabian Plate . See also ( edit ) Triple junction References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Tectonic Plates and Plate Boundaries '' . GNS Science . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 12 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_tectonic_plate_interactions&oldid=802826915 '' Categories : Plate tectonics Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from January 2016 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Gaeilge Norsk nynorsk Edit links This page was last edited on 28 September 2017 , at 18 : 39 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_64|> <|d1_137|> <|d2_72|> |
33 | document: The Bed You Made for Me - Wikipedia The Bed You Made for Me `` The Bed You Made for Me '' Single by Highway 101 from the album Highway 101 B - side `` I 'm Gonna Run Through the Wind '' Released January 5 , 1987 Format 7 '' single , CD single Genre Country Length 3 : 33 Label Warner Bros. # 28483 Songwriter ( s ) Paulette Carlson Producer ( s ) Paul Worley Highway 101 singles chronology `` The Bed You Made for Me '' ( 1987 ) `` Whiskey , If You Were a Woman '' ( 1987 ) `` The Bed You Made for Me '' ( 1987 ) `` Whiskey , If You Were a Woman '' ( 1987 ) `` The Bed You Made for Me '' is a debut song written by Paulette Carlson , and recorded by American country music band Highway 101 . It was released in January 1987 as the first single from the band 's self - titled debut album . `` The Bed You Made for Me '' spent twenty - four weeks on the Hot Country Songs charts , peaking at number four . Critical reception ( edit ) Kip Kirby , of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably , calling it `` dynamic '' and saying that it is `` apologetically country in instrumentation and vocal , with energy and outrage that are almost palpable . '' Chart performance ( edit ) Chart ( 1987 ) Peak position US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) Canadian RPM Country Tracks 8 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Whitburn , Joel ( 2008 ) . Hot Country Songs 1944 to 2008 . Record Research , Inc. p. 188 . ISBN 0 - 89820 - 177 - 2 . Jump up ^ Carlin , Richard ( 2003 ) . Country Music : A Biographical Dictionary . Taylor & Francis . pp. 182 -- 183 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 93802 - 3 . Jump up ^ Billboard , December 20 , 1986 - Vol. 98 , No. 51 Jump up ^ `` Highway 101 Chart History ( Hot Country Songs ) '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` RPM Country Tracks for May 2 , 1987 '' . RPM . Retrieved 28 September 2010 . Highway 101 Andy Gurley Nikki Nelson Scott `` Cactus '' Moser Curtis Stone Paulette Carlson Jack Daniels Chrislynn Lee Charlie White Justin Weaver Studio albums Highway 101 1012 Paint the Town Bing Bang Boom The New Frontier Reunited Big Sky Christmas on Highway 101 Compilations Greatest Hits Latest & Greatest Country Classics All Time Greatest Rhino HiFive Notable singles `` The Bed You Made for Me '' `` Whiskey , If You Were a Woman '' `` Somewhere Tonight '' `` Cry , Cry , Cry '' `` ( Do You Love Me ) Just Say Yes '' `` All the Reasons Why '' `` Setting Me Up '' `` Honky Tonk Heart '' `` Who 's Lonely Now '' `` Walkin ' , Talkin ' , Cryin ' , Barely Beatin ' Broken Heart '' `` This Side of Goodbye '' `` Someone Else 's Trouble Now '' `` Bing Bang Boom '' `` The Blame '' `` Baby , I 'm Missing You '' Related articles `` I 'll Start with You '' Love Goes On This 1987 country song - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bed_You_Made_for_Me&oldid=809413267 '' Categories : 1987 singles Debut singles 1987 songs Highway 101 songs Song recordings produced by Paul Worley Warner Bros. Records singles Songs written by Paulette Carlson 1987 country song stubs Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Singlechart called without song All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 8 November 2017 , at 23 : 09 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | <|d0_99|> <|d1_189|> <|d2_181|> |
34 | document: Seasons of Love - wikipedia Seasons of Love Jump to : navigation , search `` Seasons of Love '' Song by Rent cast from the album Rent : Original Broadway Cast Recording Released September 1996 Genre Musical Length 2 : 52 ( Original Broadway Cast Recording ) 3 : 02 ( Film version ) Songwriter ( s ) Jonathan Larson `` Seasons of Love '' is a song from the Broadway musical Rent , written and composed by Jonathan Larson . The song starts with an ostinato piano motif , which provides the harmonic framework for the cast to sing `` Five hundred and twenty - five thousand , six hundred minutes '' ( the number of minutes in a common year ( 60 × 24 × 365 ) ) . The main instruments used throughout the song are piano , vocals , guitar , organ , bass and drums . The song is performed by the entire cast in the musical and in the 2005 film of the same name . The lyrics ask what the proper way is to quantify the value of a year in human life , concluding in the chorus that the most effective means is to `` measure in love '' . Since four of the lead characters either have HIV or AIDS , the song is often associated with World AIDS Day and AIDS awareness month . Contents ( hide ) 1 Songwriter 2 Stage productions 3 Film adaptation 4 Alternative versions 5 Television performances 6 References Songwriter ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Jonathan Larson actually intended for Seasons of Love to be performed symbolically as a song at Angel 's funeral . When Larson died the night before the preview opening of the show , the cast sang it at the beginning to pay their respects to the composer . It is performed at the beginning of the second act , referencing recent past events or the events to come . The song is heard twice throughout the second act ( once as the opener , before A Happy New Year and the reprise is heard after `` Take Me Or Leave Me , '' before `` Without You '' ) before hearing it in its last incarnation as background to I 'll Cover You : Reprise and Angel 's eulogy . Stage productions ( edit ) In the stage production , the song is sung at the opening of the second act . The cast stands downstage in a straight line facing the audience . The entire cast performs the song , and the solos are normally performed by two cast members who play several minor roles each ( namely Mr. and Mrs. Jefferson ) . `` Seasons of Love '' is performed in two parts , the first at the beginning of Act II with the reprise following a few numbers later , following `` Take Me Or Leave Me '' . The song has been translated into multiple languages for the international productions of the musical ( `` Tiempos de amor '' in Spanish , `` Nur Liebe Bleibt '' in German , `` Sígræn ást '' in Icelandic and `` A szerelem évszakai '' in Hungarian ) . Film adaptation ( edit ) In the 2005 film version of Rent , `` Seasons of Love '' is performed in the opening scene . Only the eight principal characters perform the song , and the two solos are performed by Joanne ( Tracie Thoms ) and Tom Collins ( Jesse L. Martin ) . `` Seasons of Love '' is performed in two parts , but features at the start of the film with the cast performing it on a theater stage . In the reprise the song plays as a backdrop to a documentary style film about New York life made by the character Mark . Selections from `` Seasons of Love '' were also used in several of the film 's trailers and other promotional material . Alternative versions ( edit ) In addition to the 1996 Original Cast Recording ( OCR ) a number of different versions have been recorded . Along with the OCR soundtrack is an alternative version of Seasons of Love featuring Stevie Wonder who sings ( and improvises upon ) the part usually sung by the soloists . There is also a Korean version of the song used in the Korean drama `` What 's Up ? '' . This version is rearranged and slightly different from the original . Japanese singer and voice actress Ayahi Takagaki has her own rendition of the song in her 2013 mini-album , Melodia 2 . A version of the song was recorded by The Broadway Kids on their 2001 album The Best of Broadway . Television performances ( edit ) The Philippine Idol Top 6 performed the song as the opening number to the show 's movie / musical themed performance night on November 19 , 2006 . During the 7th season of American Idol , the song was sung by the eight finalists during the `` Idol Gives Back '' special , which first aired April 9 , 2008 . The song was performed at the end of the 1996 Democratic National Convention by the original Broadway cast . On September 5 , 1997 , it was performed on Good Morning America as a tribute to Joan Lunden on her final day . The song was used in The Office episode `` Michael 's Last Dundies '' , in which Andy Bernard leads most of the cast in serenading the soon - to - depart Michael Scott in a piano - backed version with altered lyrics . On the last episode of Live with Regis and Kelly , the off - Broadway cast of Rent performed a personalized version of the song in recognition of Regis Philbin 's departure . A variant of the song was also featured in a 2010 Macy 's jewelry commercial that sparked heated online debates . In Season 13 of the American Dancing With the Stars , Hope Solo & Maksim Chmerkovskiy danced a Rumba to Seasons of Love in Week 6 of competition during Broadway week . The song was played during the funeral of the Philippines ' King of Comedy Dolphy at the Heritage Park in Taguig City on July 15 , 2012 . On October 10 , 2013 , The song was covered on the third episode of the fifth season of Glee , `` The Quarterback '' , as a tribute to Cory Monteith and his character Finn Hudson . In 2013 , the Mexican network Televisa , used the theme for a video thanking viewers for choosing to mark the end of the year , is played by artists of the network as singers and groups like Yuri , OV7 , Maria Leon , Alexander Acha , Reik , among other . On March 6 , 2016 , the song was performed by Sarah Geronimo and Gary Valenciano for a tribute to the Filipino director Wenn Deramas on ASAP along with the hosts and performers of the show . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Rent ( Original Broadway Cast Recording ) from Allmusic Jump up ^ Rent ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) from Allmusic Jump up ^ Albums containing a track with the title : Seasons of Love from Allmusic Jump up ^ `` Rent ( Original Broadway Cast Recording ) - Original Broadway Cast Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Itzkoff , Dave ( 2011 - 04 - 22 ) . `` ' The Office ' : Seasons of Michael '' . New York Times . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 22 . Jump up ^ Regis Philbin : ' I 'm Going Out a Pretty Proud and Happy Guy ' , a November 18 , 2011 article from People.com ( hide ) Henri Murger 's La Vie de Bohème Opera La bohème ( Puccini ) La bohème ( Leoncavallo ) Film La Bohème ( 1926 silent ) Mimi ( 1935 ) La Bohème ( 1965 Italian ) La Vie de Bohème ( 1992 ) Rent Rent ( 1996 musical ) Rent ( 2005 film ) Rent : Filmed Live on Broadway ( 2008 film ) Album Music La Vie de Bohème ( 1969 album ) La bohème discography `` La Vie Bohème '' `` Seasons of Love '' `` Finale B '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seasons_of_Love&oldid=826792161 '' Categories : Songs from Rent ( musical ) Songs written for films 1996 songs LGBT - related songs Songs written by Jonathan Larson Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2011 Articles needing additional references from November 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 21 February 2018 , at 01 : 04 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_178|> <|d1_187|> <|d2_72|> |
35 | document: The Dukes of Hazzard - wikipedia The Dukes of Hazzard Jump to : navigation , search For the 2005 film , see The Dukes of Hazzard ( film ) . For the series score , see The Dukes of Hazzard ( soundtrack ) . For the video game , see The Dukes of Hazzard ( video game ) . The Dukes of Hazzard Genre Action / Adventure Family Comedy - drama Created by Gy Waldron and Jerry Rushing Starring Tom Wopat John Schneider Catherine Bach Denver Pyle Rick Hurst Sonny Shroyer Ben Jones James Best Sorrell Booke Waylon Jennings Byron Cherry Christopher Mayer Narrated by Waylon Jennings Opening theme `` Good Ol ' Boys '' performed by Waylon Jennings Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 7 No. of episodes 147 ( list of episodes ) Production Camera setup Single - camera Running time 45 -- 49 minutes Production company ( s ) Paul R. Picard Productions and Piggy Productions , Inc. ( season 1 ) Lou Step Productions ( seasons 2 -- 7 ) Warner Bros. Television Distributor Warner Bros. Television Distribution Release Original network CBS Audio format Mono Original release January 26 , 1979 ( 1979 - 01 - 26 ) -- February 8 , 1985 ( 1985 - 02 - 08 ) Chronology Followed by The Dukes The Dukes of Hazzard Reunion ! The Dukes of Hazzard : Hazzard in Hollywood The Dukes of Hazzard ( film ) The Dukes of Hazzard : The Beginning Related shows Moonrunners ( movie ) Enos External links Website The Dukes of Hazzard is an American action - comedy television series that aired on CBS from January 26 , 1979 , to February 8 , 1985 . The show aired for a total of 147 episodes spanning seven seasons . The series was inspired by the 1975 film Moonrunners , which was also created by Gy Waldron and had many identical or similar character names and concepts . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot overview 2 Production 3 Cast and characters 3.1 Main characters 3.2 Recurring characters 3.3 Notable guest appearances 3.3. 1 Others 3.3. 2 The celebrity speed trap 4 Casting of Coy & Vance 4.1 Return of Bo and Luke 5 Vehicles 5.1 The General Lee ( Dodge Charger ) 5.2 Hazzard police cars ( AMC Matador , Dodge Polara , Dodge Monaco , Plymouth Fury ) 5.3 Plymouth Road Runner 5.4 Jeep CJ - 7 5.5 Ford F - 100 pickup truck 5.6 Cadillac Coupe de Ville 5.7 Ford Custom 500 6 Theme song 7 Broadcast history 7.1 Syndication 7.2 Nielsen ratings 8 Episode list 9 Spin - offs 10 Films 11 Home media 11.1 DVD 11.2 Streaming 12 Legacy and influence in popular culture 12.1 Tourist attraction 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Plot overview ( edit ) The Dukes of Hazzard had an ensemble cast , which also follows the adventures of `` The Duke Boys , '' cousins Bo Duke ( John Schneider ) and Luke Duke ( Tom Wopat ) ( including Coy and Vance Duke for most of season 5 ) , who live on a family farm in fictional Hazzard County , Georgia , with their attractive female cousin Daisy ( Catherine Bach ) and their wise old Uncle Jesse ( Denver Pyle ) . The Duke boys race around in their customized 1969 Dodge Charger stock car , dubbed ( The ) General Lee , evading crooked and corrupt county commissioner Boss Hogg ( Sorrell Booke ) and his bumbling and corrupt Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane ( James Best ) along with his deputy ( s ) , and always managing to get caught in the middle of the various escapades and incidents that often occur in the area . Bo and Luke had previously been sentenced to probation for illegal transportation of moonshine ; their Uncle Jesse made a plea bargain with the U.S. Government to refrain from distilling moonshine in exchange for Bo and Luke 's freedom . As a result , Bo and Luke are on probation and not allowed to carry firearms -- instead , they often use compound bows , sometimes with arrows tipped with dynamite -- or to leave Hazzard County unless they get probation permission from their probation officer , Boss Hogg , although the exact details of their probation terms vary from episode to episode . Sometimes it is implied that they would be jailed for merely crossing the county line ; on other occasions , it is shown that they may leave Hazzard , as long as they are back within a certain time limit . Several other technicalities of their probation also came into play at various times . Corrupt county commissioner Jefferson Davis ( J.D. ) `` Boss '' Hogg , who either runs or has fingers in virtually everything in Hazzard County , is forever angry with the Dukes , especially Bo and Luke , for always foiling his crooked schemes . He is always looking for ways to get them out of the picture so that his plots have a chance of succeeding . Many episodes revolve around Hogg trying to engage in an illegal scheme , sometimes with aid of hired criminal help . Some of these are get - rich - quick schemes , though many others affect the financial security of the Duke farm , which Hogg has long wanted to acquire for various reasons . Other times , Hogg hires criminals from out of town to do his dirty work for him , and often tries to frame Bo and Luke for various crimes as part of these plots . Bo and Luke always seem to stumble over Hogg 's latest scheme , sometimes by curiosity , and often by sheer luck , and put it out of business . Despite the Dukes often coming to his rescue ( see below ) , Hogg forever seems to have an irrational dislike of the clan , particularly Bo and Luke , often accusing them of spying on him , robbing or planning to rob him , and other supposedly nefarious actions , as he believes they are generally out to get him . The role of Boss Hogg was played by Sorrell Booke , who performed frequently on radio , stage , and film prior to his role in The Dukes of Hazzard . Boss Hogg is one of only two characters to appear in every episode of the TV series , the other being Uncle Jesse Duke . His namesake is Jefferson Davis , the President of the Confederate States of America . The other main characters of the show include local mechanic Cooter Davenport ( Ben Jones ) , who in early episodes was portrayed as a wild , unshaven rebel , often breaking or treading on the edge of the law , before settling down to become the Duke family 's best friend ( he is often referred to as an `` honorary Duke '' ) and owns the local garage ; and Enos Strate ( Sonny Shroyer ) , an honest but naive young deputy who , despite his friendship with the Dukes ( and his crush on Daisy ) , is reluctantly forced to take part in Hogg and Rosco 's crooked schemes . In the third and fourth seasons , when Enos leaves for his own show , he is replaced by Deputy Cletus Hogg ( Rick Hurst ) , Boss 's cousin , who is slightly more wily than Enos but still a somewhat reluctant player in Hogg 's plots . Owing to their fundamentally good natures , the Dukes often wind up helping Boss Hogg out of trouble , albeit grudgingly . More than once Hogg is targeted by former associates who are either seeking revenge or have double crossed him after a scheme has unraveled in one way or another . Sheriff Coltrane also finds himself targeted in some instances . On such occasions , Bo and Luke usually have to rescue their adversaries as an inevitable precursor to defeating the bad guys ; in other instances , the Dukes join forces with Hogg and Coltrane to tackle bigger threats to Hazzard or one of their respective parties . These instances became more frequent as the show progressed , and later seasons saw a number of stories where the Dukes and Hogg ( and Coltrane ) temporarily work together . Production ( edit ) The series was developed from the 1975 film Moonrunners . Created by Gy Waldron in collaboration with ex-moonshiner Jerry Rushing , this movie shares many identical and very similar names and concepts with the subsequent TV series . Although itself essentially a comedy , this original movie was much cruder and edgier than the family - friendly TV series that would evolve from it . In 1977 , Waldron was approached by Warner Bros. with the idea of developing Moonrunners into a television series . Waldron reworked various elements from Moonrunners , and from it was devised what would become The Dukes of Hazzard . Production began in October 1978 with the original intention of only nine episodes being produced as mid-season filler . The first five episodes were filmed in Covington and Conyers , Georgia and surrounding areas , including some location work in nearby Atlanta . After completing production on the fifth episode , `` High Octane '' , the cast and crew broke for Christmas break , expecting to return in several weeks ' time to complete the ordered run of episodes . In the meantime , executives at Warner Bros. were impressed by the rough preview cuts of the completed episodes and saw potential in developing the show into a full - running series ; part of this plan was to move production from Georgia to the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank , California , primarily to simplify production as well as develop a larger workshop to service the large number of automobiles needed for the series . Rushing appeared as shady used car dealer Ace Parker in the third episode produced , `` Repo Men '' ( the fourth to be broadcast ) . Rushing believed this to be the start of a recurring role , in return for which he would supply creative ideas from his experiences : many of the Dukes ( and thus Moonrunners ) characters and situations were derived from Rushing 's experiences as a youth , and much of the character of Bo Duke he states to be based on him . However , `` Repo Men '' would turn out to be the character 's only appearance in the entire show 's run , leading to a legal dispute in the following years over the rights to characters and concepts between Rushing and Warner Bros. , although he remained on good terms with cast and crew and in recent years has made appearances at several fan conventions . By the end of the first ( half ) season , the family - friendly tone of The Dukes of Hazzard was mostly in place . When the show returned for a second season in Fall 1979 ( its first full season ) , with a few further minor tweaks , the show quickly found its footing as a family - friendly comedy - adventure series . By the third season , starting in Fall 1980 , the template was well set in place for that which would be widely associated with the show . As well as its regular car chases , jumps and stunts , The Dukes of Hazzard relied on character familiarity , with each character effectively serving the same role within a typical episode , and with Deputy Cletus replacing Deputy Enos in Seasons 3 and 4 , and Coy and Vance Duke temporarily replacing Bo and Luke ( due to a salary dispute ) for most of Season 5 , being the only major cast changes through the show 's run ( Ben Jones and James Best both left temporarily during the second season due to different disputes with producers , but both returned within a few episodes ) . Of the characters , only Uncle Jesse and Boss Hogg appeared in all 145 episodes ; Daisy appears in all but one , the third season 's `` To Catch a Duke '' . The General Lee also appears in all but one ( the early first - season episode `` Mary Kaye 's Baby '' , the fourth to be produced and the third broadcast ) . Cast and characters ( edit ) Cast of The Dukes of Hazzard ( from left ) : ( bottom ) Flash , John Schneider , Tom Wopat , Catherine Bach , Denver Pyle , Peggy Rea ; ( top ) Ben Jones , Sorrell Booke , James Best , Sonny Shroyer Character Portrayed by Season Reunion ! Hazzard in Hollywood 5 6 7 Luke Duke Tom Wopat Main Recurring Main Bo Duke John Schneider Main Recurring Main Daisy Duke Catherine Bach Main Jesse Duke Denver Pyle Main Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane James Best Main Boss Hogg Sorrell Booke Main Cooter Davenport Ben Jones Main Deputy Enos Strate Sonny Shroyer Main Recurring Main Deputy Cletus Hogg Rick Hurst Recurring Main Guest Main Coy Duke Byron Cherry Main Vance Duke Christopher Mayer Main The Balladeer Waylon Jennings Main Main characters ( edit ) Luke Duke ( Tom Wopat ) is the dark - haired , older Duke boy . More mature and rational than his cousin Bo , he is typically the one who thinks of the plan that will get the two out of whatever trouble they have gotten into . Luke wears a checked blue shirt ( a plain blue shirt in most , though not all , second - season episodes ) and a denim jacket over it in first season and a few later second - season which means he wears Double Denim episodes and he also wears Dark Blue jeans with a belt with a fish belt buckle with black boots and later brown boots and a few other checker and plaid shirts in later episodes and seasons of the show . He is a veteran of the United States Marine Corps and a former boxer . Luke was the first Duke to perform the `` hood slide '' across The General Lee , which is seen in the opening credits of the show ( a shot taken from the second episode , `` Daisy 's Song '' ) and later told by Tom Wopat to be an accident , because his foot got caught on the side of the General Lee when he attempted to jump across the hood ; he also caught his thigh on the hood 's radio antenna , cutting himself , resulting in such antennas being removed from later versions of the General Lee which those later versions looked similar to the ones in The Dukes of Hazzard film . However , the `` hood slide '' quickly proved popular and became a regular staple of episodes . The only episode to directly reference the age difference between Luke and Bo is in the seventh season opener , the `` flashback '' episode `` Happy Birthday , General Lee , '' where it is stated that Luke had already been in the Marines while Bo was in his last year at high school . Though Bo and Luke share the CB call sign `` Lost Sheep , '' in Season One episode `` Money to Burn , '' Luke referred to himself ( singularly ) as `` Sittin ' Duck . '' Bo Duke ( John Schneider ) is the blond - haired , younger Duke boy ( Wopat and Schneider are nine years apart from each other 's age when Bo and Luke are supposed to be three years apart from each other 's age ) . He is more of the `` shoot first , ask questions later '' type than Luke , and is often the one to get the duo into the various scrapes in which they find themselves , although the character did mature slightly as the series progressed ; he is also the one more likely to have his eye , or heart , distracted by a pretty girl . Bo has a crush on many women in some episodes , which proves to be the Achilles ' heel that leads the Dukes into trouble in several episode plots . Bo usually wears a cream - yellow shirt ; it is a stronger yellow in the first and second season , a lighter cream color from the third season , and in the sixth and seventh season has more of a grey hue to it , in season 6 and season 7 he wears a tan brown shirt and more of dark blue jeans . ( The only break from this norm is in the second episode produced and broadcast , `` Daisy 's Song , '' where Bo wears a red shirt for much of the story , and a sequence in the fifth episode , `` High Octane , '' where he wears a light blue shirt . Many early publicity shots show the character to be wearing a dark blue denim shirt . ) For the first two seasons he wears a blue T - shirt underneath ( brown in the first episode ) ; this was slowly phased out during the third season . An ex-stock car driver , Bo is the one who drives The General Lee most of the time with Luke riding shotgun . He and Luke take turns of driving the General Lee in some episodes as they share the car with each other ( very early episodes suggest that it belongs solely to him ; Luke is said to have a car that Cooter had wrecked shortly prior to the start of the opening episode , `` One Armed Bandits '' ) . Bo is known for his rebel yell , `` Yeeeee - Haaa , '' which he usually yells when the General Lee is airborne during a jump . The Duke boys share the CB call sign or handle `` Lost Sheep '' . Daisy Duke ( Catherine Bach ) is Bo , Luke , Coy , and Vance 's cousin . She is beautiful , honest , and kind , although she can sometimes be slightly over-trusting and naïve , which has led the Duke family into trouble on a number of occasions , but for the most part can handle herself well . She sometimes aspires to be a songwriter and singer , and at other times , a reporter . She races around Hazzard with her cousins , first in a yellow and black 1974 Plymouth Road Runner ( later a 1972 model was used ) and then , from mid-Season 2 on , in her trademark white 1980 Jeep CJ - 7 , christened `` Dixie '' with a golden eagle emblem on the hood ( and the name `` Dixie '' on the hood sides ) . Daisy works as a waitress at the Boar 's Nest , the local bar and pub owned by Boss Hogg , as part of an agreement with Boss Hogg so that he would give Uncle Jesse and the boys a loan for a lower interest rate so the boys could purchase the entry fee for a race in which they wished to race the General Lee . The arrangement was supposed to be for an indefinite time , but there are several times throughout the series when Hogg fires her . However , he always ends up rehiring her at the end of each episode because of various circumstances . Although Hogg is a nemesis to Daisy and her family , she is best friends with Hogg 's wife Lulu . Daisy often uses her looks and her position at the restaurant to get insider information to help the Dukes in foiling Hogg 's various schemes . She also has the distinction of having her trademark provocatively high - cut jean short shorts named after her : `` Daisy Dukes '' . Her CB handle is `` Bo Peep . '' Occasionally , the variant of `` Country Cousin '' is used . Jesse Duke ( Denver Pyle ) , referred to by just about everyone in Hazzard other than Boss Hogg as `` Uncle Jesse '' , is the patriarch of the Duke clan , and the father - figure to all Dukes who stay with him on the somewhat dilapidated `` Duke Farm . '' Jesse apparently has no children of his own , and happily provides for his nephews and niece in the unexplained absence of all of their parents ( Gy Waldron , the creator of the show , states on the DVDs that their parents were killed in a car wreck , but it was never mentioned in the show ) . In the third broadcast episode , `` Mary Kaye 's Baby '' , Jesse says that he has delivered many babies , including Bo and Luke . Jesse Duke , in his youth , had been a ridge - runner in direct competition with Boss Hogg whom he always calls `` JD '' . However , while both Boss Hogg and Uncle Jesse would scowl at the mention of the other 's name , the two enjoyed a lifelong `` friendship '' of sorts , with one helping the other when in desperate need . Jesse educated his nephews against Hogg , and often provides the cousins with inspirational sage advice . Uncle Jesse drives a white 1973 Ford F - 100 pickup truck . In the barn , he also has his old moonshine - running car , called `` Sweet Tillie '' in its first appearance ( in the first - season episode `` High Octane '' ) , but referred to as `` Black Tillie '' in subsequent appearances . In the second - season episode `` Follow That Still '' and the sixth - season episode `` The Boars Nest Bears '' , the marriage to and death of his wife is mentioned ; he also mentions marrying her in the first - season episode `` Luke 's Love Story '' . His CB handle is `` Shepherd . '' Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane ( James Best ) ( 1979 -- 1985 , 1997 , 2000 ) is the bumbling and corrupt sheriff of Hazzard County and right - hand man and brother - in - law of its corrupt county administrator , Jefferson Davis `` J.D. '' Hogg ( `` Boss Hogg '' ) , whom Rosco calls his `` little fat buddy '' , `` Little Chrome Dome '' , `` Little Meadow - Muffin '' , and several other names . In the early episodes , it is mentioned that Rosco spent the first 20 years of his career as a mostly honest lawman , but after the county voted away his pension Rosco joined Hogg in an effort to fund his retirement in his last couple of years as sheriff . Early episodes also portray him as a fairly hard - nosed , somewhat darker policeman character , who even shoots a criminal during the first season . As the series progressed and producers recognized how popular it had become with children , James Best altered his portrayal into a more bumbling , comical character . By the end of the first season , his origin had been virtually forgotten ( and his job as sheriff appeared to become open ended ) . Rosco is also the younger brother of Lulu Coltrane Hogg ( Boss Hogg 's wife ) . Rosco frequently initiates car chases with Bo and Luke Duke , but the Duke boys usually elude Rosco by outwitting him , with Rosco typically wrecking his patrol car as a result from which he would nearly always escape unscathed . ( Only two episodes -- the fourth season 's `` Coltrane vs. Duke '' and season six 's `` Too Many Roscos '' -- toy with the concept of him being injured . The first episode has him faking injury so the Duke Boys would lose the General Lee while the latter has James Best playing two characters . His normal character , Rosco , is presumed drowned while a criminal that looks like Rosco has a headache . ) These chases are often the result of Rosco setting up illegal speed traps such as false or changing speed limit signs and various other trickery , which would evolve into being increasingly more cartoonish and far - fetched as the seasons passed . While he enjoys `` hot pursuit '' he seemingly ( Boss Hogg as well ) never intends for anyone to get seriously hurt . His middle initial , ' P ' , was added at the start of the second season , and only one episode ( the third season 's `` Mrs. Rosco P. Coltrane '' , in which he is subjected to a scam marriage ) reveals his middle name , `` Purvis '' . Rosco also has a soft spot for his basset hound Flash , introduced at the start of the third season . His radio codename is `` Red Dog '' . When James Best briefly boycotted the show during the mid-second season , he was temporarily replaced by several `` one - off '' Sheriffs , the longest standing being Sheriff Grady Bird , played by Dick Sargent , who appeared in two episodes ( `` Jude Emery '' and `` Officer Daisy Duke '' ) . Boss Jefferson Davis `` J.D. '' Hogg ( Sorrell Booke ) is the wealthiest man in Hazzard County and owns most of its property and businesses -- whether directly or by holding the mortgages over the land . Usually dressed in an all - white suit , he is the fat , greedy , corrupt County Commissioner with visions of grandeur , a voracious appetite for food , who constantly orders Rosco to `` Get them Duke Boys ! '' He is also Bo and Luke 's Probation officer , when Bo and Luke need to leave Hazzard they always get permission from him . Boss Hogg is also married to ( and dominated by ) Rosco 's `` fat sister '' ( Lulu Hogg ) , a point that does not always sit well with either Boss Hogg or Rosco ; Hogg sometimes claims that Rosco is indebted to him because of it , though his on - screen interactions with Lulu typically show him loving her deeply ( and giving in to her stronger personality ) . In addition to his role as county commissioner he is also the police commissioner , land commissioner , and bank president . Boss is also the chief of the Hazzard Fire Department and the owner of or primary mortgage holder on most of the places in the county , including the Boar 's Nest , Rhubottem 's Store , Cooter 's garage and the Duke Farm . It is implied in some episodes that he is the Justice of the Peace but in others Hazzard relies on a circuit judge . In the episode `` Coltrane vs. Duke '' , Hogg represents Rosco when he sues the Dukes , implying that he is a licensed attorney . His vehicle is a white 1970 Cadillac Coupe de Ville convertible , with bull horns mounted on the hood . In the first few seasons , he is almost always driven around by a chauffeur . His old moonshine - running car was called the `` Grey Ghost '' . Every morning , Boss Hogg would drink coffee and eat raw liver ( Sorrell Booke , a method actor , actually ate the raw liver ) . Boss Hogg is described in one analysis as `` an ineffectual bad guy -- hence amusing '' . Cooter Davenport ( Ben Jones ) is the Hazzard County mechanic , nicknamed `` Crazy Cooter '' . In the early episodes , he is a wild man , often breaking the law ( such as stealing the Sheriff 's patrol car for impounding his in `` One Armed Bandits '' , reportedly borrowing Luke 's car prior to the same episode and using it to `` run the sheriff off the road to make him mad '' to facilitate the aforementioned theft of the sheriff 's car , running moonshine for Boss Hogg in `` Mary Kaye 's Baby '' , seemingly breaking into Boss Hogg 's home to retrieve a trophy for an upcoming race in `` Luke 's Love Story '' , and `` borrowing '' the President 's Limousine for a joy - ride ( `` Limo One Is Missing '' ) when it is accidentally left unguarded . By the end of the first season , he has settled down and become an easy going good ol ' boy . Although not mentioned in the first couple of episodes , by the mid-first season , he owns `` Cooter 's Garage '' in Hazzard County Square , directly across from the Sheriff 's Department . Cooter is an `` Honorary Duke '' , as he shares the same values and often assists the Dukes in escaping Rosco 's clutches , or helps them to foil Boss Hogg 's schemes . During the second season , Ben Jones left the series for a few episodes due to a dispute over whether the character should be clean shaven or have a full beard . In his absence , Cooter 's place was filled by several of Cooter 's supposed cousins who were never mentioned before or since . Jones returned when the dispute was solved -- Cooter would be clean shaven ( although , for continuity reasons , with the episodes being broadcast in a different order to that which they were filmed , he was not clean shaven until the third season onwards ) . Cooter drives a variety of trucks , including Fords , Chevys , and GMCs . His CB handle is `` Crazy Cooter '' and he often starts his CB transmissions with `` Breaker one , Breaker one , I might be crazy but I ai n't dumb , Craaaazy Cooter comin ' atcha , come on . '' Deputy Enos Strate ( Sonny Shroyer ) ( 1979 -- 1980 , 1982 -- 1985 , 1997 , 2000 ) is a friend of the Dukes , but , while working for Rosco and Boss is often forced into pursuing the Dukes and / or arresting them on trumped - up charges . In the early episodes , Enos is shown to be a rather good driver ( and respected as such by Bo and Luke ) , but by the end of the first season , he is shown to be as incompetent a driver as Rosco . When he returns from his stint in Los Angeles , he seems to be able to stand up to Boss and Rosco slightly more , and sometimes refuses to participate in their schemes . In the early episodes , Rosco frequently calls him `` jackass '' , which soon evolved into the more family - friendly `` dipstick '' as the show became a hit with younger viewers ( though Boss Hogg , who would also use the term `` jackass '' of Sheriff Rosco , would occasionally return to calling Enos this in later seasons ) . Enos has a crush on Daisy Duke that she often uses to the Dukes ' advantage in unraveling Hogg and Rosco 's schemes . Enos is very much in love with Daisy , and although Daisy seems to love him back , it is supposedly only as a close friend . In the penultimate episode , `` Enos and Daisy 's Wedding '' , the two plan on getting married , only to have Enos call it off at the last minute due to an attack of hives , brought on by the excitement of possibly being married to Daisy . Later , in the first reunion movie , Enos and Daisy become a pair again and plan to get married , but this time Daisy backs out at the last minute , upon the unexpected sight of her ex-husband . Deputy Cletus Hogg ( Rick Hurst ) ( 1979 -- 1982 , 1997 , 2000 ) , Boss Hogg 's second cousin twice removed , is generally friendly and dim - witted . Like Enos , Cletus is often forced by Rosco and Hogg to chase the Dukes on trumped up charges . While Cletus is good - hearted , and sometimes resentful of having to treat the Dukes in such a way , he is somewhat more willing to go along with Hogg and Rosco than Enos . Cletus has a crush ( though not as bad as Enos ' crush ) on Daisy and is even convinced she wants to marry him . Like Enos and Rosco , Cletus frequently ends up landing in a pond when pursuing the Duke boys in a car chase . Cletus makes his first appearance as the driver of a bank truck , part of Hogg 's latest get - rich - scheme , in the first - season episode `` Money To Burn '' , and becomes temporary deputy while Enos is away in the second - season episodes `` The Meeting '' and `` Road Pirates '' . Leaving a job at the local junkyard , he becomes permanent deputy in the third season 's `` Enos Strate to the Top '' . After Enos ' return , the pair both serve as deputies and share the same patrol car until 1997 's reunion movie . Each of the Hazzard County Sheriff 's Department officers drives various mid - to late - 1970s Chrysler mid-size B body patrol cars , most often a Dodge Monaco or Plymouth Fury . Coy Duke ( Byron Cherry ) ( 1982 -- 1983 ) , is another blond - haired cousin who moves to Uncle Jesse 's farm along with his cousin Vance after Bo and Luke left Hazzard to join the NASCAR circuit in season 5 . Like his cousin Bo , he often drives the General Lee and is a bit wilder than Vance and chases women ; he and Vance are only in the first 19 episodes of season 5 and Coy and Vance are in only one episode with their cousins Bo and Luke when they return from the NASCAR Circuit . Supposedly , with cousin Vance , Coy had previously lived on the Duke farm until 1976 , before the series had started . Vance Duke ( Christopher Mayer ) ( 1982 -- 1983 ) , an obvious replacement for Luke , filled the void of a dark - haired Duke on the show . Like Luke , Vance is more the thinker and the planner of the duo along with being more mature than Coy and he is also a former Merchant Marine . The Balladeer ( voice of Waylon Jennings ) sings and plays the Dukes of Hazzard theme song , `` Good Ol ' Boys '' , and also serves as the show 's narrator . During each episode , he provides an omniscient viewpoint of the situations presented , and regularly interjects comical asides during crucial plot points ( often , during a freeze frame of a cliffhanger scene right before a commercial break ) and `` down home '' aphorisms . ( These freeze - frame cliffhangers were often abridged in showings in some countries , such as the commercial - free BBC in the United Kingdom . ) After numerous requests from fans to see the Balladeer on - screen , Jennings finally appeared in one episode , the seventh season 's aptly titled `` Welcome , Waylon Jennings '' , in which he was presented as an old friend of the Dukes . Flash ( Sandy and others ) is a slow - paced Basset Hound and Rosco 's loyal companion , who hates Hogg but loves the Dukes . She first appeared in the first official third - season episode `` Enos Strate to the Top '' ( season opener `` Carnival of Thrills '' was held over from the previous season ) , although was not formally `` introduced '' in that episode . Initially referred to as a boy , Flash is later regularly a girl ( despite an occasional male reference afterwards ) . Flash was added at the start of the third season , after James Best suggested to the producers that Rosco have a dog . Rosco doted on Flash , often calling her `` Velvet Ears . '' Flash was portrayed by several Basset Hounds ( distinguishable by different facial colors ) , the most regular being `` Sandy '' . James Best bought a share of Sandy , who was rescued from an animal shelter and was trained by Alvin Mears of Alvin Animal Rentals . Sandy lived to age 14 . A stuffed dog named Flush was used for dangerous work . The pilot episode was to include a barber modeled after Floyd Lawson on The Andy Griffith Show as a regular character , but was eliminated when the final draft of the pilot 's script was written and before the show was cast . When John Schneider auditioned for the role of Bo Duke , he came to the audition in a dilapidated pickup truck , sporting a week - long beard growth , wearing overalls and a white T - shirt with a pack of cigarettes rolled up in a sleeve collar , and carrying a can of beer , trying to look the part . At the audition , Schneider drank the beer and said he was from Snellville . The producers bought his `` Good Ol ' Boy '' act and Schneider was hired on the spot . Recurring characters ( edit ) Character Actor Info Lulu Coltrane Hogg Peggy Rea Boss Hogg 's wife , Hughie Hogg 's aunt , and Rosco 's sister . Lulu constantly challenged her husband for authority and rallied for the equality of women in Hazzard , and was one of the few people in Hazzard whom Boss was actually intimidated by , though he genuinely loved and cared for her . Although much mentioned , Lulu only appeared once during the first season ( in the episode `` Repo Men '' ) and once during the second season ( `` The Rustlers '' ) , before her appearances gradually increased over the third season . By the fourth season , she was a frequently - seen recurring character . Initially in her single first and second season appearances , she was portrayed to be rather spoiled and selfish ; as her appearances increased , the character evolved into being more caring and kind -- often to the contrast of Boss , and which on occasion proved to be his downfall or Achilles ' heel . Although Boss is a nemesis to the Dukes , Lulu is best friends with Daisy . Myrtle / Mabel Tillingham Lindsay Bloom Mabel is Hogg 's cousin who runs the Hazzard Phone Company , who often sneak listens to calls and lets Hogg know what 's going on . Her name mysteriously changed from Myrtle to Mabel midway through the second season . Longstreet B. Davenport Ernie Lively ( credited as Ernie W. Brown ) L.B. was Cooter 's cousin who filled for Cooter when he was away from the garage in several second - season episodes ( in reality , this was to cover for Ben Jones ' absence , after a disagreement with producers as to whether Cooter should have a beard or not ) . L.B. appeared in the episodes `` Follow that Still '' , `` Duke of Duke '' `` The Runaway '' , before Jones returned to the series ; the episode `` Grannie Annie '' also features another temporary Cooter replacement , Mickey Jones as B.B. Davenport . Ernie Lively also played a different character named `` Dobro Doolan '' , a friend of Bo and Luke , in the first episode of the series , `` One Armed Bandits '' ( where he was credited as Ernie Brown ) , and as a guard called Clyde in the later sixth - season episode `` The Ransom of Hazzard County '' . With Cooter 's temporary absence , it was never fully explained why one of his relations was suddenly running the garage in his place ; and in a similar vein to Coy and Vance in the fifth season , both of these cousins of Cooter were very much clones of the original character , and were never mentioned before or after their temporary spells replacing the original character . Hughie Hogg Jeff Altman Boss Hogg 's young nephew , said to be as crooked as -- maybe even more crooked than -- Hogg . Dressed in an all - white suit just like his Uncle Boss , Hughie drove or was chauffeured around in a white VW Beetle with bull horns on the hood , similar to Boss Hogg 's Cadillac . Typically , Boss Hogg would call in Hughie once per season to come up with a particularly dastardly scheme to get rid of the Dukes . Hughie 's seemingly flawless plots would always end up in disaster , and Boss Hogg would end up throwing him out of Hazzard at the end of the episode . Despite this , Hogg would always give Hughie `` one last chance '' on his next appearance . On some later appearances , Hughie would worm is way back into Hazzard by coming up with a scheme and then persuading Hogg to go along with it , often by bribery . The character of Hughie was first introduced in the episode `` Uncle Boss '' , produced as the second episode of the second season but not broadcast until the third season ( for unknown reasons , and just several episodes prior to `` The Return of Hughie Hogg '' ) . By that time , Hughie had already been seen as Temporary Sheriff in the second - season episode `` Arrest Jesse Duke '' in which he appeared in a secondary role , written in at the last minute to cover Sheriff Rosco 's absence during James Best 's temporary boycott of the show . He acted somewhat out of character of his usual conniving self in the episode , due to being given most of Rosco 's lines . Like the two Hazzard County deputies , Hughie has eyes for Daisy Duke , but his feelings are merely of a selfish lustful nature ; Daisy despises Hughie , and thus the only reason that she 'll ever appear to return Hughie 's interest is merely to charm him into relaxing his guard or lure him away from a certain area till other townspeople can prepare to act against him , thus preventing him from subjecting Hazzard County to additional corruption . Wayne / Norris Roger Torrey One of Hughie 's loyal duo of henchman . Played by the same actor but with different names on different occasions . Floyd / Barclay Pat Studstill The other of Hughie 's duo of henchman . He and Norris were both bigger than Bo and Luke , but nonetheless struggled in fights against them . Again played by the same actor , but with different names on different occasions . Emery Potter Charlie Dell Emery Potter is the part - time Hazzard County registrar and chief teller of the Hazzard Bank . Emery is a meek , soft - spoken man with a low tolerance for anything exciting . He is a friend of the Dukes , and sometimes falls under Hogg 's crooked schemes simply because he is too timid to stand up for himself . First seen in the second - season episode `` People 's Choice '' , the character made several return appearances across the seasons . He has also served as Temporary Deputy on occasion . Dr. Henry `` Doc '' Petticord Patrick Cranshaw Hazzard County 's ancient , long - serving physician . Miz ( Emma ) Tisdale Nedra Volz The postmistress of the Hazzard Post Office , Miz Tisdale ( `` Emma '' to Jesse Duke ) was an elderly woman who drove a motorcycle and had a huge crush on Uncle Jesse because they knew each - other long ago . She was also a reporter for the Hazzard Gazzette . Sheriff Edward Thomas `` Big Ed '' Little Don Pedro Colley The hulking chief law enforcement officer ( driving a 1975 Plymouth Fury patrol car ) of neighboring Chickasaw County , and the only recurring character in the series played by a black actor . Sheriff Little had a tendency to punch and kick fenders and doors off of cars he wrecked , in anger . He was also not afraid to pull out his trusty 12 - gauge shotgun and open fire . He is also a Left hander Police officer , The ill - tempered sheriff hated Bo , Luke , Daisy , Coy , Vance , Uncle Jesse , Cooter , Enos and Cletus immensely and they were well aware that Bo and Luke were not allowed to enter his county . Sheriff Little was constantly irritated by the bumbling performance of Rosco and the crookedness of Hogg , although he thought highly of Enos ; Little was strict , by - the - book , and a competent law officer , everything that Sheriff Rosco was not ( although he too had little luck in capturing Bo and Luke ) . He had a wife named Rachel and also a daughter . Before Sheriff Little was introduced , in the third - season episode `` My Son , Bo Hogg '' , several first and second - season episodes saw several similar tough - as - nails Sheriffs from adjoining counties . Mr. Rhuebottom John Wheeler A local store owner , seen occasionally from the fourth - season episode `` Pin the Tail on the Dukes '' onwards . ( The Rhuebottom General Store shopfront is seen as early as the first - season episode `` Luke 's Love Story '' ) Dr. `` Doc '' Appleby Elmore Vincent , later Parley Baer Elderly successor to Doc Petticord . Played by Elmore Vincent on the character 's first appearance , in the fourth - season episode `` Dear Diary '' , before Parley Baer took over the role in subsequent appearances . Elton Ritchie Montgomery A disc jockey on the local WHOGG radio station , seen in the sixth - season episode `` Enos 's Last Chance '' and the late seventh - season episode `` Strange Visitor To Hazzard '' , and referred to along with the radio station in several other episodes . Other than actor M.C. Gainey ( who played Sheriff Rosco in the 2005 movie version and had previously played a villain in the fourth - season episode `` Bad Day in Hazzard '' ) , Ritchie Montgomery is the only actor to appear in both episode ( s ) of the TV series and the 2005 movie ( where he plays the small role of a State Trooper ) . Montgomery mentions this in a feature on DVD versions of the movie . Notable guest appearances ( edit ) Throughout its network television run , The Dukes of Hazzard had a consistent mix of up - and - comers and established stars make guest appearances . Robert Alda Carlos Brown / Alan Autry Anthony De Longis James Avery Norman Alden Rayford Barnes Pat Buttram Dennis Burkley Clancy Brown Regis Cordic Charles Cyphers Roz Kelly Conlan Carter Ji - Tu Cumbuka Ben Davidson Elinor Donahue Jason Evers Jonathan Frakes Janie Fricke Michael Fairman David Graf David Gale Joy Garrett M.C. Gainey Henry Gibson Burton Gilliam Dennis Haskins Ernie Hudson Kevin Peter Hall Waylon Jennings Arte Johnson Stepfanie Kramer Lance LeGault Loretta Lynn Britt Leach Jon Locke Brion James Arte Johnson L.Q. Jones Frank Marth Robin Mattson John Matuszak Donald May Gerald McRaney Louise Minchin Richard Moll Chris Mulkey Charles Napier Tim O'Connor Roy Orbison Johnny Paycheck Kim Richards Hari Rhodes Dick Sargent Ronnie Schell Avery Schreiber Judson Scott Reid Smith William Smith Les Tremayne Mel Tillis Mary Treen Lurene Tuttle Lewis Van Bergen Joseph Whipp Dottie West Hal Williams Steven Williams Terry Wilson ( his last role ) Morgan Woodward Tammy Wynette Cale Yarborough Others ( edit ) NASCAR driver Terry Labonte makes a brief , uncredited appearance as a crewman in the episode Undercover Dukes Part 1 . The race cars supplied for both part 1 and part 2 of Undercover Dukes were supplied by Labonte 's race owner , Billy Hagan . However , the emblems of the sponsors of the cars ( at that time Labonte was sponsored by Budweiser ) were covered to avoid paying royalties . The celebrity speed trap ( edit ) During the show 's second season , the show 's writers began flirting with the idea of incorporating a `` celebrity speed trap '' into some of the episodes , as a means to feature top country stars of the day performing their hits . On its first couple of instances , the `` Speed Trap '' was featured early in the story , but for most of the cases , it was featured in the last few minutes of an episode , often used when the main story was running too short to fill episode time . The `` celebrity speed trap '' feature was essentially similar : Aware that a big - name country star was passing through the area , Boss Hogg would order Rosco to lower the speed limit on a particular road to an unreasonable level ( using a reversible sign , with one speed limit on one side and another , far lower , on the back ) , so that the targeted singer would be in violation of the posted limit . The singer would be required to give a free performance at the Boar 's Nest in exchange for having their citations forgiven ; the performer would then perform one of their best - known hits or other popular country music standard , while the Dukes , Boss , Rosco , Enos , Cletus , Cooter , and other patrons whooped and hollered in enjoyment of the performance . More often than not , the performer would give a sarcastic parting shot to Boss and Rosco . Singers who were featured in the `` speed trap '' segments were : Hoyt Axton Donna Fargo Freddy Fender Doug Kershaw ( on the original soundtrack ) The Oak Ridge Boys ( twice ) Roy Orbison Buck Owens Johnny Paycheck ( lip - syncing an original recording ) Mel Tillis Dottie West Tammy Wynette Waylon Jennings ( the show 's narrator ) Honorable Mentions : Mickey Gilley , Loretta Lynn Gilley 's and Lynn 's appearances were not solely for the celebrity speed trap . After performing a concert in Hazzard , Gilley was nabbed while leaving and forced to do a second show to nullify his citation . Lynn was kidnapped by criminals wanting to break into the music business . Loretta Lynn was the very first country music guest star on the show in 1979 and had an entire show titled `` Find Loretta Lynn . '' Note : Janie Fricke was the only guest country star who did not perform a song , celebrity speed trap or otherwise . She played an accomplice to a robber in an episode who hid money in the dashboard of the car that was to become the General Lee . Casting of Coy & Vance ( edit ) Christopher Mayer and Byron Cherry as Vance and Coy Duke , respectively The Dukes of Hazzard was consistently among the top - rated television series ( at one point , ranking second only to Dallas , which immediately followed the show on CBS ' Friday night schedule ) . With that success came huge profits in merchandising , with a wide array of Dukes of Hazzard toys and products being licensed and becoming big sellers . However , over the course of the show 's fourth season , series stars Tom Wopat and John Schneider became increasingly concerned about a contract dispute over their salaries and merchandising royalties owed to them over the high sales of Dukes products . Neither were being paid what was owed to them and this became very frustrating to the duo . As a result , in the spring of 1982 , as filming was due to begin on the fifth season , Wopat and Schneider did not report to the set in protest over the matter . Catherine Bach also considered walking out due to similar concerns , but Wopat and Schneider convinced her to stay , insisting that if she left then there may not be a show to come back to , and that settling the issue was up to them . Production was pushed back by a few weeks as fairly similar looking replacements were subsequently , hastily hired : Byron Cherry as Coy Duke and Christopher Mayer as Vance Duke . Bo and Luke were said to have gone to race on the NASCAR circuit ; how they managed to do this , bearing in mind the terms of their probation , was never explained . Cherry and Mayer were originally contracted at just ten episodes as stand - ins , still with hope that a settlement might be reached with Wopat and Schneider ( in total , they made 19 episodes including 1 with Bo and Luke ) . Some scripts for Coy and Vance were originally written for Bo and Luke but with their names quite literally crossed out and Coy and Vance penned in . The new Dukes -- previously - unmentioned nephews of Uncle Jesse , who were said to have left the farm in 1976 , before the show had started -- were unpopular with the great majority of viewers , and the ratings immediately sank . Much of the criticism was that Coy and Vance were nothing but direct clones of Bo and Luke , with Coy a direct `` carbon copy '' replacement for Bo and Vance for Luke , with little variation in character . This was something that even show creator Gy Waldron has said was wrong , and that he insisted , unsuccessfully , that audiences would not accept direct character clones and the two replacements should be taken in a different direction characterwise , but was overridden by producers . Waldron also commented that if Bach too had walked , the show would have most probably been cancelled . It was reported that prior to filming , Cherry and Mayer were given Bo and Luke episodes to watch , to study and learn to emulate them , although Cherry has said in interviews that he does n't recall this ever happening . Hit hard by the significant drop in ratings , Warner Bros. renegotiated with Wopat and Schneider , and eventually a settlement was reached , and the original Duke boys returned to the series in early 1983 , four episodes from the conclusion of the fifth season . Initially , part of the press release announcing Wopat and Schneider 's return suggested that Cherry and Mayer would remain as part of the cast ( though presumably in a reduced role ) , but it was quickly realized that `` four Duke boys '' would not work within the context of the series , and due to the huge unpopularity associated with their time on the show , they were quickly written out of the same episode in which Bo and Luke returned . Return of Bo and Luke ( edit ) Although Coy and Vance were never popular with the majority , a few viewers were disappointed by their departure episode , `` Welcome Back , Bo ' N ' Luke '' , which was for the most part a standard episode , with the return of Bo and Luke and the departure of Coy and Vance tacked onto the beginning ( Bo and Luke return from their NASCAR tour just as Coy and Vance leave Hazzard to tend to a sick relative ) . Even a few viewers commented that they were disappointed by this , and that they would have liked to have seen both pairs of Duke boys team up to tackle a particularly dastardly plot by Boss Hogg before Coy and Vance 's departure , but as it turned out , Coy and Vance had little dialogue and were gone by the first commercial break , never to be seen again . While the return of Bo and Luke was welcomed by ardent and casual viewers alike , and as a result ratings recovered slightly , the show never completely regained its former popularity . One of Wopat and Schneider 's disputes even before they left was what they considered to be increasingly weak and formulaic scripts and episode plots . With Wopat and Schneider 's return , the producers agreed to try a wider scope of storylines . However , although it continued for two more seasons , the show never fully returned to its former glory . Many cast members decried the miniature car effects newly incorporated to depict increasingly absurd General Lee and patrol car stunts ( which had previously been performed with real cars by stunt drivers ) . The miniature car effects were intended as a budget saving measure ( to save the cost of repairing or replacing damaged vehicles ) and to help compete visually with KITT from the NBC series Knight Rider . In February 1985 , The Dukes of Hazzard ended its run after seven seasons . Vehicles ( edit ) Main article : General Lee ( car ) The General Lee ( Dodge Charger ) ( edit ) The General Lee Charger The General Lee on public display The General Lee was based on a 1969 Dodge Charger owned by Bo and Luke ( the series used mostly 1969 Chargers in the beginning ; later on , they also modified 1968 Chargers to look like 1969s by installing 1969 - model taillamps , taillamp panels , and grilles ) . It was orange with a Confederate battle flag painted on the roof , the words `` GENERAL LEE '' over each door , and the number `` 01 '' on each door . In the original five Georgia - filmed episodes , a Confederate flag along with a checkered racing flag in a criss - cross pattern could be seen behind the rear window ; this was removed when it was felt that this extra detail did not show up enough on - screen to warrant the already very tight time constraints of preparing and repairing each example of the car . The name refers to the American Civil War Confederate General Robert E. Lee . The television show was based on the movie Moonrunners , in turn based on actual moonshine runners who used a 1958 Chrysler named Traveler , after General Lee 's horse ( with a slight spelling change ) . Traveler was originally intended to be the name of the Duke boys ' stock car too , until producers agreed that General Lee had more punch to it . Since it was built as a race car , the doors were welded shut . Through the history of the show , an estimated 309 Chargers were used ; 17 are still known to exist in various states of repair . A replica was owned by John Schneider , known as `` Bo 's General Lee . '' In 2008 , Schneider sold `` Bo 's General Lee '' at the Barrett - Jackson automobile auction for $230,000 . An eBay auction which garnered a bid of $9,900,500 for the car was never finalized , with the purported bidder claiming his account had been hacked . The underside of the hood has the signatures of the cast from the 1997 TV movie . Schneider has also restored over 20 other General Lees to date . In 2008 , a replica of the General Lee fetched a high bid of $450,000 at the Barrett - Jackson auto auction , indicating the significant interest in the car as a cultural icon . In 2012 , the `` General Lee 1 '' , the first car used in filming the series , was purchased at auction by golfer Bubba Watson for $110,000 . The car had been scrapped after being wrecked during the famous opening jump shoot , and was later discovered in a junk - yard by the president of the North American General Lee fan club . In 2015 , following a wave of sentiment against confederate symbolism in the wake of shootings in Charleston , SC , ( relating to photos where the attacker had posed with the Confederate flag ) , Bubba Watson announced that he would remove the Confederate Flag from the roof of General Lee 1 and repaint it with the US National Flag . The show also used 1968 Chargers ( which shared the same sheet metal ) by changing the grille and taillight panel to the 1969 style , and removing the round side marker lights . These Chargers performed many record - breaking jumps throughout the show , almost all of them resulting in a completely destroyed car . The 1970 Chargers were modified by removing the chrome bumper and changing the taillights . The Duke boys added a custom air horn to the General Lee that played the first twelve notes of the song Dixie . The Dixie horn was not originally planned , until a Georgia local hot rod racer drove by and sounded his car 's Dixie horn . The producers immediately rushed after him asking where he had bought the horn . Warner Bros. purchased several Chargers for stunts , as they generally destroyed at least one or two cars per episode . By the end of the show 's sixth season , the Chargers were becoming harder to find , and more expensive . In addition , the television series Knight Rider began to rival the General Lee 's stunts . As such , the producers used 1 : 8 scale miniatures , filmed by Jack Sessums ' crew , or recycled stock jump footage -- the latter being a practice that had been in place to an extent since the second season , and had increased as the seasons passed . Some of the 01 and Confederate flag motifs were initially hand painted , but as production sped up , these were replaced with vinyl decals for quick application ( and removal ) , as needed . During the first five episodes of the show that were filmed in Georgia , the cars involved with filming were given to the crew at H&H body shop near the filming location . At this shop , the men worked day and night to prepare the wrecked cars for the next day while still running their body shop during the day . Time was of the essence , and the men that worked at this shop worked hard hours to get the cars prepared for the show . The third episode `` Mary Kaye 's Baby '' is the only one in which the General Lee does not appear . Instead , the Dukes drove around in a blue 1975 Plymouth Fury borrowed from Cooter that Luke later destroyed by shooting an arrow at the car , whose trunk had been leaking due to the moonshine stowed in the back . The Duke boys ' CB handle was ( jointly ) `` Lost Sheep '' . Originally when the show was conceived , their handle was to be `` General Lee '' to match their vehicle , but this was only ever used on - screen on one occasion , in the second episode , `` Daisy 's Song '' , when Cooter calls Bo and Luke over the CB by this handle , although they were actually driving Daisy 's Plymouth Roadrunner ( see below ) at the time . As it became obvious that the `` General Lee '' handle would be out of place when the Duke boys were in another vehicle , the `` Lost Sheep '' handle was devised ( with Uncle Jesse being `` Shepherd '' and Daisy being `` Bo Peep '' ) . Hazzard police cars ( AMC Matador , Dodge Polara , Dodge Monaco , Plymouth Fury ) ( edit ) 1970 's era Plymouth Fury similar to the ones used in the series The 1975 AMC Matador was one of many different Hazzard County police cars used on the series , mostly in the first season ; they had light bars and working radios . A 1972 Dodge Polara and a 1974 Dodge Monaco were used during the pilot episode `` One Armed Bandits '' , these were also seen in the show 's title sequence . From the second season , the 1977 Dodge Monaco was mostly used . From mid-season four the similar looking 1978 Plymouth Fury was used instead . The Matadors and Furies were former Los Angeles Police Department vehicles , while the Monacos were former California Highway Patrol units . Plymouth Road Runner ( edit ) A 1974 Plymouth Road Runner ( yellow with a black stripe ) was Daisy Duke 's car in the first five episodes of the first season . For the last episodes of the first season a similarly painted 1971 model with a matching `` Road Runner '' stripe was used . In the second season Bo and Luke send it off a cliff in `` The Runaway . '' Another identical Plymouth 1971 model car appeared in the background a few more episodes along with the Jeep CJ - 7 until it was finally dropped altogether . Jeep CJ - 7 ( edit ) Dixie was the name given to Daisy Duke 's white 1980 Jeep CJ - 7 `` Golden Eagle '' which had a golden eagle emblem on the hood and the name `` Dixie '' on the sides . Like other vehicles in the show , there was actually more than one Jeep used throughout the series . Sometimes it would have an automatic transmission , and other times it would be a manual . The design of the roll cage also varied across the seasons . When the Jeep was introduced at the end of the second season 's `` The Runaway '' , it was seen to have doors and a slightly different paint job , but , bar one appearance in the next produced episode , `` Arrest Jesse Duke '' ( actually broadcast before `` The Runaway '' , causing a continuity error ) , thereafter the doors were removed and the paint job was made all - white , with `` Dixie '' painted on the sides of the hood . These Jeeps were leased to the producers of the show by American Motors Corporation in exchange for a brief mention in the closing credits of the show . Ford F - 100 pickup truck ( edit ) Uncle Jesse 's truck was a white Ford pickup truck , most commonly a Sixth generation ( 1973 -- 1977 ) F100 Styleside . However , in the earliest episodes it had a Flareside bed , and varied between F100 and F250 models throughout the show 's run . Bo , Luke and Daisy also drove Jesse 's truck on occasion . Cadillac Coupe de Ville ( edit ) A White 1970 Cadillac De Ville convertible was used as Boss Hogg 's car , notably with large bull horns as a hood ornament . In early seasons , Hogg was almost always driven by a chauffeur , who was normally nameless and had little or no dialogue , but identified on occasion as being called `` Alex '' ; and played by several different uncredited actors , including stuntman Gary Baxley . This chauffeur would often be dressed in a red plaid shirt and deep brown or black Stetson hat , but on occasion would be an older man , sometimes dressed in more typical chauffeur attire . Hogg is first seen to drive for himself in the second season opener `` Days of Shine and Roses '' , where he and Jesse challenge each other to one last moonshine race . From the fourth season onward , except for a couple of brief reappearances of the chauffeur ( during the fourth season ) , Hogg drove himself around in his Cadillac ( or occasionally driven by Rosco and , in the series ' finale , by Uncle Jesse ) and frequently challenged others by invoking his driving expertise from his days as a ridge - runner . Unlike other vehicles in the series , Boss Hogg 's Cadillac is typically treated with kid gloves . The car is almost always seen with its convertible top down , with the top only being seen in two episodes , `` Daisy 's Song '' ( the chauffeur was called `` Eddie '' in this episode ) , the second to be produced and broadcast , and briefly in the second - season episode `` Witness for the Persecution '' , when Cooter is returning it to the Court House after repairs . Ford custom 500 ( edit ) A Green and blacked out 1971 Ford Custom 500 sedan named Black Tilly was used by Uncle Jesse to make moonshine runs . Theme song ( edit ) Main article : Theme from The Dukes of Hazzard ( Good Ol ' Boys ) The theme song `` The Good Ol ' Boys '' was written and performed by Waylon Jennings . He was also `` The Balladeer '' ( as credited ) , and served as narrator of the show . However , the version released as a single is not the same version that was used in the show 's opening credits ; the single version has a repeat of the chorus and an instrumental to pad out the length , uses a different instrumental mix that emphasizes the bass , and replaces the last verse with an inside joke about how the TV show producers `` keep on showing ( Jennings 's ) hands and not ( his ) face on TV . '' In 1980 , the song reached # 1 on the American Country chart and peaked at # 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Broadcast history ( edit ) The series was originally broadcast in America by CBS on Friday nights , at 9 : 00 p.m. and later 8 : 00 p.m. , preceding Dallas . Until TNN ( The Nashville Network ) was purchased by Viacom , it aired reruns of The Dukes of Hazzard . Some months after the creation of `` The National Network '' ( shortly before its change to `` Spike TV '' ) , the program was absent from much of television for quite some time . Viacom 's country music - themed cable network CMT ( the former sister network to TNN ) aired the show from 2005 to 2007 at 8 : 00 p.m. and 9 : 00 p.m. eastern time every weekday . CMT began airing the series in late February 2005 . It also aired Monday -- Thursday on ABC Family . The series was broadcast by BBC1 in the United Kingdom , debuting on Saturday March 3 , 1979 at 9 : 00 pm ( just several months after it began in the US ) . Popular with all ages ( and as some of the more adult elements of very early episodes faded out of the series ) , it quickly moved from its post-watershed position to a more family - friendly Monday evening slot at 7 : 20 pm . Soon a massive hit , it moved from Monday evenings to prime time Saturday evening ( times varied , but typically around 5 : 25 pm ) , where it stayed for a number of years . Later when ratings began to dip ( partly caused by the change to Coy and Vance , and partly to do with competition from ITV , with new hit shows such as The A-Team ) , it moved back to Mondays , making the odd return for short runs on Saturdays . Late episodes also popped up occasionally on Sunday afternoons , and the remaining episodes of the final season were broadcast on weekday mornings during school holidays in the late 1980s . In 1992 , UK satellite channel Sky1 bought a package of the program , owning the rights to the first 60 episodes produced ( running up to `` The Fugitive '' ) , showing the series on Saturday afternoons at 4 p.m. They later showed the episodes they owned again , including a stint showing it in a weekday 3 p.m. slot , running for fifty minutes ( including commercials ) with the episodes heavily edited for time as a result , often leaving gaps in the plot . Despite requests from fans , they did not secure the rights to later episodes . The series was later run on the satellite channels Granada Plus and TNT . UK satellite channel Bravo began airing reruns in August 2005 . In Brazil , the series was named Os Gatões ( The Big Hunks ) , which limited its popularity among the male audience . The series was also shown in the Netherlands by Dutch broadcasting organization AVRO , with Dutch subtitles , rather than being dubbed . It was shown on Nine Network in Australia from September 1979 until the end of the series , and repeated throughout the 1980s , 1990s and 2000s . It was quietly rerun on Pay TV channel TV1 in the 2000s , but is now shown on Nine Network 's subchannel , Go ! . The series was popular in Colombia , dubbed to Spanish . Some late - night reruns continue to the present time . In Italy the series started to air in September 1981 on Canale 5 , under the title Hazzard and quickly became very popular with the viewers . CMT aired The Dukes Ride Again , a special marathon which featured episodes from the first two seasons , on the weekend of September 10 , 2010 and have begun airing episodes weeknights at 7 pm and 11 pm Eastern time starting September 13 , 2010 . The series aired weekdays on New Zealand 's channel The Box . Previously it aired on TVNZ for its original run , being repeated on Saturday afternoons in the early 1990s . CMT began to re-air The Dukes of Hazzard reruns in high - definition , on January 5 , 2014 . TV Land began to air The Dukes of Hazzard reruns on June 10 , 2015 , but removed them just three weeks later as a response to the Charleston church shooting and the ensuing debate over the modern display of the Confederate flag . Syndication ( edit ) Soon before the series ended its original run on CBS , The Dukes of Hazzard went into off - network syndication . Although not as widely run as it was back in the 1980s and the years since , reruns of the program do continue to air in various parts of the United States . Notably , television stations that aired the show in syndication include KCOP Los Angeles , WGN - TV Chicago , KBHK San Francisco , WKBD Detroit , WTAF / WTXF Philadelphia , KTXL Sacramento , WVTV Milwaukee , KMSP Minneapolis -- Saint Paul , among others . Nationwide , the show also aired on ABC Family ( 2000 -- 2001 , 2004 ) and CMT ( 2005 -- 2007 , 2010 -- 2012 , 2014 -- 15 ) and TV Land ( 2015 ) ; TV Land dropped the show in the wake of protests and controversy surrounding the display of the Confederate flag . The Nashville Network bought The Dukes of Hazzard from Warner Bros. in 1997 for well over $10 million ; not only did it improve the network 's ratings , the show was also popular among younger viewers , a demographic TNN had a notorious difficulty in drawing ; The Dukes of Hazzard has run either on TNN or sister network CMT ever since . Nielsen ratings ( edit ) Year Viewers ( Millions ) Rating 1978 -- 1979 21.0 # 20 1979 -- 1980 18.38 # 9 1980 -- 1981 21.81 # 2 1981 -- 1982 18.41 # 6 1982 -- 1983 17.2 # 29 1983 -- 1984 16.4 # 36 1984 -- 1985 13.8 # 61 Episode list ( edit ) Main article : List of The Dukes of Hazzard episodes The show ran for seven seasons and a total of 145 episodes . Many of the episodes followed a similar structure `` out - of - town crooks pull a robbery or commit a crime or scandal , Duke boys blamed , spend the rest of the hour clearing their names , the General Lee flies and the squad cars crash '' . Spin - offs ( edit ) A spin off named Enos aired on CBS starring Sonny Shroyer and lasted 18 episodes before being cancelled . An animated version of the show called The Dukes aired in 1983 and produced by Hanna - Barbera . The first season fell under the Coy and Vance era of the live - action show and thus they were adapted into animated form . By the second season , Bo and Luke had returned , and they replaced Coy and Vance in the cartoon . Several video games based on the show were created : The Dukes of Hazzard for ColecoVision ( 1984 ) and ZX Spectrum ( 1985 ) ; also planned for the Atari 2600 The Dukes of Hazzard : Racing for Home ( 1999 ) The Dukes of Hazzard II : Daisy Dukes It Out ( 2000 ) The Dukes of Hazzard : Return of the General Lee ( 2004 ) In 2005 , the Humana Festival of New American Plays premiered a full - length comedy - drama entitled Hazzard County by Allison Moore . The story centers on a young widowed mother and a visit she receives from a big city television producer . Interspersed with recollections of Bo , Luke , and Daisy , the play takes a deep look at southern `` good ol ' boy '' culture and its popularization through the lens of American mass media . In 2014 , AutoTrader made a commercial where Bo and Luke shop for a new car while being chased . Films ( edit ) There were two made - for - TV reunion movies that aired on CBS , The Dukes of Hazzard Reunion ! ( 1997 ) and The Dukes of Hazzard : Hazzard in Hollywood ( 2000 ) . Also made were The Dukes of Hazzard in 2005 and a direct - to - video prequel The Dukes of Hazzard : The Beginning in 2007 . Home media ( edit ) DVD ( edit ) Warner Home Video has released all seven seasons of The Dukes of Hazzard on DVD in Regions 1 and 2 . The two TV - movies that followed the series were released on DVD in Region 1 on June 10 , 2008 and in Region 4 on June 4 , 2014 . In Region 4 , Warner has released only the first six seasons on DVD and the two TV movies . The Complete Series & 2 unrated feature films box set was released on DVD in Region 1 on November 14 , 2017 . DVD Name Ep # Release dates Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 The Complete 1st Season 13 June 1 , 2004 August 15 , 2005 August 17 , 2005 The Complete 2nd Season 23 January 25 , 2005 September 26 , 2005 August 17 , 2005 The Complete 3rd Season 23 May 31 , 2005 November 21 , 2005 March 1 , 2006 The Complete 4th Season 27 August 2 , 2005 February 13 , 2006 March 1 , 2006 The Complete 5th Season 22 December 13 , 2005 April 10 , 2006 August 9 , 2006 The Complete 6th Season 22 May 30 , 2006 July 24 , 2006 August 9 , 2006 The Complete 7th Season 17 December 5 , 2006 September 22 , 2008 N / A Two Movie Collection June 10 , 2008 N / A June 4 , 2014 The Complete Series & Two unrated feature films box set 147 November 14 , 2017 N / A N / A Streaming ( edit ) The TV series was also made available for streaming and download through a variety of services . Legacy and influence in popular culture ( edit ) In 2005 , Tom Wopat and John Schneider were reunited during `` Exposed '' , a fifth season episode of the television series Smallville . Wopat guest - starred as Kansas State Senator Jack Jennings , an old friend of Clark Kent 's adoptive father Jonathan Kent ( portrayed by Schneider ) . In the episode , Jennings drives a 1968 Dodge Charger -- the same body style as The General Lee . Lizard Lick Towing featured an episode with its repossession specialists Ronnie Shirley and Bobby Brantley repossess a General Lee replica . In 2015 , in the wake of renewed debate about the symbolism of the Confederate battle flag ( which was prominently featured on the General Lee ' s roof and panel behind the rear window in the first five episodes ) , reruns of the original series were pulled from circulation . Warner Bros. , which owns the property , announced it would also no longer create merchandise bearing the flag , including miniatures of the General Lee . Although this has led to people making their own custom General Lees and selling them . Tourist attraction ( edit ) Artifacts from the show are on display in Luray , Virginia , Nashville , Tennessee and in Gatlinburg , Tennessee . Cooter 's Place in Luray is overseen by Ben `` Cooter '' Jones from the series . The Gatlinburg location features a gift shop , Dukes of Hazzard - themed indoor mini golf and go - cart track , with a small display of costumes , collectibles and artifacts from the show . Covington and Conyers , Georgia ; where the original five episodes were produced , have been two major tourist attractions for Dukes of Hazzard fans . Dixie Outfitters in Branson , Missouri on Highway 76 has the General Lee and Rosco 's police car signed by Daisy , Cooter , Cletus and Enos . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Dukes of Hazzard : One Armed Bandits DVD commentary track by John Schneider and Catherine Bach Jump up ^ John Shelton Reed , Southern Folk , Plain and Fancy : Native White Social Types ( 2007 ) , p. 21 . Jump up ^ `` Basset Hounds '' . tvacres.com . Retrieved April 6 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Hofstede , David ( 1998 ) . The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion . Renaissance Books . p. 96 . Jump up ^ Hofstede , David ( 1998 ) . The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion . Renaissance Books . p. 92 . Jump up ^ The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Complete Fourth Season ( The Dukes Story : Building the Legend extra ) . Warner Bros . Jump up ^ Hofstede , David ( 1998 ) . The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion . Renaissance Books . p. 97 . Jump up ^ Hofstede , David ( 1998 ) . The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion . Renaissance Books . p. 249 . Jump up ^ Hofstede , David ( 1998 ) . The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion . Renaissance Books . p. 86 . Jump up ^ Hofstede , David ( 1998 ) . The Dukes Of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion . Renaissance Books . p. 100 . Jump up ^ `` ' General Lee ' auction ? back on again - May . 11 , 2007 '' . Jump up ^ `` First ' General Lee ' sells for $110,000 '' . Fox News . Jump up ^ `` Confederate flag : Bubba Watson to paint over Dukes of Hazzard car '' . BBC News . Jump up ^ `` 1974 AMC Matador in `` The Dukes of Hazzard , 1979 -- 1985 '' `` . IMCDb . Retrieved August 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 1972 Dodge Polara in `` The Dukes of Hazzard , 1979 -- 1985 '' `` . IMCDb . Retrieved August 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 1974 Dodge Monaco in `` The Dukes of Hazzard , 1979 -- 1985 '' `` . IMCDb . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 1977 Dodge Monaco in `` The Dukes of Hazzard , 1979 - 1985 '' `` . IMCDb.org . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 1977 Plymouth Fury in `` The Dukes of Hazzard , 1979 - 1985 '' `` . IMCDb.org . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 1974 Plymouth Roadrunner -- White -- Front Angle '' . Seriouswheels.com . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` jesse 's truck - HazzardNet Gallery '' . Hazzardnet.com . July 18 , 2006 . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2004 ) . The Billboard Book of Top 40 hits ( 8 ed . ) . Billboard Books . p. 321 . ISBN 0 - 8230 - 7499 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` TV Land pulls ' Dukes of Hazzard ' reruns amid Confederate flag controversy '' . WFLA . Jump up ^ `` Dukes Of Hazzard Off Air Amid Rebel Flag Row '' . Sky News . Jump up ^ Flint , Joe . ( October 17 , 1997 ) Divine ( TV ) Profits . EW.com . Retrieved on August 18 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Brooks , Tim and Marsh , Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows , page 1253 . ^ Jump up to : `` TV Ratings > 1970s '' . ClassicTVHits.com . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ClassicTVHits.com : TV Ratings > 1980 's '' . Jump up ^ `` TV Ratings > 1980s '' . ClassicTVHits.com . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ClassicTVHits.com : TV Ratings > 1980 's '' . Jump up ^ `` TV Ratings > 1980s '' . ClassicTVHits.com . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TV Ratings > 1980s '' . ClassicTVHits.com . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` 27 May 1984 , Page 3 - The Akron Beacon Journal at Newspapers.com '' . Newspapers.com . Retrieved May 3 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` 28 Apr 1985 , Page 59 - The Index - Journal at Newspapers.com '' . Newspapers.com . Retrieved May 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hofstede , D. ( 2011 ) . 5000 Episodes and No Commercials : The Ultimate Guide to TV Shows On DVD . Ten Speed Press . p. 91 . ISBN 9780307799500 . Retrieved November 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Dukes of Hazzard Ride Again in AutoTrader 's High - Octane Campaign '' . AdWeek . Jump up ^ `` The Dukes of Hazzard DVD news : Announcement for The Dukes of Hazzard - 2 TV Movie Collection '' . TVShowsOnBlu-ray.com . Retrieved April 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Dukes of Hazzard - Get Them Good Ol ' Boys in ' The Complete Collection ' 40 - DVD package from Warner will hit the street in the U.S. this November '' . TVShowsOnBlu-ray.com . Retrieved September 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Source : tv.com and The Dukes Of Hazzard : The Complete Fourth Season DVD box set Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Dukes of Hazzard Season 1 : Philip Mandelker : Amazon Digital Services LLC '' . Jump up ^ Kelly Souders & Brian Peterson ( writers ) ; Jeannot Szwarc ( director ) ( November 3 , 2005 ) . `` Exposed '' . Smallville . Season 5 . Episode 6 . The WB . Jump up ^ Sloan , Sam ( November 3 , 2005 ) . `` ' The Dukes ' of Smallville are on Tonight '' . Slice of SciFi . Retrieved June 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Confederate flag gets ' Dukes of Hazzard ' yanked '' . USA TODAY . July 1 , 2015 . Further reading ( edit ) Redneck Boy in the Promised Land : The Confessions of `` Crazy Cooter '' , by Ben `` Cooter '' Jones , 2008 . Crown . ISBN 0307395278 The Dukes of Hazzard -- The Unofficial Companion , by David Hofstede , foreword by Catherine Bach . 1998 . Renaissance Books . ISBN 1 - 58063 - 038 - 3 External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Dukes of Hazzard . Wikiquote has quotations related to : The Dukes of Hazzard The Dukes of Hazzard official Facebook page Dukes of Hazzard on IMDb The Dukes of Hazzard at CMT.com Who sang the theme song and also served as the narrator on The Dukes of Hazzard ? ( hide ) The Dukes of Hazzard Episodes Characters Bo Duke Luke Duke Daisy Duke Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane Boss Hogg Television films The Dukes of Hazzard : Reunion ! ( 1997 ) The Dukes of Hazzard : Hazzard in Hollywood ( 2000 ) Remake films The Dukes of Hazzard ( 2005 ) The Dukes of Hazzard : The Beginning ( 2007 ) Video games The Dukes of Hazzard Racing for Home Daisy Dukes It Out Return of the General Lee Spin - offs Enos The Dukes See also The General Lee Boar 's Nest Jerry Rushing `` Theme from The Dukes of Hazzard ( Good Ol ' Boys ) '' Moonrunners Hazard Run VIAF : 177823936 LCCN : n84006879 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Dukes_of_Hazzard&oldid=831893207 '' Categories : 1979 American television series debuts 1985 American television series endings 1970s American comedy - drama television series 1980s American comedy - drama television series American action television series American adventure television series Appalachia in fiction CBS network shows The Dukes of Hazzard English - language television programs Television series by Warner Bros. Television Television series set in the 1970s Television series set in the 1980s Television shows set in Georgia ( U.S. state ) Television shows filmed in Georgia ( U.S. state ) Television shows filmed in Santa Clarita , California Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from December 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from July 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Deutsch Español Euskara Français Frysk 한국어 Íslenska Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Svenska 8 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 March 2018 , at 18 : 17 . 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36 | document: Bugyals - wikipedia Bugyals Jump to : navigation , search View of Bedni Bugyal on the way to Roopkund Bugyals are alpine pasture lands , or meadows , in higher elevation range between 3,300 metres ( 10,800 ft ) and 4,000 metres ( 13,000 ft ) of the Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand , where they are called `` nature 's own gardens '' . The topography of the terrain is either flat or sloped . The surface of these bugyals is covered with natural green grass and seasonal flowers . They are used by tribal herdsmen to graze their cattle . During the winter season the alpine meadows remain snow - covered . During summer months , the Bugyals present a riot of beautiful flowers and grass . As bugyals constitute very fragile ecosystems , particular attention needs to be given for their conservation . Some of the notable bugyals are : Auli near Joshimath , Garsi , Kwanri , Bedni , Panwali and Kush Kalyan , Dayara and Munsiyari . Contents ( hide ) 1 Auli Bugyal 2 Bedni Bugyal 3 Tungnath Bugyal 4 Dayara Bugyal 5 Other Bugyals 6 Conservation issues 7 References 8 Bibliography Auli Bugyal ( edit ) View of Auli Bugyal Auli Bugyal during winter Bedni Bugyal Auli Bugyal in Chamoli district , a highland pasture in the Garhwal Himalaya is known as the `` Heaven Terrace '' . It lies in an elevation range of 2,500 -- 3,050 metres ( 8,200 -- 10,010 ft ) with ski slopes located at an elevation of 3,048 metres ( 10,000 ft ) . On either side of the bugyal there are coniferous , oak and deodhar forests which limits the wind velocity to acceptable 16 kilometres ( 9.9 mi ) for skiing . It is in the backdrop of Nanda Devi ( 7,817 metres ( 25,646 ft ) ) , Kamet ( 7,756 metres ( 25,446 ft ) ) , Mana Parvat ( 7,273 metres ( 23,862 ft ) ) , Dunagiri mountain ( 7,066 metres ( 23,182 ft ) ) , Hati Parvat ( 6,727 metres ( 22,070 ft ) ) , Bethantoli ( 6,353 metres ( 20,843 ft ) ) and Ghora Parvat peaks of the Himalayas . The trek to Auli passes through lush vegetation of apple orchards and oak forest . The ski slopes are said to better than those at Gulmarg . During the winter months ( January to March ) the slopes are covered with a mantle of snow which is spread over a width of 3 kilometres ( 1.9 mi ) , and has a thickness 8 -- 10 feet ( 2.4 -- 3.0 m ) . It is a skiing resort with modern skiing equipment . It is the venue of skiing festivities and the annual national championship of skiing held during February and March . It is 13 kilometres ( 8.1 mi ) away from Joshimath . A 500 metres ( 1,600 ft ) ski - lift system exists here which is believed to be the longest cable car ( 3.9 kilometres ( 2.4 mi ) ) from Joshimath to the top most station at Gorson . It is the only location where artificial snow making system is provided to ensure that snow is present on the slopes for skiing . There are also two snow beaters which are used to make the snow slopes fit for skiing . As it is a winter sports centre and Vayudoot two airports have been planned in the region . R.V. Vernede , the British Deputy High Commissioner of the district during the British Raj had built a hut known as `` Vernede '' here at an elevation of 11,000 feet ( 3,400 m ) . It is under the control of the Garhwal Vikas Manadl , which also provides for all skiing gear at site . Auli Bugyal is a very large alpine meadow which has expanse of grass land that covers several hundred acres of land , towards the sides of a wide ridge ; Bedni Bugyal lies beyond this ridge . The meadows have vegetation of anemones , Potentilla , lousewort , wild Salvia and thistles . Grazing by cattle and sheep is extensive . There are many trails that pass through the meadows . Bedni Bugyal ( edit ) Bedini Kund in Bedni Bugyal Meadows of the Bedni Bugyal in Chamoil district , are at an elevation of 3,350 metres ( 10,990 ft ) . Alpine camps are established here for the pilgrims to visit the Rup Kund ( ' Kund ' meaning `` lake '' ) , which is covered with snow for 10 months in a year . From this camp to its west , views of the Himalayan peaks of the Gangotri , the Trishul and the Nanda Ghunti provide a scenic backdrop . This budyal also has a small lake called Bedini Kund . It is an artificial lake built with a concrete dyke by reclaiming a marshy wetland . There are two shrines here , one a small temple of Nanda Devi and the other a shrine for Latu . The temple is built with stones without using any mortar but moss growth is seen in the crevices . The Nanda Devi temple has two small carved stone images of the goddess and a pure white conch shell . Bedni and Rup Kund are approached from Karnaprayag . Medicinal herbs are found here . Tungnath Bugyal ( edit ) View of a bugyal on the way to Tungnath Tunganath Bugyal is at an elevation of 3,400 metres ( 11,200 ft ) and consists of moss cover over soil mantle on rock surface . Dayara Bugyal ( edit ) Dayara Bugyal , in Uttarkashi district , meaning `` high altitude meadow '' is at an elevation of 3,408 metres ( 11,181 ft ) . The beautiful meadows are developed into ski slopes covering an area of 28 square kilometres ( 11 sq mi ) . It has also been planned as a skiing resort . It is approached from Uttarkashi , up to village Barsu by road and further 6 kilometres ( 3.7 mi ) by trekking . Other bugyals ( edit ) On the Gangorti - Kedarnath trekking route the notable bugyals are Panwali ( 3,963 metres ( 13,002 ft ) ) and Kush - Kalyani . Gorson Bugyal ( 11,500 feet ( 3,500 m ) ) is near Joshimath . In the alpine meadows of Uttaranchal other bugyals are Rajrambha , Marjhali , Rajthor , Darmithor , Bishanthor , Galpari , Sankalpa , Yangchari , and Shibu Gwar. jerai bugyal in almora district . Conservation issues ( edit ) Bugyal is a fragile ecosystem and it is essential to maintain a balance between ecology and environment . In this context a court case was filed by the public objecting to erection of the prefab houses and by introducing non-biodegradable matter in the upper meadows of the bugyals by the tourism departments . It was averred that the peace and tranquility of the bugyals was getting affected . The court had ordered that the polluter must pay for the damage to environment based on absolute liability principle , which covered payment of damages to the affected people but also to compensate for all costs for restoration of the degraded environments . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Tmh , p. 93 . Jump up ^ Tmh . General Knowledge Digest 2010 . Tata McGraw - Hill Education . pp. 1 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 069939 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Prasad 2009 , p. 62 . ^ Jump up to : The India Magazine of Her People and Culture . A.H. Advani. 1987 . p. 93 . Jump up ^ Bisht 2008 , p. 61 . ^ Jump up to : Goyal 2014 , p. 151 . Jump up ^ Goyal , 2014 & p - 151 . Jump up ^ Sûrya India . A. Anand . 1992 . ^ Jump up to : Pandey & Pandey 2003 , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Thapliyal 2005 , p. 215 . ^ Jump up to : Nigam 2002 , p. 139 . Jump up ^ Alter 2015 , p. 110 . ^ Jump up to : Goyal 2014 , p. 111 . Jump up ^ Betts & McCulloch 2014 , p. 120 . ^ Jump up to : Weare 2009 , p. 173 . Jump up ^ Singhal 2013 , p. 173 . Jump up ^ Alter 2015 , p. 111 . Jump up ^ Singh 2004 , p. 196 . Jump up ^ Rai & Upreti 2013 , p. 96 . ^ Jump up to : Sharma 2008 , p. 262 . Jump up ^ Kohli 1983 , pp. 95 -- 96 . Jump up ^ Yadav 1989 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Rawat 2005 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Bhatt 2004 , p. 51 . Bibliography ( edit ) Alter , Stephen ( 10 March 2015 ) . Becoming a Mountain : Himalayan Journeys in Search of the Sacred and the Sublime . Skyhorse Publishing Company , Incorporated . ISBN 978 - 1 - 62872 - 542 - 1 . Bahuguna , Sunderlal ( 1997 ) . Fire in the Heart , Firewood on the Back . Parvatiya Navjeevan Mandal . Bhatt , Saligram ( 2004 ) . Environment Protection and Sustainable Development . APH Publishing . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7648 - 512 - 8 . Bisht , P.S. ( 1 January 2008 ) . Tourist Resources and Development in Himalayas . Anamika Publishers & Distributors . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7975 - 231 - 9 . Goyal , Ashutosh ( 1 May 2014 ) . RBS Visitors Guide INDIA -- Uttarakhand : Uttarakhand Travel Guide . Data and Expo India Pvt. Ltd . ISBN 978 - 93 - 80844 - 79 - 4 . Betts , Vanessa ; McCulloch , Victoria ( 10 February 2014 ) . Indian Himalaya Footprint Handbook : Includes Corbett National Park , Darjeeling , Leh , Sikkim . Footprint Travel Guides . ISBN 978 - 1 - 907263 - 88 - 0 . Kohli , M.S. ( 1983 ) . The Himalayas : Playground of the Gods -- Trekking , Climbing and Adventures . Indus Publishing . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7387 - 107 - 8 . Nigam , Devesh ( 2002 ) . Tourism , Environment , and Development of Garhwal Himalaya . Mittal Publications . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7099 - 870 - 9 . Pandey , Dinesh Chandra ; Pandey , Puran C. ( 1 January 2003 ) . Environmental Resources and Tourism Development in the Himalaya . Anamika Publishers & Distributors . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7975 - 054 - 4 . Prasad , Mahesh ( 2009 ) . No , Minister : Memoirs of a Civil Servant . Macmillan India . ISBN 978 - 0 - 230 - 63647 - 7 . Rai , Himanshu ; Upreti , Dalip K. ( 11 December 2013 ) . Terricolous Lichens in India : Volume 2 : Morphotaxonomic Studies . Springer Science & Business Media . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4939 - 0360 - 3 . Rawat , G.S. ( 2005 ) . Alpine Meadows of Uttaranchal : Ecology , Landuse , and Status of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants . Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh . ISBN 978 - 81 - 211 - 0464 - 7 . Singhal , Yogy ( 18 November 2013 ) . The Human Trinity . Partridge Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4828 - 1387 - 6 . Sharma , Dr. Shiv ( 2008 ) . India -- A Travel Guide . Diamond Pocket Books ( P ) Ltd . ISBN 978 - 81 - 284 - 0067 - 4 . Singh , Tapeshwar ( 2004 ) . Resource Conservation and Food Security : An Indian Experience . Concept Publishing Company . ISBN 978 - 81 - 8069 - 101 - 0 . Thapliyal , Uma Prasad ( 2005 ) . Uttaranchal : Historical and Cusltural Perspectives . B.R. Publishing Corporation . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7646 - 463 - 5 . Tmh , Tmh . General Knowledge Digest 2010 . Tata McGraw - Hill Education . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 069939 - 7 . Weare , Garry ( 2009 ) . Trekking in the Indian Himalaya . Lonely Planet . ISBN 978 - 1 - 74059 - 768 - 5 . Yadav , Hridai Ram ( 1 January 1989 ) . Dimensions of Wastelands Development : Proceedings of the National Seminar on Wastelands Development , New Delhi , 1986 . Concept Publishing Company . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7022 - 264 - 4 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bugyals&oldid=741397485 '' Categories : Montane grasslands and shrublands Ecoregions of India Geography of Uttarakhand Grasslands of India Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from August 2015 Uttarakhand articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Talk Contents About Wikipedia हिन्दी മലയാളം Edit links This page was last edited on 27 September 2016 , at 07 : 23 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_14|> <|d1_179|> <|d2_214|> |
37 | document: Perfect Strangers ( Jonas Blue song ) - wikipedia Perfect Strangers ( Jonas Blue song ) Jump to : navigation , search `` Perfect Strangers '' Single by Jonas Blue featuring JP Cooper from the album Jonas Blue : Electronic Nature -- The Mix 2017 Released 3 June 2016 Format Digital download Recorded 2015 Genre Tribal house tropical house Length 3 : 16 Label Capitol Positiva Virgin EMI Songwriter ( s ) Guy James Robin John Paul Cooper Alex Smith Producer ( s ) Jonas Blue Jonas Blue singles chronology `` Fast Car '' ( 2015 ) `` Perfect Strangers '' ( 2016 ) `` By Your Side '' ( 2016 ) `` Fast Car '' ( 2015 ) `` Perfect Strangers '' ( 2016 ) `` By Your Side '' ( 2016 ) JP Cooper singles chronology `` Five More Days '' ( 2016 ) Five More Days2016 `` Perfect Strangers '' ( 2016 ) Perfect Strangers2016 `` Party '' ( 2016 ) Party2016 `` Perfect Strangers '' is a song by British record producer Jonas Blue , featuring the vocals from JP Cooper . It was released as a digital download in the United Kingdom on 3 June 2016 . The song has peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , and has reached the top ten positions in eight additional countries , including Germany , Australia , and Sweden . A Japanese version of the song by South Korean girl group AOA was released on their album Runway . Contents ( hide ) 1 Music video 2 Track listing 3 Charts 3.1 Weekly charts 3.2 Year - end charts 4 Certifications 5 Release history 6 References Music video ( edit ) A music video to accompany the release of `` Perfect Strangers '' was first released onto YouTube on 14 June 2016 at a total length of three minutes and twenty - seven seconds . The video is set and filmed in Cape Town in South Africa . It features a woman ( Victoria Scholtz ) always coincidentally meeting the same man ( Devin Dollery ) wherever she goes . They then ally together to help bring fun to the children in South Africa , with the man introducing them to skateboarding and the woman introducing them to breakdancing while falling in love in the process . Track listing ( edit ) Digital download No . Title Length 1 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) 3 : 16 Digital download -- acoustic No . Title Length 1 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) ( acoustic ) 3 : 11 Digital download -- remixes No . Title Length 1 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) ( club mix ) 5 : 14 2 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) ( Gregor Salto remix ) 4 : 00 3 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) ( Jerome Price remix ) 4 : 44 4 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) ( Bump & Flex remix ) 5 : 32 5 . `` Perfect Strangers '' ( featuring JP Cooper ) ( Pedro Carrilho remix ) 4 : 34 Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2016 -- 17 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) 6 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 9 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 22 Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 46 Czech Republic ( Rádio Top 100 ) 6 Czech Republic ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) 7 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) 11 France ( SNEP ) 13 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 9 Hungary ( Dance Top 40 ) 32 Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) 6 Hungary ( Single Top 40 ) 9 Ireland ( IRMA ) Italy ( FIMI ) 19 Mexico ( Mexico Ingles Airplay ) Lebanon ( Lebanese Top 20 ) 11 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 8 Norway ( VG - lista ) 7 Philippines ( Philippine Hot 100 ) 14 Poland ( Polish Airplay Top 100 ) Portugal ( AFP ) Romania ( Media Forest ) 6 Russia Airplay ( Tophit ) 11 Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) Slovakia ( Rádio Top 100 ) 8 Slovakia ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) Slovenia ( SloTop50 ) 11 South Africa ( EMA ) 6 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) 11 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 8 UK Dance ( Official Charts Company ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles ( Billboard ) 11 US Dance Club Songs ( Billboard ) US Hot Dance / Electronic Songs ( Billboard ) 11 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2016 ) Position Australia ( ARIA ) 41 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 52 Belgium ( Ultratop Flanders ) 36 Belgium ( Ultratop Wallonia ) 91 Denmark ( Tracklisten ) 60 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 50 Italy ( FIMI ) 67 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 23 Poland ( ZPAV ) 31 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 50 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 29 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) 2 × Platinum 140,000 Belgium ( BEA ) Platinum 30,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) Platinum 40,000 Germany ( BVMI ) Platinum 400,000 Italy ( FIMI ) 2 × Platinum 100,000 Netherlands ( NVPI ) 5 × Platinum 100,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Platinum 30,000 Poland ( ZPAV ) 2 × Platinum 40,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Platinum 600,000 United States ( RIAA ) Gold 500,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Ref . United Kingdom 3 June 2016 Digital download Capitol Positiva Virgin EMI Worldwide 15 July 2016 Digital download -- acoustic Jonas Blue Music 22 July 2016 Digital download -- remixes References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Perfect Strangers ( feat . JP Cooper ) -- Single by Jonas Blue on Apple Music '' . iTunes . Jump up ^ JonasBlueVEVO ( 14 June 2016 ) . `` Jonas Blue -- Perfect Strangers ft . JP Cooper '' -- via YouTube . ^ Jump up to : `` Perfect Strangers ( feat . JP Cooper ) ( Acoustic ) -- Single by Jonas Blue on Apple Music '' . iTunes Store ( US ) . Retrieved 14 May 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Perfect Strangers ( feat . JP Cooper ) ( Remixes ) -- EP by Jonas Blue on Apple Music '' . iTunes Store ( US ) . Retrieved 14 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved 25 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 30 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in French ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 21 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jonas Blue -- Chart history '' Canadian Hot 100 for Jonas Blue . Retrieved 11 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ČNS IFPI '' ( in Czech ) . Hitparáda -- Radio Top 100 Oficiální . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201639 into search . Retrieved 3 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ČNS IFPI '' ( in Czech ) . Hitparáda -- Digital Top 100 Oficiální . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201638 into search . Retrieved 26 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Danishcharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Tracklisten . Retrieved 14 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved 15 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Offiziellecharts.de -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Dance Top 40 lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved 31 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Rádiós Top 40 játszási lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved 2 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Single ( track ) Top 40 lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved 29 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Chart Track : Week 32 , 2016 '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Italiancharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Top Digital Download . Retrieved 24 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard Mexico Ingles Airplay '' . Billboard . Retrieved 1 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jonas Blue Lebanese Chart Top 20 History '' . The Official Lebanese Top 20 . 16 October 2016 . Retrieved 17 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper search results '' ( in Dutch ) Dutch Top 40 . Retrieved 30 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved 5 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . VG - lista . Retrieved 10 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BillboardPH Hot 100 '' . Billboard Philippines . 26 June 2017 . Retrieved 26 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Listy bestsellerów , wyróżnienia : : Związek Producentów Audio - Video '' . Polish Airplay Top 100 . Retrieved 31 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Portuguesecharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . AFP Top 100 Singles . Retrieved 30 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Romanian International Top 10 Singles Chart '' . Media Forest . 26 September 2016 . Retrieved 3 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Official Russia Top 100 Airplay Chart ( Week 38 ) '' ( in Russian ) . Tophit . Retrieved 14 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 16 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` SNS IFPI '' ( in Slovak ) . Hitparáda -- Radio Top 100 Oficiálna . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201638 into search . Retrieved 26 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` SNS IFPI '' ( in Slovak ) . Hitparáda -- Singles Digital Top 100 Oficiálna . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201633 into search . Retrieved 1 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` SloTop50 -- Slovenian official singles chart '' . slotop50.si . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` EMA Top 10 Airplay : Week Ending 2016 - 08 - 30 '' . Entertainment Monitoring Africa . Retrieved 5 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Spanishcharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' Canciones Top 50 . Retrieved 28 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved 12 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved 19 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Official Dance Singles Chart Top 40 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jonas Blue -- Chart history '' Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 for Jonas Blue . Retrieved 18 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jonas Blue -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs for Jonas Blue . Retrieved 8 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jonas Blue -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot Dance / Electronic Songs for Jonas Blue . Retrieved 8 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Top 100 Singles 2016 '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ö3 Austria Top 40 - Single - Charts 2016 '' . oe3.orf.at . Archived from the original on 28 December 2016 . Retrieved 29 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten 2016 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 29 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rapports Annuels 2016 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 29 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Track Top - 100 , 2016 '' . Hitlisten.NU . Retrieved 31 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Jahrescharts 2016 '' . GfK Entertainment ( in German ) . viva.tv . Retrieved 1 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Classifiche `` Top of the Music '' 2016 FIMI - GfK : La musica italiana in vetta negli album e nei singoli digitali '' ( Click on Scarica allegato to download the zipped file containing the year - end chart PDF documents ) ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved February 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten - Single 2016 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 25 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Podsumowanie roku -- Airplay 2016 '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 23 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Schweizer Jahreshitparade 2016 -- hitparade.ch '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Myers , Justin ( 30 December 2016 ) . `` The Official Top 40 Biggest Songs of 2016 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 31 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Australian Top 50 Singles '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . 7 November 2016 . Retrieved 5 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop − Goud en Platina -- 2016 '' . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved November 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian single certifications -- Jonas Blue -- Perfect Strangers '' . Music Canada . 30 September 2016 . Retrieved 2 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Gold - / Platin - Datenbank ( Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper ; ' Perfect Strangers ' ) '' ( in German ) . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Italian single certifications -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved 27 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dutch single certifications -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in Dutch ) . Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld - en geluidsdragers . Retrieved 25 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand single certifications -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 25 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Polish single certifications -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 25 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 7 October 2016 . Enter Perfect Strangers in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- Jonas Blue feat . JP Cooper -- Perfect Strangers '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved 5 May 2017 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH ( hide ) JP Cooper Studio albums Raised Under Grey Skies ( 2017 ) Extended plays EP1 ( 2012 ) EP2 ( 2012 ) EP3 ( 2013 ) Keep the Quiet Out ( 2014 ) When the Darkness Comes ( 2015 ) Singles `` Closer '' `` Five More Days '' `` Party '' `` September Song '' `` Passport Home '' `` She 's on My Mind '' `` Wait '' Featured singles `` The Artist Inside '' `` Shivers '' `` Perfect Strangers '' Related articles Island Records Don Diablo Jonas Blue Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perfect_Strangers_(Jonas_Blue_song)&oldid=802922347 '' Categories : 2016 songs 2016 singles UK Dance Singles Chart number - one singles Billboard Dance Club Songs number - one singles Number - one singles in Poland Tropical house songs Hidden categories : CS1 Russian - language sources ( ru ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Polish - language sources ( pl ) CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Czech Republic Singlechart called without artist Singlechart usages for Czechdigital Singlechart usages for Denmark Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Hungarydance Singlechart usages for Hungary Singlechart usages for Hungarytop10 Singlechart usages for Ireland Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Norway Singlechart usages for Poland Singlechart usages for Portugal Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart usages for Slovakia Singlechart usages for Slovakdigital Singlechart usages for South Africa Singlechart usages for Spain Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for UKdance Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for Billboardbubbling100 Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceclubplay Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceelectronic Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for Netherlands Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for Poland Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Eesti Nederlands Português Edit links This page was last edited on 29 September 2017 , at 09 : 38 . 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38 | document: Martial law in the Philippines - wikipedia Martial law in the Philippines Jump to : navigation , search This article is about several periods of Martial law in the Philippines . For Ferdinand Marcos ' declaration of Martial law , see Proclamation No. 1081 . For Rodrigo Duterte 's declaration of Martial law in Mindanao , see Proclamation No. 216 . ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) The neutrality of this article is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( October 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints . Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints , or discuss the issue on the talk page . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Martialaw Law monument in Mehan Garden Martial law in the Philippines ( Filipino : Batas Militar sa Pilipinas ) refers to several intermittent periods in Philippine history wherein the Philippine head of state ( such as the President ) places an area under the control of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and its predecessor bodies . Martial law is declared either when there is near - violent civil unrest or in cases of major natural disasters , however most countries use a different legal construct like `` state of emergency '' . Typically , the imposition of martial law accompanies curfews , the suspension of civil law , civil rights , habeas corpus , and the application or extension of military law or military justice to civilians . Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunals ( court - martial ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Spanish period 1.2 Aguinaldo administration 1.3 Laurel administration 1.4 Marcos administration 1.5 Arroyo administration 1.6 Duterte administration 2 See also 3 References 4 External links History ( edit ) Spanish period ( edit ) Hostilities that began the Philippine Revolution of 1896 started on the evening of 21 September 1896 , when hundreds of rebels attacked the Civil Guard garrison in Pasig , just as hundreds of other rebels personally led by Andrés Bonifacio were massing in San Juan del Monte , which they attacked hours later on the 30th . Bonifacio planned to capture El Polvorin , the San Jose del Monte powder magazine along with El Depósito , a water station supplying Manila . The defending Spaniards were outnumbered , but fought the rebels until reinforcements arrived . Once reinforced , the Spaniards drove Bonifacio 's forces back with heavy casualties . Elsewhere rebels attacked Mandaluyong , Sampaloc , Santa Ana , Pandacan , Pateros , Marikina , and Caloocan , as well as Makati and Taguig . Balintawak in Caloocan saw intense fighting . Rebel troops tended to gravitate towards fighting in San Juan del Monte and Sampaloc . South of Manila , a thousand - strong rebel force attacked a small force of civil guards . In Pandacan Katipuneros attacked the parish church , making the parish priest run for his life . After their defeat in San Juan del Monte , Bonifacio 's troops regrouped near Marikina , San Mateo and Montalban , where they proceeded to attack these areas . They captured these areas but were driven back by Spanish counterattacks , and Bonifacio eventually ordered a retreat to Balara . On the way , Bonifacio was nearly killed shielding Emilio Jacinto from a Spanish bullet that grazed his collar . Despite his reverses , Bonifacio was not completely defeated and was still considered a threat . North of Manila , the towns of San Francisco de Malabon , Noveleta and Kawit in Cavite rose in rebellion . In Nueva Ecija rebels in San Isidro led by Ivan Pilien attacked the Spanish garrison on September 2 -- 4 ; they were repulsed . By 30 August , the revolt had spread to eight provinces , prompting the Spanish Governor - General Ramón Blanco , 1st Marquis of Peña Plata , to declare a `` state of war '' in these provinces and place them under martial law . These provinces were Manila , Bulacan , Cavite , Pampanga , Tarlac , Laguna , Batangas , and Nueva Ecija . These would later be represented in the eight rays of the Sun in the Philippine flag . Despite such declaration , which provided a 48 - hour period in giving amnesty to rebels except their leaders , Blanco adopted a cool , conciliatory stance , seeking to improve Spain 's image in the face of world opinion . Aguinaldo administration ( edit ) After the outbreak of Spanish -- American War , Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines from his exile in Hong Kong on 19 May 1898 , with 13 of his staff . He was encouraged to return by the Americans , who saw in him as an opportunity in their war against Spain . After five days , on May 23 , Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine military forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as the supreme commander . On 12 June , at Aguinaldo 's ancestral home in Cavite , Philippine independence was proclaimed and The Act of Declaration of Philippine Independence was read . The act had been prepared and written in Spanish by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista , who also read its proclamation . On 18 June , issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government . On 23 June another decree signed by Aguinaldo was issued , replacing the Dictatorial Government with a Revolutionary Government , with himself as President . Laurel administration ( edit ) President José P. Laurel of the wartime Second Philippine Republic placed the Philippines under martial law in 1944 through Proclamation No. 29 , dated September 21 . Martial law came into effect on September 22 , 1944 . Proclamation No. 30 was issued the next day , declaring the existence of a state of war between the Philippines and the US and Great Britain . This took effect on September 23 , 1944 . Marcos administration ( edit ) Main article : History of the Philippines ( 1965 -- 86 ) See also : Proclamation No 1081 Around 1970 , student activism had intensified and many student activists joined communist movements . Kabataang Makabayan ( Patriotic Youth , or ' KM ' ) a political organization founded by José María Sison intended to be a nationwide extension of the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines , carried out study sessions on Marxism -- Leninism and intensified the deployment of urban activists in rural areas to prepare for People 's war . The line between leftist activists and communists became increasingly blurred , as a significant number of KM advanced activists joined the party of the Communist Party also founded by Sison . Earlier , during the campaign period for the 1969 elections , students called promoted a mock campaign called the Dante - for - President movement , likely referring to New People 's Army founder Bernabe ' Kumander Dante ' Buscayno . KM members protested in front of Congress , throwing a coffin , a stuffed alligator , and stones at Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos after his State of the Nation Address . On the presidential palace , activists rammed the gate with a fire truck and once the gate broke and gave way , the activists charged into the Palace grounds tossing rocks , pillboxes , Molotov cocktails . In front of the US embassy , protesters vandalized , arsoned and damaged the embassy lobby resulting to a strong protest from the U.S. Ambassador . The KM protests ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 in number per weekly mass action . In the aftermath of the January 1970 riots , at least two activists were confirmed dead and several were injured by the police . The Mayor of Manila at the time , Antonio Villegas , commended the Manila Police District for their `` exemplary behavior and courage '' and protecting the First Couple long after they have left . The death of the activists was seized by the López - controlled Manila Times and Manila Chronicle , blaming Marcos and added fire to the weekly protests . Students declared a week - long boycott of classes and instead met to organize protest rallies . In Marcos ' diary , he wrote that the whole crisis has been utilized by communism to create a revolutionary situation . He lamented that the powerful Lopez family , which controlled Manila Times and Manila Chronicle , blamed him for the riots thus raising the ire of demonstrators . He mentioned that he was informed by his mother of a planned assassination paid for by the powerful oligarch , Eugenio Lopez Sr ( Iñing Lopez ) . He narrated how he dissuaded his supporters from the Northern Philippines in infiltrating the demonstration in Manila and inflicting harm on the protesters , and how he showed to the UP professors that the Collegian was carrying the communist party articles and that he was disappointed in the faculty of his alma matter for becoming a spawning ground of communism . He also added that he asked Ernesto Rufino , Vicente Rufino and Carlos Palanca to withdraw advertisements from the Manila Times which was openly supporting revolution and the communist cause , and they agreed to do so . Rumors of coup d'etat were also brewing . A report of the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee said that shortly after the Philippine presidential election , 1969 , a group composed mostly of retired colonels and generals organized a revolutionary junta with the aim of first discrediting President Marcos and then killing him . The group was headed by Eleuterio Adevoso , an official of the opposition Liberal party . As described in a document given to the committee by Philippine Government official , key figures in the plot were Vice President Fernando Lopez and Sergio Osmena Jr. , whom Marcos defeated in the 1969 election . Marcos even went to the U.S. embassy to dispel rumors that the U.S. embassy is supporting a coup d'etat which the opposition liberal party was spreading . While the report obtained by the NY Times speculated saying that story could be used by Marcos to justify Martial Law , as early as December 1969 in a message from the U.S. Ambassador to the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State , the U.S. Ambassador said that most of the talk about revolution and even assassination has been coming from the defeated opposition , of which Adevoso ( of the Liberal Party ) is a leading activist . He also said that the information he has on the assassination plans are ' hard ' or well - sourced and he has to make sure that it reached President Marcos . In light of the crisis , Marcos wrote an entry in his diary in January 1970 : `` I have several options . One of them is to abort the subversive plan now by the sudden arrest of the plotters . But this would not be accepted by the people . Nor could we get the Huks ( Communists ) , their legal cadres and support . Nor the MIM ( Maoist International Movement ) and other subversive ( or front ) organizations , nor those underground . We could allow the situation to develop naturally then after massive terrorism , wanton killings and an attempt at my assassination and a coup d'etat , then declare martial law or suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus -- and arrest all including the legal cadres . Right now I am inclined towards the latter . '' At the height of armed communist insurgency in the Philippines , Philippine Military Academy instructor Lt. Victor Corpuz led New People 's Army rebels in a raid on the PMA armory , capturing rifles , machine guns , grenade launchers , a bazooka and thousands of rounds of ammunition in 1970 . In 1972 , China , which was then actively supporting and arming communist insurgencies in Asia as part of Mao Zedong 's People 's War Doctrine , transported 1,200 M - 14 and AK - 47 rifles for the NPA to speed up NPA 's campaign to defeat the government . Prior to the 1975 , the Philippine government maintained a close relationship with the Kuomintang - ruled Chinese government which fled to Taiwan ( Republic of China ) , despite the Chinese Communist Victory in 1949 , and saw Communist China ( People 's Republic of China ) as a security threat due to China 's financial and military support of Communist rebels in the country . In a speech in February 2017 at the Methodist Protestants ' Cosmopolitan Church in Manila , Enrile said : `` The most significant event that made President Marcos decide to declare martial law was the MV Karagatan incident in July 1972 . It was the turning point . The MV Karagatan involved the infiltration of high powered rifles , ammunition , 40 - millimeter rocket launchers , rocket projectiles , communications equipment , and other assorted war materials by the CPP - NPA - NDF on the Pacific side of Isabela in Cagayan Valley . The CPP - NPA - NDF attempted a second effort -- their MV Andrea project -- but they failed . The MV Andrea sank in the West Philippine Sea on its way to the country . '' Those who opposed President Marcos , including The Conjugal Dictatorship author Primitivo Mijares , the Liberal Party , as well as the Lópezes ' Manila Chronicle , called the MV Karagatan incident as `` show ' or `` a hoax '' . In a speech before Senate , Benigno Aquino , Jr. warned the public of the possible establishment of a `` garrison state '' by President Ferdinand Marcos . President Marcos imposed martial law on the nation from 1972 to 1981 to suppress increasing civil strife and the threat of a communist takeover following a series of bombings in Manila . Aquino himself had contact with leaders of Communist Party of the Philippines -- first with founder Jose Maria Sison , and later with Rodolfo Salas , CPP chair at the height of Martial Law . In an interview with Ateneo De Manila University Professor Lisandro Claudio , Salas said not only did he bring wounded New People 's Army ( NPA ) soldiers to Aquino 's houses , but he received guns and cash from Aquino himself . In another communication to the State Department dated September 21 , the US Embassy sheds further light on what Ninoy told the American officials . On September 12 , Ninoy had a `` lengthy luncheon conversation '' with two embassy officers about the `` growing strength of Communist dissidence in the Philippines . '' In this luncheon , the senator `` readily admitted his past ties with the several Communist factions in the Philippines . '' He claimed that maintaining links with Huk rebels was a `` fact of life '' for a Tarlac politician . In the Philippine parliamentary election , 1978 , the first parliamentary election during Martial Law , Ninoy fielded in his Lakas ng Bayan party Alex Boncayao , who was associated with Filipino communist death squad Alex Boncayao Brigade . All of the party 's 21 candidates , including Ninoy , lost in the election . On 21 August 1971 , while the opposition ( Liberal Party ) was having their miting de avance in Plaza Miranda , 2 fragmentation grenades exploded . It took 9 lives and left more than 100 people seriously wounded . Some Liberal Party candidates were seriously injured including Jovito Salonga , who nearly died and was visually impaired . Suspicion of responsibility for the blast initially fell upon Marcos , whom the Liberals blamed for the bombing ; however , in later years , prominent personalities associated with the event have laid the blame on the Communist Party of the Philippines under José María Sison . In his autobiography , Salonga states his belief that Sison and the CPP were responsible . Based on interviews of The Washington Post with former Communist Party of the Philippines Officials , it was revealed that `` the ( Communist ) party leadership planned -- and three operatives carried out -- the attack in an attempt to provoke government repression and push the country to the brink of revolution ... ( Communist Party Leader ) Sison had calculated that Marcos could be provoked into cracking down on his opponents , thereby driving thousands of political activists into the underground , the former party officials said . Recruits were urgently needed , they said , to make use of a large influx of weapons and financial aid that China had already agreed to provide . '' A month of `` terrorist bombings '' of public facilities in Manila and Quezon City culminated on 22 September with a staged assassination attempt on Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile . Six hours after the alleged assassination attempt against Enrile and citing more than 15 bombing incidences , chaos and lawlessness , Marcos issued Proclamation No. 1081 , declaring and imposing martial law in the entire country . By declaring martial law , Marcos suspended the writ of habeas corpus and also the 1935 Constitution , dissolved Congress and padlocked the doors to the Batasang Pambansa , and assuming both legislative and executive powers . Proclamation No. 1081 was dated 21 September 1972 but it was actually signed on 17 September . The formal announcement or promulgation of the proclamation was made only at seven - thirty in the evening of 23 September , evidencing the plan to declare martial law even before the supposed ambush against Enrile . He had also commanded his military collaborators to start arresting his political opponents and close down all media and retail ( fashion , food , religious , sports ) establishments about twenty - two hours before the announcement . The Proclamation read in part `` My countrymen , as of the twenty - first of this month , I signed Proclamation No 1081 placing the entire Philippines under Martial Law ... '' -- Ferdinand Marcos , September 21 , 1972 The declaration of Martial Law was criticized as a planned precursor to extending Marcos ' term in office , which under the 1935 Constitution is limited to two terms of four years each or a maximum of eight years Rigoberto Tiglao , former press secretary and a former communist incarcerated during the martial law , countered by arguing that the liberal and communist parties provoked martial law imposition . Martial law was ratified by 90.77 % of the voters during the Philippine Martial Law referendum , 1973 though the referendum was marred with controversy . Primitivo Mijares , a Marcos detractor and author of the book Conjugal dictatorship , alleged that there could not have been any valid referendum held from January 10 to 15 , 1973 claiming the 35,000 citizen 's assemblies never met and that voting was by show of hands . The 1935 Constitution was replaced with the 1972 Constitution after the new constitution was ratified by 95 % of the voters in the Philippine constitutional plebiscite , 1973 . The Supreme Court affirmed the ratification of the 1972 Constitution in the case of Javellana vs. Executive Secretary , where the majority of the justices noted that while the 1972 Constitution was improperly ratified because it did not follow the procedure in the 1935 Constitution , there was no stopping the reality that the 1972 Constitution was already in effect . This decision became the cornerstone of subsequent decisions whenever the validity of the 1973 Constitution was questioned . Under martial law there were widespread excesses and human rights abuses , even while the regime reduced violent urban crime , collect unregistered firearms , and suppress communist insurgency in some areas ; Liliosa Hilao was the first murder victim under Martial Law . There were over 70,000 filed cases of human rights abuses today from this period . Torture methods employed by the army on their victims were extremely inhumane , which included beating , rape , electrocution , animal treatment , and mutilation among others . Many private establishments particularly media companies critical of the government were closed , and the arrest of activists were made through the Philippine Constabulary ; many of the abuses were attributed to the latter , which was then headed by future president Fidel Ramos . In total , there were 3,257 extrajudicial killings , 35,000 individual tortures , and 70,000 were incarcerated . Of the 3,257 killed , some 2,520 , or 77 percent of all victims , were salvaged -- that is , tortured , mutilated , and dumped on a roadside for public display . It is also reported that 737 Filipinos disappeared between 1975 and 1985 . The Civilian Home Defense Force , a precursor of Civilian Armed Forces Geographical Unit ( CAFGU ) , was organized by President Marcos to battle with the communist and Islamic insurgency problem , has particularly been accused of notoriously inflicting human right violations on leftists , the NPA , Muslim insurgents , and rebels against the Marcos government . After martial law was declared , critics of the government were arrested , led by then Senators Benigno Aquino Jr. and Ramon Diokno , and Manila journalists -- Manila Times publisher Chino Roces and columnist , Max Soliven ; Manila Chronicle publisher Eugenio Lopez Jr. and his editor Amando Doronila ; Philippines Free publisher - editor Teddy Boy Locsin and his staff writer , Napoleon Rama ; and Press Foundation of Asia joint executive Juan L. Mercado . Many of those who were arrested were later freed without charges , but Benigno Aquino Jr. was charged and convicted guilty along with his two co-accused , NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno ( Commander Dante ) and Lt. Victor Corpuz , guilty for illegal possession of fire arms , subversion , and murder , and was sentenced them to death by firing squad by a Military Court . The death sentence was never carried out by the Marcos government . There was some controversy whether the ambush on Enrile used as one of the justifications to declare Martial Law was staged . However , Enrile himself denied that it was staged in his memoir and defended the declaration of martial law : `` Did I stage and fake my ambush to justify the declaration of martial law ? I said , `` No ! I did not ! '' ... There was no need for me to do that to justify the declaration of martial law . There was no need for other facts to justify the imposition of martial law . Proclamation No. 1081 of 21 September 1972 recited fully and faithfully all the facts that President Marcos needed and used to justify the declaration of martial law in the country . I drafted and prepared the documents that President Marcos used to declare martial law . I checked the facts contained in those documents . I had no doubt of their authenticity , veracity , and sufficiency to support and justify the declaration of martial law . Those facts were more than enough to justify the declaration of martial law . '' -- Juan Ponce Enrile , 2012 The government captured NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno in 1976 and Jose Maria Sison in 1977 . The Washington Post in an interview with former Philippine Communist Party Officials , revealed that , `` they ( local communist party officials ) wound up languishing in China for 10 years as unwilling `` guests '' of the ( Chinese ) government , feuding bitterly among themselves and with the party leadership in the Philippines `` . Martial law was lifted by President Marcos on January 17 , 1981 , and he continued to rule the country until 1986 when he went to exile after the People Power Revolution . Arroyo administration ( edit ) Main article : Maguindanao massacre On December 4 , 2009 , through Proclamation No. 1959 , President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially placed Maguindanao province under a state of martial law , thereby suspending the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus . Executive Secretary Eduardo Ermita said the step was taken in order to avert the escalation of `` lawless '' violence in the province and pave the way for the swift arrest of the suspects in the massacre . Following the declaration , authorities carried out a raid on a warehouse owned by Andal Ampatuan Jr . The raid resulted in the confiscation of more than 330,000 rounds of 5.56 × 45mm NATO ammunition , a Humvee , and an improvised armored vehicle . Twenty militiamen were arrested on the premises . Captain James Nicolas of Special Forces was able to retrieve more high powered firearms and ammo after the incident . The state of martial law in Maguindanao was lifted on December 13 , 2009 . Duterte administration ( edit ) Main article : Proclamation No. 216 Proclamation Number 216 declaring martial law in Mindanao . Amid the escalation of conflicts in Mindanao and recent clashes in Marawi City related to the Maute Group , incumbent President Rodrigo Duterte placed Mindanao and its nearby islands under martial law at 10 : 00 p.m. ( UTC + 8 ) on May 23 , 2017 . This was announced during a briefing held in Moscow , where President Duterte was on an official visit , and will be in effect for 60 days . Presidential Spokesperson Ernesto Abella said the declaration was possible given the `` existence of rebellion , '' while Foreign Secretary Alan Peter Cayetano explained that the step was taken with of `` the safety , the lives and property of people of Mindanao '' in mind . Implementation is to be pursuant to the 1987 Constitution , which provides for a maximum 60 day - state of martial law without Congress approval for extension , the continuation of government functions , and the safeguard of individual freedoms . However , President Duterte insisted that it will not be any different from martial law under President Marcos . While the declaration does not currently affect citizens and government units in Luzon or the Visayas , President Duterte suggested that he might extend martial law to the entire country if needed to `` protect the people . '' See also ( edit ) List of films about Martial Law in the Philippines References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Salazar 1994 . ^ Jump up to : Agoncillo 1990 , p. 173 Jump up ^ Agoncillo 1990 , p. 174 Jump up ^ Joaquin , Nick ( 1990 ) . Manila , My Manila . Vera Reyes Publishing . Jump up ^ Ocampo , Ambeth ( 17 December 2009 ) . `` Martial law in 1896 '' . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved 20 September 2012 . Jump up ^ Cristobal Cerrato : El joven Maeztu y la canalla periodística - no 37 Espéculo ( UCM ) . Ucm.es . Retrieved on 2011 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Kalaw 1927 , p. 106 Jump up ^ Titherington 1900 , pp. 357 -- 358 Jump up ^ Kalaw 1927 , pp. 413 -- 417 Aguinaldo A Jump up ^ Guevara 1972 , p. 10 Jump up ^ Kalaw 1927 , pp. 423 -- 429 Appendix C . Jump up ^ Guevara 1972 , p. 35 Jump up ^ Torrevillas - Suarez , Domini ( March 29 , 1970 ) . `` Finishing the Unfinished Revolution '' . Philippine Panorama . Jump up ^ Guillermo , Ramon ( February 6 , 2013 ) . `` Signposts in the History of Activism in the University of the Philippines '' . University of the Philippines . Retrieved November 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Historic role and contributions of Kabataang Makabayan '' NDFP `` . 29 November 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` BUILDING THE PEOPLE 'S ARMY AND WAGING THE PEOPLE 'S WAR '' . 28 March 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Lacaba , Jose F. ( 1982 ) . Days of Disquiet , Nights of Rage : The First Quarter Storm & Related Events . Manila : Salinlahi Pub . House . pp. 11 -- 45 , 157 -- 178 . ^ Jump up to : `` February -- 1970 -- The Philippine Diary Project '' . philippinediaryproject.wordpress.com . ^ Jump up to : `` January -- 1970 -- The Philippine Diary Project '' . philippinediaryproject.wordpress.com . Jump up ^ Times , John W. Finney Special To The New York ( 18 February 1973 ) . `` U.S. Killer Reported Hired In a Plot Against Marcos '' -- via NYTimes.com . Jump up ^ Foreign relations of the United States , 1969 -- 1976 , V. 20 : Southeast Asia . Jump up ^ `` Foreign Relations of the United States , 1969 -- 1976 , Volume XX , Southeast Asia , 1969 -- 1972 -- Office of the Historian '' . history.state.gov . line feed character in title = at position 62 ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Asia Times : Victor Corpus and Jose Almonte : The righteous spies '' . www.atimes.com . Jump up ^ `` AK - 47 : NPA rebels ' weapon of choice '' . Jump up ^ I - Witness , GMA 7 ( November 18 , 2013 ) . `` MV Karagatan , The Ship of the Chinese Communist '' . YouTube . Jump up ^ `` Untold story of Karagatan in I - Witness '' . Jump up ^ Zhao , Hong ( 2012 ) . `` Sino - Philippines Relations : Moving beyond Sasdasdasdouth China Sea Dispute ? '' . Journal of East Asian Affairs : 57 . ISSN 1010 - 1608 . Retrieved 6 March 2015 -- via Questia . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Enrile : CPP - NPA -- and China -- provoked Martial Law imposition -- The Manila Times Online '' . www.manilatimes.net . Jump up ^ http://rizalls.lib.admu.edu.ph:8080/ebooks2/Primitivo%20Mijares.pdf Jump up ^ Proclamation No. 1081 # Bombings in 1972 cited on Proclamation No. 1081 ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 10 - 27 . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` The Ninoy Aquino I knew -- The Manila Times Online '' . www.manilatimes.net . Jump up ^ `` Ninoy networked with everyone , Reds included '' . Jump up ^ `` Alex Boncayao Brigade -- Filipino death squad '' . Jump up ^ Roces , ROSES & ; THORNS By Alejandro R. `` Lakas ng Bayan candidates '' . Jump up ^ Ilarde , Eddie . `` 42 years ago : Suspicious , blinding lights preceded bombing at Plaza Miranda '' . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Ilarde , Eddie . `` 42 years ago : Suspicious , blinding lights preceded bombing at Plaza Miranda '' . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Doronila , Amando ( 24 August 2007 ) . `` Politics of violence '' . Inquirer.net . Retrieved 27 October 2007 . Jump up ^ Dizon , David ( 19 November 2002 ) . `` Salonga 's Journey '' . ABS-CBNNews.com . Archived from the original on 1 July 2007 . Retrieved 27 October 2007 . Jump up ^ `` EX-COMMUNISTS PARTY BEHIND MANILA BOMBING '' . The Washington Post . 4 August 1989 . Jump up ^ http://www.gov.ph/1972/09/21/proclamation-no-1081 Jump up ^ `` Martial Law 40th Anniversary '' . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines . 30 November 2012 . Retrieved 20 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Ocampo , Ambeth R. `` How Marcos planned martial law '' . Jump up ^ Inquirer ( September 21 , 2011 ) . `` Demystifying Marcos ' Martial Law Regime '' . Jump up ^ Manila Times ( September 23 , 2015 ) . `` Liberal and Communist parties provoked martial law imposition '' . Jump up ^ ABS - CBN News . `` ' The press in a straitjacket ' '' . Jump up ^ Schirmer , Daniel B. ; Shalom , Stephen Roskamm ( 1987 ) . The Philippines Reader : A history of Colonialism , Neocolonialism , Dictatorship and Resistance . South End Press . Jump up ^ Celoza , Albert F. ( 1997 ) . Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines : The Political Economy of Authoritarianism . Praeger Publishers . Jump up ^ `` G.R. No . L - 36142 '' . www.lawphil.net . Jump up ^ `` Philippines -- Martial law -- history -- geography '' . Jump up ^ Medina , Kate Pedroso , Marielle . `` Liliosa Hilao : First Martial Law detainee killed '' . Jump up ^ `` LOOK BACK : The Philippine Constabulary under Marcos '' . Jump up ^ `` Alfred McCoy , Dark Legacy : Human rights under the Marcos regime '' . www.hartford-hwp.com . Jump up ^ Cesar Lumba . `` Once Upon a Blue Dot '' . Jump up ^ Maslog , Crispin C. ( 1 April 2016 ) . `` Martial Law Amnesia '' . Silliman University . Jump up ^ `` ASIAN JOURNAL a San Diego original . The 1st Asian Journal in Ca , USA . A Filipino American weekly . Online -- Digital -- Print Editions . '' . asianjournalusa.com . Jump up ^ Robles , Raissa ( 7 November 2012 ) . `` Enrile retracts ' Act of Contrition ' he made when he thought he was facing death in 1986 '' . ABS - CBN News . Jump up ^ `` Proclamation No. 1081 , s . 1972 '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 10 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Communist Party of the Philippines -- New People 's Army '' . Stanford University . Retrieved 4 January 2017 . Throughout 1976 , the Philippine government captured and jailed many important CPP - NPA members , including Buscayno . After Buscayno 's capture , Rodolfo Salas served as the NPA 's commander , and when Sison was captured the following year , Salas also assumed chairmanship of the CPP . Jump up ^ `` EX-COMMUNISTS PARTY BEHIND MANILA BOMBING '' . The Washington Post . August 4 , 1989 . Jump up ^ http://pascn.pids.gov.ph/files/Discussions%20Papers/1999/pascndp9916.pdf Jump up ^ Kamm , Henry ( 18 January 1981 ) . `` MARCOS FREES 341 ; LIFTS MARTIAL LAW '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Martial law declared in Maguindanao '' . Archived from the original on 2009 - 12 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Arroyo declares martial law in Maguindanao province '' . GMANews.TV . December 5 , 2009 . Retrieved December 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Full text : Arroyo 's declaration of martial law in Maguindanao '' . GMANews.TV . December 5 , 2009 . Retrieved December 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` 20 militiamen arrested in Maguindanao raid -- police '' . INQUIRER.net . December 5 , 2009 . Retrieved December 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` 330,000 rounds of ammo recovered in Maguindanao raid '' . INQUIRER.net . December 5 , 2009 . Archived from the original on December 8 , 2009 . Retrieved December 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ News , ABS - CBN . `` Duterte declares Martial Law in Mindanao '' . ABS - CBN News . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Duterte declares martial law in Mindanao '' . Rappler . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Duterte says his martial law to be similar to Marcos time '' . Rappler . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Philippine President Duterte eyes nationwide martial law '' . BBC News . 2017 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 24 . Agoncillo , Teodoro C. ( 1990 ) ( 1960 ) , History of the Filipino People ( 8th ed . ) , Quezon City : Garotech Publishing , ISBN 971 - 8711 - 06 - 6 . Guevara , Sulpico , ed. ( 2005 ) , The laws of the first Philippine Republic ( the laws of Malolos ) 1898 -- 1899 , Ann Arbor , Michigan : University of Michigan Library ( published 1972 ) , retrieved 2008 - 03 - 26 . ( English translation by Sulpicio Guevara ) Kalaw , Maximo Manguiat ( 1927 ) , The Development of Philippine Politics , Oriental commercial . Salazar , Zeus ( 1994 ) , Agosto 29 - 30 , 1896 : ang pagsalakay ni Bonifacio sa Maynila , Quezon City : Miranda Bookstore . Titherington , Richard Handfield ( 1900 ) , A history of the Spanish - American war of 1898 , D. Appleton and Company . ( republished by openlibrary.org ) Zaide , Sonia M. ( 1999 ) , The Philippines : a unique nation , All - Nations Publishing , ISBN 978 - 971 - 642 - 071 - 5 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Martial law in the Philippines . Proclamation No. 1081 Proclamation No. 1959 The Martial Law Memorial Museum The Martial Law Chronicles Project ( hide ) Martial law in the Philippines and People Power Revolution Batas militar sa Pilipinas Background 1965 Presidential elections Conjugal dictatorship Philippines -- United States relations US imperialism Cold War Vietnam War First Quarter Storm Communist insurgency Sabah claim Jabidah massacre Islamic insurgency 1969 elections Agrarian reform Coco Levy Fund scam Events Proclamation No. 1081 Human rights violations Plaza Miranda bombing 1973 Constitution 1978 elections Interim Batasang Pambansa Assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr . Snap elections People Regime Ferdinand Marcos Imelda Marcos Fabian Ver Danding Cojuangco Cesar Virata Arturo Tolentino Opposition Ninoy Aquino Corazon Aquino Salvador Laurel Juan Ponce Enrile Fidel V. Ramos Gringo Honasan Jaime Cardinal Sin Claudio Teehankee Jovito Salonga Jose Diokno Diosdado Macapagal Communists Jose Maria Sison Bernabe Buscayno Locations Landmarks Epifanio de los Santos Avenue Ortigas Center Camp Aguinaldo Camp Crame Club Filipino Malacañang Palace Hawaii Areas Makati Mandaluyong Pasig San Juan Quezon City Aftermath Events Nepotism Operation Big Bird Mendiola massacre 1987 elections Coup d'état Japanese Official Development Assistance scandal Death of Ferdinand Marcos Institutions Aquino Presidency Presidential Commission on Good Government 1987 Constitution Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Philippine National Police Ramos Presidency Literature Bagong Pagsilang Bayan Ko Dekada ' 70 film Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martial_law_in_the_Philippines&oldid=803210544 '' Categories : Emergency laws in the Philippines Military history of the Philippines Political repression in the Philippines History of the Philippines ( 1965 -- 86 ) Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos Presidency of Ferdinand Marcos Hidden categories : CS1 errors : invisible characters Pages containing links to subscription - only content NPOV disputes from October 2012 All NPOV disputes Articles needing more viewpoints from December 2016 Articles containing Tagalog - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2012 Articles with attributed pull quotes Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikibooks Add links This page was last edited on 1 October 2017 , at 04 : 21 . 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39 | document: Cullinan diamond - wikipedia Cullinan diamond Jump to : navigation , search `` Star of Africa '' redirects here . For other uses , see Star of Africa ( disambiguation ) . Cullinan Diamond The rough diamond Weight 3,106.75 carats ( 621.350 g ) Color Near colourless Cut 105 stones of assorted cuts Country of origin South Africa Mine of origin Premier Mine Cut by Asscher Brothers Original owner Premier Diamond Mining Company Owner Queen Elizabeth II in right of the Crown ( I and II ) and as a private individual ( III -- IX ) The Cullinan Diamond is the largest gem - quality rough diamond ever found , weighing 3,106.75 carats ( 621.35 g ) , discovered at the Premier No. 2 mine in Cullinan , South Africa , on 26 January 1905 . It was named after Thomas Cullinan , the mine 's chairman . In April 1905 , the diamond was put on sale in London , but despite considerable interest , it was still unsold after two years . In 1907 the Transvaal Colony government bought the Cullinan and presented it to King Edward VII on his 66th birthday . Cullinan produced stones of various cuts and sizes , the largest of which is named Cullinan I or the Great Star of Africa , and at 530.4 carats ( 106.08 g ) it is the largest clear cut diamond in the world . Cullinan I is mounted in the head of the Sovereign 's Sceptre with Cross . The second - largest is Cullinan II or the Second Star of Africa , weighing 317.4 carats ( 63.48 g ) , mounted in the Imperial State Crown . Both diamonds are part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom . Seven other major diamonds , weighing a total of 208.29 carats ( 41.66 g ) , are privately owned by Queen Elizabeth II , who inherited them from her grandmother , Queen Mary , in 1953 . The Queen also owns minor brilliants and a set of unpolished fragments . Contents ( hide ) 1 Discovery and early history 1.1 Presentation to Edward VII 1.2 Cutting process 2 Diamonds cut from the Cullinan 2.1 Cullinan I 2.2 Cullinan II 2.3 Cullinan III 2.4 Cullinan IV 2.5 Cullinan V 2.6 Cullinan VI 2.7 Cullinan VII 2.8 Cullinan VIII 2.9 Cullinan IX 3 See also 4 References 5 Bibliography 6 External links Discovery and early History ( edit ) Wells and the diamond The Cullinan diamond was found 18 feet ( 5.5 m ) below the surface at Premier Mine in Cullinan , Transvaal Colony , by Frederick Wells , surface manager at the mine , on 26 January 1905 . It was approximately 10.1 centimetres ( 4.0 in ) long , 6.35 centimetres ( 2.50 in ) wide , 5.9 centimetres ( 2.3 in ) deep , and weighed 3,106 carats ( 621.2 grams ) . Newspapers called it the `` Cullinan Diamond '' , a reference to Sir Thomas Cullinan , who opened the mine in 1902 . It was three times the size of the Excelsior Diamond , found in 1893 at Jagersfontein Mine , weighing 972 carats ( 194.4 g ) . Four of its eight surfaces were smooth , indicating that it once had been part of a much larger stone broken up by natural forces . It had a blue - white hue and contained a small pocket of air , which at certain angles produced a rainbow , or Newton 's rings . Shortly after its discovery , Cullinan went on public display at the Standard Bank in Johannesburg , where it was seen by an estimated 8,000 -- 9,000 visitors . In April 1905 , the rough gem was deposited with Premier Mining Co. 's London sales agent , S. Neumann & Co . Due to its immense value , detectives were assigned to a steamboat that was rumoured to be carrying the stone , and a parcel was ceremoniously locked in the captain 's safe and guarded on the entire journey . It was a diversionary tactic -- the stone on that ship was fake , meant to attract those who would be interested in stealing it . Cullinan was sent to the United Kingdom in a plain box via registered post . On arriving in London , it was conveyed to Buckingham Palace for inspection by King Edward VII . It drew considerable interest from potential buyers , but Cullinan went unsold for two years . Presentation to Edward VII ( edit ) Transvaal Prime Minister , Louis Botha , suggested buying the diamond for Edward VII as `` a token of the loyalty and attachment of the people of the Transvaal to His Majesty 's throne and person '' . In August 1907 , a vote was held in Parliament on the Cullinan 's fate , and a motion authorising the purchase was carried by 42 votes in favour to 19 against . Initially , Henry Campbell - Bannerman , then British Prime Minister , advised the king to decline the offer , but he later decided to let Edward VII choose whether or not to accept the gift . Eventually , he was persuaded by Winston Churchill , then Colonial Under - Secretary . For his trouble , Churchill was sent a replica of the diamond , which he enjoyed showing off to guests on a silver plate . The Transvaal Colony government bought the diamond on 17 October 1907 for £ 150,000 or about US $750,000 at the time , which adjusted for pound - sterling inflation is equivalent to £ 15 million in 2016 . Due to a 60 % tax imposed on mining profits , the Treasury received most of its money back from the Premier Diamond Mining Company . The diamond was presented to the king at Sandringham House on 9 November 1907 -- his sixty - sixth birthday -- in the presence of a large party of guests , including the Queen of Norway , the Queen of Spain , the Duke of Westminster and Lord Revelstoke . The king asked his colonial secretary , Lord Elgin , to announce that he accepted the gift `` for myself and my successors '' and that he would ensure `` this great and unique diamond be kept and preserved among the historic jewels which form the heirlooms of the Crown '' . Cutting process ( edit ) Joseph making the split The king chose Asscher Brothers of Amsterdam to cleave and polish the rough stone into brilliant gems of various cuts and sizes . Abraham Asscher collected it from the Colonial Office in London on 23 January 1908 . He returned to the Netherlands by train and ferry with the diamond in his coat pocket . Meanwhile , to much fanfare , a Royal Navy ship carried an empty box across the North Sea , again throwing off potential thieves . Even the captain had no idea that his `` precious '' cargo was a decoy . On 10 February 1908 , the rough stone was split in half by Joseph Asscher at his diamond - cutting factory in Amsterdam . At the time , technology had not yet evolved to guarantee the quality of modern standards , and cutting the diamond was difficult and risky . After weeks of planning , an incision 0.5 inches ( 1.3 cm ) deep was made to enable Asscher to cleave the diamond in one blow . Making the incision alone took four days , and a steel knife broke on the first attempt , but a second knife was fitted into the groove and split it clean in two along one of four possible cleavage planes . In all , splitting and cutting the diamond took eight months , with three people working 14 hours per day to complete the task . `` The tale is told of Joseph Asscher , the greatest cleaver of the day , '' wrote Matthew Hart in his book Diamond : A Journey to the Heart of an Obsession ( 2002 ) , `` that when he prepared to cleave the largest diamond ever known ... he had a doctor and nurse standing by and when he finally struck the diamond ... he fainted dead away '' . Lord Ian Balfour , in his book Famous Diamonds ( 2009 ) , dispels the fainting story , suggesting it was more likely Joseph would have celebrated , opening a bottle of champagne . When Joseph 's nephew Louis heard the story , he exclaimed `` No Asscher would ever faint over any operation on any diamond '' . Nine largest stones split from the rough Cullinan diamond Diamonds cut from the Cullinan ( edit ) Cullinan produced 9 major stones of 1,055.89 carats ( 211.178 g ) in total , and 96 minor brilliants weighing 7.55 carats ( 1.510 g ) ( on average , 0.079 carats each ) -- a yield from the rough stone of 34.25 per cent . There are also 9.5 carats ( 1.90 g ) of unpolished fragments . All but the two largest stones -- Cullinans I and II -- remained in Amsterdam by arrangement as the fee for Asscher 's services , until the South African government bought them ( except Cullinan VI , which Edward VII had purchased and given to his wife Queen Alexandra in 1907 ) , and the High Commissioner for Southern Africa presented them to Queen Mary on 28 June 1910 . Mary also inherited Cullinan VI from Alexandra , and she left all of her Cullinan diamonds to her granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 . Cullinans I and II are part of the Crown Jewels , which belong to the Queen in right of the Crown . Asscher sold the minor stones to various buyers , including then prime minister of South Africa , Louis Botha , and the diamond merchants Arthur and Alexander Levy , who supervised the cutting of Cullinan . Some were purchased by Mary and set in a long platinum chain , which Elizabeth has never worn in public , saying that `` it gets in the soup '' . In the 1970s , two minor Cullinan diamonds owned by Louis Botha 's heirs were analysed by De Beers at their laboratory in Johannesburg , and they were found to be completely free of nitrogen or any other impurities . Cullinans I and II have been examined in the 1980s by gemologists at the Tower of London and both graded as colourless type IIa . Cullinan I ( edit ) The nine major stones . Top : Cullinans II , I , and III . Bottom : Cullinans VIII , VI , IV , V , VII and IX . Cullinan I , or the Great Star of Africa , is a pendeloque - cut brilliant weighing 530.2 carats ( 106.04 g ) and has 74 facets . It is set at the top of the Sovereign 's Sceptre with Cross which had to be redesigned in 1910 to accommodate it . Cullinan I was surpassed as the world 's largest cut diamond of any colour by the 545.67 - carat ( 109.134 g ) Golden Jubilee Diamond in 1992 , but is still the largest clear cut diamond in the world . In terms of clarity , it has a few tiny cleavages and a small patch of graining . The 5.89 cm × 4.54 cm × 2.77 cm ( 2.32 in × 1.79 in × 1.09 in ) diamond is fitted with loops and can be taken out of its setting to be worn as a pendant suspended from Cullinan II to make a brooch . Queen Mary , wife of George V , often wore it like this . In 1908 , the stone was valued at US $2,500,000 -- two and a half times the rough Cullinan 's estimated value . Cullinan II ( edit ) Cullinan II , or the Second Star of Africa , is a cushion - cut brilliant with 66 facets weighing 317.4 carats ( 63.48 g ) set in the front of the Imperial State Crown , below the Black Prince 's Ruby ( a large spinel ) . It measures 4.54 cm × 4.08 cm × 2.42 cm ( 1.79 in × 1.61 in × 0.95 in ) . The diamond has a number of tiny flaws , scratches on the table facet , and a small chip at the girdle . Like Cullinan I , it is held in place by a yellow gold enclosure , which is screwed onto the crown . Cullinan III ( edit ) Cullinan III , or the Lesser Star of Africa , is pear - cut and weighs 94.4 carats ( 18.88 g ) . In 1911 , Queen Mary , wife and queen consort of George V , had it set in the top cross pattée of a crown that she personally bought for her coronation . In 1912 , the Delhi Durbar Tiara , worn the previous year by Mary instead of a crown at the Delhi Durbar , where her husand wore the Imperial Crown of India , was also adapted to take Cullians III and IV . In 1914 , Cullinan III was permanently replaced on the crown by a crystal model . Today , it is most frequently worn in combination with Cullinan IV by Elizabeth II as a brooch . In total , the brooch is 6.5 cm ( 2.6 in ) long and 2.4 cm ( 0.94 in ) wide . Cullinan III has also been used as a pendant on the Coronation Necklace , where it occasionally replaced the 22.4 - carat ( 4.48 g ) Lahore Diamond . Cullinan IV ( edit ) Queen Mary wearing Cullinans I and II as a brooch on her chest , III as a pendant on the Coronation Necklace , and IV in the base of her crown , below the Koh - i - Noor Cullinan IV , also referred to as a Lesser Star of Africa , is square - cut and weighs 63.6 carats ( 12.72 g ) . It was also set in the base of Queen Mary 's Crown ; however , it too was removed in 1914 . On 25 March 1958 , while she and Prince Philip were on a state visit to the Netherlands , the Queen Elizabeth II revealed that Cullinan III and IV are known in her family as `` Granny 's Chips '' . They visited the Asscher Diamond Company , where Cullinan had been cut 50 years earlier . It was the first time the Queen had worn the brooch publicly . During her visit , she unpinned the brooch and offered it for examination to Louis Asscher , nephew of Joseph Asscher , who split the rough diamond . Aged 84 , he was deeply moved by the fact the Queen had brought the diamonds with her , knowing how much it would mean to him seeing them again after so many years . Cullinan V ( edit ) Cullinan V is an 18.8 - carat ( 3.76 g ) heart - shaped diamond set in the centre of a platinum brooch that formed a part of the stomacher made for Queen Mary to wear at the Delhi Durbar in 1911 . The brooch was designed to show off Cullinan V and is pavé - set with a border of smaller diamonds . It can be suspended from the VIII brooch and can be used to suspend the VII pendant . It was often worn like this by Mary . Cullinan VI ( edit ) Cullinan VI is marquise - cut and weighs 11.5 carats ( 2.30 g ) . It hangs from the brooch containing Cullinan VIII and forming part of the stomacher of the Delhi Durbar parure . Cullinan VI along with VIII can also be fitted together to make yet another brooch , surrounded by some 96 smaller diamonds . The design was created around the same time that the Cullinan V heart - shaped brooch was designed , both having a similar shape . Cullinan VII ( edit ) Cullinan VII is also marquise - cut and weighs 8.8 carats ( 1.76 g ) . It was originally given by Edward VII to his wife and consort Queen Alexandra . After his death she gave the jewel to Queen Mary , who had it set as a pendant hanging from the diamond - and - emerald Delhi Durbar necklace , part of the parure . Cullinan VIII ( edit ) Cullinan VIII is an oblong - cut diamond weighing 6.8 carats ( 1.36 g ) . It is set in the centre of a brooch forming part of the stomacher of the Delhi Durbar parure . Together with Cullinan VI it forms a brooch . Cullinan IX ( edit ) Cullinan IX is smallest of the principal diamonds to be obtained from the rough Cullinan . It is a pendeloque or stepped pear - cut stone , weighs 4.39 carats ( 0.878 g ) , and is set in a platinum ring known as the Cullinan IX Ring . See also ( edit ) South Africa portal List of diamonds List of largest rough diamonds Elizabeth II 's jewels References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Bariand and Duchamp , p. 101 . ^ Jump up to : Scarratt and Shor , p. 120 . ^ Jump up to : `` Jewellery made from the world 's largest diamond is to go on display '' ( PDF ) . Royal Collection Trust . 15 May 2012 . Retrieved 21 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Scarratt and Shor , p. 122 . Jump up ^ Hatch , pp. 170 -- 172 . Jump up ^ Scarratt and Shor , p. 123 . Jump up ^ Dickinson , pp. 110 -- 111 . Jump up ^ Lee , pp. 489 -- 490 . Jump up ^ Helme , p. 86 . ^ Jump up to : Field , p. 72 . ^ Jump up to : Bariand and Duchamp , p. 97 . Jump up ^ United Kingdom Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth `` consistent series '' supplied in Thomas , Ryland ; Williamson , Samuel H. ( 2018 ) . `` What Was the U.K. GDP Then ? '' . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved January 5 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Cartwright , p. 73 . ^ Jump up to : Balfour , p. 71 . Jump up ^ Seff and Seff , p. 252 . Jump up ^ Helme , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Crookes , pp. 77 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Hart , p. 204 . Jump up ^ Koskoff , p. 174 . Jump up ^ Spencer , pp. 318 -- 326 . Jump up ^ Scarratt and Shor , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Balfour , p. 73 . Jump up ^ Dickinson , p. 114 . Jump up ^ `` Crown Jewels '' . Parliamentary Debates ( Hansard ) . 211 . United Kingdom : House of Commons . 16 July 1992 . col . 944W . Jump up ^ Scarratt and Shor , p. 125 . Jump up ^ `` Life '' . Vol. 10 . Time . July 1987 . p. 48 . Jump up ^ Helme , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Scarrat and Shor , pp. 126 , 131 . ^ Jump up to : Manutchehr - Danai , p. 118 . Jump up ^ `` The Largest Cut Diamond in the World '' . Gem & Jewellery News . 2 ( 1 ) : 1 . December 1992 . ISSN 0964 - 6736 . Jump up ^ `` The Sovereign 's Sceptre with Cross '' . Royal Collection Trust . Inventory no . 31712 . ^ Jump up to : Scarratt and Shor , p. 128 . Jump up ^ Mears , et al. , p. 30 . Jump up ^ Morgan , p. 262 . Jump up ^ `` The Imperial State Crown '' . Royal Collection Trust . Inventory no . 31701 . Jump up ^ Keay , p. 175 . Jump up ^ `` Delhi Durbar Tiara '' . Royal Collection Trust . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Cullinan III and IV Brooch '' . Royal Collection Trust . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The diamonds and their history '' ( PDF ) . Royal Collection Trust . Retrieved 24 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jewellery made from the Cullinan Diamond '' ( PDF ) . Royal Collection Trust . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Mears , p. 150 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cullinan VI and VIII Brooch '' . Royal Collection Trust . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Delhi Durbar Necklace and Cullinan VII Pendant '' . Royal Collection Trust . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cullinan IX Ring '' . Royal Collection Trust . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Bibliography ( edit ) Balfour , Ian ( 2009 ) . Famous Diamonds . Antique Collectors ' Club . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85149 - 479 - 8 . Bariand , Pierre ; Duchamp , Michel ( 1992 ) . The Larousse Encyclopedia of Precious Gems. Van Nostrand Reinhold . ISBN 978 - 0 - 442 - 30289 - 4 . Cartwright , Alan Patrick ( 1977 ) . Diamonds and Clay . Purnell . ISBN 978 - 0 - 868 - 43017 - 1 . Crookes , William ( 1909 ) . Diamonds. Harper & Brothers . ASIN B0114VJCD4 . Dickinson , Joan Y. ( 2012 ) . The Book of Diamonds . Courier . ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 15682 - 8 . Field , Leslie ( 1997 ) . The Queen 's Jewels . Harry N. Abrams . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8109 - 8172 - 0 . Hart , Matthew ( 2002 ) . Diamond : A Journey to the Heart of an Obsession . Plume Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 452 - 28370 - 1 . Hatch , F.H. ( April 1905 ) . `` A Description of the Big Diamond Recently Found in the Premier Mine , Transvaal '' . Geological Magazine . Cambridge University Press : 170 -- 172 . Helme , Nigel ( 1974 ) . Thomas Major Cullinan : A Biography . McGraw - Hill . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 091286 - 1 . Keay , Anna ( 2011 ) . The Crown Jewels . Thames & Hudson . ISBN 978 - 0 - 500 - 51575 - 4 . Koskoff , David E. ( 1981 ) . The Diamond World . Harper & Row . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 038005 - 2 . Lee , Sidney ( 1925 ) . King Edward VII : A Biography. 2 . Macmillan . ASIN B00ESCVL04 . Manutchehr - Danai , Mohsen ( 2013 ) . Dictionary of Gems and Gemology . Springer Science & Business Media . ISBN 978 - 3 - 662 - 04288 - 5 . Mears , Kenneth J. ( 1988 ) . The Tower of London : 900 Years of English History . Phaidon . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7148 - 2527 - 4 . Mears , Kenneth J. ; Thurley , Simon ; Murphy , Claire ( 1994 ) . The Crown Jewels . Historic Royal Palaces . ASIN B000HHY1ZQ . Morgan , Henry H. ( 17 October 1908 ) . `` Polishing the Great Cullinan Diamond '' . Scientific American . 99 ( 16 ) : 262 . doi : 10.1038 / scientificamerican10171908 - 262 . Scarratt , Kenneth ; Shor , Russell ( 2006 ) . `` The Cullinan Diamond Centennial : A History and Gemological Analysis of Cullinans I and II '' . Gems & Gemology. 42 ( 2 ) : 120 -- 132 . doi : 10.5741 / gems. 42.2. 120 . Seff , Philip ; Seff , Nancy R. ( 1990 ) . Our Fascinating Earth . McGraw - Hill . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8092 - 4185 - 9 . Spencer , Leonard J. ( 1910 ) . `` Notes on the weight of the ' Cullinan ' diamond '' . Mineralogical Magazine . Vol . XV no . 71 . pp. 318 -- 326 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cullinan Diamond . The Cullinan Diamond at the Royal Collection Trust ( archived ) Famous Diamonds at Cape Town Diamond Museum ( hide ) Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom Crowns Principal crowns St Edward 's Crown Imperial State Crown Consort crowns The Queen Mother 's Crown Queen Mary 's Crown Queen Alexandra 's Crown Queen Adelaide 's Crown Mary of Modena 's State Crown Coronets Coronet of George , Prince of Wales Coronet of Frederick , Prince of Wales Others Imperial Crown of India Queen Victoria 's Small Diamond Crown Coronation Crown of George IV State Crown of George I Tudor Crown Robes and ornaments Robes Spurs Armills Orbs Rings Sceptres Mirror of Great Britain Precious stones Cullinan I Cullinan II Koh - i - Noor Black Prince 's Ruby St Edward 's Sapphire Stuart Sapphire Anointing objects Ampulla Coronation Spoon Processional objects Swords Curtana St Edward 's Staff Trumpets Maces Plate and fonts Altar plate Banqueting plate Christening fonts Lily Font See also Honours of Scotland Honours of the Principality of Wales Coronet of Charles , Prince of Wales Elizabeth II 's jewels Crown Jeweller Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cullinan_Diamond&oldid=825449718 '' Categories : Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom Diamonds originating in South Africa 1905 in South Africa Transvaal History of Pretoria Hidden categories : Use British English from May 2013 Use dmy dates from May 2013 CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Bikol Central Български Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara Français Gaeilge Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 25 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2018 , at 13 : 40 . 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40 | document: Universal Declaration of Human Rights - wikipedia Universal Declaration of Human Rights Jump to : navigation , search Universal Declaration of Human Rights Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish language version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Created 1948 Ratified 10 December 1948 Location Palais de Chaillot , Paris Author ( s ) Draft Committee Purpose Human rights Poster The human rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly of its 183rd meeting , held in Paris on 10 December 1948 Rights Theoretical distinctions Claim rights and liberty rights Individual and group rights Natural and legal rights Negative and positive rights Human rights Civil and political Economic , social and cultural Three generations Rights by beneficiary Animals Authors Children Consumers Creditors Elders Fathers Fetuses Gun owners Humans Natives Intersex Kings LGBT Men Minorities Mothers Patients Plants Prisoners Students Victims Women Workers Youth Disabled persons Other groups of rights Civil liberties Digital Linguistic Property Reproductive Self - determination of people Water and sanitation The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR ) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris , France . Of the then 58 members of the United Nations , 48 voted in favor , none against , eight abstained , and two did not vote . The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual 's rights which , although not legally binding in themselves , have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties , economic transfers , regional human rights instruments , national constitutions , and other laws . The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights , which was completed in 1966 , and came into force in 1976 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them . Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years , it has become binding as a part of customary international law . However , in the United States , the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain ( 2004 ) , concluded that the Declaration `` does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law . '' Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure and content 2 History 2.1 Background 2.2 Creation and drafting 2.3 Adoption 3 International Human Rights Day 4 Significance and legal effect 4.1 Significance 4.2 Legal effect 5 Reaction 5.1 Praise 5.2 Criticism 5.2. 1 Islamic countries 5.2. 2 `` The Right to Refuse to Kill '' 5.2. 3 American Anthropological Association 5.2. 4 Bangkok Declaration 6 Organizations promoting the UDHR 6.1 International Federation for Human Rights 6.2 Amnesty International 6.3 Unitarian Universalist Service Committee 6.4 Quaker United Nations Office and American Friends Service Committee 6.5 American Library Association 6.6 Youth for Human Rights International 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Citations 8.2 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Audiovisual materials Structure and content ( edit ) The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft , which was prepared by René Cassin . Cassin worked from a first draft , which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey . The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon , including a preamble and introductory general principles . Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple , with a foundation , steps , four columns , and a pediment . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles : The preamble sets out the historical and social causes that led to the necessity of drafting the Declaration . Articles 1 -- 2 established the basic concepts of dignity , liberty , equality , and brotherhood . Articles 3 -- 11 established other individual rights , such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery . Articles 6 -- 11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defence when violated . Articles 12 -- 17 established the rights of the individual towards the community ( including such things as freedom of movement ) . Articles 18 -- 21 sanctioned the so - called `` constitutional liberties '' , and with spiritual , public , and political freedoms , such as freedom of thought , opinion , religion and conscience , word , and peaceful association of the individual . Articles 22 -- 27 sanctioned an individual 's economic , social and cultural rights , including healthcare . Article 25 states : `` Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well - being of himself and of his family , including food , clothing , housing and medical care and necessary social services . '' It also makes additional accommodations for security in case of physical debilitation or disability , and makes special mention of care given to those in motherhood or childhood . Articles 28 -- 30 established the general ways of using these rights , the areas in which these rights of the individual can not be applied , and that they can not be overcome against the individual . These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation . History ( edit ) Background ( edit ) State of the Union ( Four Freedoms ) ( 6 January 1941 ) Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's 6 January 1941 State of the Union address introducing the theme of the Four Freedoms ( starting at 32 : 02 ) Problems playing this file ? See media help . Main article : History of human rights During World War II , the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms -- freedom of speech , freedom of religion , freedom from fear , and freedom from want -- as their basic war aims . The United Nations Charter `` reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights , and dignity and worth of the human person '' and committed all member states to promote `` universal respect for , and observance of , human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race , sex , language , or religion '' . When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II , the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred . A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter 's provisions on human rights . Creation and drafting ( edit ) Main article : Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights In June 1946 , the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights , comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds . The Commission , a standing body of the United Nations , was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights . The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee , chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt , to write the articles of the Declaration . The Committee met in two sessions over the course of two years . Canadian John Peters Humphrey , Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat , was called upon by the United Nations Secretary - General to work on the project and became the Declaration 's principal drafter . At the time , Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat . Other well - known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France , Charles Malik of Lebanon , and P.C. Chang of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) . Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission . According to Allan Carlson , the Declaration 's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement 's influence on Cassin and Malik . Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948 , the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights , the Economic and Social Council , the Third Committee of the General Assembly before being put to vote in December 1948 . During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States . British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation . ( It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force , giving a legal status to most of the Declaration . ) Adoption ( edit ) The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948 . Of the then 58 members of the United Nations , 48 voted in favor , none against , eight abstained and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain . In miniature book The meeting record provides firsthand insight into the debate . South Africa 's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid , which clearly violated several articles in the Declaration . The Saudi Arabian delegation 's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration 's articles : Article 18 , which states that everyone has the right `` to change his religion or belief '' ; and Article 16 , on equal marriage rights . The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism . Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13 , which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries . The 48 countries which voted in favour of the Declaration are : Voters and abstainers in the Plenary session : In green countries that voted in favour , in orange those who abstained In black , countries which failed to abstain or vote In grey , countries which were not part of the UN at the time of voting Afghanistan Argentina Australia Belgium Bolivia Brazil Burma Canada Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia France Greece Guatemala Haiti Iceland India Iran Iraq Lebanon Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Norway Pakistan Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Thailand Sweden Syria Turkey United Kingdom United States Uruguay Venezuela a . ^ Despite the central role played by the Canadian John Peters Humphrey , the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the Declaration 's draft , but later voted in favor of the final draft in the General Assembly . 8 countries abstained : Byelorussian SSR ( Byelorussia ) Czechoslovakia Poland Saudi Arabia Soviet Union Ukrainian SSR ( Ukraine ) Union of South Africa Yugoslavia Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later , which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote , and in no way reflects opposition to the universal principles . International Human Rights Day ( edit ) Main article : Human Rights Day The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10 , the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration , and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day . The commemoration is observed by individuals , community and religious groups , human rights organizations , parliaments , governments , and the United Nations . Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights . 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration , and was accompanied by year - long activities around the theme `` Dignity and justice for all of us '' . Significance and legal effect ( edit ) Significance ( edit ) In 1948 , the UN Resolution A / RES / 217 ( III ) ( A ) adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French , and official translations in Chinese , Russian and Spanish . In 2009 , the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world 's `` Most Translated Document '' ( 370 different languages and dialects ) . The Unicode Consortium stores 431 of the 503 official translations available at the OHCHR ( as of June 2017 ) . In its preamble , governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration . Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States . In this , she proved to be correct . Even though it is not legally binding , the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948 . It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws , international laws , and treaties , as well as for a growing number of regional , sub national , and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights . For the first time in international law , the term `` the rule of law '' was used in the preamble of the Declaration . The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration reads as follows : `` Whereas it is essential , if man is not to be compelled to have recourse , as a last resort , to rebellion against tyranny and oppression , that human rights should be protected by the rule of law . '' Legal effect ( edit ) While not a treaty itself , the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words `` fundamental freedoms '' and `` human rights '' appearing in the United Nations Charter , which is binding on all member states . For this reason , the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations . In addition , many international lawyers believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles . The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration `` constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community '' to all persons . The Declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants : the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women , the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child , the United Nations Convention Against Torture , and many more . The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments , academics , advocates , and constitutional courts , and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights . Reaction ( edit ) Praise ( edit ) The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people . The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it `` an international document of the first order of importance '' , while Eleanor Roosevelt -- first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights ( CHR ) that drafted the Declaration -- stated that it `` may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere . '' In a speech on 5 October 1995 , Pope John Paul II called the Declaration `` one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time '' but the Vatican never adopted the Declaration . In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union , Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration `` placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community . '' Criticism ( edit ) Islamic countries ( edit ) Turkey -- which was a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population -- signed the Declaration in 1948 . However , the same year , Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration , claiming that it violated Sharia law . Pakistan -- which had signed the declaration -- disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position . Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor of including freedom of religion . In 1982 , the Iranian representative to the United Nations , Said Rajaie - Khorassani , said that the Declaration was `` a secular understanding of the Judeo - Christian tradition '' which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia . On 30 June 2000 , members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference ( now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam , an alternative document that says people have `` freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari'ah '' , without any discrimination on grounds of `` race , colour , language , sex , religious belief , political affiliation , social status or other considerations '' . Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties . For example , Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan 's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article 3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR . Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women 's rights . A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration 's alleged Western bias . These include Irene Oh , Abdulaziz Sachedina , Riffat Hassan , and Faisal Kutty . Hassan has argued : What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest , or sole , model , of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings , is that given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration , the `` universality '' of the assumptions on which it is based is -- at the very least -- problematic and subject to questioning . Furthermore , the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general , or particular religions such as Islam , needs to be examined in an unbiased way . Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative ( descriptive ) ethics . Kutty writes : `` A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home ... It is important to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights . '' Ironically , a number of Islamic countries that as of 2014 are among the most resistant to UN intervention in domestic affairs , played an invaluable role in the creation of the Declaration , with countries such as Syria and Egypt having been strong proponents of the universality of human rights and the right of countries to self - determination . `` The right to Refuse to Kill '' ( edit ) Groups such as Amnesty International and War Resisters International have advocated for `` The Right to Refuse to Kill '' to be added to the Universal Declaration . War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from -- but not yet explicit in -- Article 18 of the UDHR : the right to freedom of thought , conscience , and religion . Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit , but -- to date ( 2017 ) -- those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents . Sean MacBride -- Assistant Secretary - General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate -- has said : `` To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might , with relevance , be added . It is ' The Right to Refuse to Kill ' . '' American Anthropological Association ( edit ) The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process . The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which would be unfair to countries outside of that scope . They further argued that the West 's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world . They proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism : `` 1 . The individual realizes his personality through his culture , hence respect for individual differences entails a respect for cultural differences '' , `` 2 . Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered '' , and `` 3 . Standards and values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole . '' Bangkok Declaration ( edit ) During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993 , ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration , reaffirming their governments ' commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality , objectivity , and non-selectivity of human rights . However , at the same time , they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference , calling for greater emphasis on economic , social , and cultural rights -- in particular , the right to economic development over civil and political rights . The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective , which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism . Organizations promoting the UDHR ( edit ) This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience . Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information , and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia 's inclusion policy . ( November 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) International Federation for Human Rights ( edit ) The International Federation for Human Rights ( FIDH ) is nonpartisan , nonsectarian , and independent of any government , and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and the International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . Amnesty International ( edit ) In 1988 , director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators , musicians , and producers created a 20 - minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration . The video was to bring to life the Declaration 's 30 articles . Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the `` Fire Up ! '' event . Unitarian Universalist Service Committee ( edit ) The Unitarian Universalist Service Committee ( UUSC ) is a non-profit , nonsectarian organization whose work around the world is guided by the values of Unitarian Universalism and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . It works to provide disaster relief and promote human rights and social justice around the world . Quaker United Nations Office and American Friends Service Committee ( edit ) The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues , including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . They have developed a Curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . American Library Association ( edit ) In 1997 , the council of the American Library Association ( ALA ) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Along with Article 19 , Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights . Censorship , the invasion of privacy , and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA . In response to violations of human rights , the ALA asserts the following principles : `` The American Library Association opposes any use of governmental prerogative that leads to intimidation of individuals that prevents them from exercising their rights to hold opinions without interference , and to seek , receive , and impart information and ideas . We urge libraries and librarians everywhere to resist such abuse of governmental power , and to support those against whom such governmental power has been employed . The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference , and to seek , receive , and impart information and ideas . Such restrictions , whether enforced by statutes or regulations , contractual stipulations , or voluntary agreements , pervert the function of the library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians . The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form . Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression , strengthens the hand of the oppressor , and undermines the cause of justice . The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles . We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice , and contributes to the demise of freedom . '' Youth for Human Rights International ( edit ) Youth for Human Rights International ( YHRI ) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth , an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa , where she witnessed firsthand the devastating effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights . The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights , specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights , and inspire them to become advocates for tolerance and peace . YHRI has now grown into a global movement , including hundreds of groups , clubs and chapters around the world . See also ( edit ) Human rights portal United Nations portal Freedom of speech portal Human rights History of human rights Timeline of young people 's rights in the United Kingdom in the United States in France Non-binding agreements Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam ( 1990 ) Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action ( 1993 ) United Nations Millennium Declaration ( 2000 ) International human rights law Fourth Geneva Convention ( 1949 ) European Convention on Human Rights ( 1952 ) Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees ( 1954 ) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ( 1969 ) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( 1976 ) International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights ( 1976 ) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( 1981 ) Convention on the Rights of the Child ( 1990 ) Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union ( 2000 ) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities ( 2007 ) Thinkers influencing the Declaration Jacques Maritain Tommy Douglas John Sankey , 1st Viscount Sankey Other Slavery in the United States in Russia Slavery in international law Slave Trade Acts Human rights in China ( PRC ) Command responsibility Moral universalism Declaration on Great Apes , an as - yet unsuccessful effort to extend some human rights to other great apes . `` Consent of the governed '' Racial equality proposal ( 1919 ) The Farewell Sermon ( 632 CE ) Youth for Human Rights International List of literary works by number of translations References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Included John Peters Humphrey ( Canada ) , René Cassin ( France ) , P.C. Chang ( Republic of China ) , Charles Malik ( Lebanon ) , Hansa Mehta ( India ) and Eleanor Roosevelt ( United States ) ; see Creation and drafting section above . Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ Henry J Steiner and Philip Alston , International Human Rights in Context : Law , Politics , Morals , ( 2nd ed ) , Oxford University Press , Oxford , 2000 . Jump up ^ Hurst Hannum , The UDHR in National and International Law , p. 145 Jump up ^ Sosa v. Alvarez - Machain , 542 U.S. 692 , 734 ( 2004 ) . Jump up ^ Glendon 2002 , pp. 62 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Universal Declaration of Human Rights , United Nations , 1948 Jump up ^ Glendon 2002 , Chapter 10 . Jump up ^ `` FDR , `` The Four Freedoms , '' Speech Text `` . Voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu . January 6 , 1941 . Retrieved April 25 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Bodnar , John , The `` Good War '' in American Memory . ( Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press , 2010 ) 11 Jump up ^ `` United Nations Charter , preamble and article 55 '' . United Nations . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 20 . Jump up ^ Cataclysm and World Response in Drafting and Adoption : The Universal Declaration of Human Rights , udhr.org . Jump up ^ `` UDHR50 : Did n't Nazi tyranny end all hope for protecting human rights in the modern world ? '' . Udhr.org. 1998 - 08 - 28 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` UDHR -- History of human rights '' . Universalrights.net . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ Morsink 1999 , p. 4 Jump up ^ Morsink 1999 , p. 5 Jump up ^ Morsink 1999 , p. 133 Jump up ^ The Declaration was drafted during the Chinese Civil War . P.C. Chang was appointed as a representative by the Republic of China , then the recognised government of China , but which was driven from mainland China and now administers only Taiwan and nearby islands ( history.com ) . Jump up ^ Carlson , Allan : Globalizing Family Values , 12 January 2004 . Jump up ^ `` Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' . Research Guides . United Nations . Dag Hammarskjöld Library . Retrieved 2015 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Final authorized text . The British Library . September 1952 . Retrieved 16 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Growth in United Nations membership , 1945 - present '' . www.un.org . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : CCNMTL . `` default '' . Center for New Media Teaching and Learning ( CCNMTL ) . Columbia University . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 12 . Jump up ^ UNAC . `` Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' . United Nations Association in Canada ( UNAC ) . p . `` Who are the signatories of the Declaration ? '' . Archived from the original on 2012 - 09 - 12 . Jump up ^ Jost Müller - Neuhof ( 2008 - 12 - 10 ) . `` Menschenrechte : Die mächtigste Idee der Welt '' . Der Tagesspiegel ( in German ) . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 12 . Jump up ^ United Nations . `` default '' . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 30 . Jump up ^ Peter Danchin . `` The Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Drafting History - 10 . Plenary Session of the Third General Assembly Session '' . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 25 . Jump up ^ Glendon 2002 , pp. 169 -- 70 ^ Jump up to : `` Yearbook of the United Nations 1948 -- 1949 p 535 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on September 27 , 2013 . Retrieved 24 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Schabas , William ( 1998 ) . `` Canada and the Adoption of Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' ( PDF ) . McGill Law Journal . 43 : 403 . Jump up ^ `` OHCHR - Human Rights in the World '' . www.ohchr.org . Jump up ^ `` The Universal Declaration of Human Rights : 1948 -- 2008 '' . United Nations . Retrieved 15 February 2011 . Jump up ^ `` A / RES / 217 ( III ) '' . UNBISNET . Retrieved 13 Jun 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Most translated document '' . Jump up ^ `` Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' . United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights . Jump up ^ `` UDHR in Unicode - Translations '' , Unicode , retrieved 8 - 6 - 2017 Jump up ^ `` Search by Translation '' , UDHR Translation Project , United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , retrieved 13 - 8 - 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' . www.un.org . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 07 . Jump up ^ John Peters , Humphrey ( 23 May 1979 ) . `` The universal declaration of human rights , Its history , impact andjuridical character '' . In Bertrand G. , Ramcharan . Human Rights : Thirty Years After the Universal Declaration : Commemorative Volume on the Occasion of the Thirtieth Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . The Hage : Nijhoff . p. 37 . ISBN 90 - 247 - 2145 - 8 . Jump up ^ Sohn , Louis B. ( 1977 ) . `` The human rights law of the charter '' . Texas International Law Journal . 12 : 133 . ISSN 0163 - 7479 . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 21 . Jump up ^ Myres S. , McDougal ; Lasswell , Harold D. ; Chen , Lung - chu ( 1969 ) . `` Human Rights and World Public Order : A Framework for Policy - Oriented Inquiry '' . Faculty Scholarship Series . Yale Law School . pp. 273 -- 274 , 325 -- 327 . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 21 . Jump up ^ Anthony A. D'Amato ( 1987 ) . International law : process and prospect . Transnational Publishers . pp. 123 -- 147 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 941320 - 35 - 1 . Jump up ^ Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights . `` Digital record of the UDHR '' . United Nations . Jump up ^ `` Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly on the Universal Declaration '' . 6 November 1948 . Archived from the original on 28 September 2008 . Jump up ^ Michael E. Eidenmuller ( 1948 - 12 - 09 ) . `` Eleanor Roosevelt : Address to the United Nations General Assembly '' . Americanrhetoric.com . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` John Paul II , Address to the U.N. , October 2 , 1979 and October 5 , 1995 '' . Vatican.va . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` International human rights defenders honoured as general assembly marks fifty - fifth anniversary of universal declaration '' , United Nations : meetings coverage and press releases , 10 December 2003 Jump up ^ `` Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ Nisrine Abiad ( 2008 ) . Sharia , Muslim states and international human rights treaty obligations : a comparative study . BIICL . pp. 60 -- 65 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 905221 - 41 - 7 . Jump up ^ Price 1999 , p. 163 ^ Jump up to : Hashemi , Nader and Emran Qureshi . `` Human Rights . '' In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World . Oxford Islamic Studies Online . Jump up ^ Littman , D ( February -- March 1999 ) . `` Universal Human Rights and Human Rights in Islam '' . Midstream . Archived from the original on 2006 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Resolution No 60 / 27 - P '' . Organisation of the Islamic Conference . 2000 - 06 - 27 . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Are Human Rights Compatible with Islam ? '' . religiousconsultation.org . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` The Rights of God '' . Georgetown University Press , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Non-Western Societies Have Influenced Human Rights '' . in Jacqueline Langwith ( ed . ) , Opposing Viewpoints : Human Rights , Gale / Greenhaven Press : Chicago , 2007 . Jump up ^ Professor Susan Waltz : Universal Rights Group , Syria calls for greater UN intervention in domestic human rights situations ... Jump up ^ Out of the margins : the right to conscientious objection to military service in Europe : An announcement of Amnesty International 's forthcoming campaign and briefing for the UN Commission on Human Rights , 31 March 1997 . Amnesty International . ^ Jump up to : A Conscientious Objector 's Guide to the UN Human Rights System , Parts 1 , 2 & 3 , Background Information on International Law for COs , Standards which recognise the right to conscientious objection , War Resisters ' International . Jump up ^ Sean MacBride , The Imperatives of Survival , Nobel Lecture , 12 December 1974 , The Nobel Foundation -- Official website of the Nobel Foundation . ( English index page ; hyperlink to Swedish site . ) From Nobel Lectures in Peace 1971 -- 1980 . Jump up ^ `` Statement on Human Rights '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Final Declaration Of The Regional Meeting For Asia Of The World Conference On Human Rights '' . Law.hku.hk . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ Contribution to the EU Multi-stakeholder Forum on CSR ( Corporate Social Responsibility ) , 10 February 2009 ; accessed on 9 November 2009 Jump up ^ Information Partners , web site of the UNHCR , last updated 25 February 2010 , 16 : 08 GMT ( web retrieval 25 February 2010 , 18 : 11 GMT ) Jump up ^ `` UDHR film '' . Amnesty International . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Fire Up ! '' . Amnesty International . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` UNHCR Partners '' . UNHCR . Retrieved 11 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` AFSC Universal Declaration of Human Rights web page '' . American Friends Service Committee . Retrieved 11 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Resolution on IFLA , Human Rights and Freedom of Expression '' . ala.org . Jump up ^ `` The Universal Right to Free Expression : '' . ala.org . Jump up ^ `` The Universal Right to Free Expression '' . American Library Association . Retrieved 1 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Youth for Human Rights '' . Youth for Human Rights . Retrieved 13 November 2016 . Sources ( edit ) Brown , Gordon ( 2016 ) . The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the 21st Century : A Living Document in a Changing World . Open Book Publishers . ISBN 978 - 1 - 783 - 74218 - 9 . Glendon , Mary Ann ( 2002 ) . A world made new : Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Random House . ISBN 978 - 0 - 375 - 76046 - 4 . Hashmi , Sohail H. ( 2002 ) . Islamic political ethics : civil society , pluralism , and conflict . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 11310 - 4 . Morsink , Johannes ( 1999 ) . The Universal Declaration of Human Rights : origins , drafting , and intent . University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8122 - 1747 - 6 . Price , Daniel E. ( 1999 ) . Islamic political culture , democracy , and human rights : a comparative study . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 275 - 96187 - 9 . Williams , Paul ( 1981 ) . The International bill of human rights . United Nations General Assembly . Entwhistle Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 934558 - 07 - 5 . Further reading ( edit ) Feldman , Jean - Philippe . `` Hayek 's Critique Of The Universal Declaration Of Human Rights '' . Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines , Volume 9 , Issue 4 ( December 1999 ) : 1145 - 6396 . Nurser , John . `` For All Peoples and All Nations . Christian Churches and Human Rights . '' . ( Geneva : WCC Publications , 2005 ) . Universal Declaration of Human Rights pages at Columbia University ( Centre for the Study of Human Rights ) , including article by article commentary , video interviews , discussion of meaning , drafting and history . Introductory note by Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and procedural history on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law External links ( edit ) This article 's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia 's policies or guidelines . 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41 | document: Women 's suffrage - wikipedia Women 's suffrage `` Votes for Women '' redirects here . For the Mark Twain speech , see Votes for Women ( speech ) . For the British newspaper , see Votes for Women ( newspaper ) . 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Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland , Iceland , Sweden and some Australian colonies and western U.S. states in the late 19th century . National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights , especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance ( founded in 1904 , Berlin , Germany ) , and also worked for equal civil rights for women . In 1881 , the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote . In 1893 , the British colony of New Zealand granted women the right to vote . The colony of South Australia did the same in 1895 and women were able to vote in the next election , which was held in 1896 . South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men . In 1899 Western Australia enacted full women 's suffrage , enabling women to vote in the constitutional referendum of 31 July 1900 and the 1901 state and federal elections . In 1902 women in the remaining four colonies also acquired the right to vote and stand in federal elections after the six Australian colonies federated to become the Commonwealth of Australia . Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people , including women , voting in national elections , were not completely removed until 1962 . The first European country to introduce women 's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland , then part of the Russian Empire , which elected the world 's first women Members of Parliament in the 1907 parliamentary elections . Norway followed , granting full women 's suffrage in 1913 . Denmark followed in 1915 , and the Soviet Union followed in 1917 . Most independent countries enacted women 's suffrage in the interwar era , including Canada in 1917 , Britain ( over 30 in 1918 , over 21 in 1928 ) , Germany , Poland in 1918 , Austria and the Netherlands in 1919 , and the United States in 1920 ( Voting Rights Act of 1965 secured voting rights for racial minorities ) . Leslie Hume argues that the First World War changed the popular mood : The women 's contribution to the war effort challenged the notion of women 's physical and mental inferiority and made it more difficult to maintain that women were , both by constitution and temperament , unfit to vote . If women could work in munitions factories , it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth . But the vote was much more than simply a reward for war work ; the point was that women 's participation in the war helped to dispel the fears that surrounded women 's entry into the public arena . Late adopters in Europe were Spain in 1933 , France in 1944 , Italy in 1946 , Greece in 1952 , San Marino in 1959 , Monaco in 1962 , Andorra in 1970 , Switzerland in 1971 at federal level , and at local canton level between 1959 in the cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel and 1991 in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden , and Liechtenstein in 1984 . In addition , although women in Portugal obtained suffrage in 1931 , this was with stronger restrictions than those of men ; full gender equality in voting was only granted in 1976 . The United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920 . Brazil implemented full voting rights for women in 1932 . In Canada , some white women obtained suffrage in 1919 . Full voting rights for all women in provincial and federal elections was n't until 1960 . Some Latin American nations passed women 's suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established women 's suffrage in the 1940s , with the exception of Uruguay in 1917 ( see table in Summary below ) . The last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961 . In December 2015 , women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia ( municipal elections ) . Extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for women 's suffrage . In many countries , limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men ; for instance , literate women or property owners were granted suffrage before all men received it . The United Nations encouraged women 's suffrage in the years following World War II , and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( 1979 ) identifies it as a basic right with 189 countries currently being parties to this Convention . Contents 1 History 2 Suffrage movements 3 Timeline 4 By continent 4.1 Africa 4.1. 1 Sierra Leone 4.1. 2 South Africa 4.1. 3 Southern Rhodesia 4.2 Asia 4.2. 1 Afghanistan 4.2. 2 Bangladesh 4.2. 3 India 4.2. 4 Indonesia 4.2. 5 Iran 4.2. 6 Israel 4.2. 7 Japan 4.2. 8 Kuwait 4.2. 9 Lebanon 4.2. 10 Pakistan 4.2. 11 Philippines 4.2. 12 Saudi Arabia 4.2. 13 Sri Lanka 4.3 Europe 4.3. 1 Austria 4.3. 2 Azerbaijan 4.3. 3 Belgium 4.3. 4 Croatia 4.3. 5 Czech Republic 4.3. 6 Denmark 4.3. 7 Estonia 4.3. 8 Finland 4.3. 9 France 4.3. 10 Georgia 4.3. 11 Germany 4.3. 12 Greece 4.3. 13 Hungary 4.3. 14 Isle of Man 4.3. 15 Italy 4.3. 16 Liechtenstein 4.3. 17 Netherlands 4.3. 18 Norway 4.3. 19 Poland 4.3. 20 Portugal 4.3. 21 Romania 4.3. 22 Russia 4.3. 23 San Marino 4.3. 24 Spain 4.3. 25 Sweden 4.3. 26 Switzerland 4.3. 27 Turkey 4.3. 28 United Kingdom 4.4 Oceania 4.4. 1 Australia 4.4. 2 Cook Islands 4.4. 3 New Zealand 4.5 The Americas 4.5. 1 Canada 4.5. 2 United States 4.5. 3 Argentina 4.5. 4 Brazil 4.5. 5 Chile 4.5. 6 Mexico 4.5. 7 Venezuela 5 Women 's suffrage in non-religious organizations 6 Women 's suffrage in religions 6.1 Catholicism 6.2 Islam 6.3 Judaism 7 Timelines 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 United States 12 External links History ( edit ) Anna II , Abbess of Quedlinburg . In the pre-modern era in some parts of Europe , abbesses were permitted to participate and vote in various European national assemblies by virtue of their rank within the Catholic and Protestant churches . In ancient Athens , often cited as the birthplace of democracy , only adult , male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote . Through subsequent centuries , Europe was generally ruled by monarchs , though various forms of parliament arose at different times . The high rank ascribed to abbesses within the Catholic Church permitted some women the right to sit and vote at national assemblies -- as with various high - ranking abbesses in Medieval Germany , who were ranked among the independent princes of the empire . Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times . Marie Guyart , a French nun who worked with the First Nations peoples of Canada during the seventeenth century , wrote in 1654 regarding the suffrage practices of Iroquois women , `` These female chieftains are women of standing amongst the savages , and they have a deciding vote in the councils . They make decisions there like the men , and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace . '' The Iroquois , like many First Nations peoples in North America , had a matrilineal kinship system . Property and descent were passed through the female line . Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them . The emergence of modern democracy generally began with male citizens obtaining the right to vote in advance of female citizens , except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i , where universal manhood and women 's suffrage was introduced in 1840 ; however , a constitutional amendment in 1852 rescinded female voting and put property qualifications on male voting . South Australian suffragist Catherine Helen Spence stood for office in 1897 . In a first for the modern world , South Australia granted women the right to stand for Parliament in 1895 . Marie Stritt ( 1855 -- 1928 ) , German suffragist , co-founder of the International Alliance of Women Woman Suffrage Headquarters , Cleveland , 1913 In Sweden , conditional women 's suffrage was in effect during the Age of Liberty ( 1718 -- 1772 ) . Other possible contenders for first `` country '' to grant women suffrage include the Corsican Republic ( 1755 ) , the Pitcairn Islands ( 1838 ) , the Isle of Man ( 1881 ) , and Franceville ( 1889 -- 1890 ) , but some of these operated only briefly as independent states and others were not clearly independent . In 1756 , Lydia Taft became the first legal woman voter in colonial America . This occurred under British rule in the Massachusetts Colony . In a New England town meeting in Uxbridge , Massachusetts , she voted on at least three occasions . Unmarried white women who owned property could vote in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807 . Eighteen female MPs joined the Turkish Parliament in 1935 In the 1792 elections in Sierra Leone , then a new British colony , all heads of household could vote and one - third were ethnic African women . The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838 . This right was transferred after they resettled in 1856 to Norfolk Island ( now an Australian external territory ) . The seed for the first Woman 's Rights Convention in the United States in Seneca Falls , New York was planted in 1840 , when Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London . The conference refused to seat Mott and other women delegates from the U.S. because of their sex . In 1851 , Stanton met temperance worker Susan B. Anthony , and shortly the two would be joined in the long struggle to secure the vote for women in the U.S. In 1868 Anthony encouraged working women from the printing and sewing trades in New York , who were excluded from men 's trade unions , to form Workingwomen 's Associations . As a delegate to the National Labor Congress in 1868 , Anthony persuaded the committee on female labor to call for votes for women and equal pay for equal work . The men at the conference deleted the reference to the vote . In the U.S. women in the Wyoming Territory could vote as of 1869 . Subsequent American suffrage groups often disagreed on tactics , with the National American Woman Suffrage Association arguing for a state - by - state campaign and the National Woman 's Party focusing on an amendment to the U.S. Constitution . In 1881 the Isle of Man , an internally self - governing dependent territory of the British Crown , enfranchised women property owners . With this it provided the first action for women 's suffrage within the British Isles . The Pacific commune of Franceville ( now Port Vila , Vanuatu ) , maintained independence from 1889 to 1890 , becoming the first self - governing nation to adopt universal suffrage without distinction of sex or color , although only white males were permitted to hold office . Of currently existing independent countries , New Zealand was the first to acknowledge women 's right to vote in 1893 when it was a self - governing British colony . Unrestricted women 's suffrage in terms of voting rights ( women were not initially permitted to stand for election ) was adopted in New Zealand in 1893 . Following a successful movement led by Kate Sheppard , the women 's suffrage bill was adopted weeks before the general election of that year . The women of the British protectorate of Cook Islands obtained the same right soon after and beat New Zealand 's women to the polls in 1893 . The self - governing British colony of South Australia enacted universal suffrage in 1895 , also allowing women to stand for the colonial parliament that year . The Commonwealth of Australia federated in 1901 , with women voting and standing for office in some states . The Australian Federal Parliament extended voting rights to all adult women for Federal elections from 1902 ( with the exception of Aboriginal women in some states ) . The first European country to introduce women 's suffrage was the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1906 . It was among reforms passed following the 1905 uprising . As a result of the 1907 parliamentary elections , Finland 's voters elected 19 women as the first female members of a representative parliament ; they took their seats later that year . In the years before World War I , women in Norway ( 1913 ) also won the right to vote , as did women in the remaining Australian states . Denmark granted women 's suffrage in 1915 . Near the end of the war , Canada , Russia , Germany , and Poland also recognized women 's right to vote . The Representation of the People Act 1918 saw British women over 30 gain the vote , Dutch women in 1919 , and American women won the vote on 26 August 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment ( the Voting Rights Act of 1965 secured voting rights for racial minorities ) . Irish women won the same voting rights as men in the Irish Free State constitution , 1922 . In 1928 , British women won suffrage on the same terms as men , that is , for persons 21 years old and older . Suffrage of Turkish women introduced in 1930 for local elections and in 1934 for national elections . French pro-suffrage poster , 1934 By the time French women were granted the suffrage in July 1944 by Charles de Gaulle 's government in exile , by a vote of 51 for , 16 against , France had been for about a decade the only Western country that did not at least allow women 's suffrage at municipal elections . Voting rights for women were introduced into international law by the United Nations ' Human Rights Commission , whose elected chair was Eleanor Roosevelt . In 1948 the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ; Article 21 stated : `` ( 1 ) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country , directly or through freely chosen representatives . ( 3 ) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government ; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures . '' The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Political Rights of Women , which went into force in 1954 , enshrining the equal rights of women to vote , hold office , and access public services as set out by national laws . One of the most recent jurisdictions to acknowledge women 's full right to vote was Bhutan in 2008 ( its first national elections ) . Suffrage movements ( edit ) After selling her home , British activist Emmeline Pankhurst travelled constantly , giving speeches throughout Britain and the United States . One of her most famous speeches , Freedom or death , was delivered in Connecticut in 1913 . The suffrage movement was a broad one , encompassing women and men with a wide range of views . In terms of diversity , the greatest achievement of the twentieth - century woman suffrage movement was its extremely broad class base . One major division , especially in Britain , was between suffragists , who sought to create change constitutionally , and suffragettes , led by English political activist Emmeline Pankhurst , who in 1903 formed the more militant Women 's Social and Political Union . Pankhurst would not be satisfied with anything but action on the question of women 's enfranchisement , with `` deeds , not words '' the organisation 's motto . There was also a diversity of views on a `` woman 's place '' . Suffragist themes often included the notions that women were naturally kinder and more concerned about children and the elderly . As Kraditor shows , it was often assumed that women voters would have a civilizing effect on politics , opposing domestic violence , liquor , and emphasizing cleanliness and community . An opposing theme , Kraditor argues , held that women had the same moral standards . They should be equal in every way and that there was no such thing as a woman 's `` natural role '' . For black women , achieving suffrage was a way to counter the disfranchisement of the men of their race . Despite this discouragement , black suffragists continued to insist on their equal political rights . Starting in the 1890s , African American women began to assert their political rights aggressively from within their own clubs and suffrage societies . `` If white American women , with all their natural and acquired advantages , need the ballot , '' argued Adella Hunt Logan of Tuskegee , Alabama , `` how much more do black Americans , male and female , need the strong defense of a vote to help secure their right to life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness ? '' Constance Markievicz was the first woman elected to the British House of Commons in 1918 , but as an Irish nationalist she did not take her seat , instead joining the First Dáil . In 1919 she was appointed Minister for Labour , the first female minister in a democratic government cabinet . Timeline ( edit ) See also : Timeline of women 's suffrage Both women and men denied full enfranchisement Country Year women first granted suffrage at national level Notes Kingdom of Afghanistan 1963 Principality of Albania 1920 Algeria 1962 In 1962 , on its independence from France , Algeria granted equal voting rights to all men and women . Andorra 1970 People 's Republic of Angola Argentina 1947 On September 23 , 1947 the Female Enrollment Act ( number 13,010 ) was enacted in the government of Juan Perón Armenia 1917 ( by application of the Russian legislation ) 1919 March ( by adoption of its own legislation ) Australia Colony of South Australia 1894 , Colony of Western Australia 1899 , the remaining Australian states in 1902 Indigenous Australian women ( and men ) were granted the vote in South Australia in 1895 , but this right was revoked in 1902 for any Aboriginal person not already enrolled . Indigenous Australians were not generally given the right to vote until 1962 . Austria 1919 Azerbaijan Democratic Republic 1918 Azerbaijan is the first ever Muslim - majority country which enfranchised women . Bahamas 1960 Bahrain 2002 Bangladesh 1971 ( upon its independence ) Barbados 1950 British Leeward Islands ( Today : Antigua and Barbuda , British Virgin Islands , Montserrat , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Anguilla ) 1951 British Windward Islands ( Today : Grenada , St Lucia , St Vincent and the Grenadines , Dominica ) 1951 Belarusian People 's Republic 1919 Belgium 1919 / 1948 Was granted in the constitution in 1919 , for communal voting . Suffrage for the provincial councils and the national parliament only came in 1948 . British Honduras ( Today : Belize ) 1954 Dahomey ( Today : Benin ) 1956 Bermuda 1944 Bhutan 1953 Bolivia 1938 / 1952 Limited women 's suffrage in 1938 ( only for literate women and those with a certain level of income ) . On equal terms with men since 1952 . Botswana 1965 Brazil 1932 Brunei 1959 Elections currently suspended since 1962 and 1965 . Both men and women have voting rights only for local elections . Kingdom of Bulgaria 1937 / 1944 Married women ( and by default widowed women ) gained the right to vote on 18 January 1937 in local elections , but could not run for office . Single women were excluded from voting . Full voting rights were bestowed by the communist regime in September 1944 and reaffirmed by an electoral law reform on 15 June 1945 . Upper Volta ( Today : Burkina Faso ) 1958 Burma 1922 Burundi 1961 Kingdom of Cambodia 1955 British Cameroons ( Today : Cameroon ) 1946 Canada 1917 -- 1919 for most of Canada ; Prince Edward Island in 1922 ; Newfoundland in 1925 ; Quebec in 1940 To help win a mandate for conscription , the federal Conservative government of Robert Borden granted the vote in 1917 to war widows , women serving overseas , and the female relatives of men serving overseas . However , the same legislation , the Wartime Elections Act , disenfranchised those who became naturalized Canadian citizens after 1902 . Women over 21 who were `` not alien - born '' and who met certain property qualifications were allowed to vote in federal elections in 1918 . Women first won the vote provincially in Manitoba , Saskatchewan and Alberta in 1916 ; British Columbia and Ontario in 1917 ; Nova Scotia in 1918 ; New Brunswick in 1919 ( women could not run for New Brunswick provincial office until 1934 ) ; Prince Edward Island in 1922 ; Newfoundland in 1925 ( which did not join Confederation until 1949 ) ; and Quebec in 1940 . Aboriginal men and women were not offered the right to vote until 1960 . Previous to that they could only vote if they gave up their treaty status . It was n't until 1948 when Canada signed the UN 's Universal Declaration of Human Rights that Canada was forced to examine the issue of their discrimination against Aboriginal people . Cape Verde 1975 ( upon its independence ) Cayman Islands 1957 Central African Republic 1986 Chad 1958 Chile 1949 From 1934 -- 1949 , women could vote in local elections at 25 , while men could vote in all elections at 21 . In both cases , literacy was required . China 1947 In 1947 , women won suffrage through Constitution of the Republic of China . in 1949 , the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) replaced the Republic of China ( ROC ) as government of the Chinese mainland . The ROC moved to the island of Taiwan . The PRC constitution recognizes women 's equal political rights with men Colombia 1954 Comoros 1956 Zaire ( Today : Democratic Republic of the Congo ) 1967 Congo , Republic of the 1963 Cook Islands 1893 Costa Rica 1949 Côte d'Ivoire 1952 Cuba 1934 Cyprus 1960 Czechoslovakia ( Today : Czech Republic , Slovakia ) 1920 Kingdom of Denmark ( Including Greenland , the Faroe Islands and , at that time , Iceland ) 1908 at local elections , 1915 at national parliamentary elections Djibouti 1946 Dominican Republic 1942 Ecuador 1929 / 1967 Despite that Ecuador granted women suffrage in 1929 , which was earlier than most independent countries in Latin America ( except for Uruguay , which granted women suffrage in 1917 ) , differences between men 's and women 's suffrage in Ecuador were only removed in 1967 ( before 1967 women 's vote was optional , while that of men was compulsory ; since 1967 it is compulsory for both sexes ) . Egypt 1956 El Salvador 1939 / 1950 Women obtained in 1939 suffrage with restrictions requiring literacy and a higher age . All restrictions were lifted in 1950 allowing women to vote , but women obtained the right to stand for elections only in 1961 . Equatorial Guinea 1963 Effectively a one - party state under the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea since 1987 ; elections in Equatorial Guinea are not considered to be free or fair . Estonia 1917 Ethiopia ( Then including Eritrea ) 1955 Fiji 1963 Grand Duchy of Finland 1906 Women retained the right to vote when Finland gained its independence from Russia in 1917 . France 1944 French women were disenfranchised at all levels before 1944 . Gabon 1956 Gambia , The 1960 Democratic Republic of Georgia 1918 Germany 1918 Ghana 1954 Greece 1930 ( Local Elections , Literate Only ) , 1952 ( Unconditional ) Guatemala 1945 / 1965 Women could vote from 1945 , but only if literate . Restrictions on women 's suffrage were lifted in 1965 . Guinea 1958 Guinea - Bissau 1977 Guyana 1953 Haiti 1950 Honduras 1955 Hong Kong 1949 Hungary 1918 ( partial ) 1945 ( full ) India 1947 In 1947 , on its independence from the United Kingdom , India granted equal voting rights to all men and women . Indonesia 1937 , 1945 ( for all citizens , granted upon independence ) Iran 1963 Iraq 1980 Ireland 1918 ( partial ) 1922 ( full ) From 1918 , with the rest of the United Kingdom , women could vote at 30 with property qualifications or in university constituencies , while men could vote at 21 with no qualification . From separation in 1922 , the Irish Free State gave equal voting rights to men and women . Isle of Man 1881 Israel 1948 Women 's suffrage was granted with the declaration of independence . Italy 1925 ( partial ) 1945 ( full ) Local elections in 1925 . Full suffrage in 1945 . Jamaica 1944 Japan 1947 Jersey 1919 Restrictions on franchise applied to men and women until after Liberation in 1945 . Jordan Kazakh SSR 1924 Kenya 1963 Kiribati 1967 Korea , North 1946 North Korea is a single - party state and only one candidate ( from the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland ) appears on the ballot . Korea , South 1948 Kuwait 1985 -- women 's suffrage later removed in 1999 , re-granted in 2005 All voters must have been citizens of Kuwait for at least 20 years Kyrgyz SSR 1918 Kingdom of Laos 1958 A one - party state under the Lao People 's Revolutionary Party since 1975 . Latvia 1917 Lebanon 1952 In 1952 , after a 30 year long battle for suffrage , the bill allowing Lebanese women to vote passed . In 1957 a requirement for women ( but not men ) to have elementary education before voting was dropped , as was voting being compulsory for men . Lesotho 1965 Liberia 1946 Kingdom of Libya 1951 Liechtenstein 1984 Lithuania 1918 Luxembourg 1919 Madagascar 1959 Malawi 1961 Federation of Malaya ( Today : Malaysia ) 1955 First general election for the Federal Legislative Council , which took place 2 years prior to independence in 1957 Maldives 1932 Mali 1956 Malta 1947 Marshall Islands 1979 Mauritania 1961 Mauritius 1956 Mexico 1953 Micronesia , Federated States of 1979 Moldova 1929 / 1940 As part of the Kingdom of Romania , women who met certain qualifications were allowed to vote in local elections , starting in 1929 . After Constitution from 1938 , the voting rights were extended to women for general elections by the Electoral Law 1939 . In 1940 , after the formation of the Moldavian SSR , equal voting rights were granted to men and women . Monaco 1962 Mongolian People 's Republic 1924 Morocco 1963 People 's Republic of Mozambique Namibia 1989 ( upon its independence ) At independence from South Africa . Nauru 1968 Nepal 1951 Netherlands 1917 Women were allowed to vote since 1919 . Since 1917 women were allowed to be voted into office . Netherlands Antilles 1949 New Zealand 1893 Nicaragua 1955 Niger 1948 Nigeria 1958 Norway 1913 Oman 2003 Pakistan 1947 In 1947 , on its creation resulting from the partition of India , Pakistan granted full voting rights for men and women Palau 1979 Palestine Women first voted in local elections in the West Bank in 1976 . Women ( and men ) first elected a Palestinian parliament in 1996 . However , the last general election was in 2006 ; there was supposed to be another in 2014 but elections have been delayed indefinitely . Panama 1941 / 1946 Limited women 's suffrage from 1941 ( conditioned by level of education ) equal women 's suffrage from 1946 . Papua New Guinea 1964 Paraguay 1961 Peru 1955 Philippines 1937 Pitcairn Islands 1838 Poland 1918 ( upon its independence ) Portugal 1911 / 1931 / 1976 With restrictions in 1911 , later made illegal again until 1931 when it was reinstated with restrictions , restrictions other than age requirements lifted in 1976 . Puerto Rico 1929 / 1935 Limited suffrage was passed for women , restricted to those who were literate . In 1935 the legislature approved suffrage for all women . Qatar While required by the constitution , general elections have been repeatedly delayed . Only municipal elections have been held thus far . Romania 1929 / 1939 / 1946 Starting in 1929 , women who met certain qualifications were allowed to vote in local elections . After the Constitution from 1938 , the voting rights were extended to women for general elections by the Electoral Law 1939 . Women could vote on equal terms with men , but both men and women had restrictions , and in practice the restrictions affected women more than men . In 1946 , full equal voting rights were granted to men and women . Russian Republic 1917 On July 20 , 1917 , under the Provisional Government . Rwanda 1961 Saudi Arabia 2015 In December 2015 , women were first allowed to vote and run for office . Suffrage for both men and women is limited to municipal elections . Samoa San Marino 1959 São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal 1945 Seychelles 1948 Sierra Leone 1961 In the 1790s , while Sierra Leone was still a colony , women voted in the elections . Singapore 1947 Solomon Islands Somalia 1956 South Africa 1930 ( European and Asian women ) 1994 ( all women ) Women of other races were enfranchised in 1994 , at the same time as men of all races . Spain 1931 Sri Lanka ( Formerly : Ceylon ) 1931 Sudan 1964 Suriname 1948 Swaziland 1968 Sweden 1919 Switzerland 1971 at federal level , 1959 -- 1991 at local canton level Women obtained the right to vote in national elections in 1971 . Women obtained the right to vote at local canton level between 1959 ( Vaud and Neuchâtel in that year ) and 1972 , except for 1989 / 1990 in Appenzell . See also Women 's suffrage in Switzerland . Syria 1949 Taiwan 1947 In 1945 , Taiwan was returned from Japan to China . In 1947 , women won the suffrage under the Constitution of the Republic of China . In 1949 , Republic of China ( ROC ) lost mainland China , moved to Taiwan . Tajik SSR 1924 Tanzania 1959 Thailand 1932 Timor - Leste 1976 Togo 1945 Tonga 1960 Trinidad and Tobago 1925 Suffrage was granted for the first time in 1925 to either sex , to men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30 , as in Great Britain ( the `` Mother Country '' , as Trinidad and Tobago was still a colony at the time ) In 1945 full suffrage was granted to women . Tunisia 1957 Turkey 1930 ( for local elections ) , 1934 ( for national elections ) Turkmen SSR 1924 Tuvalu 1967 Uganda 1962 Ukrainian SSR 1919 United Arab Emirates 2006 Limited suffrage for both men and women . United Kingdom 1918 ( partial ) 1928 ( full ) From 1918 -- 1928 , women could vote at 30 with property qualifications or as graduates of UK universities , while men could vote at 21 with no qualification . From 1928 women had equal suffrage with men . United States 1920 Before the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 , individual states had passed legislation that allowed women to vote in different types of elections ; some only allowed women to vote in school or municipal elections , some required that women owned property if they wanted to vote , and some territories extended full suffrage to women , only to take it away once they became states . Although legally entitled to vote , black women were effectively denied voting rights in numerous Southern states until 1965 . United States Virgin Islands 1936 Beginning in 1936 women could vote ; however , this vote , as with men , was limited to those who could prove they had an income of $300 per year or more . Uruguay 1917 / 1927 Uruguay was the first country in all of the Americas -- and one of the first in the world -- to grant women fully equal civil rights and universal suffrage ( in its Constitution of 1917 ) , though this suffrage was first exercised in 1927 , in the plebiscite of Cerro Chato . Uzbek SSR 1938 Vanuatu Vatican City No voting The Pope , elected by the all - male College of Cardinals through a secret ballot , is the leader of the Catholic Church , and exercises ex officio supreme legislative , executive , and judicial power over the State of the Vatican City . Venezuela 1946 Vietnam 1946 A one - party state under the Communist Party of Vietnam . North Yemen ( Today : Yemen ) 1970 South Yemen ( Today : Yemen ) 1967 Zambia 1962 ( then Northern Rhodesia ) Women 's suffrage granted in Northern Rhodesia in 1962 . Southern Rhodesia ( Today : Zimbabwe ) 1919 Yugoslavia ( Today : Serbia , Montenegro , Croatia , Slovenia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Macedonia ) 1945 By continent ( edit ) Africa ( edit ) Sierra Leone ( edit ) One of the first occasions when women were able to vote was in the elections of the Nova Scotian settlers at Freetown . In the 1792 elections , all heads of household could vote and one - third were ethnic African women . Women won the right to vote in Sierra Leone in 1930 . South Africa ( edit ) The franchise was extended to white women 21 years or older by the Women 's Enfranchisement Act , 1930 . The first general election at which women could vote was the 1933 election . At that election Leila Reitz ( wife of Deneys Reitz ) was elected as the first female MP , representing Parktown for the South African Party . The limited voting rights available to non-white men in the Cape Province and Natal ( Transvaal and the Orange Free State practically denied all non-whites the right to vote , and had also done so to non-Afrikaner uitlanders when independent in the 1800s ) were not extended to women , and were themselves progressively eliminated between 1936 and 1968 . The right to vote for the Transkei Legislative Assembly , established in 1963 for the Transkei bantustan , was granted to all adult citizens of the Transkei , including women . Similar provision was made for the Legislative Assemblies created for other bantustans . All adult coloured citizens were eligible to vote for the Coloured Persons Representative Council , which was established in 1968 with limited legislative powers ; the council was however abolished in 1980 . Similarly , all adult Indian citizens were eligible to vote for the South African Indian Council in 1981 . In 1984 the Tricameral Parliament was established , and the right to vote for the House of Representatives and House of Delegates was granted to all adult Coloured and Indian citizens , respectively . In 1994 the bantustans and the Tricameral Parliament were abolished and the right to vote for the National Assembly was granted to all adult citizens . Southern Rhodesia ( edit ) Southern Rhodesian white women won the vote in 1919 and Ethel Tawse Jollie ( 1875 -- 1950 ) was elected to the Southern Rhodesia legislature 1920 -- 1928 , the first woman to sit in any national Commonwealth Parliament outside Westminster . The influx of women settlers from Britain proved a decisive factor in the 1922 referendum that rejected annexation by a South Africa increasingly under the sway of traditionalist Afrikaner Nationalists in favor of Rhodesian Home Rule or `` responsible government '' . Black Rhodesian males qualified for the vote in 1923 ( based only upon property , assets , income , and literacy ) . It is unclear when the first black woman qualified for the vote . Asia ( edit ) Afghanistan ( edit ) Women voting in Kabul at the first presidential election ( October 2004 ) in Afghan history Women have been able to vote in Afghanistan since 1965 ( except during Taliban rule , 1996 -- 2001 , when no elections were held ) . As of 2009 , women have been casting fewer ballots in part due to being unaware of their voting rights . In the 2014 election , Afghanistan 's elected president pledged to bring women equal rights . Bangladesh ( edit ) Bangladesh was ( mostly ) the province of Bengal in India until 1947 , then it became part of Pakistan . It became an independent nation in 1971 . Women have had equal suffrage since 1947 , and they have reserved seats in parliament . Bangladesh is notable in that since 1991 , two women , namely Sheikh Hasina and Begum Khaleda Zia , have served terms as the country 's Prime Minister continuously . Women have traditionally played a minimal role in politics beyond the anomaly of the two leaders ; few used to run against men ; few have been ministers . Recently , however , women have become more active in politics , with several prominent ministerial posts given to women and women participating in national , district and municipal elections against men and winning on several occasions . Choudhury and Hasanuzzaman argue that the strong patriarchal traditions of Bangladesh explain why women are so reluctant to stand up in politics . India ( edit ) Women in India were allowed to vote right from the first general elections after the independence of India in 1947 unlike during the British rule who resisted allowing women to vote . The Women 's Indian Association ( WIA ) was founded in 1917 . It sought votes for women and the right to hold legislative office on the same basis as men . These positions were endorsed by the main political groupings , the Indian National Congress . British and Indian feminists combined in 1918 to publish a magazine Stri Dharma that featured international news from a feminist perspective . In 1919 in the Montagu -- Chelmsford Reforms , the British set up provincial legislatures which had the power to grant women 's suffrage . Madras in 1921 granted votes to wealthy and educated women , under the same terms that applied to men . The other provinces followed , but not the princely states ( which did not have votes for men either , being monarchies ) . In Bengal province , the provincial assembly rejected it in 1921 but Southard shows an intense campaign produced victory in 1921 . Success in Bengal depended on middle class Indian women , who emerged from a fast - growing urban elite . The women leaders in Bengal linked their crusade to a moderate nationalist agenda , by showing how they could participate more fully in nation - building by having voting power . They carefully avoided attacking traditional gender roles by arguing that traditions could coexist with political modernization . Whereas wealthy and educated women in Madras were granted voting right in 1921 , in Punjab the Sikhs granted women equal voting rights in 1925 irrespective of their educational qualifications or being wealthy or poor . This happened when the Gurdwara Act of 1925 was approved . The original draft of the Gurdwara Act sent by the British to the Sharomani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee ( SGPC ) did not include Sikh women , but the Sikhs inserted the clause without the women having to ask for it . Equality of women with men is enshrined in the Guru Granth Sahib , the sacred scripture of the Sikh faith . In the Government of India Act 1935 the British Raj set up a system of separate electorates and separate seats for women . Most women 's leaders opposed segregated electorates and demanded adult franchise . In 1931 the Congress promised universal adult franchise when it came to power . It enacted equal voting rights for both men and women in 1947 . Indonesia ( edit ) This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . The specific problem is : Cleanup text around Kartini Please help improve this section if you can . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In the first half of the 20th century , Indonesia ( known until 1945 as Dutch East Indies ) was one of the slowest moving countries to gain women 's suffrage . They began their fight in 1905 by introducing municipal councils that included some members elected by a restricted district . Voting rights only went to males that could read and write , which excluded many non-European males . At the time , the literacy rate for males was 11 % and for females 2 % . The main group who pressured the Indonesian government for women 's suffrage was the Dutch Vereeninging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht ( VVV - Women 's Suffrage Association ) which was founded in the Netherlands in 1894 . They tried to attract Indonesian membership , but had very limited success because the leaders of the organization had little skill in relating to even the educated class of the Indonesians . When they eventually did connect somewhat with women , they failed to sympathize with them and thus ended up alienating many well - educated Indonesians . In 1918 the colony gained its first national representative body , the Volksraad , which still excluded women from voting . In 1935 , the colonial administration used its power of nomination to appoint a European woman to the Volksraad . In 1938 , the administration introduced the right of women to be elected to urban representative institutions , which resulted in some Indonesian and European women entering municipal councils . Eventually , the law became that only European women and municipal councils could vote , which excluded all other women and local councils . September 1941 was when this law was amended and the law extended to women of all races by the Volksraad . Finally , in November 1941 , the right to vote for municipal councils was granted to all women on a similar basis to men ( with property and educational qualifications ) . Iran ( edit ) See also : Iranian referendum , 1963 In 1963 , a referendum overwhelmingly approved by voters gave women the right to vote , a right previously denied to them under the Iranian Constitution of 1906 pursuant to Chapter 2 , Article 3 . Israel ( edit ) Women have full suffrage since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 . Japan ( edit ) Women 's Rights meeting in Tokyo , to push for women 's suffrage Main article : Women 's suffrage in Japan Although women were allowed to vote in some prefectures in 1880 , women 's suffrage was enacted at a national level in 1945 . Korea South Korean women were granted the vote in 1948 . Kuwait ( edit ) Main article : Women 's suffrage in Kuwait When voting was first introduced in Kuwait in 1985 , Kuwaiti women had the right to vote . The right was later removed . In May 2005 , the Kuwaiti parliament re-granted female suffrage . Lebanon ( edit ) Main article : Women in Lebanon § Women 's suffrage Pakistan ( edit ) Pakistan was part of British Raj until 1947 , when it became independent . Women received full suffrage in 1947 . Muslim women leaders from all classes actively supported the Pakistan movement in the mid-1940s . Their movement was led by wives and other relatives of leading politicians . Women were sometimes organized into large - scale public demonstrations . In November 1988 , Benazir Bhutto became the first Muslim woman to be elected as Prime Minister of a Muslim country . Philippines ( edit ) Suffrage for Filipinas was achieved following an all - female , special plebiscite held on 30 April 1937 . 447,725 -- some ninety percent -- voted in favour of women 's suffrage against 44,307 who voted no . In compliance with the 1935 Constitution , the National Assembly passed a law which extended the right of suffrage to women , which remains to this day . Saudi Arabia ( edit ) In late September 2011 , King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz al - Saud declared that women would be able to vote and run for office starting in 2015 . That applies to the municipal councils , which are the kingdom 's only semi-elected bodies . Half of the seats on municipal councils are elective , and the councils have few powers . The council elections have been held since 2005 ( the first time they were held before that was the 1960s ) . Saudi women did first vote and first run for office in December 2015 , for those councils . Salma bint Hizab al - Oteibi became the first elected female politician in Saudi Arabia in December 2015 , when she won a seat on the council in Madrakah in Mecca province . In all , the December 2015 election in Saudi Arabia resulted in twenty women being elected to municipal councils . The king declared in 2011 that women would be eligible to be appointed to the Shura Council , an unelected body that issues advisory opinions on national policy . ' `` This is great news , '' said Saudi writer and women 's rights activist Wajeha al - Huwaider . `` Women 's voices will finally be heard . Now it is time to remove other barriers like not allowing women to drive cars and not being able to function , to live a normal life without male guardians . '' ' Robert Lacey , author of two books about the kingdom , said , `` This is the first positive , progressive speech out of the government since the Arab Spring ... First the warnings , then the payments , now the beginnings of solid reform . '' The king made the announcement in a five - minute speech to the Shura Council . In January 2013 , King Abdullah issued two royal decrees , granting women thirty seats on the council , and stating that women must always hold at least a fifth of the seats on the council . According to the decrees , the female council members must be `` committed to Islamic Shariah disciplines without any violations '' and be `` restrained by the religious veil . '' The decrees also said that the female council members would be entering the council building from special gates , sit in seats reserved for women and pray in special worshipping places . Earlier , officials said that a screen would separate genders and an internal communications network would allow men and women to communicate . Women first joined the council in 2013 , occupying thirty seats . There are two Saudi royal women among these thirty female members of the assembly , Sara bint Faisal Al Saud and Moudi bint Khalid Al Saud . Furthermore , in 2013 three women were named as deputy chairpersons of three committees : Thurayya Obeid was named deputy chairwoman of the human rights and petitions committee , Zainab Abu Talib , deputy chairwoman of the information and cultural committee , and Lubna Al Ansari , deputy chairwoman of the health affairs and environment committee . Sri Lanka ( edit ) Sri Lanka ( at that time Ceylon ) was one of the first Asian countries to allow voting rights to women over the age of 21 without any restrictions . Since then , women have enjoyed a significant presence in the Sri Lankan political arena . The zenith of this favourable condition to women has been the 1960 July General Elections , in which Ceylon elected the world 's first woman Prime Minister , Sirimavo Bandaranaike . She is the world 's first democratically elected female head of state . Her daughter , Chandrika Kumaratunga also became the Prime Minister later in 1994 , and the same year she was elected as the Executive President of Sri Lanka , making her the fourth woman in the world to hold the portfolio . Europe ( edit ) Savka Dabčević - Kučar , Croatian Spring participant ; Europe 's first female prime minister Austria ( edit ) It was only after the breakdown of the Habsburg Monarchy , that Austria would grant the general , equal , direct and secret right to vote to all citizens , regardless of sex , in 1919 . Azerbaijan ( edit ) Main article : Women in Azerbaijan § Voting Rights Azerbaijan is known to be the first ever Muslim - majority country which enfranchised women . Universal voting rights were recognized in Azerbaijan in 1918 by the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic . Belgium ( edit ) Jane Brigode , Belgian suffragist , around 1910 A revision of the constitution in October 1921 ( it changed art . 47 of the Constitution of Belgium of 1831 ) introduced the general right to vote according to the `` one man , one vote '' principle . Art . 47 allowed widows of World War I to vote at the national level as well . The introduction of women 's suffrage was already put onto the agenda at the time , by means of including an article in the constitution that allowed approval of women 's suffrage by special law ( meaning it needed a 2 / 3 majority to pass ) . This happened in March 1948 . In Belgium , voting is compulsory but not enforced . Croatia ( edit ) Main article : Women in Croatia § Legal status This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( June 2016 ) Czech Republic ( edit ) In the former Bohemia , taxpaying women and women in `` learned profession ( s ) '' were allowed to vote by proxy and made eligible to the legislative body in 1864 . The first Czech female MP was elected to the Diet of Bohemia in 1912 . Women were guaranteed equal voting rights by The constitution of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1920 . Denmark ( edit ) See also : Women in Denmark § Women 's suffrage In Denmark , the Danish Women 's Society ( DK ) debated , and informally supported , women 's suffrage from 1884 , but it did not support it publicly until in 1887 , when it supported the suggestion of the parliamentarian Fredrik Bajer to grant women municipal suffrage . In 1886 , in response to the perceived overcautious attitude of DK in the question of women suffrage , Matilde Bajer founded the Kvindelig Fremskridtsforening ( or KF , 1886 -- 1904 ) to deal exclusively with the right to suffrage , both in municipal and national elections , and it 1887 , the Danish women publicly demanded the right for women 's suffrage for the first time through the KF . However , as the KF was very much involved with worker 's rights and pacifist activity , the question of women 's suffrage was in fact not given full attention , which led to the establishment of the strictly women 's suffrage movement Kvindevalgretsforeningen ( 1889 -- 1897 ) . In 1890 , the KF and the Kvindevalgretsforeningen united with five women 's trade worker 's unions to found the De samlede Kvindeforeninger , and through this form , an active women 's suffrage campaign was arranged through agitation and demonstration . However , after having been met by compact resistance , the Danish suffrage movement almost discontinued with the dissolution of the De samlede Kvindeforeninger in 1893 . In 1898 , an umbrella organization , the Danske Kvindeforeningers Valgretsforbund or DKV was founded and became a part of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance ( IWSA ) . In 1907 , the Landsforbundet for Kvinders Valgret ( LKV ) was founded by Elna Munch , Johanne Rambusch and Marie Hjelmer in reply to what they considered to be the much too careful attitude of the Danish Women 's Society . The LKV originated from a local suffrage association in Copenhagen , and like its rival DKV , it successfully organized other such local associations nationally . Women won the right to vote in municipal elections on April 20 , 1908 . However it was not until June 5 , 1915 that they were allowed to vote in Rigsdag elections . Estonia ( edit ) Estonia gained its independence in 1918 with the Estonian War of Independence . However , the first official elections were held in 1917 . These were the elections of temporary council ( i.e. Maapäev ) , which ruled Estonia from 1917 -- 1919 . Since then , women have had the right to vote . The parliament elections were held in 1920 . After the elections , two women got into the parliament -- history teacher Emma Asson and journalist Alma Ostra - Oinas . Estonian parliament is called Riigikogu and during the First Republic of Estonia it used to have 100 seats . Finland ( edit ) 13 of the total of 19 female MPs , who were the first female MPs in the world , elected in Finland 's parliamentary elections in 1907 The area that in 1809 became Finland was a group of integral provinces of the Kingdom of Sweden for over 600 years . Thus , women in Finland were allowed to vote during the Swedish Age of Liberty ( 1718 -- 1772 ) , during which suffrage was granted to tax - paying female members of guilds . The predecessor state of modern Finland , the Grand Duchy of Finland , was part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917 and enjoyed a high degree of autonomy . In 1863 , taxpaying women were granted municipal suffrage in the country side , and in 1872 , the same reform was given to the cities . In 1906 , it became the first country in the world to implement full universal suffrage , as women could also stand as candidates . It also elected the world 's first female members of parliament the following year . France ( edit ) The 21 April 1944 ordinance of the French Committee of National Liberation , confirmed in October 1944 by the French provisional government , extended suffrage to French women . The first elections with female participation were the municipal elections of 29 April 1945 and the parliamentary elections of 21 October 1945 . `` Indigenous Muslim '' women in French Algeria had to wait until a 3 July 1958 decree . Georgia ( edit ) Upon its declaration of independence on 26 May 1918 , in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution , the Democratic Republic of Georgia extended suffrage to its female citizens . The women of Georgia first exercised their right to vote in the 1919 legislative election . Germany ( edit ) Women were granted the right to vote and be elected from the 12th November 1918 . Greece ( edit ) In Greece , women over 18 voted for the first time in April 1944 for the National Council , a legislative body set up by the National Liberation Front resistance movement . Ultimately , women won the legal right to vote and run for office on May 28 , 1952 . The first woman MP was Eleni Skoura , who was elected in 1953 . Hungary ( edit ) In Hungary , although it was already planned in 1818 , the first occasion when women could vote was the elections held in January 1920 . Isle of Man ( edit ) In 1881 , The Isle of Man ( in the British Isles but not part of the United Kingdom ) passed a law giving the vote to single and widowed women who passed a property qualification . This was to vote in elections for the House of Keys , in the Island 's parliament , Tynwald . This was extended to universal suffrage for men and women in 1919. . Italy ( edit ) In Italy , women 's suffrage was not introduced following World War I , but upheld by Socialist and Fascist activists and partly introduced by Benito Mussolini 's government in 1925 . In April 1945 , the provisional government decreed the enfranchisement of women allowing for the immediate appointment of women to public office , of which the first was Elena Fischli Dreher . In the 1946 election , all Italians simultaneously voted for the Constituent Assembly and for a referendum about keeping Italy a monarchy or creating a republic instead . Elections were not held in the Julian March and South Tyrol because they were under UN occupation . The new version of article 51 Constitution recognizes equal opportunities in electoral lists . Liechtenstein ( edit ) In Liechtenstein , women 's suffrage was granted via referendum in 1984 . Netherlands ( edit ) Wilhelmina Drucker , a Dutch pioneer for women 's rights , is portrayed by Truus Claes in 1917 on the occasion of her seventieth birthday . Women were granted the right to vote in the Netherlands on August 9 , 1919 . In 1917 , a constitutional reform already allowed women to be electable . However , even though women 's right to vote was approved in 1919 , this only took effect from January 1 , 1920 . The women 's suffrage movement in the Netherlands was led by three women : Aletta Jacobs , Wilhelmina Drucker and Annette Versluys - Poelman . In 1889 , Wilhelmina Drucker founded a women 's movement called Vrije Vrouwen Vereeniging ( Free Women 's Union ) and it was from this movement that the campaign for women 's suffrage in the Netherlands emerged . This movement got a lot of support from other countries , especially from the women 's suffrage movement in England . In 1906 the movement wrote an open letter to the Queen pleading for women 's suffrage . When this letter was rejected , in spite of popular support , the movement organised several demonstrations and protests in favor of women 's suffrage . This movement was of great significance for women 's suffrage in the Netherlands . Norway ( edit ) The first Norwegian woman voter casts her ballot in the 1910 municipal election . Liberal politician Gina Krog was the leading campaigner for women 's suffrage in Norway from the 1880s . She founded the Norwegian Association for Women 's Rights and the National Association for Women 's Suffrage to promote this cause . Members of these organisations were politically well - connected and well organised and in a few years gradually succeeded in obtaining equal rights for women . Middle class women won the right to vote in municipal elections in 1901 and parliamentary elections in 1907 . Universal suffrage for women in municipal elections was introduced in 1910 , and in 1913 a motion on universal suffrage for women was adopted unanimously by the Norwegian parliament ( Stortinget ) . Norway thus became the first independent country to introduce women 's suffrage . Poland ( edit ) Regaining independence in 1918 following the 123 - year period of partition and foreign rule , Poland immediately granted women the right to vote and be elected as of 28 November 1918 . The first women elected to the Sejm in 1919 were : Gabriela Balicka , Jadwiga Dziubińska , Irena Kosmowska , Maria Moczydłowska , Zofia Moraczewska , Anna Piasecka , Zofia Sokolnicka , and Franciszka Wilczkowiakowa . Portugal ( edit ) Carolina Beatriz Ângelo was the first Portuguese woman to vote , in the Constituent National Assembly election of 1911 , taking advantage of a loophole in the country 's electoral law . In 1931 during the Estado Novo regime , women were allowed to vote for the first time , but only if they had a high school or university degree , while men had only to be able to read and write . In 1946 a new electoral law enlarged the possibility of female vote , but still with some differences regarding men . A law from 1968 claimed to establish `` equality of political rights for men and women '' , but a few electoral rights were reserved for men . After the Carnation Revolution , women were granted full and equal electoral rights in 1976 . Romania ( edit ) The timeline of granting women 's suffrage in Romania was gradual and complex , due to the turbulent historical period when it happened . The concept of universal suffrage for all men was introduced in 1918 , and reinforced by the 1923 Constitution of Romania . Although this constitution opened the way for the possibility of women 's suffrage too ( Article 6 ) , this did not materialize : the Electoral Law of 1926 did not grant women the right to vote , maintaining all male suffrage . Starting in 1929 , women who met certain qualifications were allowed to vote in local elections . After the Constitution from 1938 ( elaborated under Carol II of Romania who sought to implement an authoritarian regime ) the voting rights were extended to women for national elections by the Electoral Law 1939 , but both women and men had restrictions , and in practice these restrictions affected women more than men ( the new restrictions on men also meant that men lost their previous universal suffrage ) . Although women could vote , they could be elected only in the Senate and not in the Chamber of Deputies ( Article 4 ( c ) ) . ( the Senate was later abolished in 1940 ) . Due to the historical context of the time , which included the dictatorship of Ion Antonescu , there were no elections in Romania between 1940 -- 1946 . In 1946 , Law no . 560 gave full equal rights to men and women to vote and to be elected in the Chamber of Deputies ; and women voted in the Romanian general election , 1946 . The Constitution of 1948 gave women and men equal civil and political rights ( Article 18 ) . Until the collapse of communism in 1989 , all the candidates were chosen by the communist party , and civil rights were merely symbolic under this authoritarian regime . Russia ( edit ) Despite initial apprehension against enfranchising women for the right to vote for the upcoming Constituent Assembly election , the League for Women 's Equality and other suffragists rallied throughout the year of 1917 for the right to vote . After much pressure ( including a 40,000 - strong march on the Tauride Palace ) , on July 20 , 1917 the Provisional Government enfranchised women with the right to vote . San Marino ( edit ) San Marino introduced women 's suffrage in 1959 , following the 1957 constitutional crisis known as Fatti di Rovereta . It was however only in 1973 that women obtained the right to stand for election . Spain ( edit ) Women exercising the right to vote during the Second Spanish Republic , 5th of November 1933 During the Miguel Primo de Rivera regime ( 1923 -- 1930 ) only women who were considered heads of household were allowed to vote in local elections , but there were none at that time . Women 's suffrage was officially adopted in 1931 despite the opposition of Margarita Nelken and Victoria Kent , two female MPs ( both members of the Republican Radical - Socialist Party ) , who argued that women in Spain at that moment lacked social and political education enough to vote responsibly because they would be unduly influenced by Catholic priests . During the Franco regime in the `` organic democracy '' type of elections called `` referendums '' ( Franco 's regime was dictatorial ) women over 21 were allowed to vote without distinction . From 1976 , during the Spanish transition to democracy women fully exercised the right to vote and be elected to office . Sweden ( edit ) The Swedish writer Maria Gustava Gyllenstierna ( 1672 -- 1737 ) ; as a taxpaying property owner , and a woman of legal majority due to her widowed status , she belonged to the women granted suffrage in accordance with the constitution of the age of liberty ( 1718 -- 1772 ) . During the Age of Liberty ( 1718 -- 1772 ) , Sweden had conditional women suffrage . Until the reform of 1865 , the local elections consisted of mayoral elections in the cities , and elections of parish vicars in the countryside parishes . The Sockenstämma was the local parish council who handled local affairs , in which the parish vicar presided and the local peasantry assembled and voted , an informally regulated process in which women are reported to have participated already in the 17th century . The national elections consisted of the election of the representations to the Riksdag of the Estates . Suffrage was gender neutral and therefore applied to women as well as men if they filled the qualifications of a voting citizen . These qualifications were changed during the course of the 18th - century , as well as the local interpretation of the credentials , affecting the number of qualified voters : the qualifications also differed between cities and countryside , as well as local or national elections . Initially , the right to vote in local city elections ( mayoral elections ) was granted to every burgher , which was defined as a taxpaying citizen with a guild membership . Women as well as men were members of guilds , which resulted in women suffrage for a limited number of women . In 1734 , suffrage in both national and local elections , in cities as well as countryside , was granted to every property owning taxpaying citizen of legal majority . This extended suffrage to all taxpaying property owning women whether guild members or not , but excluded married women and the majority of unmarried women , as married women were defined as legal minors , and unmarried women were minors unless they applied for legal majority by royal dispensation , while widowed and divorced women were of legal majority . The 1734 reform increased the participation of women in elections from 55 to 71 percent . Swedish suffragist Signe Bergman , around 1910 Between 1726 and 1742 , women voted in 17 of 31 examined mayoral elections . Reportedly , some women voters in mayoral elections preferred to appoint a male to vote for them by proxy in the city hall because they found it embarrassing to do so in person , which was cited as a reason to abolish women suffrage by its opponents . The custom to appoint to vote by proxy was however used also by males , and it was in fact common for men , who were absent or ill during elections , to appoint their wives to vote for them . In 1758 , women were excluded from mayoral elections by a new regulation by which they could no longer be defined as burghers , but women suffrage was kept in the national elections as well as the country side parish elections . Women participated in all of the eleven national elections held up until 1757 . In 1772 , women suffrage in national elections was abolished by demand from the burgher estate . Women suffrage was first abolished for taxpaying unmarried women of legal majority , and then for widows . However , the local interpretation of the prohibition of women suffrage varied , and some cities continued to allow women to vote : in Kalmar , Växjö , Västervik , Simrishamn , Ystad , Åmål , Karlstad , Bergslagen , Dalarna and Norrland , women were allowed to continue to vote despite the 1772 ban , while in Lund , Uppsala , Skara , Åbo , Gothenburg and Marstrand , women were strictly barred from the vote after 1772 . Women 's suffrage demonstration in Gothenburg , June 1918 While women suffrage was banned in the mayoral elections in 1758 and in the national elections in 1772 , no such bar was ever introduced in the local elections in the country side , were women therefore continued to vote in the local parish elections of vicars . In a series of reforms in 1813 -- 1817 , unmarried women of legal majority , `` Unmarried maiden , who has been declared of legal majority '' , were given the right to vote in the sockestämma ( local parish council , the predecessor of the communal and city councils ) , and the kyrkoråd ( local church councils ) . In 1823 , a suggestion was raised by the mayor of Strängnäs to reintroduce women suffrage for taxpaying women of legal majority ( unmarried , divorced and widowed women ) in the mayoral elections , and this right was reintroduced in 1858 . In 1862 , tax - paying women of legal majority ( unmarried , divorced and widowed women ) were again allowed to vote in municipal elections , making Sweden the first country in the world to grant women the right to vote . This was after the introduction of a new political system , where a new local authority was introduced : the communal municipal council . The right to vote in municipal elections applied only to people of legal majority , which excluded married women , as they were juridically under the guardianship of their husbands . In 1884 the suggestion to grant women the right to vote in national elections was initially voted down in Parliament . During the 1880s , the Married Woman 's Property Rights Association had a campaign to encourage the female voters , qualified to vote in accordance with the 1862 law , to use their vote and increase the participation of women voters in the elections , but there was yet no public demand to women suffrage among women . In 1888 , the temperance activist Emilie Rathou became the first woman in Sweden to demand the right for women suffrage in a public speech . In 1899 , a delegation from the Fredrika Bremer Association presented a suggestion of woman suffrage to prime minister Erik Gustaf Boström . The delegation was headed by Agda Montelius , accompanied by Gertrud Adelborg , who had written the demand . This was the first time the Swedish women 's movement themselves had officially presented a demand for suffrage . In 1902 the Swedish Society for Woman Suffrage was founded . In 1906 the suggestion of women 's suffrage was voted down in parliament again . In 1909 , the right to vote in municipal elections were extended to include also married women . The same year , women were granted eligibility to municipal councils , and in the following 1910 -- 11 municipal elections , forty women were elected to different municipal councils , Gertrud Månsson being the first . In 1914 Emilia Broomé became the first woman in the legislative assembly . The right to vote in national elections was not returned to women until 1919 , and was practised again in the election of 1921 , for the first time in 150 years . After the 1921 election , the first women were elected to Swedish Parliament after the suffrage : Kerstin Hesselgren in the Upper chamber and Nelly Thüring ( Social Democrat ) , Agda Östlund ( Social Democrat ) Elisabeth Tamm ( liberal ) and Bertha Wellin ( Conservative ) in the Lower chamber . Karin Kock - Lindberg became the first female government minister , and in 1958 , Ulla Lindström became the first acting Prime Minister . Switzerland ( edit ) Main article : Women 's suffrage in Switzerland A referendum on women 's suffrage was held on 1 February 1959 . The majority of Switzerland 's men ( 67 % ) voted against it , but in some French - speaking cantons women obtained the vote . The first Swiss woman to hold political office , Trudy Späth - Schweizer , was elected to the municipal government of Riehen in 1958 . Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women 's suffrage ; they gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971 after a second referendum that year . In 1991 following a decision by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland , Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last Swiss canton to grant women the vote on local issues . The first female member of the seven - member Swiss Federal Council , Elisabeth Kopp , served from 1984 to 1989 . Ruth Dreifuss , the second female member , served from 1993 to 1999 , and was the first female President of the Swiss Confederation for the year 1999 . From 22 September 2010 until 31 December 2011 the highest political executive of the Swiss Confederation had a majority of female councillors ( 4 of 7 ) ; for the three years 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 Switzerland was presided by female presidency for three years in a row ; the latest one was for the year 2017 . Turkey ( edit ) In Turkey , Atatürk , the founding president of the republic , led a secularist cultural and legal transformation supporting women 's rights including voting and being elected . Women won the right to vote in municipal elections on March 20 , 1930 . Women 's suffrage was achieved for parliamentary elections on December 5 , 1934 , through a constitutional amendment . Turkish women , who participated in parliamentary elections for the first time on February 8 , 1935 , obtained 18 seats . In the early republic , when Atatürk ran a one - party state , his party picked all candidates . A small percentage of seats were set aside for women , so naturally those female candidates won . When multi-party elections began in the 1940s , the share of women in the legislature fell , and the 4 % share of parliamentary seats gained in 1935 was not reached again until 1999 . In the parliament of 2011 , women hold about 9 % of the seats . Nevertheless , Turkish women gained the right to vote a decade or more before women in such Western European countries as France , Italy , and Belgium -- a mark of Atatürk 's far - reaching social changes . United Kingdom ( edit ) Main article : Women 's suffrage in the United Kingdom A British cartoon speculating on why imprisoned suffragettes refused to eat in prison The campaign for women 's suffrage in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland gained momentum throughout the early part of the 19th century , as women became increasingly politically active , particularly during the campaigns to reform suffrage in the United Kingdom . John Stuart Mill , elected to Parliament in 1865 and an open advocate of female suffrage ( about to publish The Subjection of Women ) , campaigned for an amendment to the Reform Act 1832 to include female suffrage . Roundly defeated in an all - male parliament under a Conservative government , the issue of women 's suffrage came to the fore . Until the 1832 Reform Act specified `` male persons '' , a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership , although this was rare . In local government elections , single women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869 . This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women . By 1900 , more than 1 million single women were registered to vote in local government elections in England . In 1881 , the Isle of Man ( in the British Isles but not part of the United Kingdom ) passed a law giving the vote to single and widowed women who passed a property qualification . This was to vote in elections for the House of Keys , in the Island 's parliament , Tynwald . This was extended to universal suffrage for men and women in 1919. . During the later half of the 19th century , a number of campaign groups for women 's suffrage in national elections were formed in an attempt to lobby Members of Parliament and gain support . In 1897 , seventeen of these groups came together to form the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies ( NUWSS ) , who held public meetings , wrote letters to politicians and published various texts . In 1907 the NUWSS organized its first large procession . This march became known as the Mud March as over 3,000 women trudged through the streets of London from Hyde Park to Exeter Hall to advocate women 's suffrage . In 1903 a number of members of the NUWSS broke away and , led by Emmeline Pankhurst , formed the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) . As the national media lost interest in the suffrage campaign , the WSPU decided it would use other methods to create publicity . This began in 1905 at a meeting in Manchester 's Free Trade Hall where Edward Grey , 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon , a member of the newly elected Liberal government , was speaking . As he was talking , Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney of the WSPU constantly shouted out , `` Will the Liberal Government give votes to women ? '' When they refused to cease calling out , police were called to evict them and the two suffragettes ( as members of the WSPU became known after this incident ) were involved in a struggle which ended with them being arrested and charged for assault . When they refused to pay their fine , they were sent to prison for one week , and three days . The British public were shocked and took notice at this use of violence to win the vote for women . After this media success , the WSPU 's tactics became increasingly violent . This included an attempt in 1908 to storm the House of Commons , the arson of David Lloyd George 's country home ( despite his support for women 's suffrage ) . In 1909 Lady Constance Lytton was imprisoned , but immediately released when her identity was discovered , so in 1910 she disguised herself as a working class seamstress called Jane Warton and endured inhumane treatment which included force - feeding . In 1913 , suffragette Emily Davison protested by interfering with a horse owned by King George V during the running of The Derby ; she was trampled and died four days later . The WSPU ceased their militant activities during World War I and agreed to assist with the war effort . The National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies , which had always employed `` constitutional '' methods , continued to lobby during the war years , and compromises were worked out between the NUWSS and the coalition government . The Speaker 's Conference on electoral reform ( 1917 ) represented all the parties in both houses , and came to the conclusion that women 's suffrage was essential . Regarding fears that women would suddenly move from zero to a majority of the electorate due to the heavy loss of men during the war , the Conference recommended that the age restriction be 21 for men , and 30 for women . On 6 February 1918 , the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed , enfranchising women over the age of 30 who met minimum property qualifications . About 8.4 million women gained the vote in Great Britain and Ireland . In November 1918 , the Parliament ( Qualification of Women ) Act 1918 was passed , allowing women to be elected into Parliament . The Representation of the People ( Equal Franchise ) Act 1928 extended the franchise in Great Britain and Northern Ireland to all women over the age of 21 , granting women the vote on the same terms as men . In 1999 , Time magazine , in naming Emmeline Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century , states : `` ... she shaped an idea of women for our time ; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back '' . Oceania ( edit ) Australian women 's rights were lampooned in this 1887 Melbourne Punch cartoon : A hypothetical female member foists her baby 's care on the House Speaker . South Australian women were to achieve the vote in 1895 . Australia ( edit ) Main article : Women 's suffrage in Australia The female descendants of the Bounty mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838 , and this right transferred with their resettlement to Norfolk Island ( now an Australian external territory ) in 1856 . Edith Cowan ( 1861 -- 1932 ) was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921 and was the first woman elected to any Australian Parliament ( though women in Australia had already had the vote for two decades ) . Propertied women in the colony of South Australia were granted the vote in local elections ( but not parliamentary elections ) in 1861 . Henrietta Dugdale formed the first Australian women 's suffrage society in Melbourne , Victoria in 1884 . Women became eligible to vote for the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 , as were Aboriginal men and women . In 1897 , Catherine Helen Spence became the first female political candidate for political office , unsuccessfully standing for election as a delegate to Federal Convention on Australian Federation . Western Australia granted voting rights to women in 1899 . The first election for the Parliament of the newly formed Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 was based on the electoral provisions of the six pre-existing colonies , so that women who had the vote and the right to stand for Parliament at state level had the same rights for the 1901 Australian Federal election . In 1902 , the Commonwealth Parliament passed the Commonwealth Franchise Act , which enabled all women to vote and stand for election for the Federal Parliament , and also . Four women stood for election in 1903 . The Act specifically excluded ' natives ' from Commonwealth franchise unless already enrolled in a state , the situation in South Australia . In 1949 , the right to vote in federal elections was extended to all indigenous people who had served in the armed forces , or were enrolled to vote in state elections ( Queensland , Western Australia , and the Northern Territory still excluded indigenous women from voting rights ) . Remaining restrictions were abolished in 1962 by the Commonwealth Electoral Act . Edith Cowan was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921 , the first woman elected to any Australian Parliament . Dame Enid Lyons , in the Australian House of Representatives and Senator Dorothy Tangney became the first women in the Federal Parliament in 1943 . Lyons went on to be the first woman to hold a Cabinet post in the 1949 ministry of Robert Menzies . Rosemary Follett was elected Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory in 1989 , becoming the first woman elected to lead a state or territory . By 2010 , the people of Australia 's oldest city , Sydney had female leaders occupying every major political office above them , with Clover Moore as Lord Mayor , Kristina Keneally as Premier of New South Wales , Marie Bashir as Governor of New South Wales , Julia Gillard as Prime Minister , Quentin Bryce as Governor - General of Australia and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia . Cook Islands ( edit ) Main article : Women in the Cook Islands Women in Rarotonga won the right to vote in 1893 , shortly after New Zealand . New Zealand ( edit ) Main article : Women 's suffrage in New Zealand New Zealand 's Electoral Act of 19 September 1893 made this country the first in the world to grant women the right to vote in parliamentary elections . Although the Liberal government which passed the bill generally advocated social and political reform , the electoral bill was only passed because of a combination of personality issues and political accident . The bill granted the vote to women of all races . New Zealand women were denied the right to stand for parliament , however , until 1920 . In 2005 almost a third of the Members of Parliament elected were female . Women recently have also occupied powerful and symbolic offices such as those of Prime Minister ( Jenny Shipley , Helen Clark and current PM Jacinda Ardern ) , Governor - General ( Catherine Tizard and Silvia Cartwright ) , Chief Justice ( Sian Elias ) , Speaker of the House of Representatives ( Margaret Wilson ) , and from 3 March 2005 to 23 August 2006 , all four of these posts were held by women , along with Queen Elizabeth as Head of State . The Americas ( edit ) Women in Central and South America lagged behind those in North America in gaining the vote . Ecuador enfranchised women in 1929 and the last was Paraguay in 1961 . By date of full suffrage : Uruguay 1927 Ecuador 1929 Chile 1931 Brazil 1934 Cuba 1934 El Salvador 1939 Panama 1941 Guatemala 1946 Venezuela 1946 Argentina 1947 Chile 1949 Costa Rica 1949 Bolivia 1952 Mexico 1953 Colombia 1954 Honduras 1955 Nicaragua 1955 Paraguay 1961 . There were political , religious , and cultural debates about women 's suffrage in the various countries . Important advocates for women 's suffrage include Hermila Galindo ( Mexico ) , Eva Perón ( Argentina ) , Alicia Moreau de Justo ( Argentina ) , Julieta Lanteri ( Argentina ) , Celina Guimarães Viana ( Brazil ) , Ivone Guimarães ( Brazil ) , Henrietta Müller ( Chile ) , Marta Vergara ( Chile ) , Lucila Rubio de Laverde ( Colombia ) , María Currea Manrique ( Colombia ) , Josefa Toledo de Aguirre ( Nicaragua ) , Elida Campodónico ( Panama ) , Clara González ( Panama ) , Gumercinda Páez ( Panama ) , Paulina Luisi Janicki ( Uruguay ) , Carmen Clemente Travieso , ( Venezuela ) . Canada ( edit ) Main article : Women 's suffrage in Canada Women 's political status without the vote was promoted by the National Council of Women of Canada from 1894 to 1918 . It promoted a vision of `` transcendent citizenship '' for women . The ballot was not needed , for citizenship was to be exercised through personal influence and moral suasion , through the election of men with strong moral character , and through raising public - spirited sons . The National Council position was integrated into its nation - building program that sought to uphold Canada as a White settler nation . While the women 's suffrage movement was important for extending the political rights of White women , it was also authorized through race - based arguments that linked White women 's enfranchisement to the need to protect the nation from `` racial degeneration . '' Women had local votes in some provinces , as in Ontario from 1850 , where women owning property ( freeholders and householders ) could vote for school trustees . By 1900 other provinces had adopted similar provisions , and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending women 's suffrage . Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support to the Prohibition movement , especially in Ontario and the Western provinces . The Wartime Elections Act of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war widows or had sons , husbands , fathers , or brothers serving overseas . Unionist Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for women . After his landslide victory , he introduced a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to women . On 24 May 1918 , women considered citizens ( not Aboriginal women , or most women of colour ) became eligible to vote who were `` age 21 or older , not alien - born and meet property requirements in provinces where they exist '' . Most women of Quebec gained full suffrage in 1940 . Aboriginal women across Canada were not given federal voting rights until 1960 . The first woman elected to Parliament was Agnes Macphail in Ontario in 1921 . United states ( edit ) Program for Woman Suffrage Procession , Washington , D.C. , March 3 , 1913 Main article : Women 's suffrage in the United States Before the Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1920 , some individual U.S. states granted women suffrage in certain kinds of elections . Some allowed women to vote in school elections , municipal elections , or for members of the Electoral College . Some territories , like Washington , Utah , and Wyoming , allowed women to vote before they became states . The New Jersey constitution of 1776 enfranchised all adult inhabitants who owned a specified amount of property . Laws enacted in 1790 and 1797 referred to voters as `` he or she '' , and women regularly voted . A law passed in 1807 , however , excluded women from voting in that state . Lydia Taft was an early forerunner in Colonial America who was allowed to vote in three New England town meetings , beginning in 1756 , at Uxbridge , Massachusetts . The women 's suffrage movement was closely tied to abolitionism , with many suffrage activists gaining their first experience as anti-slavery activists . In June 1848 , Gerrit Smith made women 's suffrage a plank in the Liberty Party platform . In July , at the Seneca Falls Convention in upstate New York , activists including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony began a seventy - year struggle by women to secure the right to vote . Attendees signed a document known as the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments , of which Stanton was the primary author . Equal rights became the rallying cry of the early movement for women 's rights , and equal rights meant claiming access to all the prevailing definitions of freedom . In 1850 Lucy Stone organized a larger assembly with a wider focus , the National Women 's Rights Convention in Worcester , Massachusetts . Susan B. Anthony , a resident of Rochester , New York , joined the cause in 1852 after reading Stone 's 1850 speech . Stanton , Stone and Anthony were the three leading figures of this movement in the U.S. during the 19th century : the `` triumvirate '' of the drive to gain voting rights for women . Women 's suffrage activists pointed out that black people had been granted the franchise and had not been included in the language of the United States Constitution 's Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments ( which gave people equal protection under the law and the right to vote regardless of their race , respectively ) . This , they contended , had been unjust . Early victories were won in the territories of Wyoming ( 1869 ) and Utah ( 1870 ) . `` Kaiser Wilson '' banner held by a woman who picketed the White House John Allen Campbell , the first Governor of the Wyoming Territory , approved the first law in United States history explicitly granting women the right to vote . The law was approved on December 10 , 1869 . This day was later commemorated as Wyoming Day . On February 12 , 1870 , the Secretary of the Territory and Acting Governor of the Territory of Utah , S.A. Mann , approved a law allowing twenty - one - year - old women to vote in any election in Utah . Utah women were disenfranchised by provisions of the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1887 . The push to grant Utah women 's suffrage was at least partially fueled by the belief that , given the right to vote , Utah women would dispose of polygamy . It was only after Utah women exercised their suffrage rights in favor of polygamy that the U.S. Congress disenfranchised Utah women . By the end of the 19th century , Idaho , Utah , and Wyoming had enfranchised women after effort by the suffrage associations at the state level ; Colorado notably enfranchised women by an 1893 referendum . During the beginning of the 20th century , as women 's suffrage faced several important federal votes , a portion of the suffrage movement known as the National Woman 's Party led by suffragist Alice Paul became the first `` cause '' to picket outside the White House . Paul had been mentored by Emmeline Pankhurst while in England , and both she and Lucy Burns led a series of protests against the Wilson Administration in Washington . Wilson ignored the protests for six months , but on June 20 , 1917 , as a Russian delegation drove up to the White House , suffragists unfurled a banner which stated : `` We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy . Twenty million women are denied the right to vote . President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement '' . Another banner on August 14 , 1917 , referred to `` Kaiser Wilson '' and compared the plight of the German people with that of American women . With this manner of protest , the women were subject to arrests and many were jailed . Another ongoing tactic of the National Woman 's Party was watchfires , which involved burning copies of President Wilson 's speeches , often outside the White House or in the nearby Lafayette Park . The Party continued to hold watchfires even as the war began , drawing criticism from the public and even other suffrage groups for being unpatriotic . On October 17 , Alice Paul was sentenced to seven months and on October 30 began a hunger strike , but after a few days prison authorities began to force feed her . After years of opposition , Wilson changed his position in 1918 to advocate women 's suffrage as a war measure . Women suffragists picketing in front of the White House circa February 1917 . Banner on the left reads , `` Mr President , How long must women wait for Liberty ? '' , and the banner to the right , `` Mr President , What will you do for women 's suffrage ? '' The key vote came on June 4 , 1919 , when the Senate approved the amendment by 56 to 25 after four hours of debate , during which Democratic Senators opposed to the amendment filibustered to prevent a roll call until their absent Senators could be protected by pairs . The Ayes included 36 ( 82 % ) Republicans and 20 ( 54 % ) Democrats . The Nays comprised 8 ( 18 % ) Republicans and 17 ( 46 % ) Democrats . The Nineteenth Amendment , which prohibited state or federal sex - based restrictions on voting , was ratified by sufficient states in 1920 . According to the article , `` Nineteenth Amendment '' , by Leslie Goldstein from the Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States , `` by the end it also included jail sentences , and hunger strikes in jail accompanied by brutal force feedings ; mob violence ; and legislative votes so close that partisans were carried in on stretchers '' ( Goldstein , 2008 ) . Even after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified , women were still facing problems . For instance , when women had registered to vote in Maryland , `` residents sued to have the women 's names removed from the registry on the grounds that the amendment itself was unconstitutional '' ( Goldstein , 2008 ) . Before 1965 , women of color , such as African Americans and Native Americans , were disenfranchised , especially in the South . The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting , and secured voting rights for racial minorities throughout the U.S. Argentina ( edit ) The modern suffragist movement in Argentina arose partly in conjunction with the activities of the Socialist Party and anarchists of the early twentieth century . Women involved in larger movements for social justice began to agitate equal rights and opportunities on par with men ; following the example of their European peers , Elvira Dellepiane Rawson , Cecilia Grierson and Alicia Moreau de Justo began to form a number of groups in defense of the civil rights of women between 1900 and 1910 . The first major victories for extending the civil rights of women occurred in the Province of San Juan . Women had been allowed to vote in that province since 1862 , but only in municipal elections . A similar right was extended in the province of Santa Fe where a constitution that ensured women 's suffrage was enacted at the municipal level , although female participation in votes initially remained low . In 1927 , San Juan sanctioned its Constitution and broadly recognized the equal rights of men and women . However , the 1930 coup overthrew these advances . Women 's demonstration in Buenos Aires in front of the National Congress by law for universal suffrage , 1947 A great pioneer of women 's suffrage was Julieta Lanteri , the daughter of Italian immigrants , who in 1910 requested a national court to grant her the right to citizenship ( at the time not generally given to single female immigrants ) as well as suffrage . The Claros judge upheld her request and declared : `` As a judge , I have a duty to declare that her right to citizenship is enshrined in the Constitution , and therefore that women enjoy the same political rights as the laws grant to male citizens , with the only restrictions expressly determined such laws , because no inhabitant is deprived of what they do not prohibit . '' In July 1911 , Dr. Lanteri were enumerated , and on November 26 of that year exercised her right to vote , the first Ibero - American woman to vote . Also covered in a judgment in 1919 was presented as a candidate for national deputy for the Independent Centre Party , obtaining 1730 votes out of 154,302 . In 1919 , Rogelio Araya UCR Argentina had gone down in history for being the first to submit a bill recognizing the right to vote for women , an essential component of universal suffrage . On July 17 , 1919 , he served as deputy national on behalf of the people of Santa Fe . On February 27 , 1946 , three days after the elections that consecrated president Juan Perón and his wife First Lady Eva Perón 26 years of age gave his first political speech in an organized women to thank them for their support of Perón 's candidacy . On that occasion , Eva demanded equal rights for men and women and particularly , women 's suffrage : The woman Argentina has exceeded the period of civil tutorials . Women must assert their action , women should vote . The woman , moral spring home , you should take the place in the complex social machinery of the people . He asks a necessity new organize more extended and remodeled groups . It requires , in short , the transformation of the concept of woman who sacrificially has increased the number of its duties without seeking the minimum of their rights . The bill was presented the new constitutional government assumed immediately after the May 1 , 1946 . The opposition of conservative bias was evident , not only the opposition parties but even within parties who supported Peronism . Eva Perón constantly pressured the parliament for approval , even causing protests from the latter for this intrusion . Although it was a brief text in three articles , that practically could not give rise to discussions , the Senate recently gave preliminary approval to the project August 21 , 1946 , and had to wait over a year for the House of Representative to publish the September 9 , 1947 Law 13,010 , establishing equal political rights between men and women and universal suffrage in Argentina . Finally , Law 13,010 was approved unanimously . Eva Perón voting at the hospital in 1951.It was the first time women had been permitted to vote in national elections in Argentina . To this end Perón received the Civic Book No. 00.000. 001 . It was the first and only time she would vote ; Perón died July 26 , 1952 after developing cervical cancer . In an official statement on national television , Eva Perón announced the extension of suffrage to Argentina 's women : Women of this country , this very instant I receive from the Government the law that enshrines our civic rights . And I receive it in front of you , with the confidence that I do so on behalf and in the name of all Argentinian women . I do so joyously , as I feel my hands tremble upon contact with victory proclaiming laurels . Here it is , my sisters , summarized into few articles of compact letters lies a long history of battles , stumbles , and hope . Because of this , in it there lie exasperating indignation , shadows of menacing sunsets , but also cheerful awakenings of triumphal auroras . And the latter which translates the victory of women over the incomprehensions , the denials , and the interests created by the castes now repudiated by our national awakening . And a leader who destiny forged to victoriously face the problems of our era , General ( Perón ) . With him , and our vote we shall contribute to the perfection of Argentina 's democracy , my dear comrades . On 23 September 1947 , they enacted the Female Enrollment Act ( No. 13,010 ) during the first presidency of Juan Domingo Perón , which was implemented in the elections of November 11 , 1951 , in which 3 816 654 women voted ( 63.9 % voted for the Justicialista Party and 30.8 % for the Radical Civic Union ) . Later in 1952 , the first 23 senators and deputies took their seats , representing the Justicialista Party . Brazil ( edit ) First women electors of Brazil , Rio Grande do Norte , 1928 . Women were granted the right to vote and be elected in Electoral Code of 1932 , followed by Brazilian Constitution of 1934 . However , the law of Rio Grande do Norte State has allowed women to vote since 1926 . The struggle for women 's suffrage was part of a larger movement to gain rights for women . Chile ( edit ) Debate about women 's suffrage in Chile began in the 1920s . Women 's suffrage in municipal elections was first established in 1931 by decree ( decreto con fuerza de ley ) ; voting age for women was set at 25 years . In addition , the Chamber of Deputies approved a law on March 9 , 1933 establishing women 's suffrage in municipal elections . Women obtained the legal right to vote in parliamentary and presidential elections in 1949 . Women 's share among voters increased steadily after 1949 , reaching the same levels of participation as men in 1970 . Mexico ( edit ) See also : Women in Mexico The liberal Mexican Constitution of 1857 did not bar women from voting in Mexico or holding office , but `` election laws restricted the suffrage to males , and in practice women did not participate nor demand a part in politics , '' with framers being indifferent to the issue . Years of civil war and the French intervention delayed any consideration of women 's role in Mexican political life , but during the Restored Republic and the Porfiriato ( 1876 -- 1911 ) , women began organizing to expand their civil rights , including suffrage . Socialist publications in Mexico began advocating changes in law and practice as early as 1878 . The journal La Internacional articulated a detailed program of reform that aimed at `` the emancipation , rehabilitation , and integral education of women . '' The era of the Porfiriato did not record changes in law regarding the status of women , but women began entering professions requiring higher education : law , medicine , and pharmacy ( requiring a university degree ) , but also teaching . Liberalism placed great importance on secular education , so that the public school system ranks of the teaching profession expanded in the late nineteenth century , which benefited females wishing to teach and education for girls . The status of women in Mexico became an issue during the Mexican Revolution , with Francisco I. Madero , the challenger to the continued presidency of Porfirio Diaz interested in the rights of Mexican women . Madero was part of a rich estate - owning family in the northern state of Coahuila , who had attended University of California , Berkeley briefly and traveled in Europe , absorbing liberal ideas and practices . Madero 's wife as well as his female personal assistant , Soledad González , `` unquestionably enhanced his interest in women 's rights . '' González was one of the orphans that the Maderos adopted ; she learned typing and stenography , and traveled to Mexico City following Madero 's election as president in 1911 . Madero 's brief presidential term was tumultuous , and with no previous political experience , Madero was unable to forward the cause of women 's suffrage . Following his ouster by military coup led by Victoriano Huerta and Madero 's assassination , those taking up Madero 's cause and legacy , the Constitutionalists ( named after the liberal Constitution of 1857 ) began to discuss women 's rights . Venustiano Carranza , former governor of Coahuila , and following Madero 's assassination , the `` first chief '' of the Constitutionalists . Carranza also had an influential female private secretary , Hermila Galindo , who was a champion of women 's rights in Mexico . In asserting his Carranza promulgated political plan Plan de Guadalupe in 1914 , enumerating in standard Mexican fashion , his aims as he sought supporters . In the `` Additions '' to the Plan de Guadalupe , Carranza made some important statements that affected families and the status of women in regards to marriage . In December 1914 , Carranza issued a decree that legalized divorce under certain circumstances . Although the decree did not lead to women 's suffrage , it eased somewhat restrictions that still existed in the civil even after the nineteenth - century liberal Reforma established the State 's right to regulate marriage as a civil rather than an ecclesiastical matter . There was increased advocacy for women 's rights in the late 1910s , with the founding of a new feminist magazine , Mujer Moderna , which ceased publication in 1919 . Mexico saw several international women 's rights congresses , the first being held in Mérida , Yucatán , in 1916 . The International Congress of Women had some 700 delegates attend , but did not result in lasting changes . As women 's suffrage made progress in Great Britain and the United States , in Mexico there was an echo . Carranza , who was elected president in 1916 , called for a convention to draft a new Mexican Constitution that incorporated gains for particular groups , such as the industrial working class and the peasantry seeking land reform . It also incorporated increased restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico , an extension of the anticlericalism in the Constitution of 1857 . The Constitution of 1917 did not explicitly empower women 's access to the ballot . In the northern Mexican state of Sonora , Mexican women pushed for more rights for women , including the vote . Emélida Carrillo and school teacher María de Jesús Váldez led the effort . Notably , the movement for Mexican women 's rights there was linked to the movement to exclude and expel Chinese in Mexico , racial essentialism that was also seen in the suffrage movement in the U.S. , but generally not elsewhere in Latin America . In 1937 , Mexican feminists challenged the wording of the Constitution concerning who is eligible for citizenship -- the Constitution did not specify `` men and women . '' María del Refugio García ran for election as a Sole Front for Women 's Rights candidate for her home district , Uruapan . García won by a huge margin , but was not allowed to take her seat because the government would have to amend the Constitution . In response , García went on a hunger strike outside President Lázaro Cárdenas ' residence in Mexico City for 11 days in August 1937 . Cárdenas responded by promising to change Article 34 in the Constitution that September . By December , the amendment had been passed by congress , and women were granted full citizenship . However , the vote for women in Mexico was not granted until 1953 . The history and meaning of the women 's vote in Mexico has been examined . Women gained the right to vote in 1947 for some local elections and for national elections in 1953 . Venezuela ( edit ) After the 1928 Student Protests , women started participating more actively in politics . In 1935 , women 's rights supporters founded the Feminine Cultural Group ( known as ' ACF ' from its initials in Spanish ) , with the goal of tackling women 's problems . The group supported women 's political and social rights , and believed it was necessary to involve and inform women about these issues in order to ensure their personal development . It went on to give seminars , as well as founding night schools and the House of Laboring Women . Groups looking to reform the 1936 Civil Code of Conduct in conjunction with the Venezuelan representation to the Union of American Women called the First Feminine Venezuelan Congress in 1940 . In this congress , delegates discussed the situation of women in Venezuela and their demands . Key goals were women 's suffrage and a reform to the Civil Code of Conduct . Around twelve thousand signatures were collected and handed to the Venezuelan Congress , which reformed the Civil Code of Conduct in 1942 . In 1944 , groups supporting women 's suffrage , the most important being Feminine Action , organized around the country . During 1945 , women attained the right to vote at a municipal level . This was followed by a stronger call of action . Feminine Action began editing a newspaper called the Correo Cívico Femenino , to connect , inform and orientate Venezuelan women in their struggle . Finally , after the 1945 Venezuelan Coup d'État and the call for a new Constitution , to which women were elected , women 's suffrage became a constitutional right in the country . Women 's suffrage in non-religious organizations ( edit ) The right of women to vote has sometimes been denied in non-religious organizations ; for example , it was not until 1964 that women in the National Association of the Deaf in the United States were first allowed to vote . Women 's suffrage in religions ( edit ) Catholicism ( edit ) The Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals . Women are not appointed as cardinals , and therefore women can not vote for the Pope . The female Catholic offices of Abbess or Mother Superior are elective , the choice being made by the secret votes of the nuns belonging to the community . Islam ( edit ) See also : Women in Islam In the United States , some mosques have constitutions prohibiting women from voting in board elections . Judaism ( edit ) See also : Women in Judaism In Conservative Judaism , Reform Judaism and other liberal Jewish movements women have the right to vote . Since the 1970s , more and more Modern Orthodox synagogues and religious organizations have been granting women the rights to vote and to be elected to their governing bodies . In a few Ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities women are denied the vote or the ability to be elected to positions of authority . Timelines ( edit ) Timeline of first women 's suffrage in majority - Muslim countries Timeline of women 's suffrage Timeline of women 's legal rights ( other than voting ) See also ( edit ) Feminism portal Politics portal Anti-suffragism List of monuments and memorials to women 's suffrage List of suffragists and suffragettes List of the first female holders of political offices in Europe List of women 's rights activists Open Christmas Letter Silent Sentinels Suffrage Hikes Women 's suffrage movement in Washington Women 's suffrage organizations Women 's work Woman suffrage parade of 1913 Notes ( edit ) ^ Anon . `` Suffragist '' . oxforddictionaries.com . Oxford University Press . Retrieved 17 January 2018 . ^ Ellen Carol DuBois ( 1998 ) . Woman Suffrage and Women 's Rights . NYU Press . pp. 174 -- 6 . 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'' Hispanic American Historical Review 97 ( 2 ) May 2017 , pp. 226 -- 27 . ^ `` Timeline `` Women Suffrage and Beyond '' . womensuffrage.org . ^ Carolina Barry , ed . Sufragio feminino : Prácticas y debates políticos , religiosos , y culturales en la Argentina y América Latina . Caseros , Argentina : Editorial de la Universidad Nacional de Tres de Febrero 2011 . ^ Anne - Marie . Kinahan , `` Transcendent Citizenship : Suffrage , the National Council of Women of Canada , and the Politics of Organized Womanhood , '' Journal of Canadian Studies ( 2008 ) 42 # 3 pp 5 -- 27 ^ Frederick Brent Scollie , `` The Woman Candidate for the Ontario Legislative Assembly 1919 -- 1929 , '' Ontario History , CIV ( Autumn 2012 ) , 5 -- 6 , discusses the legal framework for election to Ontario school boards and municipal councils . ^ Susan Jackel . `` Women 's Suffrage '' . The Canadian Encyclopedia . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 02 . ^ John H. Thompson , `` ' The Beginning of Our Regeneration ' : The Great War and Western Canadian Reform Movements , '' Canadian Historical Association Historical Papers ( 1972 ) , pp 227 -- 245 . ^ Paul Voisey , `` ' The `` Votes For Women ' Movement , '' Alberta History ( 1975 ) 23 # 3 pp 10 -- 23 ^ George Stroumboulopoulos , `` Women & The Right To Vote In Canada : An Important Clarification '' CBC ( 2013 ) http://www.cbc.ca/strombo/news/women-the-right-to-vote-in-canada-an-important-clarification.html ^ Catherine Cleverdon , The woman suffrage movement in Canada : The Start of Liberation , 1900 -- 20 ( 2nd ed. 1974 ) ^ `` Timeline and Map of Woman Suffrage Legislation State by State 1838 -- 1919 '' . ^ Wellman ( 2004 ) , p. 138 ^ Chapin , Judge Henry ( 1881 ) . Address Delivered at the Unitarian Church in Uxbridge , 1864 . Worcester , Massachusetts : Charles Hamilton Press ( Harvard Library ; from Google Books ) . p. 172 . ^ Stearman , Kaye ( 2000 ) . 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ABC - CLIO , 2007 ^ Stevens et al. , Jailed for Freedom : American Women Win the Vote , NewSage Press ( March 21 , 1995 ) . ^ `` National Woman 's Party 1912 -- 1922 : Timeline Story Map '' . ^ Lemons , J. Stanley ( 1973 ) . `` The woman citizen : social feminism in the 1920s '' p. 13 . University of Virginia Press , 1973 ^ `` The first picket line -- College day in the picket line '' . The Library of Congress . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 02 . ^ `` Our Documents -- 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution : Women 's Right to Vote ( 1920 ) '' . ourdocuments.gov . ^ `` Suffrage Wins in Senate ; Now Goes to States '' . The New York Times . 5 June 1919 . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 17 . ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a work in the public domain : `` Introduction to Federal Voting Rights Laws : The Effect of the Voting Rights Act '' . U.S. Department of Justice . June 19 , 2009 . Retrieved August 4 , 2016 . ^ `` Women 's suffrage in Brazil ( official page in Portuguese ) '' . ^ June E. Hahner , Emancipating the Female Sex : The Struggle for Women 's Rights in Brazil , 1850 -- 1940 . Durham : Duke University Press 1990 . ^ `` Elecciones , sufragio y democracia en Chile ( 1810 -- 2012 ) : Voto femenino '' , Memoria chilena ( in Spanish ) , retrieved June 30 , 2013 ^ López Cárdenas , Patricio ( 2009 ) , Las administraciones municipales en la historia de Valdivia ( in Spanish ) , Editorial Dokumenta Comunicaciones , p. 32 ^ Eltit , Diamela ( 1994 ) , Crónica del sufragio femenino en Chile ( in Spanish ) , Servicio Nacional de la Mujer , p. 55 ^ Ward M. Morton , Woman Suffrage in Mexico . Gainesville : University of Florida Press 1962 , p. 1 . ^ María Elena Manzanera del Campo , La igualdad de derechos políticos . Mexico DF : 1953 , p. 143 . ^ quoted in Morton , Woman Suffrage in Mexico , p. 2 . ^ Morton , Woman Suffrage in Mexico , p. 2 . ^ Morton , Woman Suffrage in Mexico , p. 3 . ^ Kif Augustine - Adams , `` Women 's Suffrage , the Anti-Chinese Campaigns , and Gendered Ideals in Sonora , Mexico 1917 -- 1925 . '' Hispanic American Historical Review 97 ( 2 ) 2017 pp. 226 -- 28 . ^ Rappaport , Helen ( 2001 ) . Encyclopedia of women social reformers . Santa Barbara , Calif. ( u.a. ) : ABC - CLIO . pp. 249 -- 250 . ISBN 1576071014 . ^ Sarah A. Buck , `` The Meaning of the Women 's Vote in Mexico , 1917 -- 1953 '' in The Women 's Revolution in Mexico , 1910 -- 1953 , Stephanie Mitchell and Patience A. Schell , eds . New York : Rowman and Littlefield 2007 , pp. 73 -- 98 . ^ `` NAD History ; National Association of the Deaf '' . Nad.org. 2006 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 29 . ^ `` How is the Pope elected ? '' . Catholic-Pages.com. 2005 - 04 - 06 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 02 . ^ `` Women and the Priesthood '' . Catholic.com . Archived from the original on 2011 - 09 - 04 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 02 . ^ Chisholm 1911 . ^ `` Muslim Women Seeking a Place in the Mosque '' . The New York Times . 22 July 2004 . ^ `` Manhattan , NY -- Rabbi Keeps Off Women from Board of LES Orthodox Synagogue '' . VosIzNeias.com . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 02 . ^ `` JUDGE DISMISSES LAWSUIT AGAINST SYNAGOGUE '' . The New York Sun . 2004 - 06 - 23 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 02 . ^ `` The Key to Marital Harmony : One Vote Per Couple ? '' . CrownHeights.info . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 02 . References ( edit ) Baker , Jean H. Sisters : The Lives of America 's Suffragists . Hill and Wang , New York , 2005 . ISBN 0 - 8090 - 9528 - 9 . `` Woman suffrage '' in Collier 's New Encyclopedia , X ( New York : P.F. Collier & Son Company , 1921 ) , pp. 403 -- 405 . Webster 's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary ( New York : Merriam Webster , 1983 ) ISBN 0 - 87779 - 511 - 8 Åsa Karlsson - Sjögren : `` Männen , kvinnorna och rösträtten : medborgarskap och representation 1723 -- 1866 '' ( Men , women and the vote : citizenship and representation 1723 -- 1866 ) ( in Swedish ) Women 's Suffrage , `` A World Chronology of the Recognition of Women 's Rights to Vote and to Stand for Election '' . Dubois , Carol , Dumenil , Lynm ( 1299 ) . `` Through Women 's Eyes '' , An American History with Documents , 456 ( 475 ) . Goldstein , Leslie F. `` Nineteenth Amendment . '' Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States , edited by David S. Tanenhaus , vol. 3 , Macmillan Reference USA , 2008 , pp. 410 -- 413 . U.S. History in Context , ( 1 ). ( registration required ) Accessed 19 Dec. 2016 Mary R. Beard ( May 1947 ) . `` Woman 's Role in Society ( in Women in Present - Day Society ) '' . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science . 251 : 1 -- 9 . doi : 10.1177 / 000271624725100102 . Further reading ( edit ) Bock , Gisela . Das politische Denken des Suffragismus : Deutschland um 1900 im internationalen Vergleich , in : Gisela Bock : Geschlechtergeschichten der Neuzeit , Goettingen 2014 , 168 -- 203 . Bush , Julia . Women against the vote : female anti-suffragism in Britain ( Oxford UP , 2007 ) . Hannam , June , Mitzi Auchterlonie , and Katherine Holden . International encyclopedia of women 's suffrage ( Abc - Clio Inc , 2000 ) . Hannam , June . `` International Dimensions of Women 's Suffrage : ' at the crossroads of several interlocking identities ' '' Women 's History Review 14.3 -- 4 ( 2005 ) : 543 -- 560 . Lloyd , Trevor , Suffragettes International : The Worldwide Campaign for Women 's Rights ( New York : American Heritage Press , 1971 ) . Markoff , John . `` Margins , Centers , and Democracy : The Paradigmatic History of Women 's Suffrage , '' Signs ( 2003 ) 29 # 1 pp. 85 -- 116 in JSTOR Owens , Rosemary Cullen . Smashing times : A history of the Irish women 's suffrage movement , 1889 -- 1922 ( Irish Books & Media , 1984 ) . Raeburn , Antonia . Militant Suffragettes ( London : New English Library , 1973 ) on Great Britain Ramirez , Francisco O. , Yasemin Soysal , and Suzanne Shanahan . `` The Changing Logic of Political Citizenship : Cross-National Acquisition of Women 's Suffrage Rights , 1890 to 1990 '' , American Sociological Review ( 1997 ) 62 # 5 pp 735 -- 45 . in JSTOR United states ( edit ) DuBois , Ellen Carol . Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage ( New Haven and London : Yale University Press , 1997 ) ISBN 0 - 300 - 06562 - 0 Flexner , Eleanor , Century of Struggle : The Woman 's Rights Movement in the United States , enlarged edition with Foreword by Ellen Fitzpatrick ( 1959 , 1975 ; Cambridge and London : The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press , 1996 ) ISBN 0 - 674 - 10653 - 9 Kraditor , Aileen S. Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement , 1890 -- 1920 . ( 1965 ) . Mackenzie , Midge , Shoulder to Shoulder : A Documentary ( New York : Alfred A. Knopf , 1975 ) . ISBN 0 - 394 - 73070 - 4 External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Women 's suffrage . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Portal : Women 's suffrage Photo Essay on Women 's Suffrage by the International Museum of Women Suffrage in Canada CIA Yearbook : Suffrage Press release with respect to Qatar and Yemen UNCG Special Collections and University Archives selections of American Suffragette manuscripts Photographs of U.S. suffragettes , marches , and demonstrations Ada James papers and correspondence ( 1915 -- 1918 ) -- a digital collection presented by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center . Ada James ( 1876 -- 1952 ) was a leading a social reformer , humanitarian , and pacifist from Richland Center , Wisconsin and daughter of state senator David G. James . The Ada James papers document the grass roots organizing and politics required to promote and guarantee the passage of women 's suffrage in Wisconsin and beyond . Women ́ s suffrage in Germany -- 19 January 1919 -- first suffrage ( active and passive ) for women in Germany Suffragists vs. Suffragettes -- brief article outlining origins of term `` suffragette '' , usage of term and links to other sources . Women in Congress -- Information about women who have served in the U.S. Congress including historical essays that cover suffrage . Culture Victoria -- historical images and videos for the Centenary of Women 's Suffrage Woman suffragist , Mary Ellen Ewing vs the Houston School Board -- Collection at the University of Houston Digital Library . Gayle Olson - Raymer , `` The Early Women 's Movement '' , 17 - page teaching guide for high school students , Zinn Education Project / Rethinking Schools Women 's Suffrage and Equal Rights in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library Select `` Suffrage '' subject , at the Persuasive Cartography , The PJ Mode Collection , Cornell University Library Timeline and Map of Woman Suffrage Legislation State by State 1838 -- 1919 Women of Protest : Photographs from the Records of the National Woman 's Party Detailed Chronology of National Woman 's Party Database of National Woman 's Party Actions Outside Washington D.C. 1914 -- 1924 National Woman 's Party Offices and Actions ( Washington D.C. map ) National Woman 's Party : a year - by - year history 1913 -- 1922 National Woman 's Party 1912 -- 1922 : Timeline Story Map Digitized items from the National American Women 's Suffrage Collection in the Rare Book and Special Collections Division of the Library of Congress Suffrage Basic topics Universal suffrage Women Black Youth Resident foreigners Expatriates in country of origin Voting age Demeny voting Suffragette Compulsory voting Disfranchisement Women 's liberation movement By country Australia 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act aboriginal women Japan Hong Kong Kuwait New Zealand Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom women Wales laws 1832 1918 1928 United States women Native Americans foreigners District of Columbia Puerto Rico amendments 15th 19th 23rd 24th 26th 1965 Voting Rights Act Events International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Hong Kong 1 July marches 2014 Hong Kong protests UK WSPU march ( 1906 ) Mud March ( 1907 ) Women 's Sunday ( 1908 ) Black Friday ( 1910 ) Battle of Downing Street ( 1910 ) Women 's Coronation Procession ( 1911 ) Great Pilgrimage ( 1913 ) Open Christmas Letter ( 1914 ) US Seneca Falls Convention ( 1848 ) Declaration of Sentiments ( 1848 ) Rochester Convention ( 1848 ) Ohio Women 's Convention ( 1850 ) National Women 's Rights Convention ( 1850 -- 1869 ) Suffrage Hikes ( 1912 -- 1914 ) Woman Suffrage Procession ( 1913 ) Silent Sentinels ( 1917 -- 1919 ) Night of Terror ( 1917 ) `` Give Us the Ballot '' ( 1957 ) Selma to Montgomery marches ( 1965 ) Related Age of candidacy US Voting Rights Museum Umbrella Movement Women Suffragists Timeline of women 's suffrage US in majority - Muslim countries Women 's suffrage organizations and publications Women 's rights activists Suffragette Memorial Pankhurst Centre Pankhurst Memorial Belmont - Paul Monument International Women 's Day Susan B. Anthony Day Women 's Equality Day Eagle House Justice Bell 1920 US presidential election Leser v. Garnett Popular culture `` The March of the Women '' ( 1910 song ) The Mother of Us All ( 1947 opera ) `` Sister Suffragette '' ( 1964 song ) Shoulder to Shoulder ( 1974 series ) Not for Ourselves Alone ( 1999 documentary ) Iron Jawed Angels ( 2004 film ) Great Petition ( 2008 sculpture ) Selma ( 2014 film ) Suffragette ( 2015 film ) Susan B. 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42 | document: V-J Day in Times Square - wikipedia V-J Day in Times Square Coordinates : 40 ° 45 ′ 28 '' N 73 ° 59 ′ 09 '' W / 40.757682 ° N 73.98571 ° W / 40.757682 ; - 73.98571 V-J Day in Times Square , a photograph by Alfred Eisenstaedt , was published in Life in 1945 with the caption , `` In New York 's Times Square a white - clad girl clutches her purse and skirt as an uninhibited sailor plants his lips squarely on hers '' Alfred Eisenstaedt signing his famous V-J Day photograph on the afternoon of August 23 , 1995 , while sitting in his Menemsha Inn cabin located on Martha 's Vineyard . He died about eight hours later . V-J Day in Times Square ( also V - Day and The Kiss ) is a photograph by Alfred Eisenstaedt that portrays a U.S. Navy sailor grabbing and kissing a stranger -- a woman in a white dress -- on Victory over Japan Day ( `` V-J Day '' ) in New York City 's Times Square on August 14 , 1945 . The photograph was published a week later in Life magazine , among many photographs of celebrations around the United States that were presented in a twelve - page section titled `` Victory Celebrations '' . A two - page spread faces three other kissing poses among celebrators in Washington , D.C. ; Kansas City ; and Miami opposite Eisenstaedt 's , which was given a full - page display . Kissing was a favorite pose encouraged by media photographers of service personnel during the war , but Eisenstaedt was photographing a spontaneous event that occurred in Times Square soon before the announcement of the end of the war with Japan was made by U.S. President Harry S. Truman at seven o'clock . Because he was photographing rapidly changing events during the celebrations , Eisenstaedt did not have an opportunity to get the names and details . The photograph does not clearly show the face of either person involved , and numerous people have claimed to be the subjects . The photograph was shot just south of 45th Street looking north from a location where Broadway and Seventh Avenue converge . The photograph was taken at 5 : 51 p.m. ET , according to Donald W. Olson and his team . It was taken with a Leica IIIa . Contents 1 Accounts by Alfred Eisenstaedt 2 Another photograph of the same scene 3 Identity of the Kissers 3.1 Greta Zimmer Friedman 3.2 Edith Shain 3.3 Claiming to be the U.S. Navy sailor 3.3. 1 George Mendonsa 3.3. 2 Carl Muscarello 3.3. 3 Glenn McDuffie 3.3. 4 Other people 4 Alternate interpretations 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Accounts by Alfred Eisenstaedt ( edit ) In two different books he wrote , Alfred Eisenstaedt gave two slightly different accounts of taking the photograph and of its nature . From Eisenstaedt on Eisenstaedt : In Times Square on V.J. Day I saw a sailor running along the street grabbing any and every girl in sight . Whether she was a grandmother , stout , thin , old , did n't make a difference . I was running ahead of him with my Leica looking back over my shoulder but none of the pictures that were possible pleased me . Then suddenly , in a flash , I saw something white being grabbed . I turned around and clicked the moment the sailor kissed the nurse . If she had been dressed in a dark dress I would never have taken the picture . If the sailor had worn a white uniform , the same . I took exactly four pictures . It was done within a few seconds . Only one is right , on account of the balance . In the others the emphasis is wrong -- the sailor on the left side is either too small or too tall . People tell me that when I am in heaven they will remember this picture . From The Eye of Eisenstaedt : I was walking through the crowds on V-J Day , looking for pictures . I noticed a sailor coming my way . He was grabbing every female he could find and kissing them all -- young girls and old ladies alike . Then I noticed the nurse , standing in that enormous crowd . I focused on her , and just as I 'd hoped , the sailor came along , grabbed the nurse , and bent down to kiss her . Now if this girl had n't been a nurse , if she 'd been dressed dark clothes , I would n't have had a picture . The contrast between her white dress and the sailor 's dark uniform gives the photograph its extra impact . It became a cultural icon overnight and by establishing his copyright , Eisenstaedt carefully controlled the rights to it , only allowing a limited number of reproductions which determined how it could be used . Another photograph of the same scene ( edit ) Jorgensen 's similar photograph U.S. Navy photo journalist Victor Jorgensen captured another view of the same scene , which was published in The New York Times the following day . Jorgensen titled his photograph Kissing the War Goodbye . It shows less of Times Square in the background , lacking the characteristic view of the complex intersection so that the location needs to be identified , it is dark and shows few details of the main subjects , and it does not show the lower legs and feet of the subjects . Unlike the Eisenstaedt photograph , which is protected by copyright , this Navy photograph is in the public domain as it was produced by a federal government employee on official duty . While the angle of the photograph may be less interesting than that of Eisenstaedt 's photo , it clearly shows the actual location of the iconic kiss occurring in the front of the Chemical Bank and Trust building , with the Walgreens pharmacy signage on the building façade visible in the background . The surprised woman on the left in Jorgensen 's photograph has been positively identified as Kay Hughes Dorius of Utah . Identity of the kissers ( edit ) Greta Zimmer Friedman ( edit ) Galdorisi and Verria used interviews of claimants , expert photo analysis , identifying people in the background and consultations with forensic anthropologists and facial recognition specialists . They concluded that the woman was Greta Zimmer Friedman and that she was wearing her dental hygienist uniform in the photograph . `` It was n't my choice to be kissed , '' Friedman stated in a 2005 interview with the Library of Congress . `` The guy just came over and grabbed ! '' she said , adding , `` That man was very strong . I was n't kissing him . He was kissing me . '' `` I did not see him approaching , and before I know it I was in this tight grip , '' Friedman told CBS News in 2012 . Friedman died at age 92 on September 8 , 2016 , in Richmond , Virginia , due to health complications of old age . Edith Shain ( edit ) Edith Shain at the 2008 Memorial Day parade in Washington , D.C. Edith Shain wrote to Eisenstaedt in 1980 claiming to be the woman in the picture . In August 1945 , Shain was working at Doctor 's Hospital in Manhattan , New York City as a nurse when she and a friend heard on the radio that World War II had ended . They went to Times Square where all the celebrating was and as soon as she arrived on the street from the subway , the sailor grabbed her in an embrace and kissed her . She related that at the time she thought she might as well let him kiss her since he fought for her in the war . Shain did not claim that she was the woman in the white dress until many years later when she wrote to Eisenstaedt . He notified the magazine that he had received her letter claiming to be the subject . On June 20 , 2010 , Shain died at age 91 of liver cancer . In April 2012 the issue of who the woman was , remained , as a new book on the topic was about to be released . The authors , George Galdorisi and Lawrence Verria , stated that Shain could not have been the woman because her height of just 4 ft 10 in ( 1.47 m ) was insufficient in comparison with the height of any of the men claiming to be the sailor . Claiming to be the U.S. Navy sailor ( edit ) Numerous men have claimed to be the sailor , including Donald Bonsack , John Edmonson , Wallace C. Fowler , Clarence `` Bud '' Harding , Walker Irving , James Kearney , Marvin Kingsburg , Arthur Leask , George Mendonça , Jack Russell , and Bill Swicegood . The issue regarding the identity of the kissers is no longer contended in a court of law . George Mendonsa ( edit ) George Mendonsa and Greta Friedman , guests of honor at the Bristol , Rhode Island , July 4 parade in 2009 George Mendonsa of Newport , Rhode Island , on leave from the USS The Sullivans ( DD - 537 ) , was watching a movie with his future wife , Rita , at Radio City Music Hall when the doors opened and people started screaming the war was over . George and Rita joined the partying on the street , but when they could not get into the packed bars decided to walk down the street . It was then that George saw a woman in a white dress walk by and took her into his arms and kissed her , `` I had quite a few drinks that day and I considered her one of the troops -- she was a nurse . '' In one of the four pictures that Eisenstaedt took , Mendonsa claims that Rita is visible in the background behind the kissing couple . In 1987 , George Mendonsa filed a lawsuit against Time Inc. in Rhode Island state court , alleging that he was the sailor in the photograph and that both Time and Life had violated his right of publicity by using the photograph without his permission . After Time Inc. removed the case to federal court , Mendonsa survived a motion to dismiss . Mendonsa was identified by a team of volunteers from the Naval War College in August 2005 as `` the kisser '' . His claim was based on matching his scars and tattoos to scars and tattoos in the photograph . They made their determination after much study including photographic analysis by the Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories ( MERL ) in Cambridge , Massachusetts , who were able to match scars and tattoo spotted by photograph experts , and the testimony of Richard M. Benson , a photograph analysis expert , professor of photographic studies , plus the former Dean of the School of Arts at Yale University . Benson stated that `` it is therefore my opinion , based upon a reasonable degree of certainty , that George Mendonsa is the sailor in Mr. Eisenstaedt 's famous photograph . '' The identity of the sailor as George Mendonsa has been challenged by physicists Donald W. Olson and Russell Doescher of Texas State University and Steve Kawaler of Iowa State University based on astronomical conditions recorded by the photographs of the incident . According to Mendonsa 's account of the events of the day , the kiss would have occurred at approximately 2 p.m. However , Olson and Doescher argue that the positions of shadows in the photographs suggest that it was taken after 5 p.m. They further point to a clock seen in the picture , its minute hand near the 10 and its hour hand pointing virtually vertically downward , indicating a time of approximately 5 : 50 , and to Victor Jorgensen 's account of the circumstances of his own picture . They concluded that Mendonsa 's version of events is untenable . Carl Muscarello ( edit ) Carl Muscarello is a retired police officer with the New York City Police Department , now living in Plantation , Florida . In 1995 , he claimed to be the kissing sailor . He claimed that he was in Times Square on August 14 , 1945 , and that he kissed numerous women . A distinctive birthmark on his hand enabled his mother to identify him as the subject . Edith Shain initially said she believed Muscarello 's claim to be the sailor and they even dated after their brief reunion . But in 2005 , Shain was much less certain , telling the New York Times , `` I ca n't say he is n't . I just ca n't say he is . There is no way to tell . '' Muscarello has described his condition on August 14 , 1945 as being quite drunk and having no clear memory of his actions in the square , stating that his mother claimed he was the man after seeing the photograph and he came to believe it . Glenn McDuffie ( edit ) Glenn McDuffie laid claim in 2007 and was supported by Houston Police Department forensic artist Lois Gibson . Gibson 's forensic analysis compared the Eisenstaedt photographs with current - day photographs of McDuffie , analyzing key facial features identical on both sets . She measured his ears , facial bones , hairline , wrist , knuckles , and hand , and compared those to enlargements of Eisenstaedt 's picture . I could tell just in general that yes , it 's him . But I wanted to be able to tell other people so I replicated the pose . In the August 14 , 2007 , issue of AM New York McDuffie said he passed five polygraph tests confirming his claim to be the man . McDuffie , a native of Kannapolis , North Carolina , who had lied about his age so he could enlist at the age of 15 , went on after the war to play semi-pro baseball and work for the United States Postal Service . He says that on that day he was on the subway to Brooklyn to visit his girlfriend , Ardith Bloomfield . He came out of the subway at Times Square , where people were celebrating in the streets . Excited that his brother , who was being held by the Japanese as a prisoner of war , would be released , McDuffie began hollering and jumping up and down . A nurse saw him , and opened her arms to him . In apparent conflict with Eisenstaedt 's recollections of the event , McDuffie said he ran over to her and kissed her for a long time so that Eisenstaedt could take the photograph : I went over there and kissed her and saw a man running at us ... I thought it was a jealous husband or boyfriend coming to poke me in the eyes . I looked up and saw he was taking the picture and I kissed her as long as took for him to take it . Gibson had also analyzed photographs of other men who have claimed to be the sailor , including Muscarello and Mendonça , reporting that neither man 's facial bones or other features match those of the sailor in the photograph . On August 3 , 2008 , Glenn McDuffie was recognized for his 81st birthday as the `` Kissing Sailor '' during the seventh - inning stretch of the Houston Astros and New York Mets game at Minute Maid Park . McDuffie died on March 14 , 2014 . Other people ( edit ) Life 's October 1980 issue did not include Muscarello or Glenn McDuffie . These claims have been made much more recently . Mendonça and Friedman ( both individually and together ) , as well as Shain , Muscarello , and McDuffie , were widely interviewed in the succeeding years by Life , PBS , NBC , CBS , and others . The life stories of Mendonça and Friedman , and how they came to be in Times Square that day , as well as the reasons they are considered most likely to be the ones photographed , are the subject of a detailed book on the photo . Mendonça recognizes Friedman , to the exclusion of any other woman , as the `` nurse '' he kissed in the photographs ( or , to be precise , the woman in the white uniform , as Friedman was a dental assistant -- a nurse 's uniform was customary in a dentist 's office to be worn by female assistants and hygienists in that era ) . As part of a World War II memorial at Battleship Cove in Fall River , Massachusetts , a new painting titled Victory Kiss by Jim Laurier of New Hampshire was first unveiled on August 24 , 2013 , to honor the event captured in the photo . George Mendonça was in attendance for the unveiling . Alternate interpretations ( edit ) The original interpretations of the photo centered around the jubilation of the V-J Day celebrations . Art critic Michael Kimmelman summarized the composition in 1997 as reflective of that mood : the sailor representing returning troops , the nurse to represent those who would welcome them home , and Times Square stood for home . Since then , bloggers in the 2010s have called the photo documentation of a type of normalized sexual assault . The people pictured in the photograph did not previously know one another . Drunk at the time of the photograph , the sailor is shown kissing an unwilling partner . The widely agreed upon identity of the female subject in the photo , dental assistant Greta Zimmer Friedman , had also explicitly expressed that the kiss in question was not a consensual act . Combined with the humorous expressions on the bystanders and the sailor 's firm grasp of the nurse , the situation has been described as emblematic of a time when women were `` subordinated to men '' , or of a rape culture . In popular culture ( edit ) The Unconditional Surrender sculpture in Times Square , New York City In 2005 , John Seward Johnson II displayed a bronze life - size sculpture , Unconditional Surrender , at an August 14 , 2005 , sixtieth - anniversary reenactment at Times Square of the kiss . His statue was featured in a ceremony that included Carl Muscarello and Edith Shain , holding a copy of the famous photograph , as participants . Johnson also sculpted a 25 - foot - tall ( 7.6 m ) version in plastic and aluminum , which has been displayed in several cities , including San Diego and Sarasota . The 25 - foot ( 7.6 m ) version was moved to New York City again on August 12 , 2015 , for a temporary display . In the 2009 film Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian , two characters jump into a life - size enlargement of the photograph , finding themselves in a monochrome Times Square . One of them cuts in on the sailor for a kiss with the nurse . In the 2009 film Watchmen , during the opening credits , the Times Square V-J celebration is shown with a costumed heroine , Silhouette , kissing a female nurse as a photographer captures the moment . In the 2010 film Letters to Juliet , the photograph is featured in a scene where a magazine editor questions a writer about her fact - checking regarding the image . In The Simpsons episode `` Bart the General '' , victory celebrations following a `` war '' between two groups of children include a boy in a sailor outfit kissing Lisa as a photograph is taken . She then slaps the boy , exclaiming , `` Knock it off ! '' In 2012 , while performing a show for the Marines during the New York City Fleet Week , singer Katy Perry kissed a man on stage , replicating the pose . In the 2014 video game Wolfenstein : The New Order , an alternative history version of the V-J Day kiss ( V-A Day in the timeline ) appears as a Nazi soldier forcing himself on the nurse . See also ( edit ) Dancing Man , an image of V-J Day in Sydney References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` V-J Day in Times Square '' . The Photo Book . London : Phaeton. 2000 . p. 134 . ISBN 0 - 7148 - 3937 - X . `` V - Day '' . Twentieth Century Photography : Museum Ludwig Cologne . Cologne : Taschen. 2005 . pp. 148 -- 149 . ISBN 3 - 8228 - 4083 - 1 . Jump up ^ Harnisch , Larry ( August 14 , 2005 ) . `` The Daily Mirror : Voices -- Edith Shain and ' The Kiss ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Archived from the original on April 9 , 2013 . Retrieved June 3 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Redmond , Patricia ( August 23 , 2005 ) . `` Interview Transcript : Greta Zimmer Friedman : Veterans History Project ( Library of Congress ) '' . American Memory . Archived from the original on September 16 , 2016 . Retrieved September 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` V-J Day , 1945 : A Nation Lets Loose '' . Life . Archived from the original on March 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Mystery Clouds Times Square kiss for 70 years '' . USA Today . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` V-J Day , 1945 : A Nation Lets Loose '' . Life . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Berman , Marshall ( March -- April 2007 ) . `` Everyman in Times Square '' . Columbia Forum . Archived from the original on August 29 , 2007 . Retrieved September 24 , 2007 . They were also photographed at just about the same moment , from a slightly different ( and less exciting ) angle , by U.S. Navy photographer Victor Jorgensen ; Jorgensen 's photo was printed in the next day 's New York Times . Jump up ^ Andrews , Natalie ( November 10 , 2006 ) . `` The other woman in the WWII ' kiss '' photo `` . Daily Herald . Archived from the original on September 16 , 2015 . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bell , Diane ( April 20 , 2012 ) . `` Famous ' kissing sailor ' photo sparks true detective tale '' . U-T San Diego . Jump up ^ Martino , Andy ( September 2 , 2016 ) . `` How a celebrated image marking V-J Day in Times Square has taken on a sinister shade '' . Daily News . New York . Archived from the original on September 16 , 2016 . Retrieved September 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Woman in V-J Day photo dead at 92 '' . CBS News . September 10 , 2016 . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2016 . Retrieved September 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Greta Friedman , woman in iconic WWII Times Square kiss photograph , dies at 92 '' . Los Angeles Times . September 10 , 2016 . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2016 . Retrieved September 11 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lucas , Dean ( April 17 , 2007 ) . `` VJday Times Square Kiss '' . Famous Pictures Magazine . Archived from the original on July 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Wadler , Joyce ( August 16 , 1980 ) . `` The Shot Seen Round the World '' . The Washington Post . p . D1 . Then , 35 years later , the nurse , a Mrs. Edith Shain , 62 , from Beverly Hills , broke the silence . Contacted the photographer , Alfred Eisenstaedt , identified herself , and asked for a print . At Life , where the publisher keeps the picture on his wall , there was great jubilation . Jump up ^ Goldstein , Richard ( June 22 , 2010 ) . `` Edith Shain , Who Said Famous Kiss Came Her Way , Dies at 91 '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on March 25 , 2014 . Retrieved June 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Who is the Kissing Sailor ? '' . Life . October 1980 . Archived from the original on October 19 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Iconic WWII painting unveiled at Battleship Cove '' . WHDH - TV . August 25 , 2013 . Archived from the original on August 27 , 2013 . Retrieved August 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Mendonsa v. Time Inc. , 678 F. Supp 967 ( D.R.I. 1988 ) . Jump up ^ Olson , Donald W. ; Doescher , Russell L. ; Kawaler , Steven D. ( August 2015 ) . `` Telltale Sun & Shadow : Astronomy & the VJ Day Kiss '' ( PDF ) . Sky and Telescope : 30 -- 35 . Retrieved January 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` V-J Day Is Replayed , but the Lip - Lock 's Tamer This Time '' . The New York Times . August 15 , 2005 . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Teproff , Carli ( October 14 , 2010 ) . `` WWII ' Kissing Sailor ' Carl Muscarello visits Fort Lauderdale school kids '' . Sun - Sentinel . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Mirza , Sarah ( June 23 , 2010 ) . `` A Smooch For History '' . CBS News . Jump up ^ Lozano , Juan A. ( August 3 , 2007 ) . `` Forensic expert : N.C. native is sailor in famous wartime photo '' . The News and Observer . Lozano , Juan A. ( August 3 , 2007 ) . `` Man says he 's the sailor in famous photo '' . Yahoo ! News . Associated Press . Jump up ^ Lozano , Juan A. `` Man Says He 's the Sailor in Famous Photo '' . ABC News . Associated Press . Archived from the original on November 15 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Dispute over famed smooch -- AM New York -- August 14 , 2007 Jump up ^ `` Kannapolis sailor in iconic WWII photo dies in Houston '' . Independent Tribune . Retrieved March 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Kissing sailor ' from famous WWII photograph dies '' . Atlanta Journal - Constitution . Archived from the original on March 15 , 2014 . Retrieved March 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Man Claims He 's the Mystery Sailor in The Kiss '' . ABC News . August 7 , 2007 . Archived from the original on May 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Glenn McDuffie , man known as kissing sailor in WWII - era photo , dead at 86 '' . CBC News.com . Archived from the original on March 15 , 2014 . Retrieved March 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` When a Kiss Is n't Just a Kiss '' . The New York Times . August 6 , 2007 . Archived from the original on August 25 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Verria , Lawrence ; Galdorisi , George ( 2012 ) . The Kissing Sailor : The Mystery Behind the Photo That Ended World War II . Annapolis : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 - 61251 - 078 - 7 . Jump up ^ Bates , Christina ( 2012 ) . A Cultural History of the Nurse 's Uniform . Canadian Museum of Civilization , . ISBN 978 - 0660201849 . Jump up ^ Gronseth , Michael ( 2015 ) . `` A Kiss Is Just A Kiss ... Or Is It ? '' . In Howell , Mark . Popular Culture ( 1st ed . ) . Cognella . pp. 47 -- 52 . ISBN 978 - 1634872881 . Jump up ^ `` W Hotels ' WWII Kiss Reenactment Contest ( Photos ) '' . The Huffington Post . Archived from the original on August 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Unconditional Surrender Statue '' . Roadside America . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Pincus , Robert L. ( March 11 , 2007 ) . `` Port surrenders in the battle against kitsch '' . San Diego Union - Tribune . Archived from the original on July 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ogles , Jacob ( June 11 , 2010 ) . `` Unconditional Surrender Deal to Be Finalized Today '' . SRQ Daily . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Martinez , Alanna ( August 12 , 2015 ) . `` Monumental -- and Controversial -- ' Kissing Sailor ' Sculpture Comes to Times Square '' . The Observer . Archived from the original on August 13 , 2015 . Retrieved August 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bidwill , Colleen ( May 25 , 2012 ) . `` Katy Perry kisses Marine during NYC Fleet Week '' . USA Today . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2012 . Retrieved May 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Birch , Nathan ( June 7 , 2013 ) . `` It 's Nazis , Nazis Everywhere In The Latest ' Wolfenstein : The New Order ' Trailer '' . Archived from the original on December 22 , 2015 . Retrieved November 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Wolfenstein : The New Order Trailer - E3 2013 '' . June 10 , 2013 . Archived from the original on July 8 , 2015 . Retrieved November 14 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to V-J Day in Times Square ( Alfred Eisenstaedt ) . V-J Images from Life , article and slideshow `` V-J Day − Is He the Real McCoy ? '' The Art Quarterly , 2007 The Kissing Sailor , or `` The Selective Blindness of Rape Culture '' - A feminist perspective from Crates and Ribbons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V-J_Day_in_Times_Square&oldid=854520253 '' Categories : Aftermath of World War II in the United States Times Square 1945 works 1945 in art 1945 in New York ( state ) Surrender of Japan Black - and - white photographs World War II photographs Works originally published in Life ( magazine ) Kissing Photographs of the United States Portrait photographs Unidentified people 1945 in New York City 1940s photographs Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles needing more detailed references Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2014 Coordinates on Wikidata Use mdy dates from July 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2010 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Brezhoneg Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia עברית 日本 語 Português Русский Suomi Türkçe Українська Zazaki 中文 8 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 August 2018 , at 23 : 44 ( UTC ) . 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43 | document: In Living Color - wikipedia In Living Color Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the television series . For the band , see Living Colour . In Living Color Genre Variety Sketch comedy Created by Keenen Ivory Wayans Starring see below Theme music composer Bosco Kante Opening theme `` In Living Color '' by Heavy D and Eddie F ( seasons 1 -- 2 ; season 5 ( remix ) ) `` Cause That 's the Way You Livin ' When You 're in Living Color '' by Heavy D and The Boyz ( seasons 3 -- 4 ) Composer ( s ) Tom Rizzo Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 5 No. of episodes 127 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Joe Davola Greg Fields Les Firestein Keenen Ivory Wayans Pam Veasey Producer ( s ) Kevin Berg Robert Jason Running time 22 -- 24 min . Production company ( s ) Ivory Way Productions 20th Century Fox Television ( 1990 -- 1992 ) 20th Television ( 1992 -- 1994 ) Release Original network Fox Audio format Stereo Original release April 15 , 1990 ( 1990 - 04 - 15 ) -- May 19 , 1994 ( 1994 - 05 - 19 ) In Living Color is an American sketch comedy television series that originally ran on Fox from April 15 , 1990 , to May 19 , 1994 . Keenen Ivory Wayans created , wrote and starred in the program . The show was produced by Ivory Way Productions in association with 20th Century Fox Television and was taped at stage 7 at the Fox Television Center on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood , California . The title of the series was inspired by the NBC announcement of broadcasts being presented `` in living color '' during the 1960s , prior to mainstream color television . It also refers to the fact that most of the show 's cast were black , unlike other sketch comedy shows such as Saturday Night Live whose casts are mostly white . It was controversial due to the Wayans ' decision to portray African - American humor from the ghetto in a time when mainstream American tastes regarding black comedy had been set by more upscale shows such as The Cosby Show , causing an eventual feud for control between Fox executives and the Wayans . Other members of the Wayans family -- Damon , Kim , Shawn , and Marlon -- had regular roles , while brother Dwayne frequently appeared as an extra . The show also starred the rising stand - up comic / actor Jim Carrey alongside previously unknown actor / comedians Jamie Foxx , Tommy Davidson , David Alan Grier , and T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh . Additionally , Dancing with the Stars judge and choreographer Carrie Ann Inaba and actress and pop music star Jennifer Lopez were members of the show 's dance troupe The Fly Girls , with actress Rosie Perez serving as choreographer . The show launched the careers of Carrey , Foxx , Davidson , Grier , Keymáh , Inaba and Lopez , and is credited with bringing the Wayans family to a higher level of fame as well . It was immensely popular in its first two seasons , capturing more than a 10 - point Nielsen rating ; in the third and fourth seasons , ratings faltered as the Wayans brothers fell out with Fox network leadership over creative control and rights . The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety , Music or Comedy Series in 1990 . The series gained international prominence for its bold move and its all - time high ratings gained by airing a live , special episode as a counterprogram for the halftime show of U.S. leader CBS 's live telecast of Super Bowl XXVI , prompting the National Football League to book A-list acts for future game entertainment , starting with Michael Jackson the following year . In 2018 , a history of the show , Homey Do n't Play That ! by David Peisner , was released by 37 INK , an imprint of Simon & Schuster . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description and history 1.1 Early history 1.2 Description 1.3 Opening credits 1.4 Live musical performances 1.5 The Fly Girls 2 Controversies 2.1 Departure of the Wayans family 2.2 Censorship 2.3 Final season 3 Cast 3.1 Guest stars 4 Episodes 5 Syndication 6 Nielsen ratings 7 Crossovers 8 DVD releases 9 Attempted revival 10 Legacy 11 Awards 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Description and history ( edit ) Early history ( edit ) Following Keenen Ivory Wayans ' success with Hollywood Shuffle and I 'm Gonna Git You Sucka , Fox Broadcasting Company approached Wayans to offer him his own show . Wayans wanted to produce a variety show similar to Saturday Night Live , but with a cast of people of color that took chances with its content . Fox gave Wayans a lot of freedom with the show , although Fox executives were a bit concerned about the show 's content prior to its television debut . In announcing its debut , Fox described In Living Color as a , `` contemporary comedy variety show '' . In its preview , the Christian Science Monitor warned that its , `` raw tone may offend some , but it does allow a talented troupe to experiment with black themes in a Saturday Night Live - ish format . '' Keenen Ivory Wayans said , `` I wanted to do a show that reflects different points of view . We 've added an Asian and a Hispanic minority to the show . We 're trying in some way to represent all the voices ... Minority talent is not in the system and you have to go outside . We found Crystal doing her act in the lobby of a theater in Chicago . We went beyond the Comedy Stores and Improvs , which are not showcase places for minorities . '' The first episode aired on Sunday , April 15 , 1990 , following an episode of Married ... with Children . The first episode was watched by 22.7 million people , making it the 29th top show for the week . The Miami Herald said the show was as `` smart and saucy as it is self - aware '' and `` audacious and frequently tasteless , but terrific fun '' . The Philadelphia Inquirer called it `` the fastest , funniest half - hour in a long time '' . The Seattle Times said it had `` the free - wheeling , pointed sense of humor that connects with a large slice of today 's audience '' . The Columbus Dispatch described it as a `` marvelously inventive '' show that has `` catapulted television back to the cutting edge '' . Description ( edit ) The sketch comedy show helped launch the careers of comedians / actors Jim Carrey ( then credited as `` James Carrey '' ) , one of only two white members of the original cast , Jamie Foxx , who joined the cast in the third season and David Alan Grier ( an established theatre actor who had worked in Keenen Ivory Wayans ' 1988 motion picture I 'm Gonna Git You Sucka ) . The series strove to produce comedy with a strong emphasis on modern black subject matter . It became renowned for parody , especially of race relations in the United States . For instance , Carrey was frequently used to ridicule white musicians such as Snow and Vanilla Ice , who performed in genres more commonly associated with black people . The Wayans themselves often played exaggerated black ghetto stereotypes for humor and effect . A sketch parodying Soul Train mocked the show as Old Train , suggesting the show ( along with its host , Don Cornelius ) was out of touch and only appealed to the elderly and the dead . When asked about the show 's use of stereotypes of black culture for comedy , Wayans said , `` Half of comedy is making fun of stereotypes . They only get critical when I do it . Woody Allen has been having fun with his culture for years , and no one says anything about it . Martin Scorsese , his films basically deal with the Italian community , and no one ever says anything to him . John Hughes , all of his films parody upscale white suburban life . Nobody says anything to him . When I do it , then all of a sudden it becomes a racial issue . You know what I mean ? It 's my culture , and I 'm entitled to poke fun at the stereotypes that I did n't create in the first place . I do n't even concern myself with that type of criticism , because it 's racist in itself . '' Prominent skits : `` The Homeboy Shopping Network '' , featuring Damon and Keenan as streetwise criminals operating an unlicensed , Home Shopping Network - style shopping network out of the back of their van to sell stolen goods . `` Fire Marshal Bill '' , featuring Carrey as an incompetent , dangerously inept fire marshal . `` Men on Film '' , featuring Damon and Grier as effeminate black film critics with exaggerated physical motions , such as `` two snaps up '' . `` Homey D. Clown '' , featuring Damon as a misanthropic , verbally abusive clown doing demeaning entertainment gigs for low pay as part of his prison release program . `` East Hollywood Squares '' , featuring many of the cast in a ghetto parody of the game show Hollywood Squares . `` Benita Buttrell '' , featuring Kim Wayans as an untrustworthy neighborhood gossip . Parodies of Arsenio Hall ( who was popular on his own show at the time ) by Keenan Wayans . `` Calhoun Tubbs '' , a blues singer ( played by Grier ) who sang extremely short songs ( about 10 seconds each ) at the slightest provocation . Main article : List of In Living Color sketches Opening credits ( edit ) For the first episode , an exotic - looking logo was used for the opening credits . However , after the band Living Colour claimed in a lawsuit that the show stole the band 's logo and name , the logo was changed to one with rather plain - type letters of three colors . The show title itself is an homage to the NBC Peacock tag line , `` The following program is brought to you in living color '' from the 1960s when television was transitioning from black & white to color TV . In the first two seasons , the opening sequence was set in a room covered with painters ' tarps . Each cast member , wearing black - and - white , played with brightly colored paint in a different way ( throwing paintballs at the camera by hand , spray painting the lens , using a roller to cover the camera lens , etc . ) . The sequence ended with a segue to a set built to resemble the rooftop of an apartment building , where the show 's dancers performed a routine and opened a door to let Keenen Ivory Wayans greet a live audience . For the third and fourth seasons , an animated sequence and different logo were used . Cast members were superimposed over pictures hanging in an art gallery and interacted with them in different ways ( spinning the canvas to put it right - side up , swinging the frame out as if it were a door , etc . ) . The final image was of the logo on a black canvas , which shattered to begin the show . The fifth season retained the logo , but depicted the cast members on various signs and billboards around a city ( either New York or Chicago ) , ending with the logo displayed on a theater marquee . The hip - hop group Heavy D & the Boyz performed two different versions of the opening theme . One version was used for the first two seasons and remixed for the fifth , while the other was featured in the third and fourth seasons . Live musical performances ( edit ) In Living Color was known for its live music performances , which started in Season 2 with Queen Latifah as their first performer ( appearing again in the third season ) . Additional musical acts who appeared were Heavy D , Public Enemy , Kris Kross , En Vogue , Eazy - E , Monie Love , Onyx , 3rd Bass , MC Lyte , Arrested Development , Jodeci , Mary J. Blige , Tupac Shakur , Father MC , Gang Starr , Us3 , and Leaders of the New School . The Fly Girls ( edit ) The show employed an in - house dance troupe known as the `` Fly Girls '' . The original lineup consisted of Carrie Ann Inaba ( who became a choreographer and judge on Dancing with the Stars ) , Cari French , Deidre Lang , Lisa Marie Todd , Barbara Lumpkin and Michelle Whitney - Morrison . Rosie Perez was the choreographer for the first four seasons . The most notable former Fly Girl was future actress / singer Jennifer Lopez , who joined the show in its third season . The Fly Girls would sometimes be used as extras in sketches , or as part of an opening gag . In one sketch , they were shown performing open - heart surgery ( in the sketch , the girls are dancing in order to pay their way through medical school ) . Another routine featured the three original female cast members dancing off - beat during the introduction of the show , when it was revealed that the regular Fly Girls were all bound and gagged and breaking through the door where Keenan Ivory Wayans enters . Three of the Fly Girls also appeared in the eleventh episode of Muppets Tonight 's second season in 1997 . Controversies ( edit ) Departure of the Wayans family ( edit ) Keenen Ivory Wayans stopped appearing in sketches in 1992 after the end of the third season , over disputes with Fox about the network censoring the show 's content and rerunning early episodes without his consultation . Wayans feared that Fox would ultimately decrease the syndication value of In Living Color . Damon went on to pursue a movie career , though he made occasional return appearances in the fourth season . During the fourth season ( 1992 -- 1993 ) , Keenen appeared only in the season opener , though he remained the executive producer and thus stayed in the opening credits until the tenth episode . Marlon left shortly after Keenen resigned as producer ; and Shawn and Kim both left at the end of the fourth season . Censorship ( edit ) Fox censorship of scripts increased after In Living Color produced a live Super Bowl halftime special ( branded by the network as The Doritos Zaptime / ' In Living Color ' Super Halftime Party ) . During the `` Men on Football '' sketch , Damon Wayans and David Alan Grier ad libbed a suggestion that Richard Gere and track and field star Carl Lewis were homosexuals , much to Lewis 's dismay . The programming stunt lured 20 to 25 million viewers from CBS ' telecast of the halftime festivities during Super Bowl XXVI on January 26 , 1992 . Also , the originally - aired version of another sketch unrelated to the Super Bowl special ( `` Men on Fitness '' -- February 7 , 1993 ) included a simulation of Damon Wayans 's character Blaine enjoying receiving facial ejaculation while being sprayed with a water bottle . These two segments were initially cut from reruns , but have been airing on the Centric cable channel . The DVD releases have the Gere and Lewis references cut but retain the facial ejaculation simulation . Reruns of the program on BET have questionable words and phrases ( such as `` ho '' and `` bitch '' ) muted . One line ( `` drop the soap '' ) during the second `` Men on Film '' sketch was muted out by Fox censors before ever airing on TV for its implications of prison rape . The DVD releases have the language intact ( except for the `` drop the soap '' line ) , but have numerous sketches edited to remove song lyrics and music video parodies due to copyright and licensing issues ( for example , the `` Fire Marshall Bill Christmas '' sketch originally had Jim Carrey singing `` Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire '' before the house exploded ; on the DVD version , the short scene was cut , making it look like the house immediately exploded after the last person ran out ) . On the May 5 , 1990 broadcast , Keenen Ivory Wayans did a parody of a Colt 45 commercial featuring Billy Dee Williams ( in which the purpose of the beverage is to get one 's date drunk enough to have sex ) that ended with a woman ( played by Kim Coles ) passed out on her back on a dining table , and `` Billy Dee '' moving in on her unconscious body to have sex with her . The `` Bolt 45 '' sketch was seen only once during the original broadcast and omitted from repeats due to complaints from censors and viewers that it was mocking date rape . The Season 1 DVD set of ILC did not include the cut sketch from the pilot . This sketch was cut by Fox censors , and the necessary modifications were made to the master tape . Keenen Ivory Wayans accidentally mixed up the master tape of the pilot , and the edited master was broadcast instead . The sketch has never been broadcast since , not even in syndication , on FX , or on BET , and is considered lost forever ( although videos of the sketch from viewer tapings have been posted to YouTube ) . It has been replaced by `` The Exxxon Family '' ( a fake promo for a sitcom about a clumsy Exxon boat captain and his wife , played by Jim Carrey and Kelly Coffield ) in syndication and DVD box sets . The FXX reruns of this show are mostly intact . The pop music references / music video parodies are left intact , along with the misogynist slurs that were edited on BET . However , the `` Colt 45 '' sketch is still missing ( though it is available for viewing on YouTube ) , as well as the `` drop the soap '' line and the line from `` Men on Football '' about Richard Gere 's and Carl Lewis 's sexualities , and a `` Fire Marshall Bill '' sketch from season five ( `` Fire Marshall Bill at the Magic Show '' ) was edited on FXX ( but not the DVD ) to remove a line that implies that Fire Marshall Bill and an Arab man were involved with the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center after the magician assures Bill that his magic tricks are safe ( the lines cut were , `` That 's what they said about the World Trade Center , son . But me and my friend Abdul and a couple of pounds of plastique explosives showed them different '' , along with Bill 's laugh and catchphrase `` Lemme show ya somethin ' ! '' ) . Final season ( edit ) By the fifth and final season , none of the Wayans family had any involvement with the show . The show 's sketches were no longer character - driven and satirical , giving way to wilder , cruder content and a reliance on celebrity guest appearances . Some celebrities who have appeared include Nick Bakay ( who played the host of The Dirty Dozens game show sketches and wrote for the show ) , Barry Bonds ( in the `` Ugly Wanda finds her baby 's father '' arc ) , James Brown ( appeared in the season four sketch `` The Groom Room Barber Shop '' ) , Rodney Dangerfield ( though he appeared in a season four sketch where the police pull him over ) , Bret Hart , Sherman Hemsley , Biz Markie ( who appeared in a lot of sketches , such as `` Ugly Wanda 's Ugly Sister , '' `` Carl ' The Tooth ' Williams ' Paternity Trial , '' `` The Bad Guidance Counselor , '' and `` The Dirty Dozens : The Tournament of Champions '' ) , Peter Marshall ( as the host of `` East Hollywood Squares '' ) , Ed O'Neill ( as the Dirty Dozens champion whom Jamie Foxx 's T - Dog Jenkins fails to defeat ) , Chris Rock ( mostly as his character , Cheap Pete , from I 'm Gonna Git You , Sucka ) , Macho Man Randy Savage , Tupac Shakur , and players from the NBA , ( just like players from the NHL were on Saturday Night Live ) . Kelly Coffield , who was the lone white female cast member , prior to Alexandra Wentworth 's arrival in the fourth season , left before the start of season five . Jim Carrey , Tommy Davidson , David Alan Grier , T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh , and Deidre Lang from the Fly Girls are the only cast members who stayed on the show from its premiere to its finale , although Carrey 's appearances became very limited due to his rising movie career , while Davidson missed a few episodes for undisclosed reasons . Cast ( edit ) Main article : List of In Living Color cast members Repertory cast members Jim Carrey ( billed as James Carrey ) Kelly Coffield ( season 1 -- 4 ) Kim Coles ( season 1 ) Tommy Davidson Jamie Foxx ( season 3 -- 5 ) David Alan Grier Anne - Marie Johnson ( season 5 ) T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh Jay Leggett ( season 5 ) Reggie McFadden ( season 5 ) Steve Park ( season 3 ) Carol Rosenthal ( season 5 ) DJ Twist ( season 3 -- 5 ) Damon Wayans ( season 1 -- 4 ) Keenen Ivory Wayans ( season 1 -- 4 ) Kim Wayans ( season 1 -- 4 ) Marlon Wayans ( season 4 ) Shawn Wayans ( season 1 -- 4 ) Alexandra Wentworth ( season 4 -- 5 ) Marc Wilmore ( season 5 ) `` The Fly Girls '' Cari French ( season 1 -- 3 ) Carla Garrido ( season 2 ) Laurie Ann Gibson ( season 5 ) Jossie Harris ( season 4 -- 5 ) Carrie Ann Inaba ( season 1 -- 3 ) Deidre Lang Jennifer Lopez ( season 3 -- 4 ) Rosie Perez ( choreographer , seasons 1 -- 4 ) Lisa Joann Thompson ( season 4 -- 5 ) Lisa Marie Todd ( season 1 -- 3 ) Michelle Whitney - Morrison ( season 1 -- 2 ) Masako Willis ( season 5 ) Guest Stars ( edit ) Chris Rock appeared ( as a `` special guest star '' ) in a number of sketches in the fifth season , and reprised his `` Cheap Pete '' character from I 'm Gonna Git You Sucka . In the early years of In Living Color , Rock was parodied as being the only African American cast member on Saturday Night Live ( despite SNL also having Tim Meadows at the time ) . In an SNL episode honoring Mother 's Day , Rock 's mother states that she is disappointed in him for not trying out for In Living Color , to which Rock states he is happy with his job on SNL . Other recurring guest stars in the fifth season include Nick Bakay ( for The Dirty Dozens sketches ) and Peter Marshall ( for several editions of East Hollywood Squares ) . Rapper Biz Markie also appeared in various roles as a guest star in the fifth season , such as being in drag as Wanda the Ugly Woman 's sister or as `` Dirty Dozens '' contestant Damian `` Foosball '' Franklin . Ed O'Neill made a cameo appearance as Al Bundy in a `` Dirty Dozens '' segment . Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of In Living Color episodes Syndication ( edit ) Originally produced by 20th Century Fox Television on Fox , the series was in reruns on local affiliates for a few years , but has since become a longstanding mainstay on Fox 's sister cable networks FX and FXX . In syndication , the series is distributed by Twentieth Television . Reruns of the show also aired on BET from 2005 -- 2008 , and returned in 2010 . Reruns have also aired on MTV2 , VH1 , nuvoTV , and on BET - owned Centric . Unlike past runs on FX and the Viacom Media Networks , the FXX cut of episodes are mostly uncut and censored . The music video parodies and spoken references to licensed songs have been reinstated , but the `` Bolt 45 '' sketch , the `` drop the soap '' line , and the `` Men on Football '' sketch with the adlibbed lines about Richard Gere 's and Carl Lewis 's alleged homosexuality are still edited ( though the facial ejaculation shot on `` Men on Fitness '' was reinstated ) , along with a line from the season five sketch `` Fire Marshall Bill at the Magic Show '' that makes reference to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing ( the missing line is , `` That 's what they said about the World Trade Center , son . But me and my friend Abdul and a couple of pounds of plastique explosives showed them different . '' Bill 's laugh and his catchphrase `` Lemme show ya somethin ' '' was also cut abruptly ) , due to the September 11 , 2001 attacks . The Best of In Living Color aired on MyNetworkTV from April 16 to June 18 , 2008 . Hosted by David Alan Grier , it was a retrospective featuring classic sketches , along with cast interviews and behind - the - scenes footage . The show aired on Wednesdays at 8 : 30 pm Eastern / 7 : 30 pm Central , after MyNetworkTV 's sitcom Under One Roof . In 2017 , the show began airing reruns on Fusion and Aspire . Nielsen ratings ( edit ) 1990 -- 91 : # 58 ( 10.31 rating ) 1991 -- 92 : # 49 ( 10.37 rating ) 1992 -- 93 : # 62 ( 9.67 rating ) 1993 -- 94 : # 71 ( 7.98 rating ) Note : Ratings data courtesy of TVTango.com Crossovers ( edit ) At the 2006 BET Awards when the show returned from one of its commercial breaks , the show 's host Damon Wayans played a character very reminiscent to `` Men on ... '' critic Blaine Edwards . In Living Color alums Damon Wayans , Jim Carrey , and David Alan Grier reprised some of their In Living Color characters on Saturday Night Live : Damon Wayans , a featured player during that show 's eleventh season , hosted an episode from SNL 's 20th season in 1995 , where he brought on two of his famous In Living Color characters : homeless wino Anton Jackson and gay film critic Blaine Edwards . Jim Carrey auditioned to be one of the repertory members on SNL ' s ill - fated 1980 -- 1981 season , but was dropped in favor of Charles Rocket ( who later appeared in the 1988 film Earth Girls Are Easy and the 1994 film Dumb and Dumber with Carrey ) . Carrey also auditioned for the 1985 -- 1986 season ( season eleven ) , but was turned down just like in 1980 . Carrey hosted the season finale of SNL 's 21st season in 1996 , where he impersonated Fire Marshal Bill during the monologue . Carrey 's most recent hosting stint , in October 2014 , involved a Carrey family reunion sketch in which Cecily Strong plays Carrey 's aunt , who is modeled after Fire Marshal Bill . David Alan Grier first hosted SNL during season 21 and reprised his In Living Color role as `` Men on ... '' critic Antoine Merriweather , which the end of the sketch included a surprise on - set appearance from Damon Wayans as Blaine . Grier hosted SNL on December 9 , 1995 ( season 21 ) and March 18 , 1997 ( season 22 ) . Jamie Foxx reprised his role as Wanda in a short segment at the 2009 BET Awards . In 1997 , three of the Fly Girls also appeared in the eleventh episode of Muppets Tonight 's second season . In the 1997 film Liar Liar , Jim Carrey reprised his `` Fire Marshal Bill '' character ( albeit with no lines ) in the background of one of the closing scenes . The February 10 , 2001 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Jennifer Lopez included a sketch where Lopez `` reunited '' with the Fly Girls ( played by Rachel Dratch , Jerry Minor and Tracy Morgan ) . DVD releases ( edit ) 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all five seasons of In Living Color on DVD in Region 1 . Due to music licensing issues , some sketches have been edited to remove any and all mention of licensed songs , from characters waxing lyrical to entire performances ( including the music video parodies and some of the Fly Girl dancing interstitials ) . Additionally , the `` Bolt 45 '' sketch ( which aired one - time only on May 5 , 1990 ) was omitted , and the `` soap '' portion of the `` drop the soap '' line in the second `` Men on Film '' sketch has been muted . DVD Name Ep # Release Date Season 1 13 April 6 , 2004 Season 2 26 September 28 , 2004 Season 3 28 May 10 , 2005 Season 4 33 October 25 , 2005 Season 5 26 April 11 , 2006 Attempted revival ( edit ) The In Living Color 2012 logo . In 2011 , there were plans to make a revival of the original series that featured a new cast , characters , and sketches . The pilot episodes were hosted and executive produced by original series creator and cast member Keenen Ivory Wayans . In early 2012 , Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo were hired as the choreographers . They cast the new line - up of The Fly Girls and shot pilot episodes for the show which were set to air on Fox , like the original . However , on January 8 , 2013 , Keenen Ivory Wayans confirmed the reboot had been canceled because he and Fox did not feel that the show was sustainable after one season . Reported cast members included Cooper Barnes , Jennifer Bartels , Sydney Castillo , Josh Duvendeck , Jermaine Fowler , Ayana Hampton , Kali Hawk , and Lil Rel Howery . In addition , featured cast members were Henry Cho , Melanie Minichino , and Chris Leidecker . Members of the new Fly Girls included Christina Chandler , Tera Perez , Lisa Rosenthal , Katee Shean , and Whitney Wiley . Many of the cast members of the revival ( Bartels , Fowler , and Howery ) went on to create the TruTV sketch show Friends of the People . Legacy ( edit ) Singer Bruno Mars paid tribute to the television program in the music video Finesse ( song ) Awards ( edit ) Image Awards 1994 for Outstanding Variety Series Image Awards 1992 for Outstanding Comedy Series PGA Awards 1992 for Most Promising Producer in Television : Keenen Ivory Wayans People 's Choice Award 1991 for Favorite New TV Comedy Series Tied with The Simpsons ( 1989 ) TV Land Awards 2012 for Groundbreaking Show : Shared with whole cast Primetime Emmy 1990 for Outstanding Variety , Music or Comedy Series See also ( edit ) List of In Living Color episodes List of In Living Color cast members List of In Living Color episodes List of In Living Color sketches References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Green , Tom ( April 12 , 1990 ) . `` Wayans Gets Even '' . USA Today . Jump up ^ `` Goal of spectacle colors NFL 's thinking about Super Bowl halftime show '' . Chicago Tribune . 6 February 2011 . Retrieved 30 January 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` New Fox Show Pokes Fun at Black Stereotypes '' . Associated Press . Greensboro , North Carolina : Greensboro News & Record . April 12 , 1990 . p . B6 . Jump up ^ Laurence , Robert P. ( April 13 , 1990 ) . `` Is prime time ready for rudeness ? Fox 's new comedy ' In Living Color ' will offend some , tickle others '' . The San Diego Union . p . E1 . Jump up ^ Mann , Virginia ( April 1 , 1990 ) . `` Back to the Drawing Board '' . The Record . New Jersey . p . E1 . Jump up ^ Bunce , Alan ( April 11 , 1990 ) . `` Worth Noting on TV '' . Christian Science Monitor . p. 14 . Jump up ^ Drew , Mike ( April 19 , 1990 ) . `` Upstart Fox Has Pounced , and the Networks Are Getting Jumpy '' . The Milwaukee Journal . Jump up ^ Krupnick , Jerry ( April 18 , 1990 ) . `` ABC Ends Ratings Race with Strong Finish '' . The Star - Ledger . Newark , New Jersey . Jump up ^ Boedeker , Hal ( April 21 , 1990 ) . `` TV 's Living Color Brightens Spectrum '' . The Miami Herald . p. 1E . Jump up ^ Storm , Jonathan ( April 21 , 1990 ) . `` From Fox , Bold Satire By Blacks '' . The Philadelphia Inquirer . p . C1 . Jump up ^ Voorhees , John ( April 21 , 1990 ) . `` ' In Living Color ' Makes This ' Sunset ' Look Pretty Pale '' . The Seattle Times . p . C3 . Jump up ^ Keller , Julia ( April 22 , 1990 ) . `` Quality Shows Offer Respectable Change '' . The Columbus Dispatch . p. 5F . Jump up ^ Arar , Yardena ( April 15 , 1990 ) . `` Humor is in ' Living Color ' : Writers Plan to Capitalize on Funny Cultural Stereotypes '' . Daily News of Los Angeles . p . L25 . Jump up ^ `` Living Colour band sues Fox '' . Los Angeles Times . May 8 , 1990 . Retrieved September 3 , 2010 . Jump up ^ NBC Peacock clips ( posted to YouTube on Nov 4 , 2011 ) Jump up ^ Brooks , Tim ; Marsh , Earle F. ( 2007 - 10 - 17 ) . The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows , 1946 -- Present ( 9 ed . ) . Ballantine Books . p. 661 . ISBN 0 - 345 - 49773 - 2 . Jump up ^ Lovece , Frank , ed . The Television Yearbook : Complete , Detailed Listings for the 1990 -- 1991 Season ( Perigee Books , 1992 ) . In Living Color entry , pp. 135 -- 136 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 399 - 51702 - 0 Jump up ^ Kurp , Josh ( October 26 , 2014 ) . `` Did You Get Every Jim Carrey Reference In ' SNL 's ' Family Reunion ' Sketch ? '' . Uproxx . Jump up ^ `` Fox to Reboot ' In Living Color ' with Keenan Ivory Wayans '' . Deadline.com . October 28 , 2011 . Retrieved March 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` New ' In Living Color ' '' . Fox44.com . February 29 , 2012 . Retrieved March 27 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' In Living Color ' '' . Fox.com . Retrieved March 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` WOD 2012 Industry Awards : Decade of Dance -- Nappytabs '' . WorldOfDance.com . February 22 , 2012 . Archived from the original on February 25 , 2012 . Retrieved February 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Fuhrer , Margaret ( March 1 , 2012 ) . `` The Fly Girls Are BACK '' . Dance Spirit . Archived from the original on April 8 , 2012 . Retrieved April 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` In Living Color ' reboot is dead '' . New York Post . January 8 , 2013 . Archived from the original on April 10 , 2013 . Retrieved March 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Meet the New Cast of Fox 's New ' In Living Color ' '' . Huffington Post . April 3 , 2012 . Retrieved March 27 , 2013 . External links ( edit ) In Living Color on IMDb In Living Color at TV.com Clips and Skits from the Show In Living Color streaming episodes on TheWB Films by Keenen Ivory Wayans Directed I 'm Gonna Git You Sucka ( 1988 ) A Low Down Dirty Shame ( 1994 ) Scary Movie ( 2000 ) Scary Movie 2 ( 2001 ) White Chicks ( 2004 ) Little Man ( 2006 ) Produced Eddie Murphy Raw ( 1987 ) Do n't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood ( 1996 ) White Chicks ( 2004 ) Little Man ( 2006 ) Dance Flick ( 2009 ) TV series created In Living Color In Living Color Episodes Sketches Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series 1951 -- 1975 The Alan Young Show ( 1951 ) Your Show of Shows ( 1952 ) Your Show of Shows ( 1953 ) Omnibus ( 1954 ) Disneyland ( 1955 ) The Ed Sullivan Show / Your Hit Parade ( 1956 ) Caesar 's Hour ( 1957 ) The Dinah Shore Chevy Show ( 1958 ) The Dinah Shore Chevy Show ( 1959 ) The Fabulous Fifties ( 1960 ) Astaire Time ( 1961 ) The Garry Moore Show ( 1962 ) The Andy Williams Show ( 1963 ) The Danny Kaye Show ( 1964 ) The Andy Williams Show ( 1966 ) The Andy Williams Show ( 1967 ) Rowan & Martin 's Laugh - In ( 1968 ) Rowan & Martin 's Laugh - In ( 1969 ) The David Frost Show ( 1970 ) The Flip Wilson Show / The David Frost Show ( 1971 ) The Carol Burnett Show / The Dick Cavett Show ( 1972 ) The Julie Andrews Hour ( 1973 ) The Carol Burnett Show ( 1974 ) The Carol Burnett Show ( 1975 ) 1976 -- 2000 Saturday Night Live ( 1976 ) Van Dyke and Company ( 1977 ) The Muppet Show ( 1978 ) Steve & Eydie Celebrate Irving Berlin ( 1979 ) Baryshnikov on Broadway ( 1980 ) Lily : Sold Out ( 1981 ) Night of 100 Stars ( 1982 ) Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever ( 1983 ) A Celebration of the Performing Arts ( 1984 ) Motown Returns to the Apollo ( 1985 ) A Celebration of the Performing Arts ( 1986 ) 41st Tony Awards ( 1987 ) Irving Berlin 's 100th Birthday Celebration ( 1988 ) The Tracey Ullman Show ( 1989 ) In Living Color ( 1990 ) 63rd Academy Awards ( 1991 ) The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ( 1992 ) Saturday Night Live ( 1993 ) Late Show with David Letterman ( 1994 ) The Tonight Show with Jay Leno ( 1995 ) Dennis Miller Live ( 1996 ) Tracey Takes On ... ( 1997 ) Late Show with David Letterman ( 1998 ) Late Show with David Letterman ( 1999 ) Late Show with David Letterman ( 2000 ) 2001 -- 2014 Late Show with David Letterman ( 2001 ) Late Show with David Letterman ( 2002 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2003 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2004 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2005 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2006 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2007 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2008 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2009 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2010 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2011 ) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart ( 2012 ) The Colbert Report ( 2013 ) The Colbert Report ( 2014 ) People 's Choice Awards for Favorite New TV Comedy The Love Boat ( 1978 ) Mork & Mindy ( 1979 ) Too Close for Comfort ( 1981 ) Private Benjamin ( 1982 ) Cheers ( 1983 ) Webster ( 1984 ) The Cosby Show ( 1985 ) The Golden Girls ( 1986 ) ALF ( 1987 ) A Different World / My Two Dads ( 1988 ) Roseanne ( 1989 ) Doogie Howser , M.D. ( 1990 ) In Living Color / The Simpsons ( 1991 ) Home Improvement ( 1992 ) Martin ( 1993 ) Frasier / Grace Under Fire ( 1994 ) Ellen / Friends ( 1995 ) Caroline in the City ( 1996 ) Cosby ( 1997 ) Veronica 's Closet / Dharma & Greg ( 1998 ) Jesse / Will & Grace ( 1999 ) Stark Raving Mad ( 2000 ) Ed ( 2001 ) My Wife and Kids ( 2002 ) 8 Simple Rules ( 2003 ) Two and a Half Men ( 2004 ) Joey ( 2005 ) My Name Is Earl ( 2006 ) The Class ( 2007 ) Samantha Who ? ( 2008 ) Gary Unmarried ( 2009 ) Glee ( 2010 ) $ h * ! My Dad Says ( 2011 ) 2 Broke Girls ( 2012 ) The New Normal ( 2013 ) Super Fun Night ( 2014 ) Jane the Virgin ( 2015 ) Scream Queens ( 2016 ) Man with a Plan ( 2017 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=In_Living_Color&oldid=842676584 '' Categories : 1990s American sketch comedy television series 1990s American variety television series 1990 American television series debuts 1994 American television series endings English - language television programs Fox network shows Hip hop television Television series by 20th Century Fox Television Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series winners Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007 Talk Contents About Wikipedia فارسی Italiano Nederlands Português Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 23 May 2018 , at 23 : 20 . 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44 | document: Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics -- qualification - wikipedia Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics -- qualification Jump to : navigation , search Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics Qualification Track events 100 m men women 200 m men women 400 m men women 800 m men women 1500 m men women 5000 m men women 10,000 m men women 100 m hurdles women 110 m hurdles men 400 m hurdles men women 3000 m steeplechase men women 4 × 100 m relay men women 4 × 400 m relay men women Road events Marathon men women 20 km walk men women 50 km walk men Field events Long jump men women Triple jump men women High jump men women Pole vault men women Shot put men women Discus throw men women Javelin throw men women Hammer throw men women Combined events Heptathlon women Decathlon men Main article : Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics For the athletics competitions at the 2016 Summer Olympics , the following qualification systems were in place . Qualification ended on 11 July 2016 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Russian disqualification 2 Qualifying standards 3 Track events 3.1 Men 's track events 3.1. 1 Men 's 100 m 3.1. 2 Men 's 200 m 3.1. 3 Men 's 400 m 3.1. 4 Men 's 800 m 3.1. 5 Men 's 1500 m 3.1. 6 Men 's 5000 m 3.1. 7 Men 's 10,000 m 3.1. 8 Men 's 110 m hurdles 3.1. 9 Men 's 400 m hurdles 3.1. 10 Men 's 3000 m steeplechase 3.2 Women 's track events 3.2. 1 Women 's 100 m 3.2. 2 Women 's 200 m 3.2. 3 Women 's 400 m 3.2. 4 Women 's 800 m 3.2. 5 Women 's 1500 m 3.2. 6 Women 's 5000 m 3.2. 7 Women 's 10,000 m 3.2. 8 Women 's 100 m hurdles 3.2. 9 Women 's 400 m hurdles 3.2. 10 Women 's 3000 m steeplechase 4 Road events 4.1 Men 's road events 4.1. 1 Men 's marathon 4.1. 2 Men 's 20 km walk 4.1. 3 Men 's 50 km walk 4.2 Women 's road events 4.2. 1 Women 's marathon 4.2. 2 Women 's 20 km walk 5 Field events 5.1 Men 's field events 5.1. 1 Men 's long jump 5.1. 2 Men 's triple jump 5.1. 3 Men 's high jump 5.1. 4 Men 's pole vault 5.1. 5 Men 's shot put 5.1. 6 Men 's discus throw 5.1. 7 Men 's hammer throw 5.1. 8 Men 's javelin throw 5.2 Women 's field events 5.2. 1 Women 's long jump 5.2. 2 Women 's triple jump 5.2. 3 Women 's high jump 5.2. 4 Women 's pole vault 5.2. 5 Women 's shot put 5.2. 6 Women 's discus throw 5.2. 7 Women 's hammer throw 5.2. 8 Women 's javelin throw 6 Combined events 6.1 Men 's decathlon 6.2 Women 's heptathlon 7 Relay events 7.1 Men 's 4 × 100 m relay 7.2 Men 's 4 × 400 m relay 7.3 Women 's 4 × 100 m relay 7.4 Women 's 4 × 400 m relay 8 References Russian disqualification ( edit ) Because of the suspension of the Russian Athletics Federation by the IAAF , due to widespread doping violations , Russia currently will not qualify as a team for these Olympics or other international competitions , and unless this suspension is lifted in time , Russia will be unable to send an athletics delegation to these Games . While Russia will continue to seek further appeals , the IAAF confirmed its decision on 18 June 2016 after a report by a five - member task force which reported that Russia had failed to fully address its `` deep - seeded ( sic ) culture '' of doping . The IAAF did provide for the possibility of accepting individual Russian athletes who have been sufficiently tested outside of the Russian system . One athlete suggested was Yuliya Stepanova for her efforts to expose the scandal . The systematic doping that has been ongoing in Russia , it 's difficult to pick the clean athletes . As you know , one or two or 100 negative tests does not mean an athlete is clean . History has not shown that that is the case . -- Rune Anderson , IAAF Task Force Chairman The IAAF then stated on 24 June , that athletes from Russia seeking `` exceptional eligibility for International Competition under Competition Rule 22.1 A '' will be considered and have the permission to compete , `` not for Russia but as a neutral athlete '' , following guidelines . These athletes have to clearly and convincingly show that they are not co involved in the Russian system ( outside the country and subject to other systems ) . On 1 July 2016 , Yuliya Stepanova became the first neutral athlete to be qualified under these rules . Darya Klishina , who lives in the United States , has also been given permission . They will compete as Independent Olympic Athletes . The Court of Arbitration for Sport confirms that verdict and rejects the appeal of 68 Russian athletes , on 21 July 2016 . Qualifying standards ( edit ) Different from the previous Olympics , a National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) may enter up to 3 qualified athletes in each individual event if all athletes meet the entry standard during the qualifying period . An NOC may also enter a maximum of 1 qualified relay team per event . NOCs may enter athletes regardless of time ( 1 athlete per sex ) if they have no athletes meeting the entry standard . This makes it possible for every nation to have a minimum of two representatives in the sport . The qualifying time standards may be obtained in various meets during the given period that have the approval of the IAAF . All approved outdoor meets and indoor meets with the exception of 100 m , 200 m and 110 / 100 m hurdles races are eligible . The qualifying period for the 10,000 m , marathon , walks , and combined events was from 1 January 2015 to 11 July 2016 and for the remaining events , from 1 May 2015 to 11 July 2016 . For the relays , a maximum of sixteen qualified NOCs shall be entitled to each event . The top eight teams in each event at the 2015 IAAF World Relays ( held in Nassau , Bahamas on 2 -- 3 May 2015 ) guaranteed a spot on their respective NOCs for the Olympics . The remaining half in each event are selected according to IAAF World Ranking List as of 12 July 2016 based on the aggregate of the 2 fastest times achieved by NOCs during the given period . In addition to the qualifying standards below , marathon runners finishing in the top 20 of the 2015 IAAF World Championships or in the top 10 of any IAAF Gold Label marathon within the qualification period are also treated as having earned the A standard . The NOCs are still allowed to select athletes using their own rules , on the condition that all of them have made the qualifying time . For example , the United States selects athletes based on the result of the 2016 United States Olympic Trials event , but has a policy of entering every athlete so qualified . Sweden only enters athletes good enough to reach at least the eighth position , based on an assessment by the Swedish NOC . The IAAF Qualifying Standards are as follows : Men 's events Women 's events Event Entry mark Event Entry mark 100 m 10.16 100 m 11.32 200 m 20.50 200 m 23.20 400 m 45.40 400 m 52.20 800 m 1 : 46.00 800 m 2 : 01.50 1500 m 3 : 36.20 1500 m 4 : 07.00 5000 m 13 : 25.00 5000 m 15 : 24.00 10,000 m 28 : 00.00 10,000 m 32 : 15.00 110 m hurdles 13.47 100 m hurdles 13.00 400 m hurdles 49.40 400 m hurdles 56.20 3000 m steeplechase 8 : 30.00 3000 m steeplechase 9 : 45.00 Marathon 2 : 19 : 00 Marathon 2 : 45 : 00 20 km walk 1 : 24 : 00 20 km walk 1 : 36 : 00 50 km walk 4 : 06 : 00 N / A N / A Long jump 8.15 Long jump 6.70 Triple jump 16.85 Triple jump 14.15 High jump 2.29 High jump 1.93 Pole vault 5.70 Pole vault 4.50 Shot put 20.50 Shot put 17.75 Discus throw 65.00 Discus throw 61.00 Hammer throw 77.00 Hammer throw 71.00 Javelin throw 83.00 Javelin throw 62.00 Decathlon 8100 Heptathlon 6200 4 × 100 m relay Top 8 at IWR + 8 from top lists 4 × 100 m relay Top 8 at IWR + 8 from top lists 4 × 400 m relay 4 × 400 m relay Track events ( edit ) Men 's track events ( edit ) Men 's 100 m ( edit ) Does not include indoor achievements Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 10.16 Bahamas Adrian Griffith Shavez Hart Jamial Rolle Canada Aaron Brown Andre De Grasse Akeem Haynes China Su Bingtian Zhang Peimeng Xie Zhenye Great Britain James Dasaolu James Ellington Chijindu Ujah Jamaica Nickel Ashmeade Yohan Blake Usain Bolt Japan Yoshihide Kiryū Asuka Cambridge Ryota Yamagata Saint Kitts and Nevis Kim Collins Antoine Adams Brijesh Lawrence South Africa Henricho Bruintjies Akani Simbine Anaso Jobodwana Trinidad and Tobago Richard Thompson Rondell Sorrillo Keston Bledman Turkey Emre Zafer Barnes Ramil Guliyev Jak Ali Harvey United States Justin Gatlin Trayvon Bromell Marvin Bracy Antigua and Barbuda Daniel Bailey Cejhae Greene Barbados Ramon Gittens Levi Cadogan Bahrain Andrew Fisher Kemarley Brown France Jimmy Vicaut Christophe Lemaitre Germany Lucas Jakubczyk Julian Reus Iran Reza Ghasemi Hassan Taftian Ivory Coast Hua Wilfried Koffi Ben Youssef Meïté Netherlands Solomon Bockarie Churandy Martina Nigeria Monzavous Edwards Seye Ogunlewe Ogho - Oghene Egwero Australia Josh Clarke Brazil Vitor Hugo dos Santos Botswana Karabo Mothibi Cayman Islands Kemar Hyman Cuba Roberto Skyers Dominican Republic Yancarlos Martinez Ghana Sean Safo - Antwi Haiti Darrell Wesh Italy Jacques Riparelli Lesotho Mosito Lehata Liberia Emmanuel Matadi Morocco Aziz Ouhadi Oman Barakat Mubarak Al - Harthi Qatar Femi Ogunode Portugal Yazaldes Nascimento Saint Lucia Jahvid Best Saudi Arabia Abdullah Abkar Mohammed South Korea Kim Kuk - young Spain Bruno Hortelano Suriname Jurgen Themen Ukraine Serhiy Smelyk Zambia Gerald Phiri Zimbabwe Gabriel Mvumvure Invitational places Palestine Mohammed Abu Khoussa Universality places Afghanistan Abdul Wahib Zahiri American Samoa Isaac Silafau Angola Hermenegildo Leite Bangladesh Mezbahuddin Ahmed Brunei Mohamed Fakhri Ismail Federated States of Micronesia Kitson Kapiriel Gabon Wilfried Bingangoye Guinea Mohamed Lamine Dansoko Guinea - Bissau Holder da Silva Honduras Rolando Palacios Indonesia Hadi Sudirman Kiribati John Ruuka Maldives Hassan Saaid Malta Luke Bezzina Marshall Islands Richson Simeon Mauritania Jidou El Moctar Palau Rodman Teltull Tonga Siueni Filimone Singapore Timothee Yap Sierra Leone Ishmail Kamara Benin Didier Kiki Macedonia Riste Pandev Tuvalu Etimoni Timuani Total 88 As of 10 July 2016 Men 's 200 m ( edit ) Does not include indoor achievements Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 20.50 Brazil Aldemir da Silva Junior Vitor Hugo dos Santos Jorge Vides Canada Aaron Brown Andre De Grasse Brendon Rodney Great Britain Adam Gemili Danny Talbot Nethaneel Mitchell - Blake Italy Eseosa Desalu Davide Manenti Matteo Galvan Jamaica Nickel Ashmeade Yohan Blake Usain Bolt Japan Kenji Fujimitsu Shota Iizuka Kei Takase South Africa Anaso Jobodwana Wayde van Niekerk Akani Simbine United States Justin Gatlin LaShawn Merritt Ameer Webb Bahamas Shavez Hart Demetrius Pinder Barbados Levi Cadogan Burkheart Ellis Botswana Thebe Baboloki Isaac Makwala Colombia Bernardo Baloyes Diego Palomeque Cuba Roberto Skyers Reynier Mena Dominican Republic Yancarlos Martínez Stanly del Carmen Kenya Carvin Nkanata Mike Mokamba Mexico José Carlos Herrera César Ramírez Netherlands Churandy Martina Solomon Bockarie Nigeria Tega Odele Ejowvokoghene Oduduru Trinidad and Tobago Kyle Greaux Rondel Sorrillo Antigua and Barbuda Miguel Francis Australia Alex Hartmann Belgium Jonathan Borlée Bermuda Harold Houston Greece Lykourgos - Stefanos Tsakonas India Dharambir Singh Ivory Coast Hua Wilfried Koffi France Christophe Lemaitre The Gambia Adama Jammeh Germany Alexio - Platini Menga Lesotho Mosito Lehata Panama Alonso Edward Poland Karol Zalewski Qatar Femi Ogunode Saint Kitts and Nevis Antoine Adams Samoa Jeremy Dodson Spain Bruno Hortelano Turkey Ramil Guliyev Costa Rica Nery Brenes Ukraine Serhiy Smelyk Invitational places Papua New Guinea Theo Piniau Universality places Belize Brandon Jones Total 71 As of 19 July 2016 Men 's 400 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 45.40 Botswana Isaac Makwala Onkabetse Nkobolo Thebe Baboloki Great Britain Matthew Hudson - Smith Rabah Yousif Martyn Rooney Jamaica Fitzroy Dunkley Javon Francis Rusheen McDonald Kenya Alphas Kishoyian Raymond Kibet Alex Sampao Trinidad and Tobago Machel Cedenio Lalonde Gordon Deon Lendore United States LaShawn Merritt Gil Roberts David Verburg Bahamas Chris Brown Steven Gardiner Belgium Jonathan Borlée Kévin Borlée Cuba Yoandys Lescay Raidel Acea Dominican Republic Gustavo Cuesta Luguelin Santos Grenada Kirani James Bralon Taplin Japan Yuzo Kanemaru Julian Walsh Bahrain Abubakar Abbas Brazil Hederson Estefani Colombia Diego Palomeque Costa Rica Nery Brenes Czech Republic Pavel Maslák Guyana Winston George India Muhammad Anas Israel Donald Sanford Italy Matteo Galvan Netherlands Liemarvin Bonevacia Nigeria Erayokan Orukpe Poland Rafał Omelko Qatar Abdelalelah Haroun Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Brandon Valentine - Parris Saudi Arabia Yousef Ahmed Masrahi Slovenia Luka Janežič South Africa Wayde van Niekerk Ukraine Vitaliy Butrym Venezuela Alberth Bravo Invitational places Refugee Olympic Team James Chiengjiek Universality places Chad Bachir Mahamat Niger Ousseini Djibo Pakistan Mehboob Ali Total 55 As of 26 June 2016 Men 's 800 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 1 : 46.00 Algeria Taoufik Makhloufi Yassine Hathat Amine Belferar Australia Peter Bol Luke Mathews Jeff Riseley Kenya Alfred Kipketer Ferguson Rotich David Rudisha Spain Daniel Andújar Álvaro de Arriba Kevin López United States Boris Berian Charles Jock Clayton Murphy Brazil Kléberson Davide Lutimar Paes Canada Brandon McBride Anthony Romaniw Great Britain Michael Rimmer Elliot Giles Morocco Amine El Manaoui Mostafa Smaili Poland Adam Kszczot Marcin Lewandowski Puerto Rico Andrés Arroyo Wesley Vázquez Qatar Abubaker Haydar Abdalla Abdulrahman Musaeb Balla South Africa André Olivier Reinhardt van Rensburg Bahrain Abraham Rotich Bosnia and Herzegovina Amel Tuka Botswana Nijel Amos Burundi Antoine Gakeme Colombia Rafith Rodríguez Czech Republic Jakub Holuša Denmark Andreas Bube Djibouti Ayanleh Souleiman Ethiopia Mohamed Aman France Pierre - Ambroise Bosse Ghana Alex Amankwah India Jinson Johnson Ireland Mark English Italy Giordano Benedetti Saudi Arabia Ali Saad Al - Daran Slovakia Jozef Repčík Slovenia Žan Rudolf Sweden Andreas Almgren Invitational places Luxembourg Charles Grethen Monaco Brice Etès Refugee Olympic Team Yiech Biel Universality places Andorra Pol Moya Central African Republic Francky - Edgard Mbotto Cook Islands Alex Beddoes Equatorial Guinea Benjamín Enzema Guam Joshua Ilustre Kosovo Musa Hajdari Total 58 As of 11 July 2016 Men 's 1500 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 3 : 36.20 Kenya Asbel Kiprop Elijah Manangoi Ronald Kwemoi Morocco Fouad Elkaam Abdalaati Iguider Brahim Kaazouzi New Zealand Nick Willis Hamish Carson Julian Matthews United States Robby Andrews Ben Blankenship Matthew Centrowitz , Jr . Algeria Taoufik Makhloufi Salim Keddar Canada Charles Philibert - Thiboutot Nathan Brannen Djibouti Ayanleh Souleiman Abdi Waiss Mouhyadin Great Britain Charlie Grice Chris O'Hare Spain David Bustos Adel Mechaal Azerbaijan Hayle Ibrahimov Bahrain Benson Seurei Belgium Pieter - Jan Hannes Brazil Thiago André Czech Republic Jakub Holuša France Florian Carvalho Germany Homiyu Tesfaye Norway Henrik Ingebrigtsen Peru David Torrence Qatar Mohamad Al - Garni Turkey İlham Tanui Özbilen Uganda Ronald Musagala Invitational places Nicaragua Erick Rodríguez Refugee Olympic Team Paulo Lokoro Universality places South Sudan Santino Kenyi Total 38 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's 5000 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 13 : 25.00 Eritrea Abrar Osman Aron Kifle Awet Nftalem Kibrab Ethiopia Muktar Edris Dejen Gebremeskel Hagos Gebrhiwet ( Abadi Hadis ) Great Britain Andrew Butchart Mo Farah Tom Farrell Kenya Caleb Ndiku Isiah Koech Cyrus Rutto Morocco Soufiyan Bouqantar Abdalaati Iguider Younes Essalhi Spain Antonio Abadía Ilias Fifa Adel Mechaal Uganda Phillip Kipyeko Ronald Musagala Joshua Kiprui Cheptegei United States Paul Chelimo Bernard Lagat Hassan Mead Bahrain Aweke Ayalew Albert Kibichii Rop Canada Mohammed Ahmed Lucas Bruchet Germany Richard Ringer Florian Orth Japan Kota Murayama Suguru Osako South Africa Stephen Mokoka Elroy Gelant Australia Brett Robinson Belgium Bashir Abdi Burundi Olivier Irabaruta Italy Jamel Chatbi Jamaica Kemoy Campbell Norway Sindre Buraas Peru David Torrence Turkey Ali Kaya Invitational places Universality places Malawi Kefasi Chitsala Myanmar San Naing Nepal Hari Rimal São Tomé and Príncipe Romário Leitão Solomon Islands Rosefelo Siosi Somalia Mohamed Daud Mohamed Total 48 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's 10,000 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 28 : 00.00 Eritrea Ethiopia Yigrem Demelash Abadi Hadis Tamirat Tola ( Ibrahim Jeilan ) Great Britain Mo Farah Ross Millington Andy Vernon Japan Kota Murayama Suguru Osako Yuta Shitara Kenya Paul Kipngetich Tanui Charles MuneriaYosei Geoffrey Kamworor United States Galen Rupp Shadrack Kipchirchir Leonard Essau Korir Australia David McNeill Ben St. Lawrence South Africa Stephen Mokoka Gladwin Mzazi Turkey Ali Kaya Polat Kemboi Arıkan Uganda Joshua Kiprui Cheptegei Timothy Toroitich Bahrain El Hassan El - Abbassi Belgium Bashir Abdi Burundi Olivier Irabaruta Canada Mohammed Ahmed Morocco New Zealand Zane Robertson Peru Luis Ostos Tunisia Wissem Hosni Invitational places Universality places Total 33 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's 110 m hurdles ( edit ) Do not include indoor achievements Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 13.47 Cuba Yordan O'Farrill Dayron Robles Jhoanis Portilla France Pascal Martinot - Lagarde Dimitri Bascou Wilhem Belocian Germany Alexander John Gregor Traber Matthias Bühler Jamaica Omar McLeod Deuce Carter Hansle Parchment Andrew Riley * including alternates United States Devon Allen Ronnie Ash Jeff Porter Barbados Shane Brathwaite Greggmar Swift Brazil João Vítor de Oliveira Éder Souza Canada Johnathan Cabral Sekou Kaba Great Britain Lawrence Clarke Andrew Pozzi Poland Damian Czykier Artur Noga Spain Yidiel Contreras Orlando Ortega Cayman Islands Ronald Forbes China Xie Wenjun Colombia Yeison Rivas Cyprus Milan Trajkovic Czech Republic Petr Svoboda Greece Konstadinos Douvalidis Haiti Jeffrey Julmis Hungary Balázs Baji Japan Wataru Yazawa Nigeria Antwon Hicks Serbia Milan Ristić South Africa Antonio Alkana Trinidad and Tobago Mikel Thomas Virgin Islands Eddie Lovett Invitational places Lebanon Ahmad Hazer Universality places Laos Xaysa Anousone Total 42 As of 4 August 2016 Men 's 400 m hurdles ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 49.40 Brazil Hederson Estefani Mahau Suguimati Marcio Teles Jamaica Annsert Whyte Jaheel Hyde Roxroy Cato Romel Lewis * including alternates Kenya Aron Koech Boniface Mucheru Kiprono Kosgei United States Kerron Clement Byron Robinson Michael Tinsley Algeria Abdelmalik Lahoulou Miloud Rahmani Estonia Rasmus Mägi Jaak - Heinrich Jagor Great Britain Jack Green Seb Rodger Japan Yuki Matsushita Keisuke Nozawa Puerto Rico Javier Culson Eric Alejandro South Africa L.J. van Zyl Cornel Fredericks Bahamas Jeffery Gibson Belgium Michaël Bultheel Cape Verde Jordin Andrade Cuba Omar Cisneros Ireland Thomas Barr Kazakhstan Dmitriy Koblov Nigeria Miles Ukaoma Philippines Eric Cray Poland Patryk Dobek Spain Sergio Fernández Switzerland Kariem Hussein Chinese Taipei Chen Chieh Trinidad and Tobago Jehue Gordon Tunisia Mohamed Sghaier Turkey Yasmani Copello Uruguay Andrés Silva Invitational places Germany Tobias Giehl Mozambique Kurt Couto Universality places Seychelles Ned Azemia Total 42 As of 18 June 2016 Men 's 3000 m steeplechase ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 8 : 30.00 Algeria Hicham Bouchicha Bilal Tabti Ali Messaoudi Canada Taylor Milne Chris Winter Matthew Hughes Ethiopia Hailemariyam Amare Chala Beyo Tafese Seboka ( Birhan Getahun ) Kenya Brimin Kipruto Conseslus Kipruto Ezekiel Kemboi Morocco Soufiane Elbakkali Hamid Ezzine Hicham Sigueni Spain United States Hillary Bor Donn Cabral Evan Jager Turkey Tarık Langat Akdağ Halil Akkaş Aras Kaya France Yoann Kowal Mahiedine Mekhissi - Benabbad Bahrain John Kibet Koech Brazil Altobeli da Silva Bulgaria Mitko Tsenov Colombia Gerald Giraldo Djibouti Mohamed Ismail Ibrahim Great Britain Rob Mullett Italy Jamel Chatbi Poland Krystian Zalewski Tunisia Amor Ben Yahia Uganda Benjamin Kiplagat Venezuela Jose Peña Invitational places Italy Yuri Floriani Abdoullah Bamoussa Belgium Jeroen D'Hoedt Denmark Ole Hesselbjerg Sudan Yousif Abdalla Targan Estonia Kaur Kivistik Universality places Total 35 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's track events ( edit ) Women 's 100 m ( edit ) Does not include indoor achievements Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 11.32 Brazil Franciela Krasucki Rosângela Santos Ana Cláudia Lemos Great Britain Asha Philip Daryll Neita Desiree Henry Jamaica Elaine Thompson Shelly - Ann Fraser - Pryce Christania Williams Trinidad and Tobago Michelle - Lee Ahye Semoy Hackett Kelly - Ann Baptiste Ukraine Nataliya Pohrebnyak Olesya Povh Hrystyna Stuy United States English Gardner Tianna Bartoletta Tori Bowie Bahamas Shaunae Miller Tynia Gaither China Wei Yongli Yuan Qiqi Colombia Evelyn Rivera Eliecith Palacios Ecuador Ángela Tenorio Narcisa Landázuri Ivory Coast Murielle Ahouré Marie - Josee Ta Lou Germany Rebekka Haase Tatjana Pinto Kazakhstan Olga Safronova Viktoriya Zyabkina Nigeria Blessing Okagbare Peace Uko Poland Ewa Swoboda Marika Popowicz South Africa Carina Horn Alyssa Conley Australia Melissa Breen British Virgin Islands Tahesia Harrigan - Scott Bulgaria Ivet Lalova Canada Crystal Emmanuel Croatia Andrea Ivančević Cuba Arialis Gandulla Gabon Ruddy Zang Milama Ghana Flings Owusu - Agyapong Guyana Brenessa Thompson India Dutee Chand Japan Chisato Fukushima Netherlands Dafne Schippers Norway Ezinne Okparaebo Portugal Lorène Bazolo Switzerland Mujinga Kambundji Uzbekistan Nigina Sharipova Invitational places Papua New Guinea Toea Wisil Universality places Afghanistan Kamia Yousufi American Samoa Jordan Mageo Angola Liliana Neto Bangladesh Shirin Akter Brunei Maizurah Abdul Rahim Chad Bibiro Ali Taher Cook Islands Patricia Taea Federated States of Micronesia Larissa Henry Fiji Sisilia Seavula Guinea Makoura Keita Guam Regina Tugade Kiribati Karitaake Tewaaki Laos Laenly Phoutthavong Marshall Islands Mariana Cress Sierra Leone Hafsatu Kamara Tuvalu Asenate Manoa Total 69 As of 25 June 2016 Women 's 200 m ( edit ) Does not include indoor achievements Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 23.20 Bahamas Shaunae Miller Anthonique Strachan Tynia Gaither Brazil Vitória Cristina Rosa Rosângela Santos Kauiza Venâncio Canada Crystal Emmanuel Kimberly Hyacinthe Germany Nadine Gonska Lisa Mayer Gina Lückenkemper Jamaica Veronica Campbell - Brown Kali Davis - White Simone Facey Elaine Thompson * including alternates Trinidad and Tobago Michelle - Lee Ahye Semoy Hackett Reyare Thomas Ukraine Hrystyna Stuy Nataliya Pohrebnyak Viktoriya Pyatachenko United States Tori Bowie Jenna Prandini Deajah Stevens Armenia Gayane Chiloyan Diana Khubeseryan Cyprus Eleni Artymata Ramona Papaioannou Great Britain Dina Asher - Smith Jodie Williams Italy Libania Grenot Gloria Hooper Ivory Coast Murielle Ahouré Marie - Josée Ta Lou Netherlands Tessa van Schagen Dafne Schippers Slovenia Maja Mihalinec Sabina Veit South Africa Alyssa Conley Justine Palframan Australia Ella Nelson Bahrain Salwa Eid Naser Barbados Sada Williams Belgium Cynthia Bolingo British Virgin Islands Ashley Kelly Bulgaria Ivet Lalova Chile Isidora Jiménez Cuba Arialis Gandulla Ecuador Ángela Tenorio The Gambia Gina Bass Greece Maria Belibasaki Guyana Brenessa Thompson India Srabani Nanda Japan Chisato Fukushima Kazakhstan Viktoriya Zyabkina Nigeria Blessing Okagbare Poland Anna Kiełbasińska Portugal Lorène Bazolo Puerto Rico Celiangeli Morales Saint Kitts and Nevis Tameka Williams Spain Estela García Switzerland Mujinga Kambundji Venezuela Nercelis Soto Zambia Kabange Mupopo Invitational places Universality places Cape Verde Lidiane Lopes Maldives Afa Ismail South Sudan Margret Rumat Rumar Hassan Total 68 As of 26 June 2016 Women 's 400 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 52.20 Canada Alicia Brown Kendra Clarke Carline Muir Great Britain Seren Bundy - Davies Emily Diamond Christine Ohuruogu Jamaica Stephenie Ann McPherson Christine Day Shericka Jackson Nigeria Regina George Patience Okon George Tosin Adeloye Poland Małgorzata Hołub Justyna Święty Patrycja Wyciszkiewicz South Africa Justine Palframan Caster Semenya Tsholofelo Thipe United States Allyson Felix Phyllis Francis Natasha Hastings Australia Morgan Mitchell Anneliese Rubie Botswana Christine Botlogetswe Lydia Jele Brazil Geisa Coutinho Jailma de Lima France Floria Guei Italy Libania Grenot Maria Benedicta Chigbolu Kenya Margaret Nyairera Wambui Maureen Jelagat Maiyo Ukraine Olha Zemlyak Nataliya Pyhyda Bahamas Shaunae Miller Bahrain Kemi Adekoya Barbados Sada Williams China Yang Huizhen Cuba Lisneidy Veitia Germany Ruth Sophia Spelmeyer Guyana Aliyah Abrams India Nirmala Sheoran Latvia Gunta Latiševa - Čudare Namibia Tjipekapora Herunga Portugal Cátia Azevedo Romania Bianca Razor Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Kineke Alexander Serbia Tamara Salaški Slovakia Iveta Putálová Spain Aauri Bokesa Vietnam Nguyễn Thị Huyền Zambia Kabange Mupopo Invitational places Grenada Kanika Beckles Universality places Kosovo Vijona Kryeziu Mali Djénébou Danté Niger Mariama Mahamatou Itatou Pakistan Najma Parveen Somalia Maryan Nuh Muse Total 60 As of 2 July 2016 Women 's 800 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 2 : 01.50 Cuba Rose Mary Almanza Sahily Diago Lisneidy Veitía Ethiopia Habitam Alemu Tigist Assefa Gudaf Tsegay Jamaica Simoya Campbell Natoya Goule Kenia Sinclair Kenya Margaret Nyairera Wambui Eunice Sum Winnie Chebet Poland Angelika Cichocka Joanna Jóźwik Sofia Ennaoui Ukraine Nataliya Lupu Anastasiya Tkachuk Olha Lyakhova United States Kate Grace Ajee ' Wilson Chrishuna Williams France Rénelle Lamote Justine Fedronic Germany Christina Hering Fabienne Kohlmann Great Britain Shelayna Oskan - Clarke Lynsey Sharp Morocco Malika Akkaoui Rababe Arafi Romania Florina Pierdevara Claudia Bobocea Australia Selma Kajan Belarus Maryna Arzamasava Belgium Renée Eykens Benin Noélie Yarigo Brazil Flávia de Lima Burundi Francine Niyonsaba Canada Melissa Bishop China Wang Chunyu Iceland Aníta Hinriksdóttir India Tintu Lukka Ireland Ciara Everard Italy Yusneysi Santiusti Lithuania Eglė Balčiūnaitė Luxembourg Charline Mathias Netherlands Sifan Hassan New Zealand Angie Petty Serbia Amela Terzić Slovakia Lucia Klocová South Africa Caster Semenya Spain Esther Guerrero Sweden Abeba Aregawi Switzerland Selina Büchel Uganda Docus Ajok Uruguay Déborah Rodríguez Invitational places Refugee Olympic Team Rose Lokonyen Independent Olympic Athletes Yuliya Stepanova Universality places Central African Republic Elisabeth Mandaba Mauritania Houleye Ba Myanmar Swe Li Myint Total 57 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 1500 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 4 : 07.00 Australia Jenny Blundell Zoe Buckman Linden Hall Canada Nicole Sifuentes Gabriela Stafford Hilary Stellingwerff Ethiopia Genzebe Dibaba Besu Sado Dawit Seyaum ( Gudaf Tsegay ) Germany Konstanze Klosterhalfen Maren Kock Diana Sujew Kenya Faith Chepngetich Kipyegon Nancy Chepkwemoi Violah Lagat Morocco Rababe Arafi Malika Akkaoui Siham Hilali Poland Sofia Ennaoui Angelika Cichocka Danuta Urbanik United States Jennifer Simpson Shannon Rowbury Brenda Martinez Bahrain Mimi Belete Tigist Gashaw Great Britain Laura Muir Laura Weightman Netherlands Sifan Hassan Maureen Koster Sweden Abeba Aregawi Meraf Bahta Albania Luiza Gega Colombia Muriel Coneo Ireland Ciara Mageean Italy Margherita Magnani Jamaica Aisha Praught New Zealand Nikki Hamblin Portugal Marta Pen Serbia Amela Terzić Ukraine Natalia Pryshchepa United Arab Emirates Betlhem Desalegn Invitational places Refugee Olympic Team Anjelina Lohalith Universality places Nepal Saraswoti Bhattarai São Tomé and Príncipe Celma Bonfim da Graça Total 42 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 5000 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 15 : 24.00 Australia Madeline Hills Genevieve LaCaze Eloise Wellings Ethiopia Almaz Ayana Senbere Teferi Ababel Yeshaneh ( Tirunesh Dibaba ) Great Britain Eilish McColgan Steph Twell Laura Whittle Japan Misaki Onishi Ayuko Suzuki Miyuki Uehara Kenya Vivian Cheruiyot Hellen Obiri Mercy Cherono United States Kim Conley Shelby Houlihan Molly Huddle Canada Jessica O'Connell Andrea Seccafien Netherlands Maureen Koster Susan Kuijken Sweden Meraf Bahta Sarah Lahti Turkey Yasemin Can Meryem Akda Uganda Juliet Chekwel Stella Chesang Austria Jennifer Wenth Bahrain Mimi Belete Belgium Louise Carton Italy Veronica Inglese New Zealand Nikki Hamblin Norway Karoline Bjerkeli Grøvdal Saudi Arabia Tariq Ahmed Al - Amri Invitational places Universality places Solomon Islands Sharon Firisua Total 32 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 10,000 m ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 32 : 15.00 Ethiopia Almaz Ayana Gelete Burka Tirunesh Dibaba ( Netsanet Gudeta ) Great Britain Jess Andrews Beth Potter Jo Pavey Japan Hanami Sekine Ayuko Suzuki Yuka Takashima Portugal Ana Dulce Félix Sara Moreira Carla Salomé Rocha United States Molly Huddle Emily Infeld Marielle Hall Canada Natasha Wodak Lanni Marchant Kenya Vivian Cheruiyot Betsy Saina Netherlands Susan Kuijken Jip Vastenburg Australia Eloise Wellings Brazil Tatiele de Carvalho Burundi Diane Nukuri Finland Johanna Peiponen Greece Alexia Pappas Ireland Fionnuala McCormack Italy Veronica Inglese Kyrgyzstan Daria Maslova Mexico Brenda Flores Peru Inés Melchor South Africa Dominique Scott Spain Trihas Gebre Sweden Sarah Lahti Turkey Yasemin Can Uganda Juliet Chekwel Ukraine Olga Skrypak United Arab Emirates Alia Saeed Mohammed Uzbekistan Sitora Hamidova Invitational places Universality places Total 40 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 100 m hurdles ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 13.00 Bahamas Devynne Charlton Adanaca Brown Ivanique Kemp Canada Phylicia George Nikkita Holder Angela Whyte Germany Pamela Dutkiewicz Nadine Hildebrand Cindy Roleder Jamaica Monique Morgan Shermaine Williams Nickiesha Wilson Megan Simmonds * including alternates United States Nia Ali Kristi Castlin Brianna Rollins Barbados Kierre Beckles Akela Jones Brazil Maíla Machado Fabiana Moraes Colombia Lina Flórez Brigitte Merlano France Cindy Billaud Sandra Gomis Great Britain Cindy Ofili Tiffany Porter Ukraine Anastasiya Mokhnyuk Hanna Platitsyna Australia Michelle Jenneke Austria Beate Schrott Belarus Alina Talay Belgium Anne Zagré China Wu Shuijiao Croatia Andrea Ivančević Nigeria Tobi Amusan Norway Isabelle Pedersen Panama Yvette Lewis Poland Karolina Kołeczek Puerto Rico Jasmine Quinn Spain Caridad Jerez Switzerland Noemi Zbären Invitational places Universality places Belize Katy Sealy Burkina Faso Marthe Koala Equatorial Guinea Reïna - Flor Okori Total 44 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 400 m hurdles ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 56.20 Canada Noelle Montcalm Sage Watson Chanice Chase Great Britain Eilidh Doyle Italy Yadisleidy Pedroso Marzia Caravelli Ayomide Folorunso Jamaica Ristananna Tracey Leah Nugent Janieve Russell Kaliese Spencer * including alternates United States Sydney McLaughlin Dalilah Muhammad Ashley Spencer Armenia Lilit Harutyunyan Czech Republic Zuzana Hejnová Denisa Rosolová Denmark Sara Petersen Stina Troest Switzerland Léa Sprunger Petra Fontanive Trinidad and Tobago Janeil Bellille Sparkle McKnight Ukraine Hanna Titimets Hanna Ryzhykova Poland Emilia Ankiewicz Joanna Linkiewicz Australia Lauren Wells Bahrain Adekoya Oluwakemi Barbados Tia Adana Belle Belgium Axelle Dauwens Cuba Zurian Hechavarria France Phara Anacharsis Germany Jackie Baumann Lithuania Eglė Staišiūnaitė Morocco Hayat Lambarki Nigeria Amaka Ogoegbunam Portugal Vera Barbosa Puerto Rico Grace Claxton South Africa Wenda Nel Sweden Elise Malmberg Vietnam Nguyễn Thị Huyền Invitational places Costa Rica Sharolyn Scott Universality places Total 44 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 3000 m steeplechase ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 9.45. 00 Australia Madeline Heiner Genevieve LaCaze Victoria Mitchell Canada Maria Bernard Geneviève Lalonde Erin Teschuk Ethiopia Sofia Assefa Hiwot Ayalew Etenesh Diro ( Weynshet Ansa ) Germany Gesa Felicitas Krause Sanaa Koubaa Maya Rehberg Ireland Sara Treacy Michelle Finn Kerry O'Flaherty Kenya Hyvin Kiyeng Beatrice Chepkoech Lydia Rotich Turkey Tuğba Güvenç Özlem Kaya Meryem Akda United States Emma Coburn Courtney Frerichs Colleen Quigley China Li Zhenzhu Zhang Xinyan India Lalita Babar Sudha Singh Morocco Salima Elouali Alami Fadwa Sidi Madane Sweden Klara Bodinson Charlotta Fougberg Algeria Amina Bettiche Argentina Belén Casetta Bahrain Ruth Jebet Belarus Sviatlana Kudzelich Brazil Juliana dos Santos Bulgaria Silvia Danekova Colombia Muriel Coneo Czech Republic Lucie Sekanová Finland Sandra Eriksson Great Britain Lennie Waite Jamaica Aisha Praught Poland Matylda Kowal Romania Ancuța Bobocel Slovenia Maruša Mišmaš Spain Diana Martín Switzerland Fabienne Schlumpf Tunisia Habiba Ghribi Uganda Peruth Chemutai Ukraine Mariya Shatalova Invitational places Madagascar Eliane Saholinirina Universality places Total 59 As of 10 June 2016 Road events ( edit ) Men 's road events ( edit ) Men 's marathon ( edit ) Qualifying for the Kenyan marathon team is the most competitive . 427 Kenyan men achieved the qualification standard . Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 2 : 19 : 00 Algeria Hakim Saadi Haim Saadi El Hadi Lameche Argentina Federico Bruno Mariano Mastromarino Luis Molina Australia Liam Adams Scott Westcott Michael Shelley Belgium Brazil Marílson Gomes dos Santos Paulo Roberto Paula Solonei Rocha da Silva Chile Victor Aravena Daniel Estrada Enzo Yáñez China Dong Guojian Colombia Diego Colorado Yesid Orjuela Andrés Ruiz Denmark Abdi Hakim Ulad Ecuador Miguel Ángel Almachi Segundo Jami Byron Piedra Eritrea Ethiopia Tesfaye Abera Lemi Berhanu Feyisa Lelisa ( Lelisa Desisa ) Germany Arne Gabius Hendrik Pfeiffer Philipp Pflieger Great Britain Callum Hawkins Derek Hawkins Tsegai Tewelde India Nitender Singh Rawat Thonakal Gopi Kheta Ram Ireland Kevin Seaward Mick Clohisey Paul Pollock Israel Tesama Moogas Marhu Teferi Ageze Guadie Italy Ruggero Pertile Daniele Meucci Stefano La Rosa Japan Suehiro Ishikawa Hisanori Kitajima Satoru Sasaki Kenya Eliud Kipchoge Stanley Biwott Wesley Korir Mongolia North Korea Peru Willy Canchanya Raúl Machacuay Raúl Pacheco Poland Artur Kozłowski Yared Shegumo Henryk Szost South Africa Lusapho April Lungile Gongqa Sibusiso Nzima South Korea Spain Carles Castillejo Jesús España Javier Guerra Tanzania Mohamed Ikoki Msandeki Saidi Makula Alphonce Felix Simbu Turkey Bekir Karayel Serkan Kaya Ercan Muslu Uganda Ukraine Oleksandr Sitkovskyy Ihor Olefirenko Serhiy Lebid United States Galen Rupp Meb Keflezighi Jared Ward Uruguay Martín Cuestas Nicolás Cuestas Aguelmis Rojas Zimbabwe Wirimai Juwawo Pardon Ndhlovu Cuthbert Nyasango Belarus Vladislav Pryamov Stsiapan Rahautsou Burundi Pierre - Célestin Nihorimbere Abraham Niyonkuru Canada Reid Coolsaet Eric Gillis Estonia Roman Fosti Tiidrek Nurme Greece Michalis Kalomiris Christoforos Merousis Hungary Gáspár Csere Gábor Józsa Lithuania Remigijus Kančys Valdas Dopolskas Morocco Abdelmajid El Hissouf Rachid Kisri Norway Sondre Nordstad Moen Asbjorn Ellefsen Persen Portugal Ricardo Ribas Rui Pedro Silva Romania Marius Ionescu Nicolae Soare Sweden Mikael Ekvall David Nilsson Switzerland Tadesse Abraham Christian Kreienbühl Bahrain Alemu Bekele Cambodia Neko Hiroshi Cuba Richer Pérez Djibouti Mumin Gala Georgia Daviti Kharazishvili Guatemala José Amado García Iran Mohammad Jafar Moradi Jordan Hamad Marouf Kazakhstan Latvia Valērijs Žolnerovičs Lesotho Mauritius David Carver Mexico Ricardo Ramos Moldova Roman Prodius Namibia Mynhardt Kawanivi Netherlands Abdi Nageeye Panama Jorge Castelblanco Paraguay Derlys Ayala Qatar Essa Ismail Rashed Rwanda Ambroise Uwiragyie Slovenia Tone Kosmač Sri Lanka Anuradha Cooray Chinese Taipei Ho Chin - Ping Tunisia Abdulaziz Charfi Uzbekistan Andrey Petrov Venezuela Luis Orta Universality places DR Congo Makorobondo Salukombo Refugee Olympic Team Yonas Kinde Kyrgyzstan Ilya Tyapkin South Sudan Guor Marial Total 162 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's 20 km walk ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 1 : 24 : 00 Australia Dane Bird - Smith Rhydian Cowley Jared Tallent Belarus Dzianis Simanovich Aliaksandr Liakhovich Yauheni Zalesski Brazil José Alessandro Bagio Caio Bonfim Moacir Zimmermann Canada Inaki Gomez Benjamin Thorne Evan Dunfee China Chen Ding Cai Zelin Wang Zhen Colombia Éider Arévalo Esteban Soto Luis Fernando López Ecuador Mauricio Arteaga Andrés Chocho Daniel Pintado Germany Nils Brembach Christopher Linke Hagen Pohle Guatemala Erick Barrondo Mario Bran José Raymundo India Gurmeet Singh Irfan Kolothum Thodi Baljinder Singh Italy Matteo Giupponi Japan Eiki Takahashi Isamu Fujisawa Daisuke Matsunaga Mexico Pedro Daniel Gómez Julio César Salazar Ever Palma South Korea Poland Artur Brzozowski Jakub Jelonek Łukasz Nowak Spain Francisco Arcilla Miguel Ángel López Álvaro Martín Ukraine Ruslan Dmytrenko Ihor Hlavan Nazar Kovalenko Ireland Rob Heffernan Alex Wright Kazakhstan Georgiy Sheiko Vitaliy Anichkin Kenya Samuel Gathimba Simon Wachira Lithuania Marius Šavelskis Marius Žiūkas Norway Håvard Haukenes Erik Tysse Portugal João Vieira Sérgio Vieira Slovakia Matej Tóth Anton Kučmín South Africa Lebogang Shange Wayne Snyman Sweden Perséus Karlström Anatole Ibáñez Turkey Mert Atli Ersin Tacir Argentina Juan Manuel Cano Bolivia Marco Antonio Rodríguez Chile Yerko Araya France Kévin Campion Great Britain Tom Bosworth Greece Alexandros Papamichail Hungary Máté Helebrandt Iran Hamid Reza Zouravand New Zealand Quentin Rew Peru Pavel Chihuán Tunisia Hassanine Sebei Venezuela Richard Vargas Vietnam Nguyễn Thành Ngưng Universality places Total 86 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's 50 km walk ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 4 : 06 : 00 Australia Chris Erickson Jared Tallent Brendon Reading Brazil Jonathan Riekmann Mário José dos Santos Junior Caio Bonfim China Wang Zhendong Han Yucheng Yu Wei Colombia James Rendón José Leonardo Montaña Jorge Armando Ruiz Ecuador Jonathan Cáceres Andrés Chocho Claudio Villanueva Finland Aku Partanen Aleksi Ojala Jarkko Kinnunen Guatemala Erick Barrondo Jaime Quiyuch Luis Ángel Sánchez Hungary Máté Helebrandt Sándor Rácz Miklós Srp Ireland Alex Wright Rob Heffernan Brendan Boyce Italy Matteo Giupponi Marco De Luca Teodorico Caporaso Japan Takayuki Tanii Kōichirō Morioka Hirooki Arai Mexico Poland Rafał Augustyn Adrian Błocki Rafał Fedaczyński Portugal Miguel Carvalho João Vieira Pedro Isidro Serbia Nenad Filipović Predrag Filipović Vladimir Savanović Slovakia Matej Tóth Martin Tišťan Dušan Majdán Spain José Ignacio Díaz Jesús Ángel García Miguel Ángel López Ukraine Ivan Banzeruk Serhiy Budza Ihor Saharuk Belarus Ivan Trotski Pavel Yarokhau Canada Mathieu Bilodeau Evan Dunfee Germany Carl Dohmann Hagen Pohle India Sandeep Kumar Manish Singh Rawat Lithuania Tadas Šuškevičius Arturas Mastianica Romania Marius Cocioran Narcis Mihăilă South Korea Bolivia Ronald Quispe Chile Edward Araya Czech Republic Lukáš Gdula El Salvador Luis Menjivar France Yohann Diniz Great Britain Dominic King Greece Alexandros Papamichail Latvia Arnis Rumbenieks New Zealand Quentin Rew Norway Håvard Haukenes South Africa Marc Mundell Sweden Anders Hansson Switzerland Alex Flórez United States John Nunn Venezuela Yereman Salazar Universality places Total 84 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's road events ( edit ) Women 's marathon ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 2 : 45 : 00 Algeria Kenza Dahmani Barkahoum Drici Souad Aït Salem Argentina Viviana Chávez Rosa Godoy María de los Ángeles Peralta Australia Milly Clark Jessica Trengove Lisa Weightman Bahrain Belarus Belgium Brazil Adriana Aparecida dos Santos Marily dos Santos Graciete Santana China Liu Ruihuan Colombia Kellys Arias Angie Orjuela Erika Abril Denmark Anna Holm Baumeister Jessica Draskau - Petersson Ecuador Maria Elena Calle Rosa Chacha Silvia Paredes Estonia Leila Luik Liina Luik Lily Luik Ethiopia Mare Dibaba Tirfi Tsegaye Tigist Tufa ( Aberu Kebede ) Germany Anja Scherl Lisa Hahner Anna Hahner Greece Ourania Rebouli Sofia Riga Panagiota Vlachaki Hungary Zsófia Erdélyi Krisztina Papp Tünde Szabó India O.P. Jaisha Sudha Singh Kavita Raut Ireland Breege Connolly Lizzie Lee Fionnualla McCormack Italy Valeria Straneo Anna Incerti Catherine Bertone Japan Kayoko Fukushi Mai Ito Tomomi Tanaka Kenya Jemima Sumgong Helah Kiprop Visiline Jepkesho Kyrgyzstan Iuliia Andreeva Mariya Korobitskaya Viktoriia Poliudina Latvia Jeļena Prokopčuka Ilona Marhele Ariana Hilborn Lithuania Rasa Drazdauskaitė Diana Lobačevskė Vaida Žūsinaitė Mexico Vianney de la Rosa Margarita Hernández Madaí Pérez Morocco North Korea Peru Wilma Arizapana Jovana de la Cruz Inés Melchor Poland Katarzyna Kowalska Iwona Lewandowska Monika Stefanowicz Portugal Jéssica Augusto Ana Dulce Félix Sara Moreira South Africa Christine Kalmer Diana - Lebo Phalula Irvette van Blerk South Korea Spain Alessandra Aguilar Azucena Díaz Estela Navascués Sweden Isabellah Andersson Annelie Johansson Louise Wiker Chinese Taipei Chen Yu - Hsuan Hsieh Chien - Ho Hsu Yu - Fang Turkey Nilay Esen Sultan Haydar Meryem Erdoğan Ukraine Olha Kotovska Olena Burkovska Tetyana Vernyhor United States Amy Cragg Desiree Linden Shalane Flanagan Canada Krista DuChene Lanni Marchant Chile Erika Olivera Natalia Romero Croatia Marija Vrajić Trošić Matea Matošević Finland Anne - Mari Hyryläinen Great Britain Alyson Dixon Sonia Samuels Israel Korlima Chemtai Maor Tiyouri Kazakhstan Gulzhanat Zhanatbek Irina Smolnikova Mongolia Namibia Helalia Johannes Beata Naigambo Romania Daniela Carlan Paula Todoran Serbia Ana Subotić Olivera Jevtić Switzerland Martina Strähl Patricia Morceli Bühler Uganda Adero Nyakisi Nancy Rotich Uzbekistan Sitora Hamidova Marina Hmelevskaya Austria Andrea Mayr Bolivia Rosmery Quispe Bosnia and Herzegovina Lucija Kimani Bulgaria Militsa Mircheva Burundi Diane Nukuri Cuba Dailín Belmonte Czech Republic Eva Vrabcová - Nývltová France Christelle Daunay Lebanon Chirine Njeim Moldova Lilia Fiscovici Montenegro Slađana Perunović Netherlands Andrea Deelstra Norway Marthe Katrine Myhre Palestine Mayada Al - Sayad Paraguay Carmen Martínez Philippines Mary Joy Tabal Puerto Rico Beverly Ramos Rwanda Claudette Mukasakindi Singapore Neo Jie Shi Slovakia Katarína Berešová Slovenia Daneja Grandovec Sri Lanka Niluka Geethani Rajasekara Tanzania Sara Ramadhani Venezuela Yolimar Pineda Zimbabwe Rutendo Nyahora Universality places Cambodia Nary Ly Malawi Tereza Master Saudi Arabia Sarah Attar Total 171 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's 20 km walk ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 1 : 36 : 00 Australia Rachel Tallent Regan Lamble Tanya Holliday Belarus Bolivia Claudia Balderrama Ángela Castro Wendy Cornejo China Liu Hong Lu Xiuzhi Qieyang Shenjie Colombia Sandra Arenas Sandra Galvis Yeseida Carrillo Ecuador Magaly Bonilla Gabriela Cornejo Paola Pérez Greece Antigoni Drisbioti Despina Zapounidou Panayióta Tsinopoúlou Guatemala Mayra Carolina Herrera Mirna Ortiz Maritza Poncio Hungary Viktória Madarász Barbara Kovács Rita Récsei Italy Eleonora Giorgi Antonella Palmisano Elisa Rigaudo Japan Kumiko Okada Kazakhstan Lithuania Brigita Virbalytė - Dimšienė Živilė Vaiciukevičiūtė Neringa Aidietytė Mexico María Guadalupe González Alejandra Ortega María Guadalupe Sánchez Poland Paulina Buziak Agnieszka Dygacz Agnieszka Szwarnóg Portugal Inês Henriques Ana Cabecinha Daniela Cardoso Romania Claudia Ștef Ana Veronica Rodean Andreea Arsine South Korea Spain Raquel González Beatriz Pascual Julia Takacs Ukraine Lyudmyla Olyanovska Nadiya Borovska Inna Kashyna Brazil Érica de Sena Cisiane Lopes Ethiopia Yehualeye Beletew Askale Tiksa India Khushbir Kaur Sapna Punia Peru Kimberly Garcia Jessica Hancco Slovakia Mária Czaková Mária Gáliková United States Maria Michta - Coffey Miranda Melville Czech Republic Anežka Drahotová France Emilie Menuet Kenya Grace Wanjiru Latvia Agnese Pastare New Zealand Alana Barber South Africa Anél Oosthuizen Switzerland Laura Polli Tunisia Chahinez Nasri Universality places El Salvador Yesenia Miranda Total 83 As of 10 June 2016 Field events ( edit ) Men 's field events ( edit ) Men 's long jump ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 8.15 China Gao Xinglong Li Jinzhe Wang Jianan South Africa Zarck Visser Luvo Manyonga Rushwahl Samaai United States Jeff Henderson Jarrion Lawson Mike Hartfield Australia Fabrice Lapierre Henry Frayne Germany Alyn Camara Fabian Heinle Jamaica Damar Forbes Aubrey Smith Azerbaijan Nazim Babayev Belarus Kanstantsin Barycheuski Bermuda Tyrone Smith Brazil Higor Alves Cuba Maykel Demetrio Massó Czech Republic Radek Juška France Kafétien Gomis Georgia Bachana Khorava Great Britain Greg Rutherford Greece Miltos Tentoglou India Ankit Sharma Iran Mohammad Arzandeh South Korea Kim Deok - hyeon Spain Jean Marie Okutu Sweden Michel Tornéus Uruguay Emiliano Lasa Invitational places Universality places Albania Izmir Smajlaj Total 27 As of 6 July 2016 Men 's triple jump ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 16.85 China Dong Bin Xu Xiaolong Cao Shuo Cuba Pedro Pablo Pichardo Alexis Copello Lázaro Martínez United States Chris Benard Will Claye Christian Taylor Bahamas Latario Collie - Minns Leevan Sands Bulgaria Georgi Tsonov Rumen Dimitrov France Benjamin Compaoré Harold Correa Italy Fabrizio Donato Fabrizio Schembri Armenia Levon Aghasyan Azerbaijan Nazim Babayev Colombia Jhon Murillo Dominica Yordanis Duranona Georgia Lasha Torgvaidze Germany Max Heß Guyana Troy Doris India Renjith Maheshwary Jamaica Clive Pullen Japan Daigo Hasegawa Kazakhstan Roman Valiyev Mauritius Jonathan Drack Mexico Alberto Álvarez Netherlands Fabian Florant Nigeria Tosin Oke Poland Karol Hoffmann Portugal Nelson Évora Romania Marian Oprea South Africa Godfrey Khotso Mokoena South Korea Kim Deok - hyeon Turkey Şeref Osmanoğlu Spain Pablo Torrijos Ukraine Viktor Kuznyetsov Virgin Islands Muhammad Halim Invitational places Universality places Burkina Faso Hugues Fabrice Zango Mali Mamadou Chérif Dia Total 43 As of 11 July 2016 Men 's high jump ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 2.29 Bahamas Donald Thomas Trevor Barry Jamal Wilson Italy Marco Fassinotti Gianmarco Tamberi Silvano Chesani Ukraine Bohdan Bondarenko Andriy Protsenko Dmytro Yakovenko United States Erik Kynard Ricky Robertson Bradley Adkins Australia Brandon Starc Joel Baden Belarus Andrei Churyla Dzmitry Nabokau Canada Derek Drouin Michael Mason China Wang Yu Zhang Guowei Cyprus Kyriakos Ioannou Dimítrios Chondrokoúkis Germany Eike Onnen Mateusz Przybylko Great Britain Chris Baker Robbie Grabarz Greece Antonios Mastoras Konstantinos Baniotis Poland Sylwester Bednarek Wojciech Theiner Puerto Rico Luis Castro David Smith Brazil Talles Silva Bulgaria Tihomir Ivanov Czech Republic Jaroslav Bába Israel Dmitry Kroytor Japan Takashi Eto Malaysia Nauraj Singh Randhawa Mexico Edgar Rivera Peru Arturo Chávez Qatar Mutaz Essa Barshim Romania Mihai Donisan Slovakia Matúš Bubeník South Korea Yun Seung - hyun Woo Sang - hyeok Syria Majed Aldin Ghazal Chinese Taipei Hsiang Chun - Hsien Invitational places Universality places Total 45 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's pole vault ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 5.70 China Huang Bokai Xue Changrui Yao Jie France Stanley Joseph Renaud Lavillenie Kévin Menaldo Germany Tobias Scherbarth Karsten Dilla Raphael Holzdeppe Poland Piotr Lisek Robert Sobera Paweł Wojciechowski United States Logan Cunningham Cale Simmons Sam Kendricks Brazil Thiago Braz da Silva Augusto Dutra de Oliveira Czech Republic Michal Balner Jan Kudlicka Japan Hiroki Ogita Seito Yamamoto Latvia Mareks Ārents Pauls Pujāts Argentina Germán Chiaraviglio Australia Kurtis Marschall Canada Shawnacy Barber Croatia Ivan Horvat Great Britain Luke Cutts Greece Konstantinos Filippidis Slovenia Robert Renner Sweden Melker Svärd Jacobsson Invitational places Kazakhstan Nikita Filippov Universality places Total 32 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's shot put ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 20.50 Bosnia and Herzegovina Hamza Alić Kemal Mešić Mesud Pezer Poland Konrad Bukowiecki Michał Haratyk Tomasz Majewski United States Ryan Crouser Joe Kovacs Darrell Hill Croatia Filip Mihaljević Stipe Žunić Germany Tobias Dahm David Storl New Zealand Tomas Walsh Jacko Gill Romania Andrei Gag Andrei Toader Spain Carlos Tobalina Borja Vivas Argentina German Lauro Australia Damien Birkinhead Belarus Pavel Lyzhyn Brazil Darlan Romani Bulgaria Georgi Ivanov Canada Tim Nedow Czech Republic Tomáš Stanek Georgia Benik Abramyan Greece Nikólaos Skarvélis India Inderjeet Singh Jamaica O'Dayne Richards Kazakhstan Ivan Ivanov Moldova Ivan Emilianov Nigeria Stephen Mozia Portugal Tsanko Arnaudov Serbia Asmir Kolašinac Invitational places Universality places British Virgin Islands Eldred Henry Congo Franck Elemba Total 36 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's discus throw ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 65.00 Germany Christoph Harting Robert Harting Daniel Jasinski United States Tavis Bailey Andrew Evans Mason Finley Australia Matt Denny Benn Harradine Austria Gerhard Mayer Lukas Weißhaidinger Estonia Gerd Kanter Martin Kupper Iran Ehsan Haddadi Mahmoud Samimi Poland Piotr Małachowski Robert Urbanek Spain Frank Casañas Lois Maikel Martínez Sweden Daniel Ståhl Axel Härstedt Belgium Philip Milanov Colombia Mauricio Ortega Cuba Jorge Fernández Cyprus Apostolos Parellis Hungary Zoltán Kővágó India Vikas Gowda Jamaica Fedrick Dacres Lithuania Andrius Gudžius Samoa Alex Rose South Africa Victor Hogan Ukraine Oleksiy Semenov Invitational places Universality places Total 30 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's hammer throw ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 77.00 Great Britain Chris Bennett Mark Dry Nick Miller Iran Kaveh Mousavi Pejman Ghalenoei Egypt Mostafa Al - Gamel Hassan Mahmoud Poland Pawel Fajdek Wojciech Nowicki Azerbaijan Dzmitry Marshin Brazil Wagner Domingos Costa Rica Roberto Sawyers Cuba Roberto Janet Greece Mihail Anastasakis Hungary Krisztián Pars Israel Oleksandr Drygol Italy Marco Lingua Mexico Diego del Real Moldova Serghei Marghiev Qatar Ashraf Amgad Elseify Slovakia Marcel Lomnický Tajikistan Dilshod Nazarov Spain Javier Cienfuegos Ukraine Yevhen Vynohradov Uzbekistan Suhrob Khodjaev Invitational places United States Conor McCullough Kibwé Johnson Rudy Winkler Universality places Total 20 As of 10 June 2016 Men 's javelin throw ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 83.00 Czech Republic Petr Frydrych Jakub Vadlejch Vitezslav Veselý Estonia Tanel Laanmäe Magnus Kirt Risto Mätas Finland Tero Pitkämäki Antti Ruuskanen Ari Mannio Germany Thomas Röhler Johannes Vetter Julian Weber United States Sam Crouser Cyrus Hostetler Sean Furey Australia Hamish Peacock Joshua Robinson Latvia Rolands Štrobinders Zigismunds Sirmais Poland Łukasz Grzeszczuk Marcin Krukowski Ukraine Oleksandr Pyatnytsya Dmytro Kosynskyy Argentina Braian Toledo Brazil Júlio César de Oliveira Egypt Ihab Abdelrahman Japan Ryohei Arai Kenya Julius Yego New Zealand Stuart Farquhar South Africa Rocco van Rooyen Sri Lanka Sumeda Ranasinghe Chinese Taipei Huang Shih - Feng Trinidad and Tobago Keshorn Walcott Uzbekistan Bobur Shokirjonov Invitational places Universality places Fiji Leslie Copeland Total 30 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's field events ( edit ) Women 's long jump ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 6.70 Germany Sosthene Moguenara Alexandra Wester Malaika Mihambo Great Britain Shara Proctor Jazmin Sawyers Lorraine Ugen Spain Juliet Itoya María del Mar Jover Concepción Montaner United States Tianna Bartoletta Janay DeLoach Brittney Reese Australia Chelsea Jaensch Brooke Stratton Belarus Nastassia Mironchyk - Ivanova Volha Sudarava Brazil Keila Costa Eliane Martins Sweden Khaddi Sagnia Erica Jarder Armenia Amaliya Sharoyan Bahamas Bianca Stuart Barbados Akela Jones Canada Christabel Nettey Cuba Yarianny Arguelles Estonia Ksenija Balta Greece Haido Alexouli Indonesia Maria Natalia Londa Japan Konomi Kai Mexico Yvonne Treviño Romania Alina Rotaru Serbia Ivana Španović South Africa Lynique Prinsloo Turkey Karin Melis Mey Ukraine Krystyna Hryshutyna Invitational places Independent Olympic Athletes Darya Klishina Universality places Total 36 As of 2 July 2016 Women 's triple jump ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 14.15 United States Christina Epps Andrea Geubelle Keturah Orji Belarus Kseniya Dziatsuk Iryna Vaskouskaya Brazil Keila Costa Núbia Soares Colombia Caterine Ibargüen Yosiri Urrutia Germany Kristin Gierisch Jenny Elbe Italy Dariya Derkach Simona La Mantia Jamaica Kimberly Williams Shanieka Thomas Kazakhstan Irina Ektova Olga Rypakova Portugal Susana Costa Patricia Mamona Romania Cristina Bujin Elena Andreea Panţuroiu Bulgaria Gabriela Petrova China Li Xiaohong Cuba Liadagmis Povea Finland Kristiina Mäkelä France Jeanine Assani Issouf Greece Paraskevi Papachristou Israel Hanna Knyazyeva - Minenko Lithuania Dovilė Dzindzaletaitė Poland Anna Jagaciak - Michalska Slovakia Dana Velďáková Spain Patricia Sarrapio Ukraine Olga Saladukha Venezuela Yulimar Rojas Invitational places Dominica Thea LaFond Universality places Cameroon Joëlle Mbumi Nkouindjin Total 37 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's high jump ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 1.93 Ukraine Iryna Herashchenko Oksana Okuneva Yuliya Chumachenko United States Vashti Cunningham Chaunte Lowe Inika McPherson Croatia Ana Šimić Blanka Vlašić Great Britain Morgan Lake Italy Alessia Trost Desirée Rossit Saint Lucia Jeanelle Scheper Levern Spencer Sweden Erika Kinsey Sofie Skoog Uzbekistan Svetlana Radzivil Nadezhda Dusanova Australia Eleanor Patterson Barbados Akela Jones Bulgaria Mirela Demireva Canada Alyxandria Treasure Cyprus Leontia Kallenou Czech Republic Michaela Hrubá Germany Marie - Laurence Jungfleisch Hungary Barbara Szabó Lithuania Airinė Palšytė Nigeria Doreen Amata Poland Kamila Licwinko Romania Daniela Stanciu Spain Ruth Beitia Invitational places Universality places Seychelles Lissa Labiche Total 32 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's pole vault ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 4.50 Canada Annika Newell Alysha Newman Kelsie Ahbe Germany Lisa Ryzih Annika Roloff Martina Strutz United States Sandi Morris Jenn Suhr Alexis Weeks Brazil Fabiana Murer Joana Costa China Li Ling Ren Mengqian Czech Republic Jiřina Svobodová Romana Maláčová Finland Minna Nikkanen Wilma Murto Greece Nikoleta Kyriakopoulou Ekaterini Stefanidi Portugal Marta Onofre Leonor Tavares Sweden Angelica Bengtsson Michaela Meijer Australia Alana Boyd Cuba Yarisley Silva France Vanessa Boslak Great Britain Holly Bradshaw Ireland Tori Pena Italy Sonia Malavisi Netherlands Femke Pluim New Zealand Eliza McCartney Puerto Rico Diamara Planell Slovenia Tina Šutej Switzerland Nicole Büchler Venezuela Robeilys Peinado Invitational places Universality places Total 36 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's shot put ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 17.75 Belarus Aliona Dubitskaya Yuliya Leantsiuk Natallia Mikhnevich China Gao Yang Gong Lijiao Guo Tianqian United States Michelle Carter Felisha Johnson Raven Saunders Canada Brittany Crew Taryn Suttie Germany Sara Gambetta Christina Schwanitz Lena Urbaniak Great Britain Ukraine Halyna Obleshchuk Olga Golodna Brazil Geisa Arcanjo Bulgaria Radoslava Mavrodieva Chile Natalia Duco Colombia Sandra Lemos Cuba Yaniuvis López Hungary Anita Márton India Manpreet Kaur Iran Leyla Rajabi Italy Chiara Rosa Jamaica Danniel Thomas Moldova Dimitriana Surdu Netherlands Melissa Boekelman New Zealand Valerie Adams Poland Paulina Guba Trinidad and Tobago Cleopatra Borel Turkey Emel Dereli Venezuela Ahymara Espinoza Invitational places Universality places Cameroon Auriol Dongmo Guinea - Bissau Jéssica Inchude Total 36 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's discus throw ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 61.00 China Lu Xiaoxin Tan Jian Su Xinyue Germany Julia Fischer Nadine Müller Shanice Craft Jamaica Tarasue Barnett Shadae Lawrence Kellion Knibb United States Whitney Ashley Kelsey Card Shelbi Vaughan Brazil Andressa de Morais Fernanda Martins Cuba Denia Caballero Yaime Pérez France Mélina Robert - Michon Pauline Pousse Argentina Rocio Comba Australia Dani Samuels Chile Karen Gallardo Croatia Sandra Perković Great Britain Jade Lally Greece Chrysoula Anagnostopoulou India Seema Punia Lithuania Zinaida Sendriūtė Moldova Natalia Stratulat Poland Żaneta Glanc Portugal Irina Rodrigues Serbia Dragana Tomašević Spain Sabina Asenjo Ukraine Nataliya Semenova Invitational places Universality places Total 31 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's hammer throw ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 71.00 China Liu Tingting Wang Zheng Zhang Wenxiu Germany Betty Heidler Kathrin Klaas Charlene Woitha Poland Joanna Fiodorow Malwina Kopron Anita Włodarczyk United States Gwen Berry Amber Campbell Deanna Price Belarus Aksana Miankova Alena Sobaleva Moldova Marina Marghieva Zalina Marghieva Argentina Jennifer Dahlgren Azerbaijan Hanna Skydan Canada Heather Steacy Cuba Yirisleydi Ford Czech Republic Kateřina Šafránková France Alexandra Tavernier Great Britain Sophie Hitchon Jamaica Daina Levy Slovakia Martina Hrašnová Turkey Kıvılcım Kaya Ukraine Iryna Novozhylova Venezuela Rosa Rodríguez Invitational places Universality places Total 29 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's javelin throw ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 62.00 Australia Kimberley Mickle Kelsey - Lee Roberts Kathryn Mitchell China Li Lingwei Liu Shiying Lü Huihui Germany Christin Hussong Christina Obergföll Linda Stahl Latvia Madara Palameika Sinta Ozoliņa - Kovala United States Maggie Malone Brittany Borman Belarus Tatsiana Khaladovich Canada Elizabeth Gleadle Colombia Flor Ruiz Croatia Sara Kolak Cuba Yulenmis Aguilar Czech Republic Barbora Špotáková Estonia Liina Laasma Finland Sanni Utriainen France Mathilde Andraud Great Britain Iceland Ásdís Hjálmsdóttir Israel Marharyta Dorozhon Japan Yuki Ebihara Poland Maria Andrejczyk Slovenia Martina Ratej South Africa Sunette Viljoen Ukraine Kateryna Derun Invitational places Nicaragua Dalila Rugama Universality places Total 31 As of 10 June 2016 Combined events ( edit ) Men 's decathlon ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 8100 Germany Kai Kazmirek Arthur Abele Rico Freimuth United States Ashton Eaton Jeremy Taiwo Zach Ziemek Cuba Yordanis García Leonel Suárez Estonia Maicel Uibo Karl Robert Saluri France Bastien Auzeil Kevin Mayer Grenada Kurt Felix Lindon Victor Japan Keisuke Ushiro Akihiko Nakamura Netherlands Pieter Braun Eelco Sintnicolaas Algeria Larbi Bourrada Australia Cedric Dubler Austria Dominik Distelberger Belarus Andrei Krauchanka Belgium Thomas Van der Plaetsen Brazil Luiz Alberto de Araújo Canada Damian Warner Czech Republic Adam Helcelet Jiří Sýkora Poland Paweł Wiesiołek Serbia Mihail Dudaš South Africa Willem Coertzen Spain Pau Tonnesen Ukraine Oleksiy Kasyanov Uzbekistan Leonid Andreev Invitational places Madagascar Ali Kame Universality places Total 34 As of 10 June 2016 Women 's heptathlon ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of athletes NOC Nominated athletes Entry standard -- 6200 Germany Claudia Rath Carolin Schäfer Jennifer Oeser Netherlands Nadine Broersen Anouk Vetter Nadine Visser United States Barbara Nwaba Heather Miller - Koch Kendell Williams Belarus Yana Maksimava Katsiaryna Netsviatayeva Czech Republic Kateřina Cachová Eliška Klučinová Great Britain Jessica Ennis - Hill Katarina Johnson - Thompson Hungary Xénia Krizsán Györgyi Farkas Ukraine Alina Fyodorova Hanna Melnychenko Austria Ivona Dadic Barbados Akela Jones Belgium Nafissatou Thiam Canada Brianne Theisen - Eaton Colombia Evelis Aguilar Cuba Yorgelis Rodríguez Estonia Grit Šadeiko France Antoinette Nana Djimou Ida Latvia Laura Ikauniece Nigeria Uhunoma Osazuwa Uzbekistan Ekaterina Voronina Invitational places Brazil Vanessa Spinola Poland Karolina Tymińska Universality places Total 33 As of 13 July 2016 Relay events ( edit ) IAAF Qualified Relay Teams Men 's 4 × 100 m relay ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of teams Qualified teams 2015 IAAF World Relays 8 United States Jamaica Japan Brazil France Saint Kitts and Nevis Trinidad and Tobago Germany IAAF World Ranking List ( as of July 12 , 2016 ) 8 Antigua and Barbuda Canada China Cuba Dominican Republic Great Britain Netherlands Turkey Men 's 4 × 400 m relay ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of teams Qualified teams 2015 IAAF World Relays 8 United States Bahamas Belgium Jamaica Brazil Great Britain Trinidad and Tobago Botswana IAAF World Ranking List ( as of July 12 , 2016 ) 8 Colombia Cuba Dominican Republic France India Japan Poland Venezuela Women 's 4 × 100 m relay ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of teams Qualified teams 2015 IAAF World Relays 8 Jamaica United States Great Britain Canada Trinidad and Tobago Brazil Nigeria Switzerland IAAF World Ranking List ( as of July 12 , 2016 ) 8 China France Germany Ghana Kazakhstan Netherlands Poland Ukraine Women 's 4 × 400 m relay ( edit ) Qualification standard No. of teams Qualified teams 2015 IAAF World Relays 8 United States Jamaica Great Britain France Poland Canada Australia Brazil IAAF World Ranking List ( as of July 12 , 2016 ) 8 Bahamas Germany India Italy Netherlands Nigeria Romania Ukraine Cuba References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Russia ' still cheating ' as German broadcaster casts doubt over country 's willingness to clean up drug problem '' . Telegraph . March 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Maese , Rick ( 17 June 2016 ) . `` IAAF will not lift the ban on Russian track athletes in time for Rio Games '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 17 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` IAAF approves entry standards for Rio 2016 Olympic Games '' . Athletics Weekly . Retrieved 16 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Qualification System -- Games of the XXXI Olympiad -- Athletics '' ( PDF ) . IAAF . Retrieved 15 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` IAAF / BTC World Relays : Qualifying Process '' . IAAF World Relays . Archived from the original on 23 April 2015 . Retrieved 16 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Will not start Jump up ^ Not selected in 100 m , only in 200 m . Jump up ^ Will not start ? Jump up ^ Not selected by Botswana Olympic Association . Jump up ^ Will not start , only on 200 m . Jump up ^ Not selected by the Italian Olympic team on 14 July 2016 . Jump up ^ WIll not start . Injured ? Jump up ^ http://www.fidal.it/content/Anche-Bamoussa-alle-Olimpiadi-di-Rio/97141 Jump up ^ http://pulse.ng/sports/athletics/olympics-yuliya-stepanova-granted-permission-to-race-in-rio-id5215210.html Jump up ^ https://www.iaaf.org/news/news/olympic-qualifying-teams-usa-kenya-jamaica Jump up ^ Qualified in the 20 km but selected to replace Schwazer in the 50 km . Italy will not participate in this event . Jump up ^ https://www.iaaf.org/news/report/china-race-walk-olympic-trial-2016 Jump up ^ Did not selected . Jump up ^ Injured as of 14 July 2016 and not selected by the Olympic team . Jump up ^ Injured during Herculis meeting and will not participate . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Suspended by his NOC for meldonium doping , June 2016 Jump up ^ http://news.kbs.co.kr/news/view.do?ncd=3314658 Jump up ^ ( Did receive the Olympic Standard ) `` US Olympic Track And Field Trials '' . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ http://www.teamusa.org/News/2016/July/14/3-US-Mens-Hammer-Throwers-Invited-To-Compete-At-Rio-Olympics Jump up ^ https://www.iaaf.org/news/press-release/darya-klishina-eligible-independent-neutral-r Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` Nigeria 's 4X400 Women Relay Team Disqualified From Rio Olympics '' . Information Nigeria. 29 July 2016 . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . 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45 | document: Stellar classification - wikipedia Stellar classification Classification of stars based on their spectral characteristics For the ranking system , e.g. `` four out of five stars '' , see Star ( classification ) . Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram Spectral type Brown dwarfs White dwarfs Red dwarfs Subdwarfs Main sequence ( `` dwarfs '' ) Subgiants Giants Bright giants Supergiants Hypergiants absolute magni - tude ( M ) In astronomy , stellar classification is the classification of stars based on their spectral characteristics . Electromagnetic radiation from the star is analyzed by splitting it with a prism or diffraction grating into a spectrum exhibiting the rainbow of colors interspersed with spectral lines . Each line indicates a particular chemical element or molecule , with the line strength indicating the abundance of that element . The strengths of the different spectral lines vary mainly due to the temperature of the photosphere , although in some cases there are true abundance differences . The spectral class of a star is a short code primarily summarizing the ionization state , giving an objective measure of the photosphere 's temperature . Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan - Keenan ( MK ) system using the letters O , B , A , F , G , K , and M , a sequence from the hottest ( O type ) to the coolest ( M type ) . Each letter class is then subdivided using a numeric digit with 0 being hottest and 9 being coolest ( e.g. A8 , A9 , F0 , and F1 form a sequence from hotter to cooler ) . The sequence has been expanded with classes for other stars and star - like objects that do not fit in the classical system , such as class D for white dwarfs and classes S and C for carbon stars . In the MK system , a luminosity class is added to the spectral class using Roman numerals . This is based on the width of certain absorption lines in the star 's spectrum , which vary with the density of the atmosphere and so distinguish giant stars from dwarfs . Luminosity class 0 or Ia+ is used for hypergiants , class I for supergiants , class II for bright giants , class III for regular giants , class IV for sub-giants , class V for main - sequence stars , class sd ( or VI ) for sub-dwarfs , and class D ( or VII ) for white dwarfs . The full spectral class for the Sun is then G2V , indicating a main - sequence star with a temperature around 5,800 K . Contents 1 Conventional color description 2 Modern classification 2.1 Harvard spectral classification 2.2 Yerkes spectral classification 2.3 Spectral peculiarities 3 History 3.1 Secchi classes 3.2 Draper system 3.3 Harvard system 3.4 Mount Wilson classes 4 Spectral types 4.1 `` Early '' and `` late '' nomenclature 4.2 Class O 4.3 Class B 4.4 Class A 4.5 Class F 4.6 Class G 4.7 Class K 4.8 Class M 5 Extended spectral types 5.1 Hot blue emission star classes 5.1. 1 Class W : Wolf -- Rayet 5.1. 2 The `` Slash '' stars 5.2 Cool red and brown dwarf classes 5.2. 1 Class L 5.2. 2 Class T : methane dwarfs 5.2. 3 Class Y 5.3 Late giant carbon - star classes 5.3. 1 Class C : carbon stars 5.3. 2 Class S 5.3. 3 Classes MS and SC : intermediary carbon - related classes 5.4 White dwarf classifications 6 Stellar remnants 7 Replaced spectral classes 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Conventional color description ( edit ) Main article : Green star ( astronomy ) Just - saturated RGB - camera discs The conventional color description takes into account only the peak of the stellar spectrum . In actuality , however , stars radiate in all parts of the spectrum . Because all spectral colors combined appear white , the actual apparent colors the human eye would observe are far lighter than the conventional color descriptions would suggest . This characteristic of ' lightness ' indicates that the simplified assignment of colors within the spectrum can be misleading . Excluding color - contrast illusions in dim light , there are no green , indigo , or violet stars . Red dwarfs are a deep shade of orange , and brown dwarfs do not literally appear brown , but hypothetically would appear dim grey to a nearby observer . Modern classification ( edit ) The Morgan -- Keenan spectral classification The modern classification system is known as the Morgan -- Keenan ( MK ) classification . Each star is assigned a spectral class from the older Harvard spectral classification and a luminosity class using Roman numerals as explained below , forming the star 's spectral type . Other modern stellar classification systems , such as the UBV system , are based on color indexes -- the measured differences in three or more color magnitudes . Those numbers are given labels such as `` U-V '' or `` B-V '' , which represent the colors passed by two standard filters ( e.g. Ultraviolet , Blue and Visual ) . Harvard spectral classification ( edit ) The Harvard system is a one - dimensional classification scheme by astronomer Annie Jump Cannon , who re-ordered and simplified a prior alphabetical system . Stars are grouped according to their spectral characteristics by single letters of the alphabet , optionally with numeric subdivisions . Main - sequence stars vary in surface temperature from approximately 2,000 to 50,000 K , whereas more - evolved stars can have temperatures above 100,000 K. Physically , the classes indicate the temperature of the star 's atmosphere and are normally listed from hottest to coldest . Class Effective temperature Vega - relative chromaticity Chromaticity ( D65 ) Main - sequence mass ( solar masses ) Main - sequence radius ( solar radii ) Main - sequence luminosity ( bolometric ) Hydrogen lines Fraction of all main - sequence stars O ≥ 30,000 K blue blue ≥ 16 M ≥ 6.6 R ≥ 30,000 L Weak ~ 0.00003 % 10,000 -- 30,000 K blue white deep blue white 2.1 -- 16 M 1.8 -- 6.6 R 25 -- 30,000 L Medium 0.13 % 7,500 -- 10,000 K white blue white 1.4 -- 2.1 M 1.4 -- 1.8 R 5 -- 25 L Strong 0.6 % 6,000 -- 7,500 K yellow white white 1.04 -- 1.4 M 1.15 -- 1.4 R 1.5 -- 5 L Medium 3 % 5,200 -- 6,000 K yellow yellowish white 0.8 -- 1.04 M 0.96 -- 1.15 R 0.6 -- 1.5 L Weak 7.6 % 3,700 -- 5,200 K light orange pale yellow orange 0.45 -- 0.8 M 0.7 -- 0.96 R 0.08 -- 0.6 L Very weak 12.1 % 2,400 -- 3,700 K orange red light orange red 0.08 -- 0.45 M ≤ 0.7 R ≤ 0.08 L Very weak 76.45 % The Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram relates stellar classification with absolute magnitude , luminosity , and surface temperature . The spectral classes O through M , as well as other more specialized classes discussed later , are subdivided by Arabic numerals ( 0 -- 9 ) , where 0 denotes the hottest stars of a given class . For example , A0 denotes the hottest stars in class A and A9 denotes the coolest ones . Fractional numbers are allowed ; for example , the star Mu Normae is classified as O9. 7 . The Sun is classified as G2 . Conventional color descriptions are traditional in astronomy , and represent colors relative to the mean color of an A class star , which is considered to be white . The apparent color descriptions are what the observer would see if trying to describe the stars under a dark sky without aid to the eye , or with binoculars . However , most stars in the sky , except the brightest ones , appear white or bluish white to the unaided eye because they are too dim for color vision to work . Red supergiants are cooler and redder than dwarfs of the same spectral type , and stars with particular spectral features such as carbon stars may be far redder than any black body . The fact that the Harvard classification of a star indicated its surface or photospheric temperature ( or more precisely , its effective temperature ) was not fully understood until after its development , though by the time the first Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram was formulated ( by 1914 ) , this was generally suspected to be true . In the 1920s , the Indian physicist Meghnad Saha derived a theory of ionization by extending well - known ideas in physical chemistry pertaining to the dissociation of molecules to the ionization of atoms . First he applied it to the solar chromosphere , then to stellar spectra . Harvard astronomer Cecilia Payne then demonstrated that the O-B-A-F-G-K-M spectral sequence is actually a sequence in temperature . Because the classification sequence predates our understanding that it is a temperature sequence , the placement of a spectrum into a given subtype , such as B3 or A7 , depends upon ( largely subjective ) estimates of the strengths of absorption features in stellar spectra . As a result , these subtypes are not evenly divided into any sort of mathematically representable intervals . Yerkes spectral classification ( edit ) Spectra for dwarfs ( luminosity class V ) for standard spectral types taken from Pickles ( 1998 ) . Several notable spectral lines are indicated . Hydrogen lines are strongest for types A and B , and the overall spectrum peaks at shorter wavelengths for hotter stars . The Yerkes spectral classification , also called the MKK system from the authors ' initials , is a system of stellar spectral classification introduced in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan , Philip C. Keenan , and Edith Kellman from Yerkes Observatory . This two - dimensional ( temperature and luminosity ) classification scheme is based on spectral lines sensitive to stellar temperature and surface gravity , which is related to luminosity ( whilst the Harvard classification is based on just surface temperature ) . Later , in 1953 , after some revisions of list of standard stars and classification criteria , the scheme was named the Morgan -- Keenan classification , or MK , and this system remains in use . Denser stars with higher surface gravity exhibit greater pressure broadening of spectral lines . The gravity , and hence the pressure , on the surface of a giant star is much lower than for a dwarf star because the radius of the giant is much greater than a dwarf of similar mass . Therefore , differences in the spectrum can be interpreted as luminosity effects and a luminosity class can be assigned purely from examination of the spectrum . A number of different luminosity classes are distinguished , as listed in the table below . Yerkes luminosity classes Luminosity class Description Examples 0 or Ia hypergiants or extremely luminous supergiants Cygnus OB2 # 12 -- B3 - 4Ia+ Ia luminous supergiants Eta Canis Majoris -- B5Ia Iab intermediate - size luminous supergiants Gamma Cygni -- F8Iab Ib less luminous supergiants Zeta Persei -- B1Ib II bright giants Beta Leporis -- G0II III normal giants Arcturus -- K0III IV subgiants Gamma Cassiopeiae -- B0. 5IVpe V main - sequence stars ( dwarfs ) Achernar -- B6Vep sd ( prefix ) or VI subdwarfs HD 149382 -- sdB5 or B5VI D ( prefix ) or VII white dwarfs van Maanen 2 -- DZ8 Marginal cases are allowed ; for example , a star may be either a supergiant or a bright giant , or may be in between the subgiant and main - sequence classifications . In these cases , two special symbols are used : A slash ( / ) means that a star is either one class or the other . A dash ( - ) means that the star is in between the two classes . For example , a star classified as A3 - 4III / IV would be in between spectral types A3 and A4 , while being either a giant star or a subgiant . Sub-dwarf classes have also been used : VI for sub-dwarfs ( stars slightly less luminous than the main sequence ) . Nominal luminosity class VII ( and sometimes higher numerals ) is now rarely used for white dwarf or `` hot sub-dwarf '' classes , since the temperature - letters of the main sequence and giant stars no longer apply to white dwarfs . Occasionally , letters a and b are applied to luminosity classes other than supergiants ; for example , a giant star slightly more luminous than typical may be given a luminosity class of IIIb . An sample of extreme V stars with strong absorption in He II λ4686 spectral lines have been given the Vz designation . An example star is HD 93129 B . Spectral peculiarities ( edit ) Additional nomenclature , in the form of lower - case letters , can follow the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum . Code Spectral peculiarities for stars : uncertain spectral value ... Undescribed spectral peculiarities exist ! Special peculiarity comp Composite spectrum Emission lines present ( e ) `` Forbidden '' emission lines present er `` Reversed '' center of emission lines weaker than edges eq Emission lines with P Cygni profile f N III and He II emission f * N IV λ4058Å is stronger than the N III λ4634Å , λ4640Å , & λ4642Å lines f+ Si IV λ4089Å & λ4116Å are emission in addition to the N III line ( f ) N III emission , absence or weak absorption of He II ( f+ ) ( ( f ) ) Displays strong He II absorption accompanied by weak N III emissions ( ( f * ) ) h WR stars with emission lines due to hydrogen . ha WR stars with hydrogen emissions seen on both absorption and emission . He wk Weak Helium lines k Spectra with interstellar absorption features m Enhanced metal features n Broad ( `` nebulous '' ) absorption due to spinning nn Very broad absorption features neb A nebula 's spectrum mixed in p Unspecified peculiarity , peculiar star . pq Peculiar spectrum , similar to the spectra of novae q P Cygni profiles s Narrow ( `` sharp '' ) absorption lines ss Very narrow lines sh Shell star features var Variable spectral feature ( sometimes abbreviated to `` v '' ) wl Weak lines ( also `` w '' & `` wk '' ) Element symbol Abnormally strong spectral lines of the specified element ( s ) For example , 59 Cygni is listed as spectral type B1. 5Vnne , indicating a spectrum with the general classification B1. 5V , as well as very broad absorption lines and certain emission lines . Guide for Secchi spectral types ( `` 152 Schjellerup '' is Y Canum Venaticorum ) History ( edit ) The reason for the odd arrangement of letters in the Harvard classification is historical , having evolved from the earlier Secchi classes and been progressively modified as understanding improved . Secchi classes ( edit ) During the 1860s and 1870s , pioneering stellar spectroscopist Angelo Secchi created the Secchi classes in order to classify observed spectra . By 1866 , he had developed three classes of stellar spectra , shown in the table below . In the late 1890s , this classification began to be superseded by the Harvard classification , which is discussed in the remainder of this article . Class number Secchi class description Secchi class I White and blue stars with broad heavy hydrogen lines , such as Vega and Altair . This includes the modern class A and early class F . Secchi class I ( Orion subtype ) A subtype of Secchi class I with narrow lines in place of wide bands , such as Rigel and Bellatrix . In modern terms , this corresponds to early B - type stars Secchi class II Yellow stars -- hydrogen less strong , but evident metallic lines , such as the Sun , Arcturus , and Capella . This includes the modern classes G and K as well as late class F . Secchi class III Orange to red stars with complex band spectra , such as Betelgeuse and Antares . This corresponds to the modern class M . Secchi class IV In 1868 , he discovered carbon stars , which he put into a distinct group : Red stars with significant carbon bands and lines , corresponding to modern classes C and S . Secchi class V In 1877 , he added a fifth class : Emission - line stars , such as Gamma Cassiopeiae and Sheliak , which are in modern class Be . The Roman numerals used for Secchi classes should not be confused with the completely unrelated Roman numerals used for Yerkes luminosity classes . Draper system ( edit ) Classifications in the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra Secchi Draper A , B , C , D Hydrogen lines dominant . II E , F , G , H , I , K , L III IV Did not appear in the catalogue . O Wolf -- Rayet spectra with bright lines . Planetary nebulae . Q Other spectra . Classes carried through into the MK system are in bold . In the 1880s , the astronomer Edward C. Pickering began to make a survey of stellar spectra at the Harvard College Observatory , using the objective - prism method . A first result of this work was the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra , published in 1890 . Williamina Fleming classified most of the spectra in this catalogue . The catalogue used a scheme in which the previously used Secchi classes ( I to IV ) were subdivided into more specific classes , given letters from A to N. Also , the letters O , P , and Q were used -- O for stars whose spectra consisted mainly of bright lines , P for planetary nebulae , and Q for stars not fitting into any other class . Harvard system ( edit ) In 1897 , another worker at Harvard , Antonia Maury , placed the Orion subtype of Secchi class I ahead of the remainder of Secchi class I , thus placing the modern type B ahead of the modern type A. She was the first to do so , although she did not use lettered spectral types , but rather a series of twenty - two types numbered from I to XXII . In 1901 , Annie Jump Cannon returned to the lettered types , but dropped all letters except O , B , A , F , G , K , and M , used in that order , as well as P for planetary nebulae and Q for some peculiar spectra . She also used types such as B5A for stars halfway between types B and A , F2G for stars one - fifth of the way from F to G , and so on . Finally , by 1912 , Cannon had changed the types B , A , B5A , F2G , etc. to B0 , A0 , B5 , F2 , etc . This is essentially the modern form of the Harvard classification system . A common mnemonic for remembering the order of the spectral type letters , from hottest to coolest , is `` Oh , Be A Fine Guy / Girl , Kiss Me '' . Mount Wilson classes ( edit ) A luminosity classification known as the Mount Wilson system was used to distinguish between stars of different luminosities . This notation system is still sometimes seen on modern spectra . Class Meaning sd Subdwarf d Dwarf sg Subgiant g Giant Supergiant Spectral types ( edit ) The stellar classification system is taxonomic , based on type specimens , similar to classification of species in biology : The categories are defined by one or more standard stars for each category and sub-category , with an associated description of the distinguishing features . `` Early '' and `` late '' nomenclature ( edit ) Stars are often referred to as early or late types . `` Early '' is a synonym for hotter , while `` late '' is a synonym for cooler . Depending on the context , `` early '' and `` late '' may be absolute or relative terms . `` Early '' as an absolute term would therefore refer to O or B , and possibly A stars . As a relative reference it relates to stars hotter than others , such as `` early K '' being perhaps K0 , K1 , and K3 . `` Late '' is used in the same way , with an unqualified use of the term indicating stars with spectral types such as K and M , but it can also be used for stars that are cool relative to other stars , as in using `` late G '' to refer to G7 , G8 , and G9 . In the relative sense , `` early '' means a lower Arabic numeral following the class letter , and `` late '' means a higher number . This obscure terminology is a hold - over from an early 20th century model of stellar evolution , which supposed that stars were powered by gravitational contraction via the Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism , which is now known to not apply to main sequence stars . If that were true , then stars would start their lives as very hot `` early - type '' stars and then gradually cool down into `` late - type '' stars . This mechanism provided ages of the Sun that were much smaller than what is observed in the geologic record , and was rendered obsolete by the discovery that stars are powered by nuclear fusion . The terms `` early '' and `` late '' were carried over , beyond the demise of the model they were based on . Class O ( edit ) Main article : O - type star See also : O - type main - sequence star , Blue giant , and Blue supergiant Artist 's rendering of Zeta Puppis , an O4 supergiant O - type stars are very hot and extremely luminous , with most of their radiated output in the ultraviolet range . These are the rarest of all main - sequence stars . About 1 in 3,000,000 ( 0.00003 % ) of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are O - type stars . Some of the most massive stars lie within this spectral class . O - type stars frequently have complicated surroundings that make measurement of their spectra difficult . O - type spectra formerly were defined by the ratio of the strength of the He II λ4541 relative to that of He I λ4471 , where λ is the wavelength , measured in ångströms . Spectral type O7 was defined to be the point at which the two intensities are equal , with the He I line weakening towards earlier types . Type O3 was , by definition , the point at which said line disappears altogether , although it can be seen very faintly with modern technology . Due to this , the modern definition uses the ratio of the nitrogen line N IV λ4058 to N III λλ4634 - 40 - 42 . O - type stars have dominant lines of absorption and sometimes emission for He II lines , prominent ionized ( Si IV , O III , N III , and C III ) and neutral helium lines , strengthening from O5 to O9 , and prominent hydrogen Balmer lines , although not as strong as in later types . Because they are so massive , O - type stars have very hot cores and burn through their hydrogen fuel very quickly , so they are the first stars to leave the main sequence . When the MKK classification scheme was first described in 1943 , the only subtypes of class O used were O5 to O9. 5 . The MKK scheme was extended to O9. 7 in 1971 and O4 in 1978 , and new classification schemes that add types O2 , O3 and O3. 5 have subsequently been introduced . Spectral standards : O7V -- S Monocerotis O9V -- 10 Lacertae Class B ( edit ) See also : B - type main - sequence star , Blue giant , and Blue supergiant Artist 's impression of Aludra , a B5 supergiant seen in Canis Major . B - type stars are very luminous and blue . Their spectra have neutral helium lines , which are most prominent at the B2 subclass , and moderate hydrogen lines . As O - and B - type stars are so energetic , they only live for a relatively short time . Thus , due to the low probability of kinematic interaction during their lifetime , they are unable to stray far from the area in which they formed , apart from runaway stars . The transition from class O to class B was originally defined to be the point at which the He II λ4541 disappears . However , with modern equipment , the line is still apparent in the early B - type stars . Today for main - sequence stars , the B - class is instead defined by the intensity of the He I violet spectrum , with the maximum intensity corresponding to class B2 . For supergiants , lines of silicon are used instead ; the Si IV λ4089 and Si III λ4552 lines are indicative of early B. At mid B , the intensity of the latter relative to that of Si II λλ4128 - 30 is the defining characteristic , while for late B , it is the intensity of Mg II λ4481 relative to that of He I λ4471 . These stars tend to be found in their originating OB associations , which are associated with giant molecular clouds . The Orion OB1 association occupies a large portion of a spiral arm of the Milky Way and contains many of the brighter stars of the constellation Orion . About 1 in 800 ( 0.125 % ) of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are B - type main - sequence stars . Massive yet non-supergiant entities known as `` Be stars '' are main - sequence stars that notably have , or had at some time , one or more Balmer lines in emission , with the hydrogen - related electromagnetic radiation series projected out by the stars being of particular interest . Be stars are generally thought to feature unusually strong stellar winds , high surface temperatures , and significant attrition of stellar mass as the objects rotate at a curiously rapid rate . Objects known as `` B ( e ) '' or `` B ( e ) '' stars possess distinctive neutral or low ionisation emission lines that are considered to have ' forbidden mechanisms ' , undergoing processes not normally allowed under current understandings of quantum mechanics . Spectral standards : B0V -- Upsilon Orionis B0Ia -- Alnilam B2Ia -- Chi Orionis B2Ib -- 9 Cephei B3V -- Eta Ursae Majoris B3V -- Eta Aurigae B3Ia -- Omicron Canis Majoris B5Ia -- Eta Canis Majoris B8Ia -- Rigel Class a ( edit ) See also : A-type main - sequence star Fomalhaut , an A3 main - sequence star A-type stars are among the more common naked eye stars , and are white or bluish - white . They have strong hydrogen lines , at a maximum by A0 , and also lines of ionized metals ( Fe II , Mg II , Si II ) at a maximum at A5 . The presence of Ca II lines is notably strengthening by this point . About 1 in 160 ( 0.625 % ) of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are A-type stars . Spectral standards : A0Van -- Gamma Ursae Majoris A0Va -- Vega A0Ib -- Eta Leonis A0Ia -- HD 21389 A1V -- Sirius A A2Ia -- Deneb A3Va -- Fomalhaut Class F ( edit ) See also : F - type main - sequence star Canopus , an F - type supergiant and the second brightest star in the night sky F - type stars have strengthening spectral lines H and K of Ca II . Neutral metals ( Fe I , Cr I ) beginning to gain on ionized metal lines by late F. Their spectra are characterized by the weaker hydrogen lines and ionized metals . Their color is white . About 1 in 33 ( 3.03 % ) of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are F - type stars . Spectral standards : F0IIIa -- Zeta Leonis F0Ib -- Alpha Leporis F2V -- 78 Ursae Majoris Class G ( edit ) `` G star '' redirects here . For other uses , see G star ( disambiguation ) . See also : G - type main - sequence star and Yellow supergiant The Sun , a G2 main - sequence star , with dark sunspots G - type stars , including the Sun have prominent spectral lines H and K of Ca II , which are most pronounced at G2 . They have even weaker hydrogen lines than F , but along with the ionized metals , they have neutral metals . There is a prominent spike in the G band of CH molecules . Class G main - sequence stars make up about 7.5 % , nearly one in thirteen , of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood . G is host to the `` Yellow Evolutionary Void '' . Supergiant stars often swing between O or B ( blue ) and K or M ( red ) . While they do this , they do not stay for long in the yellow supergiant G class , as this is an extremely unstable place for a supergiant to be . Spectral standards : G0V -- Beta Canum Venaticorum G0IV -- Eta Boötis G0Ib -- Beta Aquarii G2V -- Sun G5V -- Kappa Ceti G5IV -- Mu Herculis G5Ib -- 9 Pegasi G8V -- 61 Ursae Majoris G8IV -- Beta Aquilae G8IIIa -- Kappa Geminorum G8IIIab -- Epsilon Virginis G8Ib -- Epsilon Geminorum Class K ( edit ) See also : K - type main - sequence star `` K - type star '' redirects here . For the Korean nuclear fusion project , see KSTAR . Arcturus , a K1. 5 giant K - type stars are orangish stars that are slightly cooler than the Sun . They make up about 12 % of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood . There are also giant K - type stars , which range from hypergiants like RW Cephei , to giants and supergiants , such as Arcturus , whereas orange dwarfs , like Alpha Centauri B , are main - sequence stars . They have extremely weak hydrogen lines , if they are present at all , and mostly neutral metals ( Mn I , Fe I , Si I ) . By late K , molecular bands of titanium oxide become present . There is a suggestion that K - spectrum stars may potentially increase the chances of life developing on orbiting planets that are within the habitable zone . Spectral standards : K0V -- Sigma Draconis K0III -- Pollux K0III -- Epsilon Cygni K2V -- Epsilon Eridani K2III -- Kappa Ophiuchi K3III -- Rho Boötis K5V -- 61 Cygni A K5III -- Gamma Draconis Class M ( edit ) See also : Red dwarf , Red giant , and Red supergiant UY Scuti , an M4 supergiant Class M stars are by far the most common . About 76 % of the main - sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are class M stars . However , class M main - sequence stars ( red dwarfs ) have such low luminosities that none are bright enough to be seen with the unaided eye , unless under exceptional conditions . The brightest known M - class main - sequence star is M0V Lacaille 8760 , with magnitude 6.6 ( the limiting magnitude for typical naked - eye visibility under good conditions is typically quoted as 6.5 ) , and it is extremely unlikely that any brighter examples will be found . Although most class M stars are red dwarfs , most of the largest ever supergiant stars in the Milky Way are M stars . such as VY Canis Majoris , Antares and Betelgeuse are also class M. Furthermore , the larger , hotter brown dwarfs are late class M , usually in the range of M6. 5 to M9. 5 . The spectrum of a class M star contains lines from oxide molecules ( in the visible spectrum , especially TiO ) and all neutral metals , but absorption lines of hydrogen are usually absent . TiO bands can be strong in class M stars , usually dominating their visible spectrum by about M5 . Vanadium ( II ) oxide bands become present by late M . Spectral standards : M0IIIa -- Beta Andromedae M2III -- Chi Pegasi M1 - M2Ia - Iab -- Betelgeuse M2Ia -- Mu Cephei Extended spectral types ( edit ) A number of new spectral types have been taken into use from newly discovered types of stars . Hot blue emission star classes ( edit ) UGC 5797 , an emission - line galaxy where massive bright blue stars are formed Spectra of some very hot and bluish stars exhibit marked emission lines from carbon or nitrogen , or sometimes oxygen . Class W : Wolf -- Rayet ( edit ) Main article : Wolf -- Rayet star Hubble Space Telescope image of the nebula M1 - 67 and the Wolf -- Rayet star WR 124 in the center Class W or WR represents the Wolf -- Rayet stars , notable for spectra lacking hydrogen lines . Instead their spectra are dominated by broad emission lines of highly ionized helium , nitrogen , carbon and sometimes oxygen . They are thought to mostly be dying supergiants with their hydrogen layers blown away by stellar winds , thereby directly exposing their hot helium shells . Class W is further divided into subclasses according to the relative strength of nitrogen and carbon emission lines in their spectra ( and outer layers ) . WR spectra range is listed below : WN -- spectrum dominated by N III - V and He I - II lines WNE ( WN2 to WN5 with some WN6 ) -- hotter or `` early '' WNL ( WN7 to WN9 with some WN6 ) -- cooler or `` late '' Extended WN classes WN10 and WN11 sometimes used for the Ofpe / WN9 stars h tag used ( e.g. WN9h ) for WR with hydrogen emission and ha ( e.g. WN6ha ) for both hydrogen emission and absorption WN / C -- WN stars plus strong C IV lines , intermediate between WN and WC stars WC -- spectrum with strong C II - IV lines WCE ( WC4 to WC6 ) -- hotter or `` early '' WCL ( WC7 to WC9 ) -- cooler or `` late '' WO ( WO1 to WO4 ) -- strong O VI lines , extremely rare Although the central stars of most planetary nebulae ( CSPNe ) show O type spectra , around 10 % are hydrogen - deficient and show WR spectra . These are low - mass stars and to distinguish them from the massive Wolf - Rayet stars , their spectra are enclosed in square brackets : e.g. ( WC ) . Most of these show ( WC ) spectra , some ( WO ) , and very rarely ( WN ) . The `` slash '' stars ( edit ) Main article : Slash star The slash stars are O - type stars with WN - like lines in their spectra . The name `` slash '' comes from their printed spectral type having a slash in it ( e.g. `` Of / WNL '' ) . There is a secondary group found with this spectra , a cooler , `` intermediate '' group designated `` Ofpe / WN9 '' . These stars have also been referred to as WN10 or WN11 , but that has become less popular with the realisation of the evolutionary difference from other Wolf -- Rayet stars . Recent discoveries of even rarer stars have extended the range of slash stars as far as O2 - 3.5 If / WN5 - 7 , which are even hotter than the original `` slash '' stars . Cool red and brown dwarf classes ( edit ) Main articles : Brown dwarf and Red dwarf The new spectral types L , T , and Y were created to classify infrared spectra of cool stars . This includes both red dwarfs and brown dwarfs that are very faint in the visible spectrum . Brown dwarfs , whose energy comes from gravitational attraction alone , cool as they age and so progress to later spectral types . Brown dwarfs start their lives with M - type spectra and will cool through the L , T , and Y spectral classes , faster the less massive they are ; the highest - mass brown dwarfs can not have cooled to Y or even T dwarfs within the age of the universe . Because this leads to an unresolvable overlap between spectral types ' effective temperature and luminosity for some masses and ages of different L-T-Y types , no distinct temperature or luminosity values can be given . Class L ( edit ) Artist 's impression of an L - dwarf Class L dwarfs get their designation because they are cooler than M stars and L is the remaining letter alphabetically closest to M. Some of these objects have masses large enough to support hydrogen fusion and are therefore stars , but most are of substellar mass and are therefore brown dwarfs . They are a very dark red in color and brightest in infrared . Their atmosphere is cool enough to allow metal hydrides and alkali metals to be prominent in their spectra . Due to low surface gravity in giant stars , TiO - and VO - bearing condensates never form . Thus , L - type stars larger than dwarfs can never form in an isolated environment . However , it may be possible for these L - type supergiants to form through stellar collisions , an example of which is V838 Monocerotis while in the height of its luminous red nova eruption . Class T : methane dwarfs ( edit ) Artist 's impression of a T - dwarf Class T dwarfs are cool brown dwarfs with surface temperatures between approximately 550 and 1,300 K ( 277 and 1,027 ° C ; 530 and 1,880 ° F ) . Their emission peaks in the infrared . Methane is prominent in their spectra . Classes T and L could be more common than all the other classes combined if recent research is accurate . Because brown dwarfs persist for so long -- a few times the age of the universe -- in the absence of catastrophic collisions these smaller bodies can only increase in number . Study of the number of proplyds ( protoplanetary disks , clumps of gas in nebulae from which stars and planetary systems are formed ) indicates that the number of stars in the galaxy should be several orders of magnitude higher than what was previously conjectured . It is theorized that these proplyds are in a race with each other . The first one to form will become a protostar , which are very violent objects and will disrupt other proplyds in the vicinity , stripping them of their gas . The victim proplyds will then probably go on to become main - sequence stars or brown dwarfs of the L and T classes , which are quite invisible to us . Class Y ( edit ) See also : Sub-brown dwarf and Substellar object Artist 's impression of a Y - dwarf Brown dwarfs of spectral class Y are cooler than those of spectral class T and have qualitatively different spectra from them . A total of 17 objects have been placed in class Y as of August 2013 . Although such dwarfs have been modelled and detected within forty light - years by the Wide - field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) there is no well - defined spectral sequence yet and no prototypes . Nevertheless , several objects have been proposed as spectral classes Y0 , Y1 , and Y2 . The spectra of these prospective Y objects display absorption around 1.55 micrometers . Delorme et al. have suggested that this feature is due to absorption from ammonia , and that this should be taken as the indicative feature for the T-Y transition . In fact , this ammonia - absorption feature is the main criterion that has been adopted to define this class . However , this feature is difficult to distinguish from absorption by water and methane , and other authors have stated that the assignment of class Y0 is premature . The latest brown dwarf proposed for the Y spectral type , WISE 1828 + 2650 , is a > Y2 dwarf with an effective temperature originally estimated around 300 K , the temperature of the human body . Parallax measurements have , however , since shown that its luminosity is inconsistent with it being colder than ~ 400 K . The coolest Y dwarf currently known is WISE 0855 − 0714 with an approximate temperature of 250 K . The mass range for Y dwarfs is 9 -- 25 Jupiter masses , but young objects might reach below one Jupiter mass , which means that Y class objects straddle the 13 Jupiter mass deuterium - fusion limit that marks the current IAU division between brown dwarfs and planets . Late giant carbon - star classes ( edit ) Carbon - stars are stars whose spectra indicate production of carbon -- a byproduct of triple - alpha helium fusion . With increased carbon abundance , and some parallel s - process heavy element production , the spectra of these stars become increasingly deviant from the usual late spectral classes G , K , and M. Equivalent classes for carbon - rich stars are S and C . The giants among those stars are presumed to produce this carbon themselves , but some stars in this class are double stars , whose odd atmosphere is suspected of having been transferred from a companion that is now a white dwarf , when the companion was a carbon - star . Class C. : carbon stars ( edit ) Main article : Carbon star Image of the carbon star R Sculptoris and its striking spiral structure Originally classified as R and N stars , these are also known as carbon stars . These are red giants , near the end of their lives , in which there is an excess of carbon in the atmosphere . The old R and N classes ran parallel to the normal classification system from roughly mid G to late M. These have more recently been remapped into a unified carbon classifier C with N0 starting at roughly C6 . Another subset of cool carbon stars are the C-J type stars , which are characterized by the strong presence of molecules of CN in addition to those of CN . A few main - sequence carbon stars are known , but the overwhelming majority of known carbon stars are giants or supergiants . There are several subclasses : C-R -- Formerly its own class ( R ) representing the carbon star equivalent of late G to early K - type stars . C-N -- Formerly its own class representing the carbon star equivalent of late K to M - type stars . C-J -- A subtype of cool C stars with a high content of C . C-H -- Population II analogues of the C-R stars . C - Hd -- Hydrogen - deficient carbon stars , similar to late G supergiants with CH and C bands added . Class S ( edit ) Main article : S - type star Class S stars form a continuum between class M stars and carbon stars . Those most similar to class M stars have strong ZrO absorption bands analogous to the TiO bands of class M stars , whereas those most similar to carbon stars have strong sodium D lines and weak C bands . Class S stars have excess amounts of zirconium and other elements produced by the s - process , and have more similar carbon and oxygen abundances than class M or carbon stars . Like carbon stars , nearly all known class S stars are asymptotic - giant - branch stars . The spectral type is formed by the letter S and a number between zero and ten . This number corresponds to the temperature of the star and approximately follows the temperature scale used for class M giants . The most common types are S3 to S5 . The non-standard designation S10 has only been used for the star Chi Cygni when at an extreme minimum . The basic classification is usually followed by an abundance indication , following one of several schemes : S2 , 5 ; S2 / 5 ; S2 Zr4 Ti2 ; or S2 * 5 . A number following a comma is a scale between 1 and 9 based on the ratio of ZrO and TiO . A number following a slash is a more recent but less common scheme designed to represent the ratio of carbon to oxygen on a scale of 1 to 10 , where a 0 would be an MS star . Intensities of zirconium and titanium may be indicated explicitly . Also occasionally seen is a number following an asterisk , which represents the strength of the ZrO bands on a scale from 1 to 5 . Classes MS and SC : intermediary carbon - related classes ( edit ) In between the M and S classes , border cases are named MS stars . In a similar way , border cases between the S and C-N classes are named SC or CS . The sequence M → MS → S → SC → C-N is hypothesized to be a sequence of increased carbon abundance with age for carbon stars in the asymptotic giant branch . White dwarf classifications ( edit ) Main article : White dwarf spectroscopy Sirius A and B ( a white dwarf of type DA2 ) resolved by Hubble The class D ( for Degenerate ) is the modern classification used for white dwarfs -- low - mass stars that are no longer undergoing nuclear fusion and have shrunk to planetary size , slowly cooling down . Class D is further divided into spectral types DA , DB , DC , DO , DQ , DX , and DZ . The letters are not related to the letters used in the classification of other stars , but instead indicate the composition of the white dwarf 's visible outer layer or atmosphere . The white dwarf types are as follows : DA -- a hydrogen - rich atmosphere or outer layer , indicated by strong Balmer hydrogen spectral lines . DB -- a helium - rich atmosphere , indicated by neutral helium , He I , spectral lines . DO -- a helium - rich atmosphere , indicated by ionized helium , He II , spectral lines . DQ -- a carbon - rich atmosphere , indicated by atomic or molecular carbon lines . DZ -- a metal - rich atmosphere , indicated by metal spectral lines ( a merger of the obsolete white dwarf spectral types , DG , DK and DM ) . DC -- no strong spectral lines indicating one of the above categories . DX -- spectral lines are insufficiently clear to classify into one of the above categories . The type is followed by a number giving the white dwarf 's surface temperature . This number is a rounded form of 50400 / T , where T is the effective surface temperature , measured in kelvins . Originally , this number was rounded to one of the digits 1 through 9 , but more recently fractional values have started to be used , as well as values below 1 and above 9 . Two or more of the type letters may be used to indicate a white dwarf that displays more than one of the spectral features above . Extended white dwarf spectral types : DAB -- a hydrogen - and helium - rich white dwarf displaying neutral helium lines . DAO -- a hydrogen - and helium - rich white dwarf displaying ionized helium lines . DAZ -- a hydrogen - rich metallic white dwarf . DBZ -- a helium - rich metallic white dwarf . A different set of spectral peculiarity symbols are used for white dwarfs than for other types of stars : Code Spectral peculiarities for stars Magnetic white dwarf with detectable polarization Emission lines present Magnetic white dwarf without detectable polarization V Variable PEC Spectral peculiarities exist Stellar remnants ( edit ) Main articles : Neutron star , Black hole , and Exotic star Stellar remnants are objects associated with the death of stars . Included in the category are white dwarfs , and as can be seen from the radically different classification scheme for class D , non-stellar objects are difficult to fit into the MK system . The Hertzsprung - Russell diagram , which the MK system is based on , is observational in nature so these remnants can not easily be plotted on the diagram , or can not be placed at all . Old neutron stars are relatively small and cold , and would fall on the far right side of the diagram . Planetary nebulae are dynamic and tend to quickly fade in brightness as the progenitor star transitions to the white dwarf branch . If shown , a planetary nebula would be plotted to the right of the diagram 's upper right quadrant . A black hole emits no visible light of its own , and therefore would not appear on the diagram . Replaced spectral classes ( edit ) Several spectral types , all previously used for non-standard stars in the mid-20th century , have been replaced during revisions of the stellar classification system . They may still be found in old editions of star catalogs : R and N have been subsumed into the new C class as C-R and C-N . See also ( edit ) Astronomy portal Astrograph Guest star -- Ancient Chinese name for cataclysmic variable stars Spectral signature -- The variation of reflectance or emittance of a material with respect to wavelengths Stellar evolution -- Changes to a star over its lifespan Star count , survey of stars UBV photometric system Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ This is the relative color of the star if Vega , generally considered a bluish star , is used as a standard for `` white '' . Jump up ^ Chromaticity can vary significantly within a class ; for example , the Sun ( a G2 star ) is white , while a G9 star is yellow . Jump up ^ Technically , white dwarfs are no longer `` live '' stars , but rather the `` dead '' remains of extinguished stars . Their classification uses a different set of spectral types from element - burning `` live '' stars . Jump up ^ When used with A-type stars , this instead refers to abnormally strong metallic spectral lines ^ Jump up to : These proportions are fractions of stars brighter than absolute magnitude 16 ; lowering this limit will render earlier types even rarer , whereas generally adding only to the M class . Jump up ^ This rises to 78.6 % if we include all stars . ( See the above note . ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Habets , G.M.H.J. ; Heinze , J.R.W. ( November 1981 ) . `` Empirical bolometric corrections for the main - sequence '' . Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series . 46 : 193 -- 237 ( Tables VII and VIII ) . Bibcode : 1981A&AS ... 46 ... 193H . -- Luminosities are derived from M figures , using M ( ☉ ) = 4.75 . 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( 10 July 1999 ) . `` Dwarfs Cooler than M : the Definition of Spectral Type L Using Discovery from the 2 - μ ALL - SKY Survey ( 2MASS ) '' . The Astrophysical Journal . 519 ( 2 ) : 802 -- 833 . Bibcode : 1999ApJ ... 519 ... 802K . doi : 10.1086 / 307414 . ^ Jump up to : Kirkpatrick , J. Davy ( 2005 ) . `` New Spectral Types L and T '' . Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 43 ( 1 ) : 195 -- 246 . Bibcode : 2005ARA&A ... 43 ... 195K . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. astro. 42.053102. 134017 . Jump up ^ Kirkpatrick , J. Davy ; Barman , Travis S. ; Burgasser , Adam J. ; McGovern , Mark R. ; McLean , Ian S. ; Tinney , Christopher G. ; Lowrance , Patrick J. ( 2006 ) . `` Discovery of a Very Young Field L Dwarf , 2MASS J01415823 − 4633574 '' . The Astrophysical Journal . 639 ( 2 ) : 1120 -- 1128 . arXiv : astro - ph / 0511462 . Bibcode : 2006ApJ ... 639.1120 K . doi : 10.1086 / 499622 . Jump up ^ Kirkpatrick , J. 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( 2004 ) . `` The rate of period change in pulsating DB - white dwarf stars '' . Astronomy and Astrophysics. 428 : 159 -- 170 . arXiv : astro - ph / 0408237 . Bibcode : 2004A&A ... 428 ... 159C . doi : 10.1051 / 0004 - 6361 : 20041372 . Jump up ^ McCook , George P. ; Sion , Edward M. ( 1999 ) . `` A Catalog of Spectroscopically Identified White Dwarfs '' . The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series . 121 : 1 -- 130 . Bibcode : 1999ApJS ... 121 ... 1M . CiteSeerX 10.1. 1.565. 5507 . doi : 10.1086 / 313186 . Jump up ^ `` Pulsating Variable Stars and the Hertzsprung - Russell ( H-R ) Diagram '' . Harvard - Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. 9 March 2015 . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . External links ( edit ) Look up late - type star or early - type star in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Libraries of stellar spectra by D. Montes , UCM Spectral Types for Hipparcos Catalogue Entries Stellar Spectral Classification by Richard O. Gray and Christopher J. Corbally Spectral models of stars by P. Coelho Merrifield , Michael ; Bauer , Amanda ; Häußler , Boris ( 2010 ) . `` Star Classification '' . Sixty Symbols . Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham . Star Formation Accretion Molecular cloud Bok globule Young stellar object Protostar Pre-main - sequence star Herbig Ae / Be Orion T Tauri FU Orionis Herbig -- Haro object Hayashi track Henyey track Evolution Main sequence Red - giant branch Horizontal branch Red clump Asymptotic giant branch Protoplanetary nebula Planetary nebula PG1159 star Dredge - up Instability strip Luminous blue variable Blue straggler Stellar population Supernova Supernova impostor Hypernova Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram Color -- color diagram Luminosity class Subdwarf Dwarf Blue Red White Yellow Brown Subgiant Giant Blue Red Yellow Bright giant Supergiant Blue Red Yellow Hypergiant Yellow Spectral classification O WR Be OB Subdwarf O Subdwarf B Late - type Chemically peculiar Am Ap / Bp Oscillating Barium Carbon CH CN Extreme helium Lambda Boötis Lead HgMn Technetium Shell Remnants White dwarf Helium planet Neutron star Radio - quiet Pulsar Binary X-ray Magnetar Stellar black hole X-ray binary Burster Hypothetical stars Boson star Black dwarf Exotic Electroweak star Quark Strange Preon Planck Dark matter star Dark - energy star Black star Gravastar Frozen star Q star Quasi-star Thorne -- Żytkow object Iron star Blitzar Nucleosynthesis Deuterium burning Lithium burning Proton -- proton chain CNO cycle Helium flash Triple - alpha process Alpha process Carbon burning Neon burning Oxygen burning Silicon burning S - process R - process Fusor Nova Symbiotic Remnant Luminous red nova Structure Core Convection zone Microturbulence Oscillations Radiation zone Atmosphere Photosphere Starspot Chromosphere Corona Stellar wind Bubble Bipolar outflow Accretion disk Asteroseismology Helioseismology Eddington luminosity Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism Properties Designation Dynamics Effective temperature Kinematics Magnetic field Absolute magnitude Mass Metallicity Rotation UBV color Variable star Mira variable Star systems Binary Contact Common envelope Eclipsing Symbiotic Multiple Star cluster Open cluster Globular cluster Super star cluster Planetary system Earth 's Solar System Earth - centric observation of Pole star Circumpolar star Constellation Asterism Magnitude Apparent Extinction Photographic Radial velocity Proper motion Parallax Photometric - standard star Lists Star names Arabic Chinese Extremes Most massive Highest temperature Largest volume Smallest volume Brightest Historical Most luminous Nearest Nearest bright Stars with exoplanets Brown dwarfs White dwarfs Milky Way novae Notable supernovae Supernova candidates Supernova remnants Planetary nebulae Timeline of stellar astronomy Related articles Substellar object Brown dwarf Sub-brown dwarf Planet Galactic year Galaxy Supercluster Guest star Gravity Icarus ( most distant individual star ) Intergalactic star Infrared dark cloud Starfield Category : Stars Star portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stellar_classification&oldid=866164695 '' Categories : Stars Stars by spectral type Stars by luminosity class Hertzsprung -- Russell classifications Classification systems Stellar astronomy Star types Hidden categories : Articles with short description Use dmy dates from December 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 53 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 October 2018 , at 18 : 12 ( UTC ) . 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46 | document: Meaning of life - wikipedia Meaning of life Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the significance of life in general . For other uses , see Meaning of life ( disambiguation ) . Where Do We Come From ? What Are We ? Where Are We Going ? , one of Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin 's most famous paintings The meaning of life , or the answer to the question `` What is the meaning of life ? '' , pertains to the significance of living or existence in general . Many other related questions include : `` Why are we here ? '' , `` What is life all about ? '' , or `` What is the purpose of existence ? '' There have been a large number of proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds . The search for life 's meaning has produced much philosophical , scientific , theological , and metaphysical speculation throughout history . Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question . The meaning of life as we perceive it is derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of , and scientific inquiries about existence , social ties , consciousness , and happiness . Many other issues are also involved , such as symbolic meaning , ontology , value , purpose , ethics , good and evil , free will , the existence of one or multiple gods , conceptions of God , the soul , and the afterlife . Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe , exploring the context and parameters concerning the `` how '' of life . Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well - being and a related conception of morality . An alternative , humanistic approach poses the question , `` What is the meaning of my life ? '' Contents ( hide ) 1 Questions 2 Scientific inquiry and perspectives 2.1 Psychological significance and value in life 2.2 Origin and nature of biological life 2.3 Origins and ultimate fate of the universe 2.4 Scientific questions about the mind 2.4. 1 Parapsychology 2.5 Nature of meaning in life 3 Western philosophical perspectives 3.1 Ancient Greek philosophy 3.1. 1 Platonism 3.1. 2 Aristotelianism 3.1. 3 Cynicism 3.1. 4 Cyrenaicism 3.1. 5 Epicureanism 3.1. 6 Stoicism 3.2 Enlightenment philosophy 3.2. 1 Classical liberalism 3.2. 2 Kantianism 3.3 19th century philosophy 3.3. 1 Utilitarianism 3.3. 2 Nihilism 3.4 20th - century philosophy 3.4. 1 Pragmatism 3.4. 2 Theism 3.4. 3 Existentialism 3.4. 4 Absurdism 3.4. 5 Secular humanism 3.4. 6 Logical positivism 3.4. 7 Postmodernism 3.4. 8 Naturalistic pantheism 3.4. 9 Embodied cognition 4 East Asian philosophical perspectives 4.1 Mohism 4.2 Confucianism 4.3 Legalism 5 Religious perspectives 5.1 Western religions 5.1. 1 Zoroastrianism 5.1. 2 Islam 5.1. 3 Bahá'í Faith 5.1. 4 Judaism 5.1. 5 Christianity 5.2 South Asian religions 5.2. 1 Hindu philosophies 5.2. 1.1 Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism 5.2. 1.2 Vaishnavism 5.2. 2 Jainism 5.2. 3 Buddhism 5.2. 3.1 Earlier Buddhism 5.2. 3.2 Mahayana Buddhism 5.2. 4 Sikhism 5.3 East Asian religions 5.3. 1 Taoism 5.3. 2 Shinto 5.3. 3 New religions 6 In popular culture 7 Popular views 7.1 To realize one 's potential and ideals 7.2 To achieve biological perfection 7.3 To seek wisdom and knowledge 7.4 To do good , to do the right thing 7.5 Meanings relating to religion 7.6 To love , to feel , to enjoy the act of living 7.7 To have power , to be better 7.8 Life has no meaning 7.9 One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life 7.10 Life is bad 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Questions Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways , including the following : What is the meaning of life ? What 's it all about ? Who are we ? Philosopher in Meditation ( detail ) by Rembrandt Why are we here ? What are we here for ? What is the origin of life ? What is the nature of life ? What is the nature of reality ? What is the purpose of life ? What is the purpose of one 's life ? What is the significance of life ? -- see also § Psychological significance and value in life What is meaningful and valuable in life ? What is the value of life ? What is the reason to live ? What are we living for ? These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and arguments , from scientific theories , to philosophical , theological , and spiritual explanations . Scientific inquiry and perspectives Further information : Eudaimonia § Eudaimonia and modern psychology , and Meaningful Life Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context , and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life . In their view , science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety . Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality , such as the Big Bang , the origin of life , and evolution , and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness . Psychological significance and value in life Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction , full engagement in activities , making a fuller contribution by utilizing one 's personal strengths , and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self . Large - data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks , and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task . For example , flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities , and occur only slightly more often in billionaires . A classic example is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory . One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast she can make each unit , and achieves flow in the process . Neuroscience describes reward , pleasure , and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity , especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular . If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life , then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this . Likewise , some ethical naturalists advocate a science of morality -- the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures . Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems . It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures , suggesting that they may be innate , whilst others are culture specific . The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most logical philosophical theories , for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility based theories . Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models . Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience . Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance . Studies have reported conflicted results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta - analyses . Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory , norms , anomie , etc . One value system suggested by social psychologists , broadly called Terror Management Theory , states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death , and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death . Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes . Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer 's disease , reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease , reduced risk of stroke , and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples . In 2014 , the British National Health Service began recommending a five step plan for mental well - being based on meaningful lives , whose steps are : ( 1 ) Connect with community and family ; ( 2 ) Physical exercise ; ( 3 ) Lifelong learning ; ( 4 ) Giving to others ; ( 5 ) Mindfulness of the world around you . Origin and nature of biological life DNA , the molecule containing the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown : notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis ( RNA - based replicators ) and the iron - sulfur world hypothesis ( metabolism without genetics ) . The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution . At the end of the 20th century , based upon insight gleaned from the gene - centered view of evolution , biologists George C. Williams , Richard Dawkins , and David Haig , among others , concluded that if there is a primary function to life , it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one 's genes . This view has not achieved universal agreement ; Jeremy Griffith is a notable exception , maintaining that the meaning of life is to be integrative . Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about `` what it is all for '' , James Watson stated `` I do n't think we 're for anything . We 're just the products of evolution . '' Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth , defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge . Physically , one may say that life `` feeds on negative entropy '' which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment . Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self - organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state , metabolism serves to provide energy , and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations . Typically , organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation , resulting in adaptation through evolution ; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively . Non-cellular replicating agents , notably viruses , are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism . This classification is problematic , though , since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life . Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds , including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA . Origins and ultimate fate of the universe The metric expansion of space . The inflationary epoch is the expansion of the metric tensor at left . Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced , it has become well - supported by several independent observations . However , current physics can only describe the early universe from 10 seconds after the Big Bang ( where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature ) ; a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time . Nevertheless , many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit , and how the universe came into being . For example , one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally , and when considering the anthropic principle , it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse . The ultimate fate of the universe , and implicitly humanity , is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable , such as through a Big Freeze , Big Rip , or Big Crunch . Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the big bang theory . A recent trend has been models of the creation of ' baby universes ' inside black holes , with our own big bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe . Multiverse theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes . Scientific questions about the mind The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science . The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness , and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance . These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science , neuroscience ( e.g. the neuroscience of free will ) and philosophy of mind , though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject . Hieronymus Bosch 's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures , often described in reports of near - death experiences . Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches , for example the Multiple Drafts Model , hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons , thus adhering to biological naturalism . On the other hand , some scientists , like Andrei Linde , have considered that consciousness , like spacetime , might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom , and that one 's perceptions may be as real as ( or even more real than ) material objects . Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a `` space of conscious elements '' , often encompassing a number of extra dimensions . Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience , there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind . Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind . Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative to determinism . Parapsychology Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind , some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness , asserting that consciousness is actually the `` ground of all being '' . Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena , primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers , as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness . In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena , parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments , but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations . Nature of meaning in life The most common definitions of meaning in life involves three components . First , Reker and Wong defined personal meaning as the `` cognizance of order , coherence and purpose in one 's existence , the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals , and an accompanying sense of fulfillment '' ( p. 221 ) . Recently , Martela and Steger have defined meaning as coherence , purpose , and significance . In contrast , Wong has proposed a four - component solution to the question of meaning in life . The four components are purpose , understanding , responsibility , and enjoyment ( PURE ) : You need to choose a worthy purpose or a significant life goal . You need to have sufficient understanding of who you are , what life demands of you , and how you can play a significant role in life . You and you alone are responsible for deciding what kind of life you want to live , and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal . You will enjoy a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for self - determination and actively pursue a worthy life goal . Thus , a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning , rather than stands as a separate factor . Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment , most philosophers ( e.g. , Thaddeus Metz , Daniel Haybron ) propose that there are also objective , concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life . Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but , more importantly , on whether a person 's goal striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard . Western philosophical perspectives The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans . Ancient greek philosophy Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens fresco , by Raphael . Plato is pointing heavenwards to the sky , and Aristotle is gesturing to the world . Platonism Main article : Platonism Plato , a pupil of Socrates , was one of the earliest , most influential philosophers . His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals . His Theory of Forms proposes that universals do not physically exist , like objects , but as heavenly forms . In the dialogue of The Republic , the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good . His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life . In Platonism , the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge , which is the Idea ( Form ) of the Good , from which all good and just things derive utility and value . Aristotelianism Main article : Aristotelian ethics Aristotle , an apprentice of Plato , was another early and influential philosopher , who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge ( such as metaphysics and epistemology ) , but is general knowledge . Because it is not a theoretical discipline , a person had to study and practice in order to become `` good '' ; thus if the person were to become virtuous , he could not simply study what virtue is , he had to be virtuous , via virtuous activities . To do this , Aristotle established what is virtuous : Every skill and every inquiry , and similarly , every action and choice of action , is thought to have some good as its object . This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor ( ... ) Everything is done with a goal , and that goal is `` good '' . -- Nicomachean Ethics 1.1 Yet , if action A is done towards achieving goal B , then goal B also would have a goal , goal C , and goal C also would have a goal , and so would continue this pattern , until something stopped its infinite regression . Aristotle 's solution is the Highest Good , which is desirable for its own sake . It is its own goal . The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good , and all other `` goods '' desirable for its sake . This involves achieving eudaemonia , usually translated as `` happiness '' , `` well - being '' , `` flourishing '' , and `` excellence '' . What is the highest good in all matters of action ? To the name , there is almost complete agreement ; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness , and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living . They disagree , however , about the meaning of happiness . -- Nicomachean Ethics 1.4 Cynicism Main article : Cynicism ( philosophy ) Antisthenes , a pupil of Socrates , first outlined the themes of Cynicism , stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature . Happiness depends upon being self - sufficient and master of one 's mental attitude ; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value , which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character . The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth , power , health , and fame , by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional . As reasoning creatures , people could achieve happiness via rigorous training , by living in a way natural to human beings . The world equally belongs to everyone , so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society . Cyrenaicism Main article : Cyrenaics Aristippus of Cyrene , a pupil of Socrates , founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates 's teachings - that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good ; thus a hedonistic world view , wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure . Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long - term gain of delayed gratification ; denial is unpleasant unhappiness . Epicureanism Main article : Epicureanism Epicurus , a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos , taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures , to attain tranquility and freedom from fear ( ataraxia ) via knowledge , friendship , and virtuous , temperate living ; bodily pain ( aponia ) is absent through one 's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one 's desires . Combined , freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form . Epicurus ' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic `` abstention '' from sex and the appetites : `` When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim , we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality , as we are understood to do , by some , through ignorance , prejudice or wilful misrepresentation . By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul . It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry , not by sexual lust , nor the enjoyment of fish , and other delicacies of a luxurious table , which produce a pleasant life ; it is sober reasoning , searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance , and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul . '' The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism ; there is a soul , but it is as mortal as the body . There is no afterlife , yet , one need not fear death , because `` Death is nothing to us ; for that which is dissolved , is without sensation , and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us . '' Stoicism Main article : Stoicism Zeno of Citium , a pupil of Crates of Thebes , established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe 's divine order , entailed by one 's recognition of the universal logos , or reason , an essential value of all people . The meaning of life is `` freedom from suffering '' through apatheia ( Gr : απαθεια ) , that is , being objective and having `` clear judgement '' , not indifference . Stoicism 's prime directives are virtue , reason , and natural law , abided to develop personal self - control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions . The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions , only to avoid emotional troubles , by developing clear judgement and inner calm through diligently practiced logic , reflection , and concentration . The Stoic ethical foundation is that `` good lies in the state of the soul '' , itself , exemplified in wisdom and self - control , thus improving one 's spiritual well - being : `` Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature . '' The principle applies to one 's personal relations thus : `` to be free from anger , envy , and jealousy '' . Enlightenment philosophy Further information : Enlightenment philosophy The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide . Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason , and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom , equality , and citizenship . The meaning of life changed as well , focusing less on humankind 's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society . This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order . Classical liberalism Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries , out of conflicts between a growing , wealthy , propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe . Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights ( including the right to retain the wealth generated by one 's own work ) , and sought out means to balance rights across society . Broadly speaking , it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal , because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected . There are many forms and derivations of liberalism , but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas . Early thinkers such as John Locke , Jean - Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature , then finding meaning for existence through labor and property , and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts . Kantianism Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the late Enlightenment . Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical , epistemological , and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant . Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation , the `` Categorical Imperative '' , derived from the concept of duty . Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle , and for actions to be ethical , they must adhere to the categorical imperative . Simply put , the test is that one must universalize the maxim ( imagine that all people acted in this way ) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction . In Groundwork , Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back . This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action , no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back . The maxim of this action , says Kant , results in a contradiction in conceivability ( and thus contradicts perfect duty ) . Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act , his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one 's full control and thus one can not be held accountable for the events that occur in it . 19th century philosophy Further information : 19th century philosophy Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus , but , as a school of thought , it is credited to Jeremy Bentham , who found that `` nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters , pain and pleasure '' , then , from that moral insight , deriving the Rule of Utility : `` that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people '' . He defined the meaning of life as the `` greatest happiness principle '' . Jeremy Bentham 's foremost proponent was James Mill , a significant philosopher in his day , and father of John Stuart Mill . The younger Mill was educated per Bentham 's principles , including transcribing and summarizing much of his father 's work . Nihilism Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning . Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world , and especially human existence , of meaning , purpose , comprehensible truth , and essential value ; succinctly , nihilism is the process of `` the devaluing of the highest values '' . Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead , and insisting it was something to overcome , his questioning of the nihilist 's life - negating values returned meaning to the Earth . The End of the World , by John Martin . To Martin Heidegger , nihilism is the movement whereby `` being '' is forgotten , and is transformed into value , in other words , the reduction of being to exchange value . Heidegger , in accordance with Nietzsche , saw in the so - called `` death of God '' a potential source for nihilism : If God , as the supra - sensory ground and goal , of all reality , is dead ; if the supra - sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory , and above it , its vitalizing and up - building power , then nothing more remains to which Man can cling , and by which he can orient himself . The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none , and is indifferent to them . Camus writes of value - nihilists such as Meursault , but also of values in a nihilistic world , that people can instead strive to be `` heroic nihilists '' , living with dignity in the face of absurdity , living with `` secular saintliness '' , fraternal solidarity , and rebelling against and transcending the world 's indifference . 20th - century philosophy Further information : 20th - century philosophy The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature . The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world . Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras ; and philosophy -- particularly following the linguistic turn -- has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived . Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes , from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms ( as in pragmatism and logical positivism ) to efforts to meta - theorize about meaning - making as a personal , individual - driven activity ( existentialism , secular humanism ) . Pragmatism Pragmatism , originated in the late - 19th - century U.S. , to concern itself ( mostly ) with truth , positing that `` only in struggling with the environment '' do data , and derived theories , have meaning , and that consequences , like utility and practicality , are also components of truth . Moreover , pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true , arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true . In practice , theoretical claims must be practically verifiable , i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims , and , that , ultimately , the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry . Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical , useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life . William James argued that truth could be made , but not sought . To a pragmatist , the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience . Theism Main article : Philosophical theism Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so . Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God 's purpose in creating . Theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning , value and purpose , then life would be absurd . Existentialism Main article : Meaning ( existential ) Edvard Munch 's The Scream , a representation of existential angst . According to existentialism , each man and each woman creates the essence ( meaning ) of their life ; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority , one is free . As such , one 's ethical prime directives are action , freedom , and decision , thus , existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism . In seeking meaning to life , the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life , in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient ; this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread , felt in considering one 's free will , and the concomitant awareness of death . According to Jean - Paul Sartre , existence precedes essence ; the ( essence ) of one 's life arises only after one comes to existence . Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a `` leap '' , arguing that life is full of absurdity , and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world . One can live meaningfully ( free of despair and anxiety ) in an unconditional commitment to something finite , and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment , despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so . Arthur Schopenhauer answered : `` What is the meaning of life ? '' by stating that one 's life reflects one 's will , and that the will ( life ) is an aimless , irrational , and painful drive . Salvation , deliverance , and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation , sympathy for others , and asceticism . For Friedrich Nietzsche , life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live . Accordingly , he saw nihilism ( `` all that happens is meaningless '' ) as without goals . He stated that asceticism denies one 's living in the world ; stated that values are not objective facts , that are rationally necessary , universally binding commitments : our evaluations are interpretations , and not reflections of the world , as it is , in itself , and , therefore , all ideations take place from a particular perspective . Absurdism Main article : Absurdism `` ... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it , to take it along , almost defying his torment . For to hope in the possibility of help , not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd , that for God all things are possible -- no , that he will not do . And as for seeking help from any other -- no , that he will not do for all the world ; rather than seek help he would prefer to be himself -- with all the tortures of hell , if so it must be . '' Søren Kierkegaard , The Sickness Unto Death In absurdist philosophy , the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual 's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe . As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world , humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma . Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works , The Sickness Unto Death ( 1849 ) and The Myth of Sisyphus ( 1942 ) : Suicide ( or , `` escaping existence '' ) : a solution in which a person simply ends one 's own life . Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option . Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being : a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd , and , as such , has meaning . Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing ( now commonly referred to as a `` leap of faith '' ) . However , Camus regarded this solution as `` philosophical suicide '' . Acceptance of the Absurd : a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it . Camus endorsed this solution ( notably in his 1947 allegorical novel The Plague or La Peste ) , while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as `` demoniac madness '' : `` He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him ! '' Secular Humanism Further information : Secular Humanism The `` Happy Human '' symbol representing Secular Humanism . Per secular humanism , the human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature , which is self - existing . Human knowledge comes from human observation , experimentation , and rational analysis ( the scientific method ) , and not from supernatural sources ; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be . Likewise , `` values and realities '' are determined `` by means of intelligent inquiry '' and `` are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience '' , that is , by critical intelligence . `` As far as we know , the total personality is ( a function ) of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context . '' People determine human purpose without supernatural influence ; it is the human personality ( general sense ) that is the purpose of a human being 's life . Humanism seeks to develop and fulfill : `` Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity '' . Humanism aims to promote enlightened self - interest and the common good for all people . It is based on the premises that the happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well - being of all humanity , in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture . The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism ( sometimes used synonymously ) are extensions of humanistic values . One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the 21st century 's technoscientific culture . In this light , every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social `` meaning of life '' . From a humanism - psychotherapeutic point of view , the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as `` What is the meaning of my life ? '' This approach emphasizes that the question is personal -- and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose . There are many therapeutic responses to this question . For example , Viktor Frankl argues for `` Dereflection '' , which translates largely as : cease endlessly reflecting on the self ; instead , engage in life . On the whole , the therapeutic response is that the question itself -- what is the meaning of life ? -- evaporates when one is fully engaged in life . ( The question then morphs into more specific worries such as `` What delusions am I under ? '' ; `` What is blocking my ability to enjoy things ? '' ; `` Why do I neglect loved - ones ? '' . ) See also : Existential Therapy and Irvin Yalom Logical positivism Logical positivists ask : `` What is the meaning of life ? '' , `` What is the meaning in asking ? '' and `` If there are no objective values , then , is life meaningless ? '' Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said : `` Expressed in language , the question is meaningless '' ; because , in life the statement the `` meaning of x '' , usually denotes the consequences of x , or the significance of x , or what is notable about x , etc. , thus , when the meaning of life concept equals `` x '' , in the statement the `` meaning of x '' , the statement becomes recursive , and , therefore , nonsensical , or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life . The things ( people , events ) in the life of a person can have meaning ( importance ) as parts of a whole , but a discrete meaning of ( the ) life , itself , aside from those things , can not be discerned . A person 's life has meaning ( for themselves , others ) as the life events resulting from their achievements , legacy , family , etc. , but , to say that life , itself , has meaning , is a misuse of language , since any note of significance , or of consequence , is relevant only in life ( to the living ) , so rendering the statement erroneous . Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli , he found no satisfactory , empirical method of proving this : When we try to be definite , as to what we mean when we say that this or that is `` the Good , '' we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties . Bentham 's creed , that pleasure is the Good , roused furious opposition , and was said to be a pig 's philosophy . Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument . In a scientific question , evidence can be adduced on both sides , and , in the end , one side is seen to have the better case -- or , if this does not happen , the question is left undecided . But in a question , as to whether this , or that , is the ultimate Good , there is no evidence , either way ; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions , and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to `` values '' -- that is to say , as to what is good or bad on its own account , independently of its effects -- lie outside the domain of science , as the defenders of religion emphatically assert . I think that , in this , they are right , but , I draw the further conclusion , which they do not draw , that questions as to `` values '' lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge . That is to say , when we assert that this , or that , has `` value '' , we are giving expression to our own emotions , not to a fact , which would still be true if our personal feelings were different . Postmodernism Further information : Postmodernism Postmodernist thought -- broadly speaking -- sees human nature as constructed by language , or by structures and institutions of human society . Unlike other forms of philosophy , postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence , but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them . Anything resembling a `` meaning of life '' , in postmodernist terms , can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework , and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction . As a rule , postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints , but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process : from radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals ( as in deconstructionism ) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society , without real autonomy ( as in poststructuralism ) . Naturalistic pantheism According to naturalistic pantheism , the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment . Embodied cognition Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion , speech , and cognition to understand the nature of thought . Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities , and genetic studies show that the gene FOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency . George Lakoff , a professor of cognitive linguistics and philosophy , advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning , not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation . Computers use logic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trained biological neural network . Post modern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of symbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their interlocutors know what they mean . Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life . Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains . When combined with more effective training , a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one 's life should be straightforward . East asian philosophical perspectives Further information : Chinese philosophy and Japanese philosophy Mohism Further information : Mohism The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal , impartial love . Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring - a person should care equally for all other individuals , regardless of their actual relationship to him or her . The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes man a righteous being in Mohist thought . This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools , most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional , it should not be indiscriminate . For example , children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers . Confucianism Further information : Confucianism Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education . Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences , Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative . This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei - Ming 's quote , `` we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence . '' Legalism Further information : Legalism ( Chinese philosophy ) The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort . To the Legalists , only practical knowledge was valuable , especially as it related to the function and performance of the state . Religious perspectives The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans . According to the Charter for Compassion signed by many of the world 's leading religious and secular organizations , the core of religion is the golden rule of ` treat others as you would have them treat you ' . The Charter 's founder , Karen Armstrong , quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that ` the rest is commentary ' . This is not to reduce the commentary 's importance , and Armstrong considers that its study , interpretation and ritual are the means by which religious people internalize and live the golden rule . Western religions Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions -- Judaism , Christianity , and Islam Further information : Abrahamic religion and Iranian philosophy Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy named after its prophet Zoroaster , which is believed to have influenced the beliefs of Judaism and its descendant religions . Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendental God , Ahura Mazda , to whom all worship is ultimately directed . Ahura Mazda 's creation is asha , truth and order , and it is in conflict with its antithesis , druj , falsehood and disorder . ( See also Zoroastrian eschatology ) . Since humanity possesses free will , people must be responsible for their moral choices . By using free will , people must take an active role in the universal conflict , with good thoughts , good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay . Islam In Islam , humanity 's ultimate purpose is to discover their creator Allah ( English : God ) through His signs , and be grateful to Him through sincere love and devotion . This is practically shown by following the Divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet . Earthly life is a test , determining one 's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter . A person will either be close to Him and His Love in Jannah ( Paradise ) or far away in Jahannam ( Hell ) . For Allah 's satisfaction , via the Qur'an , all Muslims must believe in God , his revelations , his angels , his messengers , and in the `` Day of Judgment '' . The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows : `` Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom , he is powerful over all things , who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds , and he is the almighty , the forgiving '' ( Qur'an 67 : 1 -- 2 ) and `` And I ( Allâh ) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient ( to Allah ) . '' ( Qur'an 51 : 56 ) . Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship , his names , and his attributes . Terrenal life is a test ; how one acts ( behaves ) determines whether one 's soul goes to Jannat ( Heaven ) or to Jahannam ( Hell ) . However , on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone . The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim ; they are : Shahadah ( profession of faith ) ; salat ( ritual prayer ) ; Zakah ( charity ) ; Sawm ( fasting during Ramadan ) , and Hajj ( pilgrimage to Mecca ) . They derive from the Hadith works , notably of Sahih Al - Bukhari and Sahih Muslim . The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran . Beliefs differ among the Kalam . The Sunni and the Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine decree ; likewise , the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice ; in the esoteric view of the Sufis , the universe exists only for God 's pleasure ; Creation is a grand game , wherein Allah is the greatest prize . The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states `` I ( God ) was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known . Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known . '' One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God , and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature , and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure , that is God . However , this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people , such , as ' Abdu'l - Bahá of the Bahá'í Faith , and in Ibn'Arabī 's Fuṣūṣ al - Ḥikam . Bahá'í faith The Ringstone symbol represents humanity 's connection to God The Bahá'í Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity . To Bahá'ís , the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity . Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings . People 's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow , to develop divine qualities and virtues , and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this . Judaism In the Judaic world view , the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ( ' Olam HaZeh ' ) and prepare it for the world to come ( ' Olam HaBa ' ) , the messianic era . This is called Tikkun Olam ( `` Fixing the World '' ) . Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife , and there is debate concerning the eschatological order . However , Judaism is not focused on personal salvation , but on communal ( between man and man ) and individual ( between man and God ) spiritualised actions in this world . Judaism 's most important feature is the worship of a single , incomprehensible , transcendent , one , indivisible , absolute Being , who created and governs the universe . Closeness with the God of Israel is through study of His Torah , and adherence to its mitzvot ( divine laws ) . In traditional Judaism , God established a special covenant with a people , the people of Israel , at Mount Sinai , giving the Jewish commandments . Torah comprises the written Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition , further developed through the generations . The Jewish people are intended as `` a kingdom of priests and a holy nation '' and a `` light to the Nations '' , influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio - ethical Seven Laws of Noah . The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God . Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual , affirmative and prohibitive injunctions . Modern Jewish denominations differ over the nature , relevance and emphases of mitzvot . Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited , but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God . The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary , but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God , with its love and awe . Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice , compassion , peace , kindness , hard work , prosperity , humility , and education . The world to come , prepared in the present , elevates man to an everlasting connection with God . Simeon the Righteous says , `` the world stands on three things : on Torah , on worship , and on acts of loving kindness . '' The prayer book relates , `` blessed is our God who created us for his honor ... and planted within us everlasting life . '' Of this context , the Talmud states , `` everything that God does is for the good , '' including suffering . The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complimentary esoteric meanings of life . As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God ( personal theism ) , in Kabbalah the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God 's Being ( panentheism ) , related to the Shekhinah ( Divine feminine ) . Jewish observance unites the sephirot ( Divine attributes ) on high , restoring harmony to creation . In Lurianic Kabbalah , the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God 's persona , exiled in physical existence ( the Kelipot shells ) , through the actions of Jewish observance . Through this , in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential `` desire '' of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality , achieved by man from within his limited physical realm , when the body will give life to the soul . Christianity Christ the Redeemer statue on Corcovado mountain in Rio de Janeiro is symbolic of Christianity , illustrating the concept of seeking redemption through Jesus Christ . Christianity has its roots in Judaism , and shares much of the latter faith 's ontology , its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ , as presented in the New Testament . Life 's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ . ( cf . John 11 : 26 ) The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come , which can happen only if one 's sins are forgiven ( John 3 : 16 -- 21 ; 2 Peter 3 : 9 ) . In the Christian view , humankind was made in the Image of God and perfect , but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the first Parents to inherit Original Sin . The sacrifice of Christ 's passion , death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state ( Romans 6 : 23 ) . The means for doing so varies between different groups of Christians , but all rely on belief in Jesus , his work on the cross and his resurrection as the fundamental starting point for a relationship with God . Faith in God is found in Ephesians 2 : 8 -- 9 -- `` For by grace you have been saved through faith ; and that not of yourselves , it is the gift of God ; not as a result of works , that no one should boast . '' ( New American Standard Bible ; 1973 ) . A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering . Nonetheless the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus ' death on the cross . The Gospel maintains that through this belief , the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed , and allows God to change people and instill in them a new heart after his own will , and the ability to do it . This is what the terms `` reborn '' or `` saved '' almost always refer to . In the Westminster Shorter Catechism , the first question is : `` What is the chief end of Man ? '' , that is , `` What is Man 's main purpose ? '' . The answer is : `` Man 's chief end is to glorify God , and enjoy him forever '' . God requires one to obey the revealed moral law saying : `` love the Lord your God with all your heart , with all your soul , with all your strength , and with all your mind ; and your neighbour as yourself '' . The Baltimore Catechism answers the question `` Why did God make you ? '' by saying `` God made me to know Him , to love Him , and to serve Him in this world , and to be happy with Him forever in heaven . '' The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens : `` And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth , and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings , so that they should seek the Lord , in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him , though He is not far from each one of us . '' Catholicism 's way of thinking is better expressed through the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola : `` The human person is created to praise , reverence , and serve God Our Lord , and by doing so , to save his or her soul . All other things on the face of the earth are created for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created . It follows from this that one must use other created things , in so far as they help towards one 's end , and free oneself from them , in so far as they are obstacles to one 's end . To do this , we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things , provided the matter is subject to our free choice and there is no other prohibition . Thus , as far as we are concerned , we should not want health more than illness , wealth more than poverty , fame more than disgrace , a long life more than a short one , and similarly for all the rest , but we should desire and choose only what helps us more towards the end for which we are created . '' Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy . Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father , and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him . Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth , which is considered a crucial stage in their development -- wherein a mortal body , coupled with the freedom to choose , makes for an environment to learn and grow . The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God 's original plan for a paradise , rather the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God 's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges , difficulties , and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength , thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil . Because God is just , he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world , so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God , and reach their full potential . South asian religions Further information : Indian religions and Indian philosophy Hindu philosophies Further information : Hinduism , Hindu philosophy , and Dharma A golden Aum written in Devanagari . The Aum is sacred in Hindu , Jain and Buddhist religions . Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions . Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time , before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion , Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature , generally non-exclusive , suggestive and tolerant in content . Most believe that the ātman ( spirit , soul ) -- the person 's true self -- is eternal . In part , this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes , and goals should match the state of development of the individual . There are four possible aims to human life , known as the purusharthas ( ordered from least to greatest ) : ( i ) Kāma ( wish , desire , love and sensual pleasure ) , ( ii ) Artha ( wealth , prosperity , glory ) , ( iii ) Dharma ( righteousness , duty , morality , virtue , ethics ) , encompassing notions such as ahimsa ( non-violence ) and satya ( truth ) and ( iv ) Moksha ( liberation , i.e. liberation from Saṃsāra , the cycle of reincarnation ) . In all schools of Hinduism , the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma ( causal action ) , sansara ( the cycle of birth and rebirth ) , and moksha ( liberation ) . Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman ( similar to the western concept of a soul ) across numerous lifetimes , and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma . Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas ( practices ) or dharma ( correct living ) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations , though they are generally positive acts in this life as well . Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara ( a personal or chosen God ) ; these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with , as a form of spiritual improvement . In short , the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself . This thought is conveyed in the Mahāvākyas ( `` Tat Tvam Asi '' ( thou art that ) , `` Aham Brahmāsmi '' , `` Prajñānam Brahma '' and `` Ayam Ātmā Brahma '' ( the soul and the world are one ) ) . Advaita and dvaita Hinduism Further information : Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita Vedanta Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman , `` The One Without a Second '' , as a central God - like figure . In monist Advaita Vedanta , ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman , and the goal of life is to know or realize that one 's ātman ( soul ) is identical to Brahman . To the Upanishads , whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman , as one 's core of self , realizes identity with Brahman , and , thereby , achieves Moksha ( liberation , freedom ) . Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation . Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities . The ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence ; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through love of God and upon His grace . Vaishnavism Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of Vishnu or Narayana as the one supreme God . This belief contrasts with the Krishna - centered traditions , such as Vallabha , Nimbaraka and Gaudiya , in which Krishna is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the source of all avataras . Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism , reincarnation , samsara , karma , and the various Yoga systems , but with a particular emphasis on devotion ( bhakti ) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga , often including singing Vishnu 's name 's ( bhajan ) , meditating upon his form ( dharana ) and performing deity worship ( puja ) . The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra and various Samhitas . One popular school of thought , Gaudiya Vaishnavism , teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda . In this , Krishna is worshipped as the single true God , and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna . Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion . The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating , sleeping , mating and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna . Jainism Further information : Jainism and Jain philosophy Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India , its ethical system promotes self - discipline above all else . Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina , a human achieves enlightenment ( perfect knowledge ) . Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings . Only when the living become attached to the non-living does suffering result . Therefore , happiness is the result of self - conquest and freedom from external objects . The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self - realization and bliss . Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul , jiva . Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha . The Jain view of karma is that every action , every word , every thought produces , besides its visible , an invisible , transcendental effect on the soul . Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa ( or ahinsā ) , a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism . Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty . Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms , and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat . Buddhism Earlier Buddhism Buddhists practice to embrace with mindfulness the ill - being ( suffering ) and well - being that is present in life . Buddhists practice to see the causes of ill - being and well - being in life . For example , one of the causes of suffering is unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material . The Buddhist sūtras and tantras do not speak about `` the meaning of life '' or `` the purpose of life '' , but about the potential of human life to end suffering , for example through embracing ( not suppressing or denying ) cravings and conceptual attachments . Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana . Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth . The eight - spoked Dharmachakra Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice . It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada ( Pali ) , literally `` Teaching of Analysis '' , which says that insight must come from the aspirant 's experience , critical investigation , and reasoning instead of by blind faith . However , the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise , considering such advice and evaluation of one 's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged . The Theravadin goal is liberation ( or freedom ) from suffering , according to the Four Noble Truths . This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana , or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth , old age , sickness and death . The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path . Mahayana Buddhism Further information : Mahayana Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view ( still practiced in Theravada ) of the release from individual Suffering ( Dukkha ) and attainment of Awakening ( Nirvana ) . In Mahayana , the Buddha is seen as an eternal , immutable , inconceivable , omnipresent being . The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings , and the existence of the transcendent Buddha - nature , which is the eternal Buddha essence present , but hidden and unrecognised , in all living beings . Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism , such as Chan / Zen and the vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools , explicitly teach that bodhisattvas should refrain from full liberation , allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment . Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas -- individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma , and use that accumulation to aid all . Sikhism The Khanda , an important symbol of Sikhism . The monotheistic Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak Dev , the term `` Sikh '' means student , which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning . This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat ( literally `` the counsel of the gurus '' ) or the Sikh Dharma . The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus , or enlightened leaders , as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib , which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio - economic and religious backgrounds . The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths , so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation : `` The Lord dwells in every heart , and every heart has its own way to reach Him . '' Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God . Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge , and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action . A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God , to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself ( pantheism ) . Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual . While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings , Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable , and stressed that God must be seen from `` the inward eye '' , or the `` heart '' , of a human being : devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator . Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation , as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings . East asian religions Taoism Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang . Taoist cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self - cultivation and self - realization . All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth . Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao , and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence . `` Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves . '' Shinto Shinto torii , a traditional Japanese gate Shinto is the native religion of Japan . Shinto means `` the path of the kami '' , but more specifically , it can be taken to mean `` the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way '' . The `` divine '' crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit . This foundation of free will , choosing one 's way , means that life is a creative process . Shinto wants life to live , not to die . Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self - development . Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms . The presence of evil in the world , as conceived by Shinto , does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so . The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world . New religions There are many new religious movements in East Asia , and some with millions of followers : Chondogyo , Tenrikyo , Cao Đài , and Seicho - No - Ie . New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life . For example , in Tenrikyo , one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others . In popular culture Charles Allan Gilbert 's All is Vanity , an example of vanitas , depicts a young woman amidst her makeup and perfumes , preoccupied with her own beauty at the mirror of her vanity . But all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear , expressing memento mori , that no matter how good she looks , it wo n't last , as death is inevitable . The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture , featured in entertainment media and various forms of art . In Monty Python 's The Meaning of Life , there are several allusions to the meaning of life . At the end of the film , a character played by Michael Palin is handed an envelope containing `` the meaning of life '' , which he opens and reads out to the audience : `` Well , it 's nothing very special . Uh , try to be nice to people , avoid eating fat , read a good book every now and then , get some walking in , and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations . '' Many other Python sketches and songs are also existential in nature , questioning the importance we place on life ( `` Always Look on the Bright Side of Life '' ) and other meaning - of - life related questioning . John Cleese also had his sit - com character Basil Fawlty contemplating the futility of his own existence in Fawlty Towers . In Douglas Adams ' popular comedy book , movie , television , and radio series The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life , the Universe , and Everything is given the numeric solution `` 42 '' , after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought . When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors , Deep Thought explains that `` I think the problem , to be quite honest with you , is that you 've never actually known what the question is . '' In the continuation of the book , the question is proposed to be `` How many roads must a man walk down , before you can call him a man '' from Bob Dylan 's `` Blowin ' in the Wind . '' In the sequel , The Restaurant at the End of the Universe , it states that the question is 6x9 . While 6 x 9 is written as 54 in base 10 , it would be written as 42 in base 13 , which author Adams claimed was completely serendipitous . Hamlet meditating upon Yorick 's skull has become the most lasting embodiment of the imagery of vanitas , conveying the theme memento mori ( ' Remember you shall die ' ) . Whatever the meaning of life , it ( life ) is fleeting . In The Simpsons episode `` Homer the Heretic '' , a representation of God agrees to tell Homer what the meaning of life is , but the show 's credits begin to roll just as he starts to say what it is . In Red vs. Blue season 1 episode 1 the character Simmons asks Grif the question `` Why are we here ? '' and is a major line in the series . In Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure , the characters are asked how we should live our lives , and reply with a version of the golden rule ` be excellent to each other ' followed by ' party on , dudes ! ' . In Person of Interest season 5 episode 13 , an artificial intelligence referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is `` Everyone dies alone . But if you mean something to someone , if you help someone , or love someone . If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all . '' This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale . Popular views `` What is the meaning of life ? '' is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives , most in the context `` What is the purpose of life ? '' . Some popular answers include : To realize one 's potential and ideals To chase dreams . To live one 's dreams . To spend it for something that will outlast it . To matter : to count , to stand for something , to have made some difference that you lived at all . To expand one 's potential in life . To become the person you 've always wanted to be . To become the best version of yourself . To seek happiness and flourish . To be a true authentic human being . To be able to put the whole of oneself into one 's feelings , one 's work , one 's beliefs . To follow or submit to our destiny . To achieve eudaimonia , a flourishing of human spirit . To achieve biological perfection To survive , that is , to live as long as possible , including pursuit of immortality ( through scientific means ) . To live forever or die trying. . Existence ; to keep existing , to keep being , to preserve own existence ; not to cease to be , not to disappear ; existence solely relying on itself ; to overcome threats to own existence ; existential and ontological self - sufficiency . To adapt . Often to improve one 's chances of success in another purpose ; sometimes , as a purpose in itself ( adapting to adapt ) . To evolve . To replicate , to reproduce . `` The ' dream ' of every cell is to become two cells . '' To seek wisdom and knowledge To expand one 's perception of the world . To follow the clues and walk out the exit . To learn as many things as possible in life . To know as much as possible about as many things as possible . To seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind , as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness . To face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us . To find the meaning or purpose of life . To find a reason to live . To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality . To do good , to do the right thing To leave the world as a better place than you found it . To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it . To benefit others . To give more than you take . To end suffering . To create equality . To challenge oppression . To distribute wealth . To be generous . To contribute to the well - being and spirit of others . To help others , to help one another . To take every chance to help another while on your journey here . To be creative and innovative . To forgive . To accept and forgive human flaws . To be emotionally sincere . To be responsible . To be honorable . To seek peace . Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels ; from Gustave Doré 's illustrations for the Divine Comedy Meanings relating to religion ( He ) ( God ) who created death and life to test you ( as to ) who is best in deed and He is Exalted in Might , the Forgiving . ( Quran 67 : 2 ) To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife . To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine . To have a pure soul and experience God . To understand the mystery of God . To know or attain union with God . To know oneself , know others , and know the will of heaven . To love something bigger , greater , and beyond ourselves , something we did not create or have the power to create , something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it . To love God and all of his creations . To glorify God by enjoying him forever . To spread your religion and share it with others . ( Matthew 28 : 18 - 20 ) To act justly , love mercy , and walk humbly with your God . To be fruitful and multiply . ( Genesis 1 : 28 ) To obtain freedom . ( Romans 8 : 20 - 21 ) To fill the Earth and subdue it . ( Genesis 1 : 28 ) To serve humankind , to prepare to meet and become more like God , to choose good over evil , and have joy . To love , to feel , to enjoy the act of living To love more . To love those who mean the most . Every life you touch will touch you back . To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has . To seek beauty in all its forms . To have fun or enjoy life . To seek pleasure and avoid pain . To be compassionate . To be moved by the tears and pain of others , and try to help them out of love and compassion . To love others as best we possibly can . To eat , drink , and be merry . To have power , to be better To strive for power and superiority . To rule the world . To know and master the world . To know and master nature . Life has no meaning Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature , and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose . Life has no meaning , but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence . There is no point in life , and that is exactly what makes it so special . One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood . You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life . The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life . Ultimately , a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is , but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked . In a word , each person is questioned by life ; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life ; to life they can only respond by being responsible . Life is bad Better never to have been . People will always experience pain ( harm ) which outweighs any pleasure . Not coming into existence means people will not experience pain , nor will they be disadvantaged by not experiencing pleasure as they do not exist . This is described as the asymmetry of pleasure and pain ( see antinatalism ) . See also Philosophy portal Spirituality portal Scientific explanations Power , Sex , Suicide : Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life Sex , Death and the Meaning of Life Origin and nature of life and reality Abiogenesis Awareness Being Biosemiotics Existence Human condition Logos Metaphysical naturalism Perception Reality Simulated reality Theory of everything Teleology Ultimate fate of the universe Value of life Culture of life Bioethics Meaningful life Quality of life Value of life Purpose of life Destiny Ethical living Intentional living Life extension Man 's Search for Meaning Means to an end Philosophy of life Miscellaneous Human extinction Life stance Meaning - making Perennial philosophy Vale of tears World riddle World view References Jump up ^ Jonathan Westphal ( 1998 ) . Philosophical Propositions : An Introduction to Philosophy . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 17053 - 2 . Jump up ^ Robert Nozick ( 1981 ) . Philosophical Explanations . Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 66479 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Julian Baggini ( September 2004 ) . What 's It All About ? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life . USA : Granta Books . ISBN 1 - 86207 - 661 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ronald F. Thiemann ; William Carl Placher ( 1998 ) . Why Are We Here ? : Everyday Questions and the Christian Life . Continuum International Publishing Group . ISBN 1 - 56338 - 236 - 9 . Jump up ^ Dennis Marcellino ( 1996 ) . Why Are We Here ? : The Scientific Answer to this Age - old Question ( that you do n't need to be a scientist to understand ) . Lighthouse Pub . ISBN 0 - 945272 - 10 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Hsuan Hua ( 2003 ) . Words of Wisdom : Beginning Buddhism . Dharma Realm Buddhist Association . ISBN 0 - 88139 - 302 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Paul Davies ( March 2000 ) . The Fifth Miracle : The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 684 - 86309 - X . Archived from the original on 16 June 2001 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : Charles Christiansen ; Carolyn Manville Baum ; Julie Bass - Haugen ( 2005 ) . Occupational Therapy : Performance , Participation , and Well - Being . SLACK Incorporated . ISBN 1 - 55642 - 530 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Evan Harris Walker ( 2000 ) . The Physics of Consciousness : The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life . Perseus Books . ISBN 0 - 7382 - 0436 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : `` Question of the Month : What Is The Meaning Of Life ? '' . Philosophy Now . Issue 59 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : Jiddu Krishnamurti ( 2001 ) . What Are You Doing With Your Life ? . Krishnamurti Foundation of America . ISBN 1 - 888004 - 24 - X . Jump up ^ Puolimatka , Tapio ; Airaksinen , Timo ( 2002 ) . `` Education and the Meaning of Life '' ( PDF ) . Philosophy of Education . University of Helsinki . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 September 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 26 . Jump up ^ Stan Van Hooft ( 2004 ) . Life , Death , and Subjectivity : Moral Sources in Bioethics . Rodopi . ISBN 90 - 420 - 1912 - 3 . Jump up ^ Russ Shafer - Landau ; Terence Cuneo ( 2007 ) . Foundations of Ethics : An Anthology . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 2951 - 4 . Jump up ^ E. Diener , J.J. Sapyta , E. Suh ( 1998 ) . `` Subjective Well - Being Is Essential to Well - Being . '' Psychological Inquiry , Lawrence Erlbaum ^ Jump up to : Csíkszentmihályi , Mihály ( 1990 ) . Flow : The Psychology of Optimal Experience . New York : Harper and Row . ISBN 0 - 06 - 092043 - 2 . Jump up ^ Peterson , Christopher ; Seligman , Martin ( 2004 ) . Character strengths and virtues : A handbook and classification . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 516701 - 5 . `` See brief summary '' . Jump up ^ Seligman , M.E.P. ( 2002 ) . Authentic Happiness : Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment . New York : Free Press . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 2297 - 0 ( Paperback edition , 2004 , Free Press , ISBN 0 - 7432 - 2298 - 9 ) Jump up ^ Boyle PA , Buchman AS , Barnes LL , Bennett DA . Effect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment in community - dwelling older persons . Archives of General Psychiatry . 2010 ; 67 : 304 -- 310 . Jump up ^ Kim E , Sun J , Park N , Kubzansky L , Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older U.S. adults with coronary heart disease : A two - year follow - up . Journal of Behavioral Medicine . ( 2 ) : 124 -- 133 . Jump up ^ Kim ES , Sun JK , Park N , Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced incidence of stroke in older adults : The Health and Retirement Study . Journal of Psychosomatic Research . 2013 ; 74 ( 5 ) : 427 -- 432 . Jump up ^ Boyle PA , Barnes LL , Buchman AS , Bennett DA . Purpose in life is associated with mortality among community - dwelling older persons . Psychosomatic Medicine . 2009 ; 71 : 574 -- 579 . Jump up ^ `` Five steps to mental wellbeing '' . www.nhs.uk . Jump up ^ Charles Darwin ( 1859 ) . On the Origin of Species . Jump up ^ Richard Dawkins ( 1976 ) . The Selfish Gene . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 857519 - X . Jump up ^ Richard Dawkins ( 1995 ) . River out of Eden . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 0 - 465 - 06990 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Griffith J. ( 2012 ) . `` What is the Meaning of Life ? '' . The Book of Real Answers to Everything ! . ISBN 9781741290073 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 19 . Jump up ^ Dawkins , Richard ( 2006 ) . The God Delusion . Houghton Mifflin . pp. 99 -- 100 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 618 - 68000 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` Complete Archive for Astrobiology Press Release , News Exclusive , News Briefs '' . Astrobiology Magazine . Archived from the original on 13 October 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Defining Life , Explaining Emergence '' . nbi.dk . Jump up ^ Schrödinger , Erwin ( 1944 ) . What is Life ? . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 42708 - 8 . Jump up ^ Margulis , Lynn ; Sagan , Dorion ( 1995 ) . What is Life ? . University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 22021 - 8 . Jump up ^ Lovelock , James ( 2000 ) . Gaia -- a New Look at Life on Earth . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 286218 - 9 . Jump up ^ Avery , John ( 2003 ) . Information Theory and Evolution . World Scientific . ISBN 981 - 238 - 399 - 9 . Jump up ^ Davison , Paul G. `` How to Define Life '' . The University of North Alabama . Archived from the original on 1 November 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 17 . Jump up ^ Helge Kragh ( 1996 ) . Cosmology and Controversy . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 00546 - X . Jump up ^ Nikos Prantzos ; Stephen Lyle ( 2000 ) . Our Cosmic Future : Humanity 's Fate in the Universe . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 77098 - X . Jump up ^ Rem B. Edwards ( 2001 ) . What Caused the Big Bang ? . Rodopi . ISBN 90 - 420 - 1407 - 5 . Jump up ^ Poplawski , Nikodem J. ( April 2010 ) . Radial motion into an Einstein - Rosen bridge , Physics Letters B. 687 . pp. 110 -- 113 . Jump up ^ Harvey Whitehouse ( 2001 ) . The Debated Mind : Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography . Berg Publishers . ISBN 1 - 85973 - 427 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Jeffrey Alan Gray ( 2004 ) . Consciousness : Creeping Up on the Hard Problem . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 852090 - 5 . Jump up ^ Paul M. Churchland ( 1989 ) . A Neurocomputational Perspective : The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science . MIT Press . ISBN 0 - 262 - 53106 - 2 . Jump up ^ Daniel Clement Dennett ( 1991 ) . Consciousness Explained . Little , Brown and Co . ISBN 0 - 316 - 18066 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : John D. Barrow ; Paul C.W. Davies ; Charles L. Harper ( 2004 ) . Science and Ultimate Reality : Quantum Theory , Cosmology and Complexity . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 83113 - X . Jump up ^ Jean Millay ; Ruth - Inge Heinze ( 1999 ) . Multidimensional Mind : Remote Viewing in Hyperspace . North Atlantic Books . ISBN 1 - 55643 - 306 - 9 . Jump up ^ McFadden , J. ( 2002 ) . `` Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain 's Electromagnetic Field : Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness '' . Journal of Consciousness Studies . 9 ( 4 ) : 23 -- 50 . Archived from the original on 18 December 2005 . Jump up ^ R. Buccheri ; V. Di Gesù ; Metod Saniga ( 2000 ) . Studies on the Structure of Time : From Physics to Psycho ( patho ) logy . Springer . ISBN 0 - 306 - 46439 - X . Jump up ^ Alexandra Bruce ( 2005 ) . Beyond the Bleep : The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know ! ? . The Disinformation Company . ISBN 1 - 932857 - 22 - 2 . Jump up ^ Mae - Wan Ho ( 1998 ) . The Rainbow and the Worm : The Physics of Organisms . World Scientific . pp. 218 -- 231 . ISBN 981 - 02 - 3427 - 9 . Jump up ^ Akers , C. ( 1986 ) . `` Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology , Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 '' . PesquisaPSI . Archived from the original on 2013 - 01 - 04 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Child , I.L. ( 1987 ) . `` Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology , Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 '' . PesquisaPSI . Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Wiseman , Richard ; Smith , Matthew ; et al. ( 1996 ) . `` Exploring possible sender - to - experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments -- Psychophysical Research Laboratories '' . The Journal of Parapsychology . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 09 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Lobach , E. ; Bierman , D. ( 2004 ) . `` The Invisible Gaze : Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake 's Staring Effects '' ( PDF ) . Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention . pp. 77 -- 90 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 10 August 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Reker , G.T. , & Wong , P.T.P. ( 1988 ) . Aging as an individual process : Towards a theory of personal meaning . In J.E. Birren , & V.L. Bengston ( Eds . ) , Emergent theories of aging ( pp. 214 - 246 ) . New York , NY : Springer . Jump up ^ Martela , F. , & Steger , M.F. ( 2016 ) . The three meanings of meaning in life : Distinguishing coherence , purpose , and significance . The Journal of Positive Psychology , 11 ( 5 ) , 531 - 545 . Jump up ^ Wong , P.T.P. ( 2011 ) . Positive psychology 2.0 : Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life . Canadian Psychology , 52 ( 2 ) , 69 - 81 . ^ Jump up to : Wong , P.T.P. ( 2012 ) . From logotherapy to meaning - centered counseling and therapy . In P.T.P. Wong ( Ed . ) , The human quest for meaning : Theories , research , and applications ( 2nd ed. , pp. 619 - 647 ) . New York , NY : Routledge . Jump up ^ Metz , Thaddeus ( 2013 ) . Meaning in life . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780199599318 . Jump up ^ Haybron , Daniel M. ( 2013 ) . Happiness : A Very Short Introduction . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780199590605 . Jump up ^ Kidd , I. , `` Cynicism , '' in The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy . ( ed . J.O. Urmson and Jonathan Rée ) , Routledge. ( 2005 ) Jump up ^ Long , A.A. , `` The Socratic Tradition : Diogenes , Crates , and Hellenistic Ethics , '' in The Cynics : The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy . ( ed . Branham and Goulet - Cazé ) , University of California Press , ( 1996 ) . Jump up ^ `` Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy '' . utm.edu . Jump up ^ `` The Future Of Hardcore Hedonism '' . hedonism.org . Jump up ^ Epicurus , `` Letter to Menoeceus '' , contained in Diogenes Laertius , Lives of Eminent Philosophers , Book X ^ Jump up to : Bertrand Russell ( 1946 ) . A History of Western Philosophy , New York : Simon and Schuster ; London : George Allen and Unwin Jump up ^ A : `` ' Liberalism ' is defined as a social ethic that advocates liberty , and equality in general . '' -- C.A.J. ( Tony ) Coady Distributive Justice , A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy , editors Goodin , Robert E. and Pettit , Philip . Blackwell Publishing , 1995 , p. 440 . B : `` Liberty is not a means to a higher political end . It is itself the highest political end . '' -- Lord Acton Jump up ^ Rosen , Frederick ( 2003 ) . Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill . Routledge , p. 28 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 22094 - 7 `` It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice . '' Jump up ^ Mill , John Stuart . On Liberty , ed . Himmelfarb . Penguin Classics , 1974 , Ed. 's introduction , p. 11 . ^ Jump up to : Jérôme Bindé ( 2004 ) . The Future Of Values : 21st - Century Talks . Berghahn Books . ISBN 1 - 57181 - 442 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Bernard Reginster ( 2006 ) . The Affirmation of Life : Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism . Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 02199 - 1 . Jump up ^ Heidegger , `` The Word of Nietzsche , '' 61 . Jump up ^ Camus ( 1946 ) L'Etranger Jump up ^ Camus ( 1955 ) The Myth of Sisyphus Jump up ^ For example , see hygiene , antibiotic and vaccination . Jump up ^ William James ( 1909 ) . The Meaning of Truth . Prometheus Books . ISBN 1 - 57392 - 138 - 6 . Jump up ^ Walter Robert Corti ( 1976 ) . The Philosophy of William James . Meiner Verlag . ISBN 3 - 7873 - 0352 - 9 . Jump up ^ Philosophy 446 : Theistic Perspectives on the Meaning of Life . Webpages.uidaho.edu . Retrieved on 2013 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ Amy Laura Hall ( 2002 ) . Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 89311 - 9 . Jump up ^ Dale Jacquette ( 1996 ) . Schopenhauer , Philosophy , and the Arts . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 47388 - 8 . Jump up ^ Durno Murray ( 1999 ) . Nietzsche 's Affirmative Morality . Walter de Gruyter . ISBN 3 - 11 - 016601 - 1 . Jump up ^ Kierkegaard , Søren ( 1941 ) . The Sickness Unto Death . Princeton University Press . ISBN 1 - 4486 - 7502 - 2 . Jump up ^ Kierkegaard , Søren ( 1941 ) . The Sickness Unto Death . Princeton University Press . ISBN 1 - 4486 - 7502 - 2 . , Part I , Ch. 3 . ^ Jump up to : `` Humanist Manifesto I '' . American Humanist Association . 1933 . Archived from the original on 30 July 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : `` Humanist Manifesto II '' . American Humanist Association . 1973 . Archived from the original on 9 August 2007 . Retrieved 1 August 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Humanist Manifesto III '' . American Humanist Association . 2003 . Archived from the original on 9 August 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` A Secular Humanist Declaration '' . Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism ( now the Council for Secular Humanism ) . 1980 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 01 . Jump up ^ Nick Bostrom ( 2005 ) . `` Transhumanist Values '' . Oxford University . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ Irvin Yalom , Existential Psychotherapy , 1980 Jump up ^ Richard Taylor ( January 1970 ) . `` Chapter 5 : The Meaning of Life '' . Good and Evil . Macmillan Publishing Company . ISBN 0 - 02 - 616690 - 9 . Jump up ^ Wohlgennant , Rudolph . ( 1981 ) . `` Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning ? '' ( Chapter 4 ) . In E. Morscher , ed. , Philosophie als Wissenschaft . Jump up ^ McNaughton , David ( August 1988 ) . `` Section 1.5 : Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life '' . Moral Vision : An Introduction to Ethics . Oxford : Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 0 - 631 - 15945 - 2 . Jump up ^ Bertrand Russell ( 1961 ) . Science and Ethics Archived 14 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ One hundred Philosophers . A guide to the world 's greatest thinkers Peter J. King , Polish edition : Elipsa 2006 Jump up ^ Tu , Wei - Ming . Confucian Thought : Selfhood as Creative Transformation . Albany : State University of New York Press , 1985 . Jump up ^ Zoroastrianism -- Relation to other religions and cultures Jump up ^ Quran 2 : 4 , Quran 2 : 285 , Quran 4 : 136 Jump up ^ In most English translations of Qur'an 51 : 56 translates the last word to `` worship '' , but any Arabic ( and Urdu ) speaking person can confirm that `` ABADON '' means to follow the Will of Allah ( NOT worship ) . This is relevant because the Will of Allah is not just to worship HIM ; to be just and good with humanity is equally important . Jump up ^ The Day of Judgement . Iqra.net . Retrieved on 2013 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Pillars of Islam '' . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ Sahih Muslim , 1 : 1 Jump up ^ Bahá , Abdu'l . `` Commentary on the Islamic Tradition `` I Was a Hidden Treasure ... '' `` . Bahá'í Studies Bulletin . Retrieved 3 August 2013 . Jump up ^ CHITTICK , WILLIAM C. `` THE IMPRINT OF THE BEZELS OF THE WISDOM '' ( PDF ) . IBN ' ARABI 'S OWN SUMMARY OF THE FUSÛS . Retrieved 3 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bahaism . '' The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language . Fourth Edition . Houghton Mifflin Company . 2007 . Jump up ^ Smith , P. ( 1999 ) . A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith . Oxford , UK : Oneworld Publications . pp. 325 -- 328 . ISBN 1 - 85168 - 184 - 1 . Jump up ^ For a more detailed Bahá'í perspective , see `` ' The Purpose of Life ' Bahá'í Topics An Information Resource of the Bahá'í International Community '' . Jump up ^ Exodus 19 : 6 Jump up ^ Maimonides ' Confrontation with Mysticism , Menachem Kellner , Littman Library ; particularly the parable of the King 's Palace in divine worship , in the Guide for the Perplexed Jump up ^ Dan Cohn - Sherbok ( 2003 ) . Judaism : History , Belief , and Practice . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 23661 - 4 . Jump up ^ Abraham Joshua Heschel ( 2005 ) . Heavenly Torah : As Refracted Through the Generations . Continuum International Publishing Group . ISBN 0 - 8264 - 0802 - 8 . Jump up ^ Wilfred Shuchat ( 2006 ) . The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human : According to the Midrash Rabbah . Devora Publishing . ISBN 1 - 932687 - 31 - 9 . Jump up ^ Randolph L. Braham ( 1983 ) . Contemporary Views on the Holocaust . Springer . ISBN 0 - 89838 - 141 - X . Jump up ^ Kabbalah : A Very Short Introduction , Joseph Dan , Oxford University Press , chapter `` Early modern era : Safed spirituality '' Jump up ^ Habad intellectual Hasidic thought : source text Tanya I : 36 , 49 ; secondary text Heaven On Earth , Faitel Levin , Kehot publications Jump up ^ The new Seven Wonders of the World Archived 9 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine ... Hindustan Times ( 2007 - 07 - 08 ) . Retrieved on 2013 - 10 - 29 . Jump up ^ Drake - Brockman , Tom ( 2012 ) . Christian Humanism : the compassionate theology of a Jew called Jesus . Jump up ^ `` The Westminster Shorter Catechism '' . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` The Baltimore Catechism '' . Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 12 . Jump up ^ Bible , Acts 17 : 26 -- 27 , NKJV Jump up ^ St. Ignatius Ignatian Spirituality . Bc.edu . Retrieved on 2013 - 10 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` Gospel Principles '' . Lds.org . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . Jump up ^ 2 Nephi 2 : 11 . Jump up ^ Moses 6 : 55 . Jump up ^ `` Doctrine and Covenants 138 '' . lds.org . Jump up ^ Simon Weightman ( 1998 ) . `` Hinduism '' . In Hinnells , John . The new Penguin handbook of living religions . Penguin books . ISBN 0 - 14 - 051480 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Monier Monier - Williams ( 1974 ) . Brahmanism and Hinduism : Or , Religious Thought and Life in India , as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus . Elibron Classics . Adamant Media Corporation . ISBN 1 - 4212 - 6531 - 1 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 08 . Jump up ^ For dharma , artha , and kama as `` brahmanic householder values '' see : Flood ( 1996 ) , p. 17 . Jump up ^ For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the `` four main goals of life '' ( dharma , artha , kāma , and moksha ) see : Hopkins , p. 78 . Jump up ^ For definition of the term पुरुष - अर्थ ( puruṣa - artha ) as `` any of the four principal objects of human life , i.e. धर्म , अर्थ , काम , and मोक्ष '' see : Apte , p. 626 , middle column , compound # 1 . Jump up ^ Bhaskarananda , Swami ( 1994 ) . The Essentials of Hinduism : a comprehensive overview of the world 's oldest religion . Seattle , WA : Viveka Press . ISBN 1 - 884852 - 02 - 5 . Jump up ^ Vivekananda , Swami ( 1987 ) . Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda . Calcutta : Advaita Ashrama . ISBN 81 - 85301 - 75 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Werner , Karel ( 1994 ) . `` Hinduism '' . In Hinnells , John ( Ed . ) . A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism . Richmond , Surrey : Curzon Press . ISBN 0 - 7007 - 0279 - 2 . CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list ( link ) Jump up ^ See also the Vedic statement `` ayam ātmā brahma '' ( This Ātman is Brahman ) Jump up ^ Gupta , Ravi M. ( 2007 ) . Gavin Flood ; University of Stirling , eds . Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami : When knowledge meets devotion . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 40548 - 3 . Jump up ^ Tantric Literature And Gaudiya Vaishnavism Archived 25 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Shah , Natubhai . Jainism : The World of Conquerors . Sussex Academic Press , 1998 . Jump up ^ `` Viren , Jain '' ( PDF ) . RE Today . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 14 . , RE Today Jump up ^ `` The Four Noble Truths '' . Thebigview.com . Archived from the original on 2009 - 11 - 11 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ Daljeet Singh ( 1971 ) . Guru Tegh Bahadur . Language Dept. , Punjab . Jump up ^ Jon Mayled ( 2002 ) . Modern World Religions : Sikhism . Harcourt Heinemann . ISBN 0 - 435 - 33626 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` The Sikh Coalition '' . sikhcoalition.org . ^ Jump up to : Parrinder , Geoffrey ( 1971 ) . World Religions : From Ancient History to the Present . United States : Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited . ISBN 0 - 87196 - 129 - 6 . Jump up ^ Ming - Dao Deng ( 1990 ) . Scholar Warrior : An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life . HarperCollins . ISBN 0 - 06 - 250232 - 8 . Jump up ^ J.W.T. Mason ( 2002 ) . The Meaning of Shinto . Trafford Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4122 - 4551 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Monty Python 's Completely Useless Web Site : Monty Python 's The Meaning Of Life : Complete Script '' . intriguing.com . Jump up ^ Terry Burnham ( 2005 ) . Mean Markets and Lizard Brains : How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 71695 - 2 . Jump up ^ Yolanda Fernandez ( 2002 ) . In Their Shoes : Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders . Wood ' N ' Barnes Publishing . ISBN 1 - 885473 - 48 - 6 . Jump up ^ Glenn Yeffeth ( 2005 ) . The Anthology at the End of the Universe : Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams ' The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . BenBella Books , Inc . ISBN 1 - 932100 - 56 - 3 . Jump up ^ William B. Badke ( 2005 ) . The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Meaning of Everything . Kregel Publications . ISBN 0 - 8254 - 2069 - 5 . Jump up ^ Douglas Adams ( 1979 ) . The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . London : Pan Books . ISBN 0 - 330 - 25864 - 8 . Jump up ^ BBCWorldwide ( 9 February 2017 ) . `` Answer To The Ultimate Question - The Hitchhiker 's Guide To The Galaxy - BBC '' . Youtube.com . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Mark I. Pinsky ( 2001 ) . The Gospel According To The Simpsons : The Spiritual Life Of The World 's Most Animated Family . Westminster John Knox Press . ISBN 0 - 664 - 22419 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : David Seaman ( 2005 ) . The Real Meaning of Life . New World Library . ISBN 1 - 57731 - 514 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Roger Ellerton , CMC ( 2013 ) . Live Your Dreams ... Let Reality Catch Up : NLP and Common Sense for Coaches , Managers and You . Renewal Technologies . ISBN 978 - 0978445270 . ^ Jump up to : John Cook ( 2007 ) . The Book of Positive Quotations . Fairview Press . ISBN 1 - 57749 - 169 - 6 . Jump up ^ Steve Chandler ( 2005 ) . Reinventing Yourself : How to Become the Person You 've Always Wanted to Be . Career Press . ISBN 1 - 56414 - 817 - 3 . Jump up ^ Matthew Kelly ( 2005 ) . The Rhythm of Life : Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 6510 - 6 . Jump up ^ Lee , Dong Yul ; Park , Sung Hee ; Uhlemann , Max R. ; Patsult , Philip ( June 2000 ) . `` What Makes You Happy ? : A Comparison of Self - reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures '' . Social Indicators Research . 50 ( 3 ) : 351 -- 362 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1004647517069 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` Social perspectives '' . Portal.acm.org . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . Jump up ^ John Kultgen ( 1995 ) . Autonomy and Intervention : Parentalism in the Caring Life . Oxford University Press US . ISBN 0 - 19 - 508531 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : George Cappannelli ; Sedena Cappannelli ( 2004 ) . Authenticity : Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home . Emmis Books . ISBN 1 - 57860 - 148 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : John G. West ( 2002 ) . Celebrating Middle - Earth : The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization . Inkling Books . ISBN 1 - 58742 - 012 - 0 . Jump up ^ Rachel Madorsky ( 2003 ) . Create Your Own Destiny ! : Spiritual Path to Success . Avanty House . ISBN 0 - 9705349 - 4 - 9 . Jump up ^ A.C. Grayling . What is Good ? The Search for the best way to live . Weidenfeld & Nicolson , 2003 . Jump up ^ Lopez , Mike ( September 22 , 1999 ) . `` Episode III : Relativism ? A Jedi craves not these things '' . The Michigan Daily . Archived from the original on 11 August 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 26 . Jump up ^ Lovatt , Stephen C. ( 2007 ) . New Skins for Old Wine . Universal Publishers . pp . The Meaning of Life . ISBN 1 - 58112 - 960 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Raymond Kurzweil ; Terry Grossman ( 2004 ) . Fantastic Voyage : Live Long Enough to Live Forever . Holtzbrinck Publishers . ISBN 1 - 57954 - 954 - 3 . , Fantastic Voyage Jump up ^ Bryan Appleyard ( 2007 ) . How to Live Forever Or Die Trying : On the New Immortality . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 6868 - 7 . Jump up ^ Cameron , Donald ( 2001 ) . The Purpose of Life . Woodhill Publishing . ISBN 0 - 9540291 - 0 - 0 . Jump up ^ Nick Lane ( 2005 ) . Power , Sex , Suicide : Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280481 - 2 . Jump up ^ Kenneth M. Weiss ; Anne V. Buchanan ( 2004 ) . Genetics and the Logic of Evolution . Wiley - IEEE . ISBN 0 - 471 - 23805 - 8 . Jump up ^ Jennifer Ackerman ( 2001 ) . Chance in the House of Fate : A Natural History of Heredity . Houghton Mifflin Books . ISBN 0 - 618 - 21909 - 9 . Jump up ^ Boyce Rensberger ( 1996 ) . Life Itself : Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 512500 - 2 . Jump up ^ Chris Grau ( 2005 ) . Philosophers Explore the Matrix . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 518107 - 4 . Jump up ^ John M. Cooper ; D.S. Hutchinson ( 1997 ) . Plato : Complete Works . Hackett Publishing . ISBN 0 - 87220 - 349 - 2 . Jump up ^ John E. Findling ; Frank W. Thackeray ( 2001 ) . Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century . Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 - 313 - 29079 - 2 . Jump up ^ Tenzin Gyatso , 14th Dalai Lama ( 1954 ) . The Meaning of Life : Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect . Doubleday . Jump up ^ Ernest Joseph Simmons ( 1973 ) . Tolstoy . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 7100 - 7395 - X . Jump up ^ Richard A. Bowell ( 2004 ) . The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence : The Practical Pursuit of Purpose , Success and Happiness . Nicholas Brealey Publishing . ISBN 1 - 85788 - 344 - 6 . Jump up ^ John C. Gibbs ; Karen S. Basinger ; Dick Fuller ( 1992 ) . Moral Maturity : Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection . Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . ISBN 0 - 8058 - 0425 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Timothy Tang ( 2007 ) . Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness . iUniverse . ISBN 978 - 0 - 595 - 45941 - 4 . Jump up ^ Tyler T. Roberts ( 1998 ) . Contesting Spirit : Nietzsche , Affirmation , Religion . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 00127 - 8 . Jump up ^ Lucy Costigan ( 2004 ) . What Is the Meaning of Your Life : A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning . iUniverse . ISBN 0 - 595 - 33880 - 1 . Jump up ^ Steven L. Jeffers ; Harold Ivan Smith ( 2007 ) . Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief : A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care . Radcliffe Publishing . ISBN 1 - 84619 - 181 - 5 . Jump up ^ David L. Jeffrey ( 1992 ) . A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature . Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing . ISBN 0 - 8028 - 3634 - 8 . Jump up ^ Dana A. Williams ( 2005 ) . `` In the Light of Likeness - transformed '' : The Literary Art of Leon Forrest . Ohio State University Press . ISBN 0 - 8142 - 0994 - 7 . Jump up ^ Jerry Z . Muller ( 1997 ) . Conservatism : An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 03711 - 6 . Jump up ^ Mary Nash ; Bruce Stewart ( 2002 ) . Spirituality and Social Care : Contributing to Personal and Community Well - being . Jessica Kingsley Publishers . ISBN 1 - 84310 - 024 - X . Jump up ^ Xinzhong Yao ( 2000 ) . An Introduction to Confucianism . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 64430 - 5 . Jump up ^ Bryan S. Turner ; Chris Rojek ( 2001 ) . Society and Culture : Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity . SAGE . ISBN 0 - 7619 - 7049 - 5 . Jump up ^ Anil Goonewardene ( 1994 ) . Buddhist Scriptures . Harcourt Heinemann . ISBN 0 - 435 - 30355 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Luc Ferry ( 2002 ) . Man Made God : The Meaning of Life . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 24484 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Eric G. Stephan ; R. Wayne Pace ( 2002 ) . Powerful Leadership : How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life . FT Press . ISBN 0 - 13 - 066836 - 2 . Jump up ^ Cumberland , Dan . `` Finding Purpose in Life '' . TheMeaningMovement . Retrieved 10 August 2015 . Jump up ^ Dominique Moyse Steinberg ( 2004 ) . The Mutual - aid Approach to Working with Groups : Helping People Help One Another . Haworth Press . ISBN 0 - 7890 - 1462 - 9 . Jump up ^ John Caunt ( 2002 ) . Boost Your Self - Esteem . Kogan Page . ISBN 0 - 7494 - 3871 - 1 . Jump up ^ Ho'oponopono Jump up ^ Holisiajay Quran 51 : 56 . Quranic Arabic Corpus . I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me . Jump up ^ Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi ( 1993 ) . The Work of the Kabbalist . Weiser . ISBN 0 - 87728 - 637 - X . ^ Jump up to : Michael Joachim Girard ( 2006 ) . Essential Believing for the Christian Soul . Xulon Press . ISBN 1 - 59781 - 596 - 9 . Jump up ^ Jaideva Singh ( 2003 ) . Vijñanabhairava . Motilal Banarsidass . ISBN 81 - 208 - 0820 - 7 . Jump up ^ T.M.P. Mahadevan ( 1974 ) . Philosophy : Theory and Practice ( Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy ) . Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy , University of Madras . Jump up ^ John T. Scully ( 2007 ) . The Five Commandments . Trafford Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4251 - 1910 - 7 . Jump up ^ John Piper ( 2006 ) . Desiring God . Multnomah Books . ISBN 1 - 59052 - 119 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Peter Harrison ( 2001 ) . The Bible , Protestantism , and the Rise of Natural Science . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 00096 - 3 . Jump up ^ ( Micah 6 : 8 ) ^ Jump up to : Thomas Patrick Burke ( 2004 ) . The Major Religions : An Introduction with Texts . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 1049 - X . Jump up ^ Book of Mormon : Mosiah 2 : 17 . March 1830 . And behold , I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom ; that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God . Jump up ^ Book of Mormon : Alma 32 : 32 . March 1830 . For behold , this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God ; yea , behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform their labors . Jump up ^ Holy Bible : Genesis 3 : 22 . And the Lord God said , Behold , the man is become as one of us , to know good and evil ... Jump up ^ Holy Bible : Matthew 5 : 48 . Be ye therefore perfect , even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect . Jump up ^ Pearl of Great Price : Book of Moses 1 : 37 - 39 . June 1830 . And the Lord God spake unto Moses , saying : ... For behold , this is my work and my glory -- to bring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man . Jump up ^ `` Teachings of Presidents of the Church : Lorenzo Snow '' . Lorenzo Snow . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. 2011 ( 1884 ) . p. 83 . As man now is , God once was : As God now is , man may be . Jump up ^ Book of Mormon : Alma 29 : 5 . March 1830 . Yea , and I know that good and evil have come before all men ; he that knoweth not good from evil is blameless ; but he that knoweth good and evil , to him it is given according to his desires , whether he desireth good or evil , life or death , joy or remorse of conscience . Jump up ^ Book of Mormon : 2 Nephi 2 : 25 . March 1830 . Adam fell that men might be ; and men are , that they might have joy . Jump up ^ Pearl of Great Price : Book of Moses 5 : 11 . June -- October 1830 . And Eve , his wife , heard all these things and was glad , saying : Were it not for our transgression we never should have had seed , and never should have known good and evil , and the joy of our redemption , and the eternal life which God giveth unto all the obedient . ^ Jump up to : T.W. Mitchell ( 1927 ) . Problems in Psychopathology . Harcourt , Brace & company , inc . Jump up ^ Ecclesiastes 8 Jump up ^ Steven Dillon ( 2006 ) . The Solaris Effect : Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film . University of Texas Press . ISBN 0 - 292 - 71345 - 2 . Jump up ^ Raymond Aron ( 2000 ) . The Century of Total War . Wisdom Publications . ISBN 0 - 86171 - 173 - 4 . Jump up ^ Man 's Search for Meaning , Viktor Frankl . Beacon Press , 2006 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8070 - 1426 - 4 Jump up ^ Benatar , David ( 2006 ) . Better Never to Have Been - The Harm of Coming into Existence . Oxford University Press . p. 237 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 929642 - 1 . External links Look up meaning of life in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikiquote has quotations related to : Meaning of life Wikiquote has quotations related to : Life Wikiversity has learning resources about What Matters Meaning of Life : The Analytic Perspective article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Meaning of Life in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ( hide ) Metaphysics Metaphysicians Parmenides Plato Aristotle Plotinus Duns Scotus Thomas Aquinas Francisco Suárez Nicolas Malebranche René Descartes John Locke David Hume Thomas Reid Immanuel Kant Isaac Newton Arthur Schopenhauer Baruch Spinoza Georg W.F. Hegel George Berkeley Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Henri Bergson Friedrich Nietzsche Charles Sanders Peirce Joseph Maréchal Ludwig Wittgenstein Martin Heidegger Alfred N. Whitehead Bertrand Russell Dorothy Emmet G.E. Moore Jean - Paul Sartre Gilbert Ryle Hilary Putnam P.F. Strawson R.G. Collingwood Adolph Stöhr Rudolf Carnap Saul Kripke Willard V.O. Quine G.E.M. Anscombe Donald Davidson Michael Dummett David Malet Armstrong David Lewis Alvin Plantinga Peter van Inwagen Derek Parfit more ... Theories Abstract object theory Action theory Anti-realism Determinism Dualism Enactivism Essentialism Existentialism Free will Idealism Libertarianism Liberty Materialism Meaning of life Monism Naturalism Nihilism Phenomenalism Realism Physicalism Pirsig 's metaphysics of Quality Platonic idealism Relativism Scientific realism Solipsism Subjectivism Substance theory Type theory Concepts Abstract object Anima mundi Being Category of being Causality Choice Cogito ergo sum Concept Embodied cognition Entity Essence Existence Experience Hypostatic abstraction Idea Identity Identity and change Information Insight Intelligence Intention Linguistic modality Matter Meaning Memetics Mental representation Mind Motion Necessity Notion Object Pattern Perception Physical body Principle Property Qualia Quality Reality Soul Subject Substantial form Thought Time Truth Type -- token distinction Universal Unobservable Value more ... 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47 | document: United States Seventh Fleet - Wikipedia United States Seventh Fleet Jump to : navigation , search `` Seventh Fleet '' redirects here . For other uses , see Seventh Fleet ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) United States Seventh Fleet Seventh Fleet Active 1943 -- present Country United States of America Branch United States Navy Type Fleet Part of United States Pacific Fleet Garrison / HQ United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka Nickname ( s ) ' Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club ' ( Vietnam War ) Commanders Vice admiral Phillip G. Sawyer Notable commanders Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid The Seventh Fleet is a numbered fleet ( a military formation ) of the United States Navy . It is headquartered at U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka , in Yokosuka , Japan , with some units based in Japan and South Korea . It is part of the United States Pacific Fleet . At present , it is the largest of the forward - deployed U.S. fleets , with 60 to 70 ships , 300 aircraft and 40,000 Navy and Marine Corps personnel . The Fleet has three major assignments : Joint Task Force command in a natural disaster or joint military operation , Operational command of all naval forces in the region , and Defense of the Korean Peninsula . In 1994 , 7th Fleet was assigned the additional responsibility as Commander , Combined Naval Component Command for the defense of South Korea . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Korean War 1.2 Vietnam War 1.3 Liberation of Bangladesh 1971 1.4 Gulf War and 1990s 2 Operations 3 Fleet organization 4 Forward - deployed Seventh Fleet ships 4.1 U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka , Japan 4.2 U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo , Japan 4.3 Apra Harbor , Guam 5 Fleet commanders 6 Citations 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History ( edit ) The Seventh Fleet was formed on 15 March 1943 in Brisbane , Australia , during the Second World War , under the command of Admiral Arthur S. `` Chips '' Carpender . It served in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) under General Douglas MacArthur . The Seventh Fleet commander also served as commander of Allied naval forces in the SWPA . Most of the ships of the Royal Australian Navy were also part of the fleet from 1943 to 1945 as part of Task Force 74 ( formerly the Anzac Squadron ) . The Seventh Fleet -- under Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid -- formed a large part of the Allied forces at the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the largest naval battle in history . USS Gambier Bay ( CVE - 73 ) and escorts at the Battle off Samar in 1944 . After the end of the war , the 7th Fleet moved its headquarters to Qingdao , China . As laid out in Operation Plan 13 -- 45 of 26 August 1945 , Kinkaid established five major task forces to manage operations in the Western Pacific : Task Force 71 , the North China Force with 75 ships ; Task Force 72 , the Fast Carrier Force , directed to provide air cover to the Marines going ashore and discourage with dramatic aerial flyovers any Communist forces that might oppose the operation ; Task Force 73 , the Yangtze Patrol Force with another 75 combatants ; Task Force 74 , the South China Force , ordered to protect the transportation of Japanese and Chinese Nationalist troops from that region ; and Task Force 78 , the Amphibious Force , charged with the movement of the III Marine Amphibious Corps to China . After the war , on 1 January 1947 , the Fleet 's name was changed to Naval Forces Western Pacific . In late 1948 , the Fleet moved its principal base of operations to the Philippines , where the Navy , following the war , had developed new facilities at Subic Bay and an airfield at Sangley Point . Peacetime operations of the Seventh Fleet were under the control of Commander in Chief Pacific Fleet , Admiral Arthur E. Radford , but standing orders provided that , when operating in Japanese waters or in the event of an emergency , control would pass to Commander Naval Forces Far East , a component of General Douglas MacArthur 's occupation force . On 19 August 1949 the force was designated as United States Seventh Task Fleet . On 11 February 1950 , just prior to the outbreak of the Korean War , the force assumed the name United States Seventh Fleet , which it holds today . Korean War ( edit ) See also : U.S. Seventh Fleet Korean War order of battle Seventh Fleet units participated in all major operations of the Korean and Vietnamese Wars . The first Navy jet aircraft used in combat was launched from a Task Force 77 ( TF 77 ) aircraft carrier on 3 July 1950 . The landings at Inchon , Korea were conducted by Seventh Fleet amphibious ships . The battleships Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri and Wisconsin all served as flagships for Commander , U.S. Seventh Fleet during the Korean War . During the Korean War , the Seventh Fleet consisted of Task Force 70 , a maritime patrol force provided by Fleet Air Wing One and Fleet Air Wing Six , Task Force 72 , the Formosa Patrol , Task Force 77 , and Task Force 79 , a service support squadron . Over the next decade the Seventh Fleet responded to numerous crisis situations including contingency operations conducted in Laos in 1959 and Thailand in 1962 . During September 1959 , in the autumn of 1960 , and again in January 1961 , the Seventh Fleet deployed multiship carrier task forces into the South China Sea . Although the Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese supporting forces withdrew in each crisis , in the spring of 1961 their offensive appeared on the verge of overwhelming the pro-American Royal Laotian Army . Once again the fleet moved into Southeast Asian waters . By the end of April 1961 , most of the Seventh Fleet was deployed off the Indochinese Peninsula preparing to initiate operations into Laos . The force consisted of the Coral Sea and Midway carrier battle groups , antisubmarine support carrier Kearsarge , one helicopter carrier , three groups of amphibious ships , two submarines , and three Marine battalion landing teams . At the same time , shorebased air patrol squadrons and another three Marine battalion landing teams stood ready in Okinawa and the Philippines to support the afloat force . Although the administration of President John F. Kennedy already had decided against American intervention to rescue the Laotian government , Communist forces halted their advance and agreed to negotiations . The contending Laotian factions concluded a cease - fire on 8 May 1961 , but it lasted only a year . In June 1963 the Seventh Fleet held ' Flagpole ' 63 , ' a joint naval exercise with the Republic of Korea . Vietnam War ( edit ) Military humor : Unofficial insignia of the `` Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club '' -- aka U.S. 7th Fleet . Seventh Fleet represented the first official entrance of the United States into the Vietnam War , with the Gulf of Tonkin incident . Between 1950 and 1970 , the U.S. Seventh Fleet was known by the tongue - in - cheek nickname `` Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club '' since most of the fleet 's operations were conducted from the Tonkin Gulf at the time . On 12 February 1965 , USS Salisbury Sound ( AV - 13 ) became the first U.S. Navy ship to conduct operations inside Vietnam coastal waters . Salisbury Sound set up a seadrome in Da Nang Bay and conducted seaplane patrols in support of Operation Flaming Dart , the bombing of North Vietnamese army camps . Operating primarily from Yankee Station off the north coast of Vietnam and the aptly - named Dixie Station off the south coast of Vietnam in the Gulf of Siam , Seventh Fleet was organized into a series of task forces , often known by the acronym CTF ( Commander Task Force ) : Task Force 73 included the fleet 's logistics support vessels operating as an underway replenishment group ( URG ) containing an oiler , an ammunition ship , and other supply tenders . Task Force 75 , Surface Combatant Force , contained the fleet 's surface combatants and naval gunfire support . These units formed the gun line to bombard enemy forces during Operation Sea Dragon , Operation Custom Tailor , and Operation Lion 's Den . The Royal Australian Navy contributed a series of guided missile destroyers to the gun line , including Hobart , Perth , Brisbane , and Vendetta . The naval gun line concept was made possible with deep waters for larger vessels well away from both the shoals and enemy coastal artillery . Task Group 70.8 , a cruiser - destroyer subset of the task force , began shelling Vietnam on 27 May 1965 . The cruisers and destroyers mostly used 5 - inch and 8 - inch guns while USS New Jersey opened fire with her 16 - inch guns . Task Force 76 was the Amphibious Force , Seventh Fleet . Marines went ashore at Da Nang in March 1965 and patrolled throughout the I Corps area of responsibility during operations Starlite , Dagger Thrust , Double Eagle , and Jackstay . Task Force 77 was the Carrier Battle Force , Seventh Fleet . It would participate in striking North Vietnamese targets , providing air support to US forces in South Vietnam , and mining Hiaphong Harbor . Task Force 78 was the fleet 's minesweeper support . After the 1973 cease - fire , it was responsible for Operation End Sweep , removing naval mines dropped in Haiphong harbor only months earlier . Task Forces 116 and 117 were brown - water riverine forces involved in the interdiction efforts Operation Market Time , Operation Game Warden , and Operation Sealords . In 1975 , ships and aircraft of the Fleet evacuated thousands of U.S. citizens and refugees from South Vietnam and Cambodia as those countries fell to opposing forces . Since the end of the Vietnam War , the Seventh Fleet has participated in a joint / combined exercise called Team Spirit , conducted with the Republic of Korea armed forces . With capability to respond to any contingency , Fleet operations are credited with maintaining security during the Asian Games of 1986 and the Seoul Olympics of 1988 . During 1989 , Seventh Fleet units participated in a variety of exercises called PACEX , the largest peacetime exercises since World War II . Liberation of Bangladesh 1971 ( edit ) During the 1971 liberation of Bangladesh in the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971 , the Indian navy attacked Pakistani warships and Karachi harbor . The American Seventh Fleet was dispatched to put pressure on the Indian side , but the Soviet Union dispatched the 10th Operative Battle Group of its Pacific Fleet under the command of Admiral Vladimir Kruglyakov in Vladivostok to support India , so America 's Seventh Fleet was unable to assist in Pakistani defense . Gulf War and 1990s ( edit ) George Washington , Squadron HC - 1 during operation `` Desert Shield '' in 1990 , U.S. Seventh Fleet . In response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 , President George H.W. Bush ordered Commander , U.S. Seventh Fleet to assume additional responsibilities as Commander , U.S. Naval Forces Central Command . The Fleet Commander departed Yokosuka , Japan immediately , heading for the Persian Gulf , and joined the remainder of his staff aboard the flagship Blue Ridge on 1 September 1990 . During Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , Naval Forces Central Command exercised command and control of the largest U.S. Navy armada since the Second World War . At the peak of combat operations , over 130 U.S. ships joined more than 50 allied ships to conduct maritime intercept operations , minesweeping and combat strike operations against enemy forces in Iraq and Kuwait . Naval Forces Central Command included six aircraft carrier battle groups , two battleships ( Missouri and Wisconsin ) , two hospital ships , 31 amphibious assault ships , four minesweeping vessels and numerous combatants in support of allied air and ground forces . After a decisive allied victory in the Gulf War , Commander U.S. Seventh Fleet relinquished control of Naval Forces Central Command to Commander , Middle East Force on 24 April 1991 and returned to Yokosuka , Japan to resume his Asia - Pacific duties . In 1996 , two aircraft carrier battle groups were sent to the Taiwan Straits under Seventh Fleet control to demonstrate U.S. support for Taiwan during the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis . The Nimitz battle group ( CCDG 5 ? ) made a high speed transit from the Persian Gulf , while Carrier Group Five , led by Independence , sortied from its Japanese homeports . Operations ( edit ) The then - commander , Vice Admiral Scott R. Van Buskirk in 2010 . Of the 50 -- 60 ships typically assigned to Seventh Fleet , 18 operate from U.S. facilities in Japan and Guam . These forward - deployed units represent the heart of Seventh Fleet , and the centerpieces of American forward presence in Asia . They are 17 steaming days closer to locations in Asia than their counterparts based in the continental United States . It would take three to five times the number of rotationally - based ships in the U.S. to equal the same presence and crisis response capability as these 18 forward deployed ships . On any given day , about 50 % of Seventh Fleet forces are deployed at sea throughout the area of responsibility . Following the end of the Cold War , the two major military scenarios in which the Seventh Fleet would be used would be in case of conflict in Korea or a conflict between People 's Republic of China and Taiwan ( Republic of China ) in the Taiwan Strait . It was reported on 10 May 2012 that USS Freedom ( LCS - 1 ) would be dispatched to Singapore in the northern spring of 2013 for a roughly 10 - month deployment . On 2 June 2012 the U.S. and Singaporean Defense Ministers announced that Singapore has agreed ' in principle ' to the US request ' to forward deploy up to four littoral combat ships to Singapore on a rotational basis . ' Officials stressed however that vessels will not be permanently based there and their crews will live aboard during ship visits . On 21 August 2017 , while on a routine visit to Singapore , Arleigh Burke - class destroyer USS John S. McCain ( DDG - 56 ) was involved in a collision with merchant vessel Alnic MC off the coast of Singapore , east of the Strait of Malacca . The incident left 10 Navy sailors missing and five injured . The US Navy announced that Commander of the Seventh Fleet Vice Adm. Joseph Aucoin had been dismissed and replaced by Vice Adm. Phillip G. Sawyer , who had already been nominated and confirmed to replace the retiring Aucoin . Fleet organization ( edit ) The Seventh Fleet is organized into specialized task forces . George Washington was flagship of Task Force 70 of the U.S. Seventh Fleet before 2017 . Task Force 70 -- TF 70 is the Battle Force of 7th Fleet and is made up of two distinct components : Surface Combatant Force 7th Fleet , composed of cruisers and destroyers , and Carrier Strike Force 7th Fleet , made up of at least one aircraft carrier and its embarked air wing . The Battle Force is currently centered around Carrier Strike Group Five , the carrier USS Ronald Reagan ( CVN - 76 ) and Carrier Air Wing 5 ( CVW - 5 ) . Carrier Strike Group 5 is responsible for unit - level training , integrated training , and material readiness for the group 's ships and aviation squadrons . As the only continuously forward deployed carrier strike group , the CSG - 5 staff does not stand down when the strike group is in Yokosuka , but instead continues to maintain command responsibilities over deploying Carrier Strike Groups and independently deployed cruisers , destroyers , and frigates that operate in the Seventh Fleet operating area . The commander and staff are also responsible for the higher level Task Force 70 duties throughout the year in addition to the CSG - 5 duties . The composition of the strike group in immediate proximity of the Ronald Reagan varies throughout the year . The CSG 5 Commander also serves as Battle Force Seventh Fleet and Commander , Task Force ( CTF 70 ) for 7th Fleet . In these responsibilities , CSG 5 serves as the Commander of all surface forces ( carrier strike groups , independently deploying cruisers , destroyers and frigates ) in the 7th Fleet area of responsibility . CTF 70 also serves as the Theater Surface Warfare Commander ( TSUWC ) and Theater Integrated Air Missile Defense Commander ( TIAMDC ) for Seventh Fleet . Task Force 71 -- TF 71 includes all Naval Special Warfare ( NSW ) units and Explosive Ordnance Disposal Mobile Units ( EODMU ) assigned to 7th Fleet . It is based in Guam . Task Force 71 was based in Fremantle , Western Australia in 1941 -- 42 , operating submarines under Rear Admiral Charles A. Lockwood . He was relieved by Rear Admiral Ralph W. Christie on 7 March 1943 . During the first half of 1965 , the Seventh Fleet operationally controlled the Vietnam Patrol Force ( Task Force 71 ) , the American component of the Operation Market Time effort . The Naval Advisory Group , headquartered in Saigon , served as the liaison between the fleet , Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command , Vietnam , and the South Vietnamese Navy . On 31 July 1965 , formal control of the U.S. Operation Market Time force passed from the Seventh Fleet to the Naval Advisory Group , which in turn activated the Coastal Surveillance Force ( Task Force 115 ) . The fleet continued to provide logistic and administrative support . The command function was further refined on 1 April 1966 when Naval Forces , Vietnam , was established , relieving the Naval Advisory Group of responsibility for Market Time operations . Task Force 71 operated the Search and Rescue / Salvage Operations for Korean Air Lines Flight 007 shot down by the Soviets off Sakhalin Island on 1 September 1983 . On the day of the shootdown , Rear Admiral William A. Cockell , Commander , Task Force 71 , and a skeleton staff , taken by helicopter from Japan , embarked in USS Badger ( stationed off Vladivostock at time of the flight ) on 9 September for further transfer to the destroyer Elliot to assume duties as Officer in Tactical Command ( OTC ) of the Search and Rescue ( SAR ) effort . Surface search began immediately and on into the 13 - day of September . U.S. underwater operations began on 14 September . No longer any hope of finding survivors , on 10 September 1983 , Task Force 71 mission had been reclassified `` Search and Salvage '' operation from a `` Search and Rescue '' . On 17 October 1983 , Rear Admiral William Cockell was relieved of command of the Task Force and its Search and Salvage mission , and Rear Admiral Walter T. Piotti , Jr. , was placed in command . There were three U.S. search and salvage ships involved -- the Coast Guard cutter USCGC Munro , the rescue salvage ship USS Conserver , and the Fleet Tug USNS Narragansett . There were also three Japanese tugs chartered through the U.S. Navy 's Far East Salvage Contractor ( Selco ) , these were the Ocean Bull , the Kaiko - Maru 7 , and the Kaiko - Maru 3 . Aside from these vessels , there were the U.S. naval combatants and logistical support ships . These were USS Elliot , USS Badger , USS Sterett , USNS Hassayampa , USS Callaghan , USS Brooke , USS Meyerkord , USS Towers , USS Stark and USS Wichita . In addition to the above ships , there were numerous Japanese Maritime Safety Agency patrol boats and South Korean vessels involved . Task Force 71 also used to fulfill the function of Command and Coordination Force , Seventh Fleet . The Seventh Fleet Command Ship is USS Blue Ridge , based at U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka , Yokosuka , Japan . In 2004 , Blue Ridge entered dry dock and the responsibility was transferred temporarily to USS Coronado . Blue Ridge returned to duty 27 September 2004 . Task Force 72 -- TF 72 is the Patrol - Reconnaissance Force of the Seventh Fleet . It may be located at Naval Support Facility Kamiseya , Japan . It is mainly composed of anti-submarine warfare ( ASW ) aircraft and maritime airborne surveillance platforms such as P - 3 Orion and EP - 3 reconnaissance planes operating on land bases . Toward the end of the Korean War , Commander Task Force 72 transferred his flag to USS Pine Island on 7 March and detachments of VP - 42 also left USS Salisbury Sound for that seaplane tender . That same day Task Force Seventy - Two was established as the Formosa Patrol Force under Rear Admiral Williamson in Pine Island . Task Force 73 / Commander , Logistics Group Western Pacific -- 7th Fleet 's Logistics Force composed of supply ships and other fleet support vessels . Headquartered in Singapore . Task Force 74 -- TF 74 was the designation used for the Enterprise battle group in 1971 . Today , it is the Fleet Submarine Force responsible for planning and coordinating submarine operations within 7th Fleet 's area of operations . Task Force 75 -- Navy Expeditionary Forces Command Pacific is 7th Fleet 's primary Expeditionary task force . Located in Guam , CTF 75 is responsible for the planning and execution of coastal riverine operations , explosive ordnance disposal , diving , engineering and construction , and underwater construction throughout the 7th Fleet region . Task Force 76 -- Amphibious Assault task force currently headquartered at U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo , mainly responsible for supporting Marine landing operations . It is composed of units capable of delivering ship - to - shore assault troops , such as Tarawa - class and Wasp - class amphibious assault ships , and landing craft . Task Force 77 -- 7th Fleet Mine Warfare Force composed of mine countermeasure , mine hunter , and mine control ships as well as mine countermeasure helicopters ( MH - 53 ) . This task force is only activated during specific combat operations and was filled by the Commander of Mine Warfare Command . Mine Warfare Command has now been disestablished and replaced by Navy Mine and Antisubmarine Warfare Command , Naval Base Point Loma , Calif . Task Force 78 -- In 1973 , Task Force 78 served as the mine clearance force that cleared Haiphong Harbour in Operation End Sweep . Major elements of the U.S. Navy mine warfare force , including Mobile Mine Command ( MOMCOM ) , Mine Warfare Support Group ( MWFSG ) , and HM - 12 were airlifted by C - 5A to NAS Cubi Point in the Philippines . These specialists formed the nucleus of Task Force 78 , under the command of Rear Admiral Brian McCauley , for Operation End Sweep . Commander , Mine Force , U.S. Atlantic Fleet had reported to Vice Admiral James L. Holloway III , Commander , Seventh Fleet , in September 1972 as Commander Task Force 78 . TF 78 was officially activated in November 1972 . However , it became clear more helicopters were needed . Responding to a Navy request for assistance , Commanding General , Fleet Marine Force Pacific ( CG FMFPAC ) directed that HMH - 463 deploy from MCAS Kaneohe Bay , Hawaii , to NAS Cubi Point , to join Task Force 78 . On 27 November 1972 , with the efficient support of Col. Bill Crocker 's MAG - 24 , HM - 463 embarked at Pearl Harbor aboard USS Inchon , which was en route from Norfolk to augment Seventh Fleet Amphibious Forces and to participate in End Sweep . The ceasefire was signed on 23 January 1973 , and the day afterwards , major components of TF 78 deployed from Subic Bay to Haiphong . These included four ocean minesweepers ( MSO ) , USS Inchon , and four amphibious ships , ' including two with docking capabilities to handle the minesweeping sleds towed by the CH - 53Ms . During the six months of Operation End Sweep , ten ocean minesweepers , nine amphibious ships , six fleet tugs , three salvage ships , and nineteen destroyers operated in Task Force 78 in the vicinity of Haiphong . ' As of 2010 , Commander Naval Forces Korea , an administrative liaison unit between USFK , the ROK Navy , and Seventh Fleet , has been assigned the TF 78 designation . Naval Forces Korea is headquartered at Yongsan and has a base at Chinhae , Commander Fleet Activities Chinhae . Task Force 79 -- The Marine expeditionary unit or Landing Force assigned to the fleet , consisting of at least a reinforced Marine battalion and its equipment . This unit is separate from the Marine Expeditionary Unit ( MEU ) normally embarked in USS Bonhomme Richard Amphibious Readiness Group ( ARG ) . Marine units serving in 7th Fleet are normally drawn from III Marine Expeditionary Force based in Okinawa , Japan . Forward - deployed Seventh Fleet ships ( edit ) U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka , Japan ( edit ) Main article : U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka Carrier Strike Group Five : USS Ronald Reagan ( CVN - 76 ) , USS Antietam ( CG - 54 ) and USS Shiloh ( CG - 67 ) . USS City of Corpus Christi ( SSN - 705 ) , a forward - deployed nuclear submarine of the 7th Fleet . Destroyer Squadron 15 : USS Curtis Wilbur ( DDG - 54 ) , USS John S. McCain ( DDG - 56 ) , USS Fitzgerald ( DDG - 62 ) , USS Stethem ( DDG - 63 ) , USS Benfold ( DDG 65 ) , USS McCampbell ( DDG - 85 ) and USS Mustin ( DDG - 89 ) . USS Blue Ridge ( LCC - 19 ) U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo , Japan ( edit ) Main article : U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo USS Bonhomme Richard ( LHD - 6 ) USS Green Bay ( LPD - 20 ) USS Germantown ( LSD - 42 ) USS Ashland ( LSD - 48 ) USS Patriot ( MCM - 7 ) USS Pioneer ( MCM - 9 ) USS Warrior ( MCM - 10 ) USS Chief ( MCM - 14 ) Apra Harbor , Guam ( edit ) Main article : Naval Base Guam USS Frank Cable ( AS - 40 ) USS Chicago ( SSN - 721 ) USS Key West ( SSN - 722 ) USS Oklahoma City ( SSN - 723 ) Fleet commanders ( edit ) The USS Blue Ridge , flagship , U.S. Seventh Fleet . Vice Adm. Arthur S. Carpender 15 March 1943 26 November 1943 Vice Adm. Thomas C. Kinkaid 26 November 1943 20 November 1945 Vice Adm. Daniel E. Barbey 20 November 1945 2 October 1946 Vice Adm. Charles M. Cooke , Jr . 2 October 1946 28 February 1948 Vice Adm. Oscar C. Badger II 28 February 1948 28 August 1949 Vice Adm. Russell S. Berkey 28 August 1949 5 April 1950 Rear Adm. Walter . F. Boone 5 April 1950 20 May 1950 Vice Adm. Arthur D. Struble 20 May 1950 28 March 1951 Vice Adm. Harold . M. Martin 28 March 1951 3 March 1952 Vice Adm. Robert P. Briscoe 3 March 1952 20 May 1952 Vice Adm. Joseph . J. Clark 20 May 1952 1 December 1953 Vice Adm. Alfred M. Pride 1 December 1953 9 December 1955 Vice Adm. Stuart H. Ingersoll 19 December 1955 28 January 1957 Vice Adm. Wallace M. Beakley 28 January 1957 30 September 1958 Vice Adm. Frederick N. Kivette 30 September 1958 7 March 1960 Vice Adm. Charles D. Griffin 7 March 1960 28 October 1961 Vice Adm. William A. `` Bill '' Schoech 28 October 1961 13 October 1962 Vice Adm. Thomas H. Moorer 13 October 1962 15 June 1964 Vice Adm. Roy L. Johnson 15 June 1964 1 March 1965 Vice Adm. Paul P. Blackburn 1 March 1965 9 October 1965 Rear Adm. Joseph W. Williams , Jr . 9 October 1965 13 December 1965 Vice Adm. John J. Hyland 13 December 1965 6 November 1967 Vice Adm. William F. Bringle 6 November 1967 10 March 1970 Vice Adm. Maurice F. Weisner 10 March 1970 18 June 1971 Vice Adm. William P. Mack 18 June 1971 23 May 1972 Vice Adm. James L. Holloway III 23 May 1972 28 July 1973 Vice Adm. George P. Steele 28 July 1973 14 June 1975 Vice Adm. Thomas B. Hayward 14 June 1975 24 July 1976 Vice Adm. Robert B. Baldwin 24 July 1976 31 May 1978 Vice Adm. Sylvester Robert Foley , Jr . 31 May 1978 14 February 1980 Vice Adm. Carlisle A.H. Trost 14 February 1980 15 September 1981 Vice Adm. M. Staser Holcomb 15 September 1981 9 May 1983 Vice Adm. James R. Hogg 9 May 1983 4 March 1985 Vice Adm. Paul F. McCarthy , Jr . 4 March 1985 9 December 1986 Vice Adm. Paul D. Miller 9 December 1986 21 October 1988 Vice Adm. Henry H. Mauz , Jr . 21 October 1988 1 December 1990 Vice Adm. Stanley R. Arthur 1 December 1990 3 July 1992 Vice Adm. Timothy W. Wright 3 July 1992 28 July 1994 Vice Adm. Archie R. Clemins 28 July 1994 13 September 1996 Vice Adm. Robert J. Natter 13 September 1996 12 August 1998 Vice Adm. Walter F. Doran 12 August 1998 12 July 2000 Vice Adm. James W. Metzger 12 July 2000 18 July 2002 Vice Adm. Robert F. Willard 18 July 2002 6 August 2004 Vice Adm. Jonathan W. Greenert 6 August 2004 12 September 2006 Vice Adm. William Douglas Crowder 12 September 2006 12 July 2008 Vice Adm. John M. Bird 12 July 2008 10 September 2010 Vice Adm. Scott R. Van Buskirk 10 September 2010 7 September 2011 Vice Adm. Scott H. Swift 7 September 2011 31 July 2013 Vice Adm. Robert L. Thomas Jr . 31 July 2013 7 September 2015 Vice Adm. Joseph Aucoin 7 September 2015 22 August 2017 Vice Adm. Phillip G. Sawyer 22 August 2017 present Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` U.S. 7th Fleet forces '' . U.S. Navy , 7th Fleet . 2014 . Archived from the original on 8 October 2014 . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Records of U.S. Seventh Fleet Public Affairs '' . Naval History & Heritage Command . 29 April 2005 . Archived from the original on 2 October 2013 . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Marolda , Edward J. ( 8 November 1997 ) . `` By Sea , Air , and Land '' . Naval History & Heritage Command . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Willis , Warren ( 2009 ) . `` USS Bexar APA - 237 '' . oldbluejacket.com . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Melson , Charles D. ; Arnold , Curtis G. ( 1991 ) . The War That Would Not End , 1971 -- 1973 . U.S. Marines in Vietnam . United States Marine Corps History and Museums Division . p. 188 . LCCN 77604776 . Jump up ^ `` Narrative History of the USS Enterprise ( CVA ( N ) 65 ) 1 Jan -- 31 Dec 66 '' ( PDF ) . United States Navy . 10 July 1967 : 1 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 13 January 2012 . The presence of USS Enterprise in the Gulf of Tonkin was well - known around the world by January 1966 . Her own prestige as the largest and most powerful warship of the fleet had followed her to Yankee and Dixie Station , and there was more to the emerging legend than this ; she and USS Bainbridge , her frigate `` smallboy '' , had put a watershed date in naval history merely by being the first nuclear - powered ships to engage in combat . Their unmatched speed , detection systems , and operational capacity potential were proving their worth far beyond the original estimates during the first weeks `` on the line at the Tonki Gulf Yacht Club . '' Jump up ^ `` History of the USS Salisbury Sound ( AV - 13 ) '' . USS Salisbury Sound ( AV - 13 ) . USS Salisbury Sound Association . Retrieved 19 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Holloway , James L. `` Tactical Command and Control of Carrier Operations '' . Naval Historical Foundation . Jump up ^ `` Vietnam War : Afloat and Ashore : Operation Sea Dragon '' . Naval Historical Foundation . Jump up ^ Holloway , James ( 15 January 2011 ) . Aircraft Carriers at War : A Personal Retrospective of Korea , Vietnam , and the Soviet Confrontation . Naval Institute Press . p. 296 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61251 - 008 - 8 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , pp. 29 , 46 -- 49 . Jump up ^ Perryman , John ( 10 August 2006 ) . `` Towing the line '' . Navy . 49 ( 14 ) . Jump up ^ Bonsall , George ( 1997 ) . `` The Impact of Advanced Naval Surface Fire Support on Joint Force Fire Coordination '' . Federation of American Scientists . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. warships begin bombardment of Viet Cong targets -- 27 May 1965 '' . This Day in History . 2014 . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , pp. 42 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , pp. 24 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , pp. 61 . Jump up ^ Cavendish 1989 , pp. 50 -- 59 . Jump up ^ Simha , Rakesh Krishnan ( 31 August 2013 ) . `` Sweeping mines , salvaging looted gold after the 1971 War '' . Russia & India Report . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Wolf , Jim ( 10 May 2012 ) . `` U.S. plans 10 - month warship deployment to Singapore '' . Reuters . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` US sailors to stay off - shore in Singapore deal : officials '' . AsiaOne. 2 June 2012 . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` USS John McCain collides with merchant ship east of Singapore , 10 sailors missing , US Navy says '' . ABC News ( Australia ) . 21 August 2017 . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Smith , Alexander ; Flanagan , Ed ( 21 August 2017 ) . `` U.S. Destroyer Collides With Tanker Off Singapore ; 10 Missing '' . NBC News . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . Jump up ^ McKirdy , Euan ; Lendon , Brad ( 23 August 2017 ) . `` US Navy 7th Fleet commander dismissed , Navy says '' . CNN . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Slavin , Erik ( 17 May 2017 ) . `` Sawyer nominated to head Yokosuka - based 7th Fleet '' . Stars and Stripes . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Carrier Strike Group Five '' . Navy Data . U.S. Navy Outlets. 2013 . Archived from the original on 3 November 2013 . Retrieved 30 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Carrier Strike Group '' . Navy Data . U.S. Navy . 2013 . Retrieved 1 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1947 -- 1962 ) . History of U.S. Naval Operations in World War II , Vol . VI : Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier , 22 July 1942 -- 1 May 1944 . Little , Brown and Company . p. 68 . Jump up ^ Marolda , Edward J. ( 8 November 1997 ) . `` By Sea , Air , and Land '' . Naval History & Heritage Command . Retrieved 22 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Johnson , R.W. ( 1985 ) . Shootdown : Flight 007 and the American Connection . New York : Viking . p. 194 . ISBN 9780670812097 . Jump up ^ Pearson , David ( 1987 ) . KAL 007 : the Cover - up . New York : Summit Books . pp. 237 , 239 . ISBN 978 - 0671557164 . Jump up ^ Polmar , Norman ( 2005 ) . Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet ( 18th ed . ) . p. 37 . ISBN 978 - 1591146858 . Jump up ^ `` Korean War Naval Chronology , May -- July 1953 '' . Naval History & Heritage Command . 2012 . Archived from the original on 4 December 2013 . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Holloway III , James L. ( 2007 ) . Aircraft carriers at war . Naval Institute Press . p. 328 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59114 - 391 - 8 . Note that Admiral Holloway appears to have made a mistake with the identification of the CH - 53M squadron referred to on page 327 . The squadron referred to appears to have been HM - 12 . Jump up ^ Van Nortwick , John . `` Operation End Sweep '' . Marine Corps Gazette ( May 1974 ) . Archived from the original on 13 November 2013 . Retrieved 24 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Holloway III , James L. ( 2007 ) . Aircraft carriers at war . Naval Institute Press . p. 329 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59114 - 391 - 8 . Jump up ^ Lubold , Gordon ( 22 August 2017 ) . `` U.S. Navy Relieves Admiral of Command After Collisions '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Commander , U.S. 7th Fleet , Vice Adm. Phillip G. Sawyer '' . US Navy . Retrieved 24 August 2017 . References ( edit ) The Vietnam War : War at Sea . New York : Marshall Cavendish. 1989 . ISBN 0863078648 . Further reading ( edit ) Marolda , Edward J. ( 2011 ) . Ready Seapower : A History of the U.S. Seventh Fleet . Washington , DC : Naval History & Heritage Command , Department of the Navy . ISBN 9780945274674 . Marolda , Edward J. ( 1994 ) . By Sea , Air , and Land : An Illustrated History of the U.S. Navy and the War in Southeast Asia . Washington , DC : Naval Historical Center . ISBN 0160359384 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States Seventh Fleet . 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48 | document: One - child policy - wikipedia One - child policy Jump to : navigation , search One - child policy A Chinese mother and son at a market in Jiayuguan , China Chinese 独生子 女 政策 ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Dúshēng zǐnǚ zhèngcè The one - child policy , a part of the family planning policy , was a population planning policy of China . It was introduced in 1979 and began to be formally phased out in 2015 . The policy allowed exceptions for many groups , including ethnic minorities . In 2007 , 36 % of China 's population was subject to a strict one - child restriction , with an additional 53 % being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl . Provincial governments imposed fines for violations , and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work . According to the Chinese government , 400 million births were prevented . This claim has been called `` false '' by scholars , because `` three - quarters of the decline in fertility since 1970 occurred before the launching of the one - child policy ; and most of the further decline in fertility since 1980 can be attributed to economic development . '' Thailand and Iran , along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu , have had similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy . Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey , it was controversial outside of China . On October 29 , 2015 , it was reported that the existing law would be changed to a two - child policy , citing a statement from the Communist Party of China . The new law became effective on January 1 , 2016 , following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27 , 2015 . China 's population ( 1961 -- 2008 ) Population in China Year Million Change Change / year 1964 694.6 -- -- -- - -- -- -- - 1982 1008.2 313.6 + 17.42 2000 1265.8 257.6 + 14.31 1339.7 73.9 + 7.39 Source : Census of China Contents ( hide ) 1 Introduction 2 History 2.1 Implementation 2.2 Relaxation 3 Abolition 4 Administration 5 Effects 5.1 Fertility rates 5.2 Continuation of demographic transition 5.3 Disparity in sex ratio at birth 5.4 Education 5.5 Adoption 5.6 Twins 5.7 Quality of life for women 5.8 Healthcare improvements 5.9 `` Four - two - one '' problem 5.10 Unregistered children 5.11 Potential social problems 5.12 Birth tourism 6 Criticism 6.1 Statement of the effect of the policy on birth reduction 6.2 Unequal enforcement 6.3 Human rights violations 6.4 Effect on infanticide rates 7 In popular culture 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Introduction ( edit ) Birth rate in China During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China , the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand . Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981 , and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976 . Until the 1960s , the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country , preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development . The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976 . Beginning in 1970 , citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children . Although the fertility rate began to decline , the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club . While visiting Europe in 1979 , one of the top Chinese officials , Song Jian , read two influential books of the movement , The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival . With a group of mathematicians , Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million . A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080 , with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering . In spite of some criticism inside the party , the plan ( also referred to as the Family Planning Policy ) was officially adopted in 1979 . The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources , as well as to alleviate social , economic and environmental problems in China . The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18 , 1980 . History ( edit ) The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy . It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied ; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions . The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas . Beginning in 1980 , official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of `` practical difficulties '' ( such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman ) or when both parents are single children , and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well . In most areas , families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter . Furthermore , families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability , mental illness , or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children . However , second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing ( usually 3 or 4 years ) . Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship . Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child . Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds . By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence . As of 2007 , only 35.9 % of the population were subject to a strict one - child limit . 52.9 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter ; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender ; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all . The Danshan , Sichuan Province Nongchang Village people Public Affairs Bulletin Board in September 2005 noted that RMB 25,000 in social compensation fees were owed in 2005 . Thus far 11,500 RMB had been collected , so another 13,500 RMB had to be collected . Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake , a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake . Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children . People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong , but at least for Guangdong residents , the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad . In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities , all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas , and three or four in rural areas . Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children . Because of couples such as these , as well as who simply pay a fine ( or `` social maintenance fee '' ) to have more children , the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011 . Implementation ( edit ) The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the `` social child - raising fee '' , sometimes called a `` family planning fine '' in the West , which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants , in the year of the child 's birth . For instance , in Guangdong , the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district , plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average . Both members of the couple need to pay the fine . As part of the policy , women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device ( IUD ) surgically installed after having a first child , and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child . From 1980 to 2014 , 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 107 million were sterilized . Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services . The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually , but only through surgery . In 2016 , following the abolition of the one - child policy , the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government . Relaxation ( edit ) In 2013 , Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that `` China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term '' . A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children , mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child . In November 2013 , following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party , China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy . Under the new policy , families could have two children if one parent , rather than both parents , was an only child . This mainly applied to urban couples , since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples . The coastal province of Zhejiang , one of China 's most affluent , became the first area to implement this `` relaxed policy '' in January 2014 . The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces , with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet . Under this policy , approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child ; however , only `` nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014 , less than half the expected number of 2 million per year . By May 2014 , 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved . Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected , and that `` second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start . Abolition ( edit ) See also : Two - child policy § China In October 2015 , the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy , now allowing all families to have two children , citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party `` to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . The new law took effect 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015 . The rationale for the abolition is summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong : `` The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men , too many old people , and too few young people . They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy . And if people do n't start having more children , they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population . '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree ; the huge retiree community must be supported , and that will dampen future growth , according to Fong . Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children , the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue , as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that `` China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030 , while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly . That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources . '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic , based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , revealed by Cai Fang , deputy director . `` By 2050 , one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older , and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person . '' Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition , some say that the move to the two - child policy will not end forced sterilizations , forced abortions , or government control over birth permits . Others also state that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China . A reporter for CNN said , `` It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past . No , this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions ... The new policy , raising the limit to two children per couple , preserves the state 's role . '' The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit , as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicates : `` Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom , however , in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement . Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected , and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal . '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate , saying , `` Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities , become more educated , and when women establish careers outside the home . '' Administration ( edit ) The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981 . The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013 . The agency reports to the State Council . The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors . `` Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work . Effects ( edit ) Fertility rates ( edit ) China had small family by 1978 before start of one - child policy in 1979 According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives , it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy ; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy ; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates ; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates . According to the study , `` In general , very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility : one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China , while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline . A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years , but in the longer term , economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level . To put it more bluntly , China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development , even without the one - child policy , although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same . '' Continuation of demographic transition ( edit ) Further information : Demographics of China and Demographic transition The progression of China 's population pyramid , International Futures . The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 ( already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s ) to 1.5 in 2010 . This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand , Indian states of Kerala , Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one child policy . Disparity in sex ratio at birth ( edit ) The sex ratio at birth in People 's Republic of China , males per 100 females , 1980 -- 2010 . For more details on this topic , see Missing women of China . The sex ratio of a newborn infant ( between male and female births ) in mainland China reached 117 : 100 , and stabilized between 2000 and 2013 , substantially higher than the natural baseline , which ranges between 103 : 100 and 107 : 100 . It had risen from 108 : 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111 : 100 in 1990 . According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission , there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020 , potentially leading to social instability , and courtship - motivated emigration . The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth , for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999 . Thus , a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy , whether it is a boy or a girl . If the first child is a girl , and they are able to have a second child , then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy . If a couple already has two or more boys , the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction . This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring , a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play . Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys . A study by Anderson & Silver ( 1995 ) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province : a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys . This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coalenad , who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males , it was also much more likely to engage in `` stopping behavior '' , i.e. , to stop having more children . The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio . As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally , and this has led to social problems . `` Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls , the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio ... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women , sex trafficking , other forms of crime or social unrest . '' The situation will not improve in the near future . According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020 . Education ( edit ) According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives , `` existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education '' . Adoption ( edit ) A roadside sign in rural Sichuan : `` It is forbidden to discriminate against , mistreat or abandon baby girls . '' The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt , which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages . However , in the 1980s and early 1990s , poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform . In the 1980s , adoptions accounted for half of the so - called `` missing girls '' . Through the 1980s , as the one - child policy came into force , parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities . Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption . A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls , and the proportion who were girls increased over time . In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30 , 2015 , Adam Pertman , president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency , indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries , particularly the United States , a trend which has been declining for some years . `` The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available , if you will , for five , seven years . China has been ... trying to keep the girls within the country ... And the consequence is that , today , rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today , it 's older children , children with special needs , children in sibling groups . It 's very , very different . '' Twins ( edit ) Since there are no penalties for multiple births , it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins . According to a 2006 China Daily report , the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled . Quality of life for women ( edit ) The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China . For thousands of years , girls have held a lower status in Chinese households . However , the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being . As a result of being an only child , women have increased opportunity to receive an education , and support to get better jobs . Healthcare improvements ( edit ) It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy . At family planning offices , women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects . First , the average Chinese household expends fewer resources , both in terms of time and money , on children , which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest . Second , since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age , there is an impetus to save money for the future . `` Four - two - one '' problem ( edit ) A government sign in Tangshan Township : `` For a prosperous , powerful nation and a happy family , please practice family planning . '' As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves , one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents . Called the `` 4 - 2 - 1 Problem '' , this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support . If personal savings , pensions , or state welfare fail , most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance . If , for any reason , the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives , the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities . In response to such an issue , all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves : By 2007 , all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy ; Henan followed in 2011 . Unregistered children ( edit ) Further information : Heihaizi Heihaizi ( Chinese : 黑 孩子 ; pinyin : hēiháizi ) or `` black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy , or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system . Being excluded from the family register ( in effect , a birth certificate ) , they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services , such as education and health care , and do not receive protection under the law . Potential social problems ( edit ) Some parents may over-indulge their only child . The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as `` little emperors '' . Since the 1990s , some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation , as they have no siblings at home . No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged . With the first generation of children born under the policy ( which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s ) reaching adulthood , such worries were reduced . However , the `` little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions , describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media , Chinese academia and popular discussions . Being over-indulged , lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons . Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule , citing `` social problems and personality disorders in young people '' . One statement read , `` It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them : it is not right to limit the number to two children per family , either . '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang , a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children . According to a scholar , `` The one - child limit is too extreme . It violates nature 's law . And in the long run , this will lead to mother nature 's revenge . '' Birth tourism ( edit ) Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas , a practice known as birth tourism . Many went to Hong Kong , which is exempt from the one - child policy . Likewise , a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages . Recently though , the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals . As a result , fees for delivering babies there have surged . As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered , mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America . As the United States practises birthright citizenship , most children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship . The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands , a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions . The island is currently experiencing an upswing in Chinese births . This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well , wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US . Canada is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests . Criticism ( edit ) The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons , including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy , as well as concerns about negative social consequences . Statement of the effect of the policy on birth reduction ( edit ) The Chinese government , quoting Zhai Zhenwu , director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing , estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011 , while some demographers challenge that number , putting the figure at perhaps half that level , according to CNN . Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy , but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before , stating that `` there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births '' . This claim is disputed by Wang Feng , director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy , and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that `` Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '' , and `` Thailand does not have a one - child policy . '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy . According to a report by the US Embassy , scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective . In 1988 , Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility , arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period . Zeng contended that the `` big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children . By the late 1980s , economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted . A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province , in which the family planning law was suspended , suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished . A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options , including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births , were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders . Unequal enforcement ( edit ) Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines . Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ( $1.2 million ) . For example , between 2000 and 2005 , as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy , according to the provincial family planning commission ; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers , 24 political advisors , 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals . Some of the offending officials did not face penalties , although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to `` expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child '' . Also , people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment , although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child . Human Rights violations ( edit ) Further information : Human rights in China The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family . According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights , `` Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children . '' According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph , a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy . According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages . The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort , usually by an injection of saline solution . A 1993 book by social scientist Steven W. Mosher reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy , or already in labour , were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth . According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent John Taylor , China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure . In 2012 , Feng Jianmei , a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child . Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired , while five others were sanctioned . In the past China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies , but the government has backed away from such policies , as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities , which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws . Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China . Furthermore , in 2003 , China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license . The United Nations Population Fund 's ( UNFPA ) support for family planning in China , which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States , led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration , and again under George W. Bush 's presidency , citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to `` found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009 , intending to `` work collaboratively to reduce poverty , improve the health of women and children , prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries '' . Effect on infanticide rates ( edit ) Sex - selected abortion , abandonment , and infanticide are illegal in China . Nevertheless , the United States Department of State , the Parliament of the United Kingdom , and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists . A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote , `` The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ' , or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China ( and other developing countries ) as a result of female infanticide , abandonment , and neglect '' . The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants : `` Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby , and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years , particularly for second or subsequent children . Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s . China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005 , but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion . The abandonment , and killing , of baby girls has also been reported , though recent research studies say it has become rare , in part due to strict criminal prohibitions . '' Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California , Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s . In popular culture ( edit ) Ball , David ( 2002 ) . China Run . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 74322743 - 3 . A novel about an American woman who travels to China to adopt an orphan of the one - child policy , only to find herself a fugitive when the Chinese government informs her that she has been given `` the wrong baby '' . The prevention of a state - imposed abortion during labor to conform with the one child policy is a key plot point in Tom Clancy 's novel The Bear and the Dragon . The difficulties of implementing the one - child policy are dramatized in Mo Yan 's novel Frog ( 2009 ; English translation by Howard Goldblatt , 2015 ) . Avoiding the family - planning enforcers is at the heart of Ma Jian 's novel The Dark Road ( translated by Flora Drew , 2013 ) . Novelist Lu Min writes about her own family 's experience with the One Child Policy in her essay `` A Second Pregnancy , 1980 '' ( translated by Helen Wang , 2015 ) . Xue , Xinran ( 2015 ) . Buy Me the Sky . Rider ( imprint ) . ISBN 978 - 1 - 8460 - 4471 - 7 . Tells the stories of the children brought up under China 's one - child policy and the effect that has had on their lives , families and ability to deal with life 's challenges . Fong , Mei ( 2016 ) . One Child : The Story of China 's Most Radical Experiment . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . ISBN 9780544275393 . 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But heavy fines and exposures seemed to hardly stop the celebrities and rich people , as there are still many people , who can afford the heavy penalties , insist on having multiple kids , the Hunan commission spokesman said ... Three officials ... who were all found to have kept extramarital mistresses , were all convicted for charges such as embezzlement and taking bribes , but they were not punished for having more than one child . Jump up ^ `` China : Filmmaker Zhang Yimou fined $1 M for breach of one - child policy - CNN.com '' . CNN . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 03 . Jump up ^ chan , peggy ( 2005 ) . Cultures of the world China . New York : Marshall Cavendish International . Jump up ^ Freedman , Lynn P. ; Isaacs , Stephen L. ( Jan -- Feb 1993 ) . `` Human Rights and Reproductive Choice '' ( PDF ) . Studies in Family Planning . Population Council . 24 ( 1 ) : 18 -- 30 . JSTOR 2939211 . PMID 8475521 . doi : 10.2307 / 2939211 . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Proclamation of Teheran '' . International Conference on Human Rights . 1968 . Archived from the original on 2007 - 10 - 17 . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ McElroy , Damien ( 2001 - 04 - 08 ) . `` Chinese region ' must conduct 20,000 abortions ' '' . The Telegraph . London . Jump up ^ Mosher , Steven W. ( July 1993 ) . A Mother 's Ordeal . Harcourt . ISBN 0 - 15 - 162662 - 6 . Jump up ^ Taylor , John ( 2005 - 02 - 08 ) . `` China -- One Child Policy '' . Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Father in forced abortion case wants charges filed '' . My Way News . Associated Press . 2012 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ ( subscription required ) `` Implications of China 's Ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities '' . China : an International Journal . Jump up ^ Sleeboom - Faulkner , Margaret Elizabeth ( 1 June 2011 ) . `` Genetic testing , governance , and the family in the People 's Republic of China '' . Social Science & Medicine . 72 ( 11 ) : 1802 -- 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. socscimed. 2010.03. 052 . Jump up ^ `` Marriage Law of the People 's Republic of China '' ( PDF ) . Australia : Refugee Review Tribunal . Jump up ^ Moore , Stephen ( 1999 - 05 - 09 ) . `` Do n't Fund UNFPA Population Control '' . CATO Institute . Jump up ^ McElroy , Damien ( 2002 - 02 - 03 ) . `` China is furious as Bush halts UN ' abortion ' funds '' . The Telegraph . London . Jump up ^ Siv , Sichan ( 2003 - 01 - 21 ) . `` United Nations Fund for Population Activities in China '' . U.S. Department of State . Archived from the original on 19 February 2003 . Jump up ^ `` UNFPA Welcomes Restoration of U.S. Funding '' . UNFPA News . 29 January 2009 . Archived from the original on December 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rizvi , Haider ( March 12 , 2009 ) . `` Obama Sets New Course at the U.N. '' . IPS News . Inter Press Agency . Jump up ^ Associated Press . `` US State Department position '' . Archived from the original on February 26 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Human Rights in China and Tibet '' . Parliament of the United Kingdom . Jump up ^ Amnesty International . `` Violence Against Women -- an introduction to the campaign '' . Archived from the original on 9 October 2006 . Jump up ^ Mosher , Steve ( 1986 ) . `` Steve Mosher 's China report '' . The Interim . Jump up ^ `` Case Study : Female Infanticide '' . Gendercide Watch . 2000 . Jump up ^ `` Infanticide Statistics : Infanticide in China '' . All Girls Allowed. 2010 . Jump up ^ Steffensen , Jennifer . `` Georgetown Journal 's Guide to the ' One - Child ' Policy '' . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 30 . Jump up ^ Lubman , Sarah ( 2000 - 03 - 15 ) . `` Experts Allege Infanticide In China -- ' Missing ' Girls Killed , Abandoned , Pair Say '' . San Jose Mercury News . CA . Jump up ^ `` A Second Pregnancy , 1980 '' , Paper republic . Further reading ( edit ) Better 10 Graves Than One Extra Birth : China 's Systemic Use of Coercion To Meet Population Quotas . Washington , DC : Laogai Research Foundation . 2004 . ISBN 1 - 931550 - 92 - 1 . Fong , Mei ( 2015 ) . One Child : The Past and Future of China 's Most Radical Experiment . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . ISBN 0 - 544 - 27539 - X . Interview with Mei on her challenges writing the book . Hardee - Cleaveland , Karen ( 1988 ) . Family Planning in China : Recent Trends , Volume 3 . Center for International Research , U.S. Bureau of the Census . Goh , Esther C.L. ( 2011 ) . `` China 's One - Child Policy and Multiple Caregiving : raising little suns in Xiamen '' ( PDF ) . Journal of International and Global Studies . New York : Routledge . Greenhalgh , Susan ( 2008 ) . Just One Child : Science and Policy in Deng 's China ( illustrated ed . ) . University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 25339 - 1 . Johnson , Kay Ann ( 2016 ) . China 's Hidden Children : Abandonment , Adoption , and the Human Costs of the One - Child Policy . University Of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 - 0226352510 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Population policy in China . Family Planning in China `` Illegal births and legal abortions -- the case of China '' . Reprod Health . 2 : 5 . 2005 . PMC 1215519 . PMID 16095526 . doi : 10.1186 / 1742 - 4755 - 2 - 5 . 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49 | document: Disco - wikipedia Disco Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the music genre . For the entertainment venue , see nightclub . For the modern style of music also called `` disco '' , see Nu - disco . For other uses , see Disco ( disambiguation ) . Disco The ceiling of an Arlington , Texas discothèque Stylistic origins Funk Philadelphia soul soul Latin music psychedelic soul bubblegum pop sunshine pop pop Cultural origins Late - 1960s -- early 1970s , East Coast of the United States Typical instruments Singing electric guitar bass guitar keyboard synthesizer drums drum machine percussion instrument string section horn section orchestra Derivative forms Afro / Cosmic Hi - NRG Italo disco house post-disco hip hop new wave garage house synthpop freestyle Subgenres Euro disco space disco disco polo nu - disco Fusion genres Dance - punk Manila Sound Regional scenes New York City Philadelphia Atlanta Miami Los Angeles Montreal Other topics Discothèques orchestration list of artists old - school hip hop rhythm and blues Disco is a musical style originating in the early 1970s that remained urban and largely underground until the middle of the decade when it began to emerge from America 's urban nightlife scene , where it had been curtailed to house parties and makeshift discotheques , and began making regular appearances mainstream , gaining popularity and increasing airplay on radio . It achieved popularity during the mid-1970s to the early 1980s . Its initial audiences in the U.S. were club - goers from the gay , African American , Italian American , Latino , and psychedelic communities in Philadelphia , San Francisco , and New York City during the late 1960s and early 1970s . Disco can be seen as a reaction against both the domination of rock music and the stigmatization of dance music by the counterculture during this period . Disco was popular with both men and women from many different backgrounds , with dances including the Bump and the Hustle . The disco sound often has several components , a `` four - on - the - floor '' beat , an eighth note ( quaver ) or 16th note ( semi-quaver ) hi - hat pattern with an open hi - hat on the off - beat , and a prominent , syncopated electric bass line . In most disco tracks , string sections , horns , electric piano , and electric rhythm guitars create a lush background sound . Orchestral instruments such as the flute are often used for solo melodies , and lead guitar is less frequently used in disco than in rock . Many disco songs use electronic synthesizers , particularly in the late 1970s . Well - known 1970s disco performers included : Vicki Sue Robinson , Yvonne Elliman , Grace Jones , Thelma Houston , Diana Ross , Donna Summer , the Bee Gees , Boney M. , Chaka Khan , KC and the Sunshine Band , the Trammps , Sylvester , Village People , Gloria Gaynor , Amii Stewart , and Chic . While performers and singers garnered much public attention , record producers working behind the scenes played an important role in developing the `` disco sound '' . Many non-disco artists recorded disco songs at the height of disco 's popularity , and films such as Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) and Thank God It 's Friday ( 1978 ) contributed to disco 's rise in mainstream popularity . Disco was the last mass popular music movement that was driven by the baby boom generation . Disco was a worldwide phenomenon , but its popularity drastically declined in the United States in 1980 , and by 1982 it had lost most of its mainstream popularity in the states . Disco Demolition Night , an anti-disco protest held in Chicago on July 12 , 1979 , remains the most well - known of several `` backlash '' incidents across the country that symbolized disco 's declining fortune . By the late 1970s , most major U.S. cities had thriving disco club scenes , where DJs would mix a seamless sequence of dance records . Studio 54 , a venue popular among celebrities , is a well - known example of a disco club . Popular dances included the Hustle , a sexually suggestive dance . Discotheque - goers often wore expensive , extravagant and sexy fashions . There was also a thriving drug subculture in the disco scene , particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights , such as cocaine and Quaaludes , a drug that was so common in disco subculture that it was nicknamed `` disco biscuits '' . Disco clubs were also sometimes associated with promiscuity . Disco was a key influence in the later development of electronic dance music and house music . Disco has had several revivals , including in 2005 with Madonna 's highly successful album Confessions on a Dance Floor , and again in 2013 and 2014 , as disco - styled songs by artists like Daft Punk ( with Pharrell Williams and Nile Rodgers ) , Justin Timberlake , Breakbot , and Bruno Mars -- notably Mars ' `` Uptown Funk '' -- filled the pop charts in the UK and the US . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Origins of the term and type of nightclub 1.1. 1 Early to Mid 1970s United Kingdom Usage 1.2 1966 -- 74 : Proto - disco and early history of disco music 1.3 1974 -- 77 : Rise to the mainstream 1.4 1977 -- 79 : Pop pre-eminence 1.4. 1 Parodies 1.5 Reasons for popularity 1.6 1979 -- 81 : Backlash and decline 1.6. 1 Impact on music industry 1.6. 2 Factors contributing to disco 's decline 1.7 2000 -- present : Success of nu - disco and disco revival 2 Regional scenes 2.1 Role of Motown 2.2 Euro disco 3 Musical characteristics 3.1 Production 4 Disco clubs and culture 4.1 Disco dancing 4.2 Disco fashion 4.3 Drug subculture and sexual promiscuity 5 Influence on other music 5.1 1982 -- 1990 : Post-disco and dance 5.2 TV themes 5.3 DJ culture 5.4 Rave culture 5.5 Hip hop and electro 5.6 House music 5.7 Post-punk 5.7. 1 Dance - punk 5.8 Nu - disco 6 See also 7 References and notes 8 Further reading 9 External links History ( edit ) Origins of the term and type of nightclub ( edit ) The term disco is derived from discothèque ( French for `` library of phonograph records '' , but it was subsequently used as a term for nightclubs in Paris ) . By the early 1940s , the terms disc jockey and DJ were in use to describe radio presenters . During WWII , because of restrictions set in place by the Nazi occupiers , jazz dance halls in Occupied France played records instead of using live music . Eventually more than one of these jazz venues had the proper name discothèque . By 1959 , the term was used in Paris to describe any of these type of nightclubs . That year , a young reporter named Klaus Quirini started to select and introduce records at the Scotch - Club in Aachen , West Germany . By the following year the term was being used in the United States to describe that type of club , and a type of dancing in those clubs . By 1964 , discotheque and the shorthand disco were used to describe a type of sleeveless dress worn when going out to nightclubs . In September 1964 , Playboy magazine used the word disco as a shorthand for a discothèque - styled nightclub . Early to mid 1970s United Kingdom usage ( edit ) In 1974 there were an estimated 25,000 mobile discos and 40,000 professional disc jockeys in the United Kingdom . Mobile Discos referred to Disc Jockeys for hire that brought their own equipment to office parties , weddings and the like . `` Disco Dance Music '' referred to glam rock . Simon Reynolds has described Gary Glitter 's Rock and Roll Part 2 as the first hybrid disco - rock song . 1966 -- 74 : proto - disco and early History of disco music ( edit ) The Jackson 5 , with a young Michael Jackson , pictured here in 1972 , had early 1970s songs with disco elements . In Philadelphia , R&B musicians and audiences from the Black , Italian , and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippie and psychedelia subcultures . They included using music venues with a loud , overwhelming sound , free - form dancing , trippy lighting , colorful costumes , and the use of hallucinogenic drugs . Psychedelic soul groups like the Chambers Brothers and especially Sly and the Family Stone influenced proto - disco acts such as Isaac Hayes , Willie Hutch and the soul style known as the Philadelphia Sound . In addition , the perceived positivity , lack of irony , and earnestness of the hippies informed proto - disco music like MFSB 's album Love Is the Message . To the mainstream public M.F.S.B. stood for `` Mother Father Sister Brother '' ; to the tough areas where they came from it was understood to stand for `` Mother Fuckin ' Son of a Bitch '' , a reference to their playing skill and musical prowess . A forerunner to disco - style clubs was the private dance parties held by New York City DJ David Mancuso in The Loft , a members - only club in his home in 1970 . When Mancuso threw his first house parties , the gay community ( members of whom comprised much of The Loft 's attendee roster ) was often harassed by police in New York gay bars and dance clubs . But at The Loft and many other early , private discotheques , men could dance together without fear of police action thanks to Mancuso 's underground business model . The first article about disco was written in 1973 by Vince Aletti for Rolling Stone magazine . In 1974 , New York City 's WPIX - FM premiered the first disco radio show . Philadelphia soul and New York soul were evolutions of the Motown sound , and were typified by the lavish percussion , lush string orchestra arrangements and expensive record production processes that became a prominent part of mid-1970s disco songs . Early songs with disco elements include `` You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' ( the Supremes , 1966 ) , `` The Love You Save '' by Jackson 5 ( 1970 ) , `` Soul Makossa '' ( Manu Dibango , 1972 ) , `` Superstition '' by Stevie Wonder ( 1972 ) Eddie Kendricks ' `` Keep on Truckin ' '' ( 1973 ) and `` The Love I Lost '' by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes ( 1973 ) . `` Love Train '' by the O'Jays ( 1972 ) , with M.F.S.B. as the backup band , hit Billboard Number 1 in March 1973 , and has been called `` disco '' . Major disco clubs had lighted dance floors , with the light flashing according to the beat . Early disco was dominated by record producers and labels such as Salsoul Records ( Ken , Stanley , and Joseph Cayre ) , West End Records ( Mel Cheren ) , Casablanca ( Neil Bogart ) , and Prelude ( Marvin Schlachter ) , to name a few . The genre was also shaped by Tom Moulton , who wanted to extend the enjoyment of dance songs -- thus creating the extended mix or `` remix '' , going from a three - minute 45 rpm single to the much longer 12 '' record . Other influential DJs and remixers who helped to establish what became known as the `` disco sound '' included David Mancuso , Nicky Siano , Shep Pettibone , Larry Levan , Walter Gibbons , and Chicago - based Frankie Knuckles . Frankie Knuckles was not only an important disco DJ ; he also helped to develop house music in the 1980s , a contribution which earned him the honourific title of `` Godfather of House '' . `` The ( disco ) DJ was central to the ritual of 1970 's dance culture , but the dancing crowd was no less important , and it was the combination of these two elements that created the conditions for the dance floor dynamic . '' In disco parties and clubs , a `` ... good DJ did n't only lead dancers ... ( to the dance floor , ) but would also feel the mood of the dance floor and select records according to this energy ( which could be communicated by the vigor of the dancing , or level of the crowd 's screams , or sign language of dancers directed towards the booth ) . '' Disco - era DJs would often remix ( re-edit ) existing songs using reel - to - reel tape machines , and add in percussion breaks , new sections , and new sounds . DJs would select songs and grooves according to what the dancers wanted , transitioning from one song to another with a DJ mixer and using a microphone to introduce songs and speak to the audiences . Other equipment was added to the basic DJ setup , providing unique sound manipulations , such as reverb , equalization , and echo effects unit . Using this equipment , a DJ could do effects such as cutting out all but the throbbing bassline of a song , and then slowly mixing in the beginning of another song using the DJ mixer 's crossfader . Disco hit the television airwaves with the music / dance variety show Soul Train in 1971 hosted by Don Cornelius , then Marty Angelo 's Disco Step - by - Step Television Show in 1975 , Steve Marcus ' Disco Magic / Disco 77 , Eddie Rivera 's Soap Factory , and Merv Griffin 's Dance Fever , hosted by Deney Terrio , who is credited with teaching actor John Travolta to dance for his role in the hit movie , Saturday Night Fever , as well as DANCE , based out of Columbia , South Carolina . 1974 -- 77 : rise to the mainstream ( edit ) Carl Douglas feat . Biddu - `` Kung Fu Fighting '' ( 1974 ) `` Kung Fu Fighting '' ( 1974 ) , performed by Carl Douglas and produced by Biddu , helped popularize disco music . Problems playing this file ? See media help . Italian composer Giorgio Moroder is known as the `` Father of Disco '' . From 1974 to 1977 , disco music continued to increase in popularity as many disco songs topped the charts . In 1974 , `` Love 's Theme '' by Barry White 's Love Unlimited Orchestra became the second disco song to reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , after `` Love Train '' . MFSB also released `` TSOP ( The Sound of Philadelphia ) '' , featuring vocals by the Three Degrees , and this was the third disco song to hit number one ; `` TSOP '' was written as the theme song for Soul Train . The Hues Corporation 's 1974 `` Rock the Boat '' , a U.S. number 1 single and million - seller , was one of the early disco songs to hit number 1 . The same year saw the release of `` Kung Fu Fighting '' , performed by Carl Douglas and produced by Biddu , which reached number 1 in both the U.K. and U.S. , and became the best - selling single of the year and one of the best - selling singles of all time with eleven million records sold worldwide , helping to popularize disco music to a great extent . Another notable chart - topping disco hit that year was George McCrae 's `` Rock Your Baby '' . Gloria Gaynor in 1976 . In the northwestern sections of the United Kingdom , the Northern Soul explosion , which started in the late 1960s and peaked in 1974 , made the region receptive to Disco , which the region 's Disc Jockeys were bringing back from New York City . George McCrae 's `` Rock Your Baby '' became the United Kingdom 's first number one disco single . Also in 1974 , Gloria Gaynor released the first side - long disco mix vinyl album , which included a remake of the Jackson 5 's `` Never Can Say Goodbye '' and two other songs , `` Honey Bee '' and `` Reach Out ( I 'll Be There ) '' . Gaynor 's number one disco hit was `` I Will Survive '' , released in 1978 , which was seen as a symbol of female strength and a gay anthem . `` Formed by Harry Wayne Casey ( '' KC `` ) and Richard Finch , Miami 's KC and the Sunshine Band had a string of disco - definitive top - five hits between 1975 and 1977 , including `` Get Down Tonight '' , `` That 's the Way ( I Like It ) '' , `` ( Shake , Shake , Shake ) Shake Your Booty '' , `` I 'm Your Boogie Man '' and `` Keep It Comin ' Love '' . Electric Light Orchestra 's 1975 hit Evil Woman , although described as Orchestral Rock , featured a violin sound that became a staple of disco . In 1979 , however , ELO did release two `` true '' disco songs : `` Last Train To London '' and `` Shine A Little Love '' . Donna Summer 1977 In 1975 , American singer and songwriter Donna Summer recorded a song which she brought to her producer Giorgio Moroder entitled `` Love to Love You Baby '' which contained a series of simulated orgasms . The song was never intended for release but when Moroder played it in the clubs it caused a sensation . Moroder released it and it went to number 2 . It has been described as the arrival of the expression of raw female sexual desire in pop music . A 17 - minute 12 inch single was released . The 12 '' single became and remains a standard in discos today . In 1978 , a multi-million selling vinyl single disco version of `` MacArthur Park '' by Summer was number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for three weeks and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . Summer 's recording , which was included as part of the `` MacArthur Park Suite '' on her double album Live and More , was eight minutes and forty seconds long on the album . The shorter seven - inch vinyl single version of the MacArthur Park was Summer 's first single to reach number one on the Hot 100 ; it does not include the balladic second movement of the song , however . A 2013 remix of `` Mac Arthur Park '' by Summer hit number 1 on the Billboard Dance Charts marking five consecutive decades with a number 1 hit on the charts . From 1978 to 1979 , Summer continued to release hits such as `` Last Dance '' , `` Bad Girls '' , `` Heaven Knows '' , `` No More Tears ( Enough Is Enough ) '' , `` Hot Stuff '' and `` On the Radio '' , all very successful disco songs . The Bee Gees used Barry Gibb 's falsetto to garner hits such as `` You Should Be Dancing '' , `` Stayin ' Alive '' , `` Night Fever '' , `` More Than A Woman '' and `` Love You Inside Out '' . Andy Gibb , a younger brother to the Bee Gees , followed with similarly - styled solo hits such as `` I Just Want to Be Your Everything '' , `` ( Love Is ) Thicker Than Water '' and `` Shadow Dancing '' . In 1975 , hits such as Van McCoy 's `` The Hustle '' and Summer 's version of `` Could It Be Magic '' brought disco further into the mainstream . Other notable early disco hits include the Jackson 5 's `` Dancing Machine '' ( 1974 ) , Barry White 's `` You 're the First , the Last , My Everything '' ( 1974 ) , Labelle 's `` Lady Marmalade '' ( 1975 ) and Silver Convention 's `` Fly Robin Fly '' ( 1975 ) . 1977 -- 79 : pop pre-eminence ( edit ) Yvonne Elliman - `` If I Ca n't Have You '' ( 1977 ) Yvonne Elliman 's `` If I Ca n't Have You , '' written by the Bee Gees ( 1977 ) from Saturday Night Fever : The Original Movie Sound Track , the best - selling soundtrack album of all time . Problems playing this file ? See media help . In December 1977 , the film Saturday Night Fever was released . It was a huge success and its soundtrack became one of the best - selling albums of all time . The idea for the film was sparked by a 1976 New York magazine article titled `` Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night '' which supposedly chronicled the disco culture in mid-1970s New York City , but was later revealed to have been fabricated . Some critics said the film `` mainstreamed '' disco , making it more acceptable to heterosexual white males . Chic was formed by guitarist Nile Rodgers -- a self described `` street hippie '' from late 1960s New York -- and bassist Bernard Edwards . `` Le Freak '' was a popular 1978 single that is regarded as an iconic song of the genre . Other hits by Chic include the often - sampled `` Good Times '' ( 1979 ) and `` Everybody Dance '' . The group regarded themselves as the disco movement 's rock band that made good on the hippie movement 's ideals of peace , love , and freedom . Every song they wrote was written with an eye toward giving it `` deep hidden meaning '' or D.H.M. The Bee Gees had several disco hits on the soundtrack of Saturday Night Fever in 1977 Sylvester , a flamboyant and openly gay singer famous for his soaring falsetto voice , scored his biggest disco hits in 1978 -- `` You Make Me Feel ( Mighty Real ) '' , and `` Dance ( Disco Heat ) '' , followed by `` Body Strong '' in 1979 . Known as the Queen of Disco , his singing style was said to have influenced the singer Prince . At that time , disco was one of the forms of music most open to gay performers . The Village People were a singing / dancing group created by Jacques Morali and Henri Belolo to target disco 's gay audience . They were known for their onstage costumes and achieved mainstream success with their 1979 hit song , `` Y.M.C.A '' . The Jacksons ( previously the Jackson 5 ) did many disco songs from 1975 to 1980 , including `` Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) '' ( 1978 ) , `` Blame it on the Boogie '' ( 1978 ) , `` Lovely One '' ( 1980 ) , and `` Can You Feel It '' ( 1980 ) -- all sung by Michael Jackson , whose 1979 solo album , Off the Wall , included several disco hits , including the album 's title song , `` Rock with You '' , `` Workin ' Day and Night '' , and his second chart - topping solo hit in the disco genre , `` Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough '' . Blondie - `` Heart of Glass '' ( 1978 ) Blondie 's `` Heart of Glass '' ( 1978 ) combined disco with new wave music , utilizing a Roland CR - 78 drum machine . Problems playing this file ? See media help . Disco 's popularity led many non-disco artists to record disco songs at the height of its popularity . Many of their songs were not `` pure '' disco , but were instead rock or pop songs with ( sometimes inescapable ) disco influence or overtones . Notable examples include Earth Wind & Fire 's `` Boogie Wonderland '' with the Emotions ( 1979 ) , Blondie 's `` Heart of Glass '' ( 1978 ) and `` Rapture '' ( 1980 ) , Cher 's `` Hell on Wheels '' and `` Take Me Home '' ( both 1979 ) , Barry Manilow 's `` Copacabana '' ( 1978 ) , David Bowie 's `` John I 'm Only Dancing ( Again ) '' ( 1975 ) , Rod Stewart 's `` Da Ya Think I 'm Sexy ? '' ( 1979 ) , Frankie Valli 's `` Swearin ' to God '' ( 1975 ) , Electric Light Orchestra 's `` Shine a Little Love '' and `` Last Train to London '' ( both 1979 ) , George Benson 's `` Give Me the Night '' ( 1980 ) , Elton John and Kiki Dee 's `` Do n't Go Breaking My Heart '' ( 1976 ) , M 's `` Pop Muzik '' ( 1979 ) , Barbra Streisand 's `` The Main Event '' ( 1979 ) and Diana Ross ' `` Upside Down '' ( 1980 ) . The biggest hit by Ian Dury and the Blockheads , best known as a new wave band , was `` Hit Me with Your Rhythm Stick '' ( 1978 ) , featuring a strong disco sound . Even hard - core mainstream rockers mixed elements of disco with their typical rock ' n roll style in songs . Progressive rock group Pink Floyd , when creating their rock opera The Wall , used disco - style components in their song , `` Another Brick in the Wall , Part 2 '' ( 1979 ) -- which became the group 's only number 1 hit single ( in both the US and UK ) . The Eagles gave nods to disco with `` One of These Nights '' ( 1975 ) and `` Disco Strangler '' ( 1979 ) , Paul McCartney & Wings did `` Goodnight Tonight '' ( 1979 ) , Queen did `` Another One Bites the Dust '' ( 1980 ) , the Rolling Stones did `` Miss You '' ( 1978 ) and `` Emotional Rescue '' ( 1980 ) , Chicago did `` Street Player '' ( 1979 ) , the Kinks did `` ( Wish I Could Fly Like ) Superman '' ( 1979 ) , and the J. Geils Band did `` Come Back '' ( 1980 ) . Even hard rock group KISS jumped in with `` I Was Made For Lovin ' You '' ( 1979 ) . Ringo Starr 's album Ringo the 4th ( 1978 ) features a strong disco influence . The disco fad was also picked up even by `` non-pop '' artists , including the 1979 U.S. number one hit `` No More Tears ( Enough Is Enough ) '' by Easy listening singer Barbra Streisand in a duet with Donna Summer . Country music artist Connie Smith covered Andy Gibb 's `` I Just Want to Be Your Everything '' in 1977 , Bill Anderson did `` Double S '' in 1978 , and Ronnie Milsap recorded `` Get It Up '' covered Tommy Tucker 's `` High Heel Sneakers '' in 1979 . Also noteworthy are Cheryl Lynn 's `` Got to Be Real '' ( 1978 ) , Evelyn `` Champagne '' King 's `` Shame '' ( 1978 ) , Cher 's `` Take Me Home '' ( 1979 ) , Sister Sledge 's `` We Are Family '' ( 1979 ) , Geraldine Hunt 's `` Ca n't Fake the Feeling '' ( 1980 ) , Alicia Bridges ' `` I Love the Nightlife '' ( 1978 ) and Walter Murphy 's various attempts to bring classical music to the mainstream , most notably his disco hit `` A Fifth of Beethoven '' ( 1976 ) , which was inspired by Beethoven 's fifth symphony . The a cappella jazz group the Manhattan Transfer had a disco hit with the 1979 `` Twilight Zone / Twilight Tone '' theme . Pre-existing non-disco songs and standards would frequently be `` disco - ized '' in the 1970s . The rich orchestral accompaniment that became identified with the disco era conjured up the memories of the big band era -- which brought out several artists that recorded and disco - ized some big band arrangements including Perry Como , who re-recorded his 1929 and 1939 hit , `` Temptation '' , in 1975 , as well as Ethel Merman , who released an album of disco songs entitled The Ethel Merman Disco Album in 1979 . Myron Floren , second - in - command on The Lawrence Welk Show , released a recording of the `` Clarinet Polka '' entitled `` Disco Accordion . '' Similarly , Bobby Vinton adapted `` The Pennsylvania Polka '' into a song named `` Disco Polka '' . Easy listening icon Percy Faith , in one of his last recordings , released an album entitled Disco Party ( 1975 ) and recorded a disco version of his famous `` Theme from A Summer Place '' in 1976 . Classical music was even adapted for disco , notably Walter Murphy 's `` A Fifth of Beethoven '' ( 1976 , based on the first movement of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony ) and `` Flight 76 '' ( 1976 , based on Rimsky - Korsakov 's `` Flight of the Bumblebee '' ) , and Louis Clark 's Hooked On Classics series of albums and singles . Notable disco hits based on movie and television themes included a medley from Star Wars , `` Star Wars Theme / Cantina Band '' ( 1977 ) by Meco , and `` Twilight Zone / Twilight Tone '' ( 1979 ) by the Manhattan Transfer . Even the I Love Lucy theme was not spared from being disco - ized . Many original television theme songs of the era also showed a strong disco influence , such as `` Keep Your Eye On the Sparrow '' ( theme from Baretta , performed by Sammy Davis , Jr. and later a hit single for Rhythm Heritage ) , `` Theme from S.W.A.T. '' ( from S.W.A.T , original and single versions by Rhythm Heritage ) , and Mike Post 's `` Theme from Magnum , P.I. '' . Parodies ( edit ) Several parodies of the disco style were created . Rick Dees , at the time a radio DJ in Memphis , Tennessee , recorded `` Disco Duck '' ( 1976 ) and `` Dis - Gorilla '' ( 1977 ) ; Frank Zappa parodied the lifestyles of disco dancers in `` Disco Boy '' on his 1976 Zoot Allures album , and in `` Dancin ' Fool '' on his 1979 Sheik Yerbouti album ; `` Weird Al '' Yankovic 's eponymous 1983 debut album includes a disco song called `` Gotta Boogie '' , an extended pun on the similarity of the disco move to the American slang word `` booger '' . Comedian Bill Cosby devoted his entire 1977 album Disco Bill to disco parodies . Reasons for popularity ( edit ) The reflective light disco ball was a fixture on the ceilings of many discoteques By the mid-1970s , the economic prosperity of the previous decade had declined , and unemployment , inflation and crime rates had soared . Disco music and disco dancing provided an escape from these negative economic issues . As well , in the 1970s , the key counterculture of the 1960s , the hippie movement , was fading away . The disco movement was far more than just music . It was also a subculture based around nightclubs , dance clubs , and DJs . In Beautiful Things in Popular Culture , Simon Frith highlights the sociability of disco and its roots in 1960 's counterculture . `` The driving force of the New York underground dance scene in which disco was forged was not simply that city 's complex ethnic and sexual culture but also a 1960s notion of community , pleasure and generosity that can only be described as hippie , '' he says . `` The best disco music contained within it a remarkably powerful sense of collective euphoria . '' Film critic Roger Ebert called the popular embrace of disco 's exuberant dance moves an escape from `` the general depression and drabness of the political and musical atmosphere of the late seventies . '' Pauline Kael , writing about the disco - themed film Saturday Night Fever , said the film and disco itself touched on `` something deeply romantic , the need to move , to dance , and the need to be who you 'd like to be . Nirvana is the dance ; when the music stops , you return to being ordinary . '' 1979 -- 81 : backlash and decline ( edit ) Man wearing a Disco Sucks T - shirt . By the end of the 1970s , a strong anti-disco sentiment developed among rock fans and musicians , particularly in the United States . Disco was criticized as mindless , consumeristic , overproduced and escapist . The slogans `` disco sucks '' and `` death to disco '' became common . Rock artists such as Rod Stewart and David Bowie who added disco elements to their music were accused of being sell outs . The punk subculture in the United States and United Kingdom was often hostile to disco ( although in the UK , many early Sex Pistols fans such as the Bromley Contingent and Jordan quite liked disco , often congregating at nightclubs such as Louise 's in Soho and the Sombrero in Kensington . The track `` Love Hangover '' by Diana Ross , the house anthem at the former , was cited as a particular favourite by many early UK Punks . Also , the film The Great Rock ' n ' Roll Swindle and its soundtrack album contained a disco medley of Sex Pistols songs , entitled Black Arabs and credited to a group of the same name . ) Jello Biafra of the Dead Kennedys , in the song `` Saturday Night Holocaust '' , likened disco to the cabaret culture of Weimar - era Germany for its apathy towards government policies and its escapism . Mark Mothersbaugh of Devo said that disco was `` like a beautiful woman with a great body and no brains '' , and a product of political apathy of that era . New Jersey rock critic Jim Testa wrote `` Put a Bullet Through the Jukebox '' , a vitriolic screed attacking disco that was considered a punk call to arms . Steve Hillage , shortly prior to his transformation from a progressive rock musician into an electronic artist at the end of the 1970s with the inspiration of disco , disappointed his rockist fans by admitting his love for disco , with Hillage recalling `` it 's like I 'd killed their pet cat . '' Anti-disco sentiment was expressed in some television shows and films . A recurring theme on the show WKRP in Cincinnati was a hostile attitude towards disco music . In one scene of the 1980 comedy film Airplane ! , a city skyline features a radio tower with a neon - lighted station callsign . A disc jockey voiceover says : `` WZAZ in Chicago , where disco lives forever ! '' Then a wayward airplane slices the radio tower with its wing , the voiceover goes silent , and the lighted callsign goes dark . July 12 , 1979 , became known as `` the day disco died '' because of Disco Demolition Night , an anti-disco demonstration in a baseball double - header at Comiskey Park in Chicago . Rock - station DJs Steve Dahl and Garry Meier , along with Michael Veeck , son of Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck , staged the promotional event for disgruntled rock fans between the games of a White Sox doubleheader . The event , which involved exploding disco records , ended with a riot , during which the raucous crowd tore out seats and pieces of turf , and caused other damage . The Chicago Police Department made numerous arrests , and the extensive damage to the field forced the White Sox to forfeit the second game to the Detroit Tigers , who had won the first game . Six months prior to the chaotic event , popular progressive rock radio station WDAI ( WLS - FM ) had suddenly switched to an all - disco format , disenfranchising thousands of Chicago rock fans and leaving Dahl unemployed . On July 21 , 1979 , the top six records on the U.S. music charts were disco songs . By September 22 , there were no disco songs in the US Top 10 chart , with the exception of Herb Alpert 's instrumental `` Rise , '' a smooth jazz composition with some disco overtones . Some in the media , in celebratory tones , declared disco `` dead '' and rock revived . Karen Mixon Cook , the first female disco DJ , stated that people still pause every July 12 for a moment of silence in honor of Disco . Dahl stated in a 2004 interview that disco was `` probably on its way out . But I think it ( Disco Demolition Night ) hastened its demise '' . Impact on music industry ( edit ) The anti-disco backlash , combined with other societal and radio industry factors , changed the face of pop radio in the years following Disco Demolition Night . Starting in the 1980s , country music began a slow rise in American main pop charts . Emblematic of country music 's rise to mainstream popularity was the commercially successful 1980 movie Urban Cowboy . Somewhat ironically , the star of the film was John Travolta , who only three years before had starred in Saturday Night Fever , a film that featured disco culture . During this period of decline in disco 's popularity , several record companies folded , were reorganized , or were sold . In 1979 , MCA Records purchased ABC Records , absorbed some of its artists , and then shut the label down . RSO Records founder Robert Stigwood left the label in 1981 and TK Records closed in the same year . Salsoul Records continues to exist in the 2000s , but primarily is used as a reissue brand . Casablanca Records had been releasing fewer records in the 1980s , and was shut down in 1986 by parent company PolyGram . Many groups that were popular during the disco period subsequently struggled to maintain their success -- even those that tried to adapt to evolving musical tastes . The Bee Gees , for instance , had only one top - 10 hit ( 1989 's `` One '' ) and three more top - 40 hits ( despite recording and releasing far more than that and completely abandoning disco in their 1980s and 1990s songs ) in the United States after the 1970s , even though numerous songs they wrote and had other artists perform were successful . Of the handful of groups not taken down by disco 's fall from favor , Kool and the Gang , the Jacksons -- and Michael Jackson in particular -- stand out : In spite of having helped define the disco sound early on , they continued to make popular and danceable , if more refined , songs for yet another generation of music fans in the 1980s and beyond . Earth , Wind & Fire also survived the disco backlash and continued to produce hits at roughly the same pace for several more years , in addition to an even longer string of R&B chart hits that lasted into the 1990s . Factors contributing to disco 's decline ( edit ) The Village People group were created to target disco 's gay audience by featuring popular gay fantasy personae . For example , one of the performers is dressed as a black leather - clad `` Leatherman '' . Factors that have been cited as leading to the decline of disco in the United States include economic and political changes at the end of the 1970s , as well as burnout from the hedonistic lifestyles led by participants . In the years since Disco Demolition Night , some social critics have described the backlash as implicitly macho and bigoted , and an attack on non-white and non-heterosexual cultures . The backlash also made its way into US politics with the election of conservative Ronald Reagan in 1980 which also lead to Republican control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1954 plus the subsequent rise of the Religious Right around the same time . In January 1979 , rock critic Robert Christgau argued that homophobia , and most likely racism , were reasons behind the backlash , a conclusion seconded by John Rockwell . Craig Werner wrote : `` The Anti-disco movement represented an unholy alliance of funkateers and feminists , progressives and puritans , rockers and reactionaries . Nonetheless , the attacks on disco gave respectable voice to the ugliest kinds of unacknowledged racism , sexism and homophobia . '' Legs McNeil , founder of the fanzine Punk , was quoted in an interview as saying , `` the hippies always wanted to be black . We were going , ' f * * k the blues , f * * k the black experience ' . '' He also said that disco was the result of an `` unholy '' union between homosexuals and blacks . Steve Dahl , who had spearheaded Disco Demolition Night , denied any racist or homophobic undertones to the promotion , saying , `` It 's really easy to look at it historically , from this perspective , and attach all those things to it . But we were n't thinking like that . '' It has been noted that British punk rock critics of disco were very supportive of the pro-black / anti-racist reggae genre as well as the more pro-gay new romantics movement . Christgau and Jim Testa have said that there were legitimate artistic reasons for being critical of disco . In 1979 , the music industry in the United States underwent its worst slump in decades , and disco , despite its mass popularity , was blamed . The producer - oriented sound was having difficulty mixing well with the industry 's artist - oriented marketing system . Harold Childs , senior vice president at A&M Records , told the Los Angeles Times that `` radio is really desperate for rock product '' and `` they 're all looking for some white rock - n - roll '' . Gloria Gaynor argued that the music industry supported the destruction of disco because rock music producers were losing money and rock musicians were losing the spotlight . However , disco music remained relatively successful in the early 1980s , with big hits like Irene Cara 's `` Flashdance ... What a Feeling '' , Michael Jackson 's `` Thriller '' , K.C. and the Sunshine Band 's last major hit , `` Give It Up '' , and Madonna 's first album had strong disco influences . Record producer Giorgio Moroder 's soundtracks to American Gigolo , Flashdance and Scarface ( which also had a heavy disco influence ) proved that the style was still very much embraced . Queen 's 1982 album , Hot Space was inspired by the genre as well . In the 1990s , disco and its legacy became more accepted by music artists and listeners alike , as more songs and films were released that referenced disco . Examples of songs during this time that were influenced by disco included Deee - Lite 's `` Groove Is in the Heart '' ( 1990 ) , U2 's `` Lemon '' ( 1993 ) , Blur 's `` Girls & Boys '' ( 1994 ) & `` Entertain Me '' ( 1995 ) , Pulp 's `` Disco 2000 '' ( 1995 ) , and Jamiroquai 's `` Canned Heat '' ( 1999 ) , while films such as Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) and The Last Days of Disco ( 1998 ) featured primarily disco soundtracks . 2000 -- present : success of nu - disco and disco revival ( edit ) Students from Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education , Mexico City dancing to disco during a cultural event on campus In the early 2000s , an updated genre of disco called `` nu - disco '' began breaking into the mainstream . A few examples like Daft Punk 's `` One More Time '' and Kylie Minogue 's `` Love At First Sight '' became club favorites and commercial successes . Several nu - disco songs were crossovers with funky house , such as Spiller 's `` Groovejet ( If This Ai n't Love ) '' and Modjo 's `` Lady ( Hear Me Tonight ) '' , both songs sampling older disco songs and both reaching number 1 on the UK Singles Chart in 2000 . Robbie Williams ' disco hit `` Rock DJ '' was the UK 's fourth best - selling single the same year . Rock band Manic Street Preachers released a disco song , `` Miss Europa Disco Dancer '' , in 2001 . The song 's disco influence , which appears on Know Your Enemy , was described as being `` much - discussed '' . In 2005 , Madonna immersed herself in the disco music of the 1970s , and released her album Confessions on a Dance Floor to rave reviews . In addition to that , her song `` Hung Up '' became a major top ten hit and club staple , and sampled ABBA 's 1970s ' hit `` Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) '' . In addition to her disco - influenced attire to award shows and interviews , her Confessions Tour also incorporated various elements of the 1970s , such as disco balls , a mirrored stage design , and the roller derby . The success of the `` nu - disco '' revival of the early 2000s was described by music critic Tom Ewing as more interpersonal than the pop music of the 1990s : `` The revival of disco within pop put a spotlight on something that had gone missing over the 90s : a sense of music not just for dancing , but for dancing with someone . Disco was a music of mutual attraction : cruising , flirtation , negotiation . Its dancefloor is a space for immediate pleasure , but also for promises kept and otherwise . It 's a place where things start , but their resolution , let alone their meaning , is never clear . All of 2000s great disco number ones explore how to play this hand . Madison Avenue look to impose their will upon it , to set terms and roles . Spiller is less rigid . ' Groovejet ' accepts the night 's changeability , happily sells out certainty for an amused smile and a few great one - liners . '' In 2013 , several 1970s ' style disco and funk songs charted , and the pop charts had more dance songs than at any other point since the late 1970s . The biggest disco hit of the year as of June was `` Get Lucky '' by Daft Punk , featuring Nile Rodgers on guitar . Random Access Memories also ended up winning Album of the Year at the 2014 Grammys . Other disco - styled songs that made it into the top 40 were Robin Thicke 's `` Blurred Lines '' ( No. 1 ) , Justin Timberlake 's `` Take Back the Night '' ( No. 29 ) , Bruno Mars ' `` Treasure '' ( No. 5 ) and Michael Jackson 's posthumous release `` Love Never Felt So Good '' ( No. 9 ) . In addition , Arcade Fire 's Reflektor featured strong disco elements . In 2014 , disco music could be found in Lady Gaga 's Artpop and Katy Perry 's `` Birthday '' . Other disco songs from 2014 include `` I Want It All '' By Karmin and ' Wrong Club '' by the Ting Tings . Other top ten hits from 2015 like Mark Ronson 's disco groove - infused `` Uptown Funk '' , Maroon 5 's `` Sugar '' , the Weeknd 's `` Ca n't Feel My Face '' and Jason Derulo 's `` Want To Want Me '' also ascended the charts and have a strong disco influence . Disco mogul and producer Giorgio Moroder also re-appeared with his new album Déjà Vu in 2015 which has proved to be a modest success . Other songs from 2015 like `` I Do n't Like It , I Love It '' by Flo Rida , `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' by Coldplay , `` Back Together '' by Robin Thicke and `` Levels '' by Nick Jonas feature disco elements as well . In 2016 , disco songs or disco - styled pop songs are showing a strong presence on the music charts as a possible backlash to the ' 80s - styled Synthpop , Electro House and Dubstep that have been dominating the current charts . Justin Timberlake 's 2016 song `` Ca n't Stop the Feeling ! '' , which shows strong elements of disco , became the 26th song to debut at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 in the history of the chart . The Martian , a 2015 film , extensively uses disco music as a soundtrack , although for the main character , astronaut Mark Watney , there 's only one thing worse than being stranded on Mars : it 's being stranded on Mars with nothing but disco music . `` Kill the Lights '' , featured on an episode of the HBO television series `` Vinyl '' ( 2016 ) and with Nile Rodgers ' guitar licks , hit no . 1 on the US Dance chart in July 2016 . Regional scenes ( edit ) Role of Motown ( edit ) Diana Ross in 1976 Diana Ross was one of the first Motown artists to embrace the disco sound with her successful 1976 outing `` Love Hangover '' from her self - titled album . Ross would continue to score disco hits for the rest of the disco era , including the 1980 dance classics `` Upside Down '' and `` I 'm Coming Out '' ( the latter immediately becoming a favorite in the gay community ) . the Supremes , the group that made Ross famous , scored a handful of hits in the disco clubs without Ross , most notably 1976 's `` I 'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking '' and , their last charted single before disbanding , 1977 's `` You 're My Driving Wheel '' . At the request of Motown that he produce songs in the disco genre , Marvin Gaye released `` Got to Give It Up '' in 1978 , despite his dislike of disco . He vowed not to record any songs in the genre , and actually wrote the song as a parody . Stevie Wonder released the disco single `` Sir Duke '' in 1977 as a tribute to Duke Ellington , the influential jazz legend who had died in 1974 . Smokey Robinson left the Motown group the Miracles for a solo career in 1972 and released his third solo album A Quiet Storm in 1975 , which spawned and lent its name to the `` Quiet Storm '' musical programming format and subgenre of R&B . It contained the disco hit `` Baby That 's Backatcha '' . Other Motown artists who scored disco hits include : Robinson 's former group , the Miracles , with `` Love Machine '' ( 1975 ) , Eddie Kendricks with `` Keep On Truckin ' '' ( 1973 ) , the Originals with `` Down to Love Town '' ( 1976 ) and Thelma Houston with her cover of the Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes song `` Do n't Leave Me This Way '' ( 1976 ) . The label continued to release successful disco songs into the 1980s with Rick James ' `` Super Freak '' ( 1981 ) , and the Commodores ' `` Lady ( You Bring Me Up ) '' ( 1981 ) . Several of Motown 's solo artists who left the label went on to have successful disco hits . Mary Wells , Motown 's first female superstar with her signature song `` My Guy '' ( written by Smokey Robinson ) , abruptly left the label in 1964 . She briefly reappeared on the charts with the disco song `` Gigolo '' in 1980 . Jimmy Ruffin , the elder brother of the Temptations lead singer David Ruffin , was also signed to Motown , and released his most successful and well - known song `` What Becomes of the Brokenhearted '' as a single in 1966 . Ruffin eventually left the record label in the mid-1970s but had a 1980 hit with the disco song `` Hold On ( To My Love ) '' , which was written and produced by Robin Gibb of the Bee Gees , for his album Sunrise . Edwin Starr , most famous for his Motown protest song `` War '' ( 1970 ) , reentered the charts in 1979 with a pair of disco songs , `` Contact '' and `` H.A.P.P.Y. Radio '' . Kiki Dee became the first white British singer to sign with Motown in the US , and released one album , Great Expectations ( 1970 ) , and two singles `` The Day Will Come Between Sunday and Monday '' ( 1970 ) and `` Love Makes The World Go Round '' ( 1971 ) , the latter giving her first ever chart entry ( number 87 on the US Chart ) . She soon left the company and signed with Elton John 's The Rocket Record Company , and in 1976 had her biggest and best - known hit , `` Do n't Go Breaking My Heart '' , a disco duet with John . The song was intended as an affectionate disco - style pastiche of the Motown sound , in particular the various duets recorded by Marvin Gaye with Tammi Terrell and Kim Weston . Michael Jackson released many successful solo singles under the Motown label , like `` Got To Be There '' ( 1971 ) , `` Ben '' ( 1972 ) and a cover of Bobby Day 's `` Rockin ' Robin '' ( 1972 ) . He went on to score hits in the disco genre with `` Rock with You '' ( 1979 ) , `` Do n't Stop ' Til You Get Enough '' ( 1979 ) and `` Billie Jean '' ( 1983 ) for Epic Records . Many Motown groups who had left the record label charted with disco songs . Michael Jackson was the lead singer of the Jackson 5 , one of Motown 's premier acts in the early 1970s . They left the record company in 1975 ( Jermaine Jackson , however , remained with the label ) after hits like `` I Want You Back '' ( 1969 ) and `` ABC '' ( 1970 ) , and even the disco hit `` Dancing Machine '' ( 1974 ) . Renamed as ' the Jacksons ' ( as Motown owned the name ' the Jackson 5 ' ) , they went on to find success with disco songs like `` Blame It on the Boogie '' ( 1978 ) , `` Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) '' ( 1979 ) and `` Can You Feel It ? '' ( 1981 ) on the Epic label . the Isley Brothers , whose short tenure at the company had produced the hit `` This Old Heart of Mine ( Is Weak for You ) '' in 1966 , went on release successful disco songs like `` That Lady '' ( 1973 ) and `` It 's a Disco Night ( Rock Do n't Stop ) '' ( 1979 ) . Gladys Knight and the Pips , who recorded the most successful version of `` I Heard It Through the Grapevine '' ( 1967 ) before Marvin Gaye , scored hits such as `` Baby , Do n't Change Your Mind '' ( 1977 ) and `` Bourgie , Bourgie '' ( 1980 ) in the disco era . The Detroit Spinners were also signed to the Motown label and had a hit with the Stevie Wonder - produced song `` It 's A Shame '' in 1970 . They left soon after , on the advice of fellow Detroit native Aretha Franklin , to Atlantic Records , and there had disco hits like `` The Rubberband Man '' ( 1976 ) . In 1979 , they released a successful cover of Elton John 's `` Are You Ready for Love '' , as well as a medley of the Four Seasons ' song `` Working My Way Back to You '' and Michael Zager 's `` Forgive Me , Girl '' . The Four Seasons themselves were briefly signed to Motown 's MoWest label , a short - lived subsidiary for R&B / soul artists based on the West Coast , and there the group produced one album , Chameleon ( 1972 ) - to little commercial success in America . However , one single , `` The Night '' , was released in Britain in 1975 , and thanks to popularity from the Northern Soul circuit , reached number 7 on the UK Singles Chart . The Four Seasons left Motown in 1974 and went on to have a disco hit with their song `` December , 1963 ( Oh , What a Night ) '' ( 1975 ) for Warner Curb Records . Norman Whitfield was a producer at Motown , renowned for creating innovative `` psychedelic soul '' songs . The genre later developed into funk , and from there into disco . The Undisputed Truth , a Motown recording act assembled by Whitfield to experiment with his psychedelic soul production techniques , found success with their 1971 song `` Smiling Faces Sometimes '' . The disco single `` You + Me = Love '' ( number 43 ) in 1976 , which also made number 2 on the US Dance Charts . In 1977 , singer , songwriter and producer Willie Hutch signed with Whitfield 's new label . He had been signed to Motown since 1970 , scored a disco hit with his song `` In and Out '' . The group Rose Royce produced the album soundtrack to the 1976 film Car Wash , which contained the huge disco hit `` Car Wash '' . Singer Stacy Lattisaw signed with Motown after achieving success in the disco genre . In 1980 , she released her album Let Me Be Your Angel , which produced the disco hits `` Dynamite '' and `` Jump to the Beat '' on the Cotillion label . Lattisaw continued to enjoy success as a contemporary R&B / pop artist throughout the 1980s . She signed with Motown in 1986 , and achieved most success when teaming up with Johnny Gill , releasing the 1989 song `` Where Do We Go From Here ? '' from her last ever album , What You Need , before retiring . In addition , her first ever single , back in 1979 , was a disco cover of `` When You 're Young and in Love '' , which was most famously recorded by Motown female group the Marvelettes in 1967 . Additionally , the debut single of Shalamar , the group originally created as a disco - driven vehicle by Soul Train creator Don Cornelius , was `` Uptown Festival '' ( 1977 ) , a medley of 10 classic Motown songs sung over a 1970s disco beat . Euro disco ( edit ) Main article : Euro disco Donna Summer - `` I Feel Love '' ( 1977 ) Donna Summer 's `` I Feel Love '' ( 1977 ) , produced by Giorgio Moroder , was a seminal Euro disco song . Problems playing this file ? See media help . As disco 's popularity sharply declined in the United States , abandoned by major U.S. record labels and producers , European disco continued evolving within the broad mainstream pop music scene . European acts Silver Convention , Love and Kisses , Munich Machine , and American acts Donna Summer and the Village People , were acts that defined the late 1970s Euro disco sound . Producers Giorgio Moroder , whom AllMusic described as `` one of the principal architects of the disco sound '' with the Donna Summer hit `` I Feel Love '' ( 1977 ) , and Jean - Marc Cerrone were involved with Euro disco . The German group Kraftwerk also had an influence on Euro disco . ABBA in 1974 . By far the most successful Euro disco act was ABBA . This Swedish quartet , which sang in English , had hits such as `` Waterloo '' ( 1974 ) , `` Fernando '' ( 1976 ) , `` Take a Chance on Me '' ( 1978 ) , `` Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) '' ( 1979 ) , and their signature smash `` Dancing Queen '' ( 1976 ) -- ranks as the eighth best - selling act of all time . Other prominent European pop and disco groups were Luv ' from the Netherlands and Boney M. , a group of four West Indian singers and dancers masterminded by West German record producer Frank Farian . Boney M. charted worldwide hits with such songs as `` Daddy Cool '' , `` Ma Baker '' and `` Rivers Of Babylon '' . Another Euro disco act was the French Amanda Lear , where Euro - disco sound is most heard in Enigma ( `` Give A Bit Of Mmh To Me '' ) song ( 1978 ) . In France , Dalida released `` J'attendrai '' ( `` I Will Wait '' ) , the first major French disco hit , which also became a big hit in Canada and Japan . Dalida successfully adjusted herself to disco era and released at least a dozen of songs that charted among top number 10 in whole Europe and wider . Claude François , who re-invented himself as the king of French disco , released `` La plus belle chose du monde '' , a French version of the Bee Gees hit record , `` Massachusetts '' , which became a big hit in Canada and Europe and `` Alexandrie Alexandra '' was posthumously released on the day of his burial and became a worldwide hit . Cerrone 's early hit songs , `` Love in C Minor '' , `` Give Me Love '' and `` Supernature '' became major hits in the U.S. and Europe . Dancers at a German discoteque in 1977 In Italy Raffaella Carrà is the most successful disco act . Her greatest international hit single was `` Tanti Auguri '' ( `` Best Wishes '' ) , which has become a popular song with gay audiences . The song is also known under its Spanish title `` Para hacer bien el amor hay que venir al sur '' ( which refers to Southern Europe , since the hit was recorded and taped in Spain ) . The Estonian version of the song `` Jätke võtmed väljapoole '' was performed by Anne Veski . `` A far l'amore comincia tu '' ( `` To make love , your move first '' ) was another success for her internationally , known in Spanish as `` En el amor todo es empezar '' , in German as `` Liebelei '' , in French as `` Puisque tu l'aimes dis le lui '' , and in English as `` Do It , Do It Again '' . It was her only entry to the UK Singles Chart , reaching number 9 , where she remains a one - hit wonder . In 1977 , she recorded another hit single , `` Fiesta '' ( `` The Party '' in English ) originally in Spanish , but then recorded it in French and Italian after the song hit the charts . `` A far l'amore comincia tu '' has also been covered in Turkish by a Turkish popstar Ajda Pekkan as `` Sakın Ha '' in 1977 . Recently , Carrà has gained new attention for her appearance as the female dancing soloist in a 1974 TV performance of the experimental gibberish song `` Prisencolinensinainciusol '' ( 1973 ) by Adriano Celentano . A remixed video featuring her dancing went viral on the internet in 2008 . In 2008 a video of a performance of her only UK hit single , ' Do It , Do It Again ' , was featured in the Dr. Who episode ' Midnight ' . Rafaella Carrà worked with Bob Sinclar on the new single `` Far l'Amore '' which was released on YouTube on March 17 , 2011 . The song charted in different European countries . Musical characteristics ( edit ) Disco bass pattern . Play ( help info ) Rock & disco drum patterns : disco features greater subdivision of the beat , which is four - to - the - floor Play ( help info ) Chic -- `` Good Times '' Chic -- `` Good Times '' ( 1979 ) . Disco composition , frequently sampled in early hip hop music . Chic -- `` Le Freak '' Chic -- `` Le Freak '' ( 1978 ) . Disco composition that does not use four - to - the - floor rhythm . Sister Sledge -- `` Got to Love Somebody '' Sister Sledge -- `` Got to Love Somebody '' ( 1979 ) . Example demonstrates the use of keyboards and horns in disco music . Sister Sledge -- `` Reach Your Peak '' Sister Sledge -- `` Reach Your Peak '' ( 1980 ) . Example demonstrates the use of electric guitar and vocals in disco music . Problems playing these files ? See media help . The music typically layered soaring , often - reverberated vocals , often doubled by horns , over a background `` pad '' of electric pianos and `` chicken - scratch '' rhythm guitars played on an electric guitar . `` The ' chicken scratch ' sound is achieved by lightly pressing the strings against the fretboard and then quickly releasing them just enough to get a slightly muted scratching ( sound ) while constantly strumming very close to the bridge . '' Other backing keyboard instruments include the piano , electric organ ( during early years ) , string synth , and electromechanical keyboards such as the Fender Rhodes electric piano , Wurlitzer electric piano , and Hohner Clavinet . Synthesizers are also fairly common in disco , especially in the late 1970s . The rhythm is laid down by prominent , syncopated basslines ( with heavy use of broken octaves , that is , octaves with the notes sounded one after the other ) played on the bass guitar and by drummers using a drum kit , African / Latin percussion , and electronic drums such as Simmons and Roland drum modules . The sound was enriched with solo lines and harmony parts played by a variety of orchestral instruments , such as harp , violin , viola , cello , trumpet , saxophone , trombone , clarinet , flugelhorn , French horn , tuba , English horn , oboe , flute ( sometimes especially the alto flute and occasionally bass flute ) , piccolo , timpani and synth strings , string section or a full string orchestra . Most disco songs have a steady four - on - the - floor beat , a quaver or semi-quaver hi - hat pattern with an open hi - hat on the off - beat , and a heavy , syncopated bass line . Other Latin rhythms such as the rhumba , the samba and the cha - cha - cha are also found in disco recordings , and Latin polyrhythms , such as a rhumba beat layered over a merengue , are commonplace . The quaver pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar and may be implied rather than explicitly present . Songs often use syncopation , which is the accenting of unexpected beats . In general , the difference between a disco , or any dance song , and a rock or popular song is that in dance music the bass drum hits four to the floor , at least once a beat ( which in 4 / 4 time is 4 beats per measure ) , whereas in rock the bass hits on one and three and lets the snare take the lead on two and four ( the `` backbeat '' ) . Disco is further characterized by a 16th note division of the quarter notes as shown in the second drum pattern below , after a typical rock drum pattern . The orchestral sound usually known as `` disco sound '' relies heavily on string sections and horns playing linear phrases , in unison with the soaring , often reverberated vocals or playing instrumental fills , while electric pianos and chicken - scratch guitars create the background `` pad '' sound defining the harmony progression . Typically , all of the doubling of parts and use of additional instruments creates a rich `` wall of sound '' . There are , however , more minimalistic flavors of disco with reduced , transparent instrumentation , pioneered by Chic . In 1977 , Giorgio Moroder again became responsible for a development in disco . Alongside Donna Summer and Pete Bellotte he wrote the song `` I Feel Love '' for Summer to perform . It became the first well - known disco hit to have a completely synthesised backing track . The song is still considered to have been well ahead of its time . Other disco producers , most famously Tom Moulton , grabbed ideas and techniques from dub music ( which came with the increased Jamaican migration to New York City in the 1970s ) to provide alternatives to the `` four on the floor '' style that dominated . DJ Larry Levan utilized styles from dub and jazz and remixing techniques to create early versions of house music that sparked the genre . Production ( edit ) The `` disco sound '' was much more costly to produce than many of the other popular music genres from the 1970s . Unlike the simpler , four - piece band sound of the funk , soul of the late 1960s , or the small jazz organ trios , disco music often included a large pop band , with several chordal instruments ( guitar , keyboards , synthesizer ) , several drum or percussion instruments ( drumkit , Latin percussion , electronic drums ) , a horn section , a string orchestra , and a variety of `` classical '' solo instruments ( for example , flute , piccolo , and so on ) . Disco songs were arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators , and record producers added their creative touches to the overall sound using multitrack recording techniques and effects units . Recording complex arrangements with such a large number of instruments and sections required a team that included a conductor , copyists , record producers , and mixing engineers . Mixing engineers had an important role in the disco production process , because disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instruments . Mixing engineers and record producers , under the direction of arrangers , compiled these tracks into a fluid composition of verses , bridges , and refrains , complete with orchestral builds and breaks . Mixing engineers and record producers helped to develop the `` disco sound '' by creating a distinctive - sounding , sophisticated disco mix . Early records were the `` standard '' 3 minute version until Tom Moulton came up with a way to make songs longer . Moulton wanted to make longer songs , so that he could take a crowd of dancers at a club to another level and keep them dancing longer . He found that was impossible to make the 45 - RPM vinyl discs of the time longer , as they could usually hold no more than 5 minutes of good - quality music . With the help of José Rodriguez , his remasterer / mastering engineer , he pressed a single on a 10 '' disc instead of 7 `` . They cut the next single on a 12 '' disc , the same format as a standard album . Moulton and Rodriguez discovered that these larger records could have much longer songs and remixes . Twelve - inch records , even for singles , fast became the standard format for all DJs of the disco genre . Because record sales were often dependent on dance floor play by DJs in leading nightclubs , DJs were also important to the development and popularization of disco music . By selecting and playing disco songs , DJs helped to make certain songs more or less popular . Notable disco DJs include the first female disco DJ in the US , Karen Mixon Cook , and many other DJs , such as Jim Burgess , Walter Gibbons , John `` Jellybean '' Benitez , Richie Kaczar of Studio 54 , Rick Gianatos , Francis Grasso of Sanctuary , Larry Levan , Ian Levine and David Mancuso . DJs not only played songs in clubs ; they also remixed , looped and live - mixed these songs from the DJ booth , changing the ways songs sounded . For example , a DJ might use the intro or bassline from a popular disco track and beatmatch and layer the vocals from a second song over top . As well , some DJs were also record producers who created and produced disco songs in the recording studio . Larry Levan , for example , is as well known for his prolific record producer work as for his contributions as a DJ . Disco clubs and culture ( edit ) See also : Circuit parties Blue disco quad roller skates . By the late 1970s most major U.S. cities had thriving disco club scenes , but the largest scenes were in San Francisco , Miami , and most notably New York City . The scene was centered on discotheques , nightclubs , and private loft parties where DJs would play disco hits from discs and records through PA systems for the patrons who came to dance . Powerful , bass - heavy , hi - fi sound systems were viewed as a key part of the disco club experience . `` Mancuso introduced the technologies of tweeter arrays ( clusters of small loudspeakers , which emit high - end frequencies , positioned above the floor ) and bass reinforcements ( additional sets of subwoofers positioned at ground level ) at the start of the 1970s in order to boost the treble and bass at opportune moments , and by the end of the decade sound engineers such as Richard Long had multiplied the effects of these innovations in venues such as the Garage . '' The DJs played `` ... a smooth mix of long single records to keep people ' dancing all night long ' '' . Some of the most prestigious clubs had elaborate lighting systems that throbbed to the beat of the music . In the 1970s , notable discos included `` Artemis '' in Philadelphia , `` Studio One '' in Los Angeles , `` Leviticus '' in New York , `` Dugan 's Bistro '' in Chicago , and `` The Library '' in Atlanta . In the late 70s , Studio 54 in New York City was arguably the most well known nightclub in the world . This club played a major formative role in the growth of disco music and nightclub culture in general . The Copacabana , another New York nightclub dating to the 1940s , had a revival in the late 1970s when it embraced disco ; it would become the setting of a Barry Manilow hit song of the same name . Disco dancing ( edit ) Disco dancers typically wore loose slacks for men and flowing dresses for women , which enabled ease of movement on the dance floor . In the early years , dancers in discos danced in a `` hang loose '' or `` freestyle '' approach . At first , many dancers improvised their own dance styles and dance steps . Later in the disco era , popular dance styles were developed , including the `` Bump '' , `` Penguin '' , `` Boogaloo '' , `` Watergate '' and the `` Robot '' . By October 1975 The Hustle reigned . It was highly stylized , sophisticated and overtly sexual . Variations included the Brooklyn Hustle , New York Hustle and Latin Hustle . During the disco era , many nightclubs would commonly host disco dance competitions or offer free dance lessons . Some cities had disco dance instructors or dance schools , which taught people how to do popular disco dances such as `` touch dancing , `` the hustle , and the cha cha . The pioneer of disco dance instruction was Karen Lustgarten in San Francisco in 1973 . Her book The Complete Guide to Disco Dancing ( Warner Books , 1978 ) was the first to name , break down and codify popular disco dances as dance forms and distinguish between disco freestyle , partner and line dances . The book hit the New York Times bestseller list for 13 weeks and was translated into Chinese , German and French . In Chicago , the Step By Step disco dance TV show was launched with the sponsorship support of the Coca - Cola company . Produced in the same studio that Don Cornelius used for the nationally syndicated dance / music television show , Soul Train , Step by Step 's audience grew and the show became a success . The dynamic dance duo of Robin and Reggie led the show . The pair spent the week teaching disco dancing to dancers in the disco clubs . The instructional show which aired on Saturday mornings had a following of dancers who would stay up all night on Fridays so they could be on the set the next morning , ready to return to the disco on Saturday night knowing with the latest personalized dance steps . The producers of the show , John Reid and Greg Roselli , routinely made appearances at disco functions with Robin and Reggie to scout out new dancing talent and promote upcoming events such as `` Disco Night at White Sox Park '' . Some notable professional dance troupes of the 1970s included Pan 's People and Hot Gossip . For many dancers , a key source of inspiration for 1970s disco dancing was the film Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) . This developed into the music and dance style of such films as Fame ( 1980 ) , Disco Dancer ( 1982 ) , Flashdance ( 1983 ) , and The Last Days of Disco ( 1998 ) . Interest in disco dancing also helped spawn dance competition TV shows such as Dance Fever ( 1979 ) . Disco fashion ( edit ) Disco fashions were very trendy in the late 1970s . Discothèque - goers often wore glamorous , expensive and extravagant fashions for nights out at their local disco club . Some women would wear sheer , flowing dresses , such as Halston dresses or loose , flared pants . Other women wore tight , revealing , sexy clothes , such as backless halter tops , `` hot pants '' or body - hugging spandex bodywear or `` catsuits '' . Men would wear shiny polyester Qiana shirts with colourful patterns and pointy , extra wide collars , preferably open at the chest . Men often wore Pierre Cardin suits , three piece suits with a vest and double - knit polyester shirt jackets with matching trousers known as the leisure suit . Men 's leisure suits were typically form - fitted in some parts of the body , such as the waist and bottom , but the lower part of the pants were flared in a bell bottom style , to permit freedom of movement . During the disco era , men engaged in elaborate grooming rituals and spent time choosing fashion clothing , both activities that would have been considered `` feminine '' according to the gender stereotypes of the era . Women dancers wore glitter makeup , sequins or gold lamé clothing that would shimmer under the lights . Bold colours were popular for both genders . Platform shoes and boots for both genders and high heels for women were popular footwear . Necklaces and medallions were a common fashion accessory . Less commonly , some disco dancers wore outlandish costumes , dressed in drag , covered their bodies with gold or silver paint , or wore very skimpy outfits leaving them nearly nude ; these uncommon get - ups were more likely to be seen at invitation - only New York City loft parties and disco clubs . Drug subculture and sexual promiscuity ( edit ) Cocaine is a white powder that is typically used by insufflation into the nasal cavity . A selection of `` poppers '' , which are small bottles of the intoxicative inhalant amyl nitrite . Quaaludes were so commonly used at discos that the drug was nicknamed `` disco biscuits '' . While the psychedelic hallucinogen LSD is mostly associated with 1960s hippie counterculture , it was also used at discos . In addition to the dance and fashion aspects of the disco club scene , there was also a thriving club drug subculture , particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud , bass - heavy music and the flashing coloured lights , such as cocaine ( nicknamed `` blow '' ) , amyl nitrite `` poppers '' , and the `` ... other quintessential 1970s club drug Quaalude , which suspended motor coordination and gave the sensation that one 's arms and legs had turned to `` Jell - O . '' Quaaludes were so popular at disco clubs that the drug was nicknamed `` disco biscuits '' . Paul Gootenberg states that `` ( t ) he relationship of cocaine to 1970s disco culture can not be stressed enough ... '' During the 1970s , the use of cocaine by well - to - do celebrities led to its `` glamorization '' and to the widely held view that it was a `` soft drug '' . Cocaine was also popular because its stimulating effect `` ... fueled all - night parties '' at disco clubs . LSD , marijuana , and `` speed '' ( amphetamines ) were also popular in disco clubs , and the use of these drugs `` ... contributed to the hedonistic quality of the dance floor experience . '' Since disco dances were typically held in liquor licensed - nightclubs and dance clubs , alcoholic drinks were also consumed by dancers ; some users intentionally combined alcohol with the consumption of other drugs , such as Quaaludes , for a stronger effect . According to Peter Braunstein , the `` massive quantities of drugs ingested in discotheques produced the next cultural phenomenon of the disco era : rampant promiscuity and public sex . While the dance floor was the central arena of seduction , actual sex usually took place in the nether regions of the disco : bathroom stalls , exit stairwells , and so on . In other cases the disco became a kind of ' main course ' in a hedonist 's menu for a night out . '' At The Saint nightclub , a high percentage of the gay male dancers and patrons would have sex in the club ; they typically had unprotected sex , because in 1980 , HIV - AIDS had not yet been identified . At The Saint , `` ... dancers would elope to an un ( monitored ) upstairs balcony to engage in sex . '' The promiscuity and public sex at discos was part of a broader trend towards exploring a freer sexual expression in the 1970s , an era that is also associated with `` swingers clubs , hot tubs , ( and ) key parties . '' Famous disco bars included the Paradise Garage and Crisco Disco as well as `` ... cocaine - filled celeb hangouts such as Manhattan 's Studio 54 , '' which was operated by Steve Rubell and Ian Schrager . Studio 54 was notorious for the hedonism that went on within ; the balconies were known for sexual encounters , and drug use was rampant . Its dance floor was decorated with an image of the `` Man in the Moon '' that included an animated cocaine spoon . Influence on other music ( edit ) 1982 -- 1990 : post-disco and dance ( edit ) Main articles : Post-disco and Electronic dance music The transition from the late - 1970s disco styles to the early - 1980s dance styles was marked primarily by the change from complex arrangements performed by large ensembles of studio session musicians ( including a horn section and an orchestral string section ) , to a leaner sound , in which one or two singers would perform to the accompaniment of synthesizer keyboards and drum machines . In addition , dance music during the 1981 -- 83 period borrowed elements from blues and jazz , creating a style different from the disco of the 1970s . This emerging music was still known as disco for a short time , as the word had become associated with any kind of dance music played in discothèques . Examples of early - 1980s ' dance sound performers include D. Train , Kashif , and Patrice Rushen . These changes were influenced by some of the notable R&B and jazz musicians of the 1970s , such as Stevie Wonder , Kashif and Herbie Hancock , who had pioneered `` one - man - band '' - type keyboard techniques . Some of these influences had already begun to emerge during the mid-1970s , at the height of disco 's popularity . During the first years of the 1980s , the disco sound began to be phased out , and faster tempos and synthesized effects , accompanied by guitar and simplified backgrounds , moved dance music toward the funk and pop genres . This trend can be seen in singer Billy Ocean 's recordings between 1979 and 1981 . Whereas Ocean 's 1979 song American Hearts was backed with an orchestral arrangement played by the Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra , his 1981 song `` One of Those Nights ( Feel Like Gettin ' Down ) '' had a more bare , stripped - down sound , with no orchestration or symphonic arrangements . This drift from the original disco sound is called post-disco . In this music scene there are rooted subgenres , such as Italo disco , techno , house , dance - pop , boogie , and early alternative dance . During the early 1980s , dance music dropped the complicated song structure and orchestration that typified the disco sound . TV themes ( edit ) During the 1970s , many TV theme songs were produced ( or older themes updated ) with disco influenced music . Examples include S.W.A.T. ( 1975 ) , Wonder Woman ( 1975 ) , Charlie 's Angels ( 1976 ) , NBC Saturday Night At The Movies ( 1976 ) , The Love Boat ( 1977 ) , The Donahue Show ( 1977 ) , CHiPs ( 1977 ) , The Professionals ( 1977 ) , Three 's Company ( 1977 ) , Dallas ( 1978 ) , NBC Sports broadcasts ( 1978 ) , Kojak ( 1977 ) , The Hollywood Squares ( 1979 ) . The British science fiction program Space : 1999 ( 1975 ) also featured a soundtrack strongly influenced by disco , especially in the show 's second season . DJ culture ( edit ) See also : List of DJ Magazine 's Top 100 DJs The precise variable pitch control on the Technics SL - 1200 MK2 , first sold in 1978 , helped DJs to develop better beatmatching , a crucial skill for creating a seamless transition from one song to another . The rising popularity of disco came in tandem with developments in the role of the DJ . DJing developed from the use of multiple record turntables and DJ mixers to create a continuous , seamless mix of songs , with one song transitioning to another with no break in the music to interrupt the dancing . The resulting DJ mix differed from previous forms of dance music in the 1960s , which were oriented towards live performances by musicians . This in turn affected the arrangement of dance music , since songs in the disco era typically contained beginnings and endings marked by a simple beat or riff that could be easily used to transition to a new song . The development of DJing was also influenced by new turntablism techniques , such as beatmatching , a process facilitated by the introduction of new turntable technologies such as the Technics SL - 1200 MK 2 , first sold in 1978 , which had a precise variable pitch control and a direct drive motor . DJs were often avid record collectors , who would hunt through used record stores for obscure soul records and vintage funk recordings . DJs helped to introduce rare records and new artists to club audiences . In the 1970s , individual DJs became more prominent , and some DJs , such as Larry Levan , the resident at Paradise Garage , Jim Burgess and Tee Scott became famous in the disco scene . Levan , for example , developed a cult following amongst club - goers , who referred to his DJ sets as `` Saturday Mass '' . Some DJs would use reel to reel tape recorders to make remixes and tape edits of songs . Some DJs who were making remixes made the transition from the DJ booth to becoming a record producer , notably Burgess . Scott developed several innovations . He was the first disco DJ to use three turntables as sound sources , the first to simultaneously play two beatmatched records , the first user of electronic effects units in his mixes and an innovator in mixing dialogue in from well - known movies into his mixes , typically over a percussion break . These mixing techniques were also applied to radio DJs , such as Ted Currier of WKTU and WBLS . Rave culture ( edit ) Main article : Rave Strobing lights flash at a rave dance event in Vienna , 2005 About five years after the disco era came to a close in the late 1970s , rave culture began to emerge from the acid house scene . Rave culture incorporated disco culture 's same love of dance music played by DJs over powerful sound systems , recreational drug and club drug exploration , sexual promiscuity , and hedonism . Although disco culture started out underground , it eventually thrived in the mainstream by the late 1970s , and major labels commodified and packaged the music for mass consumption . In contrast , the rave culture started out underground and stayed underground . In part this was to avoid the animosity that was still surrounding disco and dance music . The rave scene also stayed underground to avoid law enforcement attention that was directed at the rave culture due to its use of secret , unauthorized warehouses for some dance events and its association with illegal club drugs like Ecstasy . Hip hop and electro ( edit ) Main articles : Hip hop music and Electro ( music ) The disco sound had a strong influence on early hip hop . Most of the early hip hop songs were created by isolating existing disco bass - guitar lines and dubbing over them with MC rhymes . The Sugarhill Gang used Chic 's `` Good Times '' as the foundation for their 1979 hit `` Rapper 's Delight '' , generally considered to be the song that first popularized rap music in the United States and around the world . In 1982 , Afrika Bambaataa released the single `` Planet Rock '' , which incorporated electronica elements from Kraftwerk 's `` Trans - Europe Express '' and `` Numbers '' as well as YMO 's `` Riot in Lagos '' . The Planet Rock sound also spawned a hip hop electronic dance trend , electro music , which included songs such as Planet Patrol 's `` Play at Your Own Risk '' ( 1982 ) , C Bank 's `` One More Shot '' ( 1982 ) , Cerrone 's `` Club Underworld '' ( 1984 ) , Shannon 's `` Let the Music Play '' ( 1983 ) , Freeez 's `` I.O.U. '' ( 1983 ) , Midnight Star 's `` Freak - a-Zoid '' ( 1983 ) , Chaka Khan 's `` I Feel For You '' ( 1984 ) . House music ( edit ) Main article : House music Like disco , house music was based around DJs creating mixes for dancers in clubs . Pictured is DJ Miguel Migs , mixing using DJ - CD players . House music is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in Chicago in the early 1980s . It was initially popularized in Chicago , circa 1984 . House music quickly spread to other American cities such as Detroit , New York City , and Newark -- all of which developed their own regional scenes . In the mid-to - late 1980s , house music became popular in Europe as well as major cities in South America , and Australia . Early house music commercial success in Europe saw songs such as `` Pump Up The Volume '' by MARRS ( 1987 ) , `` House Nation '' by House Master Boyz and the Rude Boy of House ( 1987 ) , `` Theme from S'Express '' by S'Express ( 1988 ) and `` Doctorin ' the House '' by Coldcut ( 1988 ) in the pop charts . Since the early to mid-1990s , house music has been infused in mainstream pop and dance music worldwide . Early house music was generally dance - based music characterized by repetitive four on the floor beats , rhythms mainly provided by drum machines , off - beat hi - hat cymbals , and synthesized basslines . While house displayed several characteristics similar to disco music , it was more electronic and minimalistic , and the repetitive rhythm of house was more important than the song itself . As well , house did not use the lush string sections that were a key part of the disco sound . House music in the 2010s , while keeping several of these core elements , notably the prominent kick drum on every beat , varies widely in style and influence , ranging from the soulful and atmospheric deep house to the more minimalistic microhouse . House music has also fused with several other genres creating fusion subgenres , such as euro house , tech house , electro house and jump house . Post-punk ( edit ) Main article : Post-punk The post-punk movement that originated in the late 1970s both supported punk rock 's rule breaking while rejecting its move back to raw rock music . Post-punk's mantra of constantly moving forward lent itself to both openness to and experimentation with elements of disco and other styles . Public Image Limited is considered the first post-punk group . The group 's second album Metal Box fully embraced the `` studio as instrument '' methodology of disco . The group 's founder John Lydon , the former lead singer for the Sex Pistols , told the press that disco was the only music he cared for at the time . No wave was a subgenre of post-punk centered in New York City . For shock value , James Chance , a notable member of the no wave scene , penned an article in the East Village Eye urging his readers to move uptown and get `` trancin ' with some superadioactive disco voodoo funk '' . His band James White and the Blacks wrote a disco album Off White . Their performances resembled those of disco performers ( horn section , dancers and so on ) . In 1981 ZE Records led the transition from no wave into the more subtle mutant disco ( post-disco / punk ) genre . Mutant disco acts such as Kid Creole and the Coconuts , Was Not Was , ESG and Liquid Liquid influenced several British post-punk acts such as New Order , Orange Juice and A Certain Ratio . Dance - punk ( edit ) Main article : Dance - punk In the early 2000s the dance - punk ( new rave in the United Kingdom ) emerged as a part of a broader post punk revival . It fused elements of punk - related rock with different forms of dance music including disco . Klaxons , LCD Soundsystem , Death From Above 1979 , the Rapture and Shitdisco were among acts associated with the genre . Nu - disco ( edit ) Main article : Nu - disco Nu - disco is a 21st - century dance music genre associated with the renewed interest in 1970s and early 1980s disco , mid-1980s Italo disco , and the synthesizer - heavy Euro disco aesthetics . The moniker appeared in print as early as 2002 , and by mid-2008 was used by record shops such as the online retailers Juno and Beatport . These vendors often associate it with re-edits of original - era disco music , as well as with music from European producers who make dance music inspired by original - era American disco , electro and other genres popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s . It is also used to describe the music on several American labels that were previously associated with the genres electroclash and French house . See also ( edit ) Music portal Club Kids House music Number - one dance hits of 1978 ( USA ) Number - one dance hits of 1979 ( USA ) Stealth disco References and notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Shapiro , Peter . `` Turn the Beat Around : The Rise and Fall of Disco '' , Macmillan , 2006 . p. 204 -- 206 : `` ' Broadly speaking , the typical New York discotheque DJ is young ( between 18 and 30 ) , Italian , and gay , ' journalist Vince Lettie declared in 1975 ... Remarkably , almost all of the important early DJs were of Italian extraction ... Italian Americans have played a significant role in America 's dance music culture ... While Italian Americans mostly from Brooklyn largely created disco from scratch ... '' Jump up ^ Shapiro , Peter ( October 27 , 2017 ) . `` Turn the Beat Around : The Secret History of Disco '' . Faber & Faber . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ `` The birth of disco '' . Oxford Dictionaries . October 2012 . Retrieved August 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , Simon ( 2016 ) . ' Shock and Awe . Glam Rock and Its Legacy from the Seventies to the Twenty - First Century ' , pages 206 - 208 , Dey Street Books ISBN 978 - 0062279804 ^ Jump up to : Disco Double Take : New York Parties Like It 's 1975 Archived January 30 , 2015 , at the Wayback Machine ... Village Voice.com . Retrieved on August 9 , 2009 . Jump up ^ ( 1998 ) `` The Cambridge History of American Music '' , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 45429 - 2 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 45429 - 2 , p. 372 : `` Initially , disco musicians and audiences alike belonged to marginalized communities : women , gay , black , and Latinos '' Jump up ^ ( 2002 ) `` Traces of the Spirit : The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music '' , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8147 - 9809 - 6 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8147 - 9809 - 6 , p. 117 : `` New York City was the primary center of disco , and the original audience was primarily gay African Americans and Latinos . '' Jump up ^ Psychedelic Soul Allmusic Jump up ^ `` But the pre-Saturday Night Fever dance underground was actually sweetly earnest and irony - free in its hippie - dippie positivity , as evinced by anthems like M.F.S.B. 's ' Love Is the Message . ' '' -- Village Voice , July 10 , 2001 . Jump up ^ A House on Fire : The Rise and Fall of Philadelphia Soul : , p. 115 , John A. Jackson ^ Jump up to : `` ARTS IN AMERICA ; Here 's to Disco , It Never Could Say Goodbye '' , The New York Times , USA , December 10 , 2002 , retrieved August 25 , 2015 ^ Jump up to : `` `` Beyond the Hustle : Seventies Social Dancing , Discotheque Culture and the Emergence of the Contemporary Club Dancer '' . Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press , 2009 , 199 - 214. `` . timlawrence.info . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` This record was a collaboration between Philip Oakey , the big - voiced lead singer of the techno - pop band the Human League , and Giorgio Moroder , the Italian - born father of disco who spent the ' 80s writing synth - based pop and film music . '' Evan Cater . `` Philip Oakey & Giorgio Moroder : Overview '' . AllMusic . Retrieved December 21 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Murrells , Joseph ( 1978 ) . The Book of Golden Discs ( 2nd ed . ) . London : Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 344 . ISBN 0 - 214 - 20512 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : James Ellis . `` Biddu '' . Metro . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Malika Browne ( August 20 , 2004 ) . `` It 's a big step from disco to Sanskrit chants , but Biddu has made it '' . The Sunday Times . Retrieved May 30 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Moore - Gilbert , Bart ( March 11 , 2002 ) . The Arts in the 1970s : Cultural Closure . Routledge . Retrieved May 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Murrells , Joseph ( 1978 ) . The Book of Golden Discs ( 2 , illustrated ed . ) . Barrie & Jenkins . ISBN 0 - 214 - 20480 - 4 . Jump up ^ Hubbs , Nadine . `` ' I Will Survive ' : musical mappings of queer social space in a disco anthem '' . Popular Music . 26 ( 2 ) : 231 -- 244 . doi : 10.1017 / S0261143007001250 . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 -- via Cambridge Core . Jump up ^ `` Subscribe - theaustralian '' . www.theaustralian.com.au . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on July 20 , 2014 . Retrieved August 20 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Cohn , Nik . `` Tribal Rites of the New Saturday Night '' . New York . Retrieved October 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Charlie , LeDuff ( June 9 , 1996 ) . `` Saturday Night Fever : The Life '' . Retrieved October 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Echols , Alice ( June 5 , 2017 ) . `` Hot Stuff : Disco and the Remaking of American Culture '' . W.W. Norton & Company . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ The Rock Days of Disco , Robert Christgau , The New York Times , December 2 , 2011 Jump up ^ `` Queen of Disco : The Legend of Sylvester '' . popmatters.com . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ It was producer Bob Ezrin 's idea to incorporate a disco riff , as well as a second - verse children 's choir , into `` Another Brick in the Wall , Part 2 '' . Simmons , Sylvie , ed . ( October 2009 ) . `` '' Good Bye Blue Sky `` , ( Pink Floyd : 30th Anniversary , The Wall Revisited . ) '' . Guitar World . Future . 30 ( 10 ) : 79 -- 80 . Jump up ^ Don Henley commented on `` One of These Nights '' 's disco connection in the liner notes of The Very Best Of , 2003 . Jump up ^ Paul Stanley , a guitarist for the rock group Kiss became friends with Desmond Child and , as Child remembered in Billboard , `` Paul and I talked about how dance music at that time did n't have any rock elements . '' To counteract the synthesized disco music dominating the airwaves , Stanley and Child wrote , `` I Was Made For Loving You . '' So , `` we made history , '' Child further remembered in Billboard , `` because we created the first rock - disco song . '' Barnes , Terry ( November 27 , 1999 ) . `` Gifted Child '' . Billboard . Vol. 111 no . 48 . pp. DC -- 23 . Retrieved February 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Alan McKee , Beautiful Things in Popular Culture . John Wiley & Sons , April 15 , 2008 , p. 196 Jump up ^ `` The Rise of Disco '' . teachrock.org . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pauline Kael , For Keeps , Dutton , 1994 , p. 767 ^ Jump up to : `` Disco Music Genre Overview - AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Culture , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 16161 - 9 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 16161 - 9 ( 2001 ) p. 217 : `` In fact , by 1977 , before punk spread , there was a ' disco sucks ' movement sponsored by radio stations that attracted some suburban white youth , who thought that disco was escapist , synthetic , and overproduced . '' Jump up ^ `` Disco Does n't Suck . Here 's Why . '' . Reason . May 27 , 2014 . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Robert Christgau : Pazz & Jop 1978 : New Wave Hegemony and the Bebop Question Robert Christgau for the Village Voice Pop & Jop Poll January 22 , 1978 , 1979 ^ Jump up to : `` Top Sports Searches - ESPN '' . Archived from the original on May 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ England 's Dreaming , Jon Savage Faber & Faber 1991 , pp 93 , 95 , 185 -- 186 Jump up ^ `` DEVO '' . Juicemagazine.com . September 1 , 2001 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Mark Andersen ; Mark Jenkins ( August 1 , 2003 ) . Dance of days : two decades of punk in the nation 's capital . Akashic Books . pp. 17 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 888451 - 44 - 3 . Retrieved March 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Hillage Terrascope Feature '' . www.terrascope.co.uk . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Campion , Chris Walking on the Moon : The Untold Story of the Police and the Rise of New Wave Rock . John Wiley & Sons , ( 2009 ) , ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 28240 - 3 pp. 82 -- 84 . ^ Jump up to : From Comiskey Park to Thriller : The Effect of `` Disco Sucks '' on Pop Archived November 19 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . by Steve Greenberg founder and CEO of S - Curve Records July 10 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` ' Countdown with Keith Olbermann ' Complete Transcript for July 12 , 2004 '' . MSNBC.com . July 12 , 2004 . Retrieved February 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Salsoul Records @ Disco-Disco.com '' . www.disco-disco.com . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jackson 5 : The Ultimate Collection ( 1996 ) , liner notes . Jump up ^ `` Spin Magazine Online : Y.M.C.A. ( An Oral History ) ' ' '' . Spin.com . May 27 , 2008 . Retrieved August 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Allmusic BeeGees bio Jump up ^ Easlea , Daryl , Disco Inferno , The Independent , December 11 , 2004 Jump up ^ Rip it Up and Start Again POSTPUNK 1978 -- 1984 by Simon Reynolds p. 154 Jump up ^ `` Are We Not New Wave Modern Pop at the Turn of the 1980s Theo Cateforis Page 36 ISBN 978 - 0 - 472 - 03470 - 3 Jump up ^ `` empsfm.org -- EXHIBITIONS -- Featured Exhibitions '' . emplive.org . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mulholland , Garry ( March 16 , 2001 ) . `` Condemned to rock'n'roll '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Ewing , Tom ( April 22 , 2015 ) . `` SPILLER -- `` Groovejet ( If This Ai n't Love ) '' `` . Freaky Trigger . Retrieved April 12 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` It 's Happy , It 's Danceable and It May Rule Summer '' . The New York Times . May 30 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Billboard Hot 100 webpage '' . billboard.com . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 15 Best Albums of 2013 : Critics ' Picks '' . Billboard . December 19 , 2013 . Archived from the original on January 3 , 2014 . Retrieved January 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Shriver , Jerry ( November 5 , 2013 ) . `` Review : Lady Gaga 's ' Artpop ' bursts with disco energy '' . USA Today . Jump up ^ Roberts , Randall ( October 22 , 2013 ) . `` Review : Hits pack Katy Perry 's ' Prism ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Retrieved November 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Newman , Melinda ( October 2 , 2015 ) . `` Will the ' 70s Disco Soundtrack of ' The Martian ' Be the Next ' Guardians of the Galaxy ' ? '' . Billboard . Retrieved May 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Hot Dance Club Songs -- July 2 , 2016 '' . Billboard . July 2 , 2016 . Retrieved June 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ARTS IN AMERICA ; Here 's to Disco , It Never Could Say Goodbye '' . New York Times . December 10 , 2002 . Jump up ^ Giorgio Moroder Allmusic.com Jump up ^ Roberts , David ( 2006 ) . British Hit Singles & Albums ( 19th ed . ) . London : Guinness World Records Limited . p. 95 . ISBN 1 - 904994 - 10 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Gibberish , But Italian Pop Song Still Means Something '' . NPR.org . Retrieved April 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Popular Videos - Prisencolinensinainciusol - YouTube '' . YouTube . Retrieved April 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bob Sinclar & Raffaella Carrà - Far l'amore '' . ultratop.be . Retrieved January 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` What the Funk ? ! How to Get That James Brown Sound '' . Gibson.com . Retrieved 27 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Shapiro , Peter ( 2000 ) . Modulations : A History of Electronic Music . Caipirinha Productions , Inc . pp. 254 pages . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8195 - 6498 - 6 . see p. 45 , 46 Jump up ^ `` DISCO History @ Disco-Disco.com '' . www.disco-disco.com . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Body and soul of club culture '' . unesco.org . Retrieved June 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Once a Hot Disco , Now a Cool Opportunity - Philadelphia Magazine '' . Phillymag.com . May 18 , 2016 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Everybody 's Doing The hustle , Associated Press , October 16 , 1975 ^ Jump up to : `` Disco Fashion : That 's the way They Liked It '' . The Ultimate History Project . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Gootenberg , Paul 1954 -- -- Between Coca and Cocaine : A Century or More of U.S. - Peruvian Drug Paradoxes , 1860 -- 1980 -- Hispanic American Historical Review -- 83 : 1 , February 2003 , pp. 119 -- 150 . `` The relationship of cocaine to 1970s disco culture can not be stressed enough ... '' Jump up ^ Amyl , butyl and isobutyl nitrite ( collectively known as alkyl nitrites ) are clear , yellow liquids inhaled for their intoxicating effects . Nitrites originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open . This led to nitrites being given the name ' poppers ' but this form of the drug is rarely found in the UK . The drug became popular in the UK first on the disco / club scene of the 1970s and then at dance and rave venues in the 1980s and 1990s . ^ Jump up to : Peter Braunstein DISCO Archived February 5 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine. , American Heritage Magazine Jump up ^ `` PCP , Quaaludes , Mescaline . What Became of Yesterday 's `` It '' Drugs ? - The Fix `` . Thefix.com . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brownstein , Henry H. The Handbook of Drugs and Society . John Wiley & Sons , 2015 . p. 101 Jump up ^ `` A Closer Look at the History and Use of Cocaine '' . Drugabuse.com . January 7 , 2015 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Beyond the Hustle : Seventies Social Dancing , Discotheque Culture and the Emergence of the Contemporary Club Dancer '' . Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press , 2009 , 199 - 214 . In Julie Malnig ed . Ballroom , Boogie , Shimmy Sham , Shake : A Social and Popular Dance Reader Jump up ^ `` `` Beyond the Hustle : Seventies Social Dancing , Discotheque Culture and the Emergence of the Contemporary Club Dancer '' . Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press , 2009 , 199 - 214. `` . Timlawrence.info . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Tim Lawrence . `` The Forging of a White Gay Aesthetic at the Saint , 1980 - 84 '' . In Dancecult , 3 , 1 , 2011 , 1 - 24 Jump up ^ `` The Forging of a White Gay Aesthetic at the Saint , 1980 - 84 '' . Timlawrence.info . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Decade of Decadence : A Quick Look at The Sexual Revolution - Flashbak '' . Flashbak.com . March 2 , 2015 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Explore music ... Genre : Post-disco '' . Allmusic . Retrieved April 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Phil Cheeseman - fu . `` The History Of House '' . DJ Magazine . Retrieved August 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Fikentscher , Kai ( July -- August 2000 ) . `` The club DJ : a brief history of a cultural icon '' ( PDF ) . UNESCO Courier . UNESCO : 47 . Around 1986 / 7 , after the initial explosion of house music in Chicago , it became clear that the major recording companies and media institutions were reluctant to market this genre of music , associated with gay African Americans , on a mainstream level . House artists turned to Europe , chiefly London but also cities such as Amsterdam , Berlin , Manchester , Milan , Zurich , and Tel Aviv ... A third axis leads to Japan where , since the late 1980s , New York club DJs have had the opportunity to play guest - spots . ^ Jump up to : `` House : Significant Albums , Artists and Songs , Most Viewed '' . AllMusic . Retrieved October 12 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Rip It Up and Start Again POSTPUNK 1978 -- 1984 by Simon Reynolds Jump up ^ M. Wood , `` Review : Out Hud : S.T.R.E.E.T.D.A.D. '' , New Music , 107 , November 2002 , p. 70 . Jump up ^ K. Empire , `` Rousing rave from the grave '' The Observer , October 5 , 2006 , retrieved January 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ P. Flynn , `` Here We Glo Again '' , Times Online , November 12 , 2006 , retrieved February 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ J. Harris , `` New Rave ? Old Rubbish '' , The Guardian , October 13 , 2006 , retrieved March 31 , 2007 . Jump up ^ O. Adams , `` Music : Rave On , Just Do n't Call It ' New Rave ' '' , The Guardian , January 5 , 2007 , retrieved September 2 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , Simon ( July 11 , 2001 ) . `` Disco Double Take : New York Parties Like It 's 1975 '' . Village Voice . Retrieved December 17 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Beta , Andy ( February 2008 ) . `` Boogie Children : A new generation of DJs and producers revive the spaced - out , synthetic sound of Euro disco '' . Spin : 44 . Retrieved August 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Beatport launches nu disco / indie dance genre page '' ( Press release ) . Beatport . July 30 , 2008 . Retrieved August 8 , 2008 . Beatport is launching a new landing page , dedicated solely to the genres of `` nu disco '' and `` indie dance '' ... Nu Disco is everything that springs from the late ' 70s and early ' 80s ( electronic ) disco , boogie , cosmic , Balearic and Italo disco continuum ... Further reading ( edit ) Andrea Angeli Bufalini & Giovanni Savastano ( 2014 ) . La Disco . Storia illustrata della discomusic . Arcana , Italy . ISBN 978 - 8862313223 Aletti , Vince ( 2009 ) . THE DISCO FILES 1973 -- 78 : New York 's underground week by week . DJhistory.com . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9561896 - 0 - 8 . Angelo , Marty ( 2006 ) . Once Life Matters : A New Beginning . Impact Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9618954 - 4 - 0 . Beta , Andy ( November 2008 ) . `` Disco Inferno 2.0 : A Slightly Less Hedonistic Comeback Charting the DJs , labels , and edits fueling an old new craze '' . The Village Voice . Brewster , Bill and Broughton , Frank ( 1999 ) . Last Night a DJ Saved My Life : The History of the Disc Jockey . Headline Book Publishing Ltd . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7472 - 6230 - 5 . Campion , Chris ( 2009 ) . `` Walking on the Moon : The Untold Story of the Police and the Rise of New Wave Rock '' . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 28240 - 3 Echols , Alice ( 2010 ) . Hot Stuff : Disco and the Remaking of American Culture . W.W. Norton and Company , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 06675 - 3 . Flynn , Daniel J. ( February 18 , 2010 ) . `` How the Knack Conquered Disco '' . The American Spectator . Gillian , Frank ( May 2007 ) . `` Discophobia : Antigay Prejudice and the 1979 Backlash against Disco '' . Journal of the History of Sexuality , Volume 15 , Number 2 , pp. 276 -- 306 . Electronic ISSN 1535 - 3605 , print ISSN 1043 - 4070 . Hanson , Kitty ( 1978 ) Disco Fever : The Beat , People , Places , Styles , Deejays , Groups . Signet Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 451 - 08452 - 1 . Jones , Alan and Kantonen , Jussi ( 1999 ) . Saturday Night Forever : The Story of Disco . Chicago , Illinois : A Cappella Books . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55652 - 411 - 0 . Lawrence , Tim ( 2004 ) . Love Saves the Day : A History of American Dance Music Culture , 1970 -- 1979 . Duke University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8223 - 3198 - 8 . Lester , Paul ( February 23 , 2007 ) . `` Can you feel the force ? '' . The Guardian . Michaels , Mark ( 1990 ) . The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8230 - 7537 - 9 . Reed , John ( September 19 , 2007 ) . `` DVD Review : Saturday Night Fever ( 30th Anniversary Special Collector 's Edition ) '' . Blogcritics . Rodgers , Nile ( 2011 ) . Le Freak : An Upside Down Story of Family , Disco , and Destiny . Spiegel & Grau . ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 52965 - 5 . Shapiro , Peter ( 2005 ) . Turn The Beat Around : The Secret History of Disco . Faber And Faber . ISBN 978 - 0 - 86547 - 952 - 4 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 86547 - 952 - 4 . Sclafani , Tony ( July 10 , 2009 ) . `` When ' Disco Sucks ! ' echoed around the world '' . MSNBC . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Disco Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disco . 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Mojo Musica e dischi NME Q Rolling Stone Smash Hits Top of the Pops Other Album - equivalent unit A-side and B - side Backmasking Christian music industry Hidden track Grammy Museum Music video White label Women in music Category Commons Rhythm and blues Contemporary R&B Rhythm and blues Beach British blues Disco Doo - wop Funk Hip hop New Orleans R&B Post-disco Smooth jazz Soul British soul Northern soul Southern soul Contemporary R&B British soul Crunk&B Freestyle Grime Hip hop soul House Neo soul New jack swing Snap&B Alternative R&B RnBass Related topics Motown Quiet storm Slow jam Urban Adult contemporary Rare groove Category R&B musicians Soca music Genres Soca music Rapso Chutney soca Parang soca Related topics Music of Trinidad and Tobago Carnival Trinidadian English Disco Caribbean music in ( Canada , the United Kingdom ) International Soca Monarch Reggae / Soca Music Awards Berry , Mick & Gianni , Jason ( 2003 ) . `` The Drummer 's Bible : How to Play Every Drum Style from Afro - Cuban to Zydeco '' , p. 67 : `` Disco incorporates stylistic elements of Rock , Funk and the Motown sound while also drawing from Swing , Soca , Merengue and Afro - Cuban styles '' , ISBN 1884365329 , 9781884365324 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disco&oldid=807782178 '' Categories : Disco 1970s fads and trends 1970s fashion 1970s in music Dances Musical subcultures African - American music Latin American culture Italian - American culture American styles of music Crossover ( music ) Dance culture Drug culture DJing Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use mdy dates from June 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Azərbaycanca Bân - lâm - gú Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 October 2017 , at 02 : 40 . 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50 | document: Server administrator - wikipedia Server administrator Jump to : navigation , search For the Mac OS X application , see Server Admin . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article concentrates on server administration in the context of computer gaming . For generic server administration , see system administrator . For the Dell OpenManage Server Administrator product see OpenManage . A server administrator , or admin has the overall control of a server . This is usually in the context of a business organization , where a server administrator oversees the performance and condition of multiple servers in the business organization , or it can be in the context of a single person running a game server . The Server Administrator 's role is to design , install , administer , and optimize company servers and related components to achieve high performance of the various business functions supported by the servers as necessary . This includes ensuring the availability of client / server applications , configuring all new implementations , and developing processes and procedures for ongoing management of the server environment . Where applicable , the Server Administrator will assist in overseeing the physical security , integrity , and safety of the data center / server farm . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Server_administrator&oldid=762068807 '' Categories : Servers ( computing ) Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from August 2007 All articles needing additional references Talk About Wikipedia 한국어 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 January 2017 , at 13 : 00 . About Wikipedia | <|d0_239|> <|d1_19|> <|d2_14|> |
51 | document: Pink lake ( Western Australia ) - Wikipedia Pink lake ( Western Australia ) Jump to : navigation , search Pink Lake Pink Lake sunset Location Goldfields - Esperance , Western Australia Coordinates 33 ° 50 ′ 43 '' S 121 ° 49 ′ 40 '' E / 33.84528 ° S 121.82778 ° E / - 33.84528 ; 121.82778 Coordinates : 33 ° 50 ′ 43 '' S 121 ° 49 ′ 40 '' E / 33.84528 ° S 121.82778 ° E / - 33.84528 ; 121.82778 Type Salt lake Basin countries Australia Max. length 4 km ( 2 mi ) Max . width 2 km ( 1 mi ) Surface area 99 ha ( 245 acres ) Surface elevation 0 m ( 0 ft ) References Eastern end from Observation Point Pink Lake ( also known as Spencer Lake ) is a salt lake in the Goldfields - Esperance region of Western Australia . It lies about 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) west of Esperance and is bounded to the east by the South Coast Highway . Although historically the water in the lake was visibly pink , as at 2017 it has not been pink for over ten years . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 Birds 3 Salt production 4 Misleading name 5 References Description ( edit ) The distinctive colour of the water changes as a result of green alga Dunaliella salina , halobacterium Halobacteria cutirubrum , and / or high concentration of brine prawn . Once the lake water reaches a salinity level greater than that of sea water , the temperature is high enough and adequate light conditions are provided , the alga begins to accumulate the red pigment beta carotene . The pink halobacterium grow in the salt crust at the bottom of the lake . It is believed that the construction of a highway and a rail line altered the flow of water into the lake reducing its salinity which is why ( as at 2017 ) it no longer appears pink . Birds ( edit ) The lake has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area because it usually supports significant numbers of hooded plovers and sometimes over 1 % of the world population of banded stilts . It has had many migrant and native birds . Between 1997 and 2006 , populations of between 12 and 12,000 of the banded stilt were recorded . There was a population of between 5 and 68 of the hooded plovers from 1995 to 2005 . Salt production ( edit ) Prior to salt production the lake 's environment was investigated in the 1980s . Table salt is produced in solar ponds at the eastern end of the lake . The company WA Salt Supply produce water softening salt , coarse salt and sheepskin salt at the Esperance site . The salt is kiln dried , crushed and bagged at the site before being distributed . Misleading name ( edit ) Because tourists who visit Esperance to see the Pink Lake are disappointed not to see a pink lake , there have been proposals to either change the name of the lake and the town back to Lake Spencer or to find a way to alter the salinity so that the lake appears pink once again . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Map of Pink Lake , WA '' . Bonzle Digital Atlas . 2009 . Retrieved 28 March 2009 . Jump up ^ Pink Lake , Esperance - the discovery of and use of the lake Esperance traveller , Summer 1990 , p. 34 ^ Jump up to : de Garis , Christian ( 27 November 2017 ) . `` Famous Esperance Pink Lake fades , leaving tourists confused and town with an identity crisis '' . ABC News . Archived from the original on 21 January 2018 . Retrieved 21 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Esperance - Natural Attractions '' . 2007 . Retrieved 28 March 2009 . Jump up ^ `` IBA : Pink Lake ( Esperance ) '' . Birdata . Birds Australia . Archived from the original on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 19 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Pink Lake Hydrological Study Group ( W.A. ) ( 1986 ) The report on investigations into the hydrology & use of Pink Lake at Esperance by the Pink Lake Hydrological Study Group to the Minister for Lands & the Esperance Shire Council . Perth : W.A. Dept. of Conservation and Environment . Bulletin ( Western Australia . Dept. of Conservation and Environment ) ; no . 262 . ISBN 0 - 7309 - 0595 - 0 ( pbk . ) Jump up ^ `` SMH Travel - Esperance '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . 2004 - 02 - 08 . Retrieved 28 March 2009 . Jump up ^ `` WA Salt Supply - Esperance Location '' . 2004 . Retrieved 28 March 2009 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pink_Lake_(Western_Australia)&oldid=825647777 '' Categories : Lakes of Western Australia Goldfields - Esperance Saline lakes Important Bird Areas of Western Australia Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from August 2015 Use Australian English from August 2015 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cebuano Español मैथिली नेपाली Svenska Türkçe اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 14 February 2018 , at 15 : 57 . About Wikipedia | <|d0_99|> <|d1_124|> <|d2_249|> |
52 | document: List of Super Bowl champions - wikipedia List of Super Bowl champions The Super Bowl is the annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League ( NFL ) . The game culminates a season that begins in the previous calendar year , and is the conclusion of the NFL playoffs . The contest is held in an American city , chosen three to four years beforehand , usually at warm - weather sites or domed stadiums . Since January 1971 , the winner of the American Football Conference ( AFC ) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference ( NFC ) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs . The Packers defeated the Chiefs in the first AFL -- NFL Championship Game ( Super Bowl I ) . Before the 1970 merger between the American Football League ( AFL ) and the National Football League ( NFL ) , the two leagues met in four such contests . The first two were marketed as the `` AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '' , but were also casually referred to as `` the Super Bowl game '' during the television broadcast . Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the `` Super Bowl '' moniker in official marketing ; the names `` Super Bowl I '' and `` Super Bowl II '' were retroactively applied to the first two games . The NFC / NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 27 , while the AFC / AFL has won 25 . Twenty franchises , including teams that have relocated to another city , have won the Super Bowl . The Pittsburgh Steelers ( 6 -- 2 ) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships , while the New England Patriots ( 5 -- 5 ) , the Dallas Cowboys ( 5 -- 3 ) , and the San Francisco 49ers ( 5 -- 1 ) have five wins . New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with ten , while the Buffalo Bills ( 0 -- 4 ) have the most consecutive appearances with four ( all losses ) from 1990 to 1993 . The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances : 1972 -- 1974 . The Denver Broncos ( 3 -- 5 ) and Patriots have each lost a record five Super Bowls . The Minnesota Vikings ( 0 -- 4 ) and the Bills have lost four . The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises : the Green Bay Packers ( 1966 -- 1967 ) , the Miami Dolphins ( 1972 -- 1973 ) , the Pittsburgh Steelers ( 1974 -- 1975 and 1978 -- 1979 , the only team to accomplish this feat twice ) , the San Francisco 49ers ( 1988 -- 1989 ) , the Dallas Cowboys ( 1992 -- 1993 ) , the Denver Broncos ( 1997 -- 1998 ) , and the New England Patriots ( 2003 -- 2004 ) . Among those , Dallas ( 1992 -- 1993 ; 1995 ) and New England ( 2001 ; 2003 -- 2004 ) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls . The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII . The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens , who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position . Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl , including franchise relocations and renaming : the Cleveland Browns , Detroit Lions , Jacksonville Jaguars , and Houston Texans , though both the Browns ( 1964 ) and Lions ( 1957 ) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl . Contents 1 Super Bowl Championship ( 1966 -- present ) 1.1 Consecutive winners 1.2 Consecutive losers 2 Super Bowl appearances by team 2.1 Teams with no Super Bowl appearances 2.2 Teams with long Super Bowl droughts 2.3 Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories 2.4 Super Bowl rematches 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Super Bowl championship ( 1966 -- present ) Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows : Winning team and losing team columns indicate the number of times that team has appeared in a Super Bowl as well as each respective teams ' Super Bowl record to date . Venue column indicates number of times that stadium has hosted a Super Bowl . City column indicates number of times that metropolitan area has hosted a Super Bowl . National Football League ( NFL , 1967 -- 1970 ) American Football League ( AFL , 1967 -- 1970 ) NFL champion ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) AFL champion ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) National Football Conference ( NFC , 1971 -- present ) American Football Conference ( AFC , 1971 -- present ) NFC champion ( 48 , 25 -- 23 ) AFC champion ( 48 , 23 -- 25 ) Game Date Winning team Score Losing team Venue City Attendance Ref January 15 , 1967 Green Bay Packers ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 35 -- 10 Kansas City Chiefs ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Los Angeles , California 61,946 II January 14 , 1968 Green Bay Packers ( 2 , 2 -- 0 ) 33 -- 14 Oakland Raiders ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Miami Orange Bowl Miami , Florida 75,546 III January 12 , 1969 New York Jets ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 16 -- 7 Baltimore Colts ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Miami Orange Bowl ( 2 ) Miami , Florida ( 2 ) 75,389 IV January 11 , 1970 Kansas City Chiefs ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 23 -- 7 Minnesota Vikings ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Tulane Stadium New Orleans , Louisiana 80,562 V January 17 , 1971 Baltimore Colts ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 16 -- 13 Dallas Cowboys ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Miami Orange Bowl ( 3 ) Miami , Florida ( 3 ) 79,204 VI January 16 , 1972 Dallas Cowboys ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 24 -- 3 Miami Dolphins ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Tulane Stadium ( 2 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 2 ) 81,023 VII January 14 , 1973 Miami Dolphins ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 14 -- 7 Washington Redskins ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum ( 2 ) Los Angeles , California ( 2 ) 90,182 VIII January 13 , 1974 Miami Dolphins ( 3 , 2 -- 1 ) 24 -- 7 Minnesota Vikings ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Rice Stadium Houston , Texas 71,882 IX January 12 , 1975 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 16 -- 6 Minnesota Vikings ( 3 , 0 -- 3 ) Tulane Stadium ( 3 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 3 ) 80,997 X January 18 , 1976 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 2 , 2 -- 0 ) 21 -- 17 Dallas Cowboys ( 3 , 1 -- 2 ) Miami Orange Bowl ( 4 ) Miami , Florida ( 4 ) 80,187 XI January 9 , 1977 Oakland Raiders ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 32 -- 14 Minnesota Vikings ( 4 , 0 -- 4 ) Rose Bowl Pasadena , California ( 3 ) 103,438 XII January 15 , 1978 Dallas Cowboys ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) 27 -- 10 Denver Broncos ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Louisiana Superdome New Orleans , Louisiana ( 4 ) 76,400 XIII January 21 , 1979 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 3 , 3 -- 0 ) 35 -- 31 Dallas Cowboys ( 5 , 2 -- 3 ) Miami Orange Bowl ( 5 ) Miami , Florida ( 5 ) 79,484 XIV January 20 , 1980 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 4 , 4 -- 0 ) 31 -- 19 Los Angeles Rams ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Rose Bowl ( 2 ) Pasadena , California ( 4 ) 103,985 XV January 25 , 1981 Oakland Raiders ( 3 , 2 -- 1 ) 27 -- 10 Philadelphia Eagles ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Louisiana Superdome ( 2 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 5 ) 76,135 XVI January 24 , 1982 San Francisco 49ers ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 26 -- 21 Cincinnati Bengals ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Pontiac Silverdome Pontiac , Michigan 81,270 XVII January 30 , 1983 Washington Redskins ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 27 -- 17 Miami Dolphins ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) Rose Bowl ( 3 ) Pasadena , California ( 5 ) 103,667 XVIII January 22 , 1984 Los Angeles Raiders ( 4 , 3 -- 1 ) 38 -- 9 Washington Redskins ( 3 , 1 -- 2 ) Tampa Stadium Tampa , Florida 72,920 XIX January 20 , 1985 San Francisco 49ers ( 2 , 2 -- 0 ) 38 -- 16 Miami Dolphins ( 5 , 2 -- 3 ) Stanford Stadium Stanford , California 84,059 XX January 26 , 1986 Chicago Bears ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 46 -- 10 New England Patriots ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Louisiana Superdome ( 3 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 6 ) 73,818 XXI January 25 , 1987 New York Giants ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 39 -- 20 Denver Broncos ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Rose Bowl ( 4 ) Pasadena , California ( 6 ) 101,063 XXII January 31 , 1988 Washington Redskins ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) 42 -- 10 Denver Broncos ( 3 , 0 -- 3 ) San Diego -- Jack Murphy Stadium San Diego , California 73,302 XXIII January 22 , 1989 San Francisco 49ers ( 3 , 3 -- 0 ) 20 -- 16 Cincinnati Bengals ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Joe Robbie Stadium Miami Gardens , Florida ( 6 ) 75,129 XXIV January 28 , 1990 San Francisco 49ers ( 4 , 4 -- 0 ) 55 -- 10 Denver Broncos ( 4 , 0 -- 4 ) Louisiana Superdome ( 4 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 7 ) 72,919 XXV January 27 , 1991 New York Giants ( 2 , 2 -- 0 ) 20 -- 19 Buffalo Bills ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Tampa Stadium ( 2 ) Tampa , Florida ( 2 ) 73,813 XXVI January 26 , 1992 Washington Redskins ( 5 , 3 -- 2 ) 37 -- 24 Buffalo Bills ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Metrodome Minneapolis , Minnesota 63,130 XXVII January 31 , 1993 Dallas Cowboys ( 6 , 3 -- 3 ) 52 -- 17 Buffalo Bills ( 3 , 0 -- 3 ) Rose Bowl ( 5 ) Pasadena , California ( 7 ) 98,374 XXVIII January 30 , 1994 Dallas Cowboys ( 7 , 4 -- 3 ) 30 -- 13 Buffalo Bills ( 4 , 0 -- 4 ) Georgia Dome Atlanta , Georgia 72,817 XXIX January 29 , 1995 San Francisco 49ers ( 5 , 5 -- 0 ) 49 -- 26 San Diego Chargers ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Joe Robbie Stadium ( 2 ) Miami Gardens , Florida ( 7 ) 74,107 XXX January 28 , 1996 Dallas Cowboys ( 8 , 5 -- 3 ) 27 -- 17 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 5 , 4 -- 1 ) Sun Devil Stadium Tempe , Arizona 76,347 XXXI January 26 , 1997 Green Bay Packers ( 3 , 3 -- 0 ) 35 -- 21 New England Patriots ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Louisiana Superdome ( 5 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 8 ) 72,301 XXXII January 25 , 1998 Denver Broncos ( 5 , 1 -- 4 ) 31 -- 24 Green Bay Packers ( 4 , 3 -- 1 ) Qualcomm Stadium ( 2 ) San Diego , California ( 2 ) 68,912 XXXIII January 31 , 1999 Denver Broncos ( 6 , 2 -- 4 ) 34 -- 19 Atlanta Falcons ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Pro Player Stadium ( 3 ) Miami Gardens , Florida ( 8 ) 74,803 XXXIV January 30 , 2000 St. Louis Rams ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 23 -- 16 Tennessee Titans ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Georgia Dome ( 2 ) Atlanta , Georgia ( 2 ) 72,625 XXXV January 28 , 2001 Baltimore Ravens ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 34 -- 7 New York Giants ( 3 , 2 -- 1 ) Raymond James Stadium Tampa , Florida ( 3 ) 71,921 XXXVI February 3 , 2002 New England Patriots ( 3 , 1 -- 2 ) 20 -- 17 St. Louis Rams ( 3 , 1 -- 2 ) Louisiana Superdome ( 6 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 9 ) 72,922 XXXVII January 26 , 2003 Tampa Bay Buccaneers ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 48 -- 21 Oakland Raiders ( 5 , 3 -- 2 ) Qualcomm Stadium ( 3 ) San Diego , California ( 3 ) 67,603 XXXVIII February 1 , 2004 New England Patriots ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) 32 -- 29 Carolina Panthers ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Reliant Stadium Houston , Texas ( 2 ) 71,525 XXXIX February 6 , 2005 New England Patriots ( 5 , 3 -- 2 ) 24 -- 21 Philadelphia Eagles ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Alltel Stadium Jacksonville , Florida 78,125 XL February 5 , 2006 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 6 , 5 -- 1 ) 21 -- 10 Seattle Seahawks ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Ford Field Detroit , Michigan ( 2 ) 68,206 XLI February 4 , 2007 Indianapolis Colts ( 3 , 2 -- 1 ) 29 -- 17 Chicago Bears ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) Dolphin Stadium ( 4 ) Miami Gardens , Florida ( 9 ) 74,512 XLII February 3 , 2008 New York Giants ( 4 , 3 -- 1 ) 17 -- 14 New England Patriots ( 6 , 3 -- 3 ) University of Phoenix Stadium Glendale , Arizona ( 2 ) 71,101 XLIII February 1 , 2009 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 7 , 6 -- 1 ) 27 -- 23 Arizona Cardinals ( 1 , 0 -- 1 ) Raymond James Stadium ( 2 ) Tampa , Florida ( 4 ) 70,774 XLIV February 7 , 2010 New Orleans Saints ( 1 , 1 -- 0 ) 31 -- 17 Indianapolis Colts ( 4 , 2 -- 2 ) Sun Life Stadium ( 5 ) Miami Gardens , Florida ( 10 ) 74,059 XLV February 6 , 2011 Green Bay Packers ( 5 , 4 -- 1 ) 31 -- 25 Pittsburgh Steelers ( 8 , 6 -- 2 ) Cowboys Stadium Arlington , Texas 103,219 XLVI February 5 , 2012 New York Giants ( 5 , 4 -- 1 ) 21 -- 17 New England Patriots ( 7 , 3 -- 4 ) Lucas Oil Stadium Indianapolis , Indiana 68,658 XLVII February 3 , 2013 Baltimore Ravens ( 2 , 2 -- 0 ) 34 -- 31 San Francisco 49ers ( 6 , 5 -- 1 ) Mercedes - Benz Superdome ( 7 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 10 ) 71,024 XLVIII February 2 , 2014 Seattle Seahawks ( 2 , 1 -- 1 ) 43 -- 8 Denver Broncos ( 7 , 2 -- 5 ) MetLife Stadium East Rutherford , New Jersey 82,529 XLIX February 1 , 2015 New England Patriots ( 8 , 4 -- 4 ) 28 -- 24 Seattle Seahawks ( 3 , 1 -- 2 ) University of Phoenix Stadium ( 2 ) Glendale , Arizona ( 3 ) 70,288 50 February 7 , 2016 Denver Broncos ( 8 , 3 -- 5 ) 24 -- 10 Carolina Panthers ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) Levi 's Stadium Santa Clara , California ( 2 ) 71,088 LI February 5 , 2017 New England Patriots ( 9 , 5 -- 4 ) 34 -- 28 ( OT ) Atlanta Falcons ( 2 , 0 -- 2 ) NRG Stadium ( 2 ) Houston , Texas ( 3 ) 70,807 LII February 4 , 2018 Philadelphia Eagles ( 3 , 1 -- 2 ) 41 -- 33 New England Patriots ( 10 , 5 -- 5 ) U.S. Bank Stadium Minneapolis , Minnesota ( 2 ) 67,612 LIII February 3 , 2019 2018 -- 19 AFC champion at 2018 -- 19 NFC champion -- To be determined ( TBD ) Mercedes - Benz Stadium Atlanta , Georgia ( 3 ) TBD LIV February 2 , 2020 2019 -- 20 NFC champion at 2019 -- 20 AFC champion -- To be determined Hard Rock Stadium ( 6 ) Miami Gardens , Florida ( 11 ) TBD LV February 7 , 2021 2020 -- 21 AFC champion at 2020 -- 21 NFC champion -- To be determined Raymond James Stadium ( 3 ) Tampa , Florida ( 5 ) TBD LVI February 6 , 2022 2021 -- 22 NFC champion at 2021 -- 22 AFC champion -- To be determined Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park Inglewood , California ( 8 ) TBD LVII February 5 , 2023 2022 -- 23 AFC champion at 2022 -- 23 NFC champion -- To be determined State Farm Stadium ( 3 ) Glendale , Arizona ( 4 ) TBD LVIII February 4 , 2024 2023 -- 24 NFC champion at 2023 -- 24 AFC champion -- To be determined Mercedes - Benz Superdome ( 8 ) New Orleans , Louisiana ( 11 ) TBD Game Date Winning team Score Losing team Venue City Attendance Ref Consecutive winners The Steelers defeated the Rams in Super Bowl XIV to win an unprecedented four championships in six years . Seven franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls , one of which ( Pittsburgh ) has accomplished it twice : Green Bay Packers ( Super Bowls I and II ) Miami Dolphins ( VII and VIII ) Pittsburgh Steelers ( twice : IX and X as well as XIII and XIV ) San Francisco 49ers ( XXIII and XXIV ) Dallas Cowboys ( XXVII and XXVIII ) Denver Broncos ( XXXII and XXXIII ) New England Patriots ( XXXVIII and XXXIX ) No franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row , although several have come close : The Green Bay Packers won the first two Super Bowls , and also won the NFL championship the preceding year . The Miami Dolphins appeared in three consecutive Super Bowls ( VI , VII , and VIII ) , winning the last two . The Pittsburgh Steelers won two consecutive Super Bowls ( IX and X ) ; the following season they were eliminated in the AFC championship game by the eventual Super Bowl champion Oakland Raiders . They also won two more consecutive Super Bowls ( XIII and XIV ) for four wins in six seasons . The San Francisco 49ers won two consecutive Super Bowls ( XXIII and XXIV ) ; the following season they were eliminated in the NFC championship by the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants . The Dallas Cowboys won two consecutive Super Bowls ( XXVII and XXVIII ) ; the following season they were eliminated in the NFC championship game by the eventual champion San Francisco 49ers . The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX the following year for three wins in four seasons . The New England Patriots won Super Bowl XXXVI , which was two years before their consecutive wins in XXXVIII and XXXIX , for three wins in four seasons . They did not make the playoffs in the intervening season ( XXXVII ) . The Patriots also won Super Bowls XLIX and LI and in the intervening season ( 50 ) were eliminated in the AFC championship game by the eventual champion Denver Broncos . Consecutive losers Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls : Buffalo Bills ( 4 ) ( Super Bowls XXV , XXVI , XXVII , and XXVIII ) -- The only team to appear in four straight Super Bowls , let alone lose in all four appearances . Minnesota Vikings ( 2 ) ( Super Bowls VIII and IX ) -- They also lost Super Bowl XI , and were knocked out of the playoffs for Super Bowl X by the eventual losers the Dallas Cowboys for three losses in four seasons . Denver Broncos ( 2 ) ( Super Bowls XXI and XXII ) -- They also lost Super Bowl XXIV , but did not even make the playoffs for Super Bowl XXIII for three losses in four seasons . Super Bowl appearances by team The Patriots played their first championship game in Super Bowl XX ( pictured ) and hold the record for most Super Bowl appearances ( 10 ) and are tied for the most losses ( 5 ) as of 2018 . NFL / NFC teams ( 27 wins ) AFL / AFC teams ( 25 wins ) NFL / AFC team ( 0 - 1 as part of the NFL , 2 - 1 as part of the AFC ) In the sortable table below , teams are ordered first by number of appearances , then by number of wins , and finally by number of years since last appearing in a Super Bowl . In the `` Seasons '' column , bold years indicate winning seasons , and italic years indicate games not yet completed . Appearances Team Wins Losses Winning percentage Seasons 10 New England Patriots 5 5 . 500 1985 , 1996 , 2001 , 2003 , 2004 , 2007 , 2011 , 2014 , 2016 , 2017 8 Pittsburgh Steelers 6 . 750 1974 , 1975 , 1978 , 1979 , 1995 , 2005 , 2008 , 2010 8 Dallas Cowboys 5 . 625 1970 , 1971 , 1975 , 1977 , 1978 , 1992 , 1993 , 1995 8 Denver Broncos 5 . 375 1977 , 1986 , 1987 , 1989 , 1997 , 1998 , 2013 , 2015 6 San Francisco 49ers 5 . 833 1981 , 1984 , 1988 , 1989 , 1994 , 2012 5 Green Bay Packers . 800 1966 , 1967 , 1996 , 1997 , 2010 5 New York Giants . 800 1986 , 1990 , 2000 , 2007 , 2011 5 Washington Redskins . 600 1972 , 1982 , 1983 , 1987 , 1991 5 Los Angeles / Oakland Raiders . 600 1967 , 1976 , 1980 , 1983 , 2002 5 Miami Dolphins . 400 1971 , 1972 , 1973 , 1982 , 1984 Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts . 500 1968 , 1970 , 2006 , 2009 Minnesota Vikings 0 . 000 1969 , 1973 , 1974 , 1976 Buffalo Bills 0 . 000 1990 , 1991 , 1992 , 1993 St. Louis / Los Angeles Rams . 333 1979 , 1999 , 2001 Seattle Seahawks . 333 2005 , 2013 , 2014 Philadelphia Eagles . 333 1980 , 2004 , 2017 Baltimore Ravens 0 1.000 2000 , 2012 Kansas City Chiefs . 500 1966 , 1969 Chicago Bears . 500 1985 , 2006 Cincinnati Bengals 0 . 000 1981 , 1988 Carolina Panthers 0 . 000 2003 , 2015 Atlanta Falcons 0 . 000 1998 , 2016 New York Jets 0 1.000 1968 Tampa Bay Buccaneers 0 1.000 2002 New Orleans Saints 0 1.000 2009 San Diego / Los Angeles Chargers 0 . 000 1994 Houston / Tennessee Oilers / Tennessee Titans 0 . 000 1999 St. Louis / Arizona Cardinals 0 . 000 2008 0 Cleveland Browns 0 0 -- none 0 Detroit Lions 0 0 -- none 0 Jacksonville Jaguars 0 0 -- none 0 Houston Texans 0 0 -- none Teams with no Super Bowl appearances Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl . Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season : Cleveland Browns , NFL champions four times in 1950 , 1954 , 1955 , and 1964 ; appeared in seven other NFL championship games in 1951 , 1952 , 1953 , 1957 , 1965 , 1968 , and 1969 ; and appeared in three AFC Championship Games in 1986 , 1987 , and 1989 . The Browns are officially viewed as one continuous franchise that began in 1946 as a member of the All - America Football Conference , joined the NFL in 1950 , suspended operations from 1996 to 1998 , and resumed play in 1999 . The Baltimore Ravens were created as an expansion team with former Browns players in 1996 , and have since won two Super Bowls . Detroit Lions , NFL champions four times in 1935 , 1952 , 1953 , and 1957 ; appeared in one other NFL Championship Game in 1954 ; and appeared in one NFC Championship Game in 1991 . Jacksonville Jaguars , 1995 expansion team ; appeared in three AFC Championship Games in 1996 , 1999 , and 2017 . Houston Texans , 2002 expansion team ; Divisional Round appearances in 2011 , 2012 , and 2016 seasons . In addition , Detroit , Houston , and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls , making Cleveland the only current NFL city that has neither hosted nor had its team play in a Super Bowl . Teams with long Super Bowl droughts The Jets ' last championship appearance was their victory over the Colts in Super Bowl III . Although Jacksonville and Houston have never appeared in a Super Bowl , there are teams whose most recent Super Bowl appearance was before Jacksonville and Houston joined the NFL ( 1995 and 2002 , respectively ) , resulting in longer Super Bowl droughts for the following eight teams . Two of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970 : New York Jets ( most recently appeared in Super Bowl III , 1968 season ) Kansas City Chiefs ( Super Bowl IV in 1969 season ) However , the Jets and the Chiefs are the only non-NFL teams to win the Super Bowl , both being members of the now - defunct AFL at the time . The most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL -- NFL merger , but prior to the 1995 regular season : Minnesota Vikings ( Super Bowl XI , 1976 season ) Miami Dolphins ( Super Bowl XIX , 1984 season ) Cincinnati Bengals ( Super Bowl XXIII , 1988 season ) Washington Redskins ( Super Bowl XXVI , 1991 season ) Buffalo Bills ( Super Bowl XXVIII , 1993 season ) Los Angeles Chargers ( played as San Diego Chargers in Super Bowl XXIX , 1994 season ) Teams with Super Bowl appearances but no victories Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning . In descending order of number of appearances , they are : Minnesota Vikings ( 4 ) , appeared in Super Bowls IV , VIII , IX , and XI . They won the NFL Championship Game in 1969 , the last year before the AFL -- NFL merger , but failed to win the subsequent Super Bowl . An NFL expansion team in 1961 , they have no pre-Super Bowl league championships . Buffalo Bills ( 4 ) , appeared in Super Bowls XXV , XXVI , XXVII , and XXVIII . Their second and last AFL championship was in 1965 , the season before the first Super Bowl . Cincinnati Bengals ( 2 ) , appeared in Super Bowls XVI and XXIII . An AFL expansion team in 1968 , they have no pre-Super Bowl league championships . Atlanta Falcons ( 2 ) , appeared in Super Bowls XXXIII and LI . An expansion team in 1966 , they have no pre-Super Bowl league championships . Carolina Panthers ( 2 ) , appeared in Super Bowls XXXVIII and 50 . A post-merger expansion team , their first season was in 1995 . Arizona Cardinals ( 1 ) , appeared in Super Bowl XLIII . Their last championship was in 1947 as the Chicago Cardinals . Los Angeles Chargers ( 1 ) , appeared in Super Bowl XXIX as the San Diego Chargers . Their only AFL championship was in 1963 . Tennessee Titans ( 1 ) , appeared in Super Bowl XXXIV . They won the first two AFL Championships in 1960 and 1961 as the Houston Oilers . Super Bowl rematches The 49ers and the Bengals , who faced off in Super Bowl XVI ( pictured ) , would rematch each other again in Super Bowl XXIII . The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl : Dallas Cowboys and Pittsburgh Steelers ( 3 ) -- Super Bowls X and XIII were won by Pittsburgh , and Super Bowl XXX was won by Dallas . See also Cowboys -- Steelers rivalry . Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins ( 2 ) -- Super Bowl VII was won by Miami , and Super Bowl XVII was won by Washington . Cincinnati Bengals and San Francisco 49ers ( 2 ) -- Super Bowls XVI and XXIII were both won by San Francisco . Buffalo Bills and Dallas Cowboys ( 2 ) -- Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII , the only rematch in consecutive seasons , were both won by Dallas . New England Patriots and New York Giants ( 2 ) -- Super Bowls XLII and XLVI were both won by New York . New England Patriots and Philadelphia Eagles ( 2 ) -- Super Bowl XXXIX was won by New England , Super Bowl LII was won by Philadelphia . See also National Football League portal American football portal History of the National Football League championship List of AFC champions List of NFC champions List of NFL champions List of Super Bowl records Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award List of NFL franchise post-season droughts List of NFL franchise post-season streaks Notes ^ Jump up to : Los Angeles , Pasadena , and Inglewood are all located in the Greater Los Angeles Area . Pontiac , Michigan , is a suburb of Detroit . Both Tempe and Glendale are suburbs of Phoenix , Arizona . Both Stanford and Santa Clara are part of the San Francisco Bay Area Combined Statistical Area . ^ Jump up to : The Miami Orange Bowl was in Miami proper . Hard Rock Stadium , also in Miami - Dade County , opened in an unincorporated area with a Miami address ; the area was incorporated as Miami Gardens in 2003 . ^ Jump up to : Stadium renaming : SDCCU Stadium was originally known as San Diego Stadium , San Diego -- Jack Murphy Stadium , and Qualcomm Stadium . Hard Rock Stadium has also been variously known over the years as Joe Robbie Stadium , Pro Player Park , Pro Player Stadium , Dolphins Stadium ( with a plural `` s '' ) , Dolphin Stadium ( with no `` s '' ) , Land Shark Stadium , and Sun Life Stadium . NRG Stadium was originally known as Reliant Stadium . Jump up ^ Unlike other Super Bowls , Super Bowl 50 's official name , as designated by the NFL , uses the Arabic numeral `` 50 '' instead of the Roman numeral `` L '' . ^ Jump up to : Dates are tentative , pending possible future changes to the NFL calendar . ^ Jump up to : The Colts , Steelers , and Browns moved from the NFL to the newly - formed AFC , joining the ten extant AFL franchises , when the two leagues merged in 1970 . The Colts are the only team to have played in the Super Bowl for both the NFL and AFC . ^ Jump up to : Although the 1995 Cleveland Browns became the 1996 Baltimore Ravens , the Browns ' name , brand and history remained in Cleveland and was continued by the 1999 Cleveland Browns ; the Ravens , for historical purposes , are considered a separate franchise . References Jump up ^ Forbes , Gordon ( 1990 - 11 - 08 ) . `` The process of choosing a host city '' . USA Today . p. 4C . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl cities are far and few between '' . The Florida Times - Union . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 02 . Jump up ^ Top Plays in Super Bowl History `` and the old veteran scores the first touchdown of the Super Bowl game '' YouTube , NFL Highlights . Jump up ^ `` Culture in NFL History '' . Shmoop.com . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl History '' . NFL.com . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Pasadena , California '' . U.S. Census . Federal government of the United States . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Pontiac , Michigan '' . U.S. Census . Federal government of the United States . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Glendale , Arizona '' . U.S. Census . Federal government of the United States . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Tempe , Arizona '' . U.S. Census . Federal government of the United States . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` OMB Bulletin No. 13 - 01 -- The White House '' ( PDF ) . Federal government of the United States . 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53 | document: Domestication - wikipedia Domestication Dogs and sheep were among the first animals to be domesticated . Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group . Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors . He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits , and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by - product of natural selection or from selection on other traits . There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations . There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication , and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations . Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates , and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant , whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates , though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations . The dog was the first domesticated vertebrate , and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era , well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals . The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long - term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks -- including donkeys , horses , New and Old World camelids , goats , sheep , and pigs -- was common . Given its importance to humans and its value as a model of evolutionary and demographic change , domestication has attracted scientists from archaeology , palaeontology , anthropology , botany , zoology , genetics , and the environmental sciences . Among birds , the major domestic species today is the chicken , important for meat and eggs , though economically valuable poultry include the turkey , guineafowl and numerous other species . Birds are also widely kept as cagebirds , from songbirds to parrots . The longest established invertebrate domesticates are the honey bee and the silkworm . Terrestrial snails are raised for food , while species from several phyla are kept for research , and others are bred for biological control . The domestication of plants began at least 12,000 years ago with cereals in the Middle East , and the bottle gourd in Asia . Agriculture developed in at least 11 different centres around the world , domesticating different crops and animals . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Animals 2.1 Theory 2.2 Mammals 2.3 Birds 2.4 Invertebrates 3 Plants 3.1 History 3.2 Differences from wild plants 3.3 Traits that are being genetically improved 3.4 Crop plants that are being genetically improved 3.5 Challenges facing genetic improvement 3.6 Working with wild plants to improve domestics 3.7 Fungi 4 Effects 4.1 On domestic animals 4.2 On society 4.3 On diversity 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Overview ( edit ) Succulents like this jelly bean plant ( Sedum rubrotinctum ) need infrequent watering , making them convenient as houseplants . Domestication , from the Latin domesticus , ' belonging to the house ' , is `` a sustained multi-generational , mutualistic relationship in which one organism assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another organism in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest , and through which the partner organism gains advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship , thereby benefitting and often increasing the fitness of both the domesticator and the target domesticate . '' This definition recognizes both the biological and the cultural components of the domestication process and the impacts on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants . All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship between humans with plants and animals , but their differences lay in who was considered as the lead partner in the relationship . This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in which both partners gain benefits . Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants , livestock , and pets far beyond that of their wild progenitors . Domesticates have provided humans with resources that they could more predictably and securely control , move , and redistribute , which has been the advantage that had fueled a population explosion of the agro-pastoralists and their spread to all corners of the planet . Houseplants and ornamentals are plants domesticated primarily for aesthetic enjoyment in and around the home , while those domesticated for large - scale food production are called crops . Domesticated plants deliberately altered or selected for special desirable characteristics are cultigens . Animals domesticated for home companionship are called pets , while those domesticated for food or work are known as livestock . This biological mutualism is not restricted to humans with domestic crops and livestock but is well - documented in nonhuman species , especially among a number of social insect domesticators and their plant and animal domesticates , for example the ant -- fungus mutualism that exists between leafcutter ants and certain fungi . Domestication syndrome is the suite of phenotypic traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors . The term is also applied to vertebrate animals , and includes increased docility and tameness , coat color changes , reductions in tooth size , changes in craniofacial morphology , alterations in ear and tail form ( e.g. , floppy ears ) , more frequent and nonseasonal estrus cycles , alterations in adrenocorticotropic hormone levels , changed concentrations of several neurotransmitters , prolongations in juvenile behavior , and reductions in both total brain size and of particular brain regions . The domestication of animals and plants began with the wolf ( Canis lupus ) at least 15,000 years before present ( YBP ) , which then led to a rapid shift in the evolution , ecology , and demography of both humans and numerous species of animals and plants . The sudden appearance of the domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) in the archaeological record was followed by livestock and crop domestication , and the transition of humans from foraging to farming in different places and times across the planet . Around 10,000 YBP , a new way of life emerged for humans through the management and exploitation of plant and animal species , leading to higher - density populations in the centers of domestication , the expansion of agricultural economies , and the development of urban communities . A 2018 domestication study looked at the reasons why the archeological record that is based on the dating of fossil remains often differed from the genetic record contained within the cells of living species . The study concluded that our inability to date domestication is because domestication is a continuum and there is no single point where we can say that a species was clearly domesticated using these two techniques . The study proposes that changes in morphology across time and how humans were interacting with the species in the past needs to be considered in addition to these two techniques . Animals ( edit ) Theory ( edit ) Main article : Domestication of animals Karakul sheep and shepherds in Iran . Photograph by Harold F. Weston , 1920s The domestication of animals is the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction . Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors . He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits , and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by - product of natural selection or from selection on other traits . There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations . There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication , and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations . Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates , and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant , whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates , though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations . Domestication should not be confused with taming . Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of an animal to reduce its natural avoidance of humans , and to accept the presence of humans . Domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition towards humans . Certain animal species , and certain individuals within those species , make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics : ( 1 ) the size and organization of their social structure ; ( 2 ) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their choice of mates ; ( 3 ) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young , and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth ; ( 4 ) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance ; and ( 5 ) responses to humans and new environments , including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli . Mammals ( edit ) Main articles : Domestication of animals and List of domesticated animals The beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted coevolutionary process with multiple stages along different pathways . It is proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication : ( 1 ) commensals , adapted to a human niche ( e.g. , dogs , cats , fowl , possibly pigs ) ; ( 2 ) prey animals sought for food ( e.g. , sheep , goats , cattle , water buffalo , yak , pig , reindeer , llama and alpaca ) ; and ( 3 ) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources ( e.g. , horse , donkey , camel ) . The dog was the first domesticant , and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era , well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals . Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from , or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal resulting from , either the commensal or prey pathways . In both of these cases , humans became entangled with these species as the relationship between them , and the human role in their survival and reproduction , intensified , leading eventually to a formalised animal husbandry . Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming , the other two pathways are not as goal - oriented and archaeological records suggest that they took place over much longer time frames . Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production - related traits , dogs were initially selected for their behaviors . The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long - term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks -- including donkeys , horses , New and Old World camelids , goats , sheep , and pigs -- was common . One study has concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs and created domestication islands in the genome . The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals . Birds ( edit ) The red junglefowl of Southeast Asia was domesticated , apparently for cockfighting , some 7,000 years ago . Main articles : Poultry and Aviculture Domesticated birds principally mean poultry , raised for meat and eggs : some Galliformes ( chicken , turkey , guineafowl ) and Anseriformes ( waterfowl : duck , goose , swan ) . Also widely domesticated are cagebirds such as songbirds and parrots ; these are kept both for pleasure and for use in research . Domestic pigeon is known as a messenger , research suggests it was domesticated as early as 10,000 years ago . Chickens were domesticated at least 7,000 years ago , with fossils in China from c. 5400 BC . The chicken 's wild ancestor is Gallus gallus , the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia , and another species , probably the grey junglefowl of India . It appears to have been kept initially for cockfighting rather than for food . Invertebrates ( edit ) Further information : Domestication of bees , Beekeeping , and Sericulture Sericulturalists preparing silkworms for spinning of the silk Two insects , the silkworm and the western honey bee , have been domesticated for over 5,000 years , often for commercial use . The silkworm is raised for the silk threads wound around its pupal cocoon ; the western honey bee , for honey , and , lately , for pollination of crops . Several other invertebrates have been domesticated , both terrestrial and aquatic , including some such as Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies and the freshwater cnidarian Hydra for research into genetics and physiology . Few have a long history of domestication . Most are used for food or other products such as shellac and cochineal . The phyla involved are Cnidaria , Platyhelminthes ( for biological control ) , Annelida , Mollusca , Arthropoda ( marine crustaceans as well as insects and spiders ) , and Echinodermata . While many marine molluscs are used for food , only a few have been domesticated , including squid , cuttlefish and octopus , all used in research on behaviour and neurology . Terrestrial snails in the genera Helix and Murex are raised for food . Several parasitic or parasitoidal insects including the fly Eucelatoria , the beetle Chrysolina , and the wasp Aphytis are raised for biological control . Conscious or unconscious artificial selection has many effects on species under domestication ; variability can readily be lost by inbreeding , selection against undesired traits , or genetic drift , while in Drosophila , variability in eclosion time ( when adults emerge ) has increased . Plants ( edit ) Further information : List of domesticated plants The initial domestication of animals impacted most on the genes that controlled their behavior , but the initial domestication of plants impacted most on the genes that controlled their morphology ( seed size , plant architecture , dispersal mechanisms ) and their physiology ( timing of germination or ripening ) . Farmers with wheat and cattle - Ancient Egyptian art 1,422 BC The domestication of wheat provides an example . Wild wheat shatters and falls to the ground to reseed itself when ripe , but domesticated wheat stays on the stem for easier harvesting . This change was possible because of a random mutation in the wild populations at the beginning of wheat 's cultivation . Wheat with this mutation was harvested more frequently and became the seed for the next crop . Therefore , without realizing , early farmers selected for this mutation . The result is domesticated wheat , which relies on farmers for its reproduction and dissemination . History ( edit ) Further information : History of agriculture The earliest human attempts at plant domestication occurred in the Middle East . There is early evidence for conscious cultivation and trait selection of plants by pre-Neolithic groups in Syria : grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from Epi - Palaeolithic ( c . 11,050 BCE ) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria , but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye , rather than a definitive step towards domestication . By 10,000 BCE the bottle gourd ( Lagenaria siceraria ) plant , used as a container before the advent of ceramic technology , appears to have been domesticated . The domesticated bottle gourd reached the Americas from Asia by 8000 BCE , most likely due to the migration of peoples from Asia to America . Cereal crops were first domesticated around 9000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East . The first domesticated crops were generally annuals with large seeds or fruits . These included pulses such as peas and grains such as wheat . The Middle East was especially suited to these species ; the dry - summer climate was conducive to the evolution of large - seeded annual plants , and the variety of elevations led to a great variety of species . As domestication took place humans began to move from a hunter - gatherer society to a settled agricultural society . This change would eventually lead , some 4000 to 5000 years later , to the first city states and eventually the rise of civilization itself . Continued domestication was gradual , a process of intermittent trial and error . Over time perennials and small trees including the apple and the olive were domesticated . Some plants , such as the macadamia nut and the pecan , were not domesticated until recently . In other parts of the world very different species were domesticated . In the Americas squash , maize , beans , and perhaps manioc ( also known as cassava ) formed the core of the diet . In East Asia millet , rice , and soy were the most important crops . Some areas of the world such as Southern Africa , Australia , California and southern South America never saw local species domesticated . Differences from wild plants ( edit ) Domesticated plants may differ from their wild relatives in many ways , including the way they spread to a more diverse environment and have a wider geographic range ; different ecological preference ( sun , water , temperature , nutrients , etc. requirements ) , different disease susceptibility ; conversion from a perennial to annual ; loss of seed dormancy and photoperiodic controls ; simultaneous flower and fruit , double flowers ; a lack of shattering or scattering of seeds , or even loss of their dispersal mechanisms completely ; less efficient breeding system ( e.g. lack normal pollinating organs , making human intervention a requirement ) , smaller seeds with lower success in the wild , or even complete sexual sterility ( e.g. seedless fruits ) and therefore only vegetative reproduction ; less defensive adaptations such as hairs , thorns , spines , and prickles , poison , protective coverings and sturdiness , rendering them more likely to be eaten by animals and pests unless cared by humans ; chemical composition , giving them better palatability ( e.g. sugar content ) , better smell , and lower toxicity edible part larger , and easier separated from non-edible part ( e.g. freestone fruit ) . Traits that are being genetically improved ( edit ) There are many challenges facing modern farmers , including climate change , pests , soil salinity , drought , and periods with limited sunlight . Drought is one of the most serious challenges facing farmers today . With shifting climates comes shifting weather patterns , meaning that regions that could traditionally rely on a substantial amount of precipitation were , quite literally , left out to dry . In light of these conditions , drought resistance in major crop plants has become a clear priority . One method is to identify the genetic basis of drought resistance in naturally drought resistant plants , i.e. the Bambara groundnut . Next , transferring these advantages to otherwise vulnerable crop plants . Rice , which is one of the most vulnerable crops in terms of drought , has been successfully improved by the addition of the Barley hva1 gene into the genome using transgenetics . Drought resistance can also be improved through changes in a plant 's root system architecture , such as a root orientation that maximizes water retention and nutrient uptake . There must be a continued focus on the efficient usage of available water on a planet that is expected to have a population in excess of nine - billion people by 2050 . Another specific area of genetic improvement for domesticated crops is the crop plant 's uptake and utilization of soil potassium , an essential element for crop plants yield and overall quality . A plant 's ability to effectively uptake potassium and utilize it efficiently is known as its potassium utilization efficiency . It has been suggested that first optimizing plant root architecture and then root potassium uptake activity may effectively improve plant potassium utilization efficiency . Crop plants that are being genetically improved ( edit ) Cereals , rice , wheat , corn , and barley , make up a huge amount of the global diet across all demographic and social scales . These cereal crop plants are all autogamous , i.e. self - fertilizing , which limits overall diversity in allelic combinations , and therefore adaptability to novel environments . To combat this issue the researchers suggest an `` Island Model of Genomic Selection '' . By breaking a single large population of cereal crop plants into several smaller sub-populations which can receive `` migrants '' from the other subpopulations , new genetic combinations can be generated . The Bambara groundnut is a durable crop plant that , like many underutilized crops , has received little attention in an agricultural sense . The Bambara Groundnut is drought resistant and is known to be able to grow in almost any soil conditions , no matter how impoverished an area may be . New genomic and transcriptomic approaches are allowing researchers to improve this relatively small - scale crop , as well as other large - scale crop plants . The reduction in cost , and wide availability of both microarray technology and Next Generation Sequencing have made it possible to analyze underutilized crops , like the groundnut , at genome - wide level . Not overlooking particular crops that do n't appear to hold any value outside of the developing world will be key to not only overall crop improvement , but also to reducing the global dependency on only a few crop plants , which holds many intrinsic dangers to the global population 's food supply . Challenges facing genetic improvement ( edit ) The semi-arid tropics , ranging from parts of North and South Africa , Asia especially in the South Pacific , all the way to Australia are notorious for being both economically destitute and agriculturally difficult to cultivate and farm effectively . Barriers include everything from lack of rainfall and diseases , to economic isolation and environmental irresponsibility . There is a large interest in the continued efforts , of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ( ICRSAT ) to improve staple foods . some mandated crops of ICRISAT include the groundnut , pigeonpea , chickpea , sorghum and pearl millet , which are the main staple foods for nearly one billion people in the semi-arid tropics . As part of the ICRISAT efforts , some wild plant breeds are being used to transfer genes to cultivated crops by interspecific hybridization involving modern methods of embryo rescue and tissue culture . One example of early success has been work to combat the very detrimental peanut clump virus . Transgenetic plants containing the coat protein gene for resistance against peanut clump virus have already been produced successfully . Another region threatened by food security are the Pacific Island Countries , which are disproportionally faced with the negative effects of climate change . The Pacific Islands are largely made up of a chain of small bodies of land , which obviously limits the amount of geographical area in which to farm . This leaves the region with only two viable options 1 . ) increase agricultural production or 2 . ) increase food importation . The latter of course runs into the issues of availability and economic feasibility , leaving only the first option as a viable means to solve the region 's food crisis . It is much easier to misuse the limited resources remaining , as compared with solving the problem at its ' core . Working with wild plants to improve domestics ( edit ) Work has also has been focusing on improving domestic crops through the use of crop wild relatives . The amount and depth of genetic material available in crop wild relatives is larger than originally believed , and the range of plants involved , both wild and domestic , is ever expanding . Through the use of new biotechnological tools such as genome editing , cisgenesis / intragenesis , the transfer of genes between crossable donor species including hybrids , and other omic approaches . Wild plants can be hybridized with crop plants to form perennial crops from annuals , increase yield , growth rate , and resistance to outside pressures like disease and drought . It is important to remember that these changes take significant lengths of time to achieve , sometimes even decades . However , the outcome can be extremly successful as is the case with a hybrid grass variant known as Kernza . Over the course of nearly three decades , work was done on an attempted hybridization between an already domesticated grass strain , and several of its wild relatives . The domesticated strain as was more uniform in its orientation , but the wild strains were larger and propagated faster . The resulting Kernza crop has traits from both progenitors : uniform orientation and a linearly vertical root system from the domesticated crop , along with increased size and rate of propagation from the wild relatives . Fungi ( edit ) Further information : List of domesticated fungi Button mushrooms are widely cultivated for food . Several species of fungi have been domesticated for use directly as food , or in fermentation to produce foods and drugs . The white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus is widely grown for food . The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been used for thousands of years to ferment beer and wine , and to leaven bread . Mould fungi including Penicillium are used to mature cheeses and other dairy products , as well as to make drugs such as antibiotics . Effects ( edit ) On domestic animals ( edit ) Selection of animals for visible `` desirable '' traits may have undesired consequences . Captive and domesticated animals often have smaller size , piebald color , shorter faces with smaller and fewer teeth , diminished horns , weak muscle ridges , and less genetic variability . Poor joint definition , late fusion of the limb bone epiphyses with the diaphyses , hair changes , greater fat accumulation , smaller brains , simplified behavior patterns , extended immaturity , and more pathology are among the defects of domestic animals . All of these changes have been documented by archaeological evidence , and confirmed by animal breeders in the 20th century . In 2014 , a study proposed the theory that under selection , docility in mammals and birds results partly from a slowed pace of neural crest development , that would in turn cause a reduced fear -- startle response due to mild neurocristopathy that causes domestication syndrome . The theory was unable to explain curly tails nor domestication syndrome exhibited by plants . A side effect of domestication has been zoonotic diseases . For example , cattle have given humanity various viral poxes , measles , and tuberculosis ; pigs and ducks have given influenza ; and horses have given the rhinoviruses . Many parasites have their origins in domestic animals . The advent of domestication resulted in denser human populations which provided ripe conditions for pathogens to reproduce , mutate , spread , and eventually find a new host in humans . Paul Shepard writes `` Man substitutes controlled breeding for natural selection ; animals are selected for special traits like milk production or passivity , at the expense of overall fitness and nature - wide relationships ... Though domestication broadens the diversity of forms -- that is , increases visible polymorphism -- it undermines the crisp demarcations that separate wild species and cripples our recognition of the species as a group . Knowing only domestic animals dulls our understanding of the way in which unity and discontinuity occur as patterns in nature , and substitutes an attention to individuals and breeds . The wide variety of size , color , shape , and form of domestic horses , for example , blurs the distinction among different species of Equus that once were constant and meaningful . '' On society ( edit ) Jared Diamond in his book Guns , Germs , and Steel describes the universal tendency for populations that have acquired agriculture and domestic animals to develop a large population and to expand into new territories . He recounts migrations of people armed with domestic crops overtaking , displacing or killing indigenous hunter - gatherers , whose lifestyle is coming to an end . Some anarcho - primitivist authors describe domestication as the process by which previously nomadic human populations shifted towards a sedentary or settled existence through agriculture and animal husbandry . They claim that this kind of domestication demands a totalitarian relationship with both the land and the plants and animals being domesticated . They say that whereas , in a state of wildness , all life shares and competes for resources , domestication destroys this balance . Domesticated landscape ( e.g. pastoral lands / agricultural fields and , to a lesser degree , horticulture and gardening ) ends the open sharing of resources ; where `` this was everyone 's '' , it is now `` mine '' . Anarcho - primitivists state that this notion of ownership laid the foundation for social hierarchy as property and power emerged . It also involved the destruction , enslavement , or assimilation of other groups of early people who did not make such a transition . On diversity ( edit ) Industrialized wheat harvest - North America today Further information : Sustainable agriculture In 2016 , a study found that humans have had a major impact on global genetic diversity as well as extinction rates , including a contribution to megafaunal extinctions . Pristine landscapes no longer exist and have not existed for millennia , and humans have concentrated the planet 's biomass into human - favored plants and animals . Domesticated ecosystems provide food , reduce predator and natural dangers , and promote commerce , but have also resulted in habitat loss and extinctions commencing in the Late Pleistocene . Ecologists and other researchers are advised to make better use of the archaeological and paleoecological data available for gaining an understanding the history of human impacts before proposing solutions . See also ( edit ) Animal husbandry Anthrozoology Columbian Exchange Domestication theory Experimental evolution Genetic engineering Genetic erosion Genomics of domestication History of plant breeding Horticulture Marker assisted selection Selective breeding Self - domestication Timeline of agriculture and food technology Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ This Central Asian breed is ancient , dating perhaps to 1400 BC . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Zeder MA ( 2015 ) . `` Core questions in domestication Research '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 112 ( 11 ) : 3191 -- 8 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1501711112 . PMC 4371924 . PMID 25713127 . ^ Jump up to : Darwin , Charles ( 1868 ) . The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication . London : John Murray . OCLC 156100686 . ^ Jump up to : Jared Diamond ( 1997 ) . Guns , Germs , and Steel . Chatto and Windus London . 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( 2013 ) . `` Wild plants to the rescue : efforts to domesticate new , high - Yield , perennial grain crops require patience and persistence -- but such plants could transform agriculture '' . American Scientist . Jump up ^ `` Agaricus bisporus : The Button Mushroom '' . MushroomExpert.com . Retrieved March 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Legras , Jean - LUC ; Merdinoglu , Didier ; Cornuet , Jean - Marie ; Karst , Francis ( 2007 ) . `` Bread , beer and wine : Saccharomyces cerevisiae diversity reflects human history '' . Molecular Ecology. 16 ( 10 ) : 2091 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 294X. 2007.03266. x . PMID 17498234 . Jump up ^ `` Pfizer 's work on penicillin for World War II becomes a National Historic Chemical Landmark '' . American Chemical Society . June 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Berry , R.J. ( 1969 ) . `` The Genetical Implications of Domestication in Animals '' . In Ucko , Peter J. ; Dimbleby , G.W. The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals . Chicago : Aldine . pp. 207 -- 217 . Jump up ^ Paul Shepard ( 1973 ) . `` Chapter One : Ten Thousand Years of Crisis '' . The Tender Carnivore and the Sacred Game . Athens , GA : University of Georgia Press . pp. 10 -- 11 . Jump up ^ Boyden , Stephen Vickers ( 1992 ) . `` Biohistory : The interplay between human society and the biosphere , past and present '' . Man and the Biosphere Series . UNESCO . 8 ( supplement 173 ) : 665 . Bibcode : 1992EnST ... 26 ... 665 ... doi : 10.1021 / es00028a604 . Jump up ^ Boivin , Nicole L. ; Zeder , Melinda A. ; Fuller , Dorian Q. ; Crowther , Alison ; Larson , Greger ; Erlandson , Jon M. ; Denham , Tim ; Petraglia , Michael D. ( 2016 ) . `` Ecological consequences of human niche construction : Examining long - term anthropogenic shaping of global species distributions '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 113 ( 23 ) : 6388 -- 6396 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1525200113 . PMC 4988612 . PMID 27274046 . Darwin , Charles . The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication , 1868 . Diamond , Jared . Guns , germs and steel . A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years , 1997 . Further reading ( edit ) Halcrow , S.E. ; Harris , N.J. ; Tayles , N. ; Ikehara - Quebral , R. ; Pietrusewsky , M. ( 2013 ) . `` From the mouths of babes : Dental caries in infants and children and the intensification of agriculture in mainland Southeast Asia '' . Am. J. Phys . Anthropol. 150 ( 3 ) : 409 -- 420 . doi : 10.1002 / ajpa. 22215 . PMID 23359102 . Hayden , B ( 2003 ) . `` Were luxury foods the first domesticates ? Ethnoarchaeological perspectives from Southeast Asia '' . World Archaeology. 34 ( 3 ) : 458 -- 469 . doi : 10.1080 / 0043824021000026459a . Marciniak , Arkadiusz ( 2005 ) . Placing Animals in the Neolithic : Social Zooarchaeology of Prehistoric Farming Communities . London : UCL Press . ISBN 1844720926 . External links ( edit ) Look up domestication or taming in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Crop Wild Relative Inventory and Gap Analysis : reliable information source on where and what to conserve ex-situ , for crop genepools of global importance Discussion of animal domestication with Jared Diamond The Initial Domestication of Cucurbita pepo in the Americas 10,000 Years Ago Cattle domestication diagram Major topic `` domestication '' : free full - text articles ( more than 100 plus reviews ) in National Library of Medicine Prehistoric technology Prehistory timeline outline Stone Age subdivisions New Stone Age Technology history Tools Farming Neolithic Revolution founder crops New World crops Ard / plough Celt Digging stick Domestication Goad Irrigation Secondary products Sickle Terracing Food processing Fire Basket Cooking Earth oven Granaries Grinding slab Ground stone Hearth Aşıklı Höyük Qesem Cave Manos Metate Mortar and pestle Pottery Quern - stone Storage pit Hunting Arrow Boomerang throwing stick Bow and arrow history Nets Spear Spear - thrower baton harpoon woomera Schöningen Spears Projectile points Arrowhead Bare Island Cascade Clovis Cresswell Cumberland Eden Folsom Lamoka Manis Site Plano Transverse arrowhead Systems Game drive system Buffalo jump Toolmaking Earliest toolmaking Oldowan Acheulean Mousterian Clovis culture Cupstone Fire hardening Gravettian culture Hafting Hand axe Grooves Langdale axe industry Levallois technique Lithic core Lithic reduction analysis debitage flake Lithic technology Magdalenian culture Metallurgy Microblade technology Mining Prepared - 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54 | document: Human sex ratio - wikipedia Human sex ratio Jump to : navigation , search Map indicating the human sex ratio by country . Countries with more females than males . Countries with the same number of males and females ( accounting that the ratio has 3 significant figures , i.e. , 1.00 males to 1.00 females ) . Countries with more males than females . No data Sex ratio by country for total population . Blue represents more women , red more men than the world average of 1.01 males / female . Sex ratio by country population aged below 15 . Blue represents more women , red more men than the world average of 1.06 males / female . Sex ratio by country for population above 65 . Blue represents more women , red more men than the world average of 0.79 males / female . In anthropology and demography , the human sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population . More data are available for humans than for any other species , and the human sex ratio is more studied than that of any other species , but interpreting these statistics can be difficult . Like most sexual species , the sex ratio in humans is approximately 1 : 1 . Due to higher female fetal mortality , the sex ratio at birth worldwide is commonly thought to be 107 boys to 100 girls , although this value is subject to debate in the scientific community . The sex ratio for the entire world population is 101 males to 100 females . Depending upon which definition is used , between 0.1 % and 1.7 % of live births are intersex . Gender imbalance may arise as a consequence of various factors including natural factors , exposure to pesticides and environmental contaminants , war casualties , gender - selective abortions and infanticides , aging , and deliberate gendercide . Human sex ratios , either at birth or in the population as a whole , are reported in any of four ways : the ratio of males to females , the ratio of females to males , the proportion of males , or the proportion of females . If there are 108,000 males and 100,000 females the ratio of males to females is 1.080 and the proportion of males is 51.9 % . Scientific literature often uses the proportion of males . This article uses the ratio of males to females , unless specified otherwise . Contents ( hide ) 1 Natural ratio 2 Factors affecting sex ratio in humans 2.1 Fisher 's principle 2.2 Natural factors 2.3 Environmental factors 2.3. 1 Effects of climate change 2.3. 2 Effects of gestation environment 2.3. 3 Effects of chemical pollution 2.4 Social factors 2.4. 1 Early marriage and parents ' age 2.4. 2 Data sources and data quality issues 2.5 Economic factors 2.6 Other gestational factors 3 Gender imbalance 4 Consequences of a high sex ratio 5 See also 6 References Natural ratio ( edit ) In a study around 2002 , the natural sex ratio at birth was estimated to be close to 1.06 males / female . Infant mortality is higher in boys than girls in most parts of the world . Recent studies have found that numerous preconception or prenatal environmental factors affect the probability of a baby being conceived male or female . It has been proposed that these environmental factors also explain sex differences in mortality . In most populations , adult males tend to have higher death rates than adult females of the same age ( even after allowing for causes specific to females such as death in childbirth ) , both due to natural causes such as heart attacks and strokes , which account for by far the majority of deaths , and also to violent causes , such as homicide and warfare , resulting in higher life expectancy of females . For example , in the United States , as of 2006 , an adult non-elderly male is 3 to 6 times more likely to become a victim of a homicide and 2.5 to 3.5 times more likely to die in an accident than a female of the same age . Consequently , the sex ratio tends to reduce as age increases and among the elderly there is usually a greater proportion of females . For example , the male to female ratio falls from 1.05 for the group aged 15 to 65 to 0.70 for the group over 65 in Germany , from 1.00 to 0.72 in the United States , from 1.06 to 0.91 in mainland China , and from 1.07 to 1.02 in India . In the United States , the sex ratios at birth over the period 1970 -- 2002 were 1.05 for the white non-Hispanic population , 1.04 for Mexican Americans , 1.03 for African Americans and Indians , and 1.07 for mothers of Chinese or Filipino ethnicity . Among Western European countries c. 2001 , the ratios ranged from 1.04 in Belgium to 1.07 in Switzerland , Italy , Ireland and Portugal . In the aggregated results of 56 Demographic and Health Surveys in African countries , the ratio is 1.03 , albeit with considerable country - to - country variation . Even in the absence of sex selection practices , a range of `` normal '' sex ratios at birth of between 103 and 108 boys per 100 girls has been observed in different economically developed countries , and among different ethnic and racial groups within a given country . In an extensive study , carried out around 2005 , of sex ratio at birth in the United States from 1940 over 62 years , statistical evidence suggested the following : For mothers having their first baby , the total sex ratio at birth was 1.06 overall , with some years at 1.07 . For mothers having babies after the first , this ratio consistently decreased with each additional baby from 1.06 towards 1.03 . The age of the mother affected the ratio : the overall ratio was 1.05 for mothers aged 25 to 35 at the time of birth mothers who were below the age of 15 or above 40 had babies with a sex ratio ranging between 0.94 and 1.11 , and a total sex ratio of 1.04 American mothers of Hawaiian , Filipino , Chinese , Cuban , and Japanese ethnicity had the highest sex ratio , with years as high as 1.14 and average sex ratio of 1.07 over the 62 - year study period . Factors affecting sex ratio in humans ( edit ) Fisher 's principle ( edit ) Main article : Fisher 's principle Fisher 's principle is an explanation of why the sex ratio of most species is approximately 1 : 1 . Outlined by Ronald Fisher in his 1930 book , it is an argument in terms of parental expenditure . Essentially he argues that the 1 : 1 ratio is the evolutionarily stable strategy . Natural factors ( edit ) The natural factors that affect the human sex ratio are an active area of scientific research . Over 1000 articles have been published in various journals . Two of the often cited reviews of scientific studies on human sex ratio are by W.H. James . The scientific studies are based on extensive birth and death records in Africa , the Americas , Asia , Australia , and Europe . A few of these studies extend to over 100 years of yearly human sex ratio data for some countries . These studies suggest that the human sex ratio , both at birth and as a population matures , can vary significantly according to a large number of factors , such as paternal age , maternal age , plural birth , birth order , gestation weeks , race , parent 's health history , and parent 's psychological stress . Remarkably , the trends in human sex ratio are not consistent across countries at a given time , or over time for a given country . In economically developed countries , as well as developing countries , these scientific studies have found that the human sex ratio at birth has historically varied between 0.94 and 1.15 for natural reasons . In a scientific paper published in 2008 , James states that conventional assumptions have been : there are equal numbers of X and Y chromosomes in mammalian sperm X and Y stand equal chance of achieving conception therefore equal number of male and female zygotes are formed , and that therefore any variation of sex ratio at birth is due to sex selection between conception and birth . James cautions that available scientific evidence stands against the above assumptions and conclusions . He reports that there is an excess of males at birth in almost all human populations , and the natural sex ratio at birth is usually between 1.02 and 1.08 . However the ratio may deviate significantly from this range for natural reasons . A 1999 scientific paper published by Jacobsen reported the sex ratio for 815,891 children born in Denmark between 1980 -- 1993 . They studied the birth records to identify the effects of multiple birth , birth order , age of parents and the sexes of preceding siblings on the proportion of males using contingency tables , chi - squared tests and regression analysis . The secondary sex ratio decreased with increased number of children per plural birth and with paternal age , whereas no significant independent effect was observed for maternal age , birth order , or other natural factors . A 2009 research paper published by Branum et al. reports the sex ratio derived from data in United States birth records over a 25 - year period ( 1981 -- 2006 ) . This paper reports that the sex ratio at birth for the white ethnic group in the United States was 1.04 when the gestational age was 33 -- 36 weeks , but 1.15 for gestational ages of less than 28 weeks , 28 -- 32 weeks , and 37 or more weeks . This study also found that the sex ratios at birth in the United States , between 1981 -- 2006 , were lower in both black and Hispanic ethnic groups when compared with white ethnic group . The relationship between natural factors and human sex ratio at birth , and with aging , remains an active area of scientific research . Environmental factors ( edit ) Effects of climate change ( edit ) Various scientists have examined the question whether human birth sex ratios have historically been affected by environmental stressors such as climate change and global warming . Catalano et al. report that cold weather is an environmental stressor , and women subjected to colder weather abort frail male fetuses in greater proportion thereby lowering birth sex ratios . Cold weather stressors simultaneously extend male longevity thereby raise human sex ratio in its older age bracket . Catalano team finds that a 1 ° C increase in annual temperature predicts one more male than expected for every 1,000 females born in a year . Helle et al. have studied 138 years worth of human birth sex ratio data , from 1865 to 2003 . They find an increased excess of male births during periods of the exogenous stress ( World War II ) and during warm years . In the warmest period over the 138 years , the birth sex ratio peaked at about 1.08 in northern Europe . Effects of gestation environment ( edit ) Causes of stress during gestation , such as maternal malnutrition generally appear to increase fetal deaths particularly among males , resulting in a lower boy to girl ratio at birth . Also , higher incidence of Hepatitis B virus in populations is believed to increase the male to female sex ratio , while some unexplained environmental health hazards are thought to have the opposite effect . The effects of gestational environment on human sex ratio are complicated and unclear , with numerous conflicting reports . For example , Oster et al. examined a data set of 67,000 births in China , 15 percent of whom were Hepatitis B carriers . They found no effect on birth sex ratio from Hepatitis B presence in either the mothers or fathers . Effects of Chemical pollution ( edit ) A 2007 survey by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program noted abnormally low sex ratios in Russian Arctic villages and Inuit villages in Greenland and Canada , and attributed this imbalance to high levels of endocrine disruptors in the blood of inhabitants , including PCBs and DDT . These chemicals are believed to have accumulated in the tissues of fish and animals that make up the bulk of these populations ' diets . However , as noted in the Social factors section below , it is important to exclude alternative explanations , including social ones , when examining large human populations whose composition by ethnicity and race may be changing . A 2008 report provides further evidence of effects of feminizing chemicals on male development in each class of vertebrate species as a worldwide phenomenon , possibly leading to a decline in the sex ratio in humans and a possible decline in sperm counts . Out of over 100,000 recently introduced chemicals , 99 % are poorly regulated . Other factors that could possibly affect the sex ratio include : Social status of the mother , known to be a factor in influencing the sex ratio of certain animals such as swine , but apparently not in humans . Whether the mother smokes . Whether the mother has a partner or other support network , although this correlation is widely considered to be the result of an unknown third factor . Latitude , with countries near the equator producing more females than near the poles . Other scientific studies suggest that environmental effects on human sex ratio at birth are either limited or not properly understood . For example , a research paper published in 1999 , by scientists from Finland 's National Public Health Institute , reports the effect of environmental chemicals and changes in sex ratio over 250 years in Finland . This scientific team evaluated whether Finnish long - term data are compatible with the hypothesis that the decrease in the ratio of male to female births in industrial countries is caused by environmental factors . They analyzed the sex ratio of births from the files of Statistics Finland and all live births in Finland from 1751 to 1997 . They found an increase in the proportion of males from 1751 to 1920 ; this was followed by a decrease and interrupted by peaks in births of males during and after World War I and World War II . None of the natural factors such as paternal age , maternal age , age difference of parents , birth order could explain the time trends . The scientists found that the peak ratio of male proportion precedes the period of industrialization or the introduction of pesticides or hormonal drugs , rendering a causal association between environmental chemicals and human sex ratio at birth unlikely . Moreover , these scientists claim that the trends they found in Finland are similar to those observed in other countries with worse pollution and much greater pesticide use . Some studies have found that certain kinds of environmental pollution , in particular dioxins leads to higher rates of female births . Other pollutants such as PCBs can cause an increase in the male ratio . Social factors ( edit ) Sex - selective abortion and infanticide are thought to significantly skew the naturally occurring ratio in some populations , such as China , where the introduction of ultrasound scans in the late 1980s has led to a birth sex ratio ( males to females ) of 1.181 ( 2010 official census data for China ) . The 2011 India census reports India 's sex ratio in 0 -- 6 age bracket at 1.088 . The 2011 birth sex ratios for China and India are significantly above the mean ratio recorded in the United States from 1940 through 2002 ( 1.051 ) ; however , their birth sex ratios are within the 0.98 -- 1.14 range observed in the United States for significant ethnic groups over the same time period . Along with Asian countries , a number of European , Middle East , and Latin American countries have recently reported high birth sex ratios in the 1.06 to 1.14 range . High birth sex ratios , some claim , may be caused in part by social factors . Reported sex ratios at birth , outside the typical range of 1.03 to 1.07 , thus call for an explanation of some kind . Another hypothesis has been inspired by the recent and persistent high birth sex ratios observed in Georgia and Armenia -- both predominantly Orthodox Christian societies -- and Azerbaijan , a predominantly Muslim society . Since their independence from Soviet Union , the birth sex ratio in these Caucasus countries has risen sharply to between 1.11 and 1.20 , some of world 's highest . Mesle et al. consider the hypothesis that the high birth sex ratio may be because of the social trend of more than two children per family , and birth order possibly affects the sex ratio in this region of the world . They also consider the hypothesis that sons are preferred in these countries of the Caucasus , the spread of scans and there being a practice of sex - selective abortion ; however , the scientists admit that they do not have definitive proof that sex - selective abortion is actually happening or that there are no natural reasons for the persistently high birth sex ratios . In all such research , it is important to consider plausible alternative explanations . For example , in some populations that have experienced declining sex ratios , researchers have suggested that ecological factors may be at work . As an example of how the social composition of a human population may produce unusual changes in sex ratios , we can consider a study in several counties of California where declining sex ratios had been observed . Smith and Von Behren observe that : `` In the raw data , the male birth proportion is indeed declining . However , during this period , there were also shifts in demographics that influence the sex ratio . Controlling for birth order , parents ' age , and race / ethnicity , different trends emerged . White births ( which account for over 80 % ) continued to show a statistically significant decline , while other racial groups showed non-statistically significant declines ( Japanese , Native American , other ) , little or no change ( black ) , or an increase ( Chinese ) . Finally , when the white births were divided into Hispanic and non-Hispanic ( possible since 1982 ) , it was found that both white subgroups suggest an increase in male births . '' They concluded `` that the decline in male births in California is largely attributable to changes in demographics . '' Early marriage and parents ' age ( edit ) Several studies have examined human birth sex ratio data to determine if there is a natural relationship between the age of mother or father to the birth sex ratio . For example , Ruder has studied 1.67 million births in 33 states in the United States to discern effect of parent 's age and birth sex ratios . Similarly , Jacobsen et al. have studied 0.82 million births in Denmark with the same goal . These scientists find that maternal age has no statistically significant role on human birth sex ratio . However , they report a significant effect of paternal age . Significantly more male babies were born per 1000 female babies to younger fathers than to older fathers . These studies suggest that social factors such as early marriage and quickly fertile couples may play a role in raising birth sex ratios in certain societies . Data sources and data Quality Issues ( edit ) Reported sex ratios at birth for some human populations may be influenced not only by cultural preferences and social practices that favor the birth or survival of one sex over the other but also by incomplete or inaccurate reporting or recording of the births or the survival of infants . Even what constitutes a live birth or infant death may vary from one population to another . For example , for most of the 20th century in Russia ( and the Soviet Union ) , extremely premature newborns ( less than 28 weeks gestational age , or less than 1000 grams in weight , or less than 35 centimeters in length ) were not counted as a live birth until they had survived 7 days ; and if that infant died in those first 168 hours it would not be counted as an infant death . This led to serious underreporting of the Infant mortality rate ( by 22 % to 25 % ) relative to standards recommended by the World Health Organization . When unusual sex ratios at birth ( or any other age ) are observed , it is important to consider misreporting , misrecording , or underregistration of births or deaths as possible reasons . Some researchers have in part attributed the high male to female sex ratios reported in mainland China in the last 25 years to the underreporting of the births of female children after the implementation of the one - child policy , though alternative explanations are now generally more widely accepted , including above all the use of ultrasound technology and sex - selective abortion of female fetuses and , probably to a more limited degree , neglect or in some cases infanticide of females . In the case of China , because of deficiencies in the vital statistics registration system , studies of sex ratios at birth have relied either on special fertility surveys , whose accuracy depends on full reporting of births and survival of both male and female infants , or on the national population census from which both birth rates and death rates are calculated from the household 's reporting of births and deaths in the 18 months preceding the census . To the extent that this underreporting of births or deaths is sex - selective , both fertility surveys and censuses may inaccurately reflect the actual sex ratios at birth . Economic factors ( edit ) Catalano has examined the hypothesis that population stress induced by a declining economy reduces the human sex ratio . He compared the sex ratio in East and West Germany for the years 1946 to 1999 , with genetically similar populations . The population stressors theory predicts that the East German sex ratio should have been lower in 1991 , when East Germany 's economy collapsed , than expected from its previous years . Furthermore , the theory suggests that East German birth sex ratios should generally be lower than the observed sex ratio in West Germany for the same years , over time . According to Catalano 's study , the birth sex ratio data from East Germany and West Germany over 45 years supports the hypothesis . The sex ratio in East Germany was also at its lowest in 1991 . According to Catalano study , assuming women in East Germany did not opt to abort male more than female , the best hypothesis is that a collapsing economy lowers the human birth sex ratio , while a booming economy raises the birth sex ratio . Catalano notes that these trends may be related to the observed trend of elevated incidences of very low birth weight from maternal stress , during certain macroeconomic circumstances . Other gestational factors ( edit ) A research group led by Ein - Mor reported that sex ratio does not seem to change significantly with either maternal or paternal age . Neither gravidity nor parity seem to affect the male - to - female ratio . However , there is a significant association of sex ratio with the length of gestation . These Ein - mor conclusions have been disputed . For example , James suggested that Ein - Mor results are based on some demographic variables and a small data set , a broader study of variables and larger population set suggests human sex ratio shows substantial variation for various reasons and different trend effects of length of gestation than those reported by Ein - Mor . In another study , James has offered the hypothesis that human sex ratios , and mammalian sex ratios in general , are causally related to the hormone levels of both parents at the time of conception . This hypothesis is yet to be tested and proven true or false over large population sets . Gender imbalance in Bahrain caused by policies that restrict female spouses and children of immigrant workers Gender imbalance ( edit ) Gender imbalance is a disparity between males and females in a population . As stated above , males usually exceed females at birth but subsequently experience different mortality rates due to many possible causes such as differential natural death rates , war casualties , and deliberate gender control . According to Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn , two Pulitzer Prize - winning reporters for the New York Times , violence against women is causing gender imbalances in many developing countries . They detail sex - selective infanticide in the developing world , particularly in China , India and Pakistan . Commonly , countries with gender imbalances have three characteristics in common . The first is a rapid decline in fertility , either because of preference for smaller families or to comply with their nation 's population control measures . Second , there is pressure for women to give birth to sons , often because of cultural preferences for male heirs . Third , families have widespread access to technology to selectively abort female fetuses . As a contributing measure to gender imbalance in developing countries , Kristof and WuDunn 's best estimate is that a girl in India , from 1 to 5 years of age , dies from discrimination every four minutes ( 132,000 deaths per year ) ; that 39,000 girls in China die annually , within the first year of life , because parents did not give girls the same medical care and attention that boys received . The authors describe similar gender discrimination and gendercide in Congo , Kenya , Pakistan , Iraq , Bahrain , Thailand and many other developing countries . Some of the factors suggested as causes of the gender imbalance are warfare ( excess of females , notably in the wake of WWI in western Europe , and WWII , particularly in the Soviet Union ) ; sex - selective abortion and infanticide ( excess of males , notably in China as a result of the one - child policy , or in India ) ; and large - scale migration , such as that by male labourers unable to bring their families with them ( as in Qatar and other Gulf countries ) . Gender imbalance may result in the threat of social unrest , especially in the case of an excess of low - status young males unable to find spouses , and being recruited into the service of militaristic political factions . Economic factors such as male - majority industries and activities like the petrochemical , agriculture , engineering , military , and technology also have created a male gender imbalance in some areas dependent on one of these industries . Conversely , the entertainment , banking , tourism , fashion , and service industries may have resulted in a female - majority gender imbalance in some areas dependent on them . One study found that the male - to - female sex ratio in the German state of Bavaria fell as low as 0.60 after the end of World War II for the most severely affected age cohort ( those between 21 and 23 years old in 1946 ) . This same study found that out - of - wedlock births spiked from approximately 10 -- 15 % during the inter-war years up to 22 % at the end of the war . This increase in out - of - wedlock births was attributed to a change in the marriage market caused by the decline in the sex ratio . Gender imbalance in Estonia The Northern Mariana Islands have the highest female ratio with 0.77 males per female . Qatar has the highest male ratio , with 2.87 males / female . For the group aged below 15 , Sierra Leone has the highest female ratio with 0.96 males / female , and the Republic of Georgia and the People 's Republic of China are tied for the highest male ratio with 1.13 males / female ( according to the 2006 CIA World Factbook ) . The value for the entire world population is 1.01 males / female , with 1.07 at birth , 1.06 for those under 15 , 1.02 for those between 15 and 64 , and 0.78 for those over 65 . The `` First World '' G7 members all have a gender ratio in the range of 0.95 -- 0.98 for the total population , of 1.05 -- 1.07 at birth , of 1.05 -- 1.06 for the group below 15 , of 1.00 -- 1.04 for the group aged 15 -- 64 , and of 0.70 -- 0.75 for those over 65 . Countries on the Arabian peninsula tend to have a ' natural ' ratio of about 1.05 at birth but a very high ratio of males for those over 65 ( Saudi Arabia 1.13 , Arab Emirates 2.73 , Qatar 2.84 ) , indicating either an above - average mortality rate for females or a below - average mortality for males , or , more likely in this case , a large population of aging male guest workers . Conversely , countries of Northern and Eastern Europe ( the Baltic states , Belarus , Ukraine , Russia ) tend to have a ' normal ' ratio at birth but a very low ratio of males among those over 65 ( Russia 0.46 , Latvia 0.48 , Ukraine 0.52 ) ; similarly , Armenia has a far above average male ratio at birth ( 1.17 ) , and a below - average male ratio above 65 ( 0.67 ) . This effect may be caused by emigration and higher male mortality as result of higher Soviet era deaths ; it may also be related to the enormous ( by western standards ) rate of alcoholism in the former Soviet states . Another possible contributory factor is an aging population , with a higher than normal proportion of relatively elderly people : we recall that due to higher differential mortality rates the ratio of males to females reduces for each year of age . In the evolutionary biology of sexual reproduction , the operational sex ratio ( OSR ) , is the ratio of sexually competing males that are ready to mate to sexually competing females that are ready to mate , or alternatively the local ratio of fertilizable females to sexually active males at any given time . Its difference from the physical sex ratio , is that it does not take into account sexually inactive or non-competitive individuals ( individuals that do not compete for mates ) . Consequences of a high sex ratio ( edit ) There are several social consequences of an imbalanced sex ratio . High ratios of males make it easier for women to marry , but harder for men . In parts of China and India , there is a 12 -- 15 % excess of young men . These men will remain single and will be unable to have families , in societies where marriage is regarded as virtually universal and social status and acceptance depend , in large part , on being married and creating a new family . Analyses of how sex ratio imbalances affect personal consumption and intra-household distribution were pioneered by Gary Becker , Shoshana Grossbard - Shechtman , and Marcia Guttentag and Paul Secord . High ratios of males have a positive effect on marital fertility and women 's share of household consumption and negative effects on non-marital cohabitation and fertility and women 's labor supply . It has been shown that variation in sex ratio over time is inversely related to married women 's labor supply in the U.S. An additional problem is that many of these men are of low socioeconomic class with limited education . When there is a shortage of women in the marriage market , the women can `` marry up '' , inevitably leaving the least desirable men with no marriage prospects . In many communities today , there are growing numbers of young men who come from lower classes who are marginalized because of lack of family prospects and the fact that they have little outlet for sexual energy . There is evidence that this situation will lead to increased levels of antisocial behavior and violence and will ultimately present a threat to the stability and security of society . See also ( edit ) Intersex § Population figures Operational sex ratio Sex selection Sex - selective abortion and infanticide Surplus women XY sex - determination system Countries : List of countries by sex ratio Lost boys ( Mormon fundamentalism ) Missing women of Asia List of Chinese administrative divisions by sex ratio References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Data from the CIA World Factbook ( 1 ) . Map compiled in 2006 . Jump up ^ Orzack , Steven Hecht ; Stubblefield , J. William ; Akmaev , Viatcheslav R. ; Colls , Pere ; Munné , Santiago ; Scholl , Thomas ; Steinsaltz , David ; Zuckerman , James E. ( 2015 - 04 - 21 ) . `` The human sex ratio from conception to birth '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 112 ( 16 ) : E2102 -- E2111 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1416546112 . ISSN 0027 - 8424 . PMID 25825766 . Jump up ^ `` Sex ratio '' . The Central Intelligence Agency of the United States . Archived from the original on 30 November 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` CIA Fact Book '' . The Central Intelligence Agency of the United States . Jump up ^ `` How common is intersex ? '' . Intersex Society of North America . Jump up ^ Fausto - Sterling , Anne ( 2000 ) . Sexing the Body : Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 0 - 465 - 07713 - 7 . Jump up ^ https://www.stir.ac.uk/news/2014/06/boys-to-girls-birthrate/ Jump up ^ Davis , D.L. ; Gottlieb , M.B. ; Stampnitzky , J.R. ( 1998 ) . `` Reduced ratio of male to female births in several industrial countries : A sentinel health indicator ? '' ( PDF ) . JAMA. 279 ( 13 ) : 1018 -- 23 . PMID 9533502 . Jump up ^ Grech , V ; Savona - Ventura , C ; Vassallo - Agius , P ( 2002 ) . `` Unexplained differences in sex ratios at birth in Europe and North America '' . BMJ ( Clinical research ed . ) . BMJ , NCBI / National Institutes of Health . 324 ( 7344 ) : 1010 -- 1 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 324.7344. 1010 . PMC 102777 . PMID 11976243 . Jump up ^ Pongou , Roland ( 14 November 2012 ) . `` Why Is Infant Mortality Higher in Boys Than in Girls ? A New Hypothesis Based on Preconception Environment and Evidence From a Large Sample of Twins '' . Demography. 50 ( 2 ) : 421 -- 444 . doi : 10.1007 / s13524 - 012 - 0161 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Death Rates for 113 Selected Causes by 5 - Year Age Groups , Race , and Sex : United States , 1999 -- 2006 '' . cdc.gov . Jump up ^ Matthews TJ , et al. ( June 2005 ) . `` Trend Analysis of the Sex Ratio at Birth in the United States '' . National Vital Statistics Reports . 53 ( 20 ) . Jump up ^ `` Sex ratio in Switzerland '' . Switzerland Federal Statistics Office . Jump up ^ `` UN Sex Ratio Statistics '' . United Nations Population Division . Jump up ^ `` Sex ratio at birth ( per 100 female newborn ) '' . United Nations Data Division . Jump up ^ `` The Demographic and Health Survey Program -- Quality information to plan , monitor and improve population , health , and nutrition programs '' . measuredhs.com . Jump up ^ Garenne M ( December 2002 ) . `` Sex ratios at birth in African populations : a review of survey data '' . Hum. Biol. 74 ( 6 ) : 889 -- 900 . doi : 10.1353 / hub. 2003.0003 . PMID 12617497 . Jump up ^ `` Sex ratio at birth ( per 100 female newborn , 2005 -- 2010 data ) '' . United Nations Data Division . ^ Jump up to : `` Trend Analysis of the Sex Ratio at Birth in the United States '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , National Center for Health Statistics . Jump up ^ James WH ( 1987 ) . `` The human sex ratio . Part 1 : A review of the literature '' . Human Biology . 59 ( 5 ) : 721 -- 752 . PMID 3319883 . Jump up ^ James WH ( 1987 ) . `` The human sex ratio . Part 2 : A hypothesis and a program of research '' . Human Biology . 59 ( 6 ) : 873 -- 900 . PMID 3327803 . ^ Jump up to : James W.H. ( July 2008 ) . `` Hypothesis : Evidence that Mammalian Sex Ratios at birth are partially controlled by parental hormonal levels around the time of conception '' . Journal of Endocrinology. 198 ( 1 ) : 3 -- 15 . doi : 10.1677 / JOE - 07 - 0446 . PMID 18577567 . Jump up ^ Jacobsen , R ; Møller , H ; Mouritsen , A ( 1999 ) . `` Natural variation in the human sex ratio '' . Human Reproduction. 14 ( 12 ) : 3120 -- 3125 . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / 14.12. 3120 . PMID 10601107 . Jump up ^ Branum , A.M. ; Parker , J.D. ; Schoendorf , K.C. ( 2009 ) . `` Trends in US sex ratio by pluraity , gestational age and race / ethinicity '' . Reproductive Epidemiology. 24 ( 11 ) : 2936 -- 2944 ( see p. 2941 Figure 2 ) . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / dep255 . ^ Jump up to : Catalano R , Bruckner T , Smith KR ( February 2008 ) . `` Ambient temperature predicts sex ratios and male longevity '' . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 ( 6 ) : 2244 -- 7 . Bibcode : 2008PNAS ... 105.2244 C . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0710711104 . PMC 2538905 . PMID 18250336 . Jump up ^ Helle , Samuli ; Helama , Samuli ; Lertola , Kalle ( November 2009 ) . `` Evolutionary ecology of human birth sex ratio under the compound influence of climate change , famine , economic crises and wars '' . Journal of Animal Ecology. 78 ( 6 ) : 1226 -- 1233 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2656.2009. 01598. x . Jump up ^ Andersson R , Bergström S ( December 1998 ) . `` Is maternal malnutrition associated with a low sex ratio at birth ? '' . Hum. Biol. 70 ( 6 ) : 1101 -- 6 . PMID 9825599 . Jump up ^ Davis DL , Gottlieb MB , Stampnitzky JR ( April 1998 ) . `` Reduced ratio of male to female births in several industrial countries : a sentinel health indicator ? '' . JAMA. 279 ( 13 ) : 1018 -- 23 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 279.13. 1018 . PMID 9533502 . Jump up ^ Oster , Emily ; Chen , Gang ; Yu , Xinsen ; Lin , Wenyao ( 2008 ) . `` Hepatitis B Does Not Explain Male - Biased Sex Ratios in China '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 19 May 2009 . Jump up ^ Man - made chemicals blamed as many more girls than boys are born in Arctic , The Guardian , 12 September 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Lean , Geoffrey ( 7 December 2008 ) . `` It 's official : Men really are the weaker sex '' . The Independent . Jump up ^ Mendl M , Zanella AJ , Broom DM , Whittemore CT ( 1995 ) . `` Maternal social status and birth sex ratio in domestic pigs : an analysis of mechanisms '' . Animal Behaviour. 50 ( 5 ) : 1361 -- 70 . doi : 10.1016 / 0003 - 3472 ( 95 ) 80051 - 4 . Jump up ^ Ellis L , Bonin S ( 2002 ) . `` Social status and the secondary sex ratio : new evidence on a lingering controversy '' . Soc Biol. 49 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 35 -- 43 . doi : 10.1080 / 19485565.2002. 9989047 . PMID 14652908 . Jump up ^ Mills JL , England L , Granath F , Cnattingius S ( May 2003 ) . `` Cigarette smoking and the male - female sex ratio '' . Fertil . Steril. 79 ( 5 ) : 1243 -- 5 . doi : 10.1016 / S0015 - 0282 ( 03 ) 00156 - 0 . PMID 12738529 . Jump up ^ Norberg , Karen ( November 2004 ) . `` Partnership Status and the Human Sex Ratio at Birth '' . NBER Working Paper Series . SSRN 622634 . w10920 . Jump up ^ Navara KJ ( August 2009 ) . `` Humans at tropical latitudes produce more females '' . Biol. Lett. 5 ( 4 ) : 524 -- 7 . doi : 10.1098 / rsbl. 2009.0069 . PMC 2781905 . PMID 19364717 . Jump up ^ Vartiainen , T ; Kartovaara , L ; Tuomisto , J ( 1999 ) . `` Environmental chemicals and changes in sex ratio : analysis over 250 years in finland '' . Environmental Health Perspectives. 107 ( 10 ) : 813 -- 815 . doi : 10.1289 / ehp. 99107813 . PMC 1566625 . PMID 10504147 . Jump up ^ Check , Erika ( 2005 - 10 - 21 ) . `` Pollution makes for more girls '' . Nature News . doi : 10.1038 / news051017 - 16 . Jump up ^ Mittelstaedt , Martin ( 2005 - 11 - 15 ) . `` Pollution debate born of Chemical Valley 's girl - baby boom '' . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Just a little bit of history repeating : Pollution and sex ratio '' . EWG . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ China 's sex ratio declines for two straight years Xinhua , China ( 16 August 2011 ) -- `` Li Bin , director of the National Population and Family Planning Commission , made the remarks at a press conference ( ... ) . China 's sex ratio at birth was 118.08 males for every 100 females in 2010 , according to census data , Li said . '' Jump up ^ India at Glance -- Population Census 2011 -- Final Census of India , Government of India ( 2013 ) Jump up ^ Mesle , France ; Vallin , Jacques ; Badurashvili , Irina ( 2007 ) . A Sharp Increase in Sex Ratio at Birth in the Caucasus . Why ? How ? ( PDF ) . Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography . pp. 73 -- 89 . ISBN 2 - 910053 - 29 - 6 . Jump up ^ Smith D , Von Behren J ( December 2005 ) . `` Trends in the sex ratio of California births , 1960 -- 1996 '' . J Epidemiol Community Health . 59 ( 12 ) : 1047 -- 53 . doi : 10.1136 / jech. 2005.036970 . PMC 1732975 . PMID 16286492 . Jump up ^ Ruder , Avima ( 1985f ) . `` Paternal - Age and Birth - Order Effect on the Human Secondary Sex Ratio '' . American Journal of Human Genetics . 37 ( 2 ) : 362 -- 372 . PMC 1684568 . PMID 3985011 . Jump up ^ Jacobsen ; et al. ( 1999 ) . `` Natural Variation in the Human Sex Ratio '' . Human Reproduction. 14 ( 12 ) : 3120 -- 3125 . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / 14.12. 3120 . PMID 10601107 . Jump up ^ Bernstein , M.E. ( 1958 ) . `` Studies in The Human Sex Ratio 5 . A Genetic Explanation of the Wartime Secondary Sex Ratio '' . American Journal of Human Genetics . 10 ( 1 ) : 68 -- 70 . PMC 1931860 . PMID 13520702 . Jump up ^ Anderson , Barbara A. ; Silver , Brian D. ( 1986 ) . `` Infant Mortality in the Soviet Union : Regional Differences and Measurement Issues '' . Population and Development Review . 12 ( 4 ) : 705 -- 37 . doi : 10.2307 / 1973432 . JSTOR 1973432 . Jump up ^ For example , the number of births reported to family planning and other administrative agencies has been significantly lower than the number determined in population surveys and the census . See Zhang , Guangyu ( April 2004 ) `` Very Low Fertility in China in the 1990s : Reality or An Illusion Arising from Birth Underreporting ? '' Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America . Jump up ^ For studies reveal underreporting or delayed reporting of female births in China , see Merli MG , Raftery AE ( February 1990 ) . `` Are births underreported in rural China ? Manipulation of statistical records in response to China 's population policies '' . Demography. 37 ( 1 ) : 109 -- 26 . doi : 10.2307 / 2648100 . JSTOR 2648100 . PMID 10748993 . and Cai , Yong ; Lavely , William ( 2003 ) . `` China 's Missing Girls : Numerical Estimates and Effects on Population Growth '' ( PDF ) . The China Review . 3 ( 2 ) : 13 -- 29 . JSTOR 23461902 . Jump up ^ Catalano , Ralph ( 2003 ) . `` Sex ratios in the two Germanies : a test of the economic stress hypothesis '' . Human Reproduction. 18 ( 9 ) : 1972 -- 1975 . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / deg370 . ^ Jump up to : Ein - Mor E , Mankuta D , Hochner - Celnikier D , Hurwitz A , Haimov - Kochman R ( April 2010 ) . `` Sex ratio is remarkably constant '' . Fertil . Steril. 93 ( 6 ) : 1961 -- 5 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fertnstert. 2008.12. 036 . PMID 19159875 . Jump up ^ James W.H. ( May 2010 ) . `` The Inconstancy of Human Sex Ratios at Birth '' . Fertil . Steril. 94 ( 3 ) : e53 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fertnstert. 2010.05. 044 . PMID 20598299 . ^ Jump up to : Kristof , Nicholas and Sheryl WuDunn . Half the Sky : Turning Oppression into Opportunities for Women Worldwide . Knopf , 2009 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 26714 - 6 Jump up ^ Jian Lee , Deborah ; Subramanian , Sushma ( 15 November 2011 ) . `` A Single Man : One Chinese Bachelor 's Search for Love '' . Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting . Jump up ^ Bauer , David ( January 2015 ) . `` A story of drinkers , genocide and unborn girls '' . Quartz . Jump up ^ Hudson , Valerie M. and den Boer , Andrea M. ( 2004 ) Bare Branches : The Security Implications of Asia 's Surplus Male Population . The MIT Press . ISBN 0262582643 . Jump up ^ Florida , Richard ( 30 March 2008 ) . `` A singles map of the United States of America '' . The Boston Globe . Jump up ^ Kvasnicka , Michael ; Bethmann , Dirk ( 1 October 2007 ) . `` World War II , Missing Men , and out - of - wedlock childbearing '' ( PDF ) . The Institute of Economic Research , Korea University . 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Clutton - Brock , T. ( 2007 ) . `` Sexual Selection in Males and Females '' . Science . 318 ( 5858 ) : 1882 -- 1885 . Bibcode : 2007Sci ... 318.1882 C . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1133311 . PMID 18096798 . Jump up ^ Kvarnemo , C. ; Ahnesjo , I. ( 1996 ) . `` The dynamics of operational sex ratios and competition for mates '' . Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 11 ( 10 ) : 404 -- 408 . doi : 10.1016 / 0169 - 5347 ( 96 ) 10056 - 2 . Jump up ^ Emlen , S.T. ( 1976 ) . `` Lek organization and mating strategies in the bullfrog '' . Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 1 ( 3 ) : 283 -- 313 . doi : 10.1007 / bf00300069 . JSTOR 4599103 . Jump up ^ Emlen , S.T. ; Oring , L.W. ( 1977 ) . `` Ecology , Sexual Selection , and the Evolution of Mating Systems '' . Science . 197 ( 4300 ) : 215 -- 223 . Bibcode : 1977Sci ... 197 ... 215E . doi : 10.1126 / science. 327542 . PMID 327542 . Jump up ^ Louis , Henry ( 1975 ) . `` Schema d'Evolution des Marriages apres de Grandes Variations des Naissances '' . Population. 30 ( 759 ) : 779 . doi : 10.2307 / 1530481 . JSTOR 1530481 . Jump up ^ Heer , David M. ; Grossbard - Shechtman , Amyra ( 1981 ) . `` The Impact of the Female Marriage Squeeze and the Contraceptive Revolution on Sex Roles and the Women 's Liberation Movement in the United States , 1960 to 1975 '' . Journal of Marriage and the Family . 43 ( 1 ) : 49 -- 65 . doi : 10.2307 / 351416 . JSTOR 351416 . Jump up ^ Shoshana Grossbard - Shechtman ( 1993 ) , On the Economics of Marriage -- A Theory of Marriage , Labor and Divorce . Boulder , CO : Westview Press . Jump up ^ Guttentag , Marcia and Secord , Paul F. ( 1983 ) , Too Many Women : The Sex Ratio Question . Beverly Hills : Sage Publications Jump up ^ Grossbard - Shechtman , Shoshana and Granger , Clive W. ( September 1998 ) . `` Women 's Jobs and Marriage , Baby - Boom versus Baby - Bust , '' Population , 53 : 731 -- 52 ( in French ) Jump up ^ Amuedo - Dorantes , Catalina ; Grossbard , Shoshana ( 2007 ) . `` Marriage Markets and Women 's Labor Force Participation '' . Review of Economics of the Household. 5 ( 3 ) : 249 -- 278 . doi : 10.1007 / s11150 - 007 - 9014 - 1 . Jump up ^ d'Alessio , Stewart J. ; Stolzenberg , Lisa ( 2010 ) . `` The sex ratio and male - on - female intimate partner violence '' . Journal of Criminal Justice . 38 ( 4 ) : 555 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jcrimjus. 2010.04. 026 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_sex_ratio&oldid=814123215 '' Categories : Anthropology Demographics Gender Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from November 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from January 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা भोजपुरी فارسی हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 December 2017 , at 00 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . 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55 | document: The Chew - wikipedia The Chew Jump to : navigation , search This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Chew Genre Talk show Presented by Mario Batali Carla Hall Clinton Kelly Daphne Oz Michael Symon Narrated by Gordon Elliott Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 7 No. of episodes 1,250 + Production Executive producer ( s ) Gordon Elliott Mark Schneider Aimee Rosen Householder Location ( s ) ABC Studios , Lincoln Square , Manhattan Camera setup Multiple Running time 42 minutes Production company ( s ) Chew Productions Release Original network ABC Picture format 720p ( 16 : 9 HDTV ) Audio format Stereo Original release September 26 , 2011 ( 2011 - 09 - 26 ) -- present External links Website The Chew is an American cooking - themed talk show that currently airs since September 26 , 2011 , having replaced All My Children , on ABC as part of the network 's weekday daytime lineup . The name and format was inspired by fellow ABC talk show , The View , but The Chew centers on food - related and lifestyle topics rather than the news of the day . In April 2015 , The Chew won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Informative Talk Show Host . This is the show 's first Emmy win and also the first Daytime Emmy nomination and first win for each of the five co-hosts . Contents ( hide ) 1 Broadcast 2 Background 3 Co-hosts 3.1 Timeline 4 Awards and nominations 5 References 6 External links Broadcast ( edit ) The Chew airs at 1 : 00 pm Eastern / 12 noon Central , the slot formerly occupied by the long - running soap opera All My Children . ABC stations in the Mountain and Pacific time zones , and in Alaska and Hawaii follow a Central time zone schedule for daytime programming ; thus , The Chew is scheduled by the network to air at 12 noon in these areas . A limited number of ABC affiliates in the Central Time Zone air the program on a one - day delay at 11 : 00 am ( maintaining the delay schedule All My Children followed before it was ended ; this delays the Friday episode to Monday ) in order to continue airing their noon hour local newscasts such as WFAA in Dallas , KRGV - TV in Weslaco , Texas and WBRZ - TV in Baton Rouge , Louisiana ; three stations , WBAY - TV in Green Bay , Wisconsin , KSAT - TV in San Antonio and KMIZ in Columbia , Missouri , have network permission to tape - delay the program same - day to avert situations where episodes with recipes timed to a specific holiday are rendered useless due to the delay . The program also airs in Canada on City . Background ( edit ) First Lady Michelle Obama tapes a segment of The Chew in New York on September 23 , 2014 . Participants with the First Lady from left are : Michael Symon , `` Let 's Move ! '' Executive Director Sam Kass , Mario Batali , Daphne Oz , Carla Hall and Clinton Kelly . It premiered on September 26 , 2011 , and replaced the soap opera All My Children . It is currently hosted by Michael Symon , Carla Hall and Clinton Kelly ( the show 's moderator ) . In the past , chef Mario Batali and wellness expert Daphne Oz also hosted . The Chew is produced by British - Australian former talk show host Gordon Elliott , who also serves as the show 's announcer and has occasional on - camera roles . The show records at ABC 's Lincoln Square facilities at 30 West 67th Street on Manhattan 's Upper West Side . Co-hosts ( edit ) Timeline ( edit ) Co-host Years Seasons 5 6 7 Mario Batali 2011 -- 2017 Carla Hall 2011 -- present Clinton Kelly 2011 -- present Michael Symon 2011 -- present Daphne Oz 2011 -- 2017 Awards and nominations ( edit ) Year Award Honorees Result 2014 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Talk Show / Informative The Chew Nominated 2015 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Talk Show / Informative The Chew Nominated 2015 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Informative Talk Show Host Batali , Hall , Kelly , Oz and Symon Won 2016 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Talk Show / Informative The Chew Won 2016 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Informative Talk Show Host Batali , Hall , Kelly , Oz and Symon Nominated 2017 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Talk Show / Informative The Chew Nominated 2017 Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Informative Talk Show Host Batali , Hall , Kelly , Oz and Symon Nominated 2017 People 's Choice Awards Favorite Daytime Talk Show Hosting Team The Chew Nominated References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Chew Episodes on ABC '' . TV Guide . Retrieved February 8 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( June 30 , 2011 ) . `` ABC 's The Chew to Debut Monday , September 26 at 1p ET '' . TV by the Numbers ( Press release ) . Retrieved January 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` '' The Chew '' Co-Hosts Named `` Outstanding Informative Talk Show Host '' at the 2015 Daytime Emmy Awards `` . ABC News . Jump up ^ `` The National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Announces Winners for the 42nd Annual Daytime Emmy Awards '' . The National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences . Jump up ^ Miller , Ted ( January 16 , 2015 ) . `` Why is The Chew always a day behind ? '' . WBAY - TV , Green Bay , Wisconsin . Retrieved May 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rice , Lynette ( April 14 , 2011 ) . `` ABC cancels ' All My Children ' and ' One Life to Live , ' replaces soaps with lifestyle shows '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Producers - The Chew '' . ABC Medianet . Retrieved January 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Tickets - The Chew '' . ABC . Retrieved January 26 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) Official website The Chew on IMDb Daytime television in the United States Broadcast ABC The View The Chew CBS The Talk The CW The Robert Irvine Show Univision El Gordo y la Flaca UniMás ¿ Quién Tiene la Razón ? Casos de Família Laura NBC Today with Kathie Lee and Hoda Megyn Kelly Today Syndication Access Live Daily Blast Live The Doctors The Dr. Oz Show Dr. Phil Harry The Ellen DeGeneres Show The Jerry Springer Show Live with Kelly and Ryan Maury Pickler & Ben Rachael Ray The Real Sister Circle Steve The Steve Wilkos Show TMZ Live The Wendy Williams Show Streaming Ora TV Larry King Now Politicking with Larry King See also Morning Daytime talk Evening news Late night Overnight news Sunday talk Newsmagazines Tabloid ABC programming ( current and upcoming ) Primetime 20 / 20 ( since 1978 ) 20 / 20 : In an Instant ( since 2015 ) The $100,000 Pyramid ( since 2016 ) Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. 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56 | document: List of Scheduled Tribes in India - Wikipedia List of Scheduled Tribes in India Jump to : navigation , search This is a list of Scheduled Tribes in India . The term `` Scheduled Tribes '' refers to specific indigenous peoples whose status is acknowledged to some formal degree by national legislation . Contents ( hide ) 1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2 Andhra Pradesh 3 Arunachal Pradesh 4 Assam 4.1 Autonomous districts 4.2 Other areas 5 Bihar 6 Chhattisgarh 7 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 8 Daman and Diu 9 Goa 10 Gujarat 11 Himachal Pradesh 12 Jammu and Kashmir 13 Jharkhand 14 Karnataka 15 Kerala 16 Lakshadweep 17 Madhya Pradesh 18 Maharashtra 19 Manipur 20 Meghalaya 21 Mizoram 22 Nagaland 23 Odisha 24 Punjab 25 Rajasthan 26 Sikkim 27 Tamil Nadu 28 Tripura 29 Uttarakhand 30 Uttar Pradesh 31 West Bengal 32 Related pages 33 References 34 External links Andaman and nicobar Islands In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Andamanese , Chariar , Chari , Kora , Tabo , Bo , Yere , Kede , Bea , Balawa , Bojigiyab , Juwai , Kol Jarawas Nicobarese Onges Sentinelese Shom Pens Andhra Pradesh In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Andh Bagata Bhil Chenchu , Chenchwar Gadabas Gond , Naikpod , Rajgond Goudu ( in the Agency tracts , i.e. : Srikakulam , Vizianagaram , Visakhapatnam , East Godavari , West Godavari and Khammam districts ) Hill Reddis Jatapus Kammara Kattunayakan Kolam , Mannervarlu Konda Dhoras Konda Kapus Kondareddis Kondhs , Kodi , Kodhu , Desaya Kondhs , Dongria Kondhs , Kuttiya Kondhs , Tikiria Kondhs , Yenity Kondhs Kotia , Bentho Oriya , Bartika , Dhulia , Dulia , Holva , Paiko , Putiya , Sanrona , Sidhopaiko Koya , Goud , Rajah , Rasha Koya , Lingadhari Koya ( ordinary ) , Kottu Koya , Bhine Koya , Rajkoya Kulia Malis ( excluding Adilabad , Hyderabad , Karimnagar , Khammam , Mahbubnagar , Medak , Nalgonda , Nizamabad and Warangal districts ) Manna Dhora Mukha Dhora , Nooka Dhora Nayaks ( in the Agency tracts , i.e. : Srikakulam , Vizianagaram , Visakhapatnam , East Godavari , West Godavari and Khammam districts ) Pardhan Porja , Parangiperja Reddi Dhoras Rona , Rena Savaras , Kapu Savaras , Maliya Savaras , Khutto Savaras Sugalis , Lambadis Thoti ( in Adilabad , Hyderabad , Karimnagar , Khammam , Mahbubnagar , Medak , Nalgonda , Nizamabad and Warangal districts ) Valmiki ( in the Agency tracts , i.e. : Srikakulam , Vizianagaram , Visakhapatnam , East Godavari , West Godavari and Khammam districts ) Yenadis Yerukulas Arunachal Pradesh In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists ( Modification ) Order , 1956 and as inserted by Act 69 of 1986 . All tribes in the state including : Abor Aka Apatani Dafla Galong Khampti Khowa Mishmi Momba Any Naga tribes Sherdukpen Singpho Assam In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Autonomous districts The autonomous districts comprise Karbi , Anglong and North Cachar Hills districts . Chakma Dimasa , Kachari Garo Hajong Hmar Khasi , Jaintia , Synteng , Pnar , War , Bhoi , Lyngngam Any Kuki Tribes , including : Biate , Biete Changsan Chongloi Doungel Gamalhou Gangte Guite Hanneng Haokip , Haupit Haolai Hengna Hongsung Hrangkhwal , Rangkhol Jongbe Khawchung Khawathlang , Khothalong Khelma Kholhou Kipgen Kuki Lengthang Lhangum Lhoujem Lhouvun Lupheng Mangjel Misao Riang Sairhem Selnam Singson Sitlhou Sukte Thado Thangngeu Uibuh Vaiphei Lakher Man ( Tai speaking ) Any Mizo ( Lushai ) tribes Mikir Any Naga tribes Pawi Syntheng Other areas Barmans in Cachar Boro , Borokachari Deori Hojai Kachari , Sonwal Lalung Mech Miri Rabha Bihar In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Asur Baiga Banjara Bathudi Bedia Bhumij in North Chotanagpur and South Chotanagpur divisions and in Santal Parganas district . North Chotanagpur division comprises Dhanbad , Giridih and Hazaribag districts ; South Chotanagpur division comprises Palamu , Lohardaga , Gumla , Ranchi , Purbi Singhbhum and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts ; Santal Parganas district comprises Godda , Sahibganj , Dumka and Deoghar districts . Binjhia Birhor Birjia Chero Chick Baraik Gond Gorait Ho Karmali Kharia Kharwar Kondh Kisan Kora Korwa Lohara , Lohra Mahli Mal Pahariya Munda Oraon Parhaiya Santal Sauria Paharia Savar Chhattisgarh In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 and as inserted by Act 28 of 2000 . Agariya Andh Baiga Bhaina Bharia Bhumia , Bhuinhar Bhumia , Bhumiya , Bharia , Paliha , Pando Bhattra Bhil , Bhilala , Barela , Patelia Bhil Mina Bhunjia Biar , Biyar Binjhwar Birhul , Birhor Damor , Damaria Dhanwar Gadaba , Gadba Gond ; Arakh , Arrakh , Agaria , Asur , Badi Maria , Bada Maria , Bhatola , Bhimma , Bhuta , Koilabhuta , Kolibhuti , Bhar , Bisonhorn Maria , Chota Maria , Dandami Maria , Dhuru , Dhurwa , Dhoba , Dhulia , Dorla , Gaiki , Gatta , Gatti , Gaita , Gond , Gowari Hill Maria , Kandra , Kalanga , Khatola , Koitar , Koya , Khirwar , Khirwara , Kucha Maria , Kuchaki Maria , Madia , Maria , Mana , Mannewar , Moghya , Mogia , Monghya , Mudia , Muria , Nagarchi , Nagwanshi , Ojha , Raj Gond , ' Sonjhari , Jhareka , Thatia , Thotya , Wade Maria , Vade Maria , Daroi Halba , Halbi Kamar Karku Kawar , Kanwar , Kaur , Cherwa , Rathia , Tanwar , Chattri Khairwar , Kondar Kharia Kondh , Khond , Kandh Kol Kolam Korku , Bopchi , Mouasi , Nihar , Nahul , Bondhi , Bondeya Korwa , Kodaku Majhi Majhwar Mawasi Munda Nagesia , Nagasia Oraon , Dhanka , Dhangad Pao Pardhan , Pathari , Saroti Pardhi , Bahelia , Bahellia , Chita Pardhi , Langoli Pardhi , Phans Pardhi , Shikari , Takankar , Takia ( in ( i ) Bastar , Dantewara , Kanker , Raigarh , Jashpurnagar , Surguja and Koria districts ; ( ii ) Katghora , Pali , Kartala and Korba tehsils of Korba district ' ( iii ) Bilaspur , Pendra , Kota and Takhatpur tehsils of Bilaspur district ; ( iv ) Durg , Patan , Gunderdehi , Dhamdha , Balod , Gurur and Dondilohara tehsils of Durg district ; ( v ) Chowki , Manpur and Mohala Revenue Inspector Circles of Rajnandgon district ' ( vi ) Mahasamund , Saraipali and Basna tehsils of Mahasamund district ; ( vii ) Bindra - Navagarh Rajim and Deobhog tehsils of Raipur district ; and ( viii ) Dhamtari , Kurud and Sihava tehsils of Dhamtari district ) Parja Sahariya , Saharia , Seharia , Sehria , Sosia , Sor Saonta , Saunta Saur Sawar , Sawara Sonr Dadra and Nagar Haveli In accordance with The Constitution ( Dadra & Nagar Haveli ) Scheduled Tribes Order , 1962 . Dhodia Dubla including Halpati Kathodi Kokna Koli Dhor including Kolgha Naikda or Nayaka Varli Daman and Diu In accordance with The Constitution ( Goa , Daman and Diu ) Scheduled Tribes Order , 1968 and as inserted by Act 18 of 1987 . Dhodia Dubla ( Halpati ) Naikda ( Talavia ) Siddi ( Nayaka ) Varli Goa In accordance with The Constitution ( Goa , Daman and Diu ) Scheduled Tribes Order , 1968 and as inserted by Act 18 of 1987 . Dhodia Dubla ( Halpati ) Naikda ( Talavia ) Siddi ( Nayaka ) Varli Gujarat Main article : List of Scheduled Tribes in Gujarat In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Barda Bavacha , Bamcha Bharwad ( in the Nesses of the forests of Alech , Barada and Gir ) . The area comprises Jamnagar and Junagadh districts . Bhil , Bhil Garasia , Dholi Bhil , Dungri Bhil , Dungri Garasia , Mewasi Bhil , Rawal Bhil , Tadvi Bhil , Bhagalia , Bhilala , Pawra , Vasava , Vasave Charan ( in the Nesses of the forests of Alech , Barada and Gir ) . The area comprises Jamnagar and Junagadh districts . Chaudhri ( in Surat and Valsad districts ) Chodhara Dhanka , Tadvi , Tetaria , Valvi Dhodia Dubla , Talavia , Halpati Gamit , Gamta , Gavit , Mavchi , Padvi Gond , Rajgond Kathodi , Katkari , Dhor Kathodi , Dhor Katkari , Son Kathodi , Son Katkari Kokna , Kokni , Kukna Koli ( in Kachchh district ) Koli Dhor , Tokre Koli , Kolcha , Kolgha Kunbi ( in the Dangs district ) Naikda , Nayaka , Cholivala Nayaka , Kapadia Nayaka , Mota Nayaka , Nana Nayaka Padhar Paradhi ( in Kachchh district ) Pardhi , Advichincher , Phanse Pardhi ( excluding Amreli , Bhavnagar , Jamnagar , Junagadh , Kachchh , Rajkot and Surendranagar districts ) Patelia Pomla Rabari ( in the Nesses of the forests of Alech , Barada and Gir ) . The area comprises Jamnagar and Junagadh districts . Rathawa Siddi ( in Amreli , Bhavnagar , Jamnagar , Junagadh , Rajkot and Surendranagar districts ) Vaghri ( in Kachchh district ) b Varli Vitola , Kotwalia , Barodia Himachal Pradesh In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Bhot , Bodh Gaddi ( excluding the territories specified in sub-section ( 1 ) of section 5 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act , 1966 ( 31 of 1966 ) , other than the Lahaul and Spiti district ) . The areas excluded now comprise Kangra , Hamirpur , Kullu , Una and Shimla districts . Gujjar ( excluding the territories specified in sub-section ( 1 ) of section 5 of the Punjab Reorganisation Act , 1966 ( 31 of 1966 ) ) . The areas excluded now comprise Kangra , Hamirpur , Kullu , Una , Shimla and Lahul and Spiti districts . Jad , Lamba , Khampa Kanaura , Kinnara Lahaula Pangwala Swangla Jammu and Kashmir In accordance with The Constitution ( Jammu & Kashmir ) Scheduled Tribes Order , 1989 and The Constitution ( Scheduled Tribes ) Order ( Amendment ) Act , 1991 . Bakarwal Balti Beda Bot , Boto Brokpa , Drokpa , Dard , Shin Changpa Gaddi Garra Gujjar Mon Purigpa Sippi Jharkhand In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 and as inserted by Act 30 of 2000 . Asur Baiga Banjara Bathudi Bedia Binjhia Birhor Birjia Chero Chick Baraik Gond Gorait Ho Karmali Kharia Kharwar Khond Kisan Kora Korwa Lohra Mahli Mal Pahariya Munda Oraon Parhaiya Santhal Sauria Paharia Savar Bhumij Karnataka In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 and as inserted by Act 39 of 1991 . Adiyan Barda Bavacha , Bamcha Bhil , Bhil Garasia , Dholi Bhil , Dungri Bhil , Dungri Garasia , Mewasi Bhil , Rawal Bhil , Tadvi Bhil , Bhagalia , Bhilala , Pawra , Vasava , Vasave Chenchu , Chenchwar Chodhara Dubla , Talavia , Halpati Gamit , Gamta , Gavit , Mavchi , Padvi , Valvi Gond , Naikpod , Rajgond Gowdalu Hakkipikki Hasalaru Irular Iruliga Jenu Kuruba Kadu Kuruba Kammara ( in Dakshina Kannada district and Kollegal taluk of Chamarajanagar district ) Kaniyan , Kanyan ( in Kollegal taluk of Chamarajanagar district ) Kathodi , Katkari , Dhor Kathodi , Dhor Katkari , Son Kathodi , Son Katkari Kattunayakan Kokna , Kokni , Kukna Koli Dhor , Tokre Koli , Kolcha , Kolgha Konda Kapus Koraga Kota Koya , Bhine Koya , Rajkoya Kudiya , Melakudi Kuruba ( in Kodagu district ) Kurumans Maha Malasar Malaikudi Malasar Malayekandi Maleru Maratha ( in Kodagu district ) Marati ( n Dakshina Kannada district ) Meda Naikda , Nayaka , Cholivala Nayaka , Kapadia Nayaka , Mota Nayaka , Nana Nayaka , Naik , Nayak , Beda , Bedar and Valmiki Palliyan Paniyan Pardhi , Advichincher , Phanse Pardhi Patelia Rathawa Sholaga Soligaru Toda Varli Vitolia , Kotwalia , Barodia Yerava Kerala In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Adiyan Arandan Eravallan Hill Pulaya Irular , Irulan Kadar Kammara ( in the areas comprising the Malabar district as specified by sub-section ( 2 ) of section 5 of the States Reorganisation Act , 1956 ( 37 of 1956 ) ) . Malabar district comprises Kannur ( earlier Cannanore ) , Kozhikode , Malappuram districts and Palakkad ( earlier Palaghat ) district excluding Chittur taluk . Kanikaran , Kanikkar Kattunayakan Kochu Velan Konda Kapus Kondareddis Koraga Kota Kudiya , Melakudi Kurichchan Kurumans Kurumbas Maha Malasar Malai Arayan Malai Pandaram Malai Vedan Malakkuravan Malasar Malayan ( in the areas comprising the Malabar district as specified by sub-section ( 2 ) of section 5 of the States Reorganisation Act , 1956 ( 37 of 1956 ) ) . Malabar district comprises Kannur ( earlier Cannanore ) , Kozhikode , Malappuram districts and Palakkad ( earlier Palaghat ) district excluding Chittur taluk . Malayarayar Mannan Marati ( in Hosdrug and Kasaragod taluks of Kasaragod district ) Muthuvan , Mudugar , Muduvan Palleyan Palliyan Palliyar Paniyan Ulladan Uraly Lakshadweep In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists ( Modification ) Order , 1956 and the Laccadive , Minicoy and Amindivi Islands ( Alteration of Name ) ( Adaptation of Laws ) Order , 1974 . Inhabitants of the Lakshadweep who , and both of whose parents , were born in the Union Territory . Madhya Pradesh In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Agariya Andh Baiga Bhaina Bharia Bhumia , Bhuinhar Bhumia , Bhumiya , Bharia , Paliha , Pando Bhattra Bhil , Bhilala , Barela , Patelia Bhil Mina Bhunjia Biar , Biyar Binjhwar Birhul , Birhor Damor , Damaria Dhanwar Gadaba , Gadba Gond ; Arakh , Arrakh , Agaria , Asur , Badi Maria , Bada Maria , Bhatola , Bhimma , Bhuta , Koilabhuta , Koliabhuti , Bhar , Bisonhorn Maria , Chota Maria , Dandami Maria , Dhuru , Dhurwa , Dhoba , Dhulia , Dorla , Gaiki , Gatta , Gatti , Gaita , Gond Gowari , Hill Maria , Kandra , Kalanga , Khatola , Koitar , Koya , Khirwar , Khirwara , Kucha Maria , Kuchaki Maria , Madia , Maria , Mana , Mannewar , Moghya , Mogia , Monghya , Mudia , Muria , Nagarchi , Nagwanshi , Ojha , Raj , Sonjhari Jhareka , Thatia , Thotya , Wade Maria , Vade Maria , Daroi Halba , Halbi Kamar Karku Kawar , Kanwar , Kaur , Cherwa , Rathia , Tanwar , Chattri Keer ( in Bhopal , Raisen and Sehore districts ) Khairwar , Kondar Kharia Kondh , Khond , Kandh Kol Kolam ) Korku , Bopchi , Mouasi , Nihal , Nahul , Bondhi , Bondeya Korwa , Kodaku Majhi Majhwar Mawasi Mina ( in Sironj sub-division of Vidisha district ) Munda Nagesia , Nagasia Oraon , Dhanka , Dhangad Panika ( in Chhatarpur , Datia , Panna , Rewa , Satna , Shahdol , Sidhi and Tikamgarh districts ) Pao Pardhan , Pathari Saroti Pardhi ( in Bhopal , Raisen and Sehore districts ) Pardhi ; Bahelia , Bahellia , Chita Pardhi , Langoli Pardhi , Phans Pardhi , Shikari , Takankar , Takia ( in ( i ) Bastar , Chhindwara , Mandla , Raigarh , Seoni and Surguja districts ; ( ii ) Baihar tehsil of Balaghat district ; ( iii ) Betul and Bhainsdehi tehsils of Betul district ; ( iv ) Bilaspur and Katghora tehsils of Bilaspur district ; ( v ) Durg and Balod tehsils of Durg district ; ( vi ) Chowki , Manpur and Mohala Revenue Inspectors Circles of Rajnandgaon district ; ( vii ) Murwara , Patan and Sihora tehsils of Jabalpur district ; ( viii ) Hoshangabad and Sohagpur tehsils of Hoshangabad district and Narsimhapur district ; ( ix ) Harsud tehil of East Nimar district ; and ( x ) Dhamtari and Mahasamund districts and Bindra - Nawagarh tehsil of Raipur district ) Parja Sahariya , Saharia , Seharia , Sehria , Sosia , Sor Saonta , Saunta Saur Sawar , Sawara Sonr Maharashtra In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Andh Baiga Barda Bavacha , Bamcha Bhaina Bharia Bhumia , Bhuinhar Bhumia , Pando Bhattra Bhil , Bhil Garasia , Dholi Bhil , Dungri Bhil , Dungri Garasia , Mewasi Bhil , Rawal Bhil , Tadvi Bhil , Bhagalia , Bhilala , Pawra , Vasava , Vasave Bhunjia Binjhwar Birhul , Birhor Chodhara ( excluding Akola , Amravati , Bhandara , Gondiya , Buldana , Chandrapur , Nagpur , Wardha , Yavatmal , Aurangabad , Jalna , Bid , Nanded , Osmanabad , Latur , Parbhani and Hingoli districts ) Dhanka , Tadvi , Tetaria , Valvi Dhanwar Dhodia Dubla , Talavia , Halpati Gamit , Gamta , Gavit , Mavchi , Padvi Gond Rajgond , Arakh , Arrakh , Agaria , Asur , Badi Maria , Bada Maria , Bhatola , Bhimma , Bhuta , Koilabhuta , Koilabhuti , Bhar , Bisonhorn Maria , Chota Maria , Dandami Maria , Dhuru , Dhurwa , Dhoba , Dhulia , Dorla , Gaiki , Gatta , Gatti , Gaita , Gond , Gowari , Hill Maria , Kandra , Kalanga , Khatola , Koitar , Koya , Khirwar , Khirwara , Kucha Maria , Kuchaki Maria , Madia , Maria , Mana , Mannewar , Moghya , Mogia , Monghya , Mudia , Muria , Nagarchi , Naikpod , Nagwanshi , Ojha , Raj , Sonjhari Jhareka , Thatia , Thotya , Wade Maria , Vade Maria Halba , Halbi Kamar Kathodi , Katkari , Dhor Kathodi , Dhor Kathkari , Son Kathodi , Son Katkari Kawar , Kanwar , Kaur , Cherwa , Rathia , Tanwar , Chattri Khairwar Kharia Kokna , Kokni , Kukna Kol Kolam , Mannervarlu Koli Dhor , Tokre Koli , Kolcha , Kolgha Koli Mahadev , Dongar Koli Koli Malhar Kondh , Khond , Kandh Korku , Bopchi , Mouasi , Nihal , Nahul , Bondhi , Bondeya Koya , Bhine Koya , Rajkoya Nagesia , Nagasia Naikda , Nayaka , Cholivala Nayaka , Kapadia Nayaka , Mota Nayaka , Nana Nayaka Oraon , Dhangad Pardhan , Pathari , Saroti Pardhi : Advichincher , Phans Pardhi , Phanse Pardhi , Langoli Pardhi , Bahelia , Bahellia , Chita Pardhi , Shikari , Takankar , Takia Parja Patelia Pomla Rathawa Sawar , Sawara Thakur , Thakar , Ka Thakur , Ka Thakar , Ma Thakur , Ma Thakar Thoti ( in Aurangabad , Jalna , Bid , Nanded , Osmanabad , Latur , Parbhani and Hingoli districts and Rajura tehsil of Chandrapur district ) Varli Vitolia , Kotwalia , Barodia Manipur In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Aimol Anal Angami Chiru Chothe Gangte Hmar Kabui Kacha Naga Koirao Koireng Kom Lamgang Mao Maram Maring Any Mizo ( Lushai ) tribes Monsang Moyon Paite Purum Ralte Sema Simte Suhte Tangkhul Thadou Vaiphui Zou Meghalaya In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 and The Constitution ( Scheduled Tribes ) Order ( Amendment ) Act , 1987 . Boro Kacharis Chakma Dimasa , Kachari Garo Hajong Hmar Khasi , Jaintia , Synteng , Pnar , War , Bhoi , Lyngngam Koch Any Kuki Tribes , including : Biate , Biete Changsan Chongloi Doungel Gamalhou Gangte Guite Hanneng Haokip , Haupit Haolai Hengna Hongsungh Hrangkhwal , Rangkhol Jongbe Khawchung Khawathlang , Khothalong Khelma Kholhou Kipgen Kuki Lengthang Lhangum Lhoujem Lhouvun Lupheng Mangjel Misao Riang Sairhem Selnam Singson Sitlhou Sukte Thado Thangngeu Uibuh Vaiphei Lakher Man ( Tai speaking ) Any Mizo ( Lushai ) tribes Mikir Any Naga tribes Pawi Raba , Rava Synteng Mizoram In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists ( Modification ) Order , 1956 and as inserted by Act 81 of 1971 . Chakma Dimasa ( Kachari ) Garo Hajong Hmar Khasi and Jaintia ( including Khasi Synteng or Pnar , War , Bhoi or Lyngngam ) Any Kuki Tribes , Including : Biate , Biete Changsan Chongloi Doungel Gamalhou Gangte Guite Hanneng Haokip , Haupit Haolai Hengna Hongsungh Hrangkhwal , Rangkhol Jongbe Khawchung Khawathlang , Khothalong Khelma Kholhou Kipgen Kuki Lengthang Lhangum Lhoujem Lhouvun Lupheng Mangjel Misao Riang Sairhem Selnam Singson Sitlhou Sukte Thado Thangngeu Uibuh Vaiphei Lakher Man ( Tai speaking ) Any Mizo ( Lushai ) tribes Mikir Any Naga tribes Pawi Synteng Nagaland In accordance with The Constitution ( Nagaland ) Scheduled Tribes Order , 1970 . Garo Kachari Kuki Mikir Naga Odisha In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Bagata Baiga Banjara , Banjari Bathudi Bhottada , Dhotada Bhuiya , Bhuyan Bhumia Bhumij Bhunjia Binjhal Binjhia , Binjhoa Birhor Bondo Poraja Chenchu Dal Desua Bhumij Dharua Didayi Gadaba Gandia Ghara Gond , Gondo Ho Holva Jatapus Jatapu Juang Kandha Gauda Kawar Kharia , Kharian Kharwar Khond , Kond , Kandha , Nanguli Kandha , Sitha Kandha Kisan Kol Kolah Loharas , Kol Loharas Kolha Koli , Malhar Kondadora Kora Korua Kotia Koya Kulis Lodha Madia Mahali Mankidi Mankirdia Matya Mirdhas Munda , Munda Lohara , Munda Mahalis Mundari Omanatya Oraon Parenga Paroja Pentia Rajuar Santal Saora , Savar , Saura , Sahara Shabar , Lodha Sounti Tharua Punjab In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Ad Dharmi Balmiki , Chura , Bhangi Bangali Barar , Burar , Berar Batwal , Barwala ) Bauria , Bawaria Bazigar Bhanjra Chamar , Jatia Chamar , Rehgar , Raigar , Ramdasi , Ravidasi , Ramdasia , Ramdasia Sikh , Ravidasia , Ravidasia Sikh Chanal Dagi Darain Deha , Dhaya , Dhea Dhanak Dhogri , Dhangri , Siggi Dumna , Mahasha , Doom Gagra Gandhila , Gandil , Gondola Kabirpanthi , Julaha Khatik Kori , Koli Marija , Marecha Mazhabi , Mazhabi Sikh Megh Nat Od Pasi Perna Pherera Sanhai Sanhal Sansi , Bhedkut , Manesh Sansoi Sapela Sarera Sikligar Sirkiband . Mochi Mahatam , Rai Sikh Rajasthan In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Bhil , Bhil Garasia , Dholi Bhil , Dungri Bhil , Dungri Garasia , Mewasi Bhil , Rawal Bhil , Tadvi Bhil , Bhagalia , Bhilala , Pawra , Vasava , Vasave Bhil Mina Damor , Damaria Dhanka , Tadvi , Tetaria , Valvi Garasia ( excluding Rajput Garasia ) Kathodi , Katkari , Dhor Kathodi , Dhor Katkari , Son Kathodi , Son Katkari Kokna , Kokni , Kukna Koli Dhor , Tokre Koli , Kolcha , Kolgha Mina Naikda , Nayaka , Cholivala Nayaka , Kapadia Nayaka , Mota Nayaka , Nana Nayaka Patelia Seharia , Sehria , Sahariya Sikkim In accordance with The Constitution ( Sikkim ) Scheduled Tribes Order , 1978 . Bhutia ( including Chumbipa , Dopthapa , Dukpa , Kagatey , Sherpa , Tibetan , Tromopa , Yolmo ) Lepcha Tamil nadu In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Adiyan Aranadan Eravallan Irular Kadar Kammara ( excluding Kanniyakumari district and Shencottah taluk of Tirunelveli district ) Kanikaran , Kanikkar ( in Kanniyakumari district and Shencottah taluk of Tirunelveli district ) Kaniyan , Kanyan Kattunayakan Kochu Velan Konda Kapus Kondareddis Koraga Kota ( excluding Kanniyakumari district and Shencottah taluk of Tirunelveli district ) Kudiya , Melakudi Kurichchan Kurumbas ( in the Nilgiri district ) Kurumans Maha Malasar Malai Arayan Malai Pandaram Malai Vedan Malakkuravan Malasar Malayali ( in Dharmapuri , Vellore , Tiruvannamalai , Pudukkottai , Salem , Namakkal , Villupuram , Cuddalore , Tiruchirappalli , Karur and Perambalur districts ) Malayekandi Mannan Mudugar , Muduvan Muthuvan Palleyan Palliyan Palliyar Paniyan Sholaga Toda ( excluding Kanniyakumari district and Shencottah taluk of Tirunelveli district ) Uraly Tripura In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Bhil Bhutia Chaimal Chakma Garoo Halam Jamatia Khasia Kuki , including the following sub-tribes : Balte Belalhut Chhalya Fun Hajango Jangtei Khareng Khephong Kuntei Laifang Lentei Mizel Namte Paitu , Paite Rangchan Rangkhole Thangluya Lepcha Lushai Mag Munda , Kaur Noatia Orang Riang Santal Tripura , Tripuri , Tippera Uchai Uttarakhand Formerly Uttaranchal . In accordance with The Constitution ( Scheduled Tribes ) ( Uttar Pradesh ) Order , 1967 and as inserted by Act 29 of 2000 . Bhotia Buksa Jannsari Raji Tharu Uttar Pradesh In accordance with The Constitution ( Scheduled Tribes ) ( Uttar Pradesh ) Order , 1967 . Bhotia Buksa Jaunsari Raji Tharu West bengal In accordance with The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders ( Amendment ) Act , 1976 . Asur Baiga Bedia , Bediya Bhumij Bhutia , Sherpa , Toto , Dukpa , Kagatay , Tibetan , Yolmo Birhor Birjia Chakma Chero Chik Baraik Garo Gond Gorait Hajang Ho Karmali Kharwar Khond Kisan Kora Korwa Lepcha Lodha , Kheria , Kharia Lohara , Lohra Magh Mahali Mahli Mal Pahariya Mech Mru Munda Nagesia Oraon Parhaiya Rabha Santal Sauria Paharia Savar Related pages List of Scheduled Tribes in Gujarat Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe ( Prevention of Atrocities ) Act , 1989 Scheduled Castes and Tribes References Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 27 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 21 -- 22 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 4 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 9 -- 11 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 3 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 14 -- 16 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 19 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 19 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 24 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 18 -- 19 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 1 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 1 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 12 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 23 -- 24 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 25 -- 26 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 25 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 16 -- 17 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 19 -- 21 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 5 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 8 -- 9 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 5 -- 7 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 4 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 13 -- 14 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 4 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 26 -- 27 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 7 -- 8 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . p. 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` List of notified Scheduled Tribes '' ( PDF ) . Census India . pp. 11 -- 12 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 November 2013 . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indigenous peoples of India . `` National Commission for Scheduled Tribes '' . Government of India . Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 14 . List of Notified Scheduled Tribes Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Scheduled_Tribes_in_India&oldid=842033656 '' Categories : Ethnic groups in India Scheduled Tribes of India India - related lists Indigenous peoples of South Asia Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from March 2018 Use Indian English from March 2018 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Italiano தமிழ் Edit links This page was last edited on 19 May 2018 , at 19 : 37 . About Wikipedia | <|d0_82|> <|d1_54|> <|d2_249|> |
57 | document: Tell Me What You Want Me to Do - Wikipedia Tell Me What You Want Me to Do `` Tell Me What You Want Me To Do '' Single by Tevin Campbell from the album T.E.V.I.N. Released November 12 , 1991 Format CD single , Cassette single Genre R&B , slow jam , pop , soul Length 5 : 01 Label Qwest / Warner Bros . Songwriter ( s ) Narada Michael Walden , Tevin Campbell , Sally Jo Dakota Producer ( s ) Narada Michael Walden , Louis Biancaniello Tevin Campbell singles chronology `` Just Ask Me To '' ( 1991 ) `` Tell Me What You Want Me To Do '' ( 1991 ) `` Goodbye '' ( 1992 ) `` Just Ask Me To '' ( 1991 ) `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( 1991 ) `` Goodbye '' ( 1992 ) `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' is the title of a number - one R&B single by singer Tevin Campbell . To date , the single is Campbell 's biggest hit peaking at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 and spending one week at number - one on the US R&B chart . The hit song is also Tevin 's one and only Adult Contemporary hit , where it peaked at number 43 . The song showcases Campbell 's four - octave vocal range from a low note of E2 to a D # 6 during the bridge of the song . Contents 1 Track listings 2 Charts 2.1 Weekly charts 2.2 Year - end charts 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Track listings ( edit ) US 7 '' vinyl A `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( edit ) -- 4 : 16 B `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( instrumental ) -- 5 : 00 12 '' vinyl A `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( edit ) -- 4 : 16 B `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( album version ) -- 5 : 02 UK CD `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' -- 4 : 16 `` Goodbye '' ( 7 '' Remix Edit ) -- 3 : 48 `` Goodbye '' ( Sidub and Listen ) -- 4 : 58 `` Goodbye '' ( Tevin 's Dub Pt 1 & 2 ) -- 6 : 53 Japan CD `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' -- 4 : 10 `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( instrumental version ) -- 4 : 10 Germany CD `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' ( edit ) -- 4 : 10 `` Just Ask Me '' ( featuring Chubb Rock ) -- 4 : 07 `` Tomorrow '' ( A Better You , Better Me ) -- 4 : 46 Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1992 ) Peak position US Billboard Hot 100 6 US Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles US Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks 43 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1992 ) Position US Billboard Hot 100 35 See also ( edit ) List of number - one R&B singles of 1992 ( U.S. ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ https://www.billboard.com/music/Tevin-Campbell/chart-history/adult-contemporary Jump up ^ `` Billboard Top 100 - 1992 '' . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 30 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Tevin Campbell Studio albums T.E.V.I.N. I 'm Ready Back to the World Tevin Campbell Other albums The Best of Tevin Campbell Singles `` Tomorrow ( A Better You , Better Me ) '' `` Round and Round '' `` Just Ask Me To '' `` Tell Me What You Want Me to Do '' `` Goodbye '' `` Strawberry Letter 23 '' `` Alone with You '' `` Can We Talk '' `` I 'm Ready '' `` Always in My Heart '' `` Do n't Say Goodbye Girl '' `` Back to the World '' `` Could You Learn to Love '' `` Another Way '' Related articles Discography Qwest Records Black Men United Hairspray A Goofy Movie This 1990s single -- related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tell_Me_What_You_Want_Me_to_Do&oldid=850905347 '' Categories : Tevin Campbell songs Contemporary R&B ballads 1991 singles 1992 singles Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs number - one singles Songs written by Narada Michael Walden Song recordings produced by Narada Michael Walden 1991 songs Warner Bros. Records singles Songs written by Tevin Campbell Pop ballads Soul ballads 1990s ballads 1990s single stubs Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats All stub articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 18 July 2018 , at 19 : 06 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | <|d0_118|> <|d1_32|> <|d2_136|> |
58 | document: Computer keyboard - wikipedia Computer keyboard Not to be confused with keyboard computer . Play media Typing on a computer keyboard Backlit keyboard Lenovo 's ThinkPad compact keyboard In computing , a computer keyboard is a typewriter - style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches . Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape , interaction via teleprinter - style keyboards became the main input method for computers . Keyboard keys ( buttons ) typically have characters engraved or printed on them , and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol . However , producing some symbols may require pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence . While most keyboard keys produce letters , numbers or signs ( characters ) , other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands . In normal usage , the keyboard is used as a text entry interface for typing text and numbers into a word processor , text editor or any other program . In a modern computer , the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software . A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other key and reports all key presses to the controlling software . Keyboards are also used for computer gaming -- either regular keyboards or keyboards with special gaming features , which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations . A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer , such as Windows ' Control - Alt - Delete combination , which brings up the system security options screens . A command - line interface is a type of user interface navigated entirely using a keyboard , or some other similar device that does the job of one . Contents 1 History 2 Keyboard types 2.1 Standard 2.2 Laptop - size 2.3 Flexible keyboards 2.4 Handheld 2.5 Thumb - sized 2.6 Multifunctional 3 Non-standard layout and special - use types 3.1 Chorded 3.2 Software 3.3 Projection 3.4 Optical keyboard technology 4 Layout 4.1 Alphabetic 4.2 Key types 4.2. 1 Alphanumeric 4.2. 2 Modifier keys 4.2. 3 Cursor keys 4.2. 4 System commands 4.2. 4.1 Break key 4.2. 4.2 Escape key 4.2. 4.3 Enter key 4.2. 4.4 Shift key 4.2. 4.5 Menu key 4.2. 5 Miscellaneous 4.3 Numeric keys 4.3. 1 Multiple layouts 4.3. 2 Layout changing software 5 Illumination 6 Technology 6.1 Key switches 6.2 Control processor 6.3 Connection types 7 Alternative text - entering methods 8 Other issues 8.1 Keystroke logging 8.2 Physical injury 8.3 Pathogen transmission 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History ( edit ) While typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key - based text entry devices , the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices : teleprinters ( or teletypes ) and keypunches . It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts . As early as the 1870s , teleprinter - like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape . The teleprinter , in its more contemporary form , was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard , with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne . Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed . Earlier , Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices , which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s . The keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point - to - point and point - to - multipoint communication for most of the 20th century , while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long . The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards : the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper - based output device , while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape ( instead of paper ) and data output . The keyboard remained the primary , most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984 . By this time , text - only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics - rich icons on screen . However , keyboards remain central to human - computer interaction to the present , even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual , touchscreen - based means of data entry . All modern keyboards have built - in pressure sensors that will execute various tasks when pressure is applied to various areas of the keyboard . Keyboard types ( edit ) One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys , such as a separate numeric keyboard , for convenience . Further the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes ( with modifier keys ) , or multiple pressing of a single key . A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad . Another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys . Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers . Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys . Standard ( edit ) Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three - quarter inch centers ( 0.750 inches , 19.05 mm ) , and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches ( 3.81 mm ) . Desktop computer keyboards , such as the 101 - key US traditional keyboards or the 104 - key Windows keyboards , include alphabetic characters , punctuation symbols , numbers and a variety of function keys . The internationally common 102 / 104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right ( usually Z or Y ) . Also the enter key is usually shaped differently . Computer keyboards are similar to electric - typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys , such as the command or Windows keys . There is no standard computer keyboard , although many manufacturers imitate the keyboard of PCs . There are actually three different PC keyboards : the original PC keyboard with 84 keys , the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys . The three differ somewhat in the placement of function keys , the control keys , the return key , and the shift key . Laptop - size ( edit ) Keyboards on laptops usually have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys . Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke , shorter over travel distance , and a reduced set of keys . They may not have a numerical keypad , and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard , full - sized keyboard . The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome ; this is opposite the trend for full - size keyboards . Flexible keyboards ( edit ) Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards : normal from the full arrangement of keys , and laptop from the short key distance . Additionally , the flexibility allows the user to fold / roll the keyboard for better storage and transfer . However , for typing the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface . The vast majority of flexible keyboards in the market are made from silicone ; this material makes them water - and dust - proof . This may be useful in hospitals where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing . Handheld ( edit ) An AlphaGrip handheld keyboard Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller , and can be used as such , instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface . Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have , yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once ; one acting as a function key similar to a ' Shift ' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard . Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer . Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device . Thumb - sized ( edit ) Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built - in keyboard , such as PDAs , and smartphones . Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace . A thumb keyboard ( thumb board ) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO . Numeric keyboards contain only numbers , mathematical symbols for addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division , a decimal point , and several function keys . They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad , commonly those of laptop computers . These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad , numeric keys , or a numeric keypad , and it can consist of the following types of keys : Arithmetic operators , numbers , arrow keys , Navigation keys , Num Lock and Enter key . Multifunctional ( edit ) Multifunction keyboard with LCD function keys Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard . Many are programmable , configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs , workstations ( incl . SUN ) and other information sources ( incl . Thomson Reuters FXT / Eikon , Bloomberg , EBS , etc . ) usually in multi-screen work environments . Users have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources . Multifunction keyboard with touch Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads , fully programmable function or soft keys for macros / pre-sets , biometric or smart card readers , trackballs , etc . New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video , control audio visual media and alarms , execute application inputs , configure individual desktop environments , etc . Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources . Multiple interfaces ( serial , USB , audio , Ethernet , etc . ) are used to integrate external devices . Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls . Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex , high - performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators ( emergency services , security , air traffic management ; industry , utilities management , etc . ) . Non-standard layout and special - use types ( edit ) Chorded ( edit ) Main article : Chorded keyboard While other keyboards generally associate one action with each key , chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses . Since there are many combinations available , chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys . Court reporters ' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time . The fastest typists ( as of 2007 ) use a stenograph , a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed - caption reporters . Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable , such as on devices that can be used with only one hand , and on small mobile devices that do n't have room for larger keyboards . Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient . Software ( edit ) Software keyboards or on - screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen . Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text . Software keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones , due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards . Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and some varieties of GNU / Linux include on - screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse . In software keyboards , the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on - screen letters given by the software . On the click of a letter , the software writes the respective letter on the respective spot . Projection ( edit ) Projection keyboards project an image of keys , usually with a laser , onto a flat surface . The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to `` watch '' where the user 's fingers move , and will count a key as being pressed when it `` sees '' the user 's finger touch the projected image . Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector . Because the `` keys '' are simply projected images , they can not be felt when pressed . Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of `` give '' when typing . A flat , non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected . Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor . Optical keyboard technology ( edit ) Further information : Keyboard technology Also known as photo - optical keyboard , light responsive keyboard , photo - electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology . An optical keyboard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys . Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter , mounted on a small PCB . The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys . Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams ( most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam ) to determine the actuated key . Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern , allowing only one beam per row of keys ( most commonly horizontal beam ) . Layout ( edit ) Alphabetic ( edit ) Main article : Keyboard layout The 104 - key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard , with extra keys for computing . The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press , which reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English . There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic , numeric , and punctuation symbols on keys . These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols , either because they are inputting text in different languages , or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics , accounting , computer programming , or other purposes . The United States keyboard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems : Windows , Mac OS X and Linux . The common QWERTY - based layout was designed early in the era of mechanical typewriters , so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for the mechanical limitations of the typewriter . As the letter - keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely , inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming . With the advent of computers , lever jams are no longer an issue , but nevertheless , QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used . Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard are not in widespread use . The QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe . The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped , and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters . Another situation takes place with `` national '' layouts . Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted , to release the space for Ñ ñ ; similarly , those for Portuguese , French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç . The AZERTY layout is used in France , Belgium and some neighbouring countries . It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped , the Z and W are swapped , and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L ( where colon / semicolon is on a US keyboard ) . The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys , but to be typed the shift key must be pressed . The unshifted positions are used for accented characters . Keyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system . Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system 's input interpreter of the change , and some operating systems ( namely the Windows family ) interpret the character `` \ '' as `` ¥ '' for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark `` \ '' as `` ¥ '' or both . In the Arab world , keyboards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters . In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French - speaking province of Québec , keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French - language keyboard ; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout , the French - language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as `` é '' or `` à '' with a single keystroke . Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict : the image on the key does not correspond to the character . In such cases , each new language may require an additional label on the keys , because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages ( see the example in the figure above ) . Key types ( edit ) Alphanumeric ( edit ) A Hebrew keyboard lets the user type in both Hebrew and the Latin alphabet . A Greek keyboard lets the user type in both Greek and the Latin alphabet ( MacBook Pro ) . The Control , Windows , and Alt keys are important modifier keys . A Space - cadet keyboard has many modifier keys . Alphabetical , numeric , and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program , text editor , data spreadsheet , or other program . Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed . The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed . The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed . The alphabetical , numeric , and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys . The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row , which is significantly wider than other keys . Like the alphanumeric characters , it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter . Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing . It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily . Depending on the operating system , when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key , it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window , half - spacing , or backspacing . In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing , such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes . In certain programs for playback of digital video , the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback . Modifier keys ( edit ) Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key , when the two are pressed in combination . For example , Alt + F4 in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window . In contrast , pressing just F4 will probably do nothing , unless assigned a specific function in a particular program . By themselves , modifier keys usually do nothing . The most widely used modifier keys include the Control key , Shift key and the Alt key . The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them . On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards , the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key , respectively . On MIT computer keyboards , the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards , there is a Windows key . Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key . `` Dead keys '' allow placement of a diacritic mark , such as an accent , on the following letter ( e.g. , the Compose key ) . The Enter / Return key typically causes a command line , window form or dialog box to operate its default function , which is typically to finish an `` entry '' and begin the desired process . In word processing applications , pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one . Cursor keys ( edit ) Navigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen . Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction ; page scroll keys , such as the Page Up and Page Down keys , scroll the page up and down . The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located ; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line . The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop . The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode , in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location , and insert mode , where the cursor inserts a character at its current position , forcing all characters past it one position further . The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor 's position , moving all following characters one position `` back '' towards the freed place . On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete ( sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key ) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key . The Backspace key deletes the preceding character . Lock keys lock part of a keyboard , depending on the settings selected . The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard . Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled , in the upper right corner above the numeric pad . The lock keys include Scroll lock , Num lock ( which allows the use of the numeric keypad ) , and Caps lock . System commands ( edit ) 4800 - 52 mainframe / dumb terminal keyboard , circa mid 1980s . Note the obscure configuration of modifier and arrow keys , line feed key , break key , blank keys , and repeat key . The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key . SysRq was used in earlier computers as a `` panic '' button to recover from crashes ( and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel ; see Magic SysRq key ) . The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer , but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard . Break key ( edit ) The Break key / Pause key no longer has a well - defined purpose . Its origins go back to teleprinter users , who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line . The Break key can be used by software in several different ways , such as to switch between multiple login sessions , to terminate a program , or to interrupt a modem connection . In programming , especially old DOS - style BASIC , Pascal and C , Break is used ( in conjunction with Ctrl ) to stop program execution . In addition to this , Linux and variants , as well as many DOS programs , treat this combination the same as Ctrl + C. On modern keyboards , the break key is usually labeled Pause / Break . In most Windows environments , the key combination Windows key + Pause brings up the system properties . Escape key ( edit ) The Escape key ( often abbreviated Esc ) was historically used to initiate an escape sequence . As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer 's peripherals , the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed , the escape key was appropriated by application programmers , most often to `` escape '' or back out of a mistaken command . This use continues today in the common use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No , Quit , Exit , Cancel , or Abort . Another common application today of the Esc key to trigger the Stop button in many web browsers . On machines running Microsoft Windows , prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards , the typical practice for invoking the `` start '' button was to hold down the control key and press escape . This process still works in Windows 95 , 98 , Me , NT 4 , 2000 , XP , Vista , 7 , 8 , and 10 . Enter key ( edit ) The Enter key is located : One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys . When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do something with their work , pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered . Another function is to create a space for next paragraph . When one typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph , they could press enter and it would do spacing . Shift key ( edit ) Shift key : when one presses shift and a letter , it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key . Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available , for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top . If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone , the symbol that would appear would be the apostrophe . The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed . Menu key ( edit ) The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows - oriented computer keyboards . It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button . The key 's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu . On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present , showing the menu only . This key was created at the same time as the Windows key . This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse . Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right - clicking ( however , in many Windows applications , a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift + F10 keyboard shortcut ) . Miscellaneous ( edit ) Multimedia buttons on some keyboards give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers . Many , but not all , computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard , often separated from the other groups of keys such as the function keys and system command keys , which contains numbers , basic mathematical symbols ( e.g. , addition , subtraction , etc . ) , and a few function keys . On Japanese / Korean keyboards , there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use . Some keyboards have power management keys ( e.g. , power key , sleep key and wake key ) ; Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail ; and / or multimedia keys , such as volume controls ; or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified application or a command like minimizing all windows . Numeric keys ( edit ) When we calculate , we use these numeric keys to type numbers . Symbols concerned with calculations such as addition , subtraction , multiplication and division symbols are located in this group of keys . The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign . Multiple layouts ( edit ) It is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them , either through features implemented within the OS , or through an external application . Microsoft Windows , Linux , and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them . Layout changing software ( edit ) The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software . A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function . Depending on operating systems , various application programs are available to create , add and switch among keyboard layouts . Many programs are available , some of which are language specific . The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized . An existing keyboard layout can be edited , and a new layout can be created using this type of software . For example , Ukelele ( sic ) for Mac , The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator and open - source Avro Keyboard for Windows provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired . Illumination ( edit ) Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside , especially on equipment for mobile use . Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments . Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys , to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room . Some keyboards may have small LED lights in a few important function keys , to remind users that the function is activated ( see photo ) . Keys with integrated LED indicator lights Technology ( edit ) Main article : Keyboard technology Key switches ( edit ) In the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s , the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames . These keyboards cost from 80 to 120 USD and were used in mainframe data terminals . The most popular switch types were reed switches ( contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule , affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger ) . In the mid-1970s , lower - cost direct - contact key switches were introduced , but their life in switch cycles was much shorter ( rated ten million cycles ) because they were open to the environment . This became more acceptable , however , for use in computer terminals at the time , which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced . In 1978 , Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive - based switches , one of the first keyboard technologies not to use self - contained switches . There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive - coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger , and two half - moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below . As the key was depressed , the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed , which was detected by integrated circuits ( IC ) . These keyboards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other `` solid - state switch '' keyboards such as inductive and Hall - effect , but competitive with direct - contact keyboards . Prices of $60 for keyboards were achieved , and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent keyboard manufacturer . Meanwhile , IBM made their own keyboards , using their own patented technology : Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a `` buckling spring '' mechanism , in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user 's finger , triggering a hammer that presses two plastic sheets ( membranes ) with conductive traces together , completing a circuit . This produces a clicking sound and gives physical feedback for the typist , indicating that the key has been depressed . The first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches ( 4.75 mm ) , keytops were a half - inch ( 12.7 mm ) high , and keyboards were about two inches ( 5 cm ) thick . Over time , less key travel was accepted in the market , finally landing on 0.110 inches ( 2.79 mm ) . Coincident with this , Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a keyboard that was only about one inch thick . And now keyboards measure only about a half - inch thick . Keytops are an important element of keyboards . In the beginning , keyboard keytops had a `` dish shape '' on top , like typewriters before them . Keyboard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions , since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails , and subject to hand oils and creams , so engraving and filling key legends with paint , as was done previously for individual switches , was never acceptable . So , for the first electronic keyboards , the key legends were produced by two - shot ( or double - shot , or two - color ) molding , where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first , and then the other color molded second . But , to save cost , other methods were explored , such as sublimation printing and laser engraving , both methods which could be used to print a whole keyboard at the same time . Initially , sublimation printing , where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules , had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse , but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this . Coincident with sublimation printing , which was first used in high volume by IBM on their keyboards , was the introduction by IBM of single - curved - dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish . But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light - colored keys . On another note , IBM was unique in using separate shells , or `` keycaps '' , on keytop bases . This might have made their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more flexible , but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material . Three final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are today , driving the cost well under $10 : `` Monoblock '' keyboard designs were developed where individual switch housings were eliminated and a one - piece `` monoblock '' housing used instead . This was possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances for the switch - plunger holes and guides across the width of the keyboard so that the key plunger - to - housing clearances were not too tight or too loose , either of which could cause the keys to bind . The use of contact - switch membrane sheets under the monoblock . This technology came from flat - panel switch membranes , where the switch contacts are printed inside of a top and bottom layer , with a spacer layer in between , so that when pressure is applied to the area above , a direct electrical contact is made . The membrane layers can be printed by very - high volume , low - cost `` reel - to - reel '' printing machines , with each keyboard membrane cut and punched out afterwards . Plastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic keyboards . Until `` monoblocks '' came along , GE 's `` self - lubricating '' Delrin was the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use . Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches ( although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their keyboards , especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding ) . But Delrin was only available in black and white , and was not suitable for keytops ( too soft ) , so keytops use ABS plastic . However , as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances , and as key travel length reduced from 0.187 - inch to 0.110 - inch ( 4.75 mm to 2.79 mm ) , single - part keytop / plungers could be made of ABS , with the keyboard monolocks also made of ABS . Control processor ( edit ) Scanning procedure Computer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes ( usually scancodes ) that the computer 's electronics can understand . The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and , when a key is depressed , detected sequentially by scanning the X lines . The first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts . The first keyboard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by General Instruments , but keyboards have been using the single - chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978 . The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs , it converts the keystrokes to key codes , and , for a detached keyboard , sends the codes down a serial cable ( the keyboard cord ) to the main processor on the computer motherboard . This serial keyboard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer 's electronics controls the illumination of the caps lock , num lock and scroll lock lights . One test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key . The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer ; if the main computer is operating , it commands the light to turn on . All the other indicator lights work in a similar way . The keyboard driver also tracks the Shift , alt and control state of the keyboard . Some lower - quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs . These are caused by inadequate keyswitch `` debouncing '' or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that do n't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time , both circumstances which are explained below : When pressing a keyboard key , the key contacts may `` bounce '' against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact . When released , they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state . If the computer were watching for each pulse , it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one . To resolve this problem , the processor in a keyboard ( or computer ) `` debounces '' the keystrokes , by aggregating them across time to produce one `` confirmed '' keystroke . Some low - quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover ( that is , when multiple keys pressed at the same time , or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds ) . Early `` solid - state '' keyswitch keyboards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other , and early `` direct - contact '' keyswitch keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch . These early keyboards had `` n - key '' rollover , which means any number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the next key depressed . But when three keys are pressed ( electrically closed ) at the same time in a `` direct contact '' keyswitch matrix that does n't have isolation diodes , the keyboard electronics can see a fourth `` phantom '' key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys . Some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time . `` Three - key '' rollover , also called `` phantom key blocking '' or `` phantom key lockout '' , will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted . This is undesirable , especially for fast typing ( hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys ) , and games ( designed for multiple key presses ) . As direct - contact membrane keyboards became popular , the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix ( for example , simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line , so that a phantom key intersection / short can not happen ) , so that blocking a third key usually is n't a problem . But lower - quality keyboard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks , and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games . Connection types ( edit ) There are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit ( more precisely , to its keyboard controller ) using cables , including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards , which was eventually replaced by the PS / 2 and the USB connection . Prior to the iMac line of systems , Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector . Wireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom . A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer 's keyboard port . The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency ( RF ) or by infrared ( IR ) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer . A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF , called Bluetooth . With Bluetooth , the transceiver may be built into the computer . However , a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data `` eavesdropping '' by hackers . Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar panels using sunlight or standard artificial lighting . An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision . Alternative text - entering methods ( edit ) On - screen keyboard controlled with the mouse can be used by users with limited mobility Optical character recognition ( OCR ) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine - readable format ( for example , a Linotype - composed book from the 1940s ) . In other words , to convert the text from an image to editable text ( that is , a string of character codes ) , a person could re-type it , or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is . OCR technology has already reached an impressive state ( for example , Google Book Search ) and promises more for the future . Speech recognition converts speech into machine - readable text ( that is , a string of character codes ) . This technology has also reached an advanced state and is implemented in various software products . For certain uses ( e.g. , transcription of medical or legal dictation ; journalism ; writing essays or novels ) speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard . However , the lack of privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments . Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible . These accessories typically present characters on a display , in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations . Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti , Dasher and on - screen virtual keyboards . Other issues ( edit ) Keystroke logging ( edit ) Unencrypted wireless bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft by placing a covert listening devices in the same room as the keyboard to sniff and record bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys typed by the user . Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this vulnerability . Keystroke logging ( often called keylogging ) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes . While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks , or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities , it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts . Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures . Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means . Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards . Software keyloggers work on the target computer 's operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware , hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS , or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location . Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver , and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices . Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them . Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs , thus preventing abuse of the software . Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se , but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured . Network monitors ( also known as reverse - firewalls ) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection . This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from `` phoning home '' with his or her typed information . Automatic form - filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all . Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window . Keyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard . Neal O'Farrell , executive director of the Identity Theft Council , revealed to InformationWeek that `` More than 25 years ago , a couple of former spooks showed me how they could capture a user 's ATM PIN , from a van parked across the street , simply by capturing and decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke , '' O'Farrell said . `` They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices , but the technology was n't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer . '' Physical injury ( edit ) Proper ergonomic design of computer keyboard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries , which can develop over time and can lead to long - term disability . Research suggests that the upright position formerly advocated can lead to degenerative disc disease , and that a 45 degree reclined position is healthier . The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury ( that is , carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury ) to hands , wrists , arms , neck or back . The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour . As well , users should vary tasks throughout the day , to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists . When inputting at the keyboard , a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side , with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary . The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight , and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges . Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing . Some adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards , mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury . Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently . Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse , such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief . Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a touchpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands . Pathogen transmission ( edit ) Some keyboards were found to contain five times more potentially harmful germs than a toilet seat . This can be a concern when using shared keyboards ; the keyboards can serve as vectors for pathogens that cause the cold , flu , and other communicable diseases easily spread by indirect contact . See also ( edit ) Digital pen IBM PC keyboard Keyboard protector Overlay keyboard Table of keyboard shortcuts References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` computer keyboard '' . TheFreeDictionary.com . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` Engraved symbols filled with pigmented plastic and heat fused are very durable , for example ... It 's integral to the key , and all but impossible to wear off . '' `` How are keyboards keys painted ? '' . Jump up ^ Khalid Saeed ( 2016 ) . New Directions in Behavioral Biometrics . ISBN 1315349310 . Jump up ^ `` Essay on Technology Advancements in Computer Interfaces '' . Jump up ^ Smith , Andy ( 15 June 2011 ) . `` Gallery : IBM : 100 Years of THINKing Big '' . ZDNet . Archived from the original on 10 December 2015 . Retrieved 20 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Past is prototype : The evolution of the computer keyboard '' . ComputerWorld.com . November 2 , 2012 . Jump up ^ D Kocielinski ( 2013 ) . `` Linear interface for graphical interface of touch - screen '' . Jump up ^ `` One of the first products we caught wind of at the Consumer Electronics Show was the TrewGrip keyboard , a handheld model '' `` TrewGrip handheld keyboard almost a solution for thumb - typing '' . January 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jul 28 , 2009 - If you do a lot of typing , or if you have employees who do a lot of typing - ergonomic keyboards make a great deal of sense . '' `` 10 ergonomic keyboards that actually do their job '' . TechRepublic.com . July 28 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Alpha Grip Programming and Productivity Improvement White Paper Archived 25 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine ... Alphagrips.com . Retrieved on 9 December 2013 . Jump up ^ The Alphagrip -- The World 's most Comfortable Ergonomic Keyboard for Typing and Programming Archived 25 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine ... Alphagrips.com . Retrieved on 9 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` It combines the body of a game controller with the functions of both a trackball and a keyboard . '' `` AlphaGrip Review ( iGrip ) '' . February 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ MB Trudeau ( 2013 ) . `` Tablet Keyboard Configuration Affects Performance , Discomfort '' . Jump up ^ Ian Morris ( May 23 , 2014 ) . `` Hate Your Android Keyboard ? Try One Of These Four Alternatives '' . Forbes . Jump up ^ `` What is an Optical Keyboard ? '' . Jump up ^ `` Best Optical Keyboards '' . Jump up ^ The default keyboard layout changes when you use Remote Desktop Connection to connect to a Windows XP - based computer Archived 11 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine . ( Microsoft ) Jump up ^ Mac OS X : Changing or resetting an account password Archived 5 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine . ( Apple ) Jump up ^ MEPIS 8.5 user 's manual Archived 7 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine . ( MEPISlovers.org ) Jump up ^ An introduction to Linux Mint 8 -- Main Edition ( Helena ) Archived 25 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine . ( Liberian Geek ) Jump up ^ `` Dedicated Cursor Control and Navigation Keys '' . Jump up ^ `` Keyboard , num lock and caps lock key LED 's not working '' . Jump up ^ `` Use a keyboard layout for a specific language '' . Archived from the original on 24 September 2010 . Retrieved 7 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Changing The Language & Keyboard Layout On Various Distributions '' . Archived from the original on 1 July 2010 . Retrieved 7 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Change the default keyboard layout '' . Archived from the original on 12 September 2010 . Retrieved 7 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Brownie , John ( 8 March 2014 ) . `` Ukelele ( sic ) '' . NRSI : Computers & Writing Systems . SIL International . Archived from the original on 6 December 2014 . Retrieved 8 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator '' . msdn.microsoft.com . Archived from the original on 19 January 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Keyboard Switches - How Computer Keyboards Work '' . Jump up ^ Complete Computer Hardware Only . p. 159 . Jump up ^ `` Why I Use the IBM Model M Keyboard That 's Older Than I Am '' . SlashDot.org . July 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ A Passion for the Keys : Particular About What You Type On ? Relax -- You 're Not Alone . Archived 10 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine . Loose Wire , by Jeremy Wagstaff , Wall Street Journal , 23 November 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Electrical commutation matrixer keyboards for computers '' . IOPscience.org . Jump up ^ Complete Computer Hardware Only . p. 161 . Jump up ^ `` This Fake Phone Charger Is Actually Recording Every Key You Type '' . TechCrunch . AOL . 14 January 2015 . Archived from the original on 10 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Herley , Cormac and Florencio , Dinei ( 2006 ) . `` How To Login From an Internet Cafe Without Worrying About Keyloggers '' ( PDF ) . Microsoft Research , Redmond . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 8 August 2017 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` 6 Tips To Secure Webcams , Stop Keyloggers '' . Dark Reading . Archived from the original on 30 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Berkeley Lab . Integrated Safety Management : Ergonomics Archived 11 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine ... Website . Retrieved 9 July 2008 . Jump up ^ Radiology Society of North America The Way You Sit Will Never Be the Same ! Alterations of Lumbosacral Curvature and Intervertebral Disc Morphology in Normal Subjects in Variable Sitting Positions Using Whole - body Positional MRI Archived 13 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine ... Jump up ^ `` Keyboard : Dirtier Than a Toilet -- ABC News '' . Abcnews.go.com. 5 May 2008 . Archived from the original on 26 March 2012 . Retrieved 28 March 2012 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Keyboards . How Computer Keyboards Work at HowStuffWorks `` Art of Assembly Language : Chapter Twenty '' : The PC Keyboard Keyboard matrix circuits PC World . `` The 10 worst PC Keyboards of All Time '' . IBM PC keyboard ( Windows , US layout ) Esc F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 PrtScn / SysRq Scroll Lock Pause / Break Insert Home PgUp Num Lock ∕ ∗ − Delete End PgDn 7 8 9 + 5 6 ↑ Enter ← ↓ → 0 Ins . Del Keyboard keys Dead keys Compose Modifier keys Control Shift Alt / Option ( Apple ) AltGr Meta Command ( Apple ) / Windows ( Microsoft ) Super Hyper Fn Lock keys Scroll lock Num lock Caps lock F - Lock Navigation keys Arrow keys Page Up / Page Down Home End Esc Menu Editing Enter / Return Carriage return Backspace Insert Delete Tab Space bar Numeric keypad Language input Contextual Function keys Print screen System request Break / Pause Misc . Power management keys ( Power , Sleep , Wake ) Any key Macro key Concepts Keyboard layout Keyboard shortcut Basic computer components Input devices Keyboard Image scanner Microphone Pointing device Graphics tablet Joystick Light pen Mouse Optical Pointing stick Touchpad Touchscreen Trackball Refreshable braille display Sound card Webcam Softcam Video card Output devices Monitor Refreshable braille display Printer Speakers Plotter Sound card Video card Removable data storage Optical disc CD DVD Blu - ray Disk pack Floppy disk Memory card USB flash drive Computer case Central processing unit ( CPU ) HDD / SSD / SSHD Motherboard Network interface controller Power supply Random - access memory ( RAM ) Fax modem Expansion card Ports Ethernet FireWire ( IEEE 1394 ) Parallel port Serial port PS / 2 port USB Thunderbolt HDMI / DVI / VGA eSATA Audio jack Video game controllers Controller types Arcade controller Balance board Digital camera Dance pad Fishing rod Gamepad Gaming keypad Interactive urinal Joystick Keyboard Light gun Microphone Motion controller Mouse Musical Instruments Nunchaku Paddle Racing wheel Remote control Throttle quadrant Virtual reality headset Wired glove Controller parts Physical buttons Analog stick Arrow keys Circle pad D - pad Disc - pad Face button Scroll wheel Select button Shoulder button Start button Telephone keypad Trigger Turbo button Sensitive Accelerometer Haptic technology Stylus pen Touchpad Touchscreen Trackball Related Multitap R.O.B. Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer_keyboard&oldid=857120554 '' Categories : Computer keyboards Computer peripherals Computing input devices Flexible electronics Video game control methods Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Use dmy dates from December 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014 Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia IsiXhosa Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული कॉशुर / کٲشُر Қазақша Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Кырык мары ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingála Magyar मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം მარგალური Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली 日本 語 Нохчийн Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Перем Коми ភាសា ខ្មែរ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt Walon Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 中文 102 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 August 2018 , at 18 : 04 ( UTC ) . 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59 | document: List of Gotham episodes - wikipedia List of Gotham episodes Jump to : navigation , search Gotham is an American crime - drama television series developed by Bruno Heller , based on characters appearing in and published by DC Comics in their Batman franchise , primarily those of James Gordon and Bruce Wayne . The series stars Ben McKenzie as the young Gordon , while Heller executive produces along with Danny Cannon , who also directed the pilot . As originally conceived , the series would have served as a straightforward story of Gordon 's early days on the Gotham City Police Department . In May 2017 , Fox renewed the series for a fourth season , which premiered on September 21 , 2017 . As of April 5 , 2018 , 83 episodes of Gotham have aired . Contents ( hide ) 1 Series overview 2 Episodes 2.1 Season 1 ( 2014 -- 15 ) 2.2 Season 2 ( 2015 -- 16 ) 2.3 Season 3 ( 2016 -- 17 ) 2.4 Season 4 ( 2017 -- 18 ) 3 Ratings 3.1 Season 1 ( 2014 -- 15 ) 3.2 Season 2 ( 2015 -- 16 ) 4 References 5 External links Series overview ( edit ) Season Episodes Originally aired Nielsen ratings First aired Last aired Rank Avg . viewers ( in millions ) 22 September 22 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 22 ) May 4 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 04 ) 68 7.56 22 September 21 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 21 ) May 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 23 ) 89 5.37 22 September 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 19 ) June 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 05 ) 100 4.52 TBA September 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 21 ) TBA TBA TBA Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 ( 2014 -- 15 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) `` Pilot '' Danny Cannon Bruno Heller September 22 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 22 ) 276072 8.21 Rookie detective James Gordon and his partner Harvey Bullock are assigned to the case of the murders of Thomas and Martha Wayne , witnessed by street petty criminal Selina Kyle . Their investigation leads them to a parolee named Mario Pepper , whom Bullock kills in Gordon 's defense . They discover that Pepper had been framed , leading them to mobster Fish Mooney , an associate of Carmine Falcone , an organized crime boss . Mooney has them captured , but Falcone spares them upon his arrival , revealing that he intended to end the case so that the people of Gotham could feel safe , facilitating his illegal activities . In exchange , Falcone orders Gordon to kill Oswald Cobblepot , a low - level member of Mooney 's gang and informant for Gotham Major Crimes Unit ( MCU ) investigators Renee Montoya and Crispus Allen . Gordon fakes Cobblepot 's death , and tells him never to return to Gotham . Gordon promises the Waynes ' son , Bruce , and his butler , Alfred Pennyworth , to find the real killer . Cobblepot kills a fisher . Selina is seen watching the Wayne Manor . Meanwhile , Montoya threatens Barbara , Gordon 's fiancee , to tell him about Barbara 's unknown past . `` Selina Kyle '' Danny Cannon Bruno Heller September 29 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 29 ) 4X6652 7.45 Gordon and Bullock start investigating the abductions of street kids by Patti and Doug , operatives of Dr. Francis Dulmacher , A.K.A. the Dollmaker , and have been posing as members of the Mayor 's Homeless Outreach Program . Mayor Aubrey James announces plans to help Gotham 's homeless kids , rounding them up and shipping them out of town . Patti and Doug hijack one of the buses of street kids , including Selina . After Bullock 's extreme interrogation of an informant , Gordon obtains a clue . Gordon and Bullock arrive and catch Patti and Doug while encountering Kyle . While Bruce has plans to find a way to help the children , Gordon meets with Kyle who states that she has been watching him during his visits with Bruce and might have some information on the person who shot the Waynes . Meanwhile , Cobblepot kills two men after they mock his walking pattern . He takes refuge in a rented trailer after his faked death , plotting his return to Gotham City , having kidnapped a teenager for ransom . Falcone confronts Mooney for her plans to overthrow him , having heard from Cobblepot . The former warns her by having her lover beaten . Allen and Montoya investigate Cobblepot 's mother . `` The Balloonman '' Dermott Downs John Stephens October 6 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 06 ) 4X6653 6.36 Gordon and Bullock track a vigilante who targets corrupt Gotham officials and nicknamed `` Balloonman '' for strapping his victims to weather balloons , which eventually implode in the cold atmosphere , giving the victim a long fall . Montoya and Allen question Gordon about Cobblepot , who returns to Gotham to get revenge on Mooney . He gets a job at Don Sal Maroni 's restaurant , and is befriended by Maroni himself . Mooney arranges for Falcone 's lover Natalia to be disfigured in response to her own lover 's beating . Gordon realizes that `` Balloonman '' is social worker Davis Lamond , who was driven to vigilantism because of corrupt officials refusing to aid children on the streets . After arrest , he warns Gordon that more vigilantes will follow in his path . Falcone tells Mooney that he will investigate what happened to Natalia , also telling about the Arkham Plan . At his apartment later , Gordon receives a surprise visit from Cobblepot . Meanwhile , Barbara is revealed to be an addict and Montoya 's former girlfriend . Selina is given to Gordon for his investigation ; but she uses the chance to escape . `` Arkham '' TJ Scott Ken Woodruff October 13 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 13 ) 4X6654 6.39 Cobblepot offers Gordon help in stopping the future war . The latter learns of the Arkham Plan from Alfred , who states that Falcone and Mayor James are backing the project that will improve the Arkham District , opposed by Maroni , who has another plan . An independent hitman starts targeting the city council members involved in both opposing sides of the Plan . After an armed robbery of Maroni 's restaurant , Cobblepot is promoted to restaurant manager by Maroni , following the former 's action of saving a bag of money and the death of the previous manager . Mooney pits two female singers against each other for her nightclub job opening , with the winner being Liza . In order to prevent the war , Mayor James holds a conference about a compromise on the Arkham Plan , that Falcone will handle small housing development projects and Maroni will be refurbishing the Asylum . Gordon urges Bruce not to lose hope in the city . Later , Cobblepot fatally poisons the restaurant robbers , who are revealed to had been hired for just that purpose by Cobblepot himself . Meanwhile , Barbara confronts Gordon about Cobblepot , telling him about her past with Montoya . She decides to end the engagement when he refuses to talk . 5 5 `` Viper '' Tim Hunter Rebecca Perry Cutter October 20 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 20 ) 4X6655 6.09 Bruce plans to find a way to speak to the board members of Wayne Enterprises to learn their connections to the Arkham District Project . A new drug called `` Viper '' , a prototype of Venom , is hitting the street , endowing the user with super-strength , but eventually killing them . Maroni plans to rob a casino owned by Falcone , and Cobblepot offers a less - casualty plan , forcing him to reveal his past , which Maroni believes after Gordon confirms it . The latter learns that `` Viper '' is being distributed at a charity event held by WellZyn and Wayne Enterprises . Gordon shoots the canister on the roof and former WellZyn employee Stan Potolsky is exposed , committing suicide after he suggests they check out Warehouse 39 , where Gordon and Bullock later find nothing , observed by Wayne Enterprises operative Mathis . Maroni successfully robs the casino , admiring Cobblepot . As Mooney makes plans to conspire against Falcone with her lover and Russian mob boss Nikolai , a disguised Liza visits Falcone and begins seducing him . 6 6 `` Spirit of the Goat '' TJ Scott Ben Edlund October 27 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 27 ) 4X6656 5.89 Ten years ago , a masked killer calling himself the `` Spirit of the Goat '' targets the firstborn of Gotham 's elite , leading Bullock and his partner Dix to investigate the case . They find the killer , Randall Milkie , who is shot down by Bullock after Dix falls through a trap door and ends up badly injured . In the present day , Bullock finds another elite firstborn murdered by someone with the same `` Goat '' motive . Upon surgery , Bullock sees Milkie 's trademark , which only he and Dix knew , meaning that he was not an copycat . During a debrief , Dix tells Gordon about Bullock 's enthusiasm for justice , to Gordon 's surprise . Bullock deduces that hypnotherapist Marks coerced both Milkie and the new killer to become the Goat to scare Gotham 's rich and corrupt , leading to Marks ' arrest . The `` murder '' of Cobblepot is also investigated , with Gordon the prime suspect as Montoya and Allen finally find a witness near the river . When they attempt to arrest Gordon and Bullock , Cobblepot enters the precinct , causing friction between Bullock and Gordon . Meanwhile , CSU operative Nygma is revealed to be in love with archivist Kristen Kringle , who ignores him . Selina infiltrates the Wayne Manor and steals a component of Bruce 's investigation . 7 7 `` Penguin 's Umbrella '' Rob Bailey Bruno Heller November 3 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 03 ) 4X6657 6.63 Exonerated , Gordon tells Barbara to leave Gotham . Cobblepot leads Maroni enforcer Frankie Carbone and two other henchmen to Nikolai 's hideout , killing the latter and Carbone by buying the loyalties of the henchmen . Montoya and Allen begin cooperating with Gordon . The escalating mob war is settled with a land trade between Maroni and Falcone . A drunken Bullock re-evaluates his choice for helping Gordon , and the two partners attempt to arrest Mayor James and Falcone , but they give up when it is revealed that Falcone and hitman Victor Zsasz have Barbara , who had returned to try and negotiate with Falcone for Gordon . Falcone allows the trio to leave . In a flashback to the night they had met Gordon , it is shown that Cobblepot and Falcone had formed a deal , in which Falcone would place Gordon in charge of killing Cobblepot , giving Cobblepot a chance at surviving , and in exchange , Cobblepot would forge an alliance with Maroni , snitching for Falcone ; and Cobblepot told Falcone about Mooney and Nikolai and their plan . It is revealed that Falcone spared Gordon 's life due to Cobblepot 's request . 8 8 `` The Mask '' Paul Edwards John Stephens November 10 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 10 ) 4X6658 6.35 Bruce returns to school , where he has some trouble with bully Tommy Elliot ; and Alfred agrees to teach the former how to fight . Gordon and Bullock investigate Richard Sionis , who is hosting an illegal and deadly fight club where the champions are accepted for Sionis Investments . Liza 's loyalty to Mooney begins to falter when she learns of the latter 's plan to eventually kill Falcone , but Mooney presses her to steal a ledger from the Falcone 's office that may be used to incriminate him . When Gordon is caught at the site of the fight club , Bullock persuades other officers , who collectively despise Gordon due to blaming them for leaving him during Zsasz ' attack , to help find Gordon . Mooney fakes a story about her past to convince Liza to stay on the mission . After Sionis and those involved are arrested , Gordon learns that Selina was apprehended after skillfully robbing a dress store . Barbara leaves Gordon . Cobblepot learns from Mooney 's henchman of a spy close to Falcone . 9 9 `` Harvey Dent '' Karen Gaviola Ken Woodruff November 17 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 17 ) 4X6659 6.49 Gordon has Selina placed at Wayne Manor for her safety . She and Bruce establish a friendship . She claims that her mother is an intelligence agent . During a prison transport from Blackgate Penitentiary to St. Mark Psychiatric Hospital , bomb maker Ian Hargrove is taken by the Russian mob , who are working against Falcone following Nikolai 's death . Gordon meets with Harvey Dent , who suspects tycoon Dick Lovecraft for the Wayne murders . Gordon and Bullock realize that Hargrove intends no harm . Manipulated by Mooney , the Russians target Falcone 's cache of money , but when a police standoff ensues , the Russians ' armored truck explodes via remote control by Mooney 's enforcer , Butch Gilzean . Cobblepot confronts Liza for spying on Falcone , whom the former claims will not tell . Mayor James announces his plans to reopen Arkham Asylum to house the mentally ill criminals , including Hargrove . Barbara is revealed to have a new relationship with Montoya . 10 10 `` Lovecraft '' Guy Ferland Rebecca Dameron November 24 , 2014 ( 2014 - 11 - 24 ) 4X6660 6.05 Assassins led by Copperhead infiltrate Wayne Manor , but Bruce and Selina escape into the city . Alfred seeks Gordon and Bullock 's help to find the pair . Dent suspects that Lovecraft hired the assassins to cover his tracks . However , Gordon learns Lovecraft is also being targeted to hide what he knows ; the assassins kill Lovecraft in a staged suicide , planting Gordon 's gun at the scene . Following the armory fiasco , Cobblepot tells Falcone that Mooney has a mole in his ranks , but does not reveal the identity . Selina determines the assassins are after her , and she and Bruce encounter Ivy Pepper. , Mario 's daughter . The assassins find Selina and Bruce , but she escapes while Bullock and Alfred , who convinces Mooney to help , arrive and rescue Bruce . Selina later kisses Bruce and returns to living on the streets . Following Lovecraft 's `` suicide '' , Mayor James reassigns Gordon as a security guard at Arkham Asylum . 11 11 `` Rogues ' Gallery '' Oz Scott Sue Chung January 5 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 05 ) 4X6661 7.06 While working at Arkham run by Dr. Gerry Lang , Gordon investigates a series of attacks on inmates with the help of Dr. Leslie `` Lee '' Thompkins . Mooney discusses her plan to overthrow Falcone with underboss Jimmy Saviano , who has a disagreement with her on succession . Cobblepot is arrested by the police for trying to further extort some fishermen already paying protection money to Maroni . The former is freed by the latter , who initiated the arrest to warn Cobblepot about hubris . Montoya ends her relationship with Barbara . Gordon , Bullock , and Captain Essen discover that the person attacking inmates was Jack Gruber , who then escapes from Arkham with his associate Aaron Danzig , after killing several guards and Dr. Lang . Saviano tries to convince Gilzean to change sides , but the latter kills him instead . Selina takes an ill Ivy to Gordon 's . Barbara calls and mistakes Ivy as his girlfriend . 12 12 `` What the Little Bird Told Him '' Eagle Egilsson Ben Edlund January 19 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 19 ) 4X6662 6.50 Gruber and Danzig go on rampage through Gotham . Gordon promises Commissioner Loeb he will arrest Gruber within 24 hours . Nygma learns Gruber is a former Mafia bank robber who was betrayed by Maroni . Gordon and Bullock put Maroni under protective custody to use as bait to attract Gruber to the precinct . Gruber and Danzig attack , but Gordon thwarts them by shorting out Gruber 's electrical apparatus with water . For living up to his end of the deal , Gordon is reinstated as a detective . Meanwhile , Mooney makes her move against Falcone by `` abducting '' Liza and extorting him into signing his crime family over to Mooney 's gang . Falcone nearly goes through with the deal , but Cobblepot informs him that Liza is Mooney 's mole . Falcone confronts Mooney , has his mercenaries take both her and Gilzean prisoner , and strangles Liza to death . Cobblepot inherits Mooney 's nightclub and what 's left of her gang . Barbara visits her estranged parents . Maroni begins suspecting Cobblepot . Gordon and Lee develop romance . 13 13 `` Welcome Back , Jim Gordon '' Wendey Stanzler Megan Mostyn - Brown January 26 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 26 ) 4X6663 6.04 Mooney is tortured by Falcone 's henchman , but Gilzean frees himself and rescues her . A homicide witness is murdered while under custody at GCPD . Gordon comes to suspect Narcotics Detective Arnold Flass is behind . Learning that Flass is supported by influential figures , Gordon asks Cobblepot for help , who tasks his enforcer , Gabe . Bruce asks Selina about his parents ' murderer , but she reveals she lied about seeing the man 's face to avoid being sent to juvenile detention . Nygma gives Kringle a romantic greeting card , but Flass finds it and mocks him ; Kringle later apologizes to Nygma and admires the card . Gabe gives Gordon evidence that exposes Flass ' involvement in the witness ' death , and Flass is arrested . Gordon learns that Gabe threatened the family of Delaware , Flass 's accomplice , for proof . Mooney and Gilzean confront Cobblepot at the nightclub , but Zsasz arrives and recaptures Gilzean . Mooney escapes decides to temporarily leave Gotham , with Bullock revealed as her lover . 14 14 `` The Fearsome Dr. Crane '' John Behring John Stephens February 2 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 02 ) 4X6664 5.79 Gordon and Bullock investigate a serial killer who is targeting members of a phobia support group and extracting their adrenal glands . The killer turns out to be Gerald Crane , Jonathan 's father ; Gordon and Bullock are able to save one of his victims , but Crane evades capture . In light of Selina 's recent claim of false witness , Bruce absolves Gordon of his promise to find the killer , intending to solve the case himself . Mooney informs Maroni about Cobblepot 's treachery to him . Maroni tries to kill Cobblepot , who escapes . Nygma frames medical examiner Guerra for hoarding body parts after Guerra has him suspended for his repeated corpse probing . After Guerra 's suspension and Nygma 's reinstatement , Gordon informs Lee , who finds a clue in Crane 's case , that a job has opened up for her as GCPD 's medical examiner . Mooney is captured by mercenaries on a boat away from Gotham . 15 15 `` The Scarecrow '' Nick Copus Ken Woodruff February 9 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 09 ) 4X6665 5.63 Gordon and Bullock investigate Gerald 's background and learn his wife died in a fire that he was too scared to rescue her from ; believing fear is a human flaw , he is now harvesting adrenal glands in order to create a serum that makes people confront and overcome their greatest fears . Bruce continues a yearly family tradition by going on a hiking trip in the woods , albeit alone for the first time . He finds himself unprepared for the dangers , but Alfred eventually joins him . Maroni speaks with Falcone and agrees to let Cobblepot live , but warns the latter that it will last until Falcone 's eventual death . After using the serum on himself and overcoming his fear , Gerald injects Jonathan with a much larger dose . Gordon and Bullock arrive and kill Gerald in a gunfight . Jonathan is rushed to the hospital , but the serum has sent him into a state of constant terror , and he may never stop hallucinating his greatest fear : scarecrows . Mooney wakes up among other captives and befriends a man named Kelly . She kills the prisoners ' leader and takes his place , learning that their captors are organ harvesters. Lee becomes the new medical examiner . 16 16 `` The Blind Fortune Teller '' Jeffrey Hunt Bruno Heller February 16 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 16 ) 4X6666 6.19 Barbara returns to Gotham to find Ivy and Selina squatting in her apartment . Gordon and Lee investigate the murder of Lila Valeska , a snake dancer with Haly 's Circus , and the contesting families Flying Graysons and the Lloyds are suspects . Gordon determines that Lila 's son Jerome is the killer , which he eventually admits maniacally . When business begins to decrease at Cobblepot 's club , Zsasz brings in a brainwashed Gilzean for help . Taking advice from Selina and Ivy , Barbara attempts to reunite with Gordon , but changes her mind after she sees him kissing Lee . Bruce holds a board meeting at Wayne Enterprises and voices concern to the executives that the company is involved with the mob , threatening with legal action . John Grayson and Mary Lloyd get engaged after the dispute between the two families are resolved . Mooney manages to get a meeting with the captors ' boss after uniting the prisoners against the captors . 17 17 `` Red Hood '' Nathan Hope Danny Cannon February 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 23 ) 4X6667 6.53 An armed group robs a bank , and one wearing a red mask throws some of the stolen money into the crowd to ensure their escape . Gordon and Bullock identify the `` Red Hood '' as Gus Floyd , but find him dead in the hideout . After a robbery led by Carl Destro , who now wears Floyd 's mask , and the Hood becoming a public hero , Gordon and Bullock track him to his house where they find him wounded and the mask gone . With information given by Destro , the police find and kill the remainder of the gang in a shootout . A teenage boy steals the mask . Meanwhile , Cobblepot struggles from Maroni 's actions against the restaurant , but Butch uses some fake policemen to seize Maroni 's supplies . Mooney discovers that the facility is owned by Dulmacher , meeting the manager , who tries to take her eye for organ trade purposes ; but she removes it herself and destroys it before passing out . An old comrade of Alfred , Reginald Payne , visits him in the Manor and stays over night . On the next day , however , he steals some of Bruce 's files , stabs Alfred to evade capture and reports to the Board that Bruce has no solid evidence . 18 18 `` Everyone Has a Cobblepot '' Bill Eagles Megan Mostyn - Brown March 2 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 02 ) 4X6668 6.10 At the hospital , Alfred refuses to implicate Payne . Gordon and Dent investigate the sudden release and reinstatement of Flass by Loeb , who announces his support of Flass as the new president of the policemen 's union . Bullock reveals that Loeb has leverage to blackmail most officers ; in Bullock 's case , Loeb forced him to falsely confess to providing illegitimate evidence against Flass . Investigating a triad bookmaking office and interrogating Loeb 's former partner , Gordon learns that Loeb has ties with Falcone . With Cobblepot 's help , Gordon and Bullock investigate Loeb 's uptown farm , where they find the latter 's psychotic daughter Miriam , who confesses to her mother 's murder , which Gordon uses to terminate Bullock 's case by blackmailing Loeb , who announces Gordon as the new candidate . Meanwhile , Mooney finally meets Dulmacher , who provides her with a blue - irised eye and allows her to prove herself in order to become his right hand woman . She surrenders some of the prisoners , including Kelly . She discovers that the facility is situated on a snowy island . Selina visits Bruce and offers her help in his investigation , which he refuses . Nygma learns that Kringle has a new boyfriend in the GCPD . 19 19 `` Beasts of Prey '' Eagle Egilsson Ken Woodruff April 13 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 13 ) 4X6669 4.50 Despite Gordon 's warning , Bruce goes after Payne with Selina 's help . Payne confesses that he was hired by the Board . Selina pushes Payne out a window after Bruce hesitates to do so , presumably killing him . Gordon and Bullock investigate an unsolved murder case . Upon Nygma discovering a painting of a broken heart as the key evidence , Bullock realizes that the serial killer called `` the Ogre '' is responsible . Harvey then states that everyone who tried to investigate the Ogre lost their loved ones . It is revealed that the Ogre keeps his victims prisoner for some time , until he realizes she is not a fit for his desire , so he kills her . Meanwhile , Oswald manages to convince a bar owner to do business , but his real intention is to kill Maroni in the bar . Mooney succeeds in escaping with Kelly and some other inmates by luring another group to a fatal deadend . She is shot during the takeoff by the `` Catcher '' , the chief guard . It is revealed that Loeb had the case given to Gordon , but the latter decides to continue the investigation , knowing the threat upon Lee . Gordon promises Loeb that he will face justice too . 20 20 `` Under the Knife '' TJ Scott John Stephens April 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 20 ) 4X6670 4.44 Lee refuses to leave town , staying at the GCPD . The `` Ogre '' calls Gordon and makes his typical threat . Following the incident with Payne , Bruce and Selina attend Wayne Enterprises ' Charity Ball with Barbara , where Selina copies keys from Sid Banderslaw , one of the executives who hired Payne . Cobblepot allies himself with Irish hitmen in hopes of killing Maroni , who visits the club and reveals to the former 's mother that her son is a psychopathic killer . Nygma tries to protect Kringle from her abusive boyfriend Tom Dougherty , but goes too far when he stabs him to death and has a psychotic breakdown . Investigating the Ogre 's first victim , Gordon , Bullock , and Essen identify the killer as Jason Skolimski , who illicitly inherited the fortune of a woman , whose butler is his father , who covered up the murder . Gordon learns that Jason saw him with Barbara at a charity event some time prior , meaning she is the target . Jason approaches Barbara at the Ball and takes her to his home , witnessed by Selina . 21 21 `` The Anvil or the Hammer '' Paul Edwards Jordan Harper April 27 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 27 ) 4X6671 4.58 Jason holds Barbara captive and forces her at knifepoint to choose his next victim . Nygma disposes of Dougherty 's body and forges a letter from him saying a cold goodbye to Kringle . Bruce sneaks into Bunderslaw 's office to open his safe , but Bunderslaw was expecting Bruce and has emptied it . He claims that Thomas knew of Wayne Enterprises ' illegal activities but kept quiet . Junior executive Lucius Fox tells Bruce that Thomas did not approve of the company 's crimes . Bruce confesses his and Selina 's adventures , including Payne 's death , to Alfred . Cobblepot sends the hitmen to attack Maroni , but is revealed to have set up the plan to frame Falcone and start a war between the two mob bosses . Gordon and Bullock locate Jason 's apartment , but he and Barbara have already left for her parents ' mansion . There , they find her parents dead , and Gordon kills Jason after a standoff . Later , Gordon reassures Lee that he no longer loves Barbara . Maroni begins attacking Falcone 's men , and Essen calls all GCPD officers to remain on duty during the upcoming gang war . 22 22 `` All Happy Families Are Alike '' Danny Cannon Bruno Heller May 4 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 04 ) 4X6672 4.93 The mob war between Falcone and Maroni escalates . Cobblepot attempts to kill Falcone himself and take his place , but Gordon intervenes . As Maroni 's men approach , Gordon and Bullock bring Falcone , Cobblepot , and Butch to a safe house , but Mooney 's new gang , including Selina , take them captive . Maroni arrives , but Cobblepot manipulates him and Mooney into a dispute over mob leadership . Mooney abruptly kills Maroni . Gordon , Bullock , and Falcone escape in the ensuing chaos . While Butch struggles on whom to be loyal to , Cobblepot fights and throws Mooney off the roof into the water , calling himself Gotham 's new crime lord . Barbara undergoes trauma counseling with Lee ; she reveals she killed her parents and attacks Lee , who neutralizes her . Kringle begins suspecting Nygma 's involvement in Dougherty 's disappearance ; and he is revealed to have a second personality . Falcone retires from the mob , urging Gordon to continue fighting crime . Believing his father led a secret life and remembering a subtle clue from Fox , Bruce discovers a hidden stairwell behind the fireplace . Season 2 ( 2015 -- 16 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) Rise of the Villains 23 `` Damned If You Do ... '' Danny Cannon Bruno Heller September 21 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 21 ) 4X6201 4.57 Having resigned , Bullock is working as a bartender while Gordon is demoted to an officer and eventually fired by Commissioner Loeb . Gordon works with Cobblepot , now a crime boss having employed Zsasz and Selina , to force Loeb to reinstate Gordon as a detective , resign and give his position to Essen in exchange for Gordon collecting a debt from a mobster and regretfully killing him to protect himself . Meanwhile , several inmates of Arkham Asylum including Barbara Kean , Aaron Helzinger , Jerome Valeska , Arnold Dobkins , Richard Sionis and Robert Greenwood are broken out by Theo Galavan and his sister / enforcer , Tabitha . All but Sionis agree to join forces with Theo ; Sionis is killed for his refusal . Bruce and Alfred discover a secret office at the end of the staircase , with a letter from Thomas , urging Bruce to choose between happiness and the truth . 24 `` Knock , Knock '' Rob Bailey Ken Woodruff September 28 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 28 ) 4X6202 4.65 Theo kidnaps Mayor James while his group of `` Maniax '' , excluding Barbara , begin a killing spree for the sake of publicity . Gordon fails to persuade Bullock to return . Dobkins is arrested before being killed by Tabitha using a sniper rifle . While Barbara lures Gordon out of GCPD , the Maniax attack and kill several police officers ; Nygma is wounded saving Kringle . Helzinger beats up Gordon until he is stopped by Barbara . Jerome kills Greenwood and fatally wounds Essen . Following this , Bullock rejoins the force to stop the Maniax . Meanwhile , Alfred destroys the computer in the secret room , intending to protect Bruce , who gets angry and fires him . Alfred later agrees to return with the condition of training Bruce how to fight . Bruce has Fox begin fixing the computer . 25 `` The Last Laugh '' Eagle Egilsson John Stephens October 5 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 05 ) 4X6203 4.33 Gordon and Bullock start searching for Jerome , but discover Paul Cicero , Jerome 's father , already murdered , Theo tells Barbara , who has a romantic relationship with Tabitha , that his family built Gotham and he is seeking revenge on those who tarnished his family name . He attends a charity event that Alfred , Bruce and Lee also do . Alfred develops feelings toward Lee . Jerome and Barbara impose as magicians and take the guests hostage . Bruce and Selina manage to escape ; but he returns to save Alfred . Gordon fails to persuade the officers for a rescue operation , entering the building alone . The situation turns out to be an elaborate ruse wherein Theo kills Jerome and is perceived to be a hero . Alfred learns about Gordon and Lee . Tabitha learns that Barbara is involved with Theo . Bullock threatens Cobblepot not to ask Gordon for anymore `` favors '' . Several Gotham citizens see Jerome 's actions on television and begin having mental breakdowns . 26 `` Strike Force '' TJ Scott Danny Cannon October 12 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 12 ) 4X6204 4.17 Nathaniel Barnes , a new captain of the GCPD , arrives to clean up department and end corruption . With Gordon 's assistance , they recruit several aspiring police graduates from the Academy in order to form a Strike Force team called Unit Alpha to accomplish the goal . Theo kidnaps Kapelput and blackmails Cobblepot into murdering all of the other candidates so that the former can run for mayor unopposed . When Selina begins looking for Bruce at his prep school , Alfred punches her for Payne and demands her to stay away from Bruce . Shortly afterwards , Bruce meets with Theo to thank him for saving his life during the charity event and meets his niece , Silver St. Cloud , who is also attending the school . Nygma begins dating Kringle . As Cobblepot begins to have Butch quietly search for Kapelput , Gordon confronts him for attacking the candidates . Cobblepot threatens to reveal Gordon 's affiliations to Barnes , who directs Unit Alpha to target Cobblepot . 27 5 `` Scarification '' Bill Eagles Jordan Harper October 19 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 19 ) 4X6205 4.19 Theo has Bunderslaw kidnapped ; and Tabitha removes one of his eyes . Unit Alpha busts one of Cobblepot 's money laundering facilities . Theo asks Gordon to endorse his campaign , which he declines . Tabitha tasks Cobblepot to burn buildings owned by Wayne Enterprises ; and he lures her into believing that he has become paranoid with his henchmen 's loyalties . He hires the Pyke arsonist family , giving them Bunderslaw 's eye , which they use to steal an old knife . Cobblepot learns from an antiquist that 200 years prior , the Waynes destroyed the Dumas , beginning with cutting one 's hand off by the knife . The Dumas ' remnants changed their family name to Galavan . Cobblepot deduces that the Galavans want revenge upon the Waynes and tasks Butch to infiltrate the Galavans using Cobblepot 's paranoia and free Kapelput , cutting off Butch 's hand to support the deceit . Unit Alpha ambushes Bridgit Pyke , who fatally burns an officer . She escapes with Selina . Gordon decides to endorse Theo , who is revealed to be affiliated with a monk named Creel . 28 6 `` By Fire '' TJ Scott Rebecca Perry Cutter October 26 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 26 ) 4X6206 4.32 Barnes scolds Gordon for using extreme interrogation . Bridgit is abducted and further abused by her brothers after attempting to leave Gotham . She kills them and begins killing other criminals . After a visit to Selina 's hideout , Gordon and Bullock find the Pike brothers dead . As Bruce and Silver begin developing feelings , Theo promises him to help clean up the corruption at Wayne Enterprises . Butch discovers Kapelput 's location before being discovered by Theo . The former escapes and tells Cobblepot , who begins rallying a rescue team . Bridgit is incapacitated in a struggle with the GCPD strike force , publicly announced to be dead much to the dismay of Selina , who tells Gordon about Cobblepot 's involvement . Nygma tells Kringle about Dougherty before accidentally killing her when she attempts to escape him . Bridgit is revealed to be alive with her suit had melted onto her , rendering her fireproof . She is taken to Indian Hill , an underground division of Wayne Enterprises where illicit experiments are performed . 29 7 `` Mommy 's Little Monster '' Kenneth Fink Robert Hull November 2 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 02 ) 4X6207 4.27 Butch leads Cobblepot to Gertrud 's location , where Theo and Tabitha are waiting . The former is revealed to have been freed of his brainwash , betraying Cobblepot . Tabitha kills Gertrud before Cobblepot manages to escape , vowing to get revenge . Theo , now elected mayor , convinces the GCPD that Cobblepot assaulted him and has Dent obtain a warrant for Cobblepot 's arrest . Gordon begins suspecting Theo and tracks down Butch , who reveals Theo 's actions . Theo attends his victory celebration at which the GCPD are secretly stationed , ready to capture Cobblepot if he arrives . Cobblepot shows up with his henchmen , but is quickly ambushed by Gordon and narrowly escapes . Gordon promises Theo to expose his corruption . Tabitha murders a Unit Alpha member to escape . Following Kringle 's death , Nygma 's split personality convinces him that he enjoys getting away with murder . Both of Nygma 's personalities then merge . Silver is revealed to be involved in Theo 's plans and assigned to seduce Bruce . She succeeds while causing a friction between him and Selina . 30 8 `` Tonight 's the Night '' Jeffrey Hunt Jim Barnes November 9 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 09 ) 4X6208 4.11 Due to Gordon 's investigation , Theo accelerates his plans , offering Bruce the identity of his parents ' murderer in exchange for buying his voting shares in Wayne Enterprises . Barnes recruits more officers into the Strike Force . In order to keep Gordon distracted from Bruce , Barbara surrenders to GCPD and offers information against Theo . While en route to an unknown location on her instructions , they are ambushed by Theo 's operatives . Gordon wakes up in the church where he and Barbara were planning to marry . She brings an abducted Lee for execution . Bullock deduces the location . While the Strike Force engages Tabitha 's crew and rescues Lee , Gordon briefly fights Barbara , leading to her severe injuries after due to a fall . Following information provided by Barbara , GCPD rescues James . Bruce declines Theo 's proposition just as Gordon arrives and arrests Theo , who destroys the evidence on the Waynes ' killer . While trying to bury Kringle and another victim , Nygma discovers an injured and exhausted Penguin , who asks Nygma for help . 31 9 `` A Bitter Pill to Swallow '' Louis Shaw Milito Megan Mostyn - Brown November 16 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 16 ) 4X6209 4.35 Seeking revenge for Barbara 's injuries , Tabitha hires an assassins agency against Gordon . Bruce tries to get information about his parents ' killer from Silver , but is stopped by Alfred , who demands her to stay away from the former , whom he warns not to pursue the case without Gordon . When Bruce tries to sneak out , he is stopped by Selina , who claims she has evidence for Silver 's malevolence . Gordon and Barnes investigate Theo 's penthouse for evidence . The assassins arrive ; Gordon and Barnes manage to overpower them , but Barnes is severely injured . Barnes tells Gordon about a teenage prisoner he killed while serving as a marine , assuring him that they are not evil since they are enforcing the law . Police backup is eliminated by another assassin named Eduardo Flamingo . After coming close to killing him , Gordon arrests Flamingo , but , before being placed in his cell , Flamingo kills another officer . Meanwhile , Nygma persuades Cobblepot to move on from Gertrud 's death and kill one of Theo 's kidnapped henchmen in celebration . Tabitha visits Theo , who warns her not to interfere with his plans . Creel 's fellow monks arrive in Gotham . 32 10 `` The Son of Gotham '' Rob Bailey John Stephens November 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 23 ) 4X6210 4.00 Bruce and Silver are kidnapped by a mercenary named Tom , who manipulates her into seemingly revealing the name of the Waynes ' killer , named M. Malone . Tom is revealed to have been hired by Bruce and Selina to extract the truth from Silver , who later claims that she lied . Bruce later admits feelings to Selina . The monks known as the Order of Saint Dumas begin a killing spree , which Gordon connects to the Galavans . Theo is released after James lies , framing Cobblepot for the kidnapping . Gordon is abducted by Theo , who reveals the history of his family to Gordon , and overpowers him in a duel ; but Gordon is rescued by Cobblepot and Gabe . Alfred grows suspicious of Bruce 's whereabouts and searches Theo 's residence , where he is wounded in a fight with Tabitha , whom he narrowly escapes from . When Lee notices Kringle 's absence , Nygma tells her that Kringle left town with Dougherty . Theo breaks into Wayne Manor and attacks Bruce . 33 11 `` Worse Than a Crime '' Jeffrey Hunt Bruno Heller November 30 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 30 ) 4X6211 4.51 Gordon wakes up in Nygma 's house only to learn from Cobblepot that he is now a fugitive for assaulting Theo . Lucius finishes fixing the computer , but finds no one at the Manor . Gordon and Cobblepot begin making plans to break into Theo 's residence , save Bruce and defeat the Order . Lee tells Gordon that she is pregnant . Theo tasks Silver to seduce Bruce again , warning to expel her if she fails . Bruce learns of Silver 's mission and decides to lure Theo into believing her success . Gordon , Bullock , Alfred , Selina , Cobblepot and his gang all arrive at Theo 's residence just as the Order is about to kill Bruce . As the Order is decimated , Theo , Tabitha , and Silver begin to make their escape . Tabitha and Silver escape but leave Theo behind . Cobblepot convinces Gordon that Theo might never be convicted and the two take Theo to the docks and murder him . Gordon proposes to Lee . Theo 's body is taken Indian Hill where Fish Mooney 's body also is being kept . Theo 's body is assigned to one Professor Strange . Wrath of the Villains 34 12 `` Mr. Freeze '' Nick Copus Ken Woodruff February 29 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 29 ) 4X6212 4.12 Several weeks following Theo 's death , Gordon is called in for questioning and Cobblepot is arrested . Gordon and Cobblepot lie to the police , stating that Cobblepot murdered Galavan due to insanity and Gordon was not involved . The latter is reinstated into the GCPD , while Cobblepot is sent to Arkham , where he becomes a patient of Strange , the Chief of Psychiatry . Butch takes over Cobblepot 's criminal empire and is seduced by Tabitha . Gordon and Bullock begin investigating a kidnapping and murder spree , unaware that a scientist named Victor Fries is the culprit . Victor has been experimenting on freezing and re-animating humans so as to find a cure for his terminally ill wife Nora . When the police target Victor as a suspect , they discover his laboratory while he is away and arrest Nora . After learning of the arrest , Victor attempts to turn himself in before witnessing one of his subjects reanimated and deducing the treatment . Cobblepot learns of the illicit experiments conducted by Strange , who receives news of Victor 's activities and begins making plans to recruit him for Indian Hill , where Bridgit is reported to be resisting the procedures . 35 13 `` A Dead Man Feels No Cold '' Eagle Egilsson Seth Boston March 7 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 07 ) 4X6213 4.54 At Arkham , Strange begins overseeing intensive treatments for Cobblepot 's aggressive tendencies . Upon learning that Nora is being sent to the medical wing at Arkham , Victor builds an armoured suit . Strange learns the truth about Theo 's death . Victor arrives at the asylum and , with Strange facilitating his activities in exchange for one of his cartridges , manages to escape with Nora . Gordon deduces that Victor will return to his home laboratory in order to freeze Nora and the police surround the building . In the laboratory , Nora blames herself for the murders . Victor freezes her , only to learn that she switched the cartridges when he was not looking , leading to her death . He attempts suicide by freezing himself . Publicly pronounced dead , he wakes up in Indian Hill to discover that he can no longer survive outside of subzero temperatures . He meets Strange , who offers him an alliance as a fellow scientist and a modified suit for outside world . Gordon and Lee 's relationship faces a friction . Elsewhere , Bruce researches a lead , believing he has discovered the killer to be Patrick `` Matches '' Malone . Bruce falsely promises Alfred to let him kill Malone when found , but asks Selina to find him a gun . 36 14 `` This Ball of Mud and Meanness '' John Behring Jordan Harper March 14 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 14 ) 4X6214 4.01 Bruce receives a gun from Selina and goes on the hunt for Malone with Alfred . To get the information , Alfred is forced to fight in an underground club , landing him in the hospital . After Bruce goes on the hunt himself , Alfred contacts Gordon and Bullock so that they can protect Bruce , who locates Malone , who seemingly confirms he is responsible for the murder of Bruce 's parents , refusing to name the employer . He asks Bruce to kill him , but Bruce holds back at the last moment and leaves the gun behind , leading to Malone committing suicide . Later , in the cave , Alfred reads Bruce 's letter about him moving to the streets with Selina to learn how to fight crime . Meanwhile , Leslie asks Gordon to investigate Kringle 's sudden disappearance . When Nygma is informed , he vows to outsmart Gordon . After running a few more tests on Cobblepot , Strange declares him sane and releases him from Arkham , all the while stating that he still has `` deeper plans '' for him . 37 15 `` Mad Grey Dawn '' Nick Copus Robert Hull March 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 21 ) 4X6215 3.89 Cobblepot meets and reconciles with Butch , disapproved by Tabitha . After seeing and disappointing Nygma , Cobblepot visits Gertrud 's grave , meeting his father Elijah Van Dahl , who had an affair with Gertrud when she served his wealthy family , who forcefully separated the pair . Dahl welcomes Cobblepot into his family , with his wife and her children despising Cobblepot . Nygma begins a series of crimes that involve brain teasers . As Gordon begins solving these crimes , Nygma kills Officer Pinkney , deceiving the GCPD that Gordon killed Pinkney to cover up Theo 's murder , to which Pinkney was presumably a witness . An angry Barnes arrests Gordon . After a trial , Gordon is found guilty and sentenced to Blackgate Penitentiary . Bullock vows to prove Gordon 's innocence . Selina begins training Bruce as they steal money from Butch 's nephew , with Bruce taking a massive beating from the nephew in the process . He later tells her that he believed in his stamina . Barbara wakes from her catatonic state in Arkham . 38 16 `` Prisoners '' Scott White Danny Cannon March 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 03 - 28 ) 4X6216 3.82 Gordon begins adjusting to life in prison . Warden Carlson Grey moves Gordon to the General Population , part of his plan to have Gordon killed . The latter is constantly aided by C.O. Wilson Bishop . Gordon is told by Bullock that Lee has lost their baby and left town . Later , he is defended from attackers by convict Peter `` Puck '' Davies , who is beaten and sent to the infirmary . In an attempt to save Gordon , Bullock meets with Falcone . Gordon 's death is successfully staged ; and he and Puck escape . Puck dies from his injuries , while Gordon is given a safe house so he can prove his innocence and find Lee . Meanwhile , Oswald reveals his criminal past to Dahl , who forgives him . Dahl learns from his physician that he has little time to live . After several failed attempts to expel Oswald and claim Dahl 's fortune , his wife Grace and her children Sasha and Charles poison a drink for Oswald to ingest . However , Dahl drinks from the bottle and dies , after stating to Oswald his intentions of changing his will in favor of him . 39 17 `` Into the Woods '' Oz Scott Rebecca Perry Cutter April 11 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 11 ) 4X6217 3.71 Gordon continues fleeing the law as he tries to clear his name . When Gordon secretly approaches Nygma for help , he deduces that Nygma framed him and escapes him after being shot . He goes to Selina 's , tasking her to give a false report to the GCPD , luring Nygma into relocating Kringle 's body . Gordon follows Nygma into the woods , where the latter admits that he framed Gordon as the GCPD eavesdrops on the conversation . They arrest Nygma before he can kill Gordon . Nygma is placed in Arkham . Barnes offers Gordon his job back , but Gordon decides to find Malone 's employer first , with Barnes giving him Lee 's phone number and workplace . Strange has Barbara released in spite of her incomplete treatment , intending to watch her activities . She visits Gordon . After Alfred tells him of Lucius having fixed the computer , Bruce decides to stay at the manor and push Selina away for her safety . Following Dahl 's funeral , Cobblepot is bullied by Grace and her children . However , when he discovers evidence that they killed Dahl , his former self returns and he kills the trio . 40 18 `` Pinewood '' John Stephens Robert Hull & Megan Mostyn - Brown April 18 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 18 ) 4X6218 3.72 Bruce , Lucius , and Alfred search through the secret files on Thomas 's computer with the goal of finding a clue to his and Martha 's murder . Claiming to be cured of her condition , Barbara tries to reconcile with Gordon , but to no avail . With her unorthodox assistance , Gordon discovers that the person who contracted Malone to kill the Waynes is known as `` the Philosopher . '' Bruce and Alfred track a lead from Thomas 's computer and find Karen Jennings , a former Blackgate inmate on whom experiments were performed at Pinewood Farms , a Wayne Enterprises facility , by the Philosopher . She offers to identify the Philosopher , but Fries is sent to kill her . Following Jennings ' death , Lucius does further research and discovers that Strange is the Philosopher . After many failed attempts , Strange finally succeeds in resurrecting someone from the dead : Theo . Barbara returns to Tabitha . 41 19 `` Azrael '' Larysa Kondracki Jim Barnes & Ken Woodruff May 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 02 ) 4X6219 3.59 Gordon questions Strange about his activities , which later makes Strange send a brainwashed Theo , now under the name Azrael , to take out Gordon . Nygma overhears Strange and Peabody complaining about Gordon 's interference , offering help in defeatin Gordon , but Strange refuses . Bruce is told by Bullock and Gordon that there is not enough evidence to arrest Strange . Azrael gets some memories back after looking at posters from Galavan 's election . Barnes puts Gordon in holding to protect him before the lights flicker and Azrael shows up , killing a few officers and making an unsuccessful attempt on Gordon 's life . Barnes and Gordon flee to the roof , where Barnes fights Azrael with a pipe , breaks his supposedly legendary sword , and rips off his mask , revealing Azrael 's identity to the public . In the end , Barnes is sent to the hospital and Gordon heads home , watched by Azrael from a distance . Nygma uses some inmates under his influence to infiltrate Strange 's secret ward . 42 20 `` Unleashed '' Paul Edwards Danny Cannon May 9 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 09 ) 4X6220 3.67 Together with Bullock and a crew of police officers , Gordon arrives at Arkham with a warrant to inspect Strange 's office . Strange is one step ahead , having shredded all of his documents . Nygma , in the meantime , is disturbed by what he saw at Indian Hill and determines to escape . Bullock becomes the acting captain . Bruce decides to go off with Selina to find a way into Arkham . She accepts in order to rescue Bridgit , but insists she go in on her own . Gordon and Bullock arrive at Butch 's mansion to talk with Tabitha , who states the sword Azrael used was fake and that the real one is located in her grandfather 's tomb , where they arrive and acquire it . Azrael arrives , injuring Tabitha and escaping with the sword . Selina encounters Nygma , who gives her instructions to enter Indian Hill in exchange for the way out . Gordon warns Alfred about Azrael just as Bruce returns to Wayne Manor . Gordon arrives and shoots Azrael multiple times , but he remains undefeated until Cobblepot and Butch arrive and kill Azrael with an RPG . Nygma is captured while Selina is attacked by Bridget , who has no memories of her past and calls herself `` Firefly '' . 43 21 `` A Legion of Horribles '' Rob Bailey Jordan Harper May 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 16 ) 4X6221 3.84 Seeing Firefly 's defeat improbable , Selina convinces her to accept her as a `` servant '' . Bruce learns of her capture . As Strange 's unknown female employer pushes him for results , his project continues ; and he successfully resurrects Fish , the first subject to retain full mental function . Bruce believes that there is a secret room in Arkham where Strange is experimenting on the dead and that the only way to be certain is if they head in themselves . Bruce , Gordon , and Fox visit Arkham to execute their plan , but their motives are revealed and all three are captured . Fish learns that she can control the mind of the person she touches . Bruce and Fox are put in a chamber and interrogated by Nygma on Strange 's behalf while Gordon is taken into another room with Strange and introduced to Basil , a patient whose skin stretches more than humanly possible . As Bullock leads a Strike Force team to Arkham , Strange places Gordon in a machine and replicates his visage onto Basil 's face . 44 22 `` Transference '' Eagle Egilsson Bruno Heller May 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 23 ) 4X6222 3.62 Disguised as Gordon , Basil pulls the GCPD off of Arkham ; however , Barbara later exposes Basil as an impostor . Strange prepares to detonate a bomb beneath Arkham and tells Peabody to transfer the patients to another facility . Mooney gains control of Peabody , but Strange starts the bomb 's countdown anyway . With Nygma 's help , Gordon and Lucius stop the bomb . Mooney escapes in a bus with the other enhanced inmates , and encounters a shocked Penguin on the street ; she knocks him out , prompting Butch and his gang to flee . Strange is arrested , Gordon leaves to find Lee , entrusting Gotham to Bullock . Bruce tells Alfred of his plans to find the secret council that wants him dead . A homeless woman opens the abandoned bus , unwittingly releasing the inmates upon Gotham ; among them is a boy identical to Bruce . Season 3 ( 2016 -- 17 ) ( edit ) Main article : Gotham ( season 3 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) Mad City 45 `` Better to Reign in Hell ... '' Danny Cannon John Stephens September 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 19 ) T13. 19901 3.90 46 `` Burn the Witch '' Danny Cannon Ken Woodruff September 26 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 26 ) T13. 19902 3.54 47 `` Look into My Eyes '' Rob Bailey Danny Cannon October 3 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 03 ) T13. 19903 3.19 48 `` New Day Rising '' Eagle Egilsson Robert Hull October 10 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 10 ) T13. 19904 3.42 49 5 `` Anything for You '' TJ Scott Denise Thé October 17 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 17 ) T13. 19905 3.32 50 6 `` Follow the White Rabbit '' Nathan Hope Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt October 24 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 24 ) T13. 19906 3.48 51 7 `` Red Queen '' Scott White Megan Mostyn - Brown October 31 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 31 ) T13. 19907 3.16 52 8 `` Blood Rush '' Rob Bailey Tze Chun November 7 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 07 ) T13. 19908 3.52 53 9 `` The Executioner '' John Behring Ken Woodruff November 14 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 14 ) T13. 19909 3.63 54 10 `` Time Bomb '' Hanelle M. Culpepper Robert Hull November 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 21 ) T13. 19910 3.44 55 11 `` Beware the Green - Eyed Monster '' Danny Cannon John Stephens November 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 11 - 28 ) T13. 19911 3.37 56 12 `` Ghosts '' Eagle Egilsson Danny Cannon January 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 16 ) T13. 19912 3.69 57 13 `` Smile Like You Mean It '' Olatunde Osunsanmi Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt January 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 23 ) T13. 19913 3.60 58 14 `` The Gentle Art of Making Enemies '' Louis Shaw Milito Seth Boston January 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 30 ) T13. 19914 3.46 Heroes Rise 59 15 `` How the Riddler Got His Name '' TJ Scott Megan Mostyn - Brown April 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 24 ) T13. 19915 2.99 60 16 `` These Delicate and Dark Obsessions '' Ben McKenzie Robert Hull May 1 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 01 ) T13. 19916 3.02 61 17 `` The Primal Riddle '' Maja Vrvilo Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt May 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 08 ) T13. 19917 3.03 62 18 `` Light the Wick '' Mark Tonderai Tze Chun May 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 15 ) T13. 19918 2.98 63 19 `` All Will Be Judged '' John Behring Ken Woodruff May 22 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 22 ) T13. 19919 2.92 64 20 `` Pretty Hate Machine '' Danny Cannon Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt May 29 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 29 ) T13. 19920 3.03 65 21 `` Destiny Calling '' Nathan Hope Danny Cannon June 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 05 ) T13. 19921 3.17 66 22 `` Heavydirtysoul '' Rob Bailey Robert Hull June 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 05 ) T13. 19922 3.03 Season 4 ( 2017 -- 18 ) ( edit ) Main article : Gotham ( season 4 ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) A Dark Knight 67 `` Pax Penguina '' Danny Cannon John Stephens September 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 21 ) T40. 10001 3.21 68 `` The Fear Reaper '' Louis Shaw Milito Danny Cannon September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) T40. 10002 2.87 69 `` They Who Hide Behind Masks '' Mark Tonderai Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) T40. 10003 2.92 70 `` The Demon 's Head '' Kenneth Fink Ben McKenzie October 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 12 ) T40. 10004 2.75 71 5 `` The Blade 's Path '' Scott White Tze Chun October 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 19 ) T40. 10005 2.75 72 6 `` Hog Day Afternoon '' Mark Tonderai Kim Newton October 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 26 ) T40. 10006 2.87 73 7 `` A Day in the Narrows '' John Behring Peter Blake November 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 02 ) T40. 10007 2.75 74 8 `` Stop Hitting Yourself '' Rob Bailey Charlie Huston November 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 09 ) T40. 10008 2.70 75 9 `` Let Them Eat Pie '' Nathan Hope Iturri Sosa November 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 16 ) T40. 10009 2.62 76 10 `` Things That Go Boom '' Louis Shaw Milito Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt November 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 30 ) T40. 10010 2.59 77 11 `` Queen Takes Knight '' Danny Cannon John Stephens December 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 07 ) T40. 10011 2.53 78 12 `` Pieces of a Broken Mirror '' Hanelle M. Culpepper Danny Cannon March 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 01 ) T40. 10012 2.57 79 13 `` A Beautiful Darkness '' John Stephens Tze Chun March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) T40. 10013 2.41 80 14 `` Reunion '' Annabelle K. Frost Peter Blake March 15 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 15 ) T40. 10014 2.55 81 15 `` The Sinking Ship The Grand Applause '' Nick Copus Seth Boston March 22 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 22 ) T40. 10015 2.47 82 16 `` One of My Three Soups '' Ben McKenzie Charlie Huston March 29 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 29 ) T40. 10016 2.39 83 17 `` Mandatory Brunch Meeting '' Maja Vrvilo Steven Lilien & Bryan Wynbrandt April 5 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 05 ) T40. 10017 TBD 84 18 `` That 's Entertainment '' TBA TBA April 12 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 12 ) TBA TBD 85 19 `` To Our Deaths and Beyond '' TBA TBA April 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 19 ) TBA TBD Ratings ( edit ) Season 1 ( 2014 -- 15 ) ( edit ) No . Title Air date Rating / share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR ( 18 -- 49 ) DVR viewers ( millions ) Total ( 18 -- 49 ) Total viewers ( millions ) `` Pilot '' September 22 , 2014 3.2 / 10 8.21 2.7 5.84 6.0 14.15 `` Selina Kyle '' September 29 , 2014 2.8 / 8 7.45 1.9 4.33 4.7 11.81 `` The Balloonman '' October 6 , 2014 2.5 / 8 6.36 2.0 4.52 4.5 10.88 `` Arkham '' October 13 , 2014 2.4 / 7 6.39 1.7 3.95 4.5 10.34 5 `` Viper '' October 20 , 2014 2.3 / 7 6.09 1.7 4.33 4.0 10.12 6 `` Spirit of the Goat '' October 27 , 2014 2.2 / 7 5.89 1.5 3.78 3.7 9.66 7 `` Penguin 's Umbrella '' November 3 , 2014 2.4 / 7 6.63 1.7 3.83 4.1 10.47 8 `` The Mask '' November 10 , 2014 2.2 / 7 6.35 1.6 3.68 3.8 10.03 9 `` Harvey Dent '' November 17 , 2014 2.3 / 6 6.49 1.7 3.77 4.0 10.26 10 `` Lovecraft '' November 24 , 2014 2.3 / 7 6.05 1.5 3.56 3.8 9.61 11 `` Rogues ' Gallery '' January 5 , 2015 2.5 / 8 7.06 1.3 3.04 3.8 10.10 12 `` What the Little Bird Told Him '' January 19 , 2015 2.2 / 7 6.50 1.6 3.49 3.8 9.99 13 `` Welcome Back , Jim Gordon '' January 26 , 2015 2.1 / 6 6.04 1.3 3.03 3.4 9.07 14 `` The Fearsome Dr. Crane '' February 2 , 2015 1.9 / 6 5.79 1.3 2.80 3.2 8.59 15 `` The Scarecrow '' February 9 , 2015 1.8 / 6 5.63 1.2 2.76 3.0 8.39 16 `` The Blind Fortune Teller '' February 16 , 2015 2.1 / 6 6.19 1.3 3.06 3.4 9.25 17 `` Red Hood '' February 23 , 2015 2.3 / 7 6.53 1.3 3.20 3.6 9.73 18 `` Everyone Has a Cobblepot '' March 2 , 2015 2.0 / 6 6.10 1.4 3.11 3.4 9.21 19 `` Beasts of Prey '' April 13 , 2015 1.5 / 5 4.50 1.1 2.63 2.6 7.13 20 `` Under the Knife '' April 20 , 2015 1.6 / 5 4.44 1.1 2.85 2.7 7.28 21 `` The Anvil or the Hammer '' April 27 , 2015 1.5 / 5 4.58 1.1 2.65 2.6 7.23 22 `` All Happy Families Are Alike '' May 4 , 2015 1.7 / 6 4.93 1.1 2.64 2.8 7.57 Season 2 ( 2015 -- 16 ) ( edit ) No . Title Air date Rating / share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR ( 18 -- 49 ) DVR viewers ( millions ) Total ( 18 -- 49 ) Total viewers ( millions ) `` Damned If You Do ... '' September 21 , 2015 1.6 / 5 4.57 1.2 2.92 2.8 7.49 `` Knock , Knock '' September 28 , 2015 1.6 / 5 4.65 1.3 2.90 2.9 7.54 `` The Last Laugh '' October 5 , 2015 1.5 / 5 4.33 1.2 2.78 2.7 7.11 `` Strike Force '' October 12 , 2015 1.5 / 5 4.17 1.3 2.64 2.8 6.81 5 `` Scarification '' October 19 , 2015 1.3 / 4 4.19 1.1 2.43 2.4 6.62 6 `` By Fire '' October 26 , 2015 1.5 / 5 4.32 1.1 2.43 2.6 6.76 7 `` Mommy 's Little Monster '' November 2 , 2015 1.6 / 5 4.27 1.1 2.77 2.7 7.04 8 `` Tonight 's the Night '' November 9 , 2015 1.5 / 4 4.11 1.2 2.70 2.7 6.81 9 `` A Bitter Pill to Swallow '' November 16 , 2015 1.5 / 5 4.35 1.1 2.46 2.6 6.79 10 `` The Son of Gotham '' November 23 , 2015 1.4 / 4 4.00 1.0 2.49 2.4 6.49 11 `` Worse Than a Crime '' November 30 , 2015 1.6 / 5 4.51 1.0 2.42 2.6 6.93 12 `` Mr. Freeze '' February 29 , 2016 1.5 / 5 4.12 1.0 2.44 2.5 6.57 13 `` A Dead Man Feels No Cold '' March 7 , 2016 1.5 / 5 4.54 1.0 2.23 2.5 6.77 14 `` This Ball of Mud and Meanness '' March 14 , 2016 1.3 / 4 4.01 1.0 2.31 2.3 6.32 15 `` Mad Grey Dawn '' March 21 , 2016 1.3 / 4 3.89 0.8 2.09 2.1 5.98 16 `` Prisoners '' March 28 , 2016 1.3 / 5 3.82 0.8 1.92 2.1 5.72 17 `` Into the Woods '' April 11 , 2016 1.2 / 4 3.71 0.9 2.07 2.1 5.78 18 `` Pinewood '' April 18 , 2016 1.2 / 4 3.72 0.9 2.16 2.1 5.88 19 `` Azrael '' May 2 , 2016 1.2 / 4 3.59 0.9 2.18 2.1 5.77 20 `` Unleashed '' May 9 , 2016 1.2 / 4 3.67 0.9 1.93 2.1 5.61 21 `` A Legion of Horribles '' May 16 , 2016 1.3 / 4 3.84 0.8 1.88 2.1 5.72 22 `` Transference '' May 23 , 2016 1.2 / 4 3.62 0.8 1.94 2.0 5.55 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( May 10 , 2017 ) . `` Gotham renewed for season 4 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nemetz , Dave ( July 28 , 2017 ) . `` Gotham Season 4 Premiere Moved Up '' . TVLine . Retrieved July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 21 , 2015 ) . `` Full 2014 - 15 TV Season Series Rankings : Football & ' Empire ' Ruled '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2015 . Retrieved May 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 27 , 2016 ) . `` Full 2015 - 16 TV Season Series Rankings : ' Blindspot ' , ' Life In Pieces ' & ' Quantico ' Lead Newcomers '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved May 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 25 , 2017 ) . `` Final 2016 - 17 TV Rankings : ' Sunday Night Football ' Winning Streak Continues '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 23 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' Forever ' , ' Dancing With the Stars ' & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Scorpion ' & ' America 's Next Top Model ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 25 , 2014 . Retrieved September 23 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Colm Feore Cast In ' Gotham ' As The Dollmaker '' . Deadline.com . January 26 , 2015 . Retrieved February 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Matt 's Inside Line : Scoop on Arrow , Once , NCIS , The 100 , Vampire Diaries , Gotham , Bones , H50 , Castle and More '' . TVLine . December 17 , 2014 . Retrieved January 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` GOTHAM Killer Characters '' . Gotham ( verified official YouTube page ) . April 13 , 2015 . Retrieved April 13 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( September 30 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The Voice ' & ' Scorpion ' Adjusted Up ; ' Dancing With the Stars ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 2 , 2014 . Retrieved September 30 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 16 , 2014 ) . `` Revised Monday , October 6 Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The Voice ' , ' Scorpion ' , ' NCIS : Los Angeles ' Adjusted Up ; ' Dancing With The Stars ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2014 . Retrieved October 17 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 14 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' & ' Dancing With the Stars ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 15 , 2014 . Retrieved October 14 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 21 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' , ' The Voice ' & ' Gotham ' Adjusted Up ; ' Jane the Virgin ' , ' The Originals ' , ' The Millers ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 23 , 2014 . Retrieved October 21 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( October 28 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' & ' Scorpion ' Adjusted Up ; ' Dancing With the Stars ' , ' Castle ' , ' The Millers ' & ' The Blacklist ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 30 , 2014 . Retrieved October 28 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 4 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' Adjusted Up ; ' Jane the Virgin ' , ' Dancing With the Stars ' , ' The Originals ' , ' Countdown to the CMAs ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 4 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 11 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' Dancing With The Stars ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 11 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 18 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' & ' Sleepy Hollow ' Adjusted Up ; ' Dancing With the Stars ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The # DCTV Secrets of GOTHAM : Episode 10 -- `` Lovecraft '' `` . DC Comics . Jump up ^ Jamie Lovett . `` Gotham : First Look At Copperhead '' . Comicbook.com . Jump up ^ `` ' Gotham 's ' Copperhead Debuts on Fox 's Fall Finale ( Exclusive Photos ) -- TheWrap '' . TheWrap . Jump up ^ `` Gotham Producer on Those Joker Rumors and Why Poison Ivy is Ivy Pepper '' . IGN . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( November 25 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' Dancing With The Stars ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Voice ' , ' Castle ' , ' 2 Broke Girls ' , ' Scorpion ' & ' State of Affairs ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Google + '' . Jump up ^ Cairns , Bryan ( January 19 , 2015 ) . `` HEYERDAHL CRANKS UP THE VOLTAGE AS `` GOTHAM 'S '' ELECTROCUTIONER `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved January 19 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( January 8 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' NCIS : Los Angeles ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Celebrity Apprentice ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 8 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( January 21 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' Scorpion ' , ' Castle ' & ' The Celebrity Apprentice ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( January 27 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Bachelor ' and ' Sleepy Hollow ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustment for ' Jane the Virgin ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 27 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( February 3 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : No Adjustments to ' Gotham ' , ' Sleepy Hollow ' , ' The Originals ' or ' Jane The Virgin ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 3 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 10 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' NCIS : LA ' & ' Scorpion ' Adjusted Up , No Adjustment for ' Jane the Virgin ' or ' Gotham ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 10 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( February 18 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Bachelor ' & ' The Celebrity Apprentice ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 18 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 24 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' & ' Gotham ' Adjusted Up ; ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 24 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( March 3 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustment to ' Gotham ' or ' The Following ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 3 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( April 14 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' & ' Dancing With the Stars ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Originals ' , ' Jane The Virgin ' & ' The Night Shift ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 14 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 21 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' Scorpion ' , ' 2 Broke Girls ' , ' Mike & Molly ' , Gotham ' , ' The Voice ' & ' Dancing With the Stars ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( April 28 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' 2 Broke Girls ' , ' Mike & Molly ' , ' Stalker ' & ' The Night Shift ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 28 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 5 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' 2 Broke Girls ' & ' Mike and Molly ' Adjusted Up ; No Adjustment for ' Jane the Virgin ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Fox Announces Gotham Winter Hiatus , Return Date '' . ComicBook.com . November 10 , 2015 . Retrieved January 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva . `` ' Gotham ' Casts James Frain As Regular , Will Play New Villain & Tigress ' Brother '' . deadline.com . Jump up ^ Matt Webb Mitovich . `` Exclusive Gotham Season 2 Casts Jessica Lucas as the Bullwhip - Cracking Tigress '' . tvline.com . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( September 22 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up ; ' Significant Mother ' , ' Life in Pieces ' & ' Penn & Teller ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 22 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Dixon , Dani ( September 29 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' + ' The Voice ' Adjusted Up ; ' Castle ' , ' Life in Pieces ' & ' Dancing With the Stars ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 29 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 6 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' and ' The Voice ' adjusted up , ' Blindspot ' and ' Castle ' adjusted down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 6 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Voice ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusted up , ' Castle ' , ' Life in Pieces ' and ' Scorpion ' adjusted down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 13 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 20 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' and ' Jane the Virgin ' adjusted down , ' Big Bang ' adjusted up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 20 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 3 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Supergirl ' and ' Blindspot ' adjust down , ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 4 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 4 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Voice ' and ' NCIS : LA ' adjust up , ' Supergirl ' holds '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 4 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 10 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' NCIS : LA ' adjusts up , everything else holds '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Jane the Virgin ' adjusts down but still hits season high , ' Scorpion ' adjusts up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 17 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 24 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Voice ' adjusts up , ' Castle ' adjusts down to season average '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 24 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 2 , 2015 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Superstore ' adjusts down but still solid , ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Gotham ' : New Artwork Teases `` Wrath of the Villains '' `` . The Hollywood Reporter . January 25 , 2016 . Retrieved January 26 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 1 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Blindspot ' , ' Gotham ' and all others hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 1 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 8 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Jane the Virgin ' adjusts up , ' Blindspot ' adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 8 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 15 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Bachelor ' and ' Scorpion ' adjust up , ' Blindspot ' and ' After the Final Rose ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 15 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 22 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Voice ' adjusts up , ' Blindspot ' adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 22 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 29 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Supergirl ' , ' Blindspot ' and everything else hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 29 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 12 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' The Voice ' adjusts up , ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' and ' Jane the Virgin ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 12 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 19 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Supergirl ' finale adjusts up , ' NCIS : LA ' adjusts down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 3 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' NCIS : LA ' finale and all others hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 3 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 10 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Blindspot ' and ' Reign ' adjust down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 10 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 17 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Mike & Molly ' finale and ' The Voice ' adjust up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 17 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Bachelorette ' premiere , all others hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bucksbaum , Sydney ( August 30 , 2016 ) . `` ' Gotham ' Season 3 First Look : Jim Gordon Prepares to Battle a `` Mad City '' ( Exclusive Photo ) `` . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ( GTH - 301 ) `` Mad City : Better to Reign in Hell ... '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved September 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 20 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Gotham ' adjust up , ' Kevin ' and ' Good Place ' hold '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 27 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Voice ' adjusts down , final debate numbers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 4 , 2016 ) . `` ' Conviction ' , ' Timeless ' , ' Kevin ' and ' Scorpion ' all adjust down , ' Big Bang ' and ' Voice ' adjust up : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' Timeless ' , ' Conviction ' , ' DWTS ' , ' Lucifer ' adjust down , ' Big Bang ' adjusts up : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2016 ) . `` ' Gotham ' , ' The Voice ' , ' Big Bang ' , ' DWTS ' adjust up , ' Conviction ' and ' 2 Broke Girls ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 25 , 2016 ) . `` ' Kevin Can Wait ' adjusts up , ' Timeless ' , ' Supergirl ' , and ' Jane the Virgin ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 1 , 2016 ) . `` ' Gotham ' adjusts up , CBS shows all adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 8 , 2016 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin ' , ' Odd Couple ' and ' Conviction ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 15 , 2016 ) . `` ' 2 Broke Girls ' adjusts up , ' Supergirl ' and ' Jane the Virgin ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 22 , 2016 ) . `` ' Supergirl ' , ' Jane the Virgin ' , ' Odd Couple ' , ' Conviction ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 30 , 2016 ) . `` ' Voice ' adjusts up ; ' Gotham ' , ' Lucifer ' , ' Jane the Virgin ' and ABC adjust down ; Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' Howie Mandel Comedy Gala ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 24 , 2017 ) . `` ' Celebrity Apprentice ' adjusts up , ' Quantico ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 31 , 2017 ) . `` ' Quantico ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick , Kevin ( April 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Heroes Rise ' in New ' Gotham ' Season 3 Return Trailer '' . Screen Crush . Retrieved April 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' Gotham ' adjusts up , ' Quantico ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 2 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Voice , ' ' Scorpion , ' ' Man with a Plan , ' ' Superior Donuts ' all adjust up : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Gotham , ' ' Man with a Plan , ' ' Jane the Virgin ' adjust up , ' Quantico ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 16 , 2017 ) . `` ' Dancing with the Stars , ' ' Man with a Plan ' finale adjust up : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 23 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Voice ' adjusts up , ' Jane the Virgin ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 31 , 2017 ) . `` ' Gotham ' adjusts up : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 31 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( June 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' Bachelorette , ' NHL and ' Gotham ' adjust up : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Holbrook , Damian ( September 4 , 2017 ) . `` New ' Gotham ' Season 4 Promo Art Reveals a Dark Knight Rising '' . TV Insider . Archived from the original on September 7 , 2017 . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 22 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Orville , ' ' Gotham , ' ' Zoo ' and CW originals unchanged : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on September 26 , 2017 . Retrieved September 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 29 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace , ' ' Superstore , ' ' Good Place , ' ' Gotham ' adjust up ; ' How to Get Away ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 10 , 2017 . Retrieved September 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 27 , 2017 . Retrieved October 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Gotham ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 15 , 2017 . Retrieved October 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 20 , 2017 ) . `` ' Gotham ' and ' Supernatural ' adjust up , final NFL numbers : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 17 , 2017 . Retrieved October 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 27 , 2017 ) . `` NFL adjusts up , scripted shows all unchanged : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 7 , 2017 . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace ' adjusts up , ' Sheldon ' and other CBS shows adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 4 , 2017 . Retrieved November 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Thursday Night Football ' adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2018 . Retrieved November 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' Supernatural ' and NFL adjust up , ' Young Sheldon ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2018 . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 4 , 2017 ) . `` ' Supernatural , ' ' Big Bang Theory ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2018 . Retrieved December 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 8 , 2017 ) . `` ' Supernatural ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2018 . Retrieved December 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 2 , 2018 ) . `` ' Superstore , ' ' SWAT , ' ' Scandal ' and ' AP Bio ' adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 3 , 2018 . Retrieved March 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 9 , 2018 ) . `` ' Young Sheldon , ' ' SWAT , ' all NBC shows adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 10 , 2018 . Retrieved March 9 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 16 , 2018 ) . `` ' AP Bio ' adjusts up , NCAA Tournament adjusts down but ahead of 2017 : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2018 . Retrieved March 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 23 , 2018 ) . `` ' AP Bio ' adjusts up , NCAA Sweet 16 ahead of last year : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 30 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Chicago Fire ' adjust up , ' SWAT ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 30 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ( GOT - 418 ) `` A Dark Knight : That 's Entertainment '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved March 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ( GOT - 419 ) `` A Dark Knight : To Our Deaths and Beyond '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved March 28 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 12 , 2014 ) . `` ' Gotham ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Gotham ' & ' Red Band Society ' Top Percentage Gains & ' How To Get Away With Murder ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week Ending September 28 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 13 , 2014 . Retrieved October 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 20 , 2014 ) . `` ' How to Get Away With Murder ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Parenthood ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week Ending October 5 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 22 , 2014 . Retrieved October 20 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 27 , 2014 ) . `` ' How to Get Away With Murder ' and ' Modern Family ' Have Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Red Band Society ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week Ending October 12 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2014 . Retrieved October 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( November 3 , 2014 ) . `` ' How to Get Away With Murder ' & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Have Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' New Girl ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week Ending October 19 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 3 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 10 , 2014 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' America 's Next Top Model ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Tops Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 5 Ending October 26 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 17 , 2014 ) . `` ' Modern Family ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Elementary ' , ' Parnethood ' & ' The Originals ' Top Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Leads Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 6 Ending November 2 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( November 24 , 2014 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' The Originals ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Leads Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 7 Ending November 9 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 2 , 2014 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' The Vampire Diaries ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Blacklist ' Leads Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 8 Ending November 16 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 8 , 2014 ) . `` ' Modern Family ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Reign ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 8 Ending November 16 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 15 , 2014 ) . `` ( Updated ) ' Criminal Minds ' Has Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Ratings Increase ; ' Grimm ' , ' Elementary ' & ' Revenge ' Top Percentage Gains & ' NCIS ' Leads Viewer Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 10 Ending November 30 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( January 25 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Modern Family ' Have Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Increase , ' Revenge ' Tops Percentage Gains & ' The Big Bang Theory ' Grows Most in Viewership in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 15 Ending January 4 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 9 , 2015 ) . `` ' Empire ' Notches Biggest Adults 18 - 49 Increase , ' Revenge ' Leads Percentage Gainers & ' Elementary ' Tops Viewership Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 18 Ending January 25 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 17 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Notches Biggest Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Increase , ' Hart of Dixie ' Top Percentage Gainer in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 18 Ending February 1 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 23 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Gains , ' Glee ' Tops Percentage Increases in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 20 Ending February 8 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( March 2 , 2015 ) . `` ' Modern Family ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Gains , ' The Blacklist ' Tops Percentage Increases & Viewer Growth in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 21 Ending February 15 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 9 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Gains + ' The Blacklist ' Tops Percentage Increases in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 22 Ending February 22 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 15 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 Gains + ' Glee ' Tops Percentage Increases , ' The Blacklist ' Wins in Viewer Growth in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 23 Ending March 1 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 23 , 2015 ) . `` ' Empire ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Gains + ' Glee ' & ' Hart of Dixie ' Top Percentage Increases in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 24 Ending March 8 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 4 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Gains , ' Reign ' , ' Supernatural ' & ' The Vampire Diaries ' Top Percentage Growth in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 30 Ending April 19 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 11 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Gains , ' The Blacklist ' & ' The Vampire Diaries ' Top Percentage Growth in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 31 Ending April 26 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( May 18 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Modern Family ' Tie for Adults 18 - 49 Growth , ' The Messengers ' Leads Percentage Gains + ' The Blacklist ' Tops Viewership Increase in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 32 Ending May 3 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 26 , 2015 ) . `` ' The Big Bang Theory ' Leads Adults 18 - 49 & Viewership Growth , ' The Blacklist ' Tops Percentage Gains in Live + 7 Ratings for Week 32 Ending May 10 '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on May 26 , 2015 . Retrieved May 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 11 , 2015 ) . `` Premiere week Live + 7 ratings : ' Blindspot , ' ' Empire ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' score biggest gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 19 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 2 : ' The Blacklist ' premiere joins ' Empire ' and ' Blindspot ' atop the charts '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 31 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 3 : ' Quantico ' more than doubles , ' Empire ' and ' Blindspot ' score biggest gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 4 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 4 : ' Jane the Virgin ' premiere doubles , ' Empire ' and ' Blindspot ' top charts for Oct. 12 - 18 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 9 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 5 : ' Empire ' and ' Blindspot ' have biggest toal gains , 5 shows double '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 16 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Blindspot ' top week 6 , ' Quantico ' doubles in 18 - 49 and viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 23 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 7 : ' Elementary ' is still a strong DVR show '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 1 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 8 : ' Empire ' , ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Quantico ' top charts for Nov. 9 - 15 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 7 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 9 : ' Big Bang Theory ' makes the biggest gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 14 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 10 : ' Blindspot ' is officially * the biggest gainer in Thanksgiving week '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 21 , 2015 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings , week 11 : ' Empire ' fall finale on top , ' Vampire Diaries ' leads percentage gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 21 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Blindspot , ' ' Jane ' and ' Quantico ' top week 24 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 28 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' and ' Quantico ' lead week 25 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 6 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Modern Family ' and ' Blindspot ' gain the most for March 14 -- 20 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 11 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Modern Family ' tops the week of March 21 -- 27 , 4 shows double '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 18 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory ' and ' Empire ' lead the week of March 28 - April 3 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 2 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Empire ' and ' Blacklist ' have biggest gains , 4 shows double '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 9 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Empire ' and ' Big Bang Theory ' lead for April 18 -- 24 , 5 shows double '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 23 , 2016 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' tops total gains , ' Vampire Diaries ' and 9 others double in 18 - 49 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 31 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Big Bang Theory ' finale and ' Empire ' share lead for May 9 -- 15 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 6 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Empire ' and ' Blacklist ' finales lead the week of May 16 -- 22 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 13 , 2016 ) . `` Broadcast Live + 7 ratings : ' Blindspot ' leads for May 23 -- 29 as summer slowdown begins '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 13 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Official website List of Gotham episodes on IMDb Gotham Episodes Season 1 `` Pilot '' `` Selina Kyle '' `` The Balloonman '' `` Arkham '' `` Viper '' `` Spirit of the Goat '' `` Penguin 's Umbrella '' `` The Mask '' `` Harvey Dent '' `` Lovecraft '' `` Rogues ' Gallery '' `` What the Little Bird Told Him '' `` Welcome Back , Jim Gordon '' `` The Fearsome Dr. Crane '' `` The Scarecrow '' `` The Blind Fortune Teller '' `` Red Hood '' `` Everyone Has a Cobblepot '' `` Beasts of Prey '' `` Under the Knife '' `` The Anvil or the Hammer '' `` All Happy Families Are Alike '' Season 2 Rise of the Villains `` Damned If You Do ... 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60 | document: Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta - wikipedia Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta For the most recent season , see Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta ( season 7 ) . Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta Genre Reality Directed by David Wolfgang Josh Richards Earl `` Slick 23 '' Barlow Jade Sandberg Starring Joseline Hernandez Erica Dixon Rasheeda K. Michelle Karlie Redd Mimi Faust Traci Steele Tammy Rivera Stevie J Tommie Lee Jessica Dime Erica Mena Opening theme `` This Is The Life '' Composer ( s ) Lofey Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 7 No. of episodes 122 Production Executive producer ( s ) Brad Abramson Mona Scott - Young Danielle Gelfand Nina L. Diaz Stefan Springman Stephanie R. Gayle Toby Barraud Donell Dorsey Running time 40 -- 44 minutes Production company ( s ) Monami Entertainment Eastern TV Release Original network VH1 Picture format 480i ( SDTV ) 1080i ( HDTV ) Original release June 18 , 2012 ( 2012 - 06 - 18 ) -- present Chronology Related shows Love & Hip Hop : New York Love & Hip Hop : Hollywood Love & Hip Hop : Miami K. Michelle : My Life Stevie J & Joseline : Go Hollywood Leave It to Stevie External links Website Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta is the second installment of the Love & Hip Hop reality television franchise . It premiered June 18 , 2012 on VH1 , and chronicles the lives of several people in Atlanta involved with hip hop music . The show features appearances from notable figures associated with Southern hip hop . On February 16 , 2018 , VH1 announced the show 's return for the seventh season , which premiered on March 19 , 2018 . Contents 1 Development 2 Series synopsis 2.1 Overview and casting 2.2 Timeline of main cast members 2.3 Storylines 3 Reception 3.1 Critical response 3.2 Scripting allegations 3.3 Ratings 3.4 Cultural impact 4 Episodes 5 Broadcast history 5.1 Spin - offs 5.2 Specials 6 Distribution 7 References 8 External links Development ( edit ) Rumors of an Atlanta - based spin - off of Love & Hip Hop began circulating in December 2011 . Stefan Springman revealed in the behind - the - scenes special Love & Hip Hop Atlanta : Dirty Little Secrets that producers first considered Love & Hip Hop spin - off set in Miami before settling on Atlanta instead , saying that `` we found great characters ( in Miami ) but it just did n't feel right '' . During the casting process , several names were reported as part of the original cast , including Diamond , Rasheeda , Nivea and CeeLo Green 's ex-wife Christina Johnson . Diamond was planned to be the lead of the show , with a source saying `` Diamond would definitely be the Chrissy ( Lampkin ) of the group '' . Nivea eventually turned the show down , and producers approached Nas 's daughter Destiny Jones and her mother Carmen Bryan . They interviewed with producers , but backed out after feeling they did n't fit in with the other cast members . Shawty Lo and his wife Ecreia Perez were cast but dropped from the show , with Shawty later admitting in interviews that VH1 had a problem with the couple 's extensive criminal record . 2 Chainz was also approached but turned it down . On February 6 , 2012 , during the finale of Love & Hip Hop 's second season , series creator Mona Scott - Young officially announced that the show , then titled Love & Hip Hop : Hotlanta , was in production . Casting rumors intensified , with Ms. Rici , known as Yung Joc 's assistant and former mistress , and Waka Flocka Flame 's mom and manager Deb Antney reportedly joining the cast . The casting of Rici , who was planned to be the `` Yandy '' of the group , was controversial as she had a long criminal history having been arrested for theft , assault and resisting arrest , amongst other things . Rici backed out of the show days before filming , after discovering producers had planned to air a storyline involving her , Yung Joc and his wife . By March , the cast was finalised and filming began . A few weeks into filming , Diamond broke her contract and officially quit the show , telling producers that she had `` spoken to God '' and he told her `` it was the best thing to do '' . She was replaced by K. Michelle . On May 15 , 2012 , VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta would make its series premiere on June 18 , 2012 . Series synopsis ( edit ) Overview and casting ( edit ) See also : List of Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta cast members The cast of the seventh season , from left to right , top to bottom : Karlie , Tommie , Stevie J , Mimi , Rasheeda , Jessica Dime and Erica Mena . Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta is a `` docu - soap '' that revolves around the everyday lives of women and men in hip hop 's `` dirty south '' . The first seasons focus on the personal and professional struggles of six women , two of which are known as girlfriends of famous R&B artists and rappers , and the other four are aspiring recording artists . Subsequent seasons expanded to include DJs and radio personalities , stylists , video vixens , glamour models , groupies and socialites . The show has a sprawling supporting cast , consisting mostly of men in the industry , who ( in most cases ) share the same amount of screen time and storyline focus as the show 's leads . The original cast lineup consisted of Joseline Hernandez , Erica Dixon , Rasheeda , K. Michelle , Karlie Redd and Mimi Faust , with Stevie J , Lil Scrappy , Scrappy 's mother Momma Dee , Mimi 's best friend Ariane Davis , Rasheeda 's husband Kirk Frost , Benzino and Flavor of Love 's Shay Johnson rounding out the supporting cast . All cast members returned for a second season , with the addition of radio personality Traci Steele and her former boyfriend DJ Babey Drew . During the season 's reunion special , K. Michelle announced that she was leaving the show to join the cast of Love & Hip Hop : New York . Traci and Drew were fired from the show , and season three saw the addition of Waka Flocka Flame , his long time girlfriend Tammy Rivera and his mother Deb Antney . Waka and Tammy eloped during filming . Other new cast members included Yung Joc , Kalenna Harper and her husband Tony Vick , Scrappy 's girlfriend Bambi Benson , actress Erica Pinkett , booking agent Dawn Heflin and Benzino 's girlfriend Althea Heart . Shay Johnson filmed scenes for season but after a violent altercation during filming , in which she cracked a bottle over a woman 's face in a night club brawl , she was removed from the cast and her scenes were left on the cutting room floor . The show 's outrageous storylines and scandals throughout season three , particularly Mimi and Nikko 's sex tape , Benzino 's non-fatal shooting and Joseline and Stevie 's allegedly drug - addled behavior at the reunion , drew the highest ratings in the franchise 's history and made its cast members tabloid fixtures . The fallout from the violence of season three 's reunion , in which Stevie and Joseline interrupted filming and got into a brawl with Benzino and Althea onstage , affected season four 's casting process . Benzino and Althea were removed from the cast after making death threats and Tammy , who was also attacked by Joseline during taping , announced that she and Waka were leaving the show to star in their own spin - off show Meet The Flockas . Although there was talk of suspending or even firing Stevie and Joseline for their behaviour at the reunion , season four saw Stevie J finally being promoted to the main cast after appearing in every episode prior as a supporting cast member , and Joseline ended up being absent only from the season 's premiere episode . New cast members included Jessica Dime , a stripper - turned - rapper who shares a past with Joseline , Nikko 's ex-wife Margeaux Simms , Yung Joc 's girlfriend Khadiyah Lewis and his baby mama Sina Bina , aspiring singer Ashley Nicole , Tiffany Foxx and Momma Dee 's ex-husband Ernest Bryant ( who she remarried during filming ) . PreMadonna , an entrepreneur known for her waist trainer company , appeared in a supporting role for two episodes . Towards the end of the season , Tammy Rivera returned for three episodes in a supporting role . After four seasons , Erica Dixon quit the series , calling it `` mentally and physically draining '' . Season five saw the return of Tammy Rivera to the main cast after a season 's absence , along with original cast member K. Michelle , who returned from the fourth episode onwards . Season five saw the addition of the controversial King family , which included `` momager '' Karen `` KK '' King , her rapper sons Scrapp DeLeon and Sas , Scrapp 's girlfriend Tommie Lee and his baby mama Tiarra Becca . Other new cast members included Grammy Award - winning songwriter D. Smith , who became the first openly transgender castmate in the show 's history , singer Betty Idol , Mimi 's girlfriend Chris Gould , who would reveal his identity as a trans man in an episode near the end of season , Lyfe Jennings , Rasheeda 's mother Shirleen Harvell , Kirk 's daughter Kelsie Frost , radio personality J - Nicks and stripper Amber Priddy . The season also featured a crossover episode with Love & Hip Hop : Hollywood and K. Michelle : My Life , with guest appearances from cast members Lil Fizz , Nikki Mudarris and Jonathan Fernandez . One of season five 's leading storylines was Joseline and Tommie 's intense feud , which culminated in an off - camera incident in which Tommie attempted to run down Joseline with her car . In an effort to curb cast violence , the season 's reunion format was changed so that the cast would film interviews separately and in small groups , without an audience . After appearing infrequently throughout the season and barely interacting with the cast , K. Michelle confirmed shortly after taping that she had again quit the show . Despite pending legal issues relating to her incident with Joseline , season six saw Tommie promoted to the main cast . One of the season 's leading storylines involved Rasheeda discovering that her husband Kirk had been unfaithful and had a secret baby with stripper Jasmine Washington . Jasmine became part of the show 's cast , along with her lovers Rod Bullock and Keanna Arnold , who she is involved in a polyamorous relationship with . Other new cast members included club promoter Melissa Scott , social media personality and nail technician Lovely Mimi , beauty shop owner Sierra Gates , her assistant Moriah Lee and her husband Shooter Gates , aspiring radio personality Tresure Price , aspiring singer Estelita Quintero , Stevie J 's daughter Savannah Jordan and Tommie 's mother Samantha . Rapper Gunplay appeared as a supporting cast member for one episode , his appearance serving as a teaser for the spin - off Love & Hip Hop : Miami , which would premiere a few months later . Production on the season became increasingly troubled , with later episodes showing scenes of Joseline Hernandez and Kirk Frost breaking the fourth wall to express their displeasure with the producers . Behind the scenes during the reunion taping on June 1 , 2017 , tensions between Joseline , Mona Scott - Young and the other producers exploded , with Joseline announcing that she had quit the show after six seasons . Season seven saw the promotion of Jessica Dime to the main cast after appearing as a supporting cast member for three seasons , and the return of Erica Mena to the franchise , who previously appeared on Love & Hip Hop : New York for four seasons . Tammy Rivera left the cast to star in her own spin - off Meet the Flockas with Waka , but would make two guest appearances throughout the season . New cast members include Jessica 's fiancé Shawne Williams , Grammy Award winning songwriter Sean Garrett , Jamaican recording artist Spice , singer Just Brittany , rappers Tokyo Vanity , BK Brasco and Tabius Tate , music executive Keely the Boss and her promotor boyfriend K. Botchey . After a two year absence , Erica Dixon returned as a supporting cast member for two episodes . Love & Hip Hop : New York star Rich Dollaz would make a special crossover appearance in the last two episodes of the season . Timeline of main cast members ( edit ) See also : List of Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta cast members Cast member Seasons 5 6 7 Joseline Hernandez Main Erica Dixon Main Supporting Rasheeda Main K. Michelle Main Guest Main Karlie Redd Main Mimi Faust Main Traci Steele Main Cameo Tammy Rivera Main Supporting Main Guest Stevie J Supporting Main Tommie Lee Cameo Supporting Main Jessica Dime Supporting Main Erica Mena Main Note : ^ Appears in the opening credits from episode four onwards . Storylines ( edit ) Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta chronicles the relationship struggles of women and men in the hip hop industry , with infidelity being the most common theme . The dysfunctional love triangle between Stevie J , Mimi Faust and Joseline Hernandez has been the focal point of the show since its inception and its most widely publicised storyline , with the `` main chick vs side chick '' rivalry being recreated and explored with other cast members on the show and in the franchise . Many of the show 's cast members come from broken homes , which has led to criticism by those who find the show exploitive . Several episodes in the first season document Stevie , Mimi and Joseline taking part in sessions with a therapist , revealing their troubled upbringings . Stevie and Mimi were both abandoned by their mothers at an early age , in Mimi 's case , she was abandoned at the age of 13 for Scientology . Joseline also had a difficult relationship with her parents growing up within the public housing system of Puerto Rico , being exposed to drugs and prostitution at an early age . Other cast members come from backgrounds that reflect the economical realities of Atlanta 's poorest communities , Erica 's mother is a recovering crack cocaine addict , while Scrappy 's mother became a pimp in order to provide for her family . Several of the show 's female cast members have worked as strippers out of financial desperation , with music being depicted as an escape from that lifestyle . The show has explored many controversial issues over the seasons . In an early episode , Joseline discovers she is pregnant and decides to have an abortion . In another episodes , K. Michelle reveals her experience with domestic violence . Several cast members have dealt with substance abuse and addiction , with Scrappy going to rehab in season two for marijuana addiction , Stevie J going to rehab in season four for cocaine addiction and Tommie dealing with alcohol abuse in seasons five and six . Many of the female cast members identify as bisexual , lesbian or sexually fluid , and the show is one of the few television shows to explore LGBT issues from a black perspective . Season five features two trans cast members , D. Smith and Chris Gould , and several episodes featured public service announcements aimed to help viewers struggling with their gender identity . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta has largely been overshadowed by criticism and controversy , with the franchise referred to as `` ratchet TV '' for its seemingly negative and stereotypical portrayal of black women and its focus on dysfunctional relationships , materialism , hyper - sexuality and violence . The show premiered in 2012 to a storm of controversy , with some viewers calling for a boycott . One petition described the show as `` another beautifully - blinged jewel of commercial exploitation '' and compared it to the crack epidemic of 1980s in its potentially damaging and long - lasting impact on African - American culture . Series creator Mona Scott - Young has been singled out in particular for allegedly `` exploiting ( black women ) in her quest for the almighty dollar '' . Scott - Young has continuously defended the show against these accusations , saying the show was not created to represent all African - Americans : `` It 's set in a specific world and I do n't think that there 's anybody who 's navigated that world who would deny that these things happen . '' Despite the criticism , the franchise has dominated the ratings since its inception , and has been described as `` riveting '' , `` addictive '' `` bawdy and hilarious '' and a `` guilty pleasure '' . In 2014 , Complex named Joseline Hernandez , Stevie J , K. Michelle , Momma Dee and Shay Johnson as some of the greatest VH1 reality stars of all time . Scripting allegations ( edit ) Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta is often criticized for appearing to fabricate much of its storyline . Scott - Young has denied those claims : `` I ca n't stress enough that the stuff they deal with on ( Love & Hip Hop ) is real . We may frame it within a production construct that allows us to shoot on a schedule , but we 're not making up the stuff that they 're going through . '' She has admitted however that the show stages reactions of past events . During a legal battle with co-star Althea Heart , Joseline Hernandez testified under oath in 2014 that the show was not an accurate portrayal of the cast 's real life , stating `` there 's a lot of acting in the reality world '' . In 2015 , Mimi Faust admitted that her `` leaked '' sex tape storyline was staged from the very beginning . In October 2015 , boxer Adrien Broner stormed off set after allegedly being asked by producers to contrive a romantic scene with Karlie Redd . Since 2013 , Rasheeda and Kirk Frost have regularly been criticised and accused of fabricating their storylines to stay on the show . Ratings ( edit ) Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta is the highest - rated installment of the Love & Hip Hop franchise , which is itself one of the highest - rated franchises in cable television history . In an overview of the television cultural divide , The New York Times reported that Love & Hip Hop was most popular show in the black belt . After its premiere , the show 's audience grew substantially over the season . Its finale garnered 5.5 million people overall , cementing its status as the highest rated show in primetime on cable among adults 18 - 49 . The third season was a huge ratings success , with the series premiere having a combined rating of 5.6 million viewers and continuing to set ratings records throughout the season . The fourth series premiere garnered big ratings for the network , with VH1 announcing a combined rating of 6.2 million viewers . On August 19 , 2015 , VH1 announced the season as the summer 's # 1 cable reality series among adults 18 - 49 and women 18 - 49 and the 2nd most talked - about television series on social media overall . The sixth series premiere garnered big ratings for the network , with VH1 announcing a combined rating of 5.2 million viewers , up 17 % from its fifth season bow . Cultural impact ( edit ) During a speech at a campaign rally in North Carolina on November 4 , 2016 , President Barack Obama referenced the show , comparing the 2016 presidential race to reality television , saying `` I mean , its like some Love & Hip Hop stuff . '' Lee Daniels is a fan of Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta and his 2016 Fox television series Star ( set in Atlanta ) makes several references to the show . Joseline Hernandez appears in a recurring role as Michelle , a stripper . In the second episode , Lenny Kravitz 's character is seen watching a scene of the show featuring Mimi Faust and Stevie J. In a later scene in the same episode , Jessica Dime makes a cameo appearance as a stripper . Additionally , Star cast member Jasmine Burke guest starred in Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta 's sixth season as herself . Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta episodes Season Episodes Originally aired Extra episodes First aired Last aired Reunion Specials 12 June 18 , 2012 ( 2012 - 06 - 18 ) August 20 , 2012 ( 2012 - 08 - 20 ) August 27 , 2012 September 3 , 2012 December 16 , 2012 17 April 22 , 2013 ( 2013 - 04 - 22 ) July 29 , 2013 ( 2013 - 07 - 29 ) August 5 , 2013 August 12 , 2013 N / A 20 May 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 05 - 05 ) August 18 , 2014 ( 2014 - 08 - 18 ) August 25 , 2014 September 1 , 2014 September 8 , 2014 N / A 19 April 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 04 - 20 ) August 17 , 2015 ( 2015 - 08 - 17 ) August 24 , 2015 August 31 , 2015 N / A 5 18 April 4 , 2016 ( 2016 - 04 - 04 ) July 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 25 ) August 1 , 2016 August 8 , 2016 N / A 6 18 March 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 06 ) July 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 03 ) July 10 , 2017 July 17 , 2017 May 1 , 2017 May 10 , 2017 7 18 March 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 19 ) July 2 , 2018 July 9 , 2018 July 16 , 2018 TBA Broadcast history ( edit ) On April 1 , 2013 , VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta would be returning for a second season on April 22 , 2013 . On April 14 , 2014 , VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta would be returning for a third season on May 5 , 2014 . On April 9 , 2015 , VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta would be returning for a fourth season on April 20 , 2015 , and would premiere alongside Love & Hip Hop Atlanta : The Afterparty Live ! , a half an hour long interactive after - show hosted by Big Tigger . On March 8 , 2016 , VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta would be returning for a fifth season on April 4 , 2016 . On February 21 , 2017 , VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta would be returning for a sixth season on March 6 , 2017 . With this season , Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta became the first incarnation of the franchise to reach 100 episodes . Spin - offs ( edit ) On October 15 , 2014 , VH1 announced the spin - off K. Michelle : My Life , starring cast member K. Michelle , would make its series premiere on November 3 , 2014 . On August 27 , 2015 , VH1 confirmed that Stevie J and Joseline Hernandez would star in their own spin - off series , set in Los Angeles . On December 2 , 2015 , VH1 announced Stevie J & Joseline : Go Hollywood , which premiered January 25 , 2016 , back - to - back with the second season of K. Michelle : My Life . On December 1 , 2016 , VH1 announced the spin - off Leave It To Stevie , starring Stevie J , would make its series premiere on December 19 , 2016 , back - to - back with the third season of K. Michelle : My Life . Specials ( edit ) On December 16 , 2012 , VH1 aired Dirty Little Secrets , a special featuring unseen footage , deleted scenes and interviews with the show 's cast and producers . The special garnered 1.22 million viewers . On April 19 , 2017 , VH1 announced that Joseline 's Special Delivery , a special documenting the birth of Joseline 's child , will air between the season 's eighth and ninth episodes on May 1 , 2017 . It premiered to 2.18 million viewers . Additionally , Dirty Little Secrets 2 , a special featuring unseen footage and deleted scenes from the show 's second season up until season five , aired on May 10 , 2017 to over 1 million viewers . Distribution ( edit ) Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta episodes air regularly on VH1 in the United States . Episodes run from around 41 -- 44 minutes and are broadcast in high definition . The series ' episodes are also available on demand through the official VH1 website , as well as for digital download at the iTunes Store and Amazon . VH1 have released the first two seasons , as well as the fourth season , on DVD . The third , fifth and sixth seasons are currently only available on digital platforms . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` VH1 's Love & Hip Hop Franchise Hits All the Right Notes '' . The Futon Critic ( Press release ) . Viacom . January 30 , 2014 . Retrieved January 30 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Kirk 's Paternity Test Results Are Revealed , Karlie Redd Has a New Boo , and Erica Mena Makes Her Return to Reality TV on Season Seven of Love & Hip Hop Atlanta '' . Jump up ^ http://www.s2smagazine.com/stories/2011/12/love-hip-hop-spin-coming Jump up ^ ATLien ( 12 December 2011 ) . `` Reality Show Alert -- Love & Hip - Hop Atlanta Coming Soon ... '' . Jump up ^ ATLien ( 30 April 2012 ) . `` Rumor Control : Nivea is NOT Joining Love & Hip Hop Atlanta ... '' . Jump up ^ thejasminebrand ( 11 December 2014 ) . `` Nas ' Daughter & Baby Mama Almost Joined Love & Hip Hop Atlanta - Page 2 of 2 - theJasmineBRAND '' . Jump up ^ Mikey T The Movie Star ( 1 May 2015 ) . `` Shawty Lo Exclusive speaks on T.I. and Alfamega + Love and Hip Hop ATL '' -- via YouTube . Jump up ^ thejasminebrand ( 5 April 2012 ) . `` Shawty Lo Gets Dropped from `` Love & Hip - Hop : ATL '' - theJasmineBRAND `` . ^ Jump up to : ATLien ( 12 March 2012 ) . `` Love & Hip Hop Atlanta Cast REVEALED ! Who 's On / Off & Whose Mama Wants to Fight ? ( PHOTOS ) '' . Jump up ^ http://www.mtv.com/news/2498919/love-hip-hop-atlanta-2-chainz-turned-down-role/ Jump up ^ `` VH1 Confirms ' Love & Hip Hop Atlanta ' for Next Season '' . 7 February 2012 . Jump up ^ ATLien ( 7 February 2012 ) . `` I Heard : Love & Hip Hop Atlanta Cast Will Feature These People ... '' . Jump up ^ `` Cast Member of ' Love and Hip - Hop : Atlanta ' Arrested 20 Times ? - EURweb '' . 13 February 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Get The F Outta Dodge : Did Crime Mob 's Diamond Quit `` Love & Hip - Hop : Atlanta '' Already Because Lil Scrappy 's Mama Wanted To Catch Fade ? ? `` . 15 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Diamond Talks ' Love & Hip Hop Atlanta , ' Relationship With Soulja Boy '' . 24 July 2012 . Jump up ^ ATLien ( 14 March 2012 ) . `` Guess Who Quit Love & Hip - Hop Atlanta + The 2nd String Cast Replacement ... 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61 | document: Love Do n't Live Here Anymore - wikipedia Love Do n't Live Here Anymore Jump to : navigation , search `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' Artwork for Dutch release Single by Rose Royce from the album Rose Royce III : Strikes Again ! B - side `` Do It , Do It '' Released November 11 , 1978 Format Vinyl single Recorded 1978 Genre Soul Label Whitfield Records Songwriter ( s ) Miles Gregory Producer ( s ) Norman Whitfield Paul Buckmaster Rose Royce singles chronology `` I 'm in Love ( And I Love the Feeling ) '' ( 1978 ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' ( 1978 ) `` First Come , First Serve '' ( 1979 ) `` I 'm in Love ( And I Love the Feeling ) '' ( 1978 ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' ( 1978 ) `` First Come , First Serve '' ( 1979 ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' is a song written by Miles Gregory and originally recorded by Rose Royce . It was produced by former Motown songwriter and producer Norman Whitfield for Whitfield Records . Lead vocals were sung by Gwen Dickey and the song was released as the second single from their third studio album Rose Royce III : Strikes Again ! The song was developed as a result of producer Whitfield 's interest to work with Paul Buckmaster , the British arranger and composer . Together they asked songwriter Miles Gregory to write a song for them . Gregory was undergoing medications for his drug overuse problem , and this situation and his deteriorating physical health became the inspiration behind the song . `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine , and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument . The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco 's house , where Dickey was present during the recording . After its release , the song was critically appreciated , but was only moderately successful commercially . It reached a peak of 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 and five on the Hot Black Singles chart . Its highest position was in the United Kingdom , where it reached two . `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' has been covered by a number of artists , including Madonna , Morrissey -- Mullen and Faith Evans . Madonna 's version was included in her second studio album Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) , and it was the idea of Michael Ostin , the head of the A&R department of Warner Bros. Records , that Madonna record a cover version of the song to include in the album . A remix of Madonna 's cover was included in her 1995 ballad compilation album Something to Remember . The original and the remixed version of the Madonna song differs in the usage of more classical instruments in the latter . The 1995 version also received a number of club remix treatments . Critics were not impressed with the version present in Like a Virgin , calling it `` awful '' , while they warmed to the version present in Something to Remember . However , it was a commercial disappointment , reaching a peak of only 78 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was promoted by a music video shot by Jean - Baptiste Mondino , which portrayed Madonna in an empty suite of an abandoned hotel , and was shot in a single take . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background and music 2 Reception 3 Track listing 4 Credits and personnel 5 Charts and certification 5.1 Weekly charts 5.2 Certification 6 Cover versions 7 Madonna version 7.1 Background 7.2 Composition 7.3 Critical response 7.4 Chart performance 7.5 Music video and live performance 7.6 Charts 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Background and music ( edit ) Producer Norman Whitfield had always wanted to work with Paul Buckmaster , the British arranger and composer . One day he called Buckmaster and invited him to work on some recordings he had finished . After meeting , they decided to contact songwriter Miles Gregory to use one of his songs for Whitfield 's record group Rose Royce . Buckmaster found that Gregory was under medication from overuse of drugs and `` was in considerable discomfort , if not in outright pain . He did n't write a song and dance about his pain , but I remember him sitting at the piano and wincing . So before jumping on the thing that Miles was merely indulging himself and writing , one has to remember that the guy was in a lot of pain . '' Nevertheless , Whitfield and Buckmaster encouraged Gregory to write the song and the result was `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' , inspired by Gregory 's own situation and his deteriorating physical health . `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine , and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument . LinnDrum had been used sparingly in their previous single `` Do Your Dance '' , but in `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' its use was more spontaneous , which Dave Thompson , author of Funk noted as if `` it virtually duetted with Dickey , creating one of the most distinctive records of the year -- and one of the most imitated of the age . '' The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco 's house , where Rose Royce lead singer Gwen Dickey was present during the recording . Buckmaster recalled : `` I was over at ( Gene 's ) place almost every day with Norman , and some days I stayed away to write , or to mix the music . Gene had given me the keys to his apartment , and also let me use the piano to record the song . I did n't want to work on at Miles ' because his piano was falling to bits . '' Reception ( edit ) Kenny Hill from The San Diego Union - Tribune said that the song `` was a lasting impression of Rose Royce 's brilliance as a group '' and it proved that disco and R&B soul music was not dead . '' Frederick Douglas from The Baltimore Sun complimented the song saying that `` with their soul ballad ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' , Rose Royce is poised to take their place in the musical landscape as the greatest soul group . '' Bob Kostanczuk from Post-Tribune listed `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' as Rose Royce 's greatest song . Jim Mortimer from Deseret News felt that `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' was a perfect example of how gospel and soul music can be clubbed together and complimented producer Buckmaster . Shannon Kingly from Los Angeles Daily News felt that `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' is `` a tad bit overrated , and is full of shouting . '' `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and made a slow climb , ultimately reaching a peak of 32 . It was more successful on the Hot Black Singles chart , where it reached five , and stayed there for four weeks . In Canada , the song debuted at 100 on the RPM Singles Chart on December 23 , 1978 . The song began a slow climb , and after nine weeks reached a peak of 41 on the chart . It was present for a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' became Rose Royce 's biggest hit , reaching two on the UK Singles Chart while in Ireland it reached a peak of number seven . Across Europe , the song failed to chart except in Netherlands , where it reached eleven . The song was successful in Australia and New Zealand , where it reached positions four and two on the charts , respectively . Track listing ( edit ) 7 '' Single Warner `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' -- 3 : 56 `` Do It , Do It '' -- 4 : 09 Credits and personnel ( edit ) Gwen Dickey -- lead vocals Norman Whitfield -- producer , acoustic guitar Paul Buckmaster -- producer , piano , bass drum , LinnDrum Miles Gregory -- writer Rose Royce -- background vocals Charts and certification ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Charts ( 1978 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) 10 Belgium ( VRT Top 30 ) 18 Canada Top Singles ( RPM ) 41 Ireland ( IRMA ) 7 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 11 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 32 US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ( Billboard ) 5 Certification ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales United Kingdom ( BPI ) Gold 500,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Cover versions ( edit ) An instrumental cover was recorded by the UK jazz - funk duo Morrissey -- Mullen at EMI 's London Abbey Road Studios in 1979 and was the first digital recording to be made of a non-classical ensemble . It was released as the first of the EMI Digital series in a limited edition 12 '' single . Jimmy Nail 's version was released in 1985 in his native United Kingdom , reaching number three on the UK Singles Chart . Coincidentally , Australian band I 'm Talking also released a version in late 1985 . British dance music producers Double Trouble released a version of ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' as a single in 1990 . Their arrangement had the vocals mixed over a House - influenced backing track . A reggae version was released in 1997 by dancehall artist Bounty Killer and Swedish singer Robyn . Faith Evans recorded it on her 1995 album Faith . American Hardcore band Lionheart named their fourth and final album which was released in 2016 after that song . Madonna version ( edit ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' Artwork for 1996 release Single by Madonna from the album Something to Remember B - side `` Over and Over '' Released March 19 , 1996 Format 7 '' 12 '' CD maxi Recorded 1984 Power Station Studio ( Manhattan , Nova Iorque ) Genre Pop Length 5 : 08 Label Sire Warner Bros. ( 1984 ) Maverick Warner Bros. ( 1995 ) Songwriter ( s ) Miles Gregory Producer ( s ) Nile Rodgers David Reitzas Madonna singles chronology `` One More Chance '' ( 1996 ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' ( 1996 ) `` You Must Love Me '' ( 1996 ) `` One More Chance '' ( 1996 ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' ( 1996 ) `` You Must Love Me '' ( 1996 ) Background ( edit ) Madonna had originally covered `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' for her second studio album , Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) . The idea to cover the song originated from Michael Ostin , the head of the A&R department of Warner Bros. Records . In author Warren Zanes book Revolutions in Sound : Warner Bros. Records , the First 50 Years , he recalled : `` I had the good fortune of finding material that Madonna really responded to , ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' for instance , which was the old Rose Royce record . I was driving into work one day and heard it on the radio , I called producer Nile Rodgers and Madonna , they were in the studio . I said , ' I have an idea , . You know the old Rose Royce record , ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' ? Why do n't you try and record a version of it for Like a Virgin ? '' Initially both Rodgers and Madonna were apprehensive of tackling an already well - known ballad , but in the last minute they decided that if Madonna wanted to bring diversity to the album , there could be no better song than `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' . According to Rodgers , although Like a Virgin was mainly driven by Madonna , he was instrumental in adding `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' to the track list . The song was a favorite of Madonna , so when in 1995 she released the ballad compilation album Something to Remember , she included a reworked version of `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' produced by David Reitzas . The version was released as the second single from the album in North America and the third single in Europe and Australia . The original 1986 release was included in the 1996 Japanese box set CD Single Collection on 3 '' CD single and includes the track listing from the 7 '' vinyl version . Composition ( edit ) `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' The 1995 version has a slightly different melody than the 1984 version . Problems playing this file ? See media help . Madonna 's version of the song begins with the sound of acoustic guitars and synth strings . Madonna 's voice sounds high - pitched , eluding the deeper resonance of the tune . After the first verse , Tony Thompson starts playing the drums , which moves along the rhythm of the song . Towards the end , Madonna sings the song like a soul singer and the song ends with a gasp of breath . The song was recorded at Power Station Studio in Manhattan , New York . Rodgers recalled : `` Madonna had never performed with a live orchestra before . I was very much into doing everything live , so I just said , ' Madonna , you go out there and sing and we will follow you . ' At first Madonna was hesitant , but the live setting ended up producing memorable results . She sang and she was overcome with emotions and she started crying , but I left it on the record . '' The 1995 remix was quite different from the 1984 version . It began with the sound of violins and Uilleann pipes , followed by Madonna beginning the first verse . As the song progresses , the sound of the violin fades in and the drum machine starts , and the piano is played along with it . As the chorus is sung the third time , a bass drum is also added in the flow . The violin again fades in as Madonna sings `` Through the windmills of my eye , Everyone can see the loneliness inside me . '' Near the end , she utters the chorus a number of times , emphasizing on the word `` anymore '' and the phrase `` live here anymore '' . It ends with the Uilleann pipes fading out . The song was also treated with remixes in various formats . SoulShock & Karlin made an R&B styled remix ; while Marcus Schulz created a house remix . Madonna 's voice was paired with an energetic beat , coupled with vibrant organ lines and blipping synth effects . The remixes were released as promotional 12 '' and CD singles on May 6 , 1996 . Critical response ( edit ) Author Rikky Rooksby wrote in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna that Madonna 's singing in the song `` deserved a commendation for bravery and was a sign that she was going to set herself challenges . '' Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic , while reviewing Like a Virgin , wrote that the cover of the song was `` well worth hearing '' . Debbie Bull from Rolling Stone , meanwhile , opined that `` her torchy ballad ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' is awful . '' Larry Flick from Billboard complimented both the versions of the song , calling the first version `` a lush slice of symphonic pop '' , and the other an `` old - school , jeep - soul cruiser . Both arrangements perfectly suit her vocal , which is rife with emotional belts and theatrical gasps . ( ... ) David Reitzas string - laden version will please those who never got enough of the previous single ' You 'll See ' . The bottom line is that this will likely be another smash for an artist whose stock as a credible musical entity deservedly rises with each release . '' He also complimented the dance remixes of the song , saying that `` when combined , ( Marcus Schultz house remix ) keyboard lines add up to a very pastel , tea - dance ready twirler . His five mixes lean largely towards the middle of the club road . '' Liz Smith , while reviewing the Something to Remember album in Newsday , felt that all of Madonna 's vocal trainings that she received while shooting for the film Evita , had `` paid off , because the La M 's second single sounds wonderful , and is a step up from the previous haunting ' You 'll See ' . '' Dorothy Holmes from Telegram & Gazette said that `` ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' sounds like her perfect adult contemporary staple . '' Chart performance ( edit ) In the United States , `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' debuted at the top of the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , a position comparable to 101 on the main Billboard Hot 100 . After two weeks , it debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Madonna 's 36th entry on the chart , and her first entry with a remake of someone else 's single . The song ultimately reached only a peak of 78 , and was present for only eight weeks on the chart . On June 8 , 1996 , the song was one of the breakout tracks for the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . It debuted at 39 on the chart and reached 30 the next week , becoming the Power Pick song of the chart . It ultimately reached a peak of 16 on the chart . It debuted on the Hot Adult Contemporary Chart at 30 , and reached a peak of 29 , the next week . In Canada , the song debuted at 99 on the RPM Singles Chart , on May 6 , 1996 . After eight weeks , the song reached a peak of 24 on the chart . It was present on the chart for 12 weeks . Across Europe , the song charted in France at 48 , and also reached 27 in Australia . Music video and Live performance ( edit ) Madonna performing the mashup of `` HeartBreakCity '' and `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' , during the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 -- 16 ) . The music video was directed by Jean - Baptiste Mondino , who worked with Madonna in her videos for `` Open Your Heart '' , `` Justify My Love '' and `` Human Nature '' , and shot on March 4 , 1996 , at the Confitería El Molino in Buenos Aires , Argentina , during her day off from filming Evita . Maria Gallagher was the producer , with Jean - Yves Escoffier serving as director of photography . It was a Bandits Production . In her Evita diaries , published by Vanity Fair magazine in 1996 , Madonna made reference to the video shoot . In her writings , she specifically mentioned forgetting the lyrics of the song , suggesting she was having an identity crisis of sorts , trying to juggle her own identity with that of her role of Eva Perón in Evita . Madonna was also in the early stages of her pregnancy with daughter Lourdes while making the video . Hence , she felt great stress while shooting it , which led her to forget the lyrics . She said , `` There are no words to describe the weariness I feel today . I have not slept well in days , and when I do , there is no comfort . My dreams are violent and full of betrayal . Like my life , there 's no escape . I feel the responsibility of this film . I can not talk about Evita and her life without defending myself ... Dear God , what have I gotten myself into ? What is happening to me ? Today we went to shoot a music video for my next song . But I kept forgetting the lyrics , and felt like crying each and every time I did it . It was so frustrating . It 's my own song ! '' The video features Madonna at the empty suite of an abandoned hotel , a similar setting to her `` Like a Virgin '' music video . It was shot in a single frame , with the camera approaching Madonna , as she stands behind a pillar . She rotates around it and sings the song , as air blows through the room . The video ends with Madonna looking up towards the camera the last time , and then closing her eyes . It was treated with sepia color . Carol Vernallis , author of Experiencing music video : aesthetics and cultural context felt that the video was a good example of how image can direct the viewer 's attention towards the shift in instrumentation and arrangement of the song . She noted the aimless movement of the camera towards her as `` bringing focus to the main subject , with the viewer 's attention fully captured . '' A mashup of `` HeartBreakCity '' , a track from her 13th studio album Rebel Heart , and `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' was performed on Madonna 's 2015 -- 16 Rebel Heart Tour . It began with the singer dancing with a male back - up dancer as she sang `` HeartBreakCity '' ; then , she chased him up a long spiral staircase and pushed him backwards before merging into `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' . Erik Kabik from The Las Vegas Sun , praised the performance for its simplicity . Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1996 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) 27 Canada Top Singles ( RPM ) 24 France ( SNEP ) 48 US Billboard Hot 100 78 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 29 US Dance Club Songs ( Billboard ) 16 Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Cole 2007 , p. 38 Jump up ^ Thompson 2001 , p. 277 Jump up ^ Hill , Kenny ( December 21 , 1995 ) . `` Rose Royce proves disco is n't dead '' . U-T San Diego . Platinum Equity . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Douglas , Frederick ( January 9 , 1979 ) . `` Rose Royce is just the beginning '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kostanczuk , Bob ( October 20 , 2006 ) . `` Rose Royce will roll through ' Car Wash ' at Edgewater ball '' . Post-Tribune . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Mortimer , Jim ( September 21 , 1991 ) . `` Rose Royce to Perform at New Horizons Concert '' . Deseret News . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kingly , Shannon ( July 7 , 1998 ) . `` Concert to Star Rose Royce '' . Los Angeles Daily News . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Bronson 2002 , p. 452 Jump up ^ `` Top Singles -- Volume 30 , No. 13 , December 23 , 1978 '' . RPM . RPM Library Archives . December 23 , 1978 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Top Singles -- Volume 30 , No. 22 , February 24 , 1979 '' . RPM . RPM Library Archives . February 24 , 1979 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Top Singles -- Volume 30 , No. 25 , March 17 , 1979 '' . RPM . RPM Library Archives . March 17 , 1979 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Rose Royce : Artist Chart History '' Official Charts Company . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chart Track : Week 23 , 1978 '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Rose Royce -- Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Kent , David ( 1993 ) . Australian Chart Book 1970 -- 1992 ( doc ) format = requires url = ( help ) . Australian Chart Book , St Ives , N.S.W. ISBN 0 - 646 - 11917 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Radio 2 -- Top 30 -- Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' ( in German ) . VRT Top 30 . November 25 , 1978 . Archived from the original on February 22 , 2012 . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Rose Royce -- Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Rose Royce -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for Rose Royce . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Rose Royce -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs for Rose Royce . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Rose Royce -- Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved July 22 , 2014 . Enter Love Do n't Live Here Anymore in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` Gramophone Audio News : EMI digital recording '' . Gramophone . July 1979 . Retrieved December 6 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Rooksby 2004 , p. 18 Jump up ^ `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore Bounty Killer Song -- Yahoo ! Music '' . Yahoo !. Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Idowu , Omoronke ( January 1 , 1997 ) . `` Deja Vu '' . Vibe. 4 ( 10 ) . ISSN 1070 - 4701 . Retrieved September 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Josefine Schulz , Jenny ( February -- March 2016 ) . `` Von Höhen und Tiefen und der Liebe zur musikalischen Vielfalt '' . Fuze ( in German ) ( 56 ) : 36 . ZKZ 76542 . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Ich bin froh , dass du das erwähnst . Das ist einer meiner absoluten Lieblingssongs ^ Jump up to : Zanes 2009 , p. 201 Jump up ^ `` Rodgers : No more Madonna tunes '' . The Belfast Telegraph . February 6 , 2014 . Retrieved February 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Taraborrelli 2002 , p. 201 Jump up ^ CD Single Collection ( Media notes ) . Madonna . Warner Music Japan . 1996 . WPDR - 3100 - 3139 . Jump up ^ Rosen 1996 , p. 283 ^ Jump up to : Rooksby 2004 , p. 84 ^ Jump up to : Flick , Larry ( May 11 , 1996 ) . `` Daphne Gets New Lease on Her Career With ' Rent ' '' . Billboard. 108 ( 19 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Rooksby 2004 , p. 20 Jump up ^ Thomas , Stephen Thomas ( September 9 , 2002 ) . `` allmusic ( ( ( Like A Virgin > Overview ) ) ) '' . AllMusic . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bull , Debby ( January 2 , 1985 ) . `` Madonna , the Rolling stone files '' . Rolling Stone . ISBN 0 - 7868 - 8154 - 2 . Retrieved June 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( April 6 , 1996 ) . Billboard Reviews & Previews . Billboard . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Smith , Liz ( February 26 , 1996 ) . `` Michelle & Her Cat '' . Newsday . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Holmes , Dorothy ( December 4 , 1995 ) . `` Something to Remember Is Forgettable '' . Telegram & Gazette . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ McKenna , Jerry ( April 6 , 1996 ) . `` Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Spotlight '' . Billboard. 108 ( 14 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bronson , Fred ( April 20 , 1996 ) . `` I Am Woman , Watch Me Chart '' . Billboard. 108 ( 16 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Bronson , Fred ( October 25 , 2003 ) . `` Madonna Hits 50 Songs '' . Billboard. 115 ( 43 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Flick , Larry ( June 8 , 1996 ) . `` Reliving Studio 54 's Glory Days '' . Billboard. 108 ( 23 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( June 22 , 1996 ) . `` The Best Of Jennifer Holiday '' . Billboard. 108 ( 25 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( June 29 , 1996 ) . `` Vission & Lorimer Helps Bring Props To L.A. Scene '' . Billboard. 108 ( 26 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( July 27 , 1996 ) . `` Finally , Wash & Brown Are ' Jumpin ' Together '' . Billboard. 108 ( 30 ) . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Adult Contemporary : Week Ending May 25 , 1995 '' . Billboard . May 25 , 1996 . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Singles : Issue 2963 '' . RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Top RPM Singles : Issue 3013 . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved September 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Singles : Issue 3041 '' . RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved September 21 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Australian-charts.com -- Madonna -- Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ( Remix ) '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved September 21 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Baldacci , Leslie ( October 20 , 1996 ) . `` Three Women , Three Stories '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Retrieved September 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ The Video Collection 93 : 99 ( CD , DVD , VHS ) . Madonna . Warner Music Vision . 1999 . Jump up ^ Voller 1999 , p. 113 ^ Jump up to : Vernallis 2004 , p. 166 Jump up ^ Maerz , Melissa ( September 19 , 2015 ) . `` Madonna reigns over New York 's Madison Square Garden -- and reinvents her classics '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kabik , Erik ( 27 October 2015 ) . `` Review + photos : For rebel heart Madonna , it 's still good to be Queen of Pop '' . The Las Vegas Sun . Retrieved 19 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Madonna -- Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ( Remix ) '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved September 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Madonna -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for Madonna . Retrieved September 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Madonna -- Chart history '' Billboard Adult Contemporary for Madonna . Retrieved September 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Madonna -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs for Madonna . Retrieved September 21 , 2014 . References ( edit ) Bronson , Fred ( 2002 ) , The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Billboard books , ISBN 0 - 8230 - 7677 - 6 Cole , George ( 2007 ) , The Last Miles : The Music of Miles Davis , University of Michigan Press , ISBN 0 - 472 - 03260 - 7 Rooksby , Rikky ( 2004 ) , The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , Omnibus Press , ISBN 0 - 7119 - 9883 - 3 Rosen , Craig ( 1996 ) , The Billboard Book of Number One Albums : The Inside Story Behind Pop Music 's Blockbuster Records , Billboard books , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8230 - 7586 - 7 Taraborrelli , Randy J. ( 2002 ) , Madonna : An Intimate Biography , Simon & Schuster , ISBN 978 - 1 - 4165 - 8346 - 2 Thompson , Dave ( 2001 ) , Funk , Hal Leonard Corporation , ISBN 0 - 87930 - 629 - 7 Zanes , Warren ( 2009 ) , Revolutions in sound : Warner Bros. Records , the first fifty years , Chronicle Books , ISBN 0 - 8118 - 6628 - 9 Vernallis , Carol ( 2004 ) , Experiencing Music Video : Aesthetics and Cultural Context , Columbia University Press , ISBN 0 - 231 - 11799 - X Voller , Debbie ( 1999 ) , Madonna : The Style Book , Omnibus Press , ISBN 0 - 7119 - 7511 - 6 External links ( edit ) Madonna `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' Music Video Time Warner Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Rose Royce Gwen Dickey Kenny Copeland Kenji Brown Lequeint `` Duke '' Jobe Victor Nix Henry Garner Freddie Dunn Michael Moore Terry Santiel Michael Nash Studio albums Car Wash Rose Royce II : In Full Bloom Rose Royce III : Strikes Again ! Rose Royce IV : Rainbow Connection Compilation albums Greatest Hits Singles `` Car Wash '' `` I Wanna Get Next to You '' `` I 'm Going Down '' `` Wishing on a Star '' `` Ooh Boy '' `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' `` Is It Love You 're After '' Related articles Discography Norman Whitfield Whitfield Records Madonna songs Singles Covers Unreleased songs 1980s singles `` Everybody '' `` Burning Up '' `` Holiday '' `` Lucky Star '' `` Borderline '' `` Like a Virgin '' `` Material Girl '' `` Crazy for You '' `` Angel '' `` Into the Groove '' `` Dress You Up '' `` Gambler '' `` Live to Tell '' `` Papa Do n't Preach '' `` True Blue '' `` Open Your Heart '' `` La Isla Bonita '' `` Who 's That Girl '' `` Causing a Commotion '' `` The Look of Love '' `` Spotlight '' `` Like a Prayer '' `` Express Yourself '' `` Cherish '' `` Oh Father '' `` Dear Jessie '' 1990s singles `` Keep It Together '' `` Vogue '' `` Hanky Panky '' `` Justify My Love '' `` Rescue Me '' `` This Used to Be My Playground '' `` Erotica '' `` Deeper and Deeper '' `` Bad Girl '' `` Fever '' `` Rain '' `` Bye Bye Baby '' `` I 'll Remember '' `` Secret '' `` Take a Bow '' `` Bedtime Story '' `` Human Nature '' `` You 'll See '' `` One More Chance '' `` Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' `` You Must Love Me '' `` Do n't Cry for Me Argentina '' `` Another Suitcase in Another Hall '' `` Frozen '' `` Ray of Light '' `` Drowned World ( Substitute for Love ) '' `` The Power of Good - Bye '' `` Nothing Really Matters '' `` Beautiful Stranger '' 2000s singles `` American Pie '' `` Music '' `` Do n't Tell Me '' `` What It Feels Like for a Girl '' `` Die Another Day '' `` American Life '' `` Hollywood '' `` Me Against the Music '' `` Nothing Fails '' `` Love Profusion '' `` Hung Up '' `` Sorry '' `` Get Together '' `` Jump '' `` Hey You '' `` 4 Minutes '' `` Give It 2 Me '' `` Miles Away '' `` Celebration '' `` Revolver '' 2010s singles `` Give Me All Your Luvin ' '' `` Girl Gone Wild '' `` Masterpiece '' `` Turn Up the Radio '' `` Living for Love '' `` Ghosttown '' `` Bitch I 'm Madonna '' `` Hold Tight '' Promotional singles `` You Can Dance ( LP Cuts ) '' `` Erotic '' `` I Want You '' `` Sky Fits Heaven '' `` Impressive Instant '' `` GHV2 Megamix '' `` Into the Hollywood Groove '' `` Nobody Knows Me '' `` Imagine '' ( Live ) `` Superstar '' Other songs recorded `` Santa Baby '' `` I Surrender Dear '' `` Sooner or Later '' `` Oh What a Circus '' `` Sing '' `` Candy Shop '' `` Beat Goes On '' `` Gang Bang '' `` I Do n't Give A '' `` Devil Pray '' `` Unapologetic Bitch '' `` Illuminati '' `` Joan of Arc '' `` Iconic '' `` Holy Water '' `` Wash All Over Me '' `` Rebel Heart '' Other songs written `` Sidewalk Talk '' `` Each Time You Break My Heart '' `` Love Wo n't Wait '' Book Portal Template Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Love_Don%27t_Live_Here_Anymore&oldid=801076162 '' Categories : 1970s ballads 1978 singles 1978 songs 1996 singles Funk ballads Rose Royce songs Jimmy Nail songs Madonna ( entertainer ) songs Pop ballads Rhythm and blues ballads Songs about loneliness Song recordings produced by Nile Rodgers Song recordings produced by Norman Whitfield Whitfield Records singles Music videos directed by Jean - Baptiste Mondino Sire Records singles Warner Bros. Records singles Maverick Records singles Songs about heartache Hidden categories : Pages using citations with format and no URL CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Use mdy dates from April 2014 All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from August 2017 Singlechart usages for Ireland Singlechart making named ref Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for UKsinglesbyname Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardrandbhiphop Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Canadatopsingles Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Billboardadultcontemporary Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceclubplay Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Română Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2017 , at 14 : 21 . 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62 | document: History of Germany during World war I - wikipedia History of Germany during World war I Part of a series on the History of Germany Topics Chronology Historiography Military history Economic history Women 's history Territorial evolution List of German monarchs Early history Germanic peoples Migration Period Frankish Empire Middle Ages East Francia Kingdom of Germany Holy Roman Empire Eastward settlement Early Modern period Sectionalism 18th century Kingdom of Prussia Unification Confederation of the Rhine German Confederation Zollverein German revolutions of 1848 North German Confederation German Reich German Empire 1871 -- 1918 World War I 1914 -- 1918 Weimar Republic 1918 -- 1933 Nazi Germany 1933 -- 1945 Contemporary Germany Occupation Ostgebiete 1945 -- 1952 Expulsion of Germans 1944 -- 1950 Cold War 1945 -- 1990 Reunification New federal states Reunified Germany 1990 -- present Germany portal During World War I , the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that lost the war . It began participation in the conflict after the declaration of war against Serbia by its ally , Austria - Hungary . German forces fought the Allies on both the eastern and western fronts , although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war , except for a brief period in 1914 when East Prussia was invaded . A tight blockade imposed by the Royal Navy caused severe food shortages in the cities , especially in the winter of 1916 -- 17 , known as the Turnip Winter . At the end of the war , Germany 's defeat and widespread popular discontent triggered the German Revolution of 1918 -- 19 which overthrew the monarchy and established the Weimar Republic . Contents 1 Overview 2 1914 -- 15 3 1916 4 1917 5 1918 6 Home front 6.1 War fever 6.2 Economy 7 Defeat and revolt 8 War deaths 9 Soldiers ' experiences 10 Notes 11 Further reading 11.1 Military 11.2 Home front 11.3 Primary sources 12 External links Overview ( edit ) Main article : German Empire § World War I World War I mobilization , 1 August 1914 The German population responded to the outbreak of war in 1914 with a complex mix of emotions , in a similar way to the populations in other countries of Europe ; notions of overt enthusiasm known as the Spirit of 1914 have been challenged by more recent scholarship . The German government , dominated by the Junkers , thought of the war as a way to end Germany 's disputes with rivals France , Russia and Britain . The beginning of war was presented in Germany as the chance for the nation to secure `` our place under the sun , '' as the Foreign Minister Bernhard von Bülow had put it , which was readily supported by prevalent nationalism among the public . The Kaiser and the German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy , and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the Social Democratic Party of Germany , which had been the most vocal critic of the Kaiser in the Reichstag before the war . Despite its membership in the Second International , the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the Imperial government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort . It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months . At first , little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing , and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war . Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials , which were stopped by the British blockade of Germany . Food prices were first limited , then rationing was introduced . In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so - called Schweinemord to both make food and preserve grain . The winter of 1916 / 17 was called `` turnip winter '' because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal feed including vile - tasting turnips . During the war from August 1914 to mid-1919 , the excess deaths over peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians . 1914 -- 15 ( edit ) German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914 . A message on the freight car spells out `` Trip to Paris '' ; early in the war , all sides expected the conflict to be a short one . In this contemporary drawing by Heinrich Zille , the German soldiers bound westwards to France and those bound eastwards to Russia smilingly salute each other . Main article : Western Front ( World War I ) The German army opened the war on the Western Front with a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan , designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border . The Belgians fought back , and sabotaged their rail system to delay the Germans . The Germans did not expect this and were delayed , and responded with systematic reprisals on civilians , killing nearly 6,000 Belgian noncombatants , including women and children , and burning 25,000 houses and buildings . The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially , the Germans were very successful , particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers ( 14 -- 24 August ) . By 12 September , the French with assistance from the British forces halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne ( 5 -- 12 September ) . The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west . The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the Battle of Mulhouse had limited success . In the east , only one Field Army defended East Prussia and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front . Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg ( 17 August -- 2 September ) , but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail - heads not foreseen by the German General Staff . The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts . The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself . Despite this , communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory . 1916 ( edit ) German soldiers digging trenches 1916 was characterized by two great battles on the Western front , at Verdun and the Somme . They each lasted most of the year , achieved minimal gains , and drained away the best soldiers of both sides . Verdun became the iconic symbol of the murderous power of modern defensive weapons , with 280,000 German casualties , and 315,000 French . At the Somme , there were over 400,000 German casualties , against over 600,000 Allied casualties . At Verdun , the Germans attacked what they considered to be a weak French salient which nevertheless the French would defend for reasons of national pride . The Somme was part of a multinational plan of the Allies to attack on different fronts simultaneously . German woes were also compounded by Russia 's grand `` Brusilov offensive '' , where although Germany suffered less than their allies with ~ 150,000 of the ~ 770,000 Central powers casualties , were simultaneous to the Somme offensive and with German already committed to the Verdun offensive . German experts are divided in their interpretation of the Somme . Some say it was a standoff , but most see it as a British victory and argue it marked the point at which German morale began a permanent decline and the strategic initiative was lost , along with irreplaceable veterans and confidence . 1917 ( edit ) German soldiers operating a flamethrower in 1917 In early 1917 the SPD leadership became concerned about the activity of its anti-war left - wing which had been organising as the Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft ( SAG , `` Social Democratic Working Group '' ) . On 17 January they expelled them , and on April1917 the left - wing went on to form the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany ( German : Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands ) . The remaining faction was then known as the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany . This happened as the enthusiasm for war faded with the enormous numbers of casualties , the dwindling supply of manpower , the mounting difficulties on the homefront , and the never - ending flow of casualty reports . A grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population . The highlight only was the first use of mustard gas in warfare , in the Battle of Ypres . After , morale was helped by victories against Serbia , Greece , Italy , and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers . Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution , and the German people braced for what Ludendorff said would be the `` Peace Offensive '' in the west . 1918 ( edit ) Further information : Spring Offensive In spring 1918 , Germany realized that time was running out . It prepared for the decisive strike with new armies and new tactics , hoping to win the war on the Western front before millions of American soldiers appeared in battle . General Erich Ludendorff and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg had full control of the army , they had a large supply of reinforcements moved from the Eastern front , and they trained storm troopers with new tactics to race through the trenches and attack the enemy 's command and communications centers . The new tactics would indeed restore mobility to the Western front , but the German army was too optimistic . During the winter of 1917 - 18 it was `` quiet '' on the Western Front -- British casualties averaged `` only '' 3,000 a week . Serious attacks were impossible in the winter because of the deep caramel - thick mud . Quietly the Germans brought in their best soldiers from the eastern front , selected elite storm troops , and trained them all winter in the new tactics . With stopwatch timing , the German artillery would lay down a sudden , fearsome barrage just ahead of its advancing infantry . Moving in small units , firing light machine guns , the storm troopers would bypass enemy strongpoints , and head directly for critical bridges , command posts , supply dumps and , above all , artillery batteries . By cutting enemy communications they would paralyze response in the critical first half hour . By silencing the artillery they would break the enemy 's firepower . Rigid schedules sent in two more waves of infantry to mop up the strong points that had been bypassed . The shock troops frightened and disoriented the first line of defenders , who would flee in panic . In one instance an easy - going Allied regiment broke and fled ; reinforcements rushed in on bicycles . The panicky men seized the bikes and beat an even faster retreat . The stormtrooper tactics provided mobility , but not increased firepower . Eventually -- in 1939 and 1940 -- the formula would be perfected with the aid of dive bombers and tanks , but in 1918 the Germans lacked both . Ludendorff erred by attacking the British first in 1918 , instead of the French . He mistakenly thought the British to be too uninspired to respond rapidly to the new tactics . The exhausted , dispirited French perhaps might have folded . The German assaults on the British were ferocious -- the largest of the entire war . At the Somme River in March , 63 divisions attacked in a blinding fog . No matter , the German lieutenants had memorized their maps and their orders . The British lost 270,000 men , fell back 40 miles , and then held . They quickly learned how to handle the new German tactics : fall back , abandon the trenches , let the attackers overextend themselves , and then counterattack . They gained an advantage in firepower from their artillery and from tanks used as mobile pillboxes that could retreat and counterattack at will . In April Ludendorff hit the British again , inflicting 305,000 casualties -- but he lacked the reserves to follow up . Ludendorff launched five great attacks between March and July , inflicting a million British and French casualties . The Western Front now had opened up -- the trenches were still there but the importance of mobility now reasserted itself . The Allies held . The Germans suffered as many casualties as they inflicted , including most of their precious stormtroopers . The new German replacements were under - aged youth or embittered middle - aged family men in poor condition . They were not inspired by the elan of 1914 , nor thrilled with battle -- they hated it , and some began talking of revolution . Ludendorff could not replace his losses , nor could he devise a new brainstorm that might somehow snatch victory from the jaws of defeat . The British likewise were bringing in boys and men aged 50 , but since their home front was in good condition , and since they could see the Americans arriving steadily , their morale was higher . The great German spring offensive was a race against time , for everyone could see the Americans were training millions of fresh young men who would eventually arrive on the Western Front . German troops in Kiev , March 1918 The attrition warfare now caught up to both sides . Germany had used up all the best soldiers they had , and still had not conquered much territory . The British were out of fresh manpower , the French nearly so . Berlin had calculated it would take months for the Americans to ship all their men and supplies -- but the U.S. troops arrived much sooner , as they left their supplies behind , and relied on British and French artillery , tanks , airplanes , trucks and equipment . Berlin also assumed that Americans were fat , undisciplined and unaccustomed to hardship and severe fighting . They soon realized their mistake . The Germans reported that `` The qualities of the ( Americans ) individually may be described as remarkable . They are physically well set up , their attitude is good ... They lack at present only training and experience to make formidable adversaries . The men are in fine spirits and are filled with naive assurance . '' By September 1918 , the Central Powers were exhausted from fighting , and the American forces were pouring into France at a rate of 10,000 a day . The decisive Allied counteroffensive , known as the Hundred Days Offensive , began on 8 August 1918 -- what Ludendorff called the `` Black Day of the German army . '' The Allied armies advanced steadily as German defenses faltered . Although German armies were still on enemy soil as the war ended , the generals , the civilian leadership -- and indeed the soldiers and the people -- knew all was hopeless . They started looking for scapegoats . The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated revolution throughout Germany . By 11 November Germany had virtually surrendered , the Kaiser and all the royal families had abdicated , and the Empire had been replaced by the Weimar Republic . Home front ( edit ) War fever ( edit ) Military propaganda postcard : Wounded soldiers cheer to the German Emperor Wilhelm II , who is in a car . The `` spirit of 1914 '' was the overwhelming , enthusiastic support of all elements of the population for war in 1914 . In the Reichstag , the vote for credits was unanimous , with all the Socialists joining in . One professor testified to a `` great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment , in short , the ascent of a whole people to the heights . '' At the same time , there was a level of anxiety ; most commentators predicted the short victorious war -- but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks , as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris . The Western Front became a killing machine , as neither army moved more than a few hundred yards at a time . Industry in late 1914 was in chaos , unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions . In 1916 , the Hindenburg Program called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery , shells , and machine guns . Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down . Economy ( edit ) Germany had no plans for mobilizing its civilian economy for the war effort , and no stockpiles of food or critical supplies had been made . Germany had to improvise rapidly . All major political sectors initially supported the war , including the Socialists . Early in the war industrialist Walter Rathenau held senior posts in the Raw Materials Department of the War Ministry , while becoming chairman of AEG upon his father 's death in 1915 . Rathenau played the key role in convincing the War Ministry to set up the War Raw Materials Department ( Kriegsrohstoffabteilung - ' KRA ' ) ; he was in charge of it from August 1914 to March 1915 and established the basic policies and procedures . His senior staff were on loan from industry . KRA focused on raw materials threatened by the British blockade , as well as supplies from occupied Belgium and France . It set prices and regulated the distribution to vital war industries . It began the development of ersatz raw materials . KRA suffered many inefficiencies caused by the complexity and selfishness KRA encountered from commerce , industry , and the government . Collecting scrap metal for the war effort , 1916 While the KRA handled critical raw materials , the crisis over food supplies grew worse . The mobilization of so many farmers and horses , and the shortages of fertilizer , steadily reduced the food supply . Prisoners of war were sent to work on farms , and many women and elderly men took on work roles . Supplies that had once come in from Russia and Austria were cut off . The concept of `` total war '' in World War I , meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and , with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade , German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meager conditions . Food prices were first controlled . Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well ; the cost of bread fell . Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states , `` the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated . '' However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition -- usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened body could not resist . ( Starvation itself rarely caused death . ) A 2014 study , derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914 - 1924 , found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade , with working - class children suffering the most . The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program . Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front , with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas . The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military , combined with the overburdened railroad system , shortages of coal , and the British blockade that cut off imports from abroad . The winter of 1916 - 1917 was known as the `` turnip winter , '' because that hardly - edible vegetable , usually fed to livestock , was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat , which were increasingly scarce . Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people , who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves . Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers . Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink . Wartime ration stamps in Bavaria The drafting of miners reduced the main energy source , coal . The textile factories produced Army uniforms , and warm clothing for civilians ran short . The device of using ersatz materials , such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory . Soap was in short supply , as was hot water . All the cities reduced tram services , cut back on street lighting , and closed down theaters and cabarets . The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread , it was harder and harder to buy meat . The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31 % of peacetime , and it fell to 12 % in late 1918 . The fish ration was 51 % in 1916 , and none at all by late 1917 . The rations for cheese , butter , rice , cereals , eggs and lard were less than 20 % of peacetime levels . In 1917 the harvest was poor all across Europe , and the potato supply ran short , and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips ; the `` turnip winter '' of 1916 -- 17 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations . Early in the war introduced bread rationing , and the system worked fairly well , albeit with shortfalls during the Turnip Winter and summer of 1918 . White bread used imported flour and became unavailable , but there was enough rye or rye - potato flour to provide a minimal diet for all civilians . German women were not employed in the Army , but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories , and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services . Housewives were taught how to cook without milk , eggs or fat ; agencies helped widows find work . Banks , insurance companies and government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions . Factories hired them for unskilled labor -- by December 1917 , half the workers in chemicals , metals , and machine tools were women . Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed , and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers , lest their productivity fall off . The food situation in 1918 was better , because the harvest was better , but serious shortages continued , with high prices , and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit . Many migrants had flocked into cities to work in industry , which made for overcrowded housing . Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold . Daily life involved long working hours , poor health , and little or no recreation , an increasing fears for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camp . The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently crippled ; wounded soldiers who had recovered were sent back to the trenches . Defeat and revolt ( edit ) Demobilization after World War I Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left , such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war . The third reason was the entry of the United States into the war in April 1917 , which changed the long - run balance of power in favor of the Allies . The end of October 1918 , in Kiel , in northern Germany , saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918 -- 19 . Civilian dock workers led a revolt and convinced many sailors to join them ; the revolt quickly spread to other cities . Meanwhile , Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government . In November 1918 , with internal revolution , a stalemated war , Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire suing for peace , Austria - Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions , and pressure from the German high command , the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated . On 9 November 1918 , the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic , in cooperation with the business and middle classes , not the revolting workers . The new government led by the German Social Democrats called for and received an armistice on 11 November 1918 ; in practice it was a surrender , and the Allies kept up the food blockade to guarantee an upper hand . The war was over ; the history books closed on the German Empire . It was succeeded by the democratic , yet flawed , Weimar Republic . Seven million soldiers and sailors were quickly demobilized , and they became a conservative voice that drowned out the radical left in cities such as Kiel and Berlin . The radicals formed the Spartakusbund and later the Communist Party of Germany . Germany lost the war because it was decisively defeated by a stronger military power ; it was out of soldiers and ideas , and was losing ground every day by October 1918 . Nevertheless , it was still in France when the war ended on Nov. 11 giving die - hard nationalists the chance to blame the civilians back home for betraying the army and surrendering . This was the false `` Stab - in - the - back legend '' that soured German politics in the 1920s and caused a distrust of democracy and the Weimar government . War deaths ( edit ) Main article : World War I casualties Out of a population of 65 million , Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes ( especially the food blockade ) , plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies . The Allied blockade continued until July 1919 , causing severe additional hardships . Soldiers ' experiences ( edit ) Despite the often ruthless conduct of the German military machine , in the air and at sea as well as on land , individual German soldiers could view the enemy with respect and empathy and the war with contempt . Some examples from letters home : `` A terrible picture presented itself to me . A French and a German soldier on their knees were leaning against each other . They had pierced each other with the bayonet and had dropped like this to the ground ... Courage , heroism , does it really exist ? I am about to doubt it , since I have n't seen anything else than fear , anxiety , and despair in every face during the battle . There was nothing at all like courage , bravery , or the like . In reality , there is nothing else than terrible discipline and coercion propelling the soldiers forward '' Dominik Richert , 1914 . `` Our men have reached an agreement with the French to cease fire . They bring us bread , wine , sardines etc. , we bring them schnapps . The masters make war , they have a quarrel , and the workers , the little men ... have to stand there fighting against each other . Is that not a great stupidity ? ... If this were to be decided according to the number of votes , we would have been long home by now '' Hermann Baur , 1915 . `` I have no idea what we are still fighting for anyway , maybe because the newspapers portray everything about the war in a false light which has nothing to do with the reality ... There could be no greater misery in the enemy country and at home . The people who still support the war have n't got a clue about anything ... If I stay alive , I will make these things public ... We all want peace ... What is the point of conquering half of the world , when we have to sacrifice all our strength ? ... You out there , just champion peace ! ... We give away all our worldly possessions and even our freedom . Our only goal is to be with our wife and children again , '' Anonymous Bavarian soldier , 17 October 1914 . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jeffrey Verhey , The Spirit of 1914 : Militarism , Myth and Mobilization in Germany ( Cambridge U.P. , 2000 ) . Jump up ^ N.P. Howard , `` The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany , 1918 - 19 , '' German History ( 1993 ) , 11 # 2 , pp. 161 - 88 online p. 166 , with 271,000 excess deaths in 1918 and 71,000 in 1919 . Jump up ^ Hew Strachan ( 1998 ) . World War 1 . Oxford University Press . p. 125 . Jump up ^ Jeff Lipkes , Rehearsals : The German Army in Belgium , August 1914 ( 2007 ) Jump up ^ Barbara Tuchman , The Guns of August ( 1962 ) Jump up ^ Fred R. Van Hartesveldt , The Battles of the Somme , 1916 : Historiography and Annotated Bibliography ( 1996 ) , pp. 26 - 27 . Jump up ^ C.R.M.F. Cruttwell , A History of the Great War : 1914 - 1918 ( 1935 ) ch 15 - 29 Jump up ^ Holger H. Herwig , The First World War : Germany and Austria - Hungary 1914 - 1918 ( 1997 ) ch. 4 - 6 . Jump up ^ Bruce I. Gudmundsson , Stormtroop Tactics : Innovation in the German Army , 1914 - 1918 ( 1989 ) , pp. 155 - 70 . Jump up ^ David Stevenson , With Our Backs to the Wall : Victory and Defeat in 1918 ( 2011 ) , pp. 30 - 111 . Jump up ^ C.R.M.F. Cruttwell , A History of the Great War : 1914 - 1918 ( 1935 ) , pp. 505 - 35r . Jump up ^ Allan Millett ( 1991 ) . Semper Fidelis : The History of the United States Marine Corps . Simon and Schuster . p. 304 . Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker ( 2005 ) . World War I : A - D. ABC - CLIO . p. 1256 . Jump up ^ Roger Chickering , Imperial Germany and the Great War , 1914 - 1918 ( 1998 ) p. 14 Jump up ^ Richie , Faust 's Metropolis , pp. 272 - 75 . Jump up ^ D.G. Williamson , `` Walther Rathenau and the K.R.A. August 1914 - March 1915 , '' Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte ( 1978 ) , Issue 11 , pp. 118 - 136 . Jump up ^ Hew Strachan , The First World War : Volume I : To Arms ( 2001 ) , pp. 1014 - 49 on Rathenau and KRA . Jump up ^ Feldman , Gerald D . `` The Political and Social Foundations of Germany 's Economic Mobilization , 1914 - 1916 , '' Armed Forces & Society ( 1976 ) , 3 # 1 , pp. 121 - 145 . online Jump up ^ Keith Allen , `` Sharing scarcity : Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin , 1914 - 1923 , '' Journal of Social History , ( 1998 ) , 32 # 2 , pp. 371 - 93 , quote p. 380 . Jump up ^ N.P. Howard , `` The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany , 1918 - 19 , '' German History , April 1993 , Vol. 11 , Issue 2 , pp. 161 - 188 . ^ Jump up to : Cox , Mary Elisabeth ( 2015 - 05 - 01 ) . `` Hunger games : or how the Allied blockade in the First World War deprived German children of nutrition , and Allied food aid subsequently saved them '' . The Economic History Review . 68 ( 2 ) : 600 -- 631 . doi : 10.1111 / ehr. 12070 . ISSN 1468 - 0289 . Jump up ^ Roger Chickering , Imperial Germany and the Great War , 1914 - 1918 ( 2004 ) p. 141 - 42 Jump up ^ David Welch , Germany , Propaganda and Total War , 1914 - 1918 ( 2000 ) p. 122 Jump up ^ Chickering , Imperial Germany , pp. 140 - 145 . Jump up ^ Keith Allen , `` Sharing scarcity : Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin , 1914 - 1923 , '' Journal of Social History ( 1998 ) 32 # 2 , 00224529 , Winter98 , Vol. 32 , Issue 2 Jump up ^ Alexandra Richie , Faust 's Metropolis ( 1998 ) , pp. 277 - 80 . Jump up ^ A.J. Ryder , The German Revolution of 1918 : A Study of German Socialism in War and Revolt ( 2008 ) Jump up ^ Wilhelm Diest and E.J. Feuchtwanger , `` The Military Collapse of the German Empire : the Reality Behind the Stab - in - the - Back Myth , '' War in History , April 1996 , Vol. 3 , Issue 2 , pp. 186 - 207 . Jump up ^ Leo Grebler and Wilhelm Winkler , The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria - Hungary ( Yale University Press , 1940 ) Jump up ^ N.P. Howard , N.P. `` The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany , 1918 - 19 , '' German History ( 1993 ) p 162 Jump up ^ Bernd Ulrich and Benjamin , ed. , Ziemann , German Soldiers in the Great War : Letters and Eyewitness Accounts ( Pen and Sword Military , 2010 ) . This book is a compilation of German soldiers ' letters and memoirs . All the references come from this book . Jump up ^ German Soldiers in the Great War , 77 . Jump up ^ German Soldiers in the Great War , 64 . Jump up ^ German Soldiers in the Great War , 51 . Further reading ( edit ) Watson , Alexander . Ring of Steel : Germany and Austria - Hungary in World War I ( 2014 ) , excerpt Military ( edit ) Cecil , Lamar ( 1996 ) , Wilhelm II : Emperor and Exile , 1900 - 1941 , II , Chapel Hill , North Carolina : University of North Carolina Press , p. 176 , ISBN 0 - 8078 - 2283 - 3 , OCLC 186744003 Chickering , Roger , et al. eds . Great War , Total War : Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front , 1914 - 1918 ( Publications of the German Historical Institute ) ( 2000 ) . ISBN 0 - 521 - 77352 - 0 . 584 pgs . Cowin , Hugh W. German and Austrian Aviation of World War I : A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower ( 2000 ) . Osprey Pub Co . ISBN 1 - 84176 - 069 - 2 . 96 pgs . Cruttwell , C.R.M.F. A History of the Great War : 1914 - 1918 ( 1935 ) ch 15 - 29 online free Cross , Wilbur ( 1991 ) , Zeppelins of World War I , ISBN 1 - 55778 - 382 - 9 Herwig , Holger H. The First World War : Germany and Austria - Hungary 1914 - 1918 ( 1996 ) , mostly military Horne , John , ed . A Companion to World War I ( 2012 ) Hubatsch , Walther ; Backus , Oswald P ( 1963 ) , Germany and the Central Powers in the World War , 1914 -- 1918 , Lawrence , Kansas : University of Kansas , OCLC 250441891 Kitchen , Martin . The Silent Dictatorship : The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff , 1916 -- 1918 ( London : Croom Helm , 1976 ) Morrow , John . German Air Power in World War I ( U. of Nebraska Press , 1982 ) ; Contains design and production figures , as well as economic influences . Sheldon , Jack ( 2005 ) . The German Army on the Somme : 1914 - 1916 . Barnsley : Pen and Sword Books Ltd . ISBN 1 - 84415 - 269 - 3 . The miltarism mean the countries need to develop military or army levels From 1880 to 1914 , the military expenditure of the six bog powers ( viz. Germany , Russia , Austria , Italy , France , and Britain ) Home front ( edit ) Allen , Keith . `` Sharing Scarcity : Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin , 1914 -- 1923 , '' Journal of Social History ( 1998 ) , 32 # 2 , pp. 371 -- 96 . Armeson , Robert . Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor : A Study of the Military - Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I ( The Hague : M. Nijhoff , 1964 ) Bailey , S . `` The Berlin Strike of 1918 , '' Central European History ( 1980 ) , 13 # 2 , pp. 158 -- 74 . Bell , Archibald . A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War , Austria - Hungary , Bulgaria , and Turkey , 1914 -- 1918 ( London : H.M. Stationery Office , 1937 ) Broadberry , Stephen and Mark Harrison , eds . The Economics of World War I ( 2005 ) ISBN 0 - 521 - 85212 - 9 . Covers France , UK , USA , Russia , Italy , Germany , Austria - Hungary , the Ottoman Empire , and the Netherlands Burchardt , Lothar . `` The Impact of the War Economy on the Civilian Population of Germany during the First and the Second World Wars , '' in The German Military in the Age of Total War , edited by Wilhelm Deist , 111 -- 36 . Leamington Spa : Berg , 1985 . Chickering , Roger . Imperial Germany and the Great War , 1914 -- 1918 ( 1998 ) , wide - ranging survey Daniel , Ute . The War from Within : German Working - Class Women in the First World War ( 1997 ) Dasey , Robyn . `` Women 's Work and the Family : Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War , '' in The German Family : Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth - and Twentieth - Century Germany , edited by Richard J. Evans and W.R. Lee , ( London : Croom Helm , 1981 ) , pp. 221 -- 53 . Davis , Belinda J. Home Fires Burning : Food , Politics , and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin ( 2000 ) online edition Dobson , Sean . Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig , 1910 -- 1920 ( 2000 ) . Domansky , Elisabeth . `` Militarization and Reproduction in World War I Germany , '' in Society , Culture , and the State in Germany , 1870 -- 1930 , edited by Geoff Eley , ( University of Michigan Press , 1996 ) , pp. 427 -- 64 . Donson , Andrew . `` Why did German youth become fascists ? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution , '' Social History , Aug2006 , Vol. 31 , Issue 3 , pp. 337 -- 358 Feldman , Gerald D . `` The Political and Social Foundations of Germany 's Economic Mobilization , 1914 - 1916 , '' Armed Forces & Society ( 1976 ) , 3 # 1 , pp. 121 -- 145 . online Feldman , Gerald . Army , Industry , and Labor in Germany , 1914 -- 1918 ( 1966 ) Ferguson , Niall The Pity of War ( 1999 ) , cultural and economic themes , worldwide Hardach , Gerd . The First World War 1914 - 1918 ( 1977 ) , economics Herwig , Holger H. The First World War : Germany and Austria - Hungary 1914 - 1918 ( 1996 ) , one third on the homefront Howard , N.P. `` The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany , 1918 - 19 , '' German History ( 1993 ) , 11 # 2 , pp. 161 -- 88 online Kocka , Jürgen . Facing total war : German society , 1914 - 1918 ( 1984 ) . online at ACLS e-books Lee , Joe . `` German Administrators and Agriculture during the First World War , '' in War and Economic Development , edited by Jay M. Winter . ( Cambridge University Press , 1975 ) . Marquis , H.G. `` Words as Weapons : Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War . '' Journal of Contemporary History ( 1978 ) 12 : 467 -- 98 . McKibbin , David . War and Revolution in Leipzig , 1914 -- 1918 : Socialist Politics and Urban Evolution in a German City ( University Press of America , 1998 ) . Moeller , Robert G. `` Dimensions of Social Conflict in the Great War : A View from the Countryside , '' Central European History ( 1981 ) , 14 # 2 , pp. 142 -- 68 . Moeller , Robert G. German Peasants and Agrarian Politics , 1914 -- 1924 : The Rhineland and Westphalia ( 1986 ) . online edition Offer , Avner . The First World War : An Agrarian Interpretation ( 1991 ) , on food supply of Britain and Germany Osborne , Eric . Britain 's Economic Blockade of Germany , 1914 - 1919 ( 2004 ) Richie , Alexandra . Faust 's Metropolis : a History of Berlin ( 1998 ) , pp. 234 -- 83 . Ryder , A.J. The German Revolution of 1918 ( Cambridge University Press , 1967 ) Siney , Marion . The Allied Blockade of Germany , 1914 -- 1916 ( 1957 ) Steege , Paul . Black Market , Cold War : Everyday Life in Berlin , 1946 - 1949 ( 2008 ) excerpt and text search Terraine , John . `` ' An Actual Revolutionary Situation ' : In 1917 there was little to sustain German morale at home , '' History Today ( 1978 ) , 28 # 1 , pp. 14 -- 22 , online Tobin , Elizabeth . `` War and the Working Class : The Case of Düsseldorf , 1914 -- 1918 , '' Central European History ( 1985 ) , 13 # 3 , pp. 257 -- 98 Triebel , Armin . `` Consumption in Wartime Germany , '' in The Upheaval of War : Family , Work , and Welfare in Europe , 1914 -- 1918 edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter , ( Cambridge University Press , 1988 ) , pp. 159 -- 96 . Usborne , Cornelie . `` Pregnancy Is a Woman 's Active Service , '' in The Upheaval of War : Family , Work , and Welfare in Europe , 1914 -- 1918 edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter , ( Cambridge University Press , 1988 ) , pp. 289 -- 416 . Verhey , Jeffrey . The Spirit of 1914 . Militarism , Myth and Mobilization in Germany ( Cambridge University Press 2000 ) Welch , David . Germany and Propaganda in World War I : Pacifism , Mobilization and Total War ( IB Tauris , 2014 ) Winter , Jay , and Jean - Louis Robert , eds . Capital Cities at War : Paris , London , Berlin 1914 - 1919 ( 2 vol. 1999 , 2007 ) , 30 chapters 1200pp ; comprehensive coverage by scholars vol 1 excerpt ; vol 2 excerpt and text search Winter , Jay . Sites of Memory , Sites of Mourning : The Great War in European Cultural History ( 1995 ) Ziemann , Benjamin . War Experiences in Rural Germany , 1914 - 1923 ( Berg , 2007 ) online edition Primary sources ( edit ) Gooch , P.G. Recent Revelations Of European Diplomacy ( 1940 ) . pp3 -- 100 Lutz , Ralph Haswell , ed . Fall of the German Empire , 1914 -- 1918 ( 2 vol 1932 ) . 868pp online review , primary sources External links ( edit ) ( in German ) `` Der Erste Weltkrieg '' ( in English ) `` The First World War '' at Living Museum Online ( LeMO ) Articles relating to Germany at 1914 - 1918 Online : International Encyclopedia of the First World War Hirschfeld , Gerhard : Germany Fehlemann , Silke : Bereavement and Mourning ( Germany ) Bruendel , Steffen : Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers ' Attitudes Towards War ( Germany ) Davis , Belinda : Food and Nutrition ( Germany ) Oppelland , Torsten : Governments , Parliaments and Parties ( Germany ) Stibbe , Matthew : Women 's Mobilisation for War ( Germany ) Ungern - Sternberg , Jürgen von : Making Sense of the War ( Germany ) Ullmann , Hans - Peter : Organization of War Economies ( Germany ) Gross , Stephen : War Finance ( Germany ) Altenhöner , Florian : Press / Journalism ( Germany ) Ther , Vanessa : Propaganda at Home ( Germany ) Pöhlmann , Markus : Warfare 1914 - 1918 ( Germany ) Löffelbein , Nils : War Aims and War Aims Discussions ( Germany ) Whalen , Robert Weldon : War Losses ( Germany ) Germany and the First World War article index at Spartacus Educational Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau ( German occupied Poland ) from World War I , 1915 - 1916 From the Collections at the Library of Congress Germany articles History Timeline Historiography Military history Germanic peoples Migration Period Frankish Empire Holy Roman Empire Ostsiedlung ( East Colonisation ) Confederation of the Rhine German Confederation Frankfurt Constitution North German Confederation Unification of Germany German Empire World War I Weimar Republic Nazi Germany World War II Divided Germany Allied occupation Flight and expulsions East Germany West Germany Reunification Reunified Germany Geography Administrative divisions States Districts Cities and towns Earthquakes Geology Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers Politics Bundestag Bundesrat Bundeswehr ( military ) Cabinet Chancellor Constitution Court system Elections Foreign relations Human rights Intersex LGBT Transgender Law Law enforcement Political parties President Economy Agriculture Automobile industry Banking Central bank Chemical Triangle Economic history Energy Exports German model German states by GDP Manufacturing Mining Mittelstand companies Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Tourism Trade unions Transport Welfare Society Crime Demographics Drug policy Education Germans Ethnic groups Healthcare Immigration Pensions Religion Social issues Culture Anthem Architecture Art Arts Cinema Coat of arms Cuisine Cultural icons Dance Fashion Festivals Flag Language Libraries Literature Internet Media Music Names Philosophy Prussian virtues Sport Television World Heritage Outline Index Book Portal History of World War I by region and country Africa Angola East Africa Egypt Liberia Morocco South Africa South West Africa Southern Rhodesia North America Canada United States South America Brazil Asia Caucasus India Iran Iraq Japan Levant Siam Vietnam Yemen Europe Austria - Hungary Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Estonia France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Luxembourg Poland Ottoman Empire Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Oceania Australia New Zealand Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I&oldid=856357555 '' Categories : German Empire in World War I 1910s in Germany German Empire Modern history of Germany World War I by country 20th century in Germany by period Hidden categories : Articles containing German - language text Articles with German - language external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Български 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית Русский Suomi Українська 3 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2018 , at 17 : 02 ( UTC ) . 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63 | document: The Great food truck Race - wikipedia The Great food truck Race Jump to : navigation , search The Great Food Truck Race Presented by Tyler Florence Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 8 No. of episodes 51 ( list of episodes ) Production company ( s ) Critical Content Release Original network Food Network The Great Food Truck Race is a reality television and cooking series that originally aired on August 15 , 2010 , on Food Network , with Tyler Florence as the host . Billed as a cross between Cannonball Run and Top Chef , this late summer show features several competing teams of three who drive across the United States in their food trucks and make stops every week to sell food in different cities . Contents ( hide ) 1 Format 2 Series overview 3 Production Notes 4 References 5 External links Format ( edit ) Every season , between six and eight food truck teams compete in a race where they must cook , sell , and adapt to different challenges in the hopes of winning $50,000 ( and in some cases , their very own food truck ) . Starting off on the west coast and driving east , every week the food truck that makes the least profit is eliminated and sent home , while the rest of the food trucks continue on to the next city . They 're usually given `` seed money '' at the beginning of each episode that goes towards grocery shopping . The teams are assigned different challenges every week for a chance to earn more money ( usually in the form of selling the most of a special dish or making a version of a local delicacy for Tyler and a guest judge ) . They 're also thrown obstacles that hinder their ability to make normal sales ( examples : switching their menu to vegan food or being unable to restock supplies for the day . ) In the first two seasons of the Great Food Truck Race , the competitors were seasoned , professional food truck operators who were competing for a cash prize ( first season was $50,000 and second season was $100,000 ) . In the following seasons ( save for season six ) , food trucks were provided to novices ( from home cooks to former restaurateurs ) who have dreamt of owning and operating their very own food truck . In seasons three , four , and five , the winning team got the money and got to keep the food truck they were provided by the show . In season six and onward , the show reverted to awarding the winning teams only the $50,000 . Series overview ( edit ) List of The Great Food Truck Race episodes Season Episodes Season premiere Season finale 6 August 15 , 2010 ( 2010 - 08 - 15 ) September 19 , 2010 ( 2010 - 09 - 19 ) 7 August 14 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 14 ) September 25 , 2011 ( 2011 - 09 - 25 ) 7 August 19 , 2012 ( 2012 - 08 - 19 ) September 30 , 2012 ( 2012 - 09 - 30 ) 7 August 18 , 2013 ( 2013 - 08 - 18 ) September 29 , 2013 ( 2013 - 09 - 29 ) 5 7 August 17 , 2014 ( 2014 - 08 - 17 ) September 28 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 28 ) 6 6 August 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 08 - 23 ) September 27 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 27 ) 7 5 August 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 28 ) September 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 25 ) 8 6 August 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 20 ) September 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 24 ) Production notes ( edit ) Bob Tuschman , general manager of the Food Network , had gotten several pitches for a food truck themed competition show before settling on the show that would become The Great Food Truck Race . He believed it to be ideal because it combined the Survivor - style reality show competition with the rising trend of food trucks . Tyler Florence was immediately on board and as the show grew and got renewed , so did the food truck scene . Florence believed the food truck trend grew in large part because of the economic slump around the early 2000s , and his show `` helped invent an entirely new genre of restaurants '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Great Food Truck Race Episodes '' . Television Food Network G.P . Retrieved August 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Tyler Florence Interview '' . Tvsquad.com . Retrieved August 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Tyler Florence talks about Food Network 's new reality competition '' . ew.com . Retrieved August 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Food ( Truck ) Fight : Putting Griddle to the Metal '' . nytimes.com . Jump up ^ `` How ' The Great Food Truck Race ' Influenced America 's Food Truck Scene '' . thedailymeal.com . External links ( edit ) Official website The Great Food Truck Race on IMDb Food Network original programming Current Barefoot Contessa ( since 2002 ) Beat Bobby Flay ( since 2014 ) Brunch @ Bobby 's ( since 2010 ) Cake Wars ( since 2015 ) Chopped ( since 2009 ) Chopped After Hours ( since 2015 ) Chopped Junior ( since 2015 ) Clash of the Grandmas ( since 2015 ) Cupcake Wars ( since 2009 ) Cutthroat Kitchen ( since 2013 ) Diners , Drive - Ins and Dives ( since 2006 ) Food Network Star ( since 2005 ) Food Network Star Kids ( since 2016 ) The Great Food Truck Race ( since 2010 ) Guilty Pleasures ( since 2015 ) Guy 's Big Bite ( since 2006 ) Guy 's Grocery Games ( since 2013 ) Halloween Baking Championship ( since 2015 ) Halloween Wars ( since 2011 ) Holiday Baking Championship ( since 2014 ) Kids Baking Championship ( since 2015 ) The Kitchen ( since 2014 ) Kitchen Sink ( since 2016 ) The Pioneer Woman ( since 2011 ) Spring Baking Championship ( since 2015 ) Top 5 Restaurants ( since 2015 ) Valerie 's Home Cooking ( since 2015 ) Worst Bakers in America ( since 2016 ) Worst Cooks in America ( since 2010 ) Former 1990s debuts Cooking Live ( 1997 -- 2003 ) Emeril Live ( 1997 -- 2010 ) Essence of Emeril ( 1994 -- 2007 ) Good Eats ( 1999 -- 2012 ) How to Boil Water ( 1993 -- 2000 ) 2000s debuts 30 Minute Meals ( 2001 -- 2012 ) $40 a Day ( 2002 -- 2005 ) 5 Ingredient Fix ( 2009 -- 2011 ) Ace of Cakes ( 2006 -- 2011 ) BBQ with Bobby Flay ( 2004 -- 2007 ) Boy Meets Grill ( 2002 -- 2011 ) Behind the Bash ( 2006 ) Ask Aida ( 2008 -- 2009 ) The Best Thing I Ever Ate ( 2009 -- 2011 ) Big Daddy 's House ( 2008 -- 2011 ) Chocolate with Jacques Torres ( 2002 -- 2004 ) Dinner : Impossible ( 2007 -- 2010 ) Everyday Italian ( 2003 -- 2008 ) Extreme Cuisine with Jeff Corwin ( 2009 -- 2010 ) Feasting on Asphalt ( 2006 -- 2008 ) Food 911 ( 2000 -- 2006 ) Food Network Challenge ( 2007 -- 2011 ) Giada at Home ( 2008 -- 2015 ) Giada 's Weekend Getaways ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Glutton for Punishment ( 2007 -- 2011 ) Good Deal with Dave Lieberman ( 2005 -- 2007 ) Ham on the Street ( 2006 ) How 'd That Get on My Plate ? 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64 | document: American Ninja Warrior - wikipedia American Ninja Warrior Jump to : navigation , search American Ninja Warrior Genre Sports entertainment Sports competition Directed by Patrick McManus Presented by Matt Iseman Akbar Gbaja - Biamila Kristine Leahy Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons 9 No. of episodes 131 Production Executive producer ( s ) Arthur Smith Kent Weed Brian Richardson Anthony Storm Producer ( s ) David Markus Briana Vowels John Gunn Royce Toni J.D. Pruess Matthew Silverberg Max Poris Camera setup Multiple - camera Running time 36 -- 128 minutes Production company ( s ) A. Smith & Co . Release Original network G4 ( 2009 -- 2013 ) ; NBC ( 2012 -- present ) Esquire Network ( 2014 -- 2016 ) USA Network ( 2017 -- present ) Original release December 12 , 2009 ( 2009 - 12 - 12 ) -- present Chronology Preceded by American Ninja Challenge ( 2006 -- 08 ) Related shows Sasuke Ultimate Beastmaster External links Website www.nbc.com/american-ninja-warrior Production website www.anwcasting.com American Ninja Warrior ( sometimes abbreviated as ANW ) is an American sports entertainment competition that is a spin - off of the Japanese television series Sasuke . It features hundreds of competitors attempting to complete a series of obstacle courses of increasing difficulty , trying to make it to the national finals on the Las Vegas Strip , in hopes of becoming an `` American Ninja Warrior '' . To date only two competitors , rock - climbers Isaac Caldiero and Geoff Britten , have won the course and achieved `` Total Victory '' . Caldiero is the only competitor to win the cash prize . The series began on the now - defunct cable channel G4 and now airs on NBC with encore episodes airing on USA Network and NBC Sports Network . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Hosts and co-hosts 2.1 Timeline 3 Format 3.1 Contestant eligibility 3.2 City qualifying 3.2. 1 City timeline 3.3 City finals 3.4 Mount Midoriyama 4 Series overview and season synopses 4.1 Season 1 ( 2009 ) 4.2 Season 2 ( 2010 ) 4.3 Season 3 ( 2011 ) 4.4 Season 4 ( 2012 ) 4.5 Season 5 ( 2013 ) 4.6 Season 6 ( 2014 ) 4.7 Season 7 ( 2015 ) 4.8 Season 8 ( 2016 ) 4.9 Season 9 ( 2017 ) 5 ANW Specials 5.1 USA vs. the World / Japan 5.1. 1 USA vs. Japan ( Las Vegas , January 2014 ) 5.1. 2 USA vs. the World ( Las Vegas , September 2014 ) 5.1. 3 USA vs. the World II ( Las Vegas , January 2016 ) 5.1. 4 USA vs. The World III ( June 2017 ) 5.2 All - Stars 5.2. 1 All Stars ( May 2016 ) 5.2. 2 All Stars II ( February 2017 ) 5.3 Celebrity Ninja Warrior 6 Team Ninja Warrior 7 Reception 7.1 Awards and nominations 7.2 U.S. Nielsen ratings 8 International broadcasts 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History American Ninja Warrior succeeded G4 's American Ninja Challenge as the qualifying route for Americans to enter Sasuke . Beginning with the fourth season in 2012 , regional finalists and wild card competitors competed on a nearly identical Mount Midoriyama course in Las Vegas , Nevada , rather than traveling to Japan to compete on Sasuke . Hosts and co-hosts American Ninja Warrior was originally hosted by G4 's American television personality Blair Herter , and actress and former television correspondent Alison Haislip . In the second season , American actor , comedian , and television host Matt Iseman joined the show , replacing Herter . Additionally , Jimmy Smith was brought in as a co-host , while Haislip was the sideline reporter . The panel remained the same throughout season three . For season 4 , skier Jonny Moseley was brought in as the new co-host , replacing Smith . American journalist , sportscaster , and documentary filmmaker Angela Sun replaced Haislip . For season 5 , two newcomers were added . Sports analyst and former NFL football player Akbar Gbaja - Biamila replaced Moseley , while ESPN sportscaster and model Jenn Brown replaced Sun as sideline reporter . The season five panel remained the same through the sixth season . For season 7 , CBS Sports reporter Kristine Leahy joined the show as the new sideline reporter , replacing Brown . The roster stayed the same through season 9 . The current panel consists of Iseman , Gbaja - Biamila , and Leahy . Timeline Season Year Host Co-host Sideline reporter 2009 Blair Herter Alison Haislip N / A Matt Iseman Jimmy Smith Alison Haislip 2011 2012 Jonny Moseley Angela Sun 5 2013 Akbar Gbaja - Biamila Jenn Brown 6 2014 7 2015 Kristine Leahy 8 2016 9 2017 Format Potential contestants go through a rigorous series of steps before the possibility of becoming the next American Ninja Warrior . Over 3,500 athletes have attempted to conquer Mount Midoriyama and become an American Ninja Warrior since the series began in 2009 . Contestant eligibility There are some requirements possible contestants have to meet before participating at a regional qualifier . Contestants must be legal residents of the US and be in decent physical shape . There is no upper age limit , but participants must be at least 21 years old . Contestants have to fill out a 20 - page questionnaire and make a video about themselves . The required length of the video has differed over the years . Submission video length requirements have varied from 2 to 8 minutes , depending on the season . Producers select 100 applicants from each region to participate in their regional qualifiers . Producers also select 20 to 30 `` walk - ons '' who in some cases wait for weeks camping outside to get a chance on the course . 1,000 people applied to compete in season one , 5,000 people in season 6 , 50,000 in season 7 , and 70,000 in season 8 . City qualifying In each city , the competitors the producers have selected competing on a 6 - obstacle course in hopes of making it to the city finals . The top 30 finishers make it to the city finals . Also , in Season 9 , the top 5 women make it . The first obstacle is the quintuple steps or the floating steps and is the same for the rest of the cities for that season . Then comes an obstacle that moves along tracks . Next is either a balance obstacle or an upper - body obstacle . The other type will be fourth . Fifth is usually a grip obstacle , and sixth is the Warped Wall . In Season 9 , the balance or the grip obstacle is an obstacle previously found in Stage 1 of Mount Midoryama . The obstacles are given by the sideline reporter at the beginning of every episode . City timeline City Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Season 9 Los Angeles , CA Miami , FL Dallas , TX Denver , CO Baltimore , MD St. Louis , MO Kansas City , MO Houston , TX Orlando , FL Pittsburgh , PA San Pedro , CA Atlanta , GA Indianapolis , IN Oklahoma City , OK Philadelphia , PA San Antonio , TX Daytona Beach , FL Cleveland , OH City finals City finals courses are the follow - up to each city qualifying course . Qualifying and finals courses are filmed back - to - back , usually over two days . The top 15 finishers overall from each city finals course move on to compete in the National Finals . In addition , as of season 9 , the top two women in each city finals are guaranteed to advance , even if they do not finish in the top 15 . Small prizes ranging from $1,000 to $5,000 are awarded to first , second , and third finishers who complete the finals course . Mount Midoriyama Mount Midoriyama is the finals course for American Ninja Warrior . Located on the Las Vegas strip , it consists of four stages , each containing various obstacles of increasing difficulty . Competitors must complete all of the 23 obstacles . Should they complete the first three stages , competitors will advance to Stage 4 , where competitors attempt to climb the 75 - foot rope climb , known as Mount Midoriyama , in 30 seconds or less . Should a competitor achieve Total Victory , he or she receives a money prize of $500,000 from season 4 to season 6 , and $1,000,000 from season 7 . Beginning in season 8 , if multiple competitors complete stage 4 , the competitors split the prize money , although in prior years the fastest competitor would receive the full amount . Stage 1 consists of obstacles that test the competitors ' agility and speed . The first stage is timed , and only the competitors who successfully complete it within the time limit of 2 : 30 advance to Stage 2 . Stage 2 consists of obstacles that test the competitors ' strength and speed . Competitors must complete challenges that strain their upper - body strength ( such as the Salmon Ladder ) without running out of time . Just as in the first stage , only the competitors who successfully finish within the time limit of 4 : 00 move on to Stage 3 . Stage 3 consists of obstacles that test the competitors ' upper body and grip strength . It is the only stage in Mt . Midoriyama that has no time limit . Like Stages 1 and 2 , only the competitors who successfully complete Stage 3 move on . Stage 4 of Mt . Midoriyama is a 75 - foot rope climb . Competitors must complete the rope climb and hit the buzzer in under 30 seconds . Series overview and season synopses This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Season 1 ( 2009 ) The first season of American Ninja Warrior was held in Los Angeles , where hundreds of competitors came to challenge themselves against the course and qualify for a shot at making it to Japan to compete in Sasuke 23 later in the year . The special premiered on December 12 , 2009 , on G4 TV and was hosted by G4 's Blair Herter and Alison Haislip . Notable competitors this season included freerunners Levi Meeuwenberg and Brian Orosco , mixed martial artist Jason `` Mayhem '' Miller , and Hollywood stuntman Rich King . Out of the ten Americans who qualified to compete at Mount Midori in Japan , only Rich King , Levi Meeuwenberg and Brian Orosco successfully completed Stage 1 . The majority of the American Ninja Warrior competitors ran out of time or failed the obstacles . Levi Meeuwenberg was the only American competitor to complete Stage 2 . The sole American competitor on Stage 3 , he fell on the `` Shin - Cliffhanger '' , and his run came to an end . Season 2 ( 2010 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 2 ) The second season premiered on December 8 , 2010 , on G4 and concluded on January 2 , 2011 . It began in Venice Beach , California , where 300 competitors took on the course . The 15 semi-finalists moved on to the `` Ninja Warrior Boot Camp '' in the remote California mountains , where they competed in a series of team challenges . Then the finalists moved on to compete in the season finale of American Ninja Warrior 2 as a part of Sasuke 26 at Mount Midori in Japan . No competitor made it beyond Stage 3 . Season 3 ( 2011 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 3 ) The third season began airing on July 31 , 2011 , on G4 and concluded with the finale airing on August 22 , 2011 , as a two - hour primetime special on NBC . Tryouts took place in May 2011 at Venice Beach , California . After the tryouts , the top 15 competitors competed in Ninja Warrior Boot Camp with the top 10 moving on to Japan for the finals of the competition as a part of Sasuke 27 and a chance at becoming the first American to conquer the course and win a $500,000 endorsement deal with K - Swiss . No competitors made it beyond Stage 3 . Season 4 ( 2012 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 4 ) The fourth season of American Ninja Warrior began airing on May 20 , 2012 , on both G4 and NBC . There were six regional competitions held in three locations : Venice Beach ( Southwest and Northwest ) , Dallas ( Midwest and Midsouth ) , and Miami ( Northeast and Southeast ) , that determined the 100 competitors to participate in the qualifying rounds . The winner of the ANW season 4 competition would receive $500,000 and the coveted `` American Ninja Warrior '' title . The season finale , held in Las Vegas , was the first time that Mount Midori was held on U.S. soil . Submission videos for American Ninja Warrior season 4 had been collected since January 25 , 2012 . The entire format was changed as well -- regional qualifiers in different parts of the country were aired , and the Mt . Midori course was recreated just off the Las Vegas Strip for the national finals . The regional qualifiers would narrow down its selections down to 30 contestants who finished its qualifying course in the fastest time as well as the contestants who finished the furthest the fastest . Qualifying obstacles would include common Stage 1 obstacles such as the Quintuple steps and the Warped wall , but its contents would change from city to city . The 30 contestants were then cut in half in the regional finals where the course would extend to include common Stage 2 and Stage 3 obstacles such as the Salmon Ladder , Cliffhanger and Body Prop . The 90 contestants who qualified ( including wild cards ) earned tickets to Las Vegas to challenge Mt . Midori . Brent Steffensen was the first American to defeat the Ultimate Cliffhanger on Stage 3 , and he made it the farthest that season , falling on the Hang Climb . He was the only competitor to reach Stage 3 in this competition . Season 5 ( 2013 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 5 ) The fifth season of American Ninja Warrior premiered on June 30 , 2013 , on G4 with subsequent shows airing on NBC and G4 . Notably , the sideboard advertising along the course listed Esquire Network as the broadcaster as the fifth season was to premiere after G4 's transition to Esquire on April 22 , 2013 . The network switch was eventually delayed to September 23 , 2013 , and Esquire took over Style Network 's channel space instead . Because of this , additional reruns of the season aired on Saturday nights on NBC through the summer to maintain ratings momentum due to G4 's lame duck status , with ANW being their only new program since they wound down all their original programming in January 2013 . The success of the NBC re-airings led to the series being considered for NBC 's main summer schedule for the next season . Regional competitions were held in Venice Beach , Baltimore , Miami , and Denver . Tryouts for the season began in February 2013 and ended with the last of the regional rounds taking place the following May . The finale was once again held in Las Vegas . No one defeated Stage 3 , but Brian Arnold fell on the last obstacle , the Flying Bar , making him the farthest - going American on the Mount Midori course since Kane Kosugi reached the final stage on Sasuke 8 . Season 6 ( 2014 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 6 ) The sixth season of American Ninja Warrior premiered on May 26 , 2014 , on NBC with subsequent shows airing on Monday nights at 9 : 00 pm EST and Tuesday nights at 8 : 00 pm EST on Esquire Network . Regional competitions were held at Venice Beach , Dallas , St. Louis , Miami , and Denver . The season finale was again held in Las Vegas , the permanent home of the U.S. version of Mount Midori . Notable competitors this season included The Biggest Loser personal trainer Kim Lyons , U.S. Olympic gymnasts Jonathan Horton and Terin Humphrey , among others . Female competitor Kacy Catanzaro became the first female to make it up the `` Warped Wall '' in the Dallas Qualifiers . Later in the Dallas Finals , she became the first woman to complete that finals course , in 8 minutes , 59 seconds . Again , no competitor achieved `` total victory '' . Kacy 's run has over ten million views . Joe Moravsky , the `` Weatherman '' , made it farther than anyone on Season 6 , falling on the Hang Climb , where Brent Steffensen failed two years ago . Season 7 ( 2015 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 7 ) The seventh season of American Ninja Warrior premiered on NBC on May 25 , 2015 . This season 's grand prize was increased from $500,000 to $1,000,000 . Qualifying and finals courses were held in Venice Beach , Kansas City , Houston , Orlando , Pittsburgh , as well as a special military - only course in San Pedro . Stage 1 had a total of 38 finishers including Brent Steffensen and Dustin McKinney . In Stage 2 , 30 of the 38 competitors failed . Only eight were remaining in Stage 3 including Drew Dreschel , Abel Gonzalez , Isaac Caldiero , Ian Dory , Jeremiah Morgan , Kevin Bull , Joe Moravsky and Geoff Britten . Only two competitors finished the course : Isaac Caldiero and Geoff Britten . It was the first time that any American had finished Stage 3 . The season concluded with a victory : Geoff Britten was the first to complete Stage 4 with a second remaining ; however , Isaac Caldiero achieved the Stage 4 rope climb in a faster time and was awarded the grand prize of $1,000,000 and the title of `` American Ninja Warrior '' . Geoff Britten was the first Ninja to complete all six courses in a single season . Season 8 ( 2016 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 8 ) Season 8 of American Ninja Warrior began on June 1 , 2016 , on NBC , with encore episodes airing the following day on Esquire Network . Regional competitions were held in Los Angeles , Atlanta , Indianapolis , Oklahoma City , and Philadelphia , with 28 new obstacles . Over 40 percent more women registered for season 8 compared to the previous season . Additionally , prize money for possible Stage 4 winners would now be split equally among competitors who complete the rope climb in under 30 seconds . In Philadelphia 's city finals , no competitors completed the finals course , a first in American Ninja Warrior history . In Stage 1 of the National Finals , many veterans of the show such as Geoff Britten and Brent Steffensen were eliminated early , while Jessie Graff became the first woman to complete Stage 1 , placing fifth . Tyler Yamauchi became the shortest person ever to complete the Jumping Spider obstacle at 5'1 `` . Only 17 competitors successfully completed Stage 1 , the lowest in ANW history . On Stage 2 , all athletes were eliminated except Drew Drechsel and Daniel Gil . During Stage 3 , both Drechsel and Gil could not complete the course . Gil fell on the Ultimate Cliffhanger , while Drechsel went the farthest , but fell on the Hang Climb . Contrary to season 7 's multiple winners , no season 8 competitor was even able to complete Stage 3 . Season 9 ( 2017 ) Main article : American Ninja Warrior ( season 9 ) Season 9 of American Ninja Warrior began on June 12 , 2017 , on NBC ; Esquire Network ended over-the - air operations fifteen days later on June 27 , thus encore episodes shifted over to NBCSN on non-event nights with this season . The premiere was preceded by a special episode , `` Celebrity Ninja Warrior '' on May 25 , 2017 , the U.S. Red Nose Day , which was followed by a `` USA vs. the World '' special on June 4 . New for season 9 , the top five women in each city qualifying course qualified for the city finals course , and the top two women in each city finals qualified for national finals , regardless of their placement overall . Also this season , fans were given the opportunity to design their own obstacles through ANW Obstacle Design Challenge and seven fan - submitted obstacles have been featured on the show . ANW specials This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) USA vs. the World / Japan USA vs. Japan ( Las Vegas , January 2014 ) During the season 5 finale of American Ninja Warrior , NBC announced that a special `` USA vs. Japan '' matchup would take place , the first - ever team competition in American Ninja Warrior 's history . The two - hour special premiered on January 13 , 2014 , at 8 pm EST on NBC and matched five Japanese Sasuke All - Stars and New Stars - heroes of the original Ninja Warrior - against five American stars representing American Ninja Warrior at the American reconstruction of the Mount Midoriyama course in Las Vegas . At stake was the United States vs. Japan championship ; also branded as the first world championship for Sasuke / American Ninja Warrior , and a trophy to match . The special featured American Ninja Warrior 's regular broadcasting crew : analysts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila along with sideline reporter Jenn Brown . The teams faced off on each stage in turn , with each stage hosting its own round of five one - on - one matches and no competitor allowed to run the same stage twice . The first national team to win three matches out of five earned the point ( s ) for that stage . Stage One was worth one point , while Stage Two was worth two points and Stage Three was worth three . In the event of a 3 - 3 tie after the first three stages , the tiebreaker would be a one - off showdown where each country would pick one team member for a race to the top of the Final Stage . The winners of the special were the Americans over Japan . Final Score : Americans : 6 , Japan : 0 . Rosters United States Japan Paul Kasemir ( `` Mr. Consistency '' ) Brent Steffensen ( Mount Midoriyama veteran ) James McGrath ( `` The Beast '' ) 3 - time Midoriyama veteran Travis Rosen ( `` The Tennessee Trader '' ) 3 - time Midoriyama veteran Brian Arnold Top finisher at ANW 5 ( Flying Bar ) Shingo Yamamoto ( `` The Godfather '' ) All - Star , veteran of every Sasuke season Yuuji Urushihara ( `` The Grand Champion '' ) New Star , two total victories in Sasuke Ryo Matachi ( `` The Superfan '' ) New Star , reached Final Stage once Hitoshi Kanno ( `` The Muscle '' ) New Star , reached Final Stage once Kazuma Asa ( `` The Speed Demon '' ) New Star , Stage 1 world record holder ( at the time . ) USA vs. the World ( Las Vegas , September 2014 ) During the Season 6 finale , NBC announced that another special entitled `` USA vs. the World '' matchup would take place in Las Vegas under a new format . On September 15 , Team USA competed against a returning Team Japan , and a new team , Team Europe . This was the `` Second Annual International Competition '' that pitted top competitors from the United States American Ninja Warrior , Japan Ninja Warrior ( Sasuke ) , and also European All Stars . The three - hour special aired on September 15 , 2014 , on NBC with an encore airing September 16 , 2014 , on Esquire . The special once again was hosted by hosts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila as well as sideline reporter Jenn Brown . The winners of the special were the Europeans , winning over America and Japan . Rosters Team rosters were revealed late summer 2014 . Team USA Team Japan Team Europe Brian Arnold - 36 , Brighton , CO - American athlete who has come short on the Stage 3 course. * Elet Hall ( `` The Natural '' ) - 24 , Cavetown , MD - one of only two men to make it to Stage 3 in season 6 . Paul Kasemir ( `` Mr. Consistency '' ) - 28 , Longmont , CO - the M.V.P. of the team that defeated the Japanese two years ago . Joe Moravsky ( `` The Weatherman '' ) - 25 , Sherman , CT - went further than anyone else in season 6 . Travis Rosen ( The Tennessee Trader `` ) - 40 , Franklin , TN - A 2 - time part of Team USA and captain of 2014 's all - star group . Hitoshi Kanno ( `` The Muscle '' ) - 29 , Kashiwa , Japan Reached Sasuke Final Stage , ten - time Sasuke veteran Kazuma Asa ( `` The Speed Demon '' ) - 32 , Amagasaki , Japan - Stage 1 world record holder Ryo Matachi - 25 , Kawasaki , Japan - Reached Sasuke Final Stage Yusuke Morimoto ( `` The SASUKE Kid '' ) - 22 , Tosa , Japan - Sasuke rising star , competing seven times , first competing at age 15 Shingo Yamamoto ( `` The Godfather '' ) , - 40 , Tokyo , Japan - Captain of Team Japan and only athlete to compete in all 32 seasons of Sasuke Tim Shieff ( `` Livewire '' ) - 26 , London , England - Captain of Team Europe , world champion professional free runner , ANW veteran , competing on three seasons . Sean McColl - 27 , Chambery , France - Canadian professional World Champion rock climber and current overall climbing champion Stefano Ghisolfi - 21 , Turin , Italy - Professional World Cup rock climber , number one ranked Italian climber Miska Sutela - 23 , Oulu , Finland - Ninja Warrior superfan , has trained all over the world , including Japan , trained with the Sasuke All - Stars . Built 35 NW obstacles in his parent 's backyard to train on . Vadym Kuvakin - 29 , Kherson , Ukraine - Former Olympic gymnast , current member of the Cirque du Soleil cast for `` La Reve '' in Las Vegas Final Score : Europe : 10 , USA : 9 , Japan : 0 Highlights Joe Moravsky beat Brent Steffenson 's record ( from ANW 4 ) for the fastest time in Stage 1 , beating Steffenson 's time of 1 : 14.53 with a time of 1 : 12.72 . However , Tim Shieff beat Moravsky 's time in a subsequent heat by finishing in 1 : 02.70 - the fastest time ever on Stage 1 in ANW history . Travis Rosen achieved the fastest time by an American on Stage 2 with 1 : 48.00 , but Sean McColl finished with a time of 1 : 46.51 , the fastest of the season . All three Americans ( Travis Rosen , Elet Hall , and Brian Arnold ) completed Stage 2 , with Sean McColl also completing it for Team Europe . Yusuke Morimoto made ANW history by becoming the first athlete to ever finish Stage 3 with a time of 5 : 38.91 . Stefano Ghisolfi also completed Stage 3 in the same heat , beating Morimoto 's time finishing in 4 : 46.89 . Ryo Matachi followed by becoming the third athlete to complete Stage 3 with a time of 5 : 04.67 . In the last run of Stage 3 , Brian Arnold became the second American athlete to complete the stage ( after Kane Kosugi did it in Sasuke 8 ) with a time of 4 : 39.90 , the fastest time of the four finishers . Arnold 's finish moved USA into a tie with Team Europe , forcing a deciding tie - break on Stage 4 . For the first time in ANW history , the athletes competed on Stage 4 . Travis Rosen was selected as the first competitor on ANW to attempt the final stage and he made it all the way up Midoriyama 's 90 - foot tower with a 77 - foot rope with a time of 0 : 35.77 . However , Sean McColl beat Rosen 's time by 3 / 10th of a second ( 0 : 00.31 ) , winning the competition for Team Europe as they became the World Champions of ANW . Rosen missed on his first attempt at hitting the buzzer at the end of the rope climb . USA vs. the World ii ( Las Vegas , January 2016 ) NBC announced that another USA vs. the World matchup would again take place in Las Vegas . It was the second such worldwide special to unite ANW alumni , Sasuke all - stars , and European competitors for the season 7 finale . The 3 - hour special aired on January 31 , 2016 , on NBC . It was hosted by the current American Ninja Warrior hosts , Matt Iseman , Akbar Gbaja - Biamila , and co-host Kristine Leahy . The winners of the special were the Americans , winning over Europe and Japan . Rosters Team rosters were revealed in December 2015 . Team USA Team Japan Team Europe Isaac Caldiero - 33 , Las Vegas , NV - American athlete who won the $1 million prize for conquering Midoriyama the fastest in 2015 . Kevin Bull ( `` The Bull '' ) - 31 , Scotts Valley , CA - Famous for his inverted dismount on Cannonball Alley in season 6 . Selected as the alternate . Joe Moravsky ( `` The Weatherman '' ) - 26 , Sherman , CT - Completed every stage he 's participated in except stage 3 . Geoff Britten * ( `` Popeye '' ) - 37 , First American ever to defeat Midoriyama and the first American Ninja Warrior . Drew Drechsel - 26 , Fairfield , CT - Only competitor in the competition to have made it to the third stage on both Sasuke and American Ninja Warrior . Ian Dory - 25 , Rock climber who made it to the Flying Bar in season 7 . Kenji Takahashi ( `` Kong '' ) - 39 , Kawagoe , Japan - Competitor who has only failed the Second Stage once in nine tries . Has made it to the Final Stage . Masashi Hioki - 35 , Chiba City , Japan - Has made it to the Third Stage twice . Ryo Matachi - 26 , Tokyo , Japan - Only competitor to be featured in all USA vs. The World competitions . Reached the Fourth Stage Twice . Third competitor to complete the Third stage on American soil . Yusuke Morimoto - 23 , Tosa , Japan - Returning from the previous USA vs. The World special . First competitor to complete the Third Stage on American soil . Reached Total Victory in Sasuke 31 . Tomohiro Kawaguchi ( `` Tomo '' ) - 33 , Tokyo , Japan - Has made it to the Final Stage once . Tim Shieff ( `` Livewire '' ) - 27 , London , England - Returning from last year 's USA vs. The World special . Sean McColl - 28 , Chambery , France - Returning from last year 's USA vs. The World special . Stefano Ghisolfi - 22 , Turin , Italy - Returning from last year 's USA vs. The World special . Tim Champion - 20 , Exeter , England - Made it to Stage 2 in Ninja Warrior UK Alexander Mars - 28 , Stockholm , Sweden - Winner of Swedish Ninja Warrior Note : * Britten was unable to compete due to flu - like symptoms with a fever of 103 and was replaced by alternate Joe Moravsky who was standing by . Highlights On Stage 1 , Drew Drechsel gets the fastest time of the season with a time of 1 : 18.61 , beating Tim Shieff 's time of 1 : 25.33 . On Stage 2 , Sean McColl edged out both Drew Drechsel 's time of 1 : 34.46 , and Joe Moravsky 's time of 1 : 23.69 , beating them with a speedy time of 1 : 19.86 , the fastest of the ANW season . On Stage 3 , in the last heat , Yusuke Morimoto was the only member of Team Japan to finish this stage with a time of 6 : 29.38 . However , Sean McColl got a faster time with 5 : 42.25 , putting Team Europe in the lead . Isaac Caldiero was the last to compete and needed the 3 - point win in order to put Team USA on top . Caldiero brought his team to victory with an impressive time of 4 : 28.84 , the fastest of the season . Final Score : USA : 10 , Europe : 9 , Japan : 0 USA vs. the World iii ( June 2017 ) The 3 - hour special episode aired on June 4 , 2017 ; it was unofficially the first episode of season 9 . Once again , it was hosted by the current American Ninja Warrior hosts , Matt Iseman , Akbar Gbaja - Biamila , and co-host Kristine Leahy . This year , Team USA and Team Europe faced a new challenger ; Team Latin America . Highlights Jessie Graff became the first woman in ANW history , and to compete and successfully finish , Stage 2 in Las Vegas . This was the POM Wonderful `` Run of the Night '' . She was also the first woman representing the United States in the USA vs. The World competition . Josh Levin and Drew Drechsel both completed Stage 3 , putting them on a list of only a handful of athletes to do so . Team USA Team Europe Team Latin America Jessie Graff - 32 , Calabasas , CA - Stuntwoman , first female athlete to ever compete in this competition . Drew Drechsel ( `` Real Life Ninja '' ) - 27 , Fairfield , CT - Team Captain , Gym Owner , only competitor to have made it farther than anyone in both the national finals and the Sasuke 32 and 33 . Daniel Gil - 23 , Houston , TX - ANW Trainer , one of the fastest competitors in ANW history . Jake Murray - 29 , Denver , CO - Wedding Photographer , one of the fastest competitors on Stage 1 . Brian Arnold - 38 , Brighton , CO - Salesman , ANW Veteran ; 3rd time in this competition . Josh Levin - 22 , Sunnyvale , CA - ANW Rookie , International Rock Climbing Champion . Stefano Ghisolfi - 23 , Turin , Italy - Top Professional Rock Climber in Europe . Sean McColl - 28 , Chambery , France - # 1 Ranked Professional Rock Climber in the World . Tim Shieff ( `` Livewire '' ) - 28 , London , England - Team Captain , holds the record for fastest time on Stage 1 . Djarke Tonnesen - 24 , Copenhagen , Denmark - Graphic Design Student , former Gymnast . Made it to the finals on Denmark 's Ninja Warrior . Owen McKenzie ( `` The Stuff '' ) - 32 , London , England - Gas Engineer , ANW Rookie . Top finisher on Ninja Warrior UK . Alexander Mars - 29 , Stockholm , Sweden - Real Estate Manager , ultimate frisbee competitor , winner of Ninja Warrior Sweden . Wid Eriksen - 26 , Mexico City , Mexico - Acrobat , Freeruning competitor . Diego Gonzalez - 26 , Mexico City , Mexico , - Industrial Engineer , # 1 Ranked Rock Climber in Mexico . Santiago De Alba - 23 , Mexico City , Mexico - Bouldering Champion of Mexico . David Saikin - 29 , Bariloche , Argentina - # 1 Ranked Rock Climber in Argentina . Karl Fow - 28 , Caracas , Venezuela - Top Professional Freerunner in Venezuela . Danee Marmolejo - 24 , Mexico City , Mexico - Professional Stuntman , Freerunner . Final Score : Team USA : 10 , Team Europe : 7 , Team Latin America : 1 . All - Stars All Stars ( May 2016 ) On May 29 , 2016 , prior to the premiere of season eight , NBC aired a two - hour all - star special in which hosts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila chose their own all - star teams composed of three veterans , one rookie , and one woman . Teams competed on stages two , three , and four of the regular season finals course , Mt . Midoriyama , as well as competitions on a supersized course by testing their skills in competitions on the giant peg board , 40 - foot Salmon Ladder , Flying Shelf Grab , Jump Hang , and concluded with a race to the top of the `` Mega '' Warped Wall . The all - star winners were Team Akbar who won the team competition , beating Team Matt 5 - 3 . Additionally , competitor Joe Moravsky completed Stage 2 in a record time of 1 : 08 : 52 . All Stars ii ( February 2017 ) On February 20 , 2017 , NBC aired a second two - hour all - star special . Like the previous year 's competition , ANW hosts Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila chose their own all - star teams , this year composed of one veteran , one breakout star , and one woman . Team Matt featured Chris Wilczewski , Najee Richardson , and Jesse `` Flex '' Lebreck . Team Akbar featured Grant McCartney , Neil `` Crazy '' Craver , and Meagan Martin . Also , sideline interviewer Kristine Leahy got to pick her own team , which consisted of Jessie Graff , Flip Rodriguez , and Nicholas Coolridge . Teams competed as a relay race to finish sections of stages one , two , and three of the regular season finals course , Mt . Midoriyama . Next , was the skills competition on a supersized course where individual contestants tested their skills in competition on the 75 - feet tall Endless Invisible Ladder , the 4 - story high Super Salmon Ladder , Supersonic Shelf Grab , Striding Steps , and the Mega Wall , which is now 20 feet high . The all - star winners were Team Kristine who won the team relay race competition , beating Team Matt and last year 's champions Team Akbar . Their highlight of the night was completing Stage 3 in a record time of 5 : 30 : 62 , making this the POM Wonderful Run of the Night . Celebrity Ninja Warrior NBC announced a special entitled `` Celebrity Ninja Warrior for Red Nose Day '' which aired on May 25 , 2017 . Celebrity Ninja Warrior featured celebrities competing on the American Ninja Warrior course while being coached by ANW favorites . The course featured modified obstacles : Floating Steps , Cannonball Drop , Fly Wheels , Block Run , Battering Ram , and the Warped Wall . After completing the course , Stephen Amell , also completed the Salmon Ladder ( which he performed in a scene on Arrow ) and unsuccessfully attempted a new obstacle , the Swinging Pegboard ; Amell 's run was named the M&M 's `` Run of the Night . '' For every obstacle the celebrities completed , M&M 's and The Rockefeller Foundation pledged to donate $5,000 to Red Nose Day . Celebrities Coaches Stephen Amell Kacy Catanzaro Derek Hough Daniel Gil Erika Christensen David `` Flip '' Rodriguez Natalie Morales Grant McCartney Nikki Glaser Jessie Graff Jeff Dye Meagan Martin Mena Suvari Natalie Duran Nick Swisher Drew Dreschel Ashton Eaton Kevin Bull Team Ninja Warrior Main article : Team Ninja Warrior On October 9 , 2015 , Esquire Network announced a spin - off of American Ninja Warrior which would feature 24 three - person teams ( two men and one woman ) of popular ANW alumni . The teams compete head - to - head against each other , running the course simultaneously , thus creating a new live duel dynamic . The two teams with the fastest times advance to the finale where one team will be crowned the winners and receive a cash prize . Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila host alongside actor and journalist , Alex Curry . The series is Esquire Network 's most - watched program in the channel 's history . On May 31 , 2016 , Esquire Network ordered a sixteen - episode second season that also included a five - episode special college edition that had college - aged competitors go head - to - head against rival schools . On March 6 , 2017 , it was announced that Team Ninja Warrior will be moving to sibling cable channel USA Network as Esquire Network winds down its linear channel operations and relaunches as an online only service . The show 's second season premiered proper on April 18 . Reception Awards and nominations Year Award Category Nominee Result ref 2015 Kids ' Choice Awards Favorite Reality Show American Ninja Warrior Nominated 2016 People 's Choice Awards Favorite Competition TV Show American Ninja Warrior Nominated Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Reality - Competition Program American Ninja Warrior Nominated 2017 Kids ' Choice Awards Favorite Reality Show American Ninja Warrior Nominated Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Reality - Competition Program American Ninja Warrior Nominated U.S. Nielsen ratings Season Time slot ( ET ) Episodes Premiered Ended Network TV season Season averages ( Live + SD ) Most - watched episode ( millions ) Date Premiere viewers ( millions ) Date Finale viewers ( millions ) Viewers ( millions ) 18 -- 49 rating Saturday 6 : 00 pm 8 December 12 , 2009 N / A December 19 , 2009 N / A G4 2009 -- 10 N / A N / A N / A Wednesday 8 : 00 pm 10 December 8 , 2010 N / A December 23 , 2010 N / A 2010 -- 11 N / A N / A N / A Sunday 9 : 00 pm 10 July 31 , 2011 N / A August 22 , 2011 N / A 2011 N / A N / A N / A Monday 9 : 00 pm 9 May 20 , 2012 6.20 July 23 , 2012 4.87 NBC G4 2012 5.11 1.9 6.78 5 Monday 8 : 00 pm 12 July 1 , 2013 3.07 September 17 , 2013 4.04 2013 4.96 1.6 5.81 6 Monday 9 : 00 pm 14 May 26 , 2014 4.65 September 15 , 2014 5.21 NBC Esquire 2014 5.33 1.8 5.83 7 Monday 8 : 00 pm 15 May 25 , 2015 5.87 September 14 , 2015 6.17 2015 6.54 1.9 7.32 8 13 June 1 , 2016 6.35 September 12 , 2016 5.88 2016 6.28 1.8 7.01 9 15 June 12 , 2017 5.36 September 18 , 2017 5.96 NBC USA 2017 5.86 1.4 6.47 International broadcasts In Australia and New Zealand , the show is broadcast on SBS 2 , TV3 and Four . On April 25 , 2016 , it was announced Canadian broadcaster CTV picked up American Ninja Warrior for its 2016 summer broadcast schedule . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the show is broadcast on Challenge . In Israel , the show is broadcast on Yes Action . In 2016 Croatian RTL started broadcasting the show . The show is also shown in Finland on Sub-TV . In the Netherlands the show was first broadcast in 2017 on SBS 6 , where their own Ninja Warrior NL has been broadcast . See also Spartan : Ultimate Team Challenge References ^ Jump up to : `` About The Show '' . NBC . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` American Ninja Warrior ( a Titles & Air Dates Guide ) '' . Epguides.com. 2015 - 06 - 29 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 17 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` American Ninja Warrior 4 Seasons 2013 '' . amazon.com . Amazon . Retrieved October 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` American Ninja Warrior 4 Seasons 2013 '' . amazon.com . Amazon . Retrieved October 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Hosting Resume '' . jonnymoseley.com . Retrieved October 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( April 8 , 2013 ) . `` ' American Ninja Warrior ' returning with new hosts '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved October 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lesley Goldberg ( 2015 - 03 - 12 ) . `` ' American Ninja Warrior ' Taps New Co-Host for Season 7 . ( Exclusive ) '' . Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` '' America Ninja Warrior '' Selects Host Cities for Upcoming Summer Season `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Conversation : ' American Ninja Warrior ' Geoff Britten on winning the game show '' . Washington Times . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` American Ninja Warrior 8 '' . Anwcasting.com . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 27 . Jump up ^ Alex Garofalo ( 2014 - 09 - 12 ) . `` ' American Ninja Warrior ' Tryouts 2015 : How To Get Cast On Season 7 '' . Ibtimes.com . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 27 . ^ Jump up to : Bryant , Kelly . `` 9 Fierce Facts About ' American Ninja Warrior ' '' . mentalfloss.com . Retrieved September 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Chapin , Adele ( August 28 , 2015 ) . `` Why Does Everyone Want to Become an American Ninja Warrior ? '' . racked.com . Retrieved September 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Summer Sensation `` American Ninja Warrior '' Stays the Course for a Sixth - Season Renewal on NBC and Esquire Network `` . thefutoncritic.com . Retrieved September 17 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Garofalo , Alex ( June 1 , 2016 ) . `` ' American Ninja Warrior ' Season 8 's Biggest Obstacle : Compensation For The Athletes '' . IBTimes . Retrieved June 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` NBC 's `` American Ninja Warrior '' Makes History with First Winner `` . The Futon Critic . Futon Media . September 14 , 2015 . Retrieved October 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` When is the Premiere Date of American Ninja Warrior Season 8 ? '' . waitwith.us . Retrieved October 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ O'Hare , Kate ( 2011 ) . `` ' American Ninja Warrior ' storms Japan 's Mount Midori '' . Zap2it . Archived from the original on September 13 , 2011 . Retrieved August 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Hale , Mike ( 2011 ) . `` A ' Ninja Warrior ' Upgrade Into Network Prime Time '' . New York Times . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` G4 and NBC Partner to Broadcast New Season of ' American Ninja Warrior ' - Ratings - TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com '' . TVbytheNumbers . Jump up ^ `` American Ninja Warrior '' . Retrieved June 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ishimoto , Moye ( February 4 , 2013 ) . `` American Ninja Warrior Tryouts Begin -- Calling All Aspiring Ninjas For Season 5 ! '' . G4 Media . The Feed . Retrieved July 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Finals for ' American Ninja Warrior ' Denver auditions slated for Monday night '' . Gannett Company . KUSA ( TV ) . May 20 , 2013 . Archived from the original on July 23 , 2013 . Retrieved July 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` About '' . NBC.com . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` American Ninja Warrior Official Site - Esquire Network '' . esquire.com . ^ Jump up to : Barnes , Katie ( September 6 , 2016 ) . `` Night 2 of ' American Ninja Warrior ' Vegas finals made Jessie Graff 's run shine even brighter '' . espn.com/espnw . Retrieved September 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Ninja Warrior ' plans USA vs. Japan matchup '' . USA Today . September 16 , 2013 . Retrieved September 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` NBC to Present Thrilling Three Hour Special ' American Ninja Warrior : USA vs. The World ' Monday September 15 - Ratings - TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com '' . TVbytheNumbers . Jump up ^ Ed B. `` American Ninja Warrior : USA VS . The World Coming In September '' . TVFishbowl . ^ Jump up to : Stanhope , Kate ( December 16 , 2015 ) . `` NBC Sets ' American Ninja Warrior ' Special ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Matera , Avery ( 2017 ) . `` Jessie Graff Just Broke an Incredible ' American Ninja Warrior ' Record '' . SELF . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : Barnes , Katie ( 2017 - 05 - 31 ) . `` American Ninja Warrior Jessie Graff is now the first woman to complete Stage 2 '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` '' AMERICAN NINJA WARRIOR '' ( X ) `` ALL STARS '' ORIGINAL `` '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved May 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Polacek , Scott . `` American Ninja Warrior 2016 Results : Recap from May 29 Episode '' . BleacherReport.com . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Montgomery , Daniel ( 2017 - 04 - 05 ) . `` ' American Ninja Warrior ' : New celebrity edition will feature Derek Hough , Stephen Amell and more '' . Goldderby . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Esquire Network orders New High - Octane Competition Series `` Team Ninja Warrior '' `` . The Futon Critic . Futon Media . October 9 , 2015 . Retrieved October 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bryant , Jacob ( December 10 , 2015 ) . `` TV News Roundup : ' American Ninja Warrior ' Spinoff to Premiere in January & More '' . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . Retrieved December 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Cast & Crew '' . tv.esquire.com . Esquire Network . Retrieved December 13 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Esquire Network Announces Second Season of Hit Series `` Team Ninja Warrior '' `` . TheFuton Critic . May 31 , 2016 . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ ' Team Ninja Warrior ' Moving To USA As Sibling Esquire Shuts Down Linear Service - Deadline Hollywood ( published March 6 , 2017 ) Jump up ^ `` Nickelodeon Announces Nominations for the ' 28th Annual Kids ' Choice Awards ' - Ratings '' . TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com. 2015 - 02 - 20 . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` NOMINEES & WINNERS '' . People 's Choice . Retrieved December 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 68th Emmy ® Awards Nominations Announcement July 14 , 2016 '' ( PDF ) . emmys.com . Retrieved July 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 68th Emmy ® Awards Nominations Announcement July 14 , 2016 '' ( PDF ) . emmys.com . Retrieved September 19 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Ninja Warrior : Summer 2012 Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . July 24 , 2012 . Retrieved October 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Ninja Warrior : Summer 2013 Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . September 17 , 2013 . Retrieved October 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Ninja Warrior : Summer 2014 Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . September 16 , 2014 . Retrieved October 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Ninja Warrior : Season Seven Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . September 8 , 2015 . Retrieved October 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Ninja Warrior : Season Eight Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . September 13 , 2015 . Retrieved September 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 13 , 2017 ) . `` NBA Finals end with a bang : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( September 19 , 2017 ) . `` ' Dancing With the Stars ' and ' To Tell the Truth ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 19 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` American Ninja Warrior : Season Nine Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . September 19 , 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ready , Set , Leap ! AMERICAN NINJA WARRIOR Joins CTV 's 2016 Summer Schedule '' . OttawaCitizen.com . Postmedia Network Inc . Retrieved May 20 , 2016 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to American Ninja Warrior . 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65 | document: Divine right of kings - wikipedia Divine right of kings Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the Western tradition . For the Eastern tradition , see Mandate of Heaven . For various rulers who claim a divine relationship , see God emperor ( disambiguation ) . The theory of divine right was developed by James VI of Scotland ( 1567 -- 1625 ) , and came to the fore in England under his reign as James I of England ( 1603 -- 1625 ) . Portrait attributed to John de Critz , c. 1605 Augustus as Jove , holding scepter and orb ( first half of 1st century AD ) . The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified Roman emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority ( auctoritas ) of the Roman State . The official offer of cultus to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional : his Principate should therefore demonstrate pious respect for traditional Republican deities and mores . Many of the rites , practices and status distinctions that characterized the cult to emperors were perpetuated in the theology and politics of the Christianized Empire . Part of a series of articles on Monarchy Central concepts ( show ) Monarch Monarchism Divine right of kings Mandate of Heaven Types ( show ) Absolute Composite Constitutional Diarchy Dual Elective Emirate Ethnarch Federal Hereditary Legalist ( Chinese ) Non-sovereign Popular Regency Tetrarch Universal History ( show ) Birth of the Roman Empire Magna Carta Foundation of the Ottoman Empire Glorious Revolution French Revolution Trienio Liberal First French Empire Liberal Wars Second French Empire Italian unification Meiji Restoration German unification 5 October 1910 Revolution Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil Xinhai Revolution Russian Revolution Siamese revolution of 1932 Birth of the Italian Republic Spanish transition to democracy Iranian Revolution Modern Cambodia Nepalese Civil War Related topics ( show ) Aristocracy Autocracy Crowned republic Conservatism Thomas Hobbes Legitimists Orléanist Oligarchy Philosopher king Primogeniture Royalism Regicide Regnal number Royal family Ultra-royalist Politics portal Rights Theoretical distinctions Claim rights and liberty rights Individual and group rights Natural and legal rights Negative and positive rights Human rights Civil and political Economic , social and cultural Three generations Rights by beneficiary Animals Authors Children Consumers Creditors Elders Fathers Fetuses Gun owners Humans Natives Intersex Kings LGBT Men Minorities Mothers Patients Plants Prisoners Students Victims Women Workers Youth Disabled persons Other groups of rights Civil liberties Digital Linguistic Property Reproductive Self - determination of people Water and sanitation The divine right of kings , divine right , or God 's mandate is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy . It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority , deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God . The king is thus not subject to the will of his people , the aristocracy , or any other estate of the realm . It implies that only God can judge an unjust king and that any attempt to depose , dethrone or restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act . It is often expressed in the phrase `` by the Grace of God '' , attached to the titles of a reigning monarch . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origins 1.1 Scots texts of James VI of Scotland 2 Western conceptions 2.1 Catholic justified permission 3 Divine right and Protestantism 4 Divine right in Asia 4.1 Mandate of Heaven 4.2 Sultans in Southeast Asia 4.3 South Asian kings 5 Rights 6 Opposition 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Origins ( edit ) In the pagan world , kings were often seen as either ruling with the backing of heavenly powers or perhaps even being divine beings themselves . However , the Christian notion of a divine right of kings is traced to a story found in 1 Samuel , where the prophet Samuel anoints Saul and then David as mashiach or king over Israel . The anointing is to such an effect that the monarch became inviolable , so that even when Saul sought to kill David , David would not raise his hand against him because `` he was the Lord 's anointed '' . Adomnan of Iona is one of the earliest Christian proponents of this concept of kings ruling with divine right . He wrote of the Irish King Diarmait mac Cerbaill 's assassination and claimed that divine punishment fell on his assassin for the act of violating the monarch . Adomnan also recorded a story about St Columba supposedly being visited by an angel carrying a glass book and telling him that he needed to ordain Aedan mac Gabrain as King of Dal Riata , but Columba initially refused and to this response , the angel answered by whipping him and demanding that he perform the ordination because God had commanded it . The same angel then visited Columba on three successive nights , and then finally Columba agreed and Aedan came to receive ordination . At the ordination Columba told Aedan that so long as he obeyed God 's laws , then none of his enemies would prevail against him , but the moment he broke them , this protection would end and the same whip with which he had been struck would be turned against the king . Adomnan 's writings most likely influenced other Irish writers , who in turn influenced continental ideas as well . Pepin the Short 's coronation may have also come from the same influence . The Carolingian dynasty and the Holy Roman Emperors also influenced all subsequent western ideas of kingship . In the Middle Ages , the idea that God had granted earthly power to the monarch , just as he had given spiritual authority and power to the church , especially to the Pope , was already a well - known concept long before later writers coined the term `` divine right of kings '' and employed it as a theory in political science . For example , Richard I of England declared at his trial during the diet at Speyer in 1193 : `` I am born in a rank which recognizes no superior but God , to whom alone I am responsible for my actions '' , and it was Richard who first used the motto `` Dieu et mon droit '' ( `` God and my right '' ) which is still the motto of the Monarch of the United Kingdom . With the rise of nation - states and the Protestant Reformation , the theory of divine right justified the king 's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters . The theory was developed by James VI of Scotland 1567 -- 1625 ) , and came to the fore in England under his reign as James I of England ( 1603 -- 1625 ) . Louis XIV of France ( 1643 -- 1715 ) strongly promoted the theory as well . Scots texts of James VI of Scotland ( edit ) The Scots textbooks of the divine right of kings were written in 1597 -- 1598 by James VI of Scotland . His Basilikon Doron , a manual on the powers of a king , was written to edify his four - year - old son Henry Frederick that a king `` acknowledgeth himself ordained for his people , having received from the God a burden of government , whereof he must be countable '' . He based his theories in part on his understanding of the Bible , as noted by the following quote from a speech to parliament delivered in 1610 as James I of England : The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth , for kings are not only God 's lieutenants upon earth and sit upon God 's throne , but even by God himself they are called gods . There be three principal ( comparisons ) that illustrate the state of monarchy : one taken out of the word of God , and the two other out of the grounds of policy and philosophy . In the Scriptures kings are called gods , and so their power after a certain relation compared to the Divine power . Kings are also compared to fathers of families ; for a king is truly parens patriae ( parent of the country ) , the politic father of his people . And lastly , kings are compared to the head of this microcosm of the body of man . James 's reference to `` God 's lieutenants '' is apparently a reference to the text in Romans 13 where Paul refers to `` God 's ministers '' . ( 1 ) upon removing the last just Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers . For there is no power but of God : the powers that be are ordained of God . ( 2 ) Whosoever therefore resisteth the power , resisteth the ordinance of God : and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation. ( 3 ) For rulers are not a terror to good works , but to the evil . Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power ? do that which is good , and thou shalt have praise of the same : ( 4 ) For he is the minister of God to thee for good . But if thou do that which is evil , be afraid ; for he beareth not the sword in vain : for he is the minister of God , a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil . ( 5 ) Wherefore ye must needs be subject , not only for wrath , but also for conscience sake . ( 6 ) For this cause pay ye tribute also : for they are God 's ministers , attending continually upon this very thing . ( 7 ) Render therefore to all their dues : tribute to whom tribute is due ; custom to whom custom ; fear to whom fear ; honour to whom honour . Western conceptions ( edit ) Main articles : Sacred king and Theocracy Louis XIV of France depicted as the Sun King . The conception of ordination brought with it largely unspoken parallels with the Anglican and Catholic priesthood , but the overriding metaphor in James 's handbook was that of a father 's relation to his children . `` Just as no misconduct on the part of a father can free his children from obedience to the fifth commandment '' , James also had printed his Defense of the Right of Kings in the face of English theories of inalienable popular and clerical rights . The divine right of kings , or divine - right theory of kingship , is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy . It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority , deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God . The king is thus not subject to the will of his people , the aristocracy , or any other estate of the realm , including ( in the view of some , especially in Protestant countries ) the church . A weaker or more moderate form of this political theory does hold , however , that the king is subject to the church and the pope , although completely irreproachable in other ways ; but according to this doctrine in its strong form , only God can judge an unjust king . The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act . One passage in scripture supporting the idea of divine right of kings was used by Martin Luther , when urging the secular authorities to crush the Peasant Rebellion of 1525 in Germany in his Against the Murderous , Thieving Hordes of Peasants , basing his argument on St. Paul 's Epistle to the Romans 13 : 1 -- 7 . It is related to the ancient Catholic philosophies regarding monarchy , in which the monarch is God 's vicegerent upon the earth and therefore subject to no inferior power . However , in Roman Catholic jurisprudence , the monarch is always subject to natural and divine law , which are regarded as superior to the monarch . The possibility of monarchy declining morally , overturning natural law , and degenerating into a tyranny oppressive of the general welfare was answered theologically with the Catholic concept of extra-legal tyrannicide , ideally ratified by the pope . Until the unification of Italy , the Holy See did , from the time Christianity became the Roman state religion , assert on that ground its primacy over secular princes ; however this exercise of power never , even at its zenith , amounted to theocracy , even in jurisdictions where the Bishop of Rome was the temporal authority . Antichristus , a woodcut by Lucas Cranach the Elder , of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a ruler contributing generously to the Catholic Church Catholic justified permission ( edit ) Catholic thought justified submission to the monarchy by reference to the following : The Old Testament , in which God chose kings to rule over Israel , beginning with Saul who was then rejected by God in favor of David , whose dynasty continued ( at least in the southern kingdom ) until the Babylonian captivity . The New Testament , in which the first pope , St. Peter , commands that all Christians shall honour the Roman Emperor ( 1 Peter 2 : 13 -- 20 ) , even though , at that time , he was still a pagan emperor . St. Paul agreed with St. Peter that subjects should be obedient to the powers that be because they are appointed by God , as he wrote in his Epistle to the Romans 13 : 1 - 7 . Likewise , Jesus Christ proclaims in the Gospel of Matthew that one should `` Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar 's '' ; that is at first , literally , the payment of taxes as binding those who use the imperial currency ( See Matthew 22 : 15 -- 22 ) . Jesus told Pontius Pilate that his authority as Roman governor of Judaea came from heaven according to John 19 : 10 -- 11 . The endorsement by the popes and the church of the line of emperors beginning with the Emperors Constantine and Theodosius , later the Eastern Roman emperors , and finally the Western Roman emperor , Charlemagne and his successors , the Catholic Holy Roman Emperors . The French Huguenot nobles and clergy , having rejected the pope and the Catholic Church , were left only with the supreme power of the king who , they taught , could not be gainsaid or judged by anyone . Since there was no longer the countervailing power of the papacy and since the Church of England was a creature of the state and had become subservient to it , this meant that there was nothing to regulate the powers of the king , and he became an absolute power . In theory , divine , natural , customary , and constitutional law still held sway over the king , but , absent a superior spiritual power , it was difficult to see how they could be enforced , since the king could not be tried by any of his own courts . Some of the symbolism within the coronation ceremony for British monarchs , in which they are anointed with holy oils by the Archbishop of Canterbury , thereby ordaining them to monarchy , perpetuates the ancient Roman Catholic monarchical ideas and ceremonial ( although few Protestants realize this , the ceremony is nearly entirely based upon that of the Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor ) . However , in the UK , the symbolism ends there , since the real governing authority of the monarch was all but extinguished by the Whig revolution of 1688 -- 89 ( see Glorious Revolution ) . The king or queen of the United Kingdom is one of the last monarchs still to be crowned in the traditional Christian ceremonial , which in most other countries has been replaced by an inauguration or other declaration . Charles I of England , with a divine hand moving his crown The concept of divine right incorporates , but exaggerates , the ancient Christian concept of `` royal God - given rights '' , which teach that `` the right to rule is anointed by God '' , although this idea is found in many other cultures , including Aryan and Egyptian traditions . In pagan religions , the king was often seen as a kind of god and so was an unchallengeable despot . The ancient Roman Catholic tradition overcame this idea with the doctrine of the `` Two Swords '' and so achieved , for the very first time , a balanced constitution for states . The advent of Protestantism saw something of a return to the idea of a mere unchallengeable despot . Thomas Aquinas condoned extra-legal tyrannicide in the worst of circumstances : When there is no recourse to a superior by whom judgment can be made about an invader , then he who slays a tyrant to liberate his fatherland is ( to be ) praised and receives a reward . -- Commentary on the Magister Sententiarum On the other hand , Aquinas forbade the overthrow of any morally , Christianly and spiritually legitimate king by his subjects . The only human power capable of deposing the king was the pope . The reasoning was that if a subject may overthrow his superior for some bad law , who was to be the judge of whether the law was bad ? If the subject could so judge his own superior , then all lawful superior authority could lawfully be overthrown by the arbitrary judgement of an inferior , and thus all law was under constant threat . Towards the end of the Middle Ages , many philosophers , such as Nicholas of Cusa and Francisco Suarez , propounded similar theories . The Church was the final guarantor that Christian kings would follow the laws and constitutional traditions of their ancestors and the laws of the presumptive god and of justice . Similarly , the Chinese concept of Mandate of Heaven required that the emperor properly carry out the proper rituals , consult his ministers , and made it extremely difficult to undo any acts carried out by an ancestor . The French prelate Jacques - Bénigne Bossuet made a classic statement of the doctrine of divine right in a sermon preached before King Louis XIV : Les rois règnent par moi , dit la Sagesse éternelle : ' Per me reges regnant ' ; et de là nous devons conclure non seulement que les droits de la royauté sont établis par ses lois , mais que le choix des personnes est un effet de sa providence . Kings reign by Me , says Eternal Wisdom : ' Per me reges regnant ' ( in Latin ) ; and from that we must conclude not only that the rights of royalty are established by its laws , but also that the choice of persons ( to occupy the throne ) is an effect of its providence . Divine right and Protestantism ( edit ) Before the Reformation the anointed king was , within his realm , the accredited vicar of God for secular purposes ( see the Investiture Controversy ) ; after the Reformation he ( or she if queen regnant ) became this in Protestant states for religious purposes also . In England it is not without significance that the sacerdotal vestments , generally discarded by the clergy -- dalmatic , alb and stole -- continued to be among the insignia of the sovereign ( see Coronation of the British monarch ) . Moreover , this sacrosanct character he acquired not by virtue of his `` sacring '' , but by hereditary right ; the coronation , anointing and vesting were but the outward. and visible symbol of a divine grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title . Even Roman Catholic monarchs , like Louis XIV , would never have admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted any part of their title to reign ; it was no more than the consecration of their title . In England the doctrine of the divine right of kings was developed to its extremest logical conclusions during the political controversies of the 17th century ; its most famous exponent was Sir Robert Filmer . It was the main issue to be decided by the English Civil War , the Royalists holding that `` all Christian kings , princes and governors '' derive their authority direct from God , the Parliamentarians that this authority is the outcome of a contract , actual or implied , between sovereign and people . In one case the king 's power would be unlimited , according to Louis XIV 's famous saying : `` L ' état , c'est moi ! '' , or limited only by his own free act ; in the other his actions would be governed by the advice and consent of the people , to whom he would be ultimately responsible . The victory of this latter principle was proclaimed to all the world by the execution of Charles I . The doctrine of divine right , indeed , for a while drew nourishment from the blood of the royal `` martyr '' ; it was the guiding principle of the Anglican Church of the Restoration ; but it suffered a rude blow when James II of England made it impossible for the clergy to obey both their conscience and their king . The Glorious Revolution of 1688 made an end of it as a great political force . This has led to the constitutional development of the Crown in Britain , as held by descent modified and modifiable by parliamentary action . Divine right in Asia ( edit ) In early Mesopotamian culture , kings were often regarded as deities after their death . Shulgi of Ur was among the first Mesopotamian rulers to declare himself to be divine . This was the direct precursor to the concept of `` Divine Right of kings '' , as well as in the Egyptian and Roman religions . Mandate of Heaven ( edit ) Main articles : Mandate of Heaven and Son of Heaven The Emperor of Japan rules as a divine descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu In China and East Asia , rulers justified their rule with the philosophy of the Mandate of Heaven , which , although similar to the European concept , bore several key differences . While the divine right of kings granted unconditional legitimacy , the Mandate of Heaven was dependent on the behaviour of the ruler , the Son of Heaven . Heaven would bless the authority of a just ruler , but it could be displeased with a despotic ruler and thus withdraw its mandate , transferring it to a more suitable and righteous person . This withdrawal of mandate also afforded the possibility of revolution as a means to remove the errant ruler ; revolt was never legitimate under the European framework of divine right . In China , the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler had been a part of the political philosophy ever since the Zhou dynasty , whose rulers had used this philosophy to justify their overthrow of the previous Shang dynasty . Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on to the usurper . In Japan , the Son of Heaven title was less conditional than its Chinese equivalent . There was no divine mandate that punished the emperor for failing to rule justly . The right to rule of the Japanese emperor , descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu , was absolute . The Japanese emperors traditionally wielded little secular power ; generally , it was the duty of the sitting emperor to perform rituals and make public appearances , while true power was held by regents , high - ranking ministers , a commander - in - chief of the emperor 's military known as the shōgun , or even retired emperors depending on the time period . Sultans in southeast Asia ( edit ) In the Malay Annals , the rajas and sultans of the Malay States ( today Malaysia , Brunei and Philippines ) as well as their predecessors , such as the Indonesian kingdom of Majapahit , also claimed divine right to rule . The sultan is mandated by God and thus is expected to lead his country and people in religious matters , ceremonies as well as prayers . This divine right is called Daulat ( which means ' state ' in Arabic ) , and although the notion of divine right is somewhat obsolete , it is still found in the phrase Daulat Tuanku that is used to publicly acclaim the reigning Yang di - Pertuan Agong and the other sultans of Malaysia . The exclamation is similar to the European `` Long live the King '' , and often accompanies pictures of the reigning monarch and his consort on banners during royal occasions . In Indonesia , especially on the island of Java , the sultan 's divine right is more commonly known as the way , or ' revelation ' , but it is not hereditary and can be passed on to distant relatives . South asian kings ( edit ) In Tamil culture , before Brahmanism and especially during the Sangam period , emperors were known as இறையர் ( Iraiyer ) , or `` those who spill '' , and kings were called கோ ( Ko ) or கோன் ( Kon ) . During this time , the distinction between kingship and godhood had not yet occurred , as the caste system had not yet been introduced . Even in Modern Tamil , the word for temple is ' கோயில் ' , meaning `` king 's house '' . Kings were understood to be the `` agents of God '' , as they protected the world like God did . This may well have been continued post-Brahminism in Tamilakam , as the famous Thiruvalangadu inscription states : Having noticed by the marks ( on his body ) that Arulmozhi was the very Vishnu '' in reference to the Emperor Raja Raja Chola I . Rights ( edit ) Historically , many notions of rights were authoritarian and hierarchical , with different people granted different rights , and some having more rights than others . For instance , the right of a father to respect from his son did not indicate a right for the son to receive a return from that respect ; and the divine right of kings , which permitted absolute power over subjects , did not leave a lot of room for many rights for the subjects themselves . In contrast , modern conceptions of rights often emphasize liberty and equality as among the most important aspects of rights , for example in the American Revolution and the French Revolution . Opposition ( edit ) Further information : All men are created equal In the sixteenth century , both Catholic and Protestant political thinkers began to question the idea of a monarch 's `` divine right '' . The Spanish Catholic historian Juan de Mariana put forward the argument in his book De rege et regis institutione ( 1598 ) that since society was formed by a `` pact '' among all its members , `` there can be no doubt that they are able to call a king to account '' . Mariana thus challenged divine right theories by stating in certain circumstances , tyrannicide could be justified . Cardinal Robert Bellarmine also `` did not believe that the institute of monarchy had any divine sanction '' and shared Mariana 's belief that there were times where Catholics could lawfully remove a monarch . Among groups of English Protestant exiles fleeing from Queen Mary I , some of the earliest anti-monarchist publications emerged . `` Weaned off uncritical royalism by the actions of Queen Mary ... The political thinking of men like Ponet , Knox , Goodman and Hales . '' In 1553 , Mary I , a Roman Catholic , succeeded her Protestant half - brother , Edward VI , to the English throne . Mary set about trying to restore Roman Catholicism by making sure that : Edward 's religious laws were abolished in the Statute of Repeal Act ( 1553 ) ; the Protestant religious laws passed in the time of Henry VIII were repealed ; and the Revival of the Heresy Acts were passed in 1554 . The Marian Persecutions began soon afterwards . In January 1555 , the first of nearly 300 Protestants were burnt at the stake under `` Bloody Mary '' . When Thomas Wyatt the younger instigated what became known as Wyatt 's rebellion , John Ponet , the highest - ranking ecclesiastic among the exiles , allegedly participated in the uprising . He escaped to Strasbourg after the Rebellion 's defeat and , the following year , he published A Shorte Treatise of Politike Power , in which he put forward a theory of justified opposition to secular rulers . `` Ponet 's treatise comes first in a new wave of anti-monarchical writings ... It has never been assessed at its true importance , for it antedates by several years those more brilliantly expressed but less radical Huguenot writings which have usually been taken to represent the Tyrannicide - theories of the Reformation . '' Ponet 's pamphlet was republished on the eve of King Charles I 's execution . According to U.S. President John Adams , Ponet 's work contained `` all the essential principles of liberty , which were afterward dilated on by Sidney and Locke '' , including the idea of a three - branched government . In due course , opposition to the divine right of kings came from a number of sources , including poet John Milton in his pamphlet The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates , and Thomas Paine in his pamphlet Common Sense . Probably the two most famous declarations of a right to revolution against tyranny in the English language are John Locke 's Essay concerning The True Original , Extent , and End of Civil - Government and Thomas Jefferson 's formulation in the United States Declaration of Independence that `` all men are created equal '' . See also ( edit ) Absolute monarchy Ancien Régime Caliphate Church and state in medieval Europe Concordat of Worms Constitutions of Melfi Cuius regio , eius religio First Council of the Lateran Legitimacy ( political ) Robert Bellarmine Robert Filmer Sovereignty The True Law of Free Monarchies Vindiciae contra tyrannos References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The imperial cult in Roman Britain - Google docs Jump up ^ Allen Brent , The Imperial Cult and the Development of Church Order : Concepts and Images of Authority in Paganism and Early Christianity before the Age of Cyprian ( Brill , 1999 ) Jump up ^ Adomnan of Iona . Life of St Columba , Penguin books , 1995 Jump up ^ A speech to parliament ( 1610 ) . Jump up ^ https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans+13&version=KJV Romans 13 : 1 - 7 Jump up ^ that is , the commandment : `` Honor your father ... '' etc. , which is the fifth in the reckoning usual among Jewish , Orthodox , and Protestant denominations , but to be according to the law , yet is he not bound thereto but of his good will ... '' Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 09 - 27 . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Jacques - Bénigne Bossuet . Sermons choisis de Bossuet . Sur le devoir des rois . p. 219 , Image Jump up ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Phillip , Walter Alison ( 1911 ) . `` King § Divine Right of Kings '' . In Chisholm , Hugh . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . p. 806 . ^ Jump up to : Phillip 1911 , p. 806 . Jump up ^ Beasley , William ( 1999 ) . `` The Making of a Monarchy '' . The Japanese Experience : A Short History of Japan . University of California Press . p. 29 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 22560 - 2 . Jump up ^ Ramanujan , A.K. ( 2011 ) . Poems of Love and War : From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil . Columbia University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 15735 - 3 . Jump up ^ N. Subramanian ( 1966 ) . Śaṅgam polity : the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils . Asia Pub . House . Jump up ^ `` Divine Right of Kings '' . BBC . 2007 - 10 - 11 . Retrieved 2009 - 12 - 21 . ( ... ) the idea that a king was sacred , appointed by God and above the judgment of earthly powers ( ... ) was called the Divine Right of Kings and it entered so powerfully into British culture during the 17th century that it shaped the pomp and circumstance of the Stuart monarchs , imbued the writing of Shakespeare and provoked the political thinking of Milton and Locke . Jump up ^ Baer , Robert V. Power & Freedom : Political Thought and Constitutional Politics in the United States and Argentina ProQuest , 2008 ISBN 0549745106 ( pp. 70 -- 71 ) ^ Jump up to : Blumenau , Ralph . Philosophy and Living Imprint Academic , 2002 ISBN 0907845339 ( pp. 198 -- 199 ) Jump up ^ Dickens , A.G. ( 1978 ) . The English Reformation . London & Glasgow : Fontana / Collins . p. 399 . ^ Jump up to : Dickens , A.G. ( 1978 ) . The English Reformation . London & Glasgow : Fontana / Collins . p. 391 . Jump up ^ Dickens , A.G. ( 1978 ) . The English Reformation . London & Glasgow : Fontana / Collins . p. 358 . Jump up ^ Adams , C.F. ( 1850 -- 56 ) . The Works of John Adams , with Life . 6 . Boston . p. 4 . Further reading ( edit ) Burgess , Glenn ( October 1992 ) . `` The Divine Right of Kings Reconsidered '' . The English Historical Review . 107 ( 425 ) : 837 -- 861 . doi : 10.1093 / ehr / cvii. ccccxxv. 837 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Divine right of kings The Divine Right of Kings on In Our Time at the BBC . 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66 | document: Mid-ocean ridge - wikipedia Mid-ocean ridge Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Mid-oceanic ridge , including a black smoker For a broader coverage related to this topic , see Undersea mountain range . A mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics . It consists of various mountains linked in chains , typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine . This type of oceanic mountain ridge is characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading center , which is responsible for seafloor spreading . The production of new seafloor results from mantle upwelling in response to plate spreading ; this isentropic upwelling solid mantle material eventually exceeds the solidus and melts . The buoyant melt rises as magma at a linear weakness in the oceanic crust , and emerges as lava , creating new crust upon cooling . A mid-ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates , and consequently is termed a divergent plate boundary . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 Formation processes 3 Global system 4 History 4.1 Discovery 4.2 Impact 5 List of oceanic ridges 5.1 List of ancient oceanic ridges 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Description ( edit ) A close - up showing a mid-ocean ridge topography with magma rising from a chamber below , forming new ocean plate which spreads away from ridge Mid-ocean ridge in Þingvellir National Park , Iceland . Mid-ocean ridges are geologically active , with new magma constantly emerging onto the ocean floor and into the crust at and near rifts along the ridge axes . The crystallized magma forms new crust of basalt ( known as MORB for mid-ocean ridge basalt ) and below it , gabbro . They are formed by two oceanic plates moving away from each other . Hydrothermal vents are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers . The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis . New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of decompression melting in the underlying Earth 's mantle . The oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself . Most oceanic crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old . The crust is in a constant state of `` renewal '' at the ocean ridges . Moving away from the mid-ocean ridge , ocean depth progressively increases ; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches . As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis , the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid . The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere . Slow spreading ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) generally have large , wide rift valleys , sometimes as wide as 10 -- 20 km ( 6.2 -- 12.4 mi ) , and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have relief of up to a 1,000 m ( 3,300 ft ) . By contrast , fast spreading ridges like the East Pacific Rise ( EPR ) are narrow , sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles . The overall shape of ridges results from Pratt isostacy : close to the ridge axis there is hot , low - density mantle supporting the oceanic crust . As the oceanic plates cool , away from the ridge axes , the oceanic mantle lithosphere ( the colder , denser part of the mantle that , together with the crust , comprises the oceanic plates ) thickens and the density increases . Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and ' sits ' lower . The width of the ridge is hence a function of spreading rate -- slow ridges like the MAR have spread much less far than faster ridges like the EPR for the same amount of cooling and consequent bathymetric drop - off . Formation processes ( edit ) Further information : Plate tectonics Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge , while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches . There are two processes , ridge - push and slab pull , thought to be responsible for the spreading seen at mid-ocean ridges , and there is some uncertainty as to which is dominant . Ridge - push occurs when the growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of the tectonic plate away from the ridge , often towards a subduction zone . At the subduction zone , `` slab - pull '' comes into effect . This is simply the weight of the tectonic plate being subducted ( pulled ) below the overlying plate dragging the rest of the plate along behind it . The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push . The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the `` mantle conveyor '' ( see image ) . However , there have been some studies which have shown that the upper mantle ( asthenosphere ) is too plastic ( flexible ) to generate enough friction to pull the tectonic plate along . Moreover , unlike in the image above , mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km ( 250 mi ) , as deduced from seismic tomography and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about 400 km ( 250 mi ) . The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the `` slab - pull '' process . On the other hand , some of the world 's largest tectonic plates such as the North American Plate are in motion , yet are nowhere being subducted . The rate at which the mid-ocean ridge creates new material is known as the spreading rate , and is generally measured in mm / yr . The common subdivisions of spreading rate are fast , medium , and slow with values generally being > 100 mm / yr , 100 -- 55 mm / yr , and 55 -- 20 mm / yr , respectively . The spreading rate of the North Atlantic Ocean is ~ 25 mm / yr , while in the Pacific region , it is 80 -- 120 mm / yr . Ridges that spread at rates < 20 mm / yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges ( e.g. , the Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean and the Southwest Indian Ridge ) and they provide a much different perspective on crustal formation than their faster spreading brethren . The mid-ocean ridge systems form new oceanic crust . As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below Curie points of appropriate iron - titanium oxides , magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth 's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides . The orientations of the field in the oceanic crust preserve a record of directions of the Earth 's magnetic field with time . Because the field has reversed directions at irregular intervals throughout its history , the pattern of geomagnetic reversals in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age . Likewise , the pattern of reversals together with age measurements of the crust is used to help establish the history of the Earth 's magnetic field . Global system ( edit ) World Distribution of Mid-Oceanic Ridges ; USGS The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form the Ocean Ridge , a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean , making it the longest mountain range in the world . The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km ( 40,400 mi ) long ( several times longer than the Andes , the longest continental mountain range ) , and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km ( 49,700 mi ) long . History ( edit ) Discovery ( edit ) Main article : Plate tectonics § Historical context Mid-ocean ridges are generally submerged deep in the ocean . It was not until the 1950s , when the ocean floor was surveyed in detail , that their full extent became known . The Vema , a ship of the Lamont - Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University , traversed the Atlantic Ocean , recording data about the ocean floor from the ocean surface . A team led by Marie Tharp and Bruce Heezen analyzed the data and concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain running up the middle . Scientists named it the `` Mid-Atlantic Ridge '' . At first , the ridge was thought to be a phenomenon specific to the Atlantic Ocean . However , as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world , it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system . Although the ridge system runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean , the ridge is located away from the center of other oceans . Impact ( edit ) Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912 . He stated : `` the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic , as it keeps spreading , is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh , relatively fluid and hot sima ( rising ) from depth . '' However , Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how continents could plow through ocean crust , and the theory became largely forgotten . Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s , geologists faced a new task : explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed . In the 1960s , geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for seafloor spreading . The discovery of Mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for Wegner 's theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents . Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading , and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major paradigm shift in geological thinking . It is estimated that 20 volcanic eruptions occur each year along earth 's mid-ocean ridges and that every year 2.5 km ( 0.97 sq mi ) of new seafloor is formed by this process . With a crustal thickness of 1 to 2 km ( 0.62 to 1.24 mi ) , this amounts to about 4 km ( 0.96 cu mi ) of new ocean crust formed every year . Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry Age of oceanic crust . The red is most recent , and blue is the oldest . Plates in the crust of the earth , according to the plate tectonics theory Seafloor magnetic striping A demonstration of magnetic striping List of oceanic ridges ( edit ) Main category : Oceanic ridges Aden Ridge Cocos Ridge Explorer Ridge Gorda Ridge Juan de Fuca Ridge American - Antarctic Ridge Chile Rise East Pacific Rise East Scotia Ridge Gakkel Ridge ( Mid-Arctic Ridge ) Nazca Ridge Pacific - Antarctic Ridge Central Indian Ridge Carlsberg Ridge Southeast Indian Ridge Southwest Indian Ridge Mid-Atlantic Ridge Kolbeinsey Ridge ( North of Iceland ) Mohns Ridge Knipovich Ridge ( between Greenland and Spitsbergen ) Reykjanes Ridge ( South of Iceland ) List of ancient oceanic ridges ( edit ) Aegir Ridge Alpha Ridge Kula - Farallon Ridge Pacific - Farallon Ridge Pacific - Kula Ridge Phoenix Ridge See also ( edit ) Afar Triangle Geography of Iceland List of Oceanic Landforms Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor Slab window Submarine volcano References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Michael , Peter ; Cheadle , Michael ( February 20 , 2009 ) . `` Making a Crust '' . Science . 323 : 1017 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Martin , William ; Baross , John ; Kelley , Deborah ; Russell , Michael J. ( 2008 - 11 - 01 ) . `` Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life '' . Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 ( 11 ) : 805 -- 814 . ISSN 1740 - 1526 . doi : 10.1038 / nrmicro1991 . Jump up ^ Marjorie Wilson ( 1993 ) . Igneous petrogenesis . London : Chapman & Hall . ISBN 978 - 0 - 412 - 53310 - 5 . Jump up ^ Harff , Jan ; Meschede , Martin ; Petersen , Sven ; Thiede , Jörn . Driving Forces : Slab Pull , Ridge Push ( 2014 ed . ) . Springer Netherlands . pp. 1 -- 6 . ISBN 978 - 94 - 007 - 6644 - 0 . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 94 - 007 - 6644 - 0_105 - 1 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Puetz , Stephen ; et al. ( January 2017 ) . `` Quantifying the evolution of the continental and oceanic crust '' . Earth - Science Reviews . 164 : 63 -- 83 . Jump up ^ `` What is the longest mountain range on earth ? '' . Ocean Facts . NOAA . Retrieved 17 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Jacoby , W.R. ( January 1981 ) . `` Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912 '' . Geology. 9 : 25 -- 27 . Bibcode : 1981Geo ... 9 ... 25J . doi : 10.1130 / 0091 - 7613 ( 1981 ) 9 < 25 : MCOEDA > 2.0.CO ; 2 . Jump up ^ Society , National Geographic ( 2015 - 06 - 08 ) . `` seafloor spreading '' . National Geographic Society . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 14 . External links ( edit ) An explanation of relevant tectonic forces Mid-Ocenic ridge , like baseball seam ( The Dynamic Earth , USGS ) Ridge2000 , Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe ( hide ) Mid-ocean ridges Present Central Indian Chile East Pacific Explorer Gakkel Gorda Juan de Fuca Mid-Atlantic Pacific - Antarctic South American - Antarctic Southeast Indian Southwest Indian Former Aegir Alpha Kula - Farallon Pacific - Farallon Pacific - Kula Phoenix Physical oceanography Waves Airy wave theory Ballantine scale Benjamin -- Feir instability Boussinesq approximation Breaking wave Clapotis Cnoidal wave Cross sea Dispersion Edge wave Equatorial waves Fetch Gravity wave Green 's law Infragravity wave Internal wave Iribarren number Kelvin wave Kinematic wave Longshore drift Luke 's variational principle Mild - slope equation Radiation stress Rogue wave Rossby wave Rossby - gravity waves Sea state Seiche Significant wave height Soliton Stokes boundary layer Stokes drift Stokes wave Swell Trochoidal wave Tsunami megatsunami Undertow Ursell number Wave action Wave base Wave height Wave power Wave radar Wave setup Wave shoaling Wave turbulence Wave -- current interaction Waves and shallow water one - dimensional Saint - Venant equations shallow water equations Wind wave model Circulation Atmospheric circulation Baroclinity Boundary current Coriolis force Coriolis -- Stokes force Craik -- Leibovich vortex force Downwelling Eddy Ekman layer Ekman spiral Ekman transport El Niño -- Southern Oscillation General circulation model Geostrophic current Global Ocean Data Analysis Project Gulf Stream Halothermal circulation Humboldt Current Hydrothermal circulation Langmuir circulation Longshore drift Loop Current Modular Ocean Model Ocean dynamics Ocean gyre Princeton Ocean Model Rip current Subsurface currents Sverdrup balance Thermohaline circulation shutdown Upwelling Whirlpool World Ocean Circulation Experiment Tides Amphidromic point Earth tide Head of tide Internal tide Lunitidal interval Perigean spring tide Rip tide Rule of twelfths Slack water Tidal bore Tidal force Tidal power Tidal race Tidal range Tidal resonance Tide gauge Tideline Landforms Abyssal fan Abyssal plain Atoll Bathymetric chart Coastal geography Cold seep Continental margin Continental rise Continental shelf Contourite Guyot Hydrography Oceanic basin Oceanic plateau Oceanic trench Passive margin Seabed Seamount Submarine canyon Submarine volcano Plate tectonics Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Fracture zone Hydrothermal vent Marine geology Mid-ocean ridge Mohorovičić discontinuity Vine -- Matthews -- Morley hypothesis Oceanic crust Outer trench swell Ridge push Seafloor spreading Slab pull Slab suction Slab window Subduction Transform fault Volcanic arc Ocean zones Benthic Deep ocean water Deep sea Littoral Mesopelagic Oceanic Pelagic Photic Surf Swash Sea level Deep - ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis Future sea level Global Sea Level Observing System North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System Sea - level curve Sea level rise World Geodetic System Acoustics Deep scattering layer Hydroacoustics Ocean acoustic tomography Sofar bomb SOFAR channel Underwater acoustics Satellites Jason - 1 Jason - 2 ( Ocean Surface Topography Mission ) Jason - 3 Related Argo Benthic lander Color of water DSV Alvin Marginal sea Marine energy Marine pollution Mooring National Oceanographic Data Center Ocean Ocean exploration Ocean observations Ocean reanalysis Ocean surface topography Ocean thermal energy conversion Oceanography Pelagic sediment Sea surface microlayer Sea surface temperature Seawater Science On a Sphere Thermocline Underwater glider Water column World Ocean Atlas Commons VIAF : 236956031 GND : 4317501 - 6 NDL : 00575264 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mid-ocean_ridge&oldid=806841747 '' Categories : Oceanic ridges Coastal and oceanic landforms Physical oceanography Basalt Geological processes Plate tectonics Volcanic landforms Oceanographical terminology Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Articles needing additional references from October 2007 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2017 , at 14 : 03 . 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67 | document: Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) - wikipedia Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( July 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The neutrality of this article is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( July 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Map showing the result of the partition of Bengal in 1905 . The western part ( Bengal ) gained parts of Odisha , the eastern part ( Eastern Bengal and Assam ) regained Assam that had been made a separate province in 1874 Map showing the modern day nation of Bangladesh and Indian states of Bihar , Jharkhand , Orissa , Assam , Meghalaya , Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Nagaland and Manipur within the Province before division into Bihar and Orissa and East Bengal and Assam Part of a series on the History of Bengal Ancient Geopolitical units ( show ) Pundravardhana Vanga Gangaridai Radha Samatata Anga Suhma Harikela Ancient and Classical dynasties ( show ) Nanda dynasty Maurya dynasty Shunga dynasty Gupta dynasty Varman dynasty Gauda dynasty Kamarupa Mallabhum dynasty Khadga dynasty Pala dynasty Chandra dynasty Chola dynasty Sena dynasty Deva dynasty Medieval and Early Modern periods ( show ) Muslim conquests in Bengal Delhi Sultanate City states Sonargaon Lakhnauti Satgaon Bengal Sultanate Ilyas Shahi dynasty Ganesha dynasty Hussain Shahi dynasty Karrani dynasty Sur Empire Twelve Bhuyan Confederacy Kingdom of Mrauk U Jaintia Kingdom Koch dynasty Kingdom of Tripura Kingdom of Bhurshut Mughal Empire Bengal Subah Burdwan Raj Rajshahi Raj Nadia Raj Bettiah Raj Nawabs of Bengal Zamindars Maratha expeditions in Bengal European colonisation ( show ) Portuguese Chittagong Dutch Bengal French Bengal Danish Bengal Austrian Bengal Battle of Plassey British India Company rule Bengal Presidency Bengal famine of 1770 Santal Revolt Chuar Revolt Bihar famine of 1873 -- 74 Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) Bengal famine of 1943 Indian Mutiny of 1857 British Raj Bengal Renaissance Eastern Bengal and Assam Anti-colonial struggle Direct Action Day Radcliffe Line Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) East Bengal ( show ) East Bengali refugees East Pakistan ( show ) 1964 East Pakistan riots Language Movement Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 Liberation War 1971 Genocide Indo - Pakistani War of 1971 Bangladesh ( show ) People 's Republic Military coups Bangladesh famine of 1974 Indian Bengal ( show ) West Bengal Left Front Naxalism Barak Valley Language Movement Gorkhaland Calendar ( show ) Bengali calendar Malla calendar Related ( show ) Bengali literary history Architecture of Bengal Bangamata Bangladesh -- India border Part of a series on the History of Bangladesh Etymology Timeline Traditional Urheimat Ancient ( show ) Neolithic , c. 7600 -- c. 3300 BCE Bronze Age , c. 3300 -- c. 1200 BCE Iron Age , c. 1200 -- c. 200 BCE Janapada , c. 1200 -- c. 600 BCE Northern Black Polished Ware , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Pundra Kingdom , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Bengal in Mahabharata , c. 400 -- c. 325 BCE Gangaridai Kingdom , c. 350 -- c. 325 BCE Mauryan Empire , c. 325 -- c. 185 BCE Samatata Kingdom , c. 232 BCE -- c. 800 AD Shunga - Kushan Period , c. 185 BCE -- c. 75 AD Southwestern Silk Road , c. 114 BCE -- c. 1450 AD Indo - Roman trade relations , c. 30 BCE -- c. 600 AD Classical ( show ) Gupta Empire , c. 240 -- c. 550 AD Sylhet - Assam Varmans , c. 350 -- c. 650 Gauda Kingdom , c. 590 -- c. 626 Khadga dynasty , c. 650 -- c. 750 Pala Empire , c. 750 -- c. 1100 Arrival of Islam , c. 800 -- c. 1050 Harikela Kingdom , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Candra dynasty , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Sena dynasty , c. 1070 -- c. 1320 Deva dynasty , c. 1100 -- c. 1250 Medieval ( show ) Delhi Sultanate , c. 1204 -- c. 1338 Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sonargaon Sultanate , c. 1338 -- c. 1352 Bengal Sultanate , c. 1352 -- c. 1576 Ilyas Shahi dynasty Hussain Shahi dynasty Karrani dynasty Suri Dynasty , c. 1540 -- c. 1556 Twelve Bhuyans , c. 1550 -- c. 1620 Porto Grande de Bengala , c. 1528 -- c. 1666 Chittagong - Arakan Kingdom , c. 1530 -- c. 1666 Mughal Empire , c. 1576 -- c. 1717 Bengal Subah Modern ( show ) Nawabs of Bengal , c. 1717 -- c. 1757 Company Raj , c. 1757 -- c. 1858 Faraizi Movement , c. 1818 -- c. 1884 The Great Rebellion , c. 1857 -- c. 1858 British Raj , c. 1858 -- c. 1947 Bengal Renaissance Eastern Bengal and Assam Prime Minister of Bengal East Bengal , c. 1947 -- c. 1955 Bengali Language Movement East Pakistan , c. 1955 -- c. 1971 Six Point Movement 1969 uprising in East Pakistan Pakistani general election , 1970 Bangladesh Liberation War , c. 1971 Declaration of Independence Provisional Government of Bangladesh 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Bangladesh Forces Bangladeshi Republic , c. 1972 -- present Related articles ( show ) Timeline of Bangladeshi history Bangladeshi art History of Bengali literature Bangladesh portal The decision to effect the Partition of Bengal ( Bengali : বঙ্গভঙ্গ ) was announced on 19 July 1905 by the Viceroy of India , Lord Curzon . The partition took place on 16 October 1905 and separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas . The Hindus of West Bengal who dominated Bengal 's business and rural life complained that the division would make them a minority in a province that would incorporate the province of Bihar and Orissa . Hindus were outraged at what they recognised as a `` divide and rule '' policy , where the colonisers turned the native population against itself in order to rule , even though Curzon stressed it would produce administrative efficiency . The partition animated the Muslims to form their own national organization on communal lines . In order to appease Bengali sentiment , Bengal was reunited by Lord Hardinge in 1911 , in response to the Swadeshi movement 's riots in protest against the policy and the growing belief among Hindus that east Bengal would have its own courts and policies . Contents 1 Background 2 Partition 3 Political crisis 4 Re-unification 5 Aftermath 6 Significance 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Further reading 10 External resources Background ( edit ) The provincial state of Bengal had an area of 490,000 km ( 189,000 mi ) and a population of nearly 78.5 million . It comprised West Bengal with a Hindu majority and East Bengal and Assam with a Muslim majority . It included the Hindi - speaking regions of Bihar , the Odia - speaking regions of Odisha as well as the Assamese - speaking region of Assam , making it a huge administrative entity . Moreover , the capital , Calcutta , was also the capital of the entire British India . With the growing efforts of the Indian freedom fighters to secure the independence of India , Lord Curzon decided to address both these problems by partitioning Bengal into two entities , which would result in a Muslim - majority in the eastern part , and a Hindu - majority in the western part . This he hoped would reduce the administrative pressures . Partition ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : Bengal Presidency ( Partition of Bengal , 1905 ) The government announced the idea for partition in January 1904 . The idea was opposed by Henry John Stedman Cotton , Chief Commissioner of Assam ( 1896 -- 1902 ) . The partition was enacted on 16 October 1905 , by Viceroy Curzon , and Cayan Uddin Ahmet , the Chief Secretary of Bengal . The Lower Bengal was divided into two new provinces : `` Bengal '' province , composed of the Hindu - majority , largely Bengali speaking divisions of Patna , Baghalpur , Bardwan and Presidency administered from Calcutta , and the eastern Muslim - majority divisions of Chittagong , Rajshahi and Dhaka , as well as the states of Comilla , Sylhet and Tripura united within the Eastern Bengal and Assam province with Dhaka as the capital . There were further transfers of administrative districts in the name of linguistic or ethnic unification , with the Hindi - speaking districts of Chota Nagpur becoming part of the Central Provinces , while the Bengali - speaking areas of Oriya and Sambalpur were included in the new province of Bengal Partition was promoted for administrative reasons since Bengal was geographically as large as France and had a significantly larger population . Curzon stated the eastern region was neglected and under - governed . By splitting the province , an improved administration could be established in the east , where subsequently , the population would benefit from new schools and employment opportunities . The partition was generally supported by the Muslims of East Bengal by both their poor economic conditions in East Bengal and the perceived dominance of the Hindu businessmen and landlords in West Bengal over the governance of Bengal . Most of the factories and mills in Bengal were established in and around Calcutta , while many sources of raw materials for these factories were in East Bengal . Furthermore , most of the educational institutions of the Province were in Calcutta , including the lone university in Bengal . The scars resulting from the partition of Bengal have never completely healed and can still be seen today . Given below is the proclamation of partition : `` The Governor - General is pleased to constitute the territories at present under the administration of the Chief Commissioner of Assam to be for the purposes of the Indian Councils Act 1861 ... a province to which the provisions of that Act touching the making of laws and regulations for the peace and good order of the presidencies of Fort St. George and Bombay shall be applicable and to direct that the said province shall be called and known as the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam ... The Governor - General in Council is pleased to specify the sixteenth day of October , 1905 as the period at which the said provisions shall take effect and 15th as the number of councilors whom the Lieutenant - Governor may nominate for his assistance in making laws and regulations . The Governor - General in Council is further pleased to declare and appoint that upon the constitution of the said province of Eastern Bengal and Assam , the districts of Dacca , Mymensingh , Faridpur , Backergunge , Tippera , Noakhali , Chittagong , the Chittagong Hill Tracts , Rajashahi , Dinajpur , Jalpaiguri , Rangpur , Bogra , Pabna , and Malda which now form part of the Bengal Division of the Presidency of Fort William shall cease to be subject to or included within the limits of that Division , and shall thenceforth be subject to and included within the limits of the Lieutenant - Governorship of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam . '' The reason behind the partition that was officially announced was that the Bengal province was too large to be administered by a single governor and so it would be partitioned on administrative purpose . The real reason behind the partition was political and not administrative . East Bengal was dominated by the Muslims and West Bengal by the Hindus . Partition was yet another part of the divide and rule policy . The following excerpts from Curzon 's letter of 2 February 1905 to St. John Brodrick , Secretary of State for India , give an idea of his aims in partitioning Bengal : `` Calcutta is the centre from which the Congress Party is manipulated throughout the whole of Bengal , and indeed the whole of India . Its best wire pullers and its most frothy orators all reside here . The perfection of their machinery , and the tyranny which it enables them to exercise are truly remarkable . They dominate public opinion in Calcutta ; they affect the High Court ; they frighten the local Government , and they are sometimes not without serious influence on the Government of India . The whole of their activity is directed to creating an agency so powerful that they may one day be able to force a weak government to give them what they desire . Any measure in consequence that would divide the Bengali - speaking population ; that would permit independent centres of activity and influence to grow up ; that would dethrone Calcutta from its place as the center of successful intrigue , or that would weaken the influence of the lawyer class , who have the entire organisation in their hands , is intensely and hotly resented by them . The outcry will be loud and very fierce , but as a native gentleman said to me -- ' my countrymen always howl until a thing is settled ; then they accept it ' . '' Political crisis ( edit ) Partition sparked an extremely major political crisis along religious lines . Hindu resistance exploded as the Indian National Congress began the Swadeshi movement , which included boycotting British goods and institutions , organizing meetings and processions , and applying diplomatic pressure . Hitherto untouched sections of Indian society participated in these movements , providing base for later movements . Richness of the movement extended to culture , science and literature . Masses were educated for a bolder form of politics and colonial hegemony was undermined . The Muslims in East Bengal hoped that a separate region would give them more control over education and employment , hence , they opposed those movements . Rabindranath Tagore wrote Banglar Mati Banglar Jol as a rallying cry for proponents of annulment of partition . Opposition to the partition was supported by Henry John Stedman Cotton who had been Chief Commissioner of Assam , but Curzon was not to be moved . Later , Cotton , now Liberal MP for Nottingham East coordinated the successful campaign to oust the first lieutenant - governor of East Bengal , Sir Bampfylde Fuller . Re-unification ( edit ) Due to these political protests , the two parts of Bengal were reunited on 12 December 1911 . A new partition which divided the province on linguistic , rather than religious grounds followed , with the Hindi , Oriya and Assamese areas separated to form separate administrative units : Bihar and Orissa Province was created to the west , and Assam Province to the east . The administrative capital of British India was moved from Calcutta to New Delhi as well . Aftermath ( edit ) In 1909 , separate elections were established for Muslims and Hindus . Before this , many members of both communities had advocated national solidarity of all Bengalis . With separate electorates , distinctive political communities developed , with their own political agendas . Muslims , too , dominated the Legislature , due to their overall numerical strength of roughly twenty two to twenty eight million . Nationally , Hindus and Muslims began to demand the creation of two independent states , one to be formed in majority Hindu and one in majority Muslim areas . In 1947 , Bengal was partitioned for the second time , solely on religious grounds , as part of the Partition of India following the formation of the nations India and Pakistan . In 1947 , East Bengal became East Pakistan , and in 1971 became the independent state of Bangladesh after a successful war of independence with West Pakistan . Significance ( edit ) The partition left a significant impact on the people of Bengal as well as the political scene of the Indian subcontinent . This event also created a sense of political awareness among the Muslims of East Bengal . To mollify the people of East Bengal , Lord Curzon declared that a university as a center of excellence would be established in Dacca ( which would later be named as University of Dhaka ) and formed a committee in this regard consisting Khwaja Salimullah , A.K. Fazlul Huq and others . The decision was severely criticised by some Hindu leaders in West Bengal . The most significant impact of this event was greater communal dissonance between the Hindus and Muslims of Bengal . See also ( edit ) West Bengal Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica , `` the creation of the barrier '' http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/60754/partition-of-Bengal Jump up ^ Bipan Chandre Lal , `` History of Modern India '' , ISBN 978 - 81 - 250 - 3684 - 5 , pp. 248 -- 249 Jump up ^ David Gilmour , Curzon : Imperial Statesman ( 1994 ) , pp. 271 -- 3 Jump up ^ Johnson , Gordon ( May 1973 ) . `` Partition , Agitation and Congress : Bengal 1904 To 1908 '' . Modern Asian Studies . 7 ( 3 ) : 533 -- 588 . JSTOR 311853 . Jump up ^ `` The heritage of Bangla patriotic songs '' . The Daily Star . 15 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Judith M. Brown , Modern India ( 1985 ) , pp. 184 , 366 Jump up ^ Haimanti Roy , `` Partition of Contingency ? Public Discourse in Bengal , 1946 -- 1947 , '' Modern Asian Studies , ( November 2009 ) , 43 # 6 , pp. 1355 -- 1384 Jump up ^ Judith M. Brown , Modern India ( 1985 ) , p. 366 Further reading ( edit ) Edwardes , Michael . High Noon of Empire : India under Curzon ( 1965 ) McLane , John R ... `` The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905 , '' Indian Economic and Social History Review , July 1965 , 2 # 3 , pp. 221 -- 237 External Resources ( edit ) Ahmed , Sufia ( 2012 ) . `` Partition of Bengal , 1905 '' . In Islam , Sirajul ; Jamal , Ahmed A. Banglapedia : National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh ( Second ed . ) . Asiatic Society of Bangladesh . 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68 | document: Physical change - wikipedia Physical change This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance , but not its chemical composition . Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds , but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds . Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not change their chemical composition . This contrasts with the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to form new substances . In general a physical change is reversible using physical means . For example , salt dissolved in water can be recovered by allowing the water to evaporate . A physical change involves a change in physical properties . Examples of physical properties include melting , transition to a gas , change of strength , change of durability , changes to crystal form , textural change , shape , size , color , volume and density . An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to form a knife blade . A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered which changes the hardness of the steel , its flexibility and its ability to maintain a sharp edge . Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals . Many chemical changes are irreversible , and many physical changes are reversible , but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification . Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor , color change , or production of a gas , every one of these indicators can result from physical change . Contents ( hide ) 1 Examples 1.1 Heating and cooling 1.2 Magnetism 1.3 Crystalisation 1.4 Mixtures 1.5 Solutions 1.6 Alloys 2 See also 3 References Examples Heating and cooling Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled . Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation . Magnetism Ferro - magnetic materials can become magnetic . The process is reversible and does not affect the chemical composition . Crystalisation Many elements and compounds form crystals . Some such as carbon can form several different forms including diamond , graphite , graphene and fullerenes including buckminsterfullerene . Crystals in metals have a major effect of the physical properties of the metal including strength and ductility . Crystal type , shape and size can be altered by physical hammering , rolling and by heat Mixtures Mixtures of substances that are not soluble are usually readily separated by physical sieving or settlement . However mixtures can have different properties from the individual components . One familiar example is the mixture of fine sand with water used to make sandcastles . Neither the sand on its own nor the water on its own will make a sand - castle but by using physical properties of surface tension , the mixture behaves in a different way . Solutions Most solutions of salts and some compounds such as sugars can be separated by evaporation . Others such as mixtures or volatile liquids such as low molecular weight alcohols , can be separated by fractional distillation . Alloys The mixing of different metal elements is known as alloying . Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc . Separating individual metals from an alloy can be difficult and may require chemical processing -- making an alloy is an example of a physical change that can not readily be undone by physical means . Alloys where mercury is one of the metals can be separated physically by melting the alloy and boiling the mercury off as a vapour . See also Chemical change Process ( science ) Physical property References Jump up ^ Zumdahl , Steven S. and Zumdahl , Susan A. ( 2000 ) , Chemistry , Houghton Mifflin , 5th ed. , p. 27 ISBN 0 - 395 - 98583 - 8 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physical_change&oldid=787516548 '' Categories : Physical properties Hidden categories : Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles needing additional references from November 2011 All articles needing additional references Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Català Cymraeg Ελληνικά Español فارسی हिन्दी Kreyòl ayisyen 日本 語 Polski Simple English Slovenščina Türkçe Українська 吴语 Zazaki 中文 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 June 2017 , at 21 : 07 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_73|> <|d1_42|> <|d2_217|> |
69 | document: Niagara Falls - wikipedia Niagara Falls For other uses , see Niagara Falls ( disambiguation ) . Niagara Falls Location Border of Ontario , Canada , and New York , United States Coordinates 43 ° 04 ′ 48 '' N 79 ° 04 ′ 29 '' W / 43.0799 ° N 79.0747 ° W / 43.0799 ; - 79.0747 ( Niagara Falls ) Coordinates : 43 ° 04 ′ 48 '' N 79 ° 04 ′ 29 '' W / 43.0799 ° N 79.0747 ° W / 43.0799 ; - 79.0747 ( Niagara Falls ) Type Cataract Total height 167 ft ( 51 m ) Number of drops Watercourse Niagara River Average flow rate 85,000 cu ft / s ( 2,400 m / s ) Niagara Falls ( / naɪˈæɡərə / ) is the collective name for three waterfalls that straddle the international border between the Canadian province Ontario and the American state of New York . They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge . From largest to smallest , the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls , the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls . The Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the United States ' side , separated by Goat Island . The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the United States ' side , separated from the American Falls by Luna Island . Located on the Niagara River , which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario , the combined falls form the highest flow rate of any waterfall in North America that has a vertical drop of more than 165 feet ( 50 m ) . During peak daytime tourist hours , more than six million cubic feet ( 168,000 m ) of water goes over the crest of the falls every minute . Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America , as measured by flow rate . The falls are 17 miles ( 27 km ) north - northwest of Buffalo , New York , and 75 miles ( 121 km ) south - southeast of Toronto , between the twin cities of Niagara Falls , Ontario , and Niagara Falls , New York . Niagara Falls was formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation ( the last ice age ) , and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route to the Atlantic Ocean . Niagara Falls is famed both for its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power . Balancing recreational , commercial , and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century . Contents ( hide ) 1 Characteristics 2 Geology 3 History 3.1 History of freezing over 4 Impact on industry and commerce 4.1 Hydroelectric power 4.2 Transport 5 Preservation efforts 6 Over the falls 6.1 Jumps and plunges 6.2 Walks 7 Other entertainment 7.1 Movies and television 7.2 Music 7.3 Literature 7.4 Fine art 8 Tourism 8.1 American side 8.2 Canadian side 9 Panoramic views 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Fiction 13.2 Non-fiction Characteristics ( edit ) Canadian Horseshoe Falls as viewed from Skylon Tower American Falls ( large waterfall on the left ) and Bridal Veil Falls ( smaller waterfall on the right ) as viewed from Skylon Tower The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet ( 57 m ) , while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet ( 21 and 30 m ) because of the presence of giant boulders at its base . The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet ( 790 m ) wide , while the American Falls are 1,060 feet ( 320 m ) wide . The distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet ( 1,039 m ) . The peak flow over Horseshoe Falls was recorded at 225,000 cubic feet ( 6,400 m ) per second . The average annual flow rate is 85,000 cubic feet ( 2,400 m ) per second . Since the flow is a direct function of the Lake Erie water elevation , it typically peaks in late spring or early summer . During the summer months , at least 100,000 cubic feet ( 2,800 m ) per second of water traverses the falls , some 90 % of which goes over the Horseshoe Falls , while the balance is diverted to hydroelectric facilities . This is accomplished by employing a weir -- the International Control Dam -- with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls . The falls ' flow is further halved at night , and , during the low tourist season in the winter , remains a minimum of 50,000 cubic feet ( 1,400 m ) per second . Water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control ( IJC ) . The verdant green colour of the water flowing over the Niagara Falls is a byproduct of the estimated 60 tonnes / minute of dissolved salts and `` rock flour '' ( very finely ground rock ) generated by the erosive force of the Niagara River itself . Geology ( edit ) The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago . The same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River . All were dug by a continental ice sheet that drove through the area , deepening some river channels to form lakes , and damming others with debris . Scientists argue there is an old valley , St David 's Buried Gorge , buried by glacial drift , at the approximate location of the present Welland Canal . Aerial view of Niagara Falls , showing parts of Canada ( left ) and the United States ( upper right ) When the ice melted , the upper Great Lakes emptied into the Niagara River , which followed the rearranged topography across the Niagara Escarpment . In time , the river cut a gorge through the north - facing cliff , or cuesta . Because of the interactions of three major rock formations , the rocky bed did not erode evenly . The top rock formation was composed of erosion - resistant limestone and Lockport dolostone . That hard layer of stone eroded more slowly than the underlying materials . The aerial photo on the right clearly shows the hard caprock , the Lockport Formation ( Middle Silurian ) , which underlies the rapids above the falls , and approximately the upper third of the high gorge wall . Immediately below the hard - rock formation , comprising about two thirds of the cliff , lay the weaker , softer , sloping Rochester Formation ( Lower Silurian ) . This formation was composed mainly of shale , though it has some thin limestone layers . It also contains ancient fossils . In time , the river eroded the soft layer that supported the hard layers , undercutting the hard caprock , which gave way in great chunks . This process repeated countless times , eventually carving out the falls . Submerged in the river in the lower valley , hidden from view , is the Queenston Formation ( Upper Ordovician ) , which is composed of shales and fine sandstones . All three formations were laid down in an ancient sea , their differences of character deriving from changing conditions within that sea . About 10,900 years ago , the Niagara Falls was between present - day Queenston , Ontario , and Lewiston , New York , but erosion of their crest has caused the waterfalls to retreat approximately 6.8 miles ( 10.9 km ) southward . The Horseshoe Falls , which are approximately 2,600 feet ( 790 m ) wide , have also changed their shape through the process of erosion ; evolving from a small arch , to a horseshoe bend , to the present day gigantic V. Just upstream from the falls ' current location , Goat Island splits the course of the Niagara River , resulting in the separation of the mostly Canadian Horseshoe Falls to the west from the American and Bridal Veil Falls to the east . Engineering has slowed erosion and recession . The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot ( 0.30 m ) per year , down from a historical average of 3 feet ( 0.91 m ) per year . According to the timeline of the far future , in roughly 50,000 years Niagara Falls will have eroded away the remaining 20 miles ( 32 km ) to Lake Erie and ceased to exist . History ( edit ) Father Louis Hennepin is depicted in front of the falls in this 1698 print . Thomas Davies , An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara , 1762 Hugh Lee Pattinson 's daguerreotype of the Niagara Falls ( left - right inverted ) , the first known photograph of them , circa 1840 Voute sous la Chute du Niagara - Niagara Falls , circa 1841 Theories differ as to the origin of the name of the falls . According to Iroquoian scholar Bruce Trigger , Niagara is derived from the name given to a branch of the local native Neutral Confederacy , who are described as being called the Niagagarega people on several late - 17th - century French maps of the area . According to George R. Stewart , it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Onguiaahra , meaning `` point of land cut in two '' . Henry Schoolcraft reported : Niagara Falls . This name is Mohawk . It means , according to Mrs. Kerr , the neck ; the term being first applied to the portage or neck of land , between lakes Erie and Ontario . By referring to Mr. Elliott 's vocabulary , ( chapter xi ) it will be seen that the human neck , that is , according to the concrete vocabulary , his neck , is onyara . Red Jacket pronounced the word Niagara to me , in the spring of 1820 , as if written O - ne - au - ga - rah . A number of figures have been suggested as first circulating an eyewitness description of Niagara Falls . The Frenchman Samuel de Champlain visited the area as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada , and members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls , which he described in his journals . The Finnish - Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm explored the area in the early 18th century and is credited with the first scientific description of the falls . The consensus honoree for the first description is the Belgian missionary Louis Hennepin , who observed and described the falls in 1677 , earlier than Kalm , after traveling with the explorer René - Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle , thus bringing the falls to the attention of Europeans . Further complicating matters , there is credible evidence the French Jesuit missionary Paul Ragueneau visited the falls some 35 years before Hennepin 's visit , while working among the Huron First Nation in Canada . Jean de Brébeuf also may have visited the falls , while spending time with the Neutral Nation . Man and woman on Canadian side of Niagara Falls , circa 1858 View of Canadian side from Goat Island , 1880 In 1762 , Captain Thomas Davies , a British Army officer and artist , surveyed the area and painted the watercolor , An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara , the first eyewitness painting of the falls . During the 19th century , tourism became popular , and by mid-century , it was the area 's main industry . Theodosia Burr Alston ( daughter of Vice President Aaron Burr ) and her husband Joseph Alston were the first recorded couple to honeymoon there in 1801 . Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother Jérôme visited with his bride in the early 19th century . In 1837 during the Caroline affair , a rebel supply ship , the Caroline , was burned and sent over the falls . In March 1848 , ice blockage caused the falls to stop ; no water ( or at best a trickle ) fell for as much as 40 hours . Waterwheels stopped , mills and factories shut down for having no power . Later that year , demand for passage over the Niagara River led to the building of a footbridge and then Charles Ellet 's Niagara Suspension Bridge . This was supplanted by German - born John Augustus Roebling 's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge in 1855 . After the American Civil War , the New York Central Railroad publicized Niagara Falls as a focus of pleasure and honeymoon visits . With increased railroad traffic , in 1886 , Leffert Buck replaced Roebling 's wood and stone bridge with the predominantly steel bridge that still carries trains over the Niagara River today . The first steel archway bridge near the falls was completed in 1897 . Known today as the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge , it carries passenger vehicles and trains between Canada ( through Canadian Customs Border Control ) and the U.S.A. just downstream of the falls . In about 1840 , the English industrial chemist Hugh Lee Pattinson travelled to Canada , stopping at the Niagara Falls long enough to make the earliest known photograph of the falls , a daguerreotype in the collection of Newcastle University . It was once believed that the small figure standing silhouetted with a top hat was added by an engraver working from imagination as well as the daguerreotype as his source , but the figure is clearly present in the photograph . Because of the very long exposure required , of ten minutes or more , the figure is assumed by Canada 's Niagara Parks agency to be Pattinson himself . The image is left - right inverted , and taken from the Canadian side . Pattinson made other photographs of the Horseshoe Falls as well as of Rome and Paris . These were then transferred to engravings to illustrate Noël Marie Paymal Lerebours ' Excursions Daguerriennes ( Paris , 1841 -- 1864 ) . After the First World War , tourism boomed again , as automobiles made getting to the falls much easier . The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the falls for hydroelectric power , and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area 's natural beauty . In 1941 , the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission completed the third current crossing in the immediate area of Niagara Falls with the Rainbow Bridge , carrying both pedestrian and vehicular traffic between the two countries and Canadian and U.S. customs for each country . A team from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers created a dam on the American Falls in June 1969 to clear rock from the base of the falls . Rock slides caused a significant buildup of rock at the bottom of the American side of the falls , and the engineers were to clean up the rock and repair some faults to prevent eventual erosion of the American side of the waterfall . A temporary dam was built to divert the flow of water to the Canadian side ; the dam measured 600 ft ( 180 m ) across and was made of nearly 30,000 tons of rock . The engineers cleared the rock debris and tested for safety , finishing the project in November of that year . Water flow was restored on November 25 , 1969 . Before the late 20th century , the northeastern end of the Horseshoe Falls was in the United States , flowing around the Terrapin Rocks , which were once connected to Goat Island by a series of bridges . In 1955 , the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in , creating Terrapin Point . In the early 1980s , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers filled in more land and built diversion dams and retaining walls to force the water away from Terrapin Point . Altogether , 400 ft ( 120 m ) of the Horseshoe Falls were eliminated , including 100 ft ( 30 m ) on the Canadian side . According to author Ginger Strand , the Horseshoe Falls is now entirely in Canada . Other sources say `` most of '' Horseshoe Falls is in Canada . History of freezing over ( edit ) The only recorded freeze up of the river and falls was due to an ice jam on March 29 , 1848 . Although the falls commonly ices up most winters , the river and the falls do not freeze completely . The years 1885 , 1902 , 1906 , 1911 , 1932 , 1936 , 2014 and 2017 are noted for the falls icing up . In 1912 , much of the water coming over the American Falls froze , though a trickle still ran and the falls ran at the other two sites . Impact on industry and commerce ( edit ) Hydroelectric power ( edit ) New York side of Niagara Gorge , c. 1901 Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant in Lewiston , New York The enormous energy of Niagara Falls has long been recognized as a potential source of power . The first known effort to harness the waters was in 1759 , when Daniel Joncaire built a small canal above the falls to power his sawmill . Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government , and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery . In 1853 , the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Mining Company was chartered , which eventually constructed the canals that would be used to generate electricity . In 1881 , under the leadership of Jacob F. Schoellkopf , the Niagara River 's first hydroelectric generating station was built . The water fell 86 feet ( 26 m ) and generated direct current electricity , which ran the machinery of local mills and lit up some of the village streets . The Niagara Falls Power Company , a descendant of Schoellkopf 's firm , formed the Cataract Company headed by Edward Dean Adams , with the intent of expanding Niagara Falls ' power capacity . In 1890 , a five - member International Niagara Commission headed by Sir William Thomson among other distinguished scientists deliberated on the expansion of Niagara hydroelectric capacity based on seventeen proposals , but could not select any as the best combined project for hydraulic development and distribution . In 1893 , Westinghouse Electric ( which had built the smaller - scale Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant near Ophir , Colorado , two years earlier ) was hired to design a system to generate alternating current on Niagara Falls , and three years after that this large - scale AC power system was created ( activated on August 26 , 1895 ) . The Adams Power Plant Transformer House remains as a landmark of the original system . By 1896 , financing from moguls including J.P. Morgan , John Jacob Astor IV , and the Vanderbilts had fueled the construction of giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 100,000 horsepower ( 75 MW ) , sent as far as Buffalo , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . Some of the original designs for the power transmission plants were created by the Swiss firm Faesch & Piccard , which also constructed the original 5,000 hp waterwheels . Private companies on the Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the falls . The Government of Ontario eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906 , distributing Niagara 's energy to various parts of the Canadian province . Other hydropower plants were also being built along the Niagara River . But in 1956 , disaster struck when the region 's largest hydropower station was partially destroyed in a landslide . This drastically reduced power production and put tens of thousands of manufacturing jobs at stake . In 1957 , Congress passed the Niagara Redevelopment Act , which granted the New York Power Authority the right to fully develop the United States ' share of the Niagara River 's hydroelectric potential . In 1961 , when the Niagara Falls hydroelectric project went online , it was the largest hydropower facility in the Western world . Today , Niagara is still the largest electricity producer in New York state , with a generating capacity of 2.4 gigawatts ( million kilowatts ) . Up to 375,000 U.S. gallons ( 1,420 m ) of water a second is diverted from the Niagara River through conduits under the city of Niagara Falls to the Lewiston and Robert Moses power plants . Currently between 50 % and 75 % of the Niagara River 's flow is diverted via four huge tunnels that arise far upstream from the waterfalls . The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines that supply power to nearby areas of Canada and the United States before returning to the river well past the falls . This water spins turbines that power generators , converting mechanical energy into electrical energy . When electricity demand is low , the Lewiston units can operate as pumps to transport water from the lower bay back up to the plant 's reservoir , allowing this water to be used again during the daytime when electricity use peaks . During peak electrical demand , the same Lewiston pumps are reversed and actually become generators , similar to those at the Moses plant . To preserve Niagara Falls ' natural beauty , a 1950 treaty signed by the U.S. and Canada limited water usage by the power plants . The treaty allows higher summertime diversion at night when tourists are fewer and during the winter months when there are even fewer tourists . This treaty , designed to ensure an `` unbroken curtain of water '' flowing over the falls , states that during daylight time during the tourist season ( April 1 to October 31 ) there must be 100,000 cubic feet per second ( 2,800 m / s ) of water flowing over the falls , and during the night and off - tourist season there must be 50,000 cubic feet per second ( 1,400 m / s ) of water flowing over the falls . This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control , using a NOAA gauging station above the falls . During winter , the Power Authority of New York works with Ontario Power Generation to prevent ice on the Niagara River from interfering with power production or causing flooding of shoreline property . One of their joint efforts is an 8,800 - foot - long ( 2,700 m ) ice boom , which prevents the buildup of ice , yet allows water to continue flowing downstream . In addition to minimum water volume , the crest of the Horseshoe falls was reduced to maintain an uninterrupted `` curtain of water . '' The most powerful hydroelectric stations on the Niagara River are the Sir Adam Beck 1 and 2 on the Canadian side and the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant and the Lewiston Pump Generating Plant on the American side . Together , Niagara 's generating stations can produce about 4.4 gigawatts of power . In August 2005 Ontario Power Generation , which is responsible for the Sir Adam Beck stations , started a major civil engineering project , called the Niagara Tunnel Project , to increase power production by building a new 12.7 - metre ( 42 ft ) diameter , 10.2 - kilometre - long ( 6.3 mi ) water diversion tunnel . It was officially placed into service in March 2013 , helping to increase the generating complex 's nameplate capacity by 150 megawatts . It did so by tapping water from farther up the Niagara River than was possible with the preexisting arrangement . The tunnel provided new hydroelectricity for approximately 160,000 homes . Transport ( edit ) Rainbow Bridge Ships can bypass Niagara Falls by means of the Welland Canal , which was improved and incorporated into the Saint Lawrence Seaway in the mid-1950s . While the seaway diverted water traffic from nearby Buffalo and led to the demise of its steel and grain mills , other industries in the Niagara River valley flourished with the help of the electric power produced by the river . However , since the 1970s the region has declined economically . The cities of Niagara Falls , Ontario , Canada , and Niagara Falls , New York , United States , are connected by two international bridges . The Rainbow Bridge , just downriver from the falls , affords the closest view of the falls and is open to non-commercial vehicle traffic and pedestrians . The Whirlpool Rapids Bridge lies one mile ( 1.6 km ) north of the Rainbow Bridge and is the oldest bridge over the Niagara River . Nearby Niagara Falls International Airport and Buffalo Niagara International Airport were named after the waterfall , as were Niagara University , countless local businesses , and even an asteroid . Preservation efforts ( edit ) Niagara Falls have long been a source of inspiration for explorers , travelers , artists , authors , filmmakers , residents and visitors , few of whom realize the falls were nearly devoted solely to industrial and commercial use . In the 1870s , sightseers had limited access to Niagara Falls and often had to pay for a glimpse , and industrialization threatened to carve up Goat Island to further expand commercial development . Other industrial encroachments and lack of public access led to a conservation movement in the U.S. known as Free Niagara , led by such notables as Hudson River School artist Frederic Edwin Church , landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted , and architect Henry Hobson Richardson . Church approached Lord Dufferin , governor - general of Canada , with a proposal for international discussions on the establishment of a public park . Goat Island was one of the inspirations for the American side of the effort . William Dorsheimer , moved by the scene from the island , brought Olmsted to Buffalo in 1868 to design a city park system and helped promote Olmsted 's career . In 1879 , the New York state legislature commissioned Olmsted and James T. Gardner to survey the falls and to create the single most important document in the Niagara preservation movement , a Special Report on the preservation of Niagara Falls . The report advocated for State purchase , restoration and preservation through public ownership of the scenic lands surrounding Niagara Falls . Restoring the former beauty of the falls was described in the report as a `` sacred obligation to mankind . '' In 1883 , New York Governor Grover Cleveland drafted legislation authorizing acquisition of lands for a state reservation at Niagara , and the Niagara Falls Association , a private citizens group founded in 1882 , mounted a great letter - writing campaign and petition drive in support of the park . Professor Charles Eliot Norton and Olmsted were among the leaders of the public campaign , while New York Governor Alonzo Cornell opposed . Preservationists ' efforts were rewarded on April 30 , 1885 , when Governor David B. Hill signed legislation creating the Niagara Reservation , New York 's first state park . New York State began to purchase land from developers , under the charter of the Niagara Reservation State Park . In the same year , the province of Ontario established the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park for the same purpose . On the Canadian side , the Niagara Parks Commission governs land usage along the entire course of the Niagara River , from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario . In 1887 , Olmsted and Calvert Vaux issued a supplemental report detailing plans to restore the falls . Their intent was `` to restore and conserve the natural surroundings of the Falls of Niagara , rather than to attempt to add anything thereto , '' and the report anticipated fundamental questions . How would preservationists provide access without destroying the beauty of the falls ? How would they restore natural landscapes damaged by man ? They planned a park with scenic roadways , paths and a few shelters designed to protect the landscape while allowing large numbers of visitors to enjoy the falls . Commemorative statues , shops , restaurants , and a 1959 glass and metal observation tower were added later . Preservationists continue to strive to strike a balance between Olmsted 's idyllic vision and the realities of administering a popular scenic attraction . Preservation efforts continued well into the 20th century . J. Horace McFarland , the Sierra Club , and the Appalachian Mountain Club persuaded the United States Congress in 1906 to enact legislation to preserve the falls by regulating the waters of the Niagara River . The act sought , in cooperation with the Canadian government , to restrict diversion of water , and a treaty resulted in 1909 that limited the total amount of water diverted from the falls by both nations to approximately 56,000 cubic feet ( 1,600 m ) per second . That limitation remained in effect until 1950 . American Falls `` shut off '' during erosion control efforts in 1969 Erosion control efforts have always been of extreme importance . Underwater weirs redirect the most damaging currents , and the top of the falls has also been strengthened . In June 1969 , the Niagara River was completely diverted away from the American Falls for several months through construction of a temporary rock and earth dam ( clearly visible in the photo at right ) . During this time , two bodies were removed from under the falls , including a man who had been seen jumping over the falls , and the body of a woman , which was discovered once the falls dried . While the Horseshoe Falls absorbed the extra flow , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the riverbed and mechanically bolted and strengthened any faults they found ; faults that would , if left untreated , have hastened the retreat of the American Falls . A plan to remove the huge mound of talus deposited in 1954 was abandoned owing to cost , and in November 1969 , the temporary dam was dynamited , restoring flow to the American Falls . Even after these undertakings , Luna Island , the small piece of land between the main waterfall and the Bridal Veil , remained off limits to the public for years owing to fears that it was unstable and could collapse into the gorge . Commercial interests have continued to encroach on the land surrounding the state park , including the construction of several tall buildings ( most of them hotels ) on the Canadian side . The result is a significant alteration and urbanisation of the landscape . One study indicated it has caused the airflow near the falls to change direction . Students at the University of Guelph demonstrated , using scale models , that as air passes over the top of the new hotels it causes a breeze to roll down the south sides of the buildings and spill into the gorge below the falls , where it feeds into a whirlpool of moisture and air . The inference was that a documented rise in the number of `` mist days '' was a result of these breezes , where mist days refers to the mist plume of the falls reaching landside . In 1996 there were 29 mist days recorded , but by 2003 that number had risen to 68 . Another study has discounted this opinion and linked mist production to the difference in air and water temperature at the falls . However , this study does not offer opinion as to why mist days have been increasing , just that the hotel breezes are an unlikely cause . In 2013 , New York State began an effort to renovate The Sisters Islands located on Goat Island . New York State used funds from the re-licensing of the New York Power Authority hydroelectric plant downriver in Lewiston , New York , to rebuild walking paths on the Three Sisters Islands and to plant native vegetation on the islands . The state also renovated the area around Prospect Point at the brink of the American Falls in the state park . Over the Falls ( edit ) Bobby Leach and his barrel after his trip over Niagara Falls , 1911 See also : List of objects that have gone over Niagara Falls In October 1829 , Sam Patch , who called himself `` the Yankee Leapster '' , jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived ; this began a long tradition of daredevils trying to go over the falls . Jumps and plunges ( edit ) On October 24 , 1901 , 63 - year - old Michigan school teacher Annie Edson Taylor became the first person to go over the falls in a barrel as a publicity stunt ; she survived , bleeding , but otherwise unharmed . Soon after exiting the barrel , she said , `` No one ought ever do that again . '' Before Taylor 's attempt , on October 19 a domestic cat named Iagara was sent over the Horseshoe Falls in her barrel to test its strength . Contrary to rumours at the time , the cat survived the plunge unharmed and later posed with Taylor in photographs . Since Taylor 's historic ride , 14 people have intentionally gone over the falls in or on a device , despite her advice . Some have survived unharmed , but others have drowned or been severely injured . Survivors face charges and stiff fines , as it is illegal , on both sides of the border , to attempt to go over the falls . In 1918 , there was a near disaster when a barge , known locally as the Niagara Scow , working upriver broke its tow , and almost plunged over the falls . Fortunately , the two workers on board saved themselves by grounding the vessel on rocks just short of the falls , where it has remained ever since . Englishman Captain Matthew Webb , the first man to swim the English Channel , drowned in 1883 trying to swim the rapids downriver from the falls . In the `` Miracle at Niagara '' , Roger Woodward , a seven - year - old American boy , was swept over the Horseshoe Falls protected only by a life vest on July 9 , 1960 , as two tourists pulled his 17 - year - old sister Deanne from the river only 20 feet ( 6.1 m ) from the lip of the Horseshoe Falls at Goat Island . Minutes later , Woodward was plucked from the roiling plunge pool beneath the Horseshoe Falls after grabbing a life ring thrown to him by the crew of the Maid of the Mist boat . On July 2 , 1984 , Canadian Karel Soucek from Hamilton , Ontario , plunged over the Horseshoe Falls in a barrel with only minor injuries . Soucek was fined $500 for performing the stunt without a license . In 1985 , he was fatally injured while attempting to re-create the Niagara drop at the Houston Astrodome . His aim was to climb into a barrel hoisted to the rafters of the Astrodome and to drop 180 feet ( 55 m ) into a water tank on the floor . After his barrel released prematurely , it hit the side of the tank and he died the next day from his injuries . In August 1985 , Steve Trotter , an aspiring stuntman from Rhode Island , became the youngest person ever ( age 22 ) and the first American in 25 years to go over the falls in a barrel . Ten years later , Trotter went over the falls again , becoming the second person to go over the falls twice and survive . It was also the second - ever `` duo '' ; Lori Martin joined Trotter for the barrel ride over the falls . They survived the fall but their barrel became stuck at the bottom of the falls , requiring a rescue . On September 28 , 1989 , Niagara natives Peter DeBernardi ( age 42 ) and Jeffery James Petkovich ( age 25 ) became the first `` team '' to make it over the falls in a two - person barrel . The stunt was conceived by DeBenardi , who wanted to discourage youth from following in his path of addictive drug use . The pair emerged shortly after going over with minor injuries and were charged with performing an illegal stunt under the Niagara Parks Act . On June 5 , 1990 , Jesse Sharp , a whitewater canoeist from Tennessee paddled over the falls in a closed deck canoe . He neglected to wear a helmet to make his face more visible for photographs of the event . He also did not wear a life vest because he believed it would hinder his escape from the hydraulics at the base of the falls . His boat flushed out of the falls , but his body was never found . On September 27 , 1993 , John `` David '' Munday , of Caistor Centre , Ontario , completed his second journey over the falls . On October 1 , 1995 , Robert Douglas `` Firecracker '' Overacker went over the falls on a Jet Ski to raise awareness for the homeless . His rocket - propelled parachute failed to open and he plunged to his death . Overacker 's body was recovered before he was pronounced dead at Niagara General Hospital . Kirk Jones of Canton , Michigan , became the first known person to survive a plunge over the Horseshoe Falls without a flotation device on October 20 , 2003 . Though Jones had attempted to commit suicide , he survived the 16 - story fall with only battered ribs , scrapes , and bruises . Jones died in another attempt to go over the falls in an inflatable ball in 2017 . A second person survived an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls on March 11 , 2009 , and when rescued from the river , was reported to be suffering from severe hypothermia and a large wound to his head . His identity has not been released . Eyewitnesses reported seeing the man intentionally enter the water . On May 21 , 2012 , an unidentified man in his early 40s became the third person to survive an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls . Eyewitness reports show he `` deliberately jumped '' into the Niagara River after climbing over a railing . Walks ( edit ) Blondin carrying his manager , Harry Colcord , on a tightrope Other daredevils have made crossing the gorge their goal , starting with the successful passage by Jean François `` Blondin '' Gravelet , who crossed Niagara Gorge in 1859 . Between 1859 and 1896 a wire - walking craze emerged , resulting in frequent feats over the river below the falls . One inexperienced walker slid down his safety rope . Only one man fell to his death , at night and under mysterious circumstances , at the anchoring place for his wire . These tightrope walkers drew huge crowds to witness their exploits . Their wires ran across the gorge , near the current Rainbow Bridge , not over the waterfall itself . Among the many was Ontario 's William Hunt , who billed himself as `` The Great Farini '' and competed with Blondin in performing outrageous stunts over the gorge . On three occasions Blondin carried his manager , Harry Colcord , on his back -- on the final time being watched by the Prince of Wales . Maria Spelterini walking a tightrope across Niagara Gorge , from the United States to Canada , with her feet in peach baskets , 1876 In 1876 , 23 - year - old Italian Maria Spelterini was the only woman ever to cross the Niagara Gorge on a tightrope , making four crossings over 18 days . On July 12 , she crossed wearing peach baskets strapped to her feet , on July 19 blind - folded , on July 22 with her ankles and wrists manacled and finally on July 26 . Tightrope crossings of the falls ended -- by law -- in 1896 , when James Hardy crossed . On June 15 , 2012 , high wire artist Nik Wallenda became the first person to walk across the falls in 116 years , after receiving special permission from both governments . The full length of his tightrope was 1,800 feet ( 550 m ) . Wallenda crossed near the brink of the Horseshoe Falls , unlike walkers who had crossed farther downstream . According to Wallenda , it was the longest unsupported tightrope walk in history . He carried his passport on the trip and was required to present it upon arrival on the Canadian side of the falls . Other entertainment ( edit ) Movies and television ( edit ) Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners , Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of Niagara , a movie starring Marilyn Monroe and Joseph Cotten . In 1956 , the Woody Woodpecker series released the episode Niagara Fools . The 1974 ABC Movie of the Week , The Great Niagara , featuring Richard Boone and Randy Quaid and filmed on location , told the story of a family of daredevils who challenged the falls . The falls was a featured location in the 1980 movie Superman II , and was itself the subject of a popular IMAX movie , Niagara : Miracles , Myths and Magic . Much of the episode `` Return of the Technodrome '' in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon series takes place near the Niagara Falls and its hydroelectric plant . Illusionist David Copperfield performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990 . The falls , or more particularly , the tourist - supported complex near the falls , was the setting of the short - lived Canadian - shot US television show Wonderfalls in early 2004 . Location footage of the falls was shot in October 2006 to portray `` World 's End '' of the movie Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End . Professional kayaker Rafa Ortiz 's preparation to paddle over the falls in a kayak is documented in the 2015 film Chasing Niagara . Music ( edit ) Composer Ferde Grofé was commissioned by the Niagara Falls Power Generation project in 1960 to compose the Niagara Falls Suite in honor of the completion of the first stage of hydroelectric work at the falls . Each movement is dedicated to the falls , or to the history of the greater Buffalo region . In 1997 , composer Michael Daugherty composed Niagara Falls , a piece for concert band inspired by the falls . Literature ( edit ) The Niagara Falls area features as the base camp for a German aerial invasion of the United States in the H.G. Wells novel The War in the Air . Many poets have been inspired to write about the falls . Among them was the Cuban poet José Maria Heredia , who wrote the poem `` Niagara '' . There are commemorative plaques on both sides of the falls recognising the poem . In the original 1920s and 1930s Buck Rogers stories and newspaper cartoons , Buck Rogers , in his adventures in the 25th century that take place on Earth , helps in the fight for a free Northern America from the liberated zone around Niagara , New York ( which by then has grown to a large metropolis -- the capital of the liberated zone -- that includes Niagara Falls , New York , Niagara Falls , Ontario , and Buffalo , New York ) , against the Red Mongol Empire , a Chinese empire of the future which in the 25th century rules most of North America . Part of Mark Twain 's 1893 short story , `` Extract from Adam 's Diary '' is set at Niagara Falls . The Bulgarian writer Aleko Konstantinov portrays the impressiveness of the Niagara Falls in his book , `` To Chicago and back '' . Fine Art ( edit ) Niagara Fälle . Les chûtes du Niagara . Niagara Falls ( circa 1832 ) : aquatint by Karl Bodmer Albert Bierstadt 's ( 1830 -- 1902 ) oil painting of Niagara Falls Arthur Parton , Niagara Falls ( Brooklyn Museum ) View of Niagara Falls , by Ferdinand Richardt Underneath Niagara Falls , by Richardt at the Met , 1862 Louis Rémy Mignot , Niagara , Brooklyn Museum Thomas Cole , Distant View of Niagara Falls 1830 , Art Institute of Chicago Alvan Fisher , A General View of the Falls of Niagara , 1820 , Smithsonian Institution Frederic Edwin Church , Niagara Falls , 1857 , Corcoran Gallery of Art , Washington , D.C. William Morris Hunt , Niagara Falls , 1878 Tourism ( edit ) Niagara Falls at night Peak visitor traffic occurs in the summertime , when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction . From the Canadian side , floodlights illuminate both sides of the falls for several hours after dark ( until midnight ) . The number of visitors in 2007 was expected to total 20 million , and by 2009 the annual rate was expected to top 28 million tourists . The oldest and best known tourist attraction at Niagara Falls is the Maid of the Mist boat cruise , named for an ancient Ongiara Indian mythical character , which has carried passengers into the rapids immediately below the falls since 1846 . Cruise boats operate from boat docks on both sides of the falls , with the Maid of the Mist operating from the American side and Hornblower Cruises from the Canadian side . American side ( edit ) Niagara Falls : U.S. side From the U.S. side , the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along Prospect Point Park , which also features the Prospect Point Observation Tower and a boat dock for the Maid of the Mist . Goat Island offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls . From Goat Island , the Cave of the Winds is accessible by elevator and leads hikers to a point beneath Bridal Veil Falls . Also on Goat Island are the Three Sisters Islands , the Power Portal where a huge statue of Nikola Tesla ( the inventor whose patents for the AC induction motor and other devices for AC power transmission helped make the harnessing of the falls possible ) can be seen , and a walking path that enables views of the rapids , the Niagara River , the gorge , and all of the falls . Most of these attractions lie within the Niagara Falls State Park . The Niagara Scenic Trolley offers guided trips along the American Falls and around Goat Island . Panoramic and aerial views of the falls can also be viewed by helicopter . The Niagara Gorge Discovery Center showcases the natural and local history of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge . A casino and luxury hotel was opened in Niagara Falls , New York , by the Seneca Indian tribe . The Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel occupies the former Niagara Falls Convention Center . The new hotel is the first addition to the city 's skyline since completion of the United Office Building in the 1920s . Canadian side ( edit ) The Skylon Tower On the Canadian side , Queen Victoria Park features manicured gardens , platforms offering views of both the American and Horseshoe Falls , and underground walkways leading into observation rooms that yield the illusion of being within the falling waters . The observation deck of the nearby Skylon Tower offers the highest view of the falls , and in the opposite direction gives views as far as Toronto . Along with the Minolta Tower ( formerly the Seagrams Tower and the Konica Minolta Tower , and since 2010 called the Tower Hotel ) , it is one of two towers in Canada with a view of the falls . Along the Niagara River , the Niagara River Recreational Trail runs 35 miles ( 56 km ) from Fort Erie to Fort George , and includes many historical sites from the War of 1812 . The Whirlpool Aero Car , built in 1916 from a design by Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo , is a cable car that takes passengers over the Niagara Whirlpool on the Canadian side . The Journey Behind the Falls consists of an observation platform and series of tunnels near the bottom of the Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side . There are two casinos on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls , the Niagara Fallsview Casino Resort and Casino Niagara . Panoramic views ( edit ) Niagara Falls , c. 1921 The American , Bridal Veil , and Horseshoe Falls as seen from the Skylon Tower in May 2002 View of American , Bridal Veil ( the single fall to the right of the American Falls ) and Horseshoe Falls from Canada with the Maid of the Mist boat near the falls , 2007 See also ( edit ) Ontario portal New York portal Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation Incline railways at Niagara Falls List of Niagara Falls hydroelectric generating plants Table Rock , Niagara Falls References ( edit ) Jump up ^ USGS 1995 Niagara Falls Map Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls Geology Facts and Figures '' . Niagara Parks . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` City Profile for Niagara Falls , Ontario '' . Retrieved October 6 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures . Niagara Parks , Government of Ontario , Canada . Retrieved July 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls History of Power -- Historical and engineering data on the U.S. and Canadian power stations '' . Retrieved September 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls -- World Waterfall Database '' . Retrieved November 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ( INBC ) -- International Niagara Board of Control '' . Archived from the original on July 26 , 2009 . Retrieved March 19 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures '' . Niagara Parks . Archived from the original on 19 July 2011 . Retrieved 29 April 2011 . Jump up ^ InfoNiagara.com , Niagara Falls Geological History . Retrieved March 3 , 2007 . Archived October 6 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Parker E. Calkin and Carlton E. Brett , `` Ancestral Niagara River drainage : Stratigraphic and paleontologic setting '' , GSA Bulletin , August 1978 , v. 89 ; no . 8 , pp. 1140 -- 1154 Jump up ^ `` Geological Past of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Region '' . Retrieved December 21 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Irving H. Tesmer , Jerold C. Bastedo , Colossal Cataract : The Geologic History of Niagara Falls ( SUNY Press , 1981 , ISBN 0 - 87395 - 522 - 6 ) , p. 75 . Jump up ^ Saut ou chute d'eau de Niagara , qui se voit entre le Lac Ontario , & le Lac Erié , Jump up ^ Bruce Trigger , The Children of Aataentsic ( McGill - Queen 's University Press , Kingston and Montreal , 1987 , ISBN 0 - 7735 - 0626 - 8 ) , p. 95 . Jump up ^ Stewart , George R. ( 1967 ) Names on the Land . Boston : Houghton Mifflin Company ; p. 83 . Jump up ^ Schoolcraft , Henry R. ( 1847 ) Notes on the Iroquois . pp. 453 -- 454 . Jump up ^ `` The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents Volume 33 '' . Puffin.creighton.edu . Retrieved October 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Captain Thomas Davies ( 1737 -- 1812 ) : An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara '' . Christie 's . April 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Dickenson , Victoria ( 1998 ) . Drawn from Life : Science and Art in the Portrayal of the New World . University of Toronto Press . p. 195 . ISBN 978 - 08020 - 8073 - 8 . Jump up ^ Sherman Zavitz ( City of Niagara Falls Official Historian ) , `` Niagara Falls Moment '' , CJRN 710 Radio , June 26 , 2008 Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls is such a cool honeymoon destination even Napoleon 's Brother chose it '' . Retrieved September 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Alfred , Randy ( March 30 , 2010 ) . `` March 30 , 1848 : Niagara Falls Runs Dry '' . Wired.com . `` This Day in Tech '' . Retrieved October 16 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Backgrounder : Pattinson Daguerreotype '' . Niagara Parks , an agency of the Government of Ontario since 1885 . Archived from the original on December 28 , 2010 . Retrieved November 30 , 2012 . The assumption explained on the web page is that as Pattinson had ample time to walk into the picture , he opened the shutter and then positioned himself at the chosen spot , keeping still there for some minutes . Jump up ^ `` Photo : Niagara Falls , 1840 '' . How academics found the first photograph to be taken in Canada . The Walrus . July -- August 2009 . Archived from the original on January 29 , 2012 . Retrieved November 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hugh Lee Pattinson '' . Newcastle University . 2010 . Retrieved 29 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Smith , Graham ( December 15 , 2010 ) . `` The day Niagara Falls ran dry : Newly discovered photos show the moment the iconic waterfall came to a standstill '' . Daily Mail . Retrieved December 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Berton , Pierre ( 2009 ) . Niagara : A History of the Falls . SUNY Press . pp. 20 -- 21 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4384 - 2928 - 1 . Retrieved December 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Strand , Ginger ( 2009 ) . Inventing Niagara : Beauty , Power , and Lies . Simon & Schuster . p. 195 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4165 - 4657 - 3 . Retrieved December 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Vanderwilt , Dirk ( 2007 ) . Niagara Falls : With the Niagara Parks , Clifton Hill , and Other Area Attractions , p. 35 . Channel Lake , Inc. , ISBN 978 - 0 - 9792043 - 7 - 1 Jump up ^ https://www.niagarafallsmarriott.com/niagara-seasons/does-niagara-falls-freeze-winter Jump up ^ https://www.snopes.com/photos/natural/niagarafalls.asp Jump up ^ Honor for E.D. Adams : Engineers to Award the John Fritz Medal for Niagara Development . ( March 17 , 1926 ) . The New York Times ( 1857 -- Current file ) , 6 . ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times ( 1851 -- 2004 ) database . ( Document ID : 119063396 ) . Jump up ^ The electrical features of Niagara The Electrical world , Volume 29 . Electrical World , 1897 . ^ Jump up to : `` NYPA Niagara '' . Nypa.gov . Archived from the original on February 17 , 2009 . Retrieved October 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls Original Turbines '' . National Museum of American History , Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved June 19 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Power Goes Under Ground '' Popular Mechanics , April 1952 , p. 115 . Jump up ^ Macfarlane , Daniel ( 9 January 2018 ) . `` How engineers created the icy wonderland at Niagara Falls '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 9 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Niagara Tunnel Project Technical Facts , NiagaraFrontier.com website , updated November 2012 . Jump up ^ March 21 , 2013 : Niagara Tunnel Now In - Service Archived November 19 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine. , Ontario Power Generation website , March 2013 . Retrieved April 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Asteroid 12382 Niagara Falls was named after the falls . Jump up ^ Laura Wood Roper , FLO : A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press ( 1973 ) , pp. 378 -- 81 Jump up ^ New York ( State ) . Commissioners of state reservation at Niagara . Albany : The Argus Company , printers , 1887 Jump up ^ The New York State Preservationist , Vol. 6 , No. 1 , Fall -- Winter 2002 , `` Falling for Niagara '' , pp. 14 , 15 Jump up ^ Burton Act Jump up ^ U.S. Statutes at Large , Vol. 34 , Part 1 , Chap. 3621 , pp. 626 -- 28 . `` An Act For the control and regulation of the waters of Niagara River , for the preservation of Niagara Falls , and for other purposes . '' H.R. 18024 ; Public Act No. 367 Jump up ^ This remarkable event had occurred only once before , when an upstream ice jam stopped almost all water flow over Niagara Falls on March 29 , 1848 . Jump up ^ Fischer , Nancy ( January 23 , 2016 ) . `` Niagara Falls is going to go dry -- again '' . The Buffalo News . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls Geological History -- The American Dry Falls -- Niagara Falls USA '' . niagarafallsinfo.com . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2016 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` What causes the mist rising from Niagara Falls ? '' . OPSEU - 217 . Retrieved April 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bursik , Marcus . `` Temperatures , Not Hotels , Likely Alter Niagara Falls ' Mist '' . University at Buffalo . Retrieved April 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Thompson , Carolyn ( July 2 , 2000 ) . `` Seeking Out Death -- Or Defying It : For Niagara Falls , It 's a Busy Season for Tourism , Suicide and Daredevils '' . Sun - Sentinel . Fort Lauderdale . p. 3A . Jump up ^ Parish , Charles Carlin , Queen of the Mist : The Story of Annie Edson Taylor , First Person Ever to Go Over Niagara Falls and Survive ( Empire State Books , Interlaken NY , 1987 , ISBN 0 - 932334 - 89 - X ) , p. 55 . Jump up ^ `` Stranded on Brink of Niagara Falls ; Scow with Two Workmen Aboard It Fast Upon a Rock 1,000 Feet from Cataract '' . The New York Times . August 7 , 1918 . Retrieved May 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls Daredevils : a history '' . Niagarafrontier.com . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Over the Falls '' . Retrieved September 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Account of Roger Woodward 's Niagara Falls incident '' . Retrieved October 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Pictures from the Niagara Falls Public Library ( Ont . ) Includes a stamp issued to commemorate the event '' . Retrieved October 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Info Niagara Karel Soucek '' . Archived from the original on January 9 , 2008 . Retrieved February 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls Daredevils : a history '' . Niagarafrontier.com . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls Daredevils : a history '' . Niagarafrontier.com . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Neill , Michael ( 25 June 1990 ) . `` Tennessee Outdoorsman Jessie Sharp Challenged Niagara 's Mighty Falls in a Tiny Canoe -- and Lost -- Vol. 33 No. 25 '' . PEOPLE.com . Retrieved 20 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Info Niagara Dave Munday '' . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2007 . Retrieved February 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Info Robert Overacker '' . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2007 . Retrieved February 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Law , John ( 2017 - 06 - 16 ) . `` Kirk Jones could not survive Falls a second time '' . Niagara Falls Review . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls survivor : Stunt was ' impulsive ' '' . CNN . October 22 , 2003 . Archived from the original on January 12 , 2008 . Retrieved February 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` thesurvivorsclub.org '' . thesurvivorsclub.org . Jump up ^ `` Man dies after going over Niagara Falls inside inflatable ball '' . CTV News . The Associated Press . 2017 - 06 - 16 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Man survives plunge into Niagara Falls '' . CBC News . March 11 , 2009 . Retrieved March 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Man survives plunge over Niagara Falls '' . CNN . March 11 , 2009 . Retrieved March 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Man survives plunge over Niagara Falls ; only 3rd person without safety device to survive Jump up ^ Staff ( May 21 , 2012 ) . `` Man Survives Plunge over Horseshoe Falls '' . Niagara Gazette . Retrieved May 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` History , Travel , Arts , Science , People , Places -- Smithsonian '' . smithsonianmag.com . Jump up ^ `` Blondin broadsheet -- Details '' . Nflibrary.ca . February 27 , 2006 . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Anne Neville , `` Daredevils who wire - walked before Wallenda '' , buffalonews.com ^ Jump up to : `` Niagara Falls Daredevils : a history '' . Niagarafrontier.com . Retrieved August 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Niagara Falls Public Library ^ Jump up to : Emily Senger ( June 16 , 2012 ) . `` Nik Wallenda makes historic Niagara Falls walk '' . CTV News . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hakim , Danny ; Leyden , Liz ( June 15 , 2012 ) . `` Niagara Falls Fills with Excitement in Wait of Tightrope Walk '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Niagara Falls tightrope walk : Nik Wallenda succeeds . guardian.co.uk . June 16 , 2012 . Retrieved June 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Michael Woods ; Liam Casey ( June 10 , 2012 ) . `` Wallenda 's plan for the falls '' . Toronto Star . NiagaraThisWeek.com . Retrieved June 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls IMAX Movie Ontario , Canada '' . Imaxniagara.com . Archived from the original on June 2 , 2008 . Retrieved October 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Return of the Technodrome '' . Ninjaturtles . December 31 , 1988 . Archived from the original on January 14 , 2011 . Retrieved October 16 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End ( 2007 ) '' . IMDb . Jump up ^ `` Chasing Niagara '' . July 5 , 2016 -- via www.imdb.com . Jump up ^ The Collected Works of Buck Rogers in the 25th Century 1969 Chelsea House -- Introduction by Ray Bradbury -- Reprints of the original Buck Rogers comic strips Jump up ^ `` Niagara Falls '' . Travelooce.com . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Maid of the Mist '' . Maid of the Mist Steamboat Company , Ltd . Archived from the original on March 29 , 2007 . Retrieved March 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` American Indian Legends -- Legend of the Maid of the Mist '' . www.firstpeople.us . Retrieved March 27 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Niagara Falls State Park '' . Niagara Falls State Park . Retrieved March 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Flight of Angels '' . The Great American Balloon Company . Retrieved March 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Let 's Go Travel Guide , 2004 Jump up ^ `` Niagara River Recreation Trail '' . Niagara Parks Commission . Archived from the original on March 29 , 2007 . Retrieved March 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Journey Behind the Falls '' . Niagara Parks Commission . Retrieved March 27 , 2007 . Further reading ( edit ) Berton , Pierre ( 2009 ) . Niagara : A History of the Falls . State University of New York Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4384 - 2928 - 1 Grant , Grant ; Ray Jones ( 2006 ) . Niagara Falls : an intimate portrait . Insiders / Globe Pequot . ISBN 0 - 7627 - 4025 - 6 Holley , George Washington ( 1883 ) . The Falls of Niagara . A.C. Armstrong & Son . McGreevy , Patrick ( 2009 ) . Imagining Niagara : The Meaning and Making of Niagara Falls . Univ of Massachusetts . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55849 - 771 - 9 External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Niagara Falls Wikimedia Commons has media related to Niagara Falls image gallery . Niagara Falls travel guide from Wikivoyage Panorama Niagara Falls Panorama found at Queen 's Park , Toronto . Historic Niagara Digital Collections U.S. Army Corps of Engineers The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers completely blocked the flow of water over the American Falls in 1969 . The History of Niagara Falls `` Niagara Power Goes Under Ground '' Popular Mechanics , April 1952 , pp. 115 -- 117 . Niagara Power Vista -- visitors center for the Niagara Falls hydro electric plant with displays , a scaled down map of the project , and documentaries on construction , situated atop the cement wall of the plant on the Niagara Gorge . Fiction ( edit ) The Day the Falls Stood Still by Cathy Marie Buchanan The Whirlpool by Jane Urquhart Non-fiction ( edit ) Inventing Niagara : Beauty , Power , and Lies by Ginger Strand Niagara : A History of the Falls by Pierre Berton Imagining Niagara : The Meaning and Making of Niagara Falls by Patrick McGreevy Geography of the provinces and territories of Canada National Geography of Canada Centre of Canada Provinces British Columbia Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Newfoundland and Labrador Territories Yukon Northwest Territories Nunavut See also Regions of Canada Islands Rivers Lakes Mountains National Parks Volcanoes Portal WikiProject Geography of the United States States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Federal district Washington , D.C. Insular areas American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Outlying islands Baker Island Howland Island Jarvis Island Johnston Atoll Navassa Island Wake Island Great Five Waterfalls ( by power ) Guaíra Falls † Iguazu Falls Khone Phapheng Falls Niagara Falls Victoria Falls BNF : cb11958980s ( data ) GND : 4117863 - 4 NARA : 10045898 VIAF : 63144814433030518574 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niagara_Falls&oldid=844933954 '' Categories : Niagara Falls International waterfalls Tourist attractions in Niagara County , New York Tourist attractions in Niagara Falls , Ontario Landmarks in New York ( state ) Niagara River Waterfalls of Ontario Waterfalls of New York ( state ) Niagara Falls , New York Landforms of Niagara Region , Ontario Canada -- United States border Niagara Falls National Heritage Area Block waterfalls Segmented waterfalls Landforms of Niagara County , New York Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2017 Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Use mdy dates from September 2016 Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018 Articles with inconsistent citation formats Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikivoyage Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Bikol Central Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча ລາວ Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Patois Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 102 more Edit links This page was last edited on 8 June 2018 , at 05 : 37 ( UTC ) . 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70 | document: Minister of Defence ( India ) - wikipedia Minister of Defence ( India ) Jump to : navigation , search Minister of Defence Emblem of India Incumbent Nirmala Sitharaman Ministry of Defence Appointer President on the advice of the Prime Minister Inaugural holder Baldev Singh Formation 2 September 1946 The Minister of Defence is the head of the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India . They are often assisted by a Minister of State for Defence and less - commonly , the lower - ranked Deputy Minister of Defence . The defence minister additionally serves as President of the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses , and as Chancellor of the Defence Institute of Advanced Technology and of the National Defence University . The first defence minister of independent India was Baldev Singh , who served in Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru 's cabinet during 1947 -- 52 . Nirmala Sitharaman , the current defence minister of India is the second woman since Indira Gandhi to hold this major post . List of Defence Ministers ( edit ) No Name Portrait Term of office Political party ( Alliance ) Prime Minister Baldev Singh ( 1902 - 1961 ) 2 September 1946 1952 Indian National Congress Jawaharlal Nehru Kailash Nath Katju ( 1887 - 1968 ) 1955 1957 V.K. Krishna Menon ( 1896 - 1974 ) 1957 1962 Yashwantrao Chavan ( 1913 - 1984 ) 1962 1966 Jawaharlal Nehru Lal Bahadur Shastri Indira Gandhi Swaran Singh ( 1907 - 1994 ) 1966 1970 Indira Gandhi 6 Jagjivan Ram ( 1908 - 1986 ) 1970 ( 5 ) Swaran Singh ( 1907 - 1994 ) 7 Indira Gandhi ( 1917 - 1984 ) 8 Bansi Lal ( 1927 - 2006 ) 21 December 1975 24 March 1977 ( 6 ) Jagjivan Ram ( 1908 - 1986 ) 24 March 1977 28 July 1979 Janata Party Morarji Desai 9 Chidambaram Subramaniam ( 1910 - 2000 ) 28 July 1979 14 January 1980 Janata Party ( Secular ) Charan Singh ( 7 ) Indira Gandhi ( 1917 - 1984 ) 14 January 1980 1982 Indian National Congress Indira Gandhi 10 R. Venkataraman ( 1910 - 2009 ) 1982 1984 11 Shankarrao Chavan ( 1920 - 2004 ) 1984 1984 Indira Gandhi Rajiv Gandhi 12 P.V. Narasimha Rao ( 1921 - 2004 ) 1984 1985 Rajiv Gandhi 13 Rajiv Gandhi ( 1944 - 1991 ) 1985 14 V.P. Singh ( 1931 - 2008 ) 15 K.C. Pant ( 1931 - 2012 ) ( 14 ) V.P. Singh ( 1931 - 2008 ) 2 December 1989 10 November 1990 Janata Dal ( National Front ) Himself 16 Chandra Shekhar ( 1927 - 2007 ) 10 November 1990 21 June 1991 Samajwadi Janata Party ( National Front ) Himself 17 Sharad Pawar ( 1940 -- ) 21 June 1991 6 March 1993 Indian National Congress P.V. Narasimha Rao ( 12 ) P.V. Narasimha Rao ( 1921 - 2004 ) 6 March 1993 16 May 1996 18 Pramod Mahajan ( 1949 - 2006 ) 16 May 1996 1 June 1996 Bharatiya Janata Party Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19 Mulayam Singh Yadav ( 1939 - ) 1 June 1996 19 March 1998 Samajwadi Party ( United Front ) H.D. Deve Gowda I.K. Gujral 20 George Fernandes ( 1930 -- ) 19 March 1998 16 March 2001 Samata Party ( National Democratic Alliance ) Atal Bihari Vajpayee 21 Jaswant Singh ( 1938 - ) 16 March 2001 21 October 2001 Bharatiya Janata Party ( National Democratic Alliance ) ( 20 ) George Fernandes ( 1930 -- ) 21 October 2001 22 May 2004 Samata Party Janata Dal ( National Democratic Alliance ) 22 Pranab Mukherjee ( 1935 -- ) 22 May 2004 24 October 2006 Indian National Congress ( United Progressive Alliance ) Manmohan Singh 23 A.K. Antony ( 1940 -- ) 24 October 2006 26 May 2014 24 Arun Jaitley ( 1952 -- ) 26 May 2014 9 November 2014 Bharatiya Janata Party ( National Democratic Alliance ) Narendra Modi 25 Manohar Parrikar ( 1955 -- ) 9 November 2014 13 March 2017 ( 24 ) Arun Jaitley ( 1952 -- ) 13 March 2017 3 September 2017 26 Nirmala Sitharaman ( 1959 -- ) 3 September 2017 Incumbent See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Defence Ministers of India . Ministry of Defence ( India ) Defence minister Government ministries of India President ( List ) Government of India Prime Minister ( List Office ) Deputy Prime Minister Council of Ministers Current Agriculture and Farmers Welfare AYUSH Chemicals and Fertilizers Civil Aviation Coal Commerce and Industry Communications Consumer Affairs Culture Defence Drinking Water and Sanitation Earth Sciences Electronics and Information Technology Environment , Forest and Climate Change External Affiars Finance Food Processing Industries Health and Family Welfare Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises Home Affairs Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Human Resource Development Information and Broadcasting Labour and Employment Law and Justice Micro , Small and Medium Enterprises Mines Minority Affairs New and Renewable Energy North East Panchayati Raj Parliamentary Affairs Personnel , Public Grievances and Pensions Petroleum Power Railways Road Transport and Highways Rural Development Science and Technology Shipping Skill Development and Entrepreneurship Social Justice and Empowerment Statistics and Programme Implementation Steel Textiles Tourism Tribal Affairs Urban Development Water Resources Women and Child Development Defunct Communications and Information Technology Overseas Indian Affairs Surface Transport Ministers Home Affairs Finance External Affairs Defence Railways Health and Family Welfare HRD Information and Broadcasting Labour and Employment Parliamentary Affairs Science and Technology Tribal Affairs North Eastern Region Common types of government ministers and ministries Leadership President Vice-President Prime Minister Deputy Prime Minister Office of the President Cabinet department / Office of the Prime Minister Defence / Foreign Affairs / Public Safety Defence ( list ) Foreign / External Affairs ( list ) International development Public Security / Internal Security / Homeland Security Immigration Economics / Infrastructure Commerce / Trade Communications Finance / Treasury ( list ) Industry Public Works / Infrastructure Transport Environment / Natural resources Agriculture Climate change Energy Environment ( list ) Fisheries Forestry Irrigation Land management Mining Natural resources Petroleum / Oil Water resources Social Education ( List ) Culture Health Information Interior / Internal Affairs / Home Affairs ( list ) Justice / Law Labour Religion Science ( and Technology ) Sports Tourism Minister without portfolio Ministries by portfolio Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minister_of_Defence_(India)&oldid=802606052 '' Categories : Cabinet of India Defence Ministers of India Union ministers of India Hidden categories : EngvarB from July 2016 Use dmy dates from July 2016 Talk About Wikipedia हिन्दी മലയാളം मराठी Русский தமிழ் Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 27 September 2017 , at 07 : 38 . 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71 | document: The Shawshank Redemption - wikipedia The Shawshank Redemption Jump to : navigation , search The Shawshank Redemption Theatrical release poster Directed by Frank Darabont Produced by Niki Marvin Screenplay by Frank Darabont Based on Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption by Stephen King Starring Tim Robbins Morgan Freeman Bob Gunton William Sadler Clancy Brown Gil Bellows James Whitmore Music by Thomas Newman Cinematography Roger Deakins Edited by Richard Francis - Bruce Production company Castle Rock Entertainment Distributed by Columbia Pictures Release date September 10 , 1994 ( 1994 - 09 - 10 ) ( Toronto ) September 23 , 1994 ( 1994 - 09 - 23 ) ( United States ) Running time 142 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $25 million Box office $58.3 million The Shawshank Redemption is a 1994 American drama film written and directed by Frank Darabont , based on the Stephen King novella Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption . It tells the story of banker Andy Dufresne ( Tim Robbins ) , who is sentenced to life in Shawshank State Penitentiary for the murder of his wife and her lover , despite his claims of innocence . Over the following two decades , he befriends a fellow prisoner , contraband smuggler Ellis `` Red '' Redding ( Morgan Freeman ) , and becomes instrumental in a money laundering operation led by the prison warden Samuel Norton ( Bob Gunton ) . William Sadler , Clancy Brown , Gil Bellows , and James Whitmore appear in supporting roles . Darabont purchased the film rights to King 's story in 1987 , but development did not begin until five years later when he wrote the script over an eight - week period . Two weeks after submitting his script to the Castle Rock Entertainment film studio , Darabont secured a $25 million budget to produce The Shawshank Redemption , which started pre-production in January 1993 . While the film is set in Maine , principal photography took place almost entirely in Mansfield , Ohio , with the Ohio State Reformatory serving as the eponymous penitentiary . The project attracted many notable stars of the time for the lead roles including Tom Hanks , Tom Cruise , and Kevin Costner . Thomas Newman provided the film 's score . While The Shawshank Redemption received positive reviews on its release , particularly for its story and the performances of Robbins and Freeman , it was a box office disappointment , earning only $16 million during its initial theatrical run . Many reasons were cited for its failure at the time , including competition from films such as Pulp Fiction and Forrest Gump , to the general unpopularity of prison films , lack of female characters , and even the title , which was considered to be confusing for audiences . However , it went on to receive multiple award nominations , including seven Academy Award nominations , and a theatrical re-release that , combined with international takings , increased the film 's box office gross to $58.3 million . Over 320,000 VHS copies were shipped throughout the United States , and based on its award nominations and word of mouth , it became one of the top rented films of 1995 . The broadcast rights were acquired following the purchase of Castle Rock by the Turner Broadcasting System , and was shown almost daily on its TNT network from 1997 , further increasing its popularity . The film is now considered to be one of the greatest films of the 1990s . As of 2017 , the film is still broadcast regularly , and is popular in several countries , with audience members and celebrities citing its themes . In 2015 , the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry , finding it `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Analysis 4 Production 4.1 Casting 4.2 Filming 4.3 Post-production 4.4 Music 5 Release 5.1 Theatrical 5.2 Post theatrical 6 Reception 6.1 Critical response 6.2 Accolades 6.3 Lasting reception 7 Legacy 7.1 Cultural impact 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Plot ( edit ) In 1947 Portland , Maine , banker Andy Dufresne is convicted of murdering his wife and her lover , and sentenced to two consecutive life sentences at the Shawshank State Penitentiary . He is befriended by contraband smuggler , Ellis `` Red '' Redding , an inmate serving a life sentence . Red procures a rock hammer , and later a large poster of Rita Hayworth for Andy . Working in the prison laundry , Andy is regularly assaulted and raped by `` the Sisters '' and their leader , Bogs . In 1949 , Andy overhears the captain of the guards , Byron Hadley , complaining about being taxed on an inheritance and offers to help him shelter the money legally . After an assault by the Sisters nearly kills Andy , Hadley beats Bogs severely . Bogs is then transferred to another prison . Warden Samuel Norton meets Andy and reassigns him to the prison library to assist elderly inmate Brooks Hatlen . Andy 's new job is a pretext for him to begin managing financial matters for the prison employees . As time passes , the warden begins using him to handle matters for himself and variety of people , including guards from other prisons . Andy begins writing weekly letters to the state legislature requesting funds to improve the prison 's decaying library . Brooks is paroled in 1954 after serving 50 years , but he can not adjust to the outside world , and he commits suicide by hanging himself . Andy receives a library donation that includes a recording of The Marriage of Figaro . He plays an excerpt over the public address system , and is punished with solitary confinement . After his release from solitary , Andy explains that hope is what gets him through his time , a concept that Red dismisses . In 1963 , Norton begins exploiting prison labor for public works , profiting by undercutting skilled labor costs and receiving bribes . Andy launders the money using the alias Randall Stephens . Tommy Williams is incarcerated for burglary in 1965 . Andy and Red befriend him , and Andy helps him pass his GED exam . A year later , Tommy reveals to Red and Andy that an inmate at another prison claimed responsibility for the murders for which Andy was convicted . Andy approaches Norton with this information , but he refuses to listen and sends him back to solitary confinement when he mentions the money laundering . Norton has Hadley murder Tommy under the guise of an escape attempt . Andy declines to continue the laundering , but he relents after Norton threatens to burn the library , remove Andy 's protection from the guards , and move him to worse conditions . After two months , Andy is released from solitary confinement , and he tells Red of his dream of living in Zihuatanejo , a Mexican coastal town . Red feels Andy is being unrealistic , but promises him that if he is ever released , he will visit a specific hayfield near Buxton , Maine , and retrieve a package Andy buried there . He worries about Andy 's well - being , especially when he learns Andy asked another inmate to supply him with six feet ( 1.8 meters ) of rope . The next day at roll call , the guards find Andy 's cell empty . An irate Norton throws a rock at the poster of Raquel Welch hanging on the cell wall , revealing a tunnel that Andy dug with his rock hammer over the last 19 years . The previous night , Andy escaped through the tunnel and prison sewage pipe , using the rope to bring with him Norton 's suit , shoes , and the ledger containing details of the money laundering . While guards search for him , Andy poses as Randall Stephens and visits several banks to withdraw the laundered money , then mails the ledger and evidence of the corruption and murders at Shawshank to a local newspaper . State police arrive at Shawshank and take Hadley into custody , while Norton commits suicide to avoid arrest . After serving 40 years , Red is paroled . He struggles to adapt to life outside prison and fears that he never will . Remembering his promise to Andy , he visits Buxton and finds a cache containing money , and a letter asking him to come to Zihuatanejo . Red violates his parole and travels to Fort Hancock , Texas to cross the border into Mexico , admitting he finally feels hope . On a beach in Zihuatanejo he finds Andy , and the two friends are happily reunited . Cast ( edit ) Tim Robbins in 2012 ( left ) and Morgan Freeman in 2006 Tim Robbins as Andy Dufresne : A banker sentenced to life in prison in 1947 for the murder of his wife and her lover Morgan Freeman as Ellis Boyd `` Red '' Redding : A prison contraband smuggler who befriends Andy Bob Gunton as Samuel Norton : The pious and strict warden of Shawshank penitentiary William Sadler as Heywood : A member of Red 's gang of long - serving convicts Clancy Brown as Byron Hadley : The brutal captain of the prison guards Gil Bellows as Tommy Williams : A young convict imprisoned for burglary in 1965 James Whitmore as Brooks Hatlen : The elderly prison librarian , imprisoned since the early 1900s The cast also includes : Mark Rolston as Bogs Diamond , the head of `` The Sisters '' gang and a prison rapist ; Jeffrey DeMunn as the prosecuting attorney in Dufresne 's trial ; Alfonso Freeman as Fresh Fish Con ; Ned Bellamy and Don McManus as , respectively , prison guards Youngblood and Wiley ; and Dion Anderson as Head Bull Haig . Renee Blaine portrays Andy 's wife , and Scott Mann portrays her golf - instructor lover Glenn Quentin . Frank Medrano plays Fat Ass , one of Andy 's fellow new inmates who is beaten to death by Hadley , and Bill Bolender plays Elmo Blatch , a convict who may actually be responsible for the crimes of which Andy is accused . James Kisicki portrays a bank manager . Analysis ( edit ) The film has been interpreted as being grounded in Christian mysticism . Andy is offered as a messianic , Christ - like figure , with Red describing him early in the film as having an aura that engulfs and protects him from Shawshank . The scene in which Andy and several inmates tar the prison roof can be seen as a recreation of the Last Supper , with Andy obtaining beer / wine for the twelve inmates / disciples as Freeman describes them as the `` lords of all creation '' invoking Jesus ' blessing . Director Frank Darabont responded that this was not his deliberate intention , but he wanted people to find their own meaning in the film . The discovery of The Marriage of Figaro record is described in the screenplay as akin to finding the Holy Grail , bringing the prisoners to a halt , and causing the sick to rise up in their beds . Early in the film , Warden Norton quotes Jesus Christ to describe himself to Andy , saying , `` I am the light of the world '' , declaring himself Andy 's savior . However , this description can also reference Lucifer , the bearer of light . Indeed , the warden does not enforce the general rule of law , but chooses to enforce his own rules and punishments as he sees fit , becoming a law unto himself , like the behavior of Satan . The warden has also been compared to former United States President Richard Nixon . Norton 's appearance and public addresses can be seen to mirror Nixon 's . Similarly , Norton projects an image of a Holy man , speaking down sanctimoniously to the servile masses while running corrupt scams , like those which made Nixon infamous . Andy and Red 's reunion was filmed at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge , Saint Croix , Virgin Islands . The location has been interpreted as a form of escape or paradise . Zihuatanejo has been interpreted as an analogue for heaven or paradise . In the film , Andy describes it as a place with no memory , offering absolution from his sins by forgetting about them or allowing them to be washed away by the Pacific ocean , whose name means `` peace '' . The possibility of escaping to Zihuatanejo is only raised following Andy 's admission of guilt over his wife 's death . Similarly , Red 's freedom is only earned once he accepts he can not save himself or atone for his sins . Freeman has described Red 's story as one of salvation as he is not innocent of his crimes , unlike Andy who finds redemption . While some Christian viewers interpret Zihuatanejo as heaven , it can also be interpreted as a Nietzschean form of guiltlessness achieved outside traditional notions of good and evil , where the amnesia offered is the destruction rather than forgiveness of sin , meaning Andy 's aim is secular and atheistic . Just as Andy can be interpreted as a Christ - like figure , he can be seen as a Zarathurstra - like prophet offering escape through education and the experience of freedom . Ebert argued that The Shawshank Redemption is an allegory for maintaining one 's feeling of self - worth when placed in a hopeless position . Andy 's integrity is an important theme in the story line , especially in prison , where integrity is lacking . Robbins himself believes that the concept of Zihuatanejo resonates with audiences because it represents a form of escape that can be achieved after surviving for many years within whatever `` jail '' someone finds themselves , from a bad relationship , job , or environment . Robbins said that it is important that such a place exists for us . Isaac M. Morehouse suggests that the film provides a great illustration of how characters can be free , even in prison , or unfree , even in freedom , based on their outlooks on life . Philosopher Jean - Paul Sartre described freedom as an ongoing project that requires attention and resilience , without which a person begins to be defined by others or institutions , mirroring Red 's belief that inmates become dependent on the prison to define their lives . Andy displays resilience through rebellion , by playing music over the prison loudspeaker , and refusing to continue with the money laundering scam . Many elements can be considered as tributes to the power of cinema . In the prison theater , the inmates watch the film Gilda ( 1946 ) , but this scene was originally intended to feature The Lost Weekend ( 1945 ) . The interchangeability of the films used in the prison theater suggests that it is the cinematic experience and not the subject which is key to the scene , allowing the men to escape the reality of their situation . Immediately following this scene , Andy is assaulted by the Sisters in the projector room and uses a film reel to help fight them off . Then in the end of the film , Andy passes through a hole in his cell hidden by a movie poster to escape both his cell and ultimately Shawshank . Andy 's and Red 's relationship has been described as a non-sexual love story between two men , that few other films offer , where the friendship is not built on conducting a caper , car chases , or developing a relationship with women . Philosopher Alexander Hooke argued that Andy 's and Red 's true freedom is their friendship , being able to share joy and humor with each other . Production ( edit ) Director Frank Darabont ( pictured in 2011 ) bought the adaptation rights to The Shawshank Redemption for $5,000 in 1987 . Darabont first collaborated with author Stephen King in 1983 on the short film adaptation of `` The Woman in the Room '' , buying the rights from him for $1 -- a Dollar Deal that King used to help new directors build a résumé by adapting his short stories . After receiving his first screenwriting credit in 1987 for A Nightmare on Elm Street 3 : Dream Warriors , Darabont returned to King with $5,000 to purchase the rights to adapt Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption , a 96 - page novella from King 's 1982 collection Different Seasons , written to explore genres other than the horror stories for which he was commonly known . Although King did not understand how the story , largely focused on Red contemplating his fellow prisoner Andy , could be turned into a feature film , Darabont believed it was `` obvious '' . Five years later , Darabont wrote the script over an eight - week period . He expanded on elements of King 's story . Brooks , who in the novella is a minor character who dies in a retirement home , became a tragic character who eventually hanged himself . Tommy , who in the novella trades his evidence exonerating Andy for transfer to a nicer prison , in the screenplay is murdered on the orders of Warden Norton , who is a composite of several warden characters in King 's story . Darabont opted to create a single warden character to serve as the primary antagonist . Among his inspirations , Darabont listed the works of director Frank Capra , including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington ( 1939 ) and It 's a Wonderful Life ( 1946 ) , describing them as tall tales ; Darabont likened The Shawshank Redemption to a tall tale more than a prison movie . He also cited Goodfellas ( 1990 ) as an inspiration on the use of dialogue to illustrate the passage of time in the script . King never cashed the $5,000 cheque from Darabont for the rights to The Shawshank Redemption ; he later framed it and returned it to Darabont accompanied by a note which read : `` In case you ever need bail money . Love , Steve . '' At the time , prison - based films were not considered likely box office successes , but Darabont 's script was read by then - Castle Rock Entertainment producer Liz Glotzer , whose interest in prison stories , and reaction to the script , led her to threaten to quit if Castle Rock did not produce The Shawshank Redemption . Director and Castle Rock co-founder Rob Reiner also liked the script . He offered Darabont between $2.4 million and $3 million to allow him to direct it himself . Reiner , who had previously adapted King 's novella The Body into the 1986 film Stand by Me , planned to cast Tom Cruise as Andy and Harrison Ford as Red . Castle Rock offered to finance any other film Darabont wanted to develop . Darabont seriously considered the offer , citing growing up poor in Los Angeles , believing it would elevate his standing in the industry , and that Castle Rock could have contractually fired him and given the film to Reiner anyway . But , he chose to remain the director , saying in a 2014 Variety interview , `` you can continue to defer your dreams in exchange for money and , you know , die without ever having done the thing you set out to do '' . Reiner served as Darabont 's mentor on the project instead . Within two weeks of showing the script to Castle Rock , Darabont had a $25 million budget to make his film ( taking a $750,000 screenwriting and directing salary plus a percentage of the net profits ) , and pre-production began in January 1993 . Casting ( edit ) Freeman was cast at the suggestion of producer Liz Glotzer , who ignored the novella 's character description of a white Irishman , nicknamed `` Red '' . Freeman 's character alludes to the choice when queried by Andy on why he is called Red , replying `` Maybe it 's because I 'm Irish . '' Freeman opted not to research his role , saying `` acting the part of someone who 's incarcerated does n't require any specific knowledge of incarceration ... because men do n't change . Once you 're in that situation , you just toe whatever line you have to toe . '' Darabont looked initially at some of his favorite actors like Gene Hackman and Robert Duvall for the role of Andy Dufresne , but they were unavailable ; Clint Eastwood and Paul Newman were also considered . Tom Cruise , Tom Hanks , and Kevin Costner were offered , and passed on the role -- Hanks due to his starring role in Forrest Gump , and Costner because he had the lead in Waterworld . Johnny Depp , Nicolas Cage , and Charlie Sheen were also considered for the role at different stages . Cruise attended table readings of the script , but refused to work for the inexperienced Darabont . Darabont said he cast Robbins after seeing his performance in the 1990 psychological horror Jacob 's Ladder . When Robbins was cast he insisted that Darabont use experienced cinematographer Roger Deakins , who had worked with him on The Hudsucker Proxy . To prepare for the role , Robbins observed caged animals at a zoo , spent an afternoon in solitary confinement , spoke with prisoners and guards , and had his arms and legs shackled for a few hours . Cast initially as young convict Tommy , Brad Pitt dropped out following his success in Thelma & Louise ( the role went to a debuting Gil Bellows ) ; James Gandolfini passed on portraying prison rapist Bogs . Bob Gunton was filming Demolition Man ( 1993 ) when he went to audition for the role of Warden Norton . To convince the studio that Gunton was right for the part , Darabont and producer Niki Marvin arranged for him to record a screen test on a day off from Demolition Man . They had a wig made for him as his head was shaved for his Demolition Man role . Gunton wanted to portray Norton with hair as this could then be grayed to convey his on - screen aging as the film progressed . Gunton performed his screen test with Robbins , which was filmed by Deakins . After being confirmed for the role , he used the wig in the film 's early scenes until his hair re-grew . Gunton said that Marvin and Darabont saw that he understood the character which went in his favor , as did the fact his height was similar to Robbins ' allowing Andy to believably use the warden 's suit . Portraying the head guard Byron Hadley , Clancy Brown was given the opportunity to speak with former guards by the production 's liaison officer , but declined believing it would not be a good thing to say that his brutal character was in any way inspired by Ohio state correctional officers . William Sadler , who portrays Heywood , said that Darabont had approached him in 1989 on the set of the Tales from the Crypt television series where he was a writer , about starring in the adaptation he was intending to make . Freeman 's son Alfonso has a cameo as a young Red in mug shot photos , and as a prisoner shouting `` fresh fish '' as Andy arrives at Shawshank . Among the extras used in the film were the former warden and former inmates of the Reformatory , and active guards from a nearby incarceration facility . The novella 's original title attracted several people to audition for the non-existent role of Rita Hayworth , including a man in drag clothing . Filming ( edit ) Ohio State Reformatory , also known as the Mansfield Reformatory , served as the fictional Shawshank prison . On a $25 million budget , principal photography took place over three months between June and August 1993 . Filming regularly required up to 18 - hour workdays , six days a week . Freeman described filming as tense , saying , `` Most of the time , the tension was between the cast and director . I remember having a bad moment with the director , had a few of those . '' Freeman referred to Darabont 's requiring multiple takes of scenes which he considered had no discernible differences . For example , the scene where Andy first approaches Red to procure a rock hammer took nine hours to film , and featured Freeman throwing and catching a baseball with another inmate throughout it . The number of takes that were shot resulted in Freeman turning up to filming the following day with his arm in a sling . Freeman sometimes simply refused to do the additional takes . Robbins said that the long days were difficult . Darabont felt that making the film taught him a lot , `` A director really needs to have an internal barometer to measure what any given actor needs . '' He found his most frequent struggles were with Deakins . Darabont favored more scenic shots , while Deakins felt that not showing the outside of the prison added a sense of claustrophobia , and it meant that when a wide scenic shot was used , it had more impact . Marvin spent five months scouting prisons across the United States and Canada , looking for a site that had a timeless aesthetic , and was completely abandoned , hoping to avoid the complexity of filming the required footage , for hours each day , in an active prison with the security difficulties that would entail . Marvin eventually chose the Ohio State Reformatory in Mansfield , Ohio to serve as the fictional Shawshank State Penitentiary in Maine , citing its Gothic - style stone and brick buildings . After nearly a century of use , the facility had been closed three years earlier on New Year 's Eve , 1990 , due to inhumane living conditions . The 15 - acre reformatory , housing its own power plant and farm , was partially torn down shortly after filming was completed , leaving the main administration building and two cell blocks . Several of the interior shots of the specialized prison facilities , such as the admittance rooms and the warden 's office , were shot in the reformatory . The interior of the boarding room used by Brooks and Red was in the administration building ; exterior shots of the boarding house were taken elsewhere . Internal scenes in the prison cellblocks were filmed on a soundstage built inside a nearby shuttered Westinghouse Electric factory . Since Darabont wanted the inmates ' cells to face each other , almost all the cellblock scenes were shot on a purpose - built set housed in the Westinghouse factory except for the scene featuring Elmo Blatch 's admission of guilt for the crimes for which Andy was convicted . It was filmed in one of the actual prison 's more confined cells . Scenes were also filmed in Mansfield , as well as neighboring Ashland , Ohio . The oak tree under which Andy buries his letter to Red was located near Malabar Farm State Park , in Lucas , Ohio ; it was destroyed by winds in 2016 . The Bissman Building in Mansfield , Ohio served as the Halfway house in which Brooks and later Red would reside following their release from prison . Just as a prison in Ohio stood in for a fictional one in Maine , the beach scene showing Andy and Red 's reunion in Zihuatanejo , Mexico , was actually shot in the Caribbean on the island of Saint Croix , one of the U.S. Virgin Islands . The beach at ' Zihuatanejo ' is the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge , a protected area for leatherback sea turtles . Scenes shot in Upper Sandusky included the prison wood shop scene where Red and his fellow inmates hear `` The Marriage of Figaro '' ( the woodshop is now called the Shawshank Woodshop ) , and the opening court scene which was shot at the Wyandot County Courthouse . Other shooting locations included Pugh Cabin in Malabar Farm State Park , where Andy sits outside as his wife engages in an affair , Butler , Ohio which stood in for Buxton , Maine , and The Bissman Building in Mansfield , which served as the hotel where Brooks stays following his incarceration . While the film portrays Andy escaping to freedom through a sewer pipe described as a `` river of shit '' , Robbins crawls through a mixture of water , chocolate syrup , and sawdust . The stream into which Robbins emerges was actually certified toxic by a chemist according to production designer Terence Marsh . Of the scene , Robbins said , `` when you 're doing a film , you want to be a good soldier -- you do n't want to be the one that gets in the way . So you will do things as an actor that are compromising to your physical health and safety . '' As for the scene where Andy rebelliously plays music over the prison announcement system , it was Robbins ' idea for Andy to turn the music up and not shut it off . While in the finished film the inmates watch Rita Hayworth in Gilda ( 1946 ) , they were originally intended to be watching Billy Wilder 's The Lost Weekend ( 1945 ) , a film about the dangers of alcohol . However , the footage was too costly to procure from Paramount Pictures , and producer Niki Marvin approached The Shawshank Redemption 's domestic distribution rights - holder Columbia Pictures , who offered a list of lower - priced titles , one of which was Gilda . Post-production ( edit ) The final cut of the theatrically released film runs for 142 minutes , and was dedicated to Allen Greene , Darabont 's former agent who died during filming from AIDS . The film 's first edit ran for nearly two and a half hours , which Glotzer considered `` long '' , and several scenes were cut including a longer sequence of Red adjusting to life post incarceration ; Darabont said that in test screenings the audience seemed to be getting impatient with the scene as they were already convinced that Red would not make it . Another scene cut for time showed a prison guard investigating Andy 's escape tunnel ; it was thought this slowed down the action . The film originally had a cold open that played out Andy 's crime , with his trial playing throughout the opening credits , but these scenes were edited together to create a more `` punchy '' opening . One scripted scene , which Darabont described as his best work , was left unfilmed because of the shooting schedule . In the scene , a dreaming Red is sucked into the poster of Rita Hayworth to find himself alone and insignificant on the Pacific shore , saying `` I am terrified , there is no way home . '' Darabont said that he regretted being unable to capture the scene . In Darabont 's original vision for the end of the film Red is seen riding a bus towards the Mexican border , leaving his fate ambiguous . Glotzer insisted on including the scene of Red and Andy reuniting in Zihuatanejo . She said Darabont felt this was a `` commercial , sappy '' ending , but Glotzer wanted the audience to see them together . Castle Rock agreed to finance filming for the scene without requiring its inclusion , guaranteeing Darabont the final decision . The scene originally featured a longer reunion in which Andy and Red recited dialogue from their first meeting , but Darabont said it had a `` golly - gee - ai n't - we - cute '' quality and excised it . The beach reunion was test audiences ' favorite scene ; both Freeman and Robbins felt it provided the necessary closure . Darabont agreed to include the scene after seeing the test audience reactions , saying : `` I think it 's a magical and uplifting place for our characters to arrive at the end of their long saga ... '' Music ( edit ) Main article : The Shawshank Redemption ( soundtrack ) The film 's score was composed by Thomas Newman . He felt that it already elicited such strong emotions without music that he found it difficult to compose one that would elevate scenes without distracting from them . The piece , `` Shawshank Redemption '' , plays during Andy 's escape from Shawshank and originally had a three - note motif , but Darabont felt it had too much of a `` triumphal flourish '' and asked that it be toned down to a single - note motif . `` So Was Red '' , played following Red 's release from prison , and leading to his discovery of Andy 's cache , became one of Newman 's favorite pieces . The piece was initially written for a solo oboe , until Newman reluctantly agreed to add harmonica -- a reference to the harmonica Red receives from Andy to continue his message of hope . According to Darabont , harmonica player Tommy Morgan `` casually delivered something dead - on perfect on the first take '' , and this is heard in the finished film . Newman 's score was so successful that excerpts from it were used in movie trailers for years afterwards . Release ( edit ) Theatrical ( edit ) Leading up to its release , the film was test screened with the public . These were described as `` through the roof '' , and Glotzer said they were some of the best she had seen . It was decided to mostly omit Stephen King 's name from any advertising , as the studio wanted to attract a `` more prestigious audience '' who might reject a film from a writer known mostly for pulp fiction works like The Shining and Cujo . Following early September premieres at the Renaissance Theatre in Mansfield , and the Toronto International Film Festival , The Shawshank Redemption began a limited North American release on September 23 , 1994 . During its opening weekend , the film earned $727,000 from 33 theaters -- an average of $22,040 per theater . Following a Hollywood tradition of visiting different theaters on opening night to see the audiences view their film live , Darabont and Glotzer went to the Cinerama Dome , but found no one there . Glotzer claimed that the pair actually sold two tickets outside the theater with the promise that if the buyers did not like the film , they could ask Castle Rock for a refund . While critics praised the film , Glotzer believed that a lackluster review from the Los Angeles Times pushed crowds away . It received a wide release on October 14 , 1994 , expanding to a total of 944 theaters to earn $2.4 million -- an average of $2,545 per theater -- finishing as the number nine film of the weekend , behind sex - comedy Exit to Eden ( $3 million ) , and just ahead of Quiz Show ( $2.1 million ) , which was in its fifth week at the cinemas . The film closed in late November 1994 , after 10 weeks with an approximate total gross of $16 million . It was considered a box office bomb , failing to recoup its $25 million budget , not including marketing costs and the cinema exhibitors ' cuts . The film was also competing with similarly - themed films , Pulp Fiction ( $108 million ) , which also premiered October 14 following its Palme d'Or award win , and Forrest Gump ( $330 million ) which was in the middle of a successful 42 - week theatrical run . Both films would become quotable cultural phenomena . A general audience trend towards action films starring the likes of Bruce Willis and Arnold Schwarzenegger was also considered to work against the commercial success of The Shawshank Redemption . Freeman blamed the title , saying it was unmemorable , while Robbins recalled fans asking : `` What was that Shinkshonk Reduction thing ? '' . Several alternative titles had been posited before the release due to concerns that it was not a marketable title . The low box office was also blamed on a lack of female characters to broaden the audience demographic , and the general unpopularity of prison films . After being nominated for several Oscars in early 1995 , the film was re-released between February and March . In total , the film made about $28.3 million in North American theaters , and about $30 million from other markets for a worldwide total of $58.3 million . In the United States , it became the 51st - highest grossing film of 1994 , and the 21st - highest grossing R - rated film of 1994 . Post theatrical ( edit ) Despite its disappointing box - office returns , in what was then considered a risky move , Warner Home Video shipped 320,000 rental video copies throughout the United States in 1995 . It went on to become one of the top rented films of the year . Positive recommendations and repeat customer viewings , and being well received by both male and female audiences , were considered key to the film 's rental success . Ted Turner 's Turner Broadcasting System had acquired Castle Rock in 1993 , which enabled his TV channel , TNT , to obtain the cable - broadcast rights to the film . According to Glotzer , because of the low box office numbers , TNT could air the film at a very low cost , but still charge premium advertising rates . The film began airing on the network in June 1997 . It was the first feature in TNT 's Saturday Night New Classics , and would air nearly daily . TV airings of the film accrued record - breaking numbers , and its repeated broadcast was considered essential to turning the film into a cultural phenomenon after its poor box office performance . Darabont felt the turning point for the film 's success was the Academy Award nominations , saying `` nobody had heard of the movie , and that year on the Oscar broadcast , they were mentioning this movie seven times '' . By 2013 , The Shawshank Redemption had aired on fifteen basic cable networks , and in that year occupied 151 hours of airtime , rivaling Scarface ( 1983 ) , and behind only Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) . It was in the top 15 percent of movies among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 on the Spike , Up , SundanceTV , and Lifetime channels . Despite its mainly male cast it was the most watched movie on the female - targeted OWN network . In a 2014 Wall Street Journal article , it was estimated that based on the margins studios take from box office returns , home media sales , and television licensing , The Shawshank Redemption had made $100 million . Jeff Baker , then - executive vice president and general manager of Warner Bros. Home Entertainment , said that the home video sales had earned about $80 million . While Warner Bros. does not report what it earns in licensing the film for TV , in 2014 current and former executives at the studio confirmed that it was one of the highest valued assets in Warner Bros. $1.5 billion library . That same year , Gunton said that by its tenth anniversary in 2004 he was still earning six - figure residual payments , and was still earning a `` substantial income '' from it , which was considered unusual so many years after its release . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) Roger Deakins ' cinematography was praised by critics , and his work led to him win the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography . The Shawshank Redemption opened to generally positive reviews . Some reviewers compared the film to other well - received prison dramas , including : Birdman of Alcatraz , One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , Cool Hand Luke , and Riot in Cell Block 11 . Gene Siskel said that like One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , The Shawshank Redemption is an inspirational drama about overcoming overbearing authority . Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman said that Freeman makes the Red character feel genuine and `` lived - in '' . Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that Freeman was quietly impressive , but lamented that Red 's role in the film had limited range , restricted to observing Andy . She considered Freeman 's commanding performance made him a much stronger figure than simply an observer . Maslin said that Freeman 's performance was especially moving when describing how dependent Red had become on living within the prison walls . Variety 's Leonard Klady suggested that Freeman had the `` showier '' role , allowing him `` a grace and dignity that come naturally '' , without ever becoming banal , and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe called Freeman a `` master '' of comedic and poignant cadence . Even Kenneth Turan 's Los Angeles Times review , which Glotzer credited with derailing the film 's box office success , praised Freeman , saying his `` effortless screen presence lends Shawshank the closest thing to credibility it can manage '' . Of Robbins ' performance , Gleiberman said that in his `` laconic - good - guy , neo-Gary Cooper role , ( Robbins ) is unable to make Andy connect with the audience '' . Conversely , Maslin said that Andy has the more subdued role , but that Robbins portrays him intensely , and effectively depicts the character as he transitions from new prisoner to aged father figure , and Klady stated that his `` riveting , unfussy ... precise , honest , and seamless '' performance anchors the film . Howe said that while the character is `` cheesily messianic '' for easily charming everyone to his side , comparing him to `` Forrest Gump goes to jail '' , Robbins exudes the perfect kind of innocence to sell the story . The Hollywood Reporter stated that both Freeman and Robbins gave outstanding , layered performances that imbued their characters with individuality , and Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said that the pair create something `` undeniably powerful and moving '' . Gunton and Brown were cited as `` extremely credible '' as villains , Howe countered that Gunton 's warden was a clichéd character who extols religious virtues while having people murdered . Maslin called the film an impressive directorial debut that tells a gentle tale with a surprising amount of loving care , and Klady saying the only failings came when Darabont focused for too long on supporting characters , or embellished a secondary story . The Hollywood Reporter said that both the directing and writing were crisp , while criticizing the film 's long running time . Klady said that the length and tone , while tempered by humor and unexpected events , would dampen the film 's mainstream appeal , but the story offered a fascinating portrait of the innate humanity of the inmates . Gleiberman disliked that the prisoners ' crimes were overlooked to portray them more as good guys . Turan similarly objected to what he perceived as extreme violence and rape scenes , and making most of the prisoners seem like a `` bunch of swell and softhearted guys '' to cast the prison experience in a `` rosy glow '' . Klady summarized the film as `` estimable and haunting entertainment '' , comparing it to a rough diamond with small flaws , but Howe criticized it for deviating with multiple subplots , and pandering by choosing to resolve the story with Andy 's and Red 's reunion , rather than leaving the mystery . Ebert noted that the story works because it is not about Andy as the hero , but how Red perceives him . Deakins cinematography was routinely praised , with The Hollywood Reporter calling it `` foreboding '' and `` well - crafted '' , and Travers saying `` the everyday agonies of prison life are meticulously laid out ... you can almost feel the frustration and rage seeping into the skin of the inmates '' . Gleiberman praised the choice of scenery , writing that the `` moss - dark , saturated images have a redolent sensuality '' that makes the film very realistic . The Hollywood Reporter said of Newman 's score , `` at its best moments , alights with radiant textures and sprightly grace notes , nicely emblematic of the film 's central them '' , and Klady describing it as `` the right balance between the somber and the absurd '' . Accolades ( edit ) The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1995 , the most for a Stephen King film adaptation : Best Picture , Best Actor ( Freeman ) , Best Adapted Screenplay ( Darabont ) , Best Cinematography ( Deakins ) , Best Editing ( Richard Francis - Bruce ) , Best Sound Mixing ( Robert J. Litt , Elliot Tyson , Michael Herbick , and Willie D. Burton ) , and Best Original Score ( Newman , his first Academy Award nomination ) . It did not win in any category . It received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture for Freeman , and Best Screenplay for Darabont . Robbins and Freeman were both nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the inaugural Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1995 . Darabont was nominated for a Directors Guild of America award in 1994 for Best Director of a feature film , and a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay . Deakins won the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography , while producer Niki Marvin was nominated for a 1994 Golden Laurel Award by the Producers Guild of America . Lasting reception ( edit ) Contemporary review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes offers a 91 % approval rating from 66 critics -- an average rating of 8.2 out of 10 , which provides the consensus , `` The Shawshank Redemption is an uplifting , deeply satisfying prison drama with sensitive direction and fine performances . '' The film also has a score of 80 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 20 critics indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . The film has been nominated for , or appeared on , the American Film Institute 's lists celebrating the top 100 film or film - related topics . In 1998 , it was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list , and was No. 72 on the 2007 revised list , outranking Forrest Gump ( No. 76 ) and Pulp Fiction ( No. 94 ) . It was also No. 23 on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers ( 2006 ) list charting inspiring films . The characters of Andy and Warden Norton received nominations for AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains list ; AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes list for `` Get busy livin ' , or get busy dyin ' '' ; AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs list for `` Duettino -- Sull'Aria '' ( from The Marriage of Figaro ) ; and AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores for Newman 's work . In 2013 , Complex magazine listed it as the ninth best film of the 1990s , and in 2017 , Rolling Stone listed it as the 78th best film of the same decade . In 1999 , film critic Roger Ebert listed Shawshank on his list of The Great Movies , and in 2005 the Writers Guild of America listed Darabont 's screenplay at No. 22 on its list of the 101 Greatest Screenplays . Legacy ( edit ) The Shawshank tree after being split by lightning in 2011 . It became a symbol of hope for its role in the film . Darabont later adapted and directed two other King stories , The Green Mile ( 1999 ) and The Mist ( 2007 ) . In a 2016 interview , King said that The Shawshank Redemption was his favorite adaptation of his work , alongside Stand by Me . The film was adapted into a 2015 stage play in the United Kingdom . The oak tree , under which Andy leaves a note for Red directing him to Zihuatanejo , became a symbol of hope for its role in the film , and is considered iconic . In 2016 , The New York Times reported that the tree attracted thousands of visitors annually . The tree was partially destroyed on July 29 , 2011 , when it was split by lightning ; news of the damage was reported across the United States on newscasts , in newspapers , and on websites as far away as India . The tree was completely felled by strong winds on or around July 22 , 2016 , and its vestiges were cut down in April 2017 . The remains were turned into The Shawshank Redemption memorabilia including rock hammers and magnets . The prison site became a tourist attraction , with many of the rooms and props remaining including the false pipe through which Andy escapes , and a portion of the oak tree from the finale , after it was damaged in 2011 . The surrounding area is also visited by fans , while local businesses market `` Shawshanwiches '' and Bundt cakes in the shape of the prison . The prison itself was to be torn down completely following filming , but was eventually sold to enthusiasts for $1 . According to the Mansfield / Richland County Convention and Visitors Bureau ( later renamed Destination Mansfield ) , tourism in the area had increased every year since The Shawshank Redemption premiered , and in 2013 drew in 18,000 visitors and over $3 million to the local economy . As of 2017 , Destination Mansfield operates the Shawshank Trail , a series of 15 marked stops around locations related to the film across Mansfield , Ashland , Upper Sandusky , and St. Croix . In late August 2013 , a series of events were held in Mansfield to celebrate the film 's 20th anniversary including a screening of the film at the Renaissance Theatre , a bus tour of certain filming locations , and a cocktail party at the Reformatory . Cast from the film attended some of the events including Gunton , Scott Mann , Renee Blaine , and James Kisicki . Cultural impact ( edit ) In November 2014 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences celebrated the film 's 20th anniversary with a special one - night screening at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills , California . In 2015 , the film was selected by the United States Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . Darabont responded : `` I can think of no greater honor than for The Shawshank Redemption to be considered part of our country 's cinematic legacy . '' Variety said that the word `` Shawshank '' could be used to instantly convey images of a prison . Critics have sometimes struggled to define the immense public appreciation for the film . In an interview , Freeman said , `` About everywhere you go , people say , ' The Shawshank Redemption -- greatest movie I ever saw ' '' and that such praise `` Just comes out of them '' . Robbins said , `` I swear to God , all over the world -- all over the world -- wherever I go , there are people who say , ' That movie changed my life ' `` . In a separate interview , Stephen King said , `` If that is n't the best ( adaptation of my works ) , it 's one of the two or three best , and certainly , in moviegoers ' minds , it 's probably the best because it generally rates at the top of these surveys they have of movies ... I never expected anything to happen with it . '' In a 2014 Variety article , Robbins claimed that South African politician Nelson Mandela told him about his love for the film , while it has been cited as a source of inspiration by several sportsmen including Jonny Wilkinson ( UK ) , Agustín Pichot ( Argentina ) , Al Charron ( Canada ) , and Dan Lyle ( USA ) , and Sarah Ferguson , the Duchess of York . Gunton said he had encountered fans in Morocco , Australia , South America , Germany , France , and Bora Bora . Director Steven Spielberg said that the film was `` a chewing - gum movie -- if you step on it , it sticks to your shoe '' . In the United Kingdom , readers of Empire magazine voted the film as the best of the 1990s , and it placed number four on Empire 's 2008 list of `` The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' and their 2017 list of `` The 100 Greatest Movies '' . In March 2011 , the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their favorite film of all time . It regularly appears on Empire 's top 100 films , and ranked as Britain 's favorite film in a 2015 YouGov poll . When the British Film Institute analyzed the demographic breakdown of the YouGov poll , it noted that The Shawshank Redemption was not the top - ranked film in any group , but was the only film to appear in the top 15 of every age group , suggesting it is able to connect with every polled age group , unlike Pulp Fiction which fared better with younger voters , and Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) with older voters . When film critic Mark Kermode interviewed a host of United States moviegoers , they compared it to a `` religious experience '' . A poll conducted by Gatwick Airport also identified the film as the fourth - best to watch while in flight . It was also voted as New Zealand 's favorite film in a 2015 poll . See also ( edit ) List of films considered the best List of number - one DVDs of 2002 ( UK ) List of number - one DVDs of 2006 ( UK ) Maine portal Film in the United States portal 1990s portal Criminal justice portal References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` The Shawshank Redemption '' . British Board of Film Classification . Archived from the original on January 21 , 2015 . Retrieved August 15 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' The Shawshank Redemption ' : 2 Pros and Countless Cons '' . Entertainment Weekly . September 30 , 1994 . Archived from the original on September 20 , 2017 . Retrieved September 20 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Adams , Russell ( May 22 , 2014 ) . `` The Shawshank Residuals '' . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2017 . Retrieved September 24 , 2017 . ( subscription required ) ^ Jump up to : Hooke , Alexander ( May -- June 2014 ) . `` The Shawshank Redemption '' . Philosophy Now . Archived from the original on June 3 , 2014 . 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Retrieved April 13 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kermode 2003 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Harris , Will ( June 20 , 2015 ) . `` Bob Gunton on Daredevil , Greg The Bunny , and The Shawshank Redemption '' . The A.V. Club . Archived from the original on September 24 , 2017 . Retrieved September 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' . Empire . 2008 . Archived from the original on March 23 , 2012 . Retrieved September 30 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The 100 Greatest Movies '' . Empire . June 23 , 2017 . Archived from the original on November 29 , 2017 . Retrieved November 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Your favourite movies ! '' . BBC Radio 1 . March 10 , 2011 . Archived from the original on April 24 , 2011 . Retrieved November 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Morgan Britton , Luke ( September 18 , 2017 ) . `` Top 10 films to watch on a flight revealed '' . NME . Archived from the original on September 23 , 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nordyke , Kimberly ( July 2 , 2015 ) . `` New Zealand 's favourite film is The Shawshank Redemption '' . Stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on September 23 , 2017 . Retrieved September 23 , 2017 . Documents Frank Darabont ( director , writer ) , Niki Marvin ( producer ) ( September 23 , 1994 ) . The Shawshank Redemption ( DVD ) format = requires url = ( help ) ( DVD ) . United States : Warner Home Video . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Mark Kermode ( writer ) , Andrew Abbott ( director ) ( September 8 , 2001 ) . Shawshank : The Redeeming Feature ( video ) . Kermode , Mark ( 2003 ) . BFI Modern Classics -- The Shawshank Redemption . London , United Kingdom : British Film Institute . ISBN 0 - 85170 - 968 - 0 . Further reading ( edit ) Oliver , Simon ; Watts , Pete . `` Shawshank Redemption and The Bible '' . Bibledex Verses . Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham . A discussion of Bible verses in the movie . Turner , Cory ( August 4 , 2011 ) . `` On Location : Mansfield , Ohio 's ' Shawshank ' Industry '' . All Things Considered . NPR . 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72 | document: Hammurabi - wikipedia Hammurabi Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Hammurabi ( disambiguation ) . Not to be confused with Ammurapi . Hammurabi Hammurabi ( standing ) , depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash ( or possibly Marduk ) . Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer ( relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi 's code of laws ) . c. 1810 BC Babylon 1750 BC middle chronology ( modern - day Jordan and Syria ) ( aged c. 60 ) Babylon Known for Code of Hammurabi Title King of Babylon Term 42 years ; c. 1792 -- 1750 BC ( middle ) Predecessor Sin - Muballit Successor Samsu - iluna Children Samsu - iluna Hammurabi ( c. 1810 BC - 1750 BC ) ( Akkadian 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉 Ḫa - am - mu - ra - bi ) was the sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty , reigning from 1792 BC to 1750 BC ( according to the Middle Chronology ) . He was preceded by his father , Sin - Muballit , who abdicated due to failing health . He extended Babylon 's control throughout Mesopotamia through military campaigns . Hammurabi is known for the Code of Hammurabi , one of the earliest surviving codes of law in recorded history . The name Hammurabi derives from the Amorite term ʻAmmurāpi ( `` the kinsman is a healer '' ) , itself from ʻAmmu ( `` paternal kinsman '' ) and Rāpi ( `` healer '' ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Reign and conquests 2 Code of laws 2.1 Example laws in Hammurabi 's code 3 Legacy and depictions 4 See also 5 Further reading 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links Reign and conquests Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi 's ascension in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 BC King Hammurabi raises his right arm in worship . Detail of a votive monument . Limestone . Circa 1792 - 1750 BCE . From Sippar , Iraq . The British Museum , London This bust , known as the `` Head of Hammurabi '' , is now thought to predate Hammurabi by a few hundred years ( Louvre ) Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city - state of Babylon , and inherited the power from his father , Sin - Muballit , in c. 1792 BC . Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled city - states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land . Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia , Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi . The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor City State in 1894 BC which controlled little territory outside of the city itself . Babylon was overshadowed by older , larger and more powerful kingdoms such as Elam , Assyria , Isin , Eshnunna and Larsa for a century or so after its founding . However his father Sin - Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian hegemony and , by the time of his reign , had conquered the minor city - states of Borsippa , Kish , and Sippar . Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation . The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta . To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of Elam which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia . In northern Mesopotamia , the Assyrian king Shamshi - Adad I , who had already inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor , had expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia , although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire . The first few decades of Hammurabi 's reign were quite peaceful . Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works , including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes , and expanding the temples . In c. 1801 BC , the powerful kingdom of Elam , which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains , invaded the Mesopotamian plain . With allies among the plain states , Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna , destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time . In order to consolidate its position , Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi 's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa . Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites , although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort . Angered by Larsa 's failure to come to his aid , Hammurabi turned on that southern power , thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC . As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as Yamhad and Mari , the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest . Continuing his expansion , Hammurabi turned his attention northward , quelling the unrest and soon after crushing Eshnunna . Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states , including Babylon 's former ally Mari , although it is possible that the ' conquest ' of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict . Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme - Dagan I of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia , with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand . Eventually Hammurabi prevailed , ousting Ishme - Dagan I just before his own death . Mut - Ashkur the new king of Assyria was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi , however Babylon did not rule Assyria directly . In just a few years , Hammurabi had succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule . The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign , and of the major city - states in the region , only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their independence . However , one stele of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir , where he claims the title `` King of the Amorites '' . Vast numbers of contract tablets , dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors , have been discovered , as well as 55 of his own letters . These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire , from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar , to taking care of Babylon 's massive herds of livestock . Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu - iluna in c. 1750 BC , under whose rule the Babylonian empire began to quickly unravel . Code of laws Main article : Code of Hammurabi Code of Hammurabi stele . Louvre Museum , Paris The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it , although it is thought that few were literate . The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital , Susa ; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris . The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws , written by scribes on 12 tablets . Unlike earlier laws , it was written in Akkadian , the daily language of Babylon , and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city . The structure of the code is very specific , with each offense receiving a specified punishment . The punishments tended to be very harsh by modern standards , with many offenses resulting in death , disfigurement , or the use of the `` Eye for eye , tooth for tooth '' ( Lex Talionis `` Law of Retaliation '' ) philosophy . The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence , and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence . However , there is no provision for extenuating circumstances to alter the prescribed punishment . A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash or possibly Marduk , and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people to bring the laws to them . Parallels between this narrative and the giving of laws by God in Jewish tradition to Moses and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two . Fragments of previous law codes have been found . However David P. Wright argues that the Covenant Code of the Biblical Book of Exodus is ' directly , primarily , and throughout ' based upon the Laws of Hammurabi . Similar codes of law were created in several nearby civilizations , including the earlier Mesopotamian examples of Ur - Nammu 's code , Laws of Eshnunna , and Code of Lipit - Ishtar , and the later Hittite code of laws . Example laws in Hammurabi 's code ( Text taken from Harper 's translation , readable on wikisource ) § 8 -- If any one steal cattle or sheep , or an ass , or a pig or a goat , if it belong to a god or to the court , the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor ; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay tenfold ; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death . § 21 -- If a man make a breach in a house , they shall put him to death in front of that breach and they shall thrust him therein . § 55 -- If a man open his canal for irrigation and neglect it and the water carry away an adjacent field , he shall measure out grain on the basis of the adjacent fields . § 59 -- If a man cut down a tree in a man 's orchard , without the consent of the owner of the orchard , he shall pay one - half mina of silver . § 168 -- If a man set his face to disinherit his son and say to the judges : `` I will disinherit my son , '' the judges shall inquire into his antecedents , and if the son have not committed a crime sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship , the father may not cut off his son from sonship . § 169 -- If he have committed a crime against his father sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship , they shall condone his first ( offense ) . If he commit a crime a second time , the father may cut off his son from sonship . § 195 -- If a son strike his father , they shall cut off his fingers . § 196 -- 201 -- If a man destroy the eye of another man , they shall destroy his eye . If one break a man 's bone , they shall break his bone . If one destroy the eye of a freeman or break the bone of a freeman he shall pay one mana of silver . If one destroy the eye of a man 's slave or break a bone of a man 's slave he shall pay one - half his price . If a man knock out a tooth of a man of his own rank , they shall knock out his tooth . If one knock out a tooth of a freeman , he shall pay one - third mana of silver . § 218 -- 219 -- If a physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause that man 's death ; or open an abscess ( in the eye ) of a man with a bronze lancet and destroy the man 's eye , they shall cut off his fingers . If a physician operate on a slave of a freeman for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause his death , he shall restore a slave of equal value . § 229 -- 232 -- If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction firm , and the house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner of the house , that builder shall be put to death . If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house , they shall put to death a son of that builder . If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house , he shall give the owner of the house a slave of equal value . If it destroy property , he shall restore whatever it destroyed , and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it collapsed , he shall rebuild the house which collapsed from his own property ( i.e. , at his own expense ) . Legacy and depictions The bas - relief of Hammurabi at the United States Congress During his reign Babylon usurped the position of `` most holy city '' in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor , Nippur , for the final time ( Babylon had also previously enjoyed this status under the Akkadians , before it was restored to Nippur in the `` Sumerian renaissance '' ) . Under the rule of Hammurabi 's successor Samsu - iluna , the short - lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse . In northern Mesopotamia , both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur - Sin a native Akkadian - speaking ruler , circa 1740 BC . Around the same time , native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia , creating the Sealand Dynasty , in more or less the region of ancient Sumer . Hammurabi 's ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel - ibni , as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south , Elam to the east , and to the Kassites from the northeast . Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding . The coup de grace for the Hammurabi 's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC , when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite Empire , thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia . However , the Indo - European - speaking Hittites did not remain , turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies , a people speaking a language isolate , from the Zagros mountains region . This Kassite Dynasty was to rule Babylon for over 400 years , adopting parts of the Babylonian culture , including Hammurabi 's code of laws . A theory current in the early part of the past century holds that Hammurabi was Amraphel , the King of Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14 : 1 . Because of Hammurabi 's reputation as a lawgiver , his depiction can be found in several U.S. government buildings . Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas - reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol . A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the `` great lawgivers of history '' , including Hammurabi , is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building . At the time of Saddam Hussein , the Iraqi Army 's 1st Hammurabi Armoured Division was named for the ancient King - as part of an effort to emphasize the link of modern Iraq with the pre-Arab Mesopotamian cultures . See also Ancient Near East portal Babylonian law Cuneiform law Short chronology timeline Manusmṛti Further reading Finet , André ( 1973 ) . Le trone et la rue en Mésopotamie : L'exaltation du roi et les techniques de l'opposition , in La voix de l'opposition en Mésopotamie . Bruxelles : Institut des Hautes Études de Belgique . OCLC 652257981 . Jacobsen , Th. ( 1943 ) . `` Primitive democracy in Ancient Mesopotomia '' . Journal of Near Eastern Studies . 2 ( 3 ) : 159 -- 172 . doi : 10.1086 / 370672 . Finkelstein , J.J. ( 1966 ) . `` The Genealogy of the Hammurabi Dynasty '' . Journal of Cuneiform Studies . 20 ( 3 ) : 95 -- 118 . doi : 10.2307 / 1359643 . Hammurabi ( 1952 ) . Driver , G.R. ; Miles , John C. , eds . The Babylonian Laws . Oxford : Clarendon Press . Leemans , W.F. ( 1950 ) . The Old Babylonian Merchant : His Business and His Social Position . Leiden : Brill . Munn - Rankin , J.M. ( 1956 ) . `` Diplomacy in Western Asia in the Early Second Millennium BC '' . Iraq . 18 ( 1 ) : 68 -- 110 . doi : 10.2307 / 4199599 . Pallis , S.A. ( 1956 ) . The Antiquity of Iraq : A Handbook of Assyriology . Copenhagen : Ejnar Munksgaard . Richardson , M.E.J. ( 2000 ) . Hammurabi 's laws : text , translation and glossary . Sheffield : Sheffield Acad. Press . ISBN 1 - 84127 - 030 - X . Saggs , H.W.F. ( 1988 ) . The greatness that was Babylon : a survey of the ancient civilization of the Tigris - Euphrates Valley . London : Sidgwick & Jackson . ISBN 0 - 283 - 99623 - 4 . Yoffee , Norman ( 1977 ) . The economic role of the crown in the old Babylonian period . Malibu , CA : Undena Publications . ISBN 0 - 89003 - 021 - 9 . Notes Jump up ^ Barton , a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania , stated that while there are similarities between the two texts , a study of the entirety of both laws `` convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws . '' He states that `` such resemblances '' arose from `` a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook '' between the two cultures , but that `` the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing . '' References Jump up ^ Ancient Iraq by Georges Roux , Chapter 17 The Time of Confusion p. 266 Jump up ^ Roger B. Beck , Linda Black , Larry S. Krieger , Phillip C. Naylor & Dahia Ibo Shabaka ( 1999 ) . World History : Patterns of Interaction . Evanston , IL : McDougal Littell . ISBN 0 - 395 - 87274 - X . OCLC 39762695 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Royal head , known as the `` Head of Hammurabi '' '' -- via Musée du Louvre . Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 1 -- 2 ^ Jump up to : Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 3 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 3 -- 4 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 16 Jump up ^ Arnold 2005 , p. 43 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 15 -- 16 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 17 ^ Jump up to : Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 18 ^ Jump up to : Van De Mieroop 2005 , p. 31 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 40 -- 41 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 54 -- 55 Jump up ^ Van De Mieroop 2005 , pp. 64 -- 65 ^ Jump up to : Arnold 2005 , p. 45 Jump up ^ Clay , Albert Tobias ( 1919 ) . The Empire of the Amorites . Yale University Press . p. 97 . Jump up ^ Breasted 2003 , p. 129 Jump up ^ Breasted 2003 , pp. 129 -- 130 Jump up ^ Arnold 2005 , p. 42 Jump up ^ Breasted 2003 , p. 141 Jump up ^ `` Review : The Code of Hammurabi , '' J. Dyneley Prince , The American Journal of Theology Vol. 8 , No. 3 ( Jul. , 1904 ) , pp. 601 -- 609 Published by : The University of Chicago Press Jump up ^ Victimology : Theories and Applications , Ann Wolbert Burgess , Albert R. Roberts , Cheryl Regehr , Jones & Bartlett Learning , 2009 , p. 103 Jump up ^ Jaynes , Julian ( 1976 ) . The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind . Houghton Mifflin Company Publishing . ISBN 0 - 395 - 20729 - 0 . Jump up ^ J.D. Douglas , Merrill C. Tenney , Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary ( Zondervan , 2011 ) , page 1323 . ^ Jump up to : Barton , G.A : Archaeology and the Bible . University of Michigan Library , 2009 , p. 406 . Jump up ^ Unger , M.F. : Archaeology and the Old Testament . Grand Rapids : Zondervan Publishing Co. , 1954 , p. 156 , 157 Jump up ^ Free , J.P. : Archaeology and Biblical History . Wheaton : Scripture Press , 1950 , 1969 , p. 121 Jump up ^ David P. Wright , Inventing God 's Law : How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi ( Oxford University Press , 2009 ) , page 3 and passim . Jump up ^ Davies , W.W. ( January 2003 ) . Codes of Hammurabi and Moses . Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7661 - 3124 - 6 . OCLC 227972329 . Jump up ^ Georges Roux -- Ancient Iraq Jump up ^ DeBlois 1997 , p. 19 Jump up ^ `` AMRAPHEL - JewishEncyclopedia.com '' . Jump up ^ `` Bible Gateway passage : Genesis 14 - New International Version '' . Jump up ^ `` Hammurabi '' . Architect of the Capitol . Retrieved 2008 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Courtroom Friezes '' ( PDF ) . Supreme Court of the United States . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 1 , 2010 . Retrieved 2008 - 05 - 19 . Bibliography Arnold , Bill T. ( 2005 ) . Who Were the Babylonians ? . Brill Publishers . ISBN 90 - 04 - 13071 - 3 . OCLC 225281611 . Breasted , James Henry ( 2003 ) . Ancient Time or a History of the Early World , Part 1 . Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7661 - 4946 - 3 . OCLC 69651827 . DeBlois , Lukas ( 1997 ) . An Introduction to the Ancient World . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 12773 - 4 . OCLC 231710353 . Van De Mieroop , Marc ( 2005 ) . King Hammurabi of Babylon : A Biography . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 2660 - 4 . OCLC 255676990 . External links Wikiquote has quotations related to : Hammurabi Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hammurabi . Wikisource has original works written by or about : Hammurabi A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi ( Louvre museum ) Works by Hammurabi at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Hammurabi at Internet Archive Preceded by Sin - muballit Kings of Babylon Succeeded by Samsu - iluna Babylonian kings Amorite period ( Middle Bronze Age ) First Dynasty of Isin c. 1953 -- 1730 BC Ishbi - Erra Shu - Ilishu Iddin - Dagan Ishme - Dagan Lipit - Eshtar Ur - Ninurta Bur - Suen Lipit - Enlil Erra - imitti Enlil - bani Zambiya Iter - pisha Ur - du - kuga Suen - magir Damiq - ilishu Kings of Larsa c. 1961 -- 1674 BC Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur - Adad Sin - Iddinam Sin - Eribam Sin - Iqisham Silli - Adad Warad - Sin Rim - Sin I Hammurabi ( of Babylon ) Samsu - iluna ( of Babylon ) Rim - Sin II Middle Bronze Age First Babylonian Dynasty ( Dynasty I ) c. 1830 -- 1531 BC Sumu - abum Sumu - la - El Sabium Apil - Sin Sin - muballit Hammurabi Samsu - iluna Abi - eshuh Ammi - ditana Ammi - saduqa Samsu - Ditana Sealand Dynasty ( Dynasty II ) c. 1732 -- 1460 BC Ilum - ma - ili Itti - ili - nibi Damqi - ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar DIŠ + U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea - gamil Early Kassite rulers c. 1730 -- 1570 BC Gandash Agum I Kashtiliashu I Abi - Rattash Kashtiliashu II Ur - zigurumash Hurbazum Shipta'ulzi Late Bronze Age Kassite Dynasty ( Dynasty III ) c. 1570 -- 1155 BC Agum II Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman - harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman - Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara - hardash Nazi - Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi - Maruttash Kadashman - Turgu Kadashman - Enlil II Kudur - Enlil Shagarakti - Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil - nadin - shumi Kadashman - Harbe II Adad - shuma - iddina Adad - shuma - usur Meli - Shipak II Marduk - apla - iddina I Zababa - shuma - iddin Enlil - nadin - ahi Iron Age Second Dynasty of Isin ( Dynasty IV of Babylon ) c. 1155 -- 1025 BC Marduk - kabit - ahheshu Itti - Marduk - balatu Ninurta - nadin - shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil - nadin - apli Marduk - nadin - ahhe Marduk - shapik - zeri Adad - apla - iddina Marduk - ahhe - eriba Marduk - zer - X Nabu - shum - libur Dynasty V c. 1025 -- 1004 BC Simbar - shipak Ea - mukin - zeri Kashshu - nadin - ahi Dynasty VI c. 1004 -- 985 BC Eulmash - shakin - shumi Ninurta - kudurri - usur I Shirikti - shuqamuna Dynasty VII c. 985 -- 979 BC Mar - biti - apla - usur Dynasty of E ( Mixed Dynasties VIII / IX ) c. 979 -- 729 BC Nabû - mukin - apli Ninurta - kudurri - usur II Mar - biti - ahhe - iddina Shamash - mudammiq Nabu - shuma - ukin I Nabu - apla - iddina Marduk - zakir - shumi I Marduk - balassu - iqbi Baba - aha - iddina ( five kings ) Ninurta - apla - X Marduk - bel - zeri Marduk - apla - usur Eriba - Marduk Nabu - shuma - ishkun Nabonassar Nabu - nadin - zeri Nabu - shuma - ukin II Nabu - mukin - zeri Neo-Assyrian rule ( Dynasty X ) 729 -- 620 BC Tiglath - Pileser III † Shalmaneser V † Marduk - apla - iddina II Sargon II † Sennacherib † Marduk - zakir - shumi II Marduk - apla - iddina II Bel - ibni Ashur - nadin - shumi † Nergal - ushezib Mushezib - Marduk Sennacherib † Esarhaddon † Shamash - shum - ukin † Kandalanu † Sin - shumu - lishir † Sinsharishkun † Neo-Babylonian Empire ( Dynasty XI ) 626 -- 539 BC Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel - Marduk Neriglissar Labashi - Marduk Nabonidus Nebuchadnezzar III Nebuchadnezzar IV † Assyrian rulers VIAF : 280799209 LCCN : n50019979 ISNI : 0000 0000 8985 0706 GND : 118545485 SELIBR : 255802 SUDOC : 027764796 BNF : cb12611886p ( data ) IATH : w6dj68w9 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hammurabi&oldid=804268605 '' Categories : 19th - century BC births 18th - century BC deaths 18th - century BC rulers Amorite kings Babylonian kings Ancient legislators Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Pages using infobox person with unknown parameters Infobox person using religion Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with Internet Archive links Good articles Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - 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73 | document: Fire Emblem Fates - Wikipedia Fire Emblem Fates Jump to : navigation , search Fire Emblem Fates North American artwork for the special edition of Fates , featuring the complete main cast Developer ( s ) Intelligent Systems Nintendo SPD Publisher ( s ) Nintendo Director ( s ) Kouhei Maeda Genki Yokota Producer ( s ) Masahiro Higuchi Hitoshi Yamagami Artist ( s ) Toshiyuki Kusakihara Yūsuke Kozaki Writer ( s ) Shin Kibayashi Yukinori Kitajima Nami Komuro Composer ( s ) Takeru Kanazaki Hiroki Morishita Rei Kondoh Masato Kouda Yasuhisa Baba Series Fire Emblem Platform ( s ) Nintendo 3DS Release June 25 , 2015 ( show ) Birthright / Conquest JP : June 25 , 2015 NA : February 19 , 2016 EU : May 20 , 2016 AU : May 21 , 2016 Revelation JP : July 9 , 2015 NA : March 10 , 2016 EU : June 9 , 2016 AU : June 10 , 2016 Genre ( s ) Tactical role - playing Mode ( s ) Single - player , multiplayer Fire Emblem Fates is a tactical role - playing video game for the Nintendo 3DS handheld video game console , developed by Intelligent Systems and Nintendo SPD and published by Nintendo . It was released in June 2015 in Japan , then released internationally in 2016 . It is the twelfth game in the Fire Emblem series , and the second to be developed for Nintendo 3DS after Fire Emblem Awakening . Fates was released in three versions , each following a different storyline centered around the same characters : Birthright and Conquest as physical releases , and Revelation as downloadable content . The overarching story follows the protagonist , a customizable Avatar created by the player , as they are unwillingly drawn into a war between the Kingdoms of Hoshido ( their birthplace ) and Nohr ( their adopted home ) , and must choose which side to support . In Revelation , the Avatar rallies both sides against the true mastermind behind the war . The gameplay , which revolves around tactical movement of units across a grid - based battlefield , shares many mechanics with previous Fire Emblem games , although some elements are unique to each scenario . After the critical and commercial success of Awakening , development began on Fates , with the staff of Awakening returning to their previous roles . The team 's main concern was adding new features and refinements to the original gameplay , and improving the story , which had received criticism from fans . To this end , writer Shin Kibayashi was brought in . To show all sides of the story and provide players with different Fire Emblem experiences , the game was split up into multiple versions . Upon release , it met with highly positive reviews : Birthright was generally seen as a good starting place for new players , Conquest was praised for its challenge , while Revelation was noted as a good middle ground between the two releases . Contents ( hide ) 1 Gameplay 1.1 Battle system 2 Synopsis 2.1 Setting and characters 2.2 Plot 2.3 Downloadable content 3 Development 3.1 Scenario 3.2 Music 4 Release 5 Reception 5.1 Sales 6 Notes 7 References 8 Notes 9 External links Gameplay ( edit ) In Fire Emblem Fates , the player begins by customizing the main character . Their gender , appearance , and name can be changed to the player 's preference . At the game 's beginning , there are three difficulties : Normal , Hard , and Lunatic . There are also modes that dictate the fate of characters in battle should they be defeated . In Classic Mode , a fallen unit is subject to permanent death , a recurring mode in the Fire Emblem series that removes fallen characters from the rest of the game . Casual Mode enables units to be revived at the end of a battle . The new Phoenix mode revives units on the following player turn . Each version of Fates is focused around a different gameplay style . The gameplay of Birthright is similar to the prior installment Fire Emblem Awakening and features opportunities to gain extra gold and experience . In contrast , Conquest rewards players limited experience and currency per completed map . Also included are additional objectives in battle such as defending a base or suppressing enemy forces , and some levels have a limited number of turns . Revelation uses a mixture of elements from Birthright and Conquest : while offering opportunities for gold and experience as with Birthright , it provides varied objectives and strategic elements similar to Conquest . A new feature introduced to the series is `` My Castle '' , in which the player is able to create a base for their army , where they can establish shops , buy weapons and items , and interact with allied characters . Shops can be leveled up , which allows the player to choose from a wider range of items to buy . Players can run a farm in their base , allowing them to make food . At the restaurant in the base , they can serve food , which will grant characters who eat it positive effects ; however , some foods can also have negative effects . The player 's personal quarters are also located here ; the player can use them to interact with detailed models of other characters and the Avatar 's spouse ( if applicable ) . Players are able to visit other players ' bases using the StreetPass functionality of the Nintendo 3DS . During a visit , they can fight the other player 's army , buy items , and recruit characters . As different items are available in the two versions of the game , this allows players access to items that normally would be unavailable . Battle system ( edit ) Screenshot of a battle in Fire Emblem Fates , showing two characters about to fight one another . The basic mechanics of the battle system are all displayed . Battles take place on a grid - based battlefield , with turns being given for players and enemies . During an attack , the view transitions from a top - down perspective to a third - person view . Environments and terrain vary between levels , ranging from mountainous regions to flatlands . A unique ability members of each kingdom 's royal family have is the ability to use Dragon Veins , which are special map tiles that enable them to alter the environment in favor of their side . Like previous games in the series , Fire Emblem Fates features a `` weapon triangle '' - a system where certain weapons have advantages over others . However , in Fates the triangle differs from previous installments , with swords and magic defeating axes and bows , axes and bows besting lances and hidden weapons , and lances and hidden weapons overpowering swords and magic . Weapons in Fates do not have a limited number of uses before they break ; instead , stronger weapons will lower some of the user 's abilities . For instance , while the Brave Sword allows its user to attack twice , it also lowers their defense and magic defense stats . Units are assigned a unique character class : in battle , each unit 's usable weapon types and range of movement are pre-determined by their class . Each character begins the game with a starting class : the main protagonist begins as a Nohr Prince / Princess , while Azura begins as a Songstress . The classes of each version of Fates are also distinct from each other , drawing from their respective nation 's aesthetics . Using special items known as `` Seals '' , classes can be evolved or changed : effects of various Seals range from upgrading a character 's class , changing class completely , raising their experience level , or altering their stats . Character relationships are developed during and between battle , also known as Support , which can be viewed in conversations via the Support menu outside of battle . Battling with an adjacent or paired - up unit gives advantages , such as blocking an attack or attacking alongside the currently controlled unit . Outside battle , relationships between characters can be fostered to the point of marriage and children . These children 's appearance and abilities are determined by their parents . Using a particular Seal , child characters can also take on additional skills from parents . The game features online multiplayer . Having five maps as standard , matches can be carried out with select players , random players , or through local multiplayer . Random battles are played either with standard rules , or with special limitations . The Fog of War environmental effect is removed , and turns have limits of five minutes . In addition , Fates features Amiibo support , with compatible figurines being characters from earlier Fire Emblem games : when scanned , the character represented by a figurine will appear within My Castle , and after talking with them three times they can be fought in battle . When defeated , they become allies that join the main campaign . Talking with them prior to the fight gives the Avatar themed items , such as the mask of Fire Emblem Awakening 's Lucina . Amiibo functions are unlocked after the narrative splits and My Castle is unlocked . Synopsis ( edit ) Setting and characters ( edit ) Fates is primarily set in the territories of the kingdoms of Hoshido and Nohr . Their royalty share a similar line of descent from ancient dragons , but each kingdom worships different dragon deities , and so exist in a state of war . Little do they know that there is also another dragon deity ; the dragon Anankos , ruler of the kingdom of Valla . This realm is located under the Bottomless Canyon which separates Hoshido and Nohr . Anankos has usurped the throne of Valla and is intentionally provoking war between the two kingdoms . In the Hidden Truths DLC , it is revealed that Anankos was formerly a kind dragon who gave wisdom to humanity , but his growing power and inability to ascend to the spirit realm with the world 's other dragons began corrupting him . After he killed Valla 's king in an uncontrolled fit of bestial rage , he finally went mad : his remaining sanity and kindness took temporary shelter in a human form and fathered the Avatar before dying , while his dragon self began an insane crusade to destroy humanity . The central character is the Avatar ( voiced by Cam Clarke , Yuri Lowenthal , Stephanie Lemelin , Marcella Lentz - Pope or Danielle Judovits ) , whose name , gender , and appearance can be customized by the player . A member of the Hoshidan royal family , they were captured by Nohr at a young age . They have the unique ability of transforming into a dragon . The other central character is Azura ( voiced by Rena Strober ) , a member of the Nohrian royal family who was kidnapped by Hoshido as part of their efforts to rescue the Avatar . Holding power over water , she is one of the companions to join the Avatar in whichever story route they choose . The main characters among the Hoshidan royal family include the Avatar 's siblings Ryoma ( voiced by Matthew Mercer ) , Takumi ( voiced by Roger Rose ) , Hinoka ( voiced by Elizabeth Daily ) , and Sakura ( voiced by Brianna Knickerbocker ) . Ryoma and Takumi wield the Legendary Weapons of Hoshido , the Raijinto katana and the Fujin Yumi . The main characters from the Nohrian kingdom include the Avatar 's guardian , Gunter ( voiced by D.C. Douglas ) , and their adoptive siblings Xander ( voiced by David Stanbra ) , Camilla ( voiced by Paula Tiso ) , Leo ( voiced by Max Mittelman ) , and Elise ( voiced by Natalie Lander ) . Xander and Leo respectively wield the Legendary Weapons of Nohr : the sword Siegfried and the tome Brynhildr . Other characters include the Avatar 's mother , Queen Mikoto of Hoshido ( voiced by Marisha Ray ) ; King Garon of Nohr ( voiced by Travis Willingham ) ; Sumeragi ( voiced by David Stanbra ) , the former king of Hoshido and husband of Mikoto ; and Anankos ( voiced by Travis Willingham in his dragon form and Cam Clarke in human form ) , the dragon ruler of Valla and blood father of the Avatar . Several years prior to the start of the game , Hoshido 's King Sumeragi is ambushed by Nohr 's King Garon during a fake peace treaty talk between the nations and is killed . King Garon kidnaps Sumeragi 's young child , the Avatar , and decides to raise them to serve his purposes . Meanwhile , back in Hoshido , without their king , Sumeragi 's wife Mikoto becomes the new ruler of the kingdom . Plot ( edit ) After coming of age , the Avatar is sent by Garon to inspect a Hoshidan fortress above the Bottomless Canyon . However , one of Garon 's men , Hans , provokes a battle with the Hoshidans and throws the Avatar 's mentor Gunter into the Canyon . The Avatar is found and captured by Hoshidan soldiers , who recognize them as a long - lost member of the Hoshidan royal family . The Avatar is brought to meet their blood relatives and Azura at the capital city . However , soldiers attack the city and a hooded assassin attempts to kill the Avatar . Mikoto shields them at the cost of her life . In the aftermath , the Avatar comes into possession of a legendary sword called Yato , said to belong to the one who will save the world . In the opening battle between the two kingdoms , the Avatar 's two families meet , and the Avatar is forced to choose between siding with Hoshido and Nohr . In the Birthright and Conquest routes , the Avatar chooses either their biological or adopted family , respectively . This causes them to be denounced by the other side , and they are gradually forced to fight them . In the Birthright route , the Avatar helps their Hoshidan kin defend their country from invasion by Nohr . After confrontations with the Avatar , Camilla and Leo 's lives are spared . With the help of Elise and Shura , the man who kidnapped Azura from Nohr , the Avatar and their company invade the Nohrian capital . Elise is killed when she attempts to stop the Avatar and Xander from fighting , and Xander falls into despair and forces the Avatar to kill him . The Avatar then faces Garon , killing him with the Yato after it is infused with added power from Ryoma and Takumi 's Legendary Weapons . However , Azura dies after having overused her singing powers to weaken Garon . In the epilogue , Ryoma is crowned king of Hoshido and Leo is crowned king of Nohr , and peace is forged between the two kingdoms . In the Conquest route , the Avatar both fights in the war against Hoshido , and works with their adoptive family to change Nohr 's brutal reputation from within . After Azura reveals that King Garon has been replaced by an impostor , the Avatar decides to have Garon sit upon the magical throne of Hoshido , which will remove the false Garon 's disguise . During the invasion of Hoshido , the Nohrians spare Hinoka and capture Sakura , while Takumi , whose behavior has become increasingly erratic and violent throughout the war , apparently dies by jumping off of a rampart . Garon orders the Avatar to kill Ryoma . After their fight , Ryoma spares the Avatar the pain of killing their own brother by killing himself . Infusing the Yato with the power of Xander and Leo 's Legendary Weapons , the Avatar confronts and kills the false Garon . However , a crazed Takumi suddenly appears and attacks them , and it is revealed he has been long dead and his body is possessed . The Avatar destroys Takumi 's body to free his soul . Azura overuses her powers as in the Birthright route , but her death is not seen and she is instead marked as missing . In the epilogue , Hinoka is crowned queen of Hoshido and Xander is crowned king of Nohr , and a peaceful alliance between the two kingdoms is formed . In the Revelation route , the Avatar rejects both Hoshido and Nohr , and is denounced as a traitor by both . They flee with Azura and one of their retainers through the Bottomless Canyon to the kingdom of Valla . Azura explains that the king of Valla , the dragon Anankos , has plans for humanity 's destruction ; he is the one who killed and replaced Garon , and he is responsible for Takumi 's descent into madness in the Conquest route . Azura also reveals her history as the daughter of the king Anankos usurped , and that a curse placed by Anankos will kill them if they reveal Valla 's existence to anyone outside its borders . The two decide to kill Anankos . Fleeing Valla with Gunter , who survived his fall into the chasm , Azura reveals that they must unite the Avatar 's twin families before a natural event which will seal the passage for decades . The Avatar travels through Hoshido and Nohr , gradually gaining the trust and allegiance of their hereditary and adopted families . They also learn that their sword Yato is the `` Seal of Flames '' , which when combined with the other families ' Legendary Weapons will become the Fire Emblem , capable of killing Ananakos . Once the group enter Valla , the party heads to confront Anankos . During their journey , they battle the resurrected bodies of Mikoto , Azura 's mother Arete , and Sumeragi , the latter of whom is revealed to be Mikoto 's assassin . During their battle with Mikoto , the Avatar learns that they and Azura are maternal cousins , making the Avatar heir to Valla 's throne . The group is eventually betrayed by Gunter , who was possessed by Anankos since first coming to Valla , but the Avatar succeeds in freeing Gunter from Anankos ' control . When they face Anankos , they are initially helpless , but Ryoma , Takumi , Xander , and Leo feed the power of their Legendary Weapons into Yato , transforming it into the Fire Emblem . Near death after being defeated , Anankos summons and eats the impostor Garon to regain his strength , but is finally destroyed with the Fire Emblem . In the aftermath , Valla is reestablished on the surface , Azura crowns the Avatar its new ruler , and an everlasting peace is established between the three kingdoms . Downloadable content ( edit ) Paid additional content was released alongside the games , in the form of extra levels used to improve the units ' strength or gather exclusive resources . A series of additional storylines were also released to expand on the main narrative . The first is Before Awakening , in which the Avatar is transported to Ylisse , the setting of Fire Emblem Awakening , and aids its heroes Chrom , Frederick , and Lissa in fighting off the forces of Valla . The second , Hidden Truths , centers around Awakening characters Owain , Inigo , and Severa as they are contacted by a mysterious figure who asks for their help in saving Valla . To this end , they are given new powers and names : Odin , Laslow , and Selena . The trio ultimately join with the kingdom of Nohr as retainers . The Heirs of Fate saga , released after the rest of the DLC , focuses around the game 's Child units . Two separate versions of the Avatar 's child Kana , one male and one female , each journey with members of each version 's cast to discover why a group of mysterious soldiers attacked their homes . It is revealed that they were never truly in their homes , as Anankos had transported them to Valla and attempted to trick them into killing each other . However , Azura 's son , Shigure , broke the illusion and banded the two Kanas ' armies together , only to leave them to face Anankos alone with the hidden verse of his mother 's song . However , the army finds a way back , and helps to take down Anankos for one final time . Development ( edit ) The previous title in the series , Fire Emblem Awakening , was planned to be the last in the series due to decreasing sales . The game was a worldwide commercial success , prompting Nintendo to greenlight a new entry . Fates was co-developed by regular Fire Emblem developer Intelligent Systems and Nintendo SPD , with the main staff of Awakening returning to their respective roles for Fates : they were Intelligence System 's Kouhei Maeda as director , Nintendo SPD director Genki Yokota , Nintendo producer Hitoshi Yamagami , art director Toshiyuki Kusakihara , and character designer Yūsuke Kozaki . Yokota 's work on the game ran parallel with his work on Xenoblade Chronicles X . Masahiro Higuchi , Awakening 's project manager , came on board as a producer . According to the original staff , the request for a sequel was a shock as they had all developed Awakening assuming it would be the last in the series . During its early design stages , Fates was given the working title Fire Emblem 3DS II . The game 's cutscenes were animated by Studio Anima , while storyboarding was handled by Spooky Graphic . To develop the multiple versions , one core team worked on the game 's shared assets , while additional teams handled individual level design . The gameplay was refined and expanded from the version they used in Awakening . The My Castle feature was suggested by Maeda as an alternative activity for players , and to provide a means for getting to know the main characters outside battle . The amount of content included in the feature made some staff comment that it could be its own game . The social elements of My Castle were originally going to be exclusive to StreetPass , but it was suggested that players in areas with low StreetPass activity should be able to access the functions through a normal Internet connection . Some ideas thought up by Maeda for earlier titles , such as the Dragon Vein ability and the way skills were inherited by second generation characters , were also implemented . Due to the necessity for multiple versions , map designing became a larger task than anticipated , with very few maps being shared between versions . The Phoenix Mode was included to bring new fans into the series , a philosophy that they had neglected up until Awakening and improved for Fates . For the first time in the Fire Emblem series , the option for the main character to marry a character of the same sex was included : the potential male and female partners respectively appear in Conquest and Birthright , and both appear in Revelation . According to Nintendo , this move was done to reflect the diversity of their player base . The two kingdoms were based upon different cultures : Hoshido was themed after Japan , while Nohr used a Medieval European setting similar to earlier Fire Emblem games . The kingdoms of Hoshido and Nohr were designed to contrast each other in a variety of ways , with the most obvious being its architecture : Hoshido was themed around light and air , while Nohr was themed around darkness and stone . When development first started , the team unanimously decided to ask Kozaki to return as character designer , as he had been for Awakening . The sheer number of characters this approach entailed made the staff worry about whether Kozaki would be willing to return . The Hoshido characters ' clothing were influenced by Japanese culture and character designs drew inspiration from well - known people in Japan : a main instance was Ryoma , whose clothing was based on samurai , including historical figures such as Takeda Shingen , along with incorporating animal motifs such as lions . The colors used in their clothing were varied and mainly bright to emphasize the country 's focus on light . For Nohr , a `` vampire - like taste '' equivalent to dark fantasy was used to highlight it as a kingdom where the sun did not shine . Kozaki used black and purple as key colors in character designs to create a cold and unified image . The nobility of Nohr were given similar design elements to represent their familial connections . The first character Kozaki designed was the Avatar . Kozaki did not put much thought into their general appearance , but took care about their clothing so that it was not overtly styled after either Hoshido or Nohr , keeping the neutrality of the player up to the main story decision point . They were given bare feet due to the animalistic impression Kozaki had after hearing of their strong ties to dragons , along with creating a `` hook '' for players equivalent to other characters in the game . The main key artwork , showing the two families together , was described by Kozaki as `` a pain to draw '' due to their clashing designs , and was the point of much discussion by staff before it was finalized . Azura was not included in artwork for the two physical editions , but she was more prominently presented in artwork surrounding Revelation as she played a much larger role in the story . Scenario ( edit ) During the initial planning stage , the team reviewed how fans and critics had responded to Awakening . While the gameplay and graphics were positively received , the story had been criticized for its quality by the main fan base , even though new players approved of it . To that end , they decided to write a story that would appeal to series veterans as well as newcomers . The concept of the story changing depending on which protagonists the main character sided with , originated from Yamagami 's memories of the first Fire Emblem , which allowed for choosing different protagonists but did not change the story . Wanting to play from both sides of a conflict and show both sides as neither good nor evil , the team decided to create multiple versions of the game . Initially , the plan was just for a choice between one kingdom or the other , but Yamagami wanted a neutral path where neither side was chosen , so a third version of the game was planned . The game 's Japanese title , `` If '' , came from the sheer number of choices featured for players in the game . The English title `` Fates '' referred to the concept of the main character shaping and changing their fate by choosing a side . After the creation of the three storylines , the team needed to make the decision to divide Birthright and Conquest into separate physical releases . This was because packaging them as a single release would have necessitated raising the game 's price to the equivalent of a two - game bundle , which would not benefit people who wanted to play one single version . Another reason for this decision was how easy it had become to add the other versions on as cheaper downloadable content ( DLC ) . This opened up the option for players to run through the game until the crucial decision point in Chapter 5 , then buy the alternate routes as downloadable content so they had different choices . Each route was estimated to have the same amount of gameplay and story content as Awakening . As the plans for three different versions of the game appeared , the staff realized that it was impossible to write three storylines in - house . After searching through known video game writers , they decided to consider writers in other fields . The writer suggested by Maeda was Shin Kibayashi , who was famous in Japan for his work on multiple manga and television series . Kibayashi was initially approached by Kozaki through their shared editor , and was pitched the project by the staff in December 2012 . Kibayashi was going to refuse the project as he had a tight work schedule , but after both he and his daughter played through a copy of Awakening provided by staff , Kibayashi decided to accept and wrote an initial draft story . Despite his initial minimal commitment of a ten - page summary for each storyline , he became fond of the characters and felt that 10 pages were not enough , and thus the full summary for Birthright extended to about 500 pages . After delivering his work , he then wrote summaries of equal length for Conquest and Revelation , driven by the need to create a high - quality story , partially to surpass his daughter 's pressuring expectations , and ended up writing enough script to fill two books . While the Japanese titles for Birthright and Conquest were written in kanji , the third storyline 's title was written in katakana to distinguish it from the other two . A great deal of the character traits for the royals of Hoshido and Nohr were contributed by Kibayashi . After he had done his work on the storylines , other writers took over much of the rest of the work . The main scenario writer for the Revelation storyline was Yukinori Kitajima , a writer associated with the Senran Kagura series . He and other staff from his company Synthese also wrote the support conversations for Birthright and Conquest . One of the principal writers for all three story routes was Nami Komuro , who had previously worked on Awakening . Music ( edit ) Fire Emblem if Original Soundtrack Soundtrack album by Hiroki Morishita , Rei Kondoh , Takeru Kanazaki , Yasuhisa Baba , Masato Kouda Released April 27 , 2016 Genre Video game soundtrack Label Symphony No. 5 The game 's soundtrack was created by multiple composers . Intelligent System 's Hiroki Morishita and T 's Music 's Rei Kondoh previously worked on Awakening , while WarioWare composers Takeru Kanazaki and Yasuhisa Baba of Intelligent Systems , and Monster Hunter composer Masato Kouda of Design Wave joined the team as newcomers . The original series composer , Yuka Tsujiyoko , acted as a supervisor . Morishita and Kanazaki wrote the majority of the game 's tracks . Arrangements were handled by Morishita , Kanazaki , Kondoh and Kouda . Many of Tsujiyoko 's tracks for earlier Fire Emblem titles were remixed for use in Fates . The game 's theme song , `` Lost In Thoughts All Alone '' , was written by Morishita , with lyrics by Maeda , and sung by Japanese pop singer Renka , who also provided Azura 's in - game singing voice . The developers were looking for a singer who could do justice to their vision for the character , and when they heard Renka 's audition , they instantly decided that she was right for the role . According to music personnel , several among them cried when they first heard her performance . Multiple versions were used throughout the soundtrack . Azura 's normal voice work is performed by Japanese voice actress Lynn . In the English version , Azura 's speaking and singing voice were provided by Rena Strober . The lyrics were adapted into English by Audrey Drake . An official soundtrack album , Fire Emblem if Official Soundtrack , released on April 27 , 2016 through the Symphony No. 5 label of Tablier Communications . The album contains seven discs of music from all three versions of Fates , and a booklet featuring commentary from the composers . Also included is a special DVD containing remixes of tracks from both Fates and previous Fire Emblem games , high - definition versions of the three opening cinematics , and cutscenes from Birthright and Conquest featuring alternate versions of a dance sequence with Azura . The soundtrack , having eight disks in total , is one of the largest single game official soundtracks ever released . `` Lost In Thoughts All Alone '' , Renka 's debut single , was released as a regular CD edition and a special DVD edition featuring a music video on July 1 , 2015 . It was also included as part of the main soundtrack release . Release ( edit ) Fates was announced for all regions via a Nintendo Direct broadcast in January 2015 . It was announced in Japan as Fire Emblem if . Its English title was revealed during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015 . Fates was released in multiple versions . Birthright and Conquest both received a physical release on June 25 , 2015 in Japan , which was announced for a 2016 release in the west . Players who purchase a physical copy of either version can download the other version as DLC for a smaller price . Revelation was released exclusively as downloadable content on July 9 , two weeks after the physical release of Fates . In addition to the standard releases was a special edition giving access to Conquest , Birthright and Revelation . The western release also follows the release pattern used in Japan . In North America , the physical versions were released first in February , with the third storyline coming later as DLC in March . In Europe , the physical editions were released on May 20 , with Revelation following as DLC on June 9 . A special edition , containing all three storylines and an art book , was made available in both regions alongside the initial physical releases . In Australia , the physical versions launched on May 21 , while Revelation launched on June 10 . The Japanese release was promoted by a Fire Emblem themed trading card game and a Awakening themed manga . Two `` starter packs '' for the trading cards come with codes that allow players access to the characters Marth and Lucina in the game in the form of DLC . Similarly , the `` booster box '' will come with a code for the character Minerva . The game also supports Fire Emblem amiibo created for Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , with the characters associated with the figures appearing in the game as combatants in My Castle . Defeating them enables them to be recruited as characters . A special New Nintendo 3DS changeable cover based on Fates was released in Japan alongside the game 's physical release . After release , a manga based on the game was announced , beginning serialization in the September issue of Monthly Young Magazine . It is written by Kibayashi and illustrated by Kozaki . To promote the game internationally , the Avatar of Fates , under the name Corrin , was added as a playable character via downloadable content to Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U in February 2016 . After release , multiple DLC maps were released between July and September 2015 : these ranged from story - related maps to optional maps featuring characters from other Fire Emblem games . This DLC was released between February and April 2016 in North America . In Europe , the DLC launched between mid May and late July . The game 's localization was done by Nintendo 's localization branch Nintendo Treehouse . The game underwent alterations for its western release : in the Japanese version , a support conversation between the male avatar and a character named Soleil was criticized for elements some deemed similar to gay conversion therapy . In the western release , these elements were removed from the characters ' support conversations to avoid causing controversy . Elements of a mini-game exclusive to the My Castle area , involving `` petting '' a chosen character 's face on the lower touch screen to build up affection , was also removed from the western versions . While the 2D interactions and the support increases were present , the stylus - based touch screen element was removed . The option for Japanese voiceovers , present in Awakening , was also removed from Fates . According to an official statement by Nintendo , other unspecified changes were also made where it was deemed necessary . These changes , among others pointed out through comparisons by fans between the English and Japanese versions , generated controversy over the Internet in the wake of the game 's release , culminating in complaints being sent directly to Nintendo . It also prompted a group dubbed `` Team If '' to start work on a more faithful fan translation , though it was ultimately cancelled shortly after the game 's official release . Reception ( edit ) Reception Aggregate score Aggregator Score Metacritic 86 / 100 ( Birthright ) 88 / 100 ( Conquest ) 89 / 100 ( Revelation ) 88 / 100 ( All versions ) Review scores Publication Score Destructoid 8.5 / 10 ( Birthright ) 9.5 / 10 ( Conquest ) 9 / 10 ( Revelation ) EGM 8 / 10 Eurogamer Recommended Famitsu 36 / 40 ( Birthright / Conquest ) Game Informer 9.25 / 10 ( Birthright / Conquest ) 8 / 10 ( Revelation ) GameSpot 8 / 10 ( Birthright ) 7 / 10 ( Conquest ) 9 / 10 ( Revelation ) GamesRadar IGN 9.4 / 10 ( Birthright ) 9.5 / 10 ( Conquest / Revelation ) Nintendo World Report 9.5 / 10 Polygon 8.5 / 10 The different versions of Fates received high scores on aggregate site Metacritic . Birthright scored 86 / 100 based on sixteen critic reviews . Conquest received a slightly higher score of 88 / 100 , again based on sixteen reviews . Revelation scored 89 / 100 based on five reviews . Reviews for all versions of Fates generated a score of 88 / 100 based on seventeen reviews . Famitsu , which reviewed both physical versions in tandem , praised them for their drama and characters , despite noting that the inter-character relations of the two versions were complicated , and only playing one side of the story might leave players unsatisfied . They praised the various battle functions , relationship mechanics and easy - to - use interface . The `` My Castle '' feature , while starting out as feeling incomplete , was a satisfying experience . Martin Robinson of Eurogamer praised the game as a sound continuation of the mechanical improvements of Awakening : he positively noted the grey morality of the characters and story , and singled out Conquest as the `` cooler '' of the two physical versions due to its challenge and cast . His main criticism was its multi-part release , which he called `` needlessly convoluted '' and stated might alienate fans attracted to the series by Awakening . He also faulted Nintendo 's translation work as less `` characterful '' than the localization of Awakening by 8 - 4 , along with the `` clumsy '' removal of the Japanese original 's petting mechanic . Chris Carter of Destructoid called Birthright 's story `` relatively open and shut '' despite keeping complex character relationships intact , while generally citing it as the best starting place for series newcomers . Javy Gwaltney of Game Informer called the story of Birthright `` a surprisingly dark tale '' , praised the improvements made to the gameplay over Awakening , and was overall positive despite some criticism of its poor tutorial systems . He also liked the game 's music and graphics , although he critiqued the latter a little due to low - res battle models . Meghan Sullivan of IGN called the story , music and visuals `` great '' , and greatly enjoyed the gameplay systems despite mission repetition and a slow online interface . Alexa Ray Corriea of GameSpot greatly enjoyed the changes to gameplay and its strategy despite little variation in playable maps , and enjoyed the character interactions while noting that the dialogue became overly melodramatic in places . Kimberley Keller of Nintendo World Report , reviewing all versions of the game , generally praised the game as a whole while calling Birthright the `` perfect way to start ( Fates ) '' due to its traditional Fire Emblem elements . Griffin McElroy and Allegra Frank of Polygon , reviewing all versions of the game , were generally positive about the gameplay and the interplay between versions , while criticizing the overly complicated character class system . They referred to Birthright as a `` straightforward march for vengeance , where victory almost always entails defeating an entire platoon or its leader '' . Both Connor Sheridan of GamesRadar and Ray Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly shared many points of praise with other reviewers about the general gameplay : Sheriden called Birthright a familiar experience when compared to the other titles , while Carsillo recommended it as a good starting point . Carter found Conquest a much tougher experience from a gameplay perspective , being geared towards dedicated tactical battles within pre-set limits , while finding its story more intriguing than that of Birthright . Gwaltney called Conquest a `` dark fantasy epic '' that asked difficult moral questions , and generally cited the gameplay as harder and consequently more rewarding than that of its counterparts despite sharing tutorial deficiencies with Birthright . He also shared his opinions on the music and graphics with Birthright . Jose Otero , writing for IGN , frequently noted the game 's challenge , while generally sharing his praises with Sullivan 's review of Birthright , including slow online elements . A point of praise not shared with Birthright was its mission variety . Peter Brown , reviewing the game for GameSpot , praised the gameplay variety and the characters ' development and meaningful use in battle , while critiquing the plot for being `` fairly middle of the road '' and did not like the lack of optional side missions . Keller noted the harder gameplay structure of Conquest , while noting that its story had a far more comedic tone with its characters . McElroy and Frank referred to Conquest as the more challenging of the two physical releases , an opinion shared by Carsillo and Sheridan : the latter added that the game would not make players feel like a hero . Robinson called Conquest the `` cooler '' of the two physical releases , noting its steeper challenge and more engaging cast . Carter considered Revelation to be a good middle ground between Birthright and Conquest , and praised its story after moving beyond the conceit of its premise . Corriae was highly positive about the game : while finding the initial premise rather contrived , she greatly enjoyed the resultant drama and found the story better than that of Birthright and Conquest . She also praised the game for its gameplay and variety . Keller said the story of Revelation `` keeps players on their toes '' , while praised the gameplay for finding a middle ground between the two physical releases . She called it `` a fulfilling conclusion '' to Fates . While generally positive about the game as a whole , Sheridan was rather critical of the fact that players needed to buy Revelation as DLC to get the whole story . Gwaltney was less favorable than he was about Birthright and Conquest : while he enjoyed the early tension of a limited party , the ability to expand and strengthen the party sapped away the tension , while he found the story `` rather ho - hum and generic '' after the more impactful stories of the first two versions . Sullivan of IGN greatly enjoyed the combination of characters and gameplay from Birthright and Conquest , but shared her opinion of the central plot device with Corriae . Carsillo found Revelation the most satisfying due to the obscuring of key plot points in the other versions despite Birthright and Conquest offering greater character insight , along with positively noting its gameplay balance between the two physical releases . Sales ( edit ) Shortly after pre-orders for the special edition were announced , it sold out within a day . Following complaints from fans , Nintendo created a second run for the edition . In its week of release , Fates topped sales charts , with initial sales of both versions totaling 260,675 copies . The game 's special edition sold a further 42,991 copies , bringing total sales to 303,666 copies . Birthright was the better - selling of the physical versions , with Conquest coming in second place . It remained at the top of the charts the following week , selling a further 54,896 copies . Birthright remained at the top , while Conquest dropped to fourth place . By the third week , both versions of Fates had dropped to fourth place , selling a further 29,682 copies and bringing total sales to 345,253 copies . Famitsu 's sales estimates were slightly higher , with their sales figures for the game totaling 353,201 copies , and going on to sell 71,550 and 41,400 copies over the next two weeks , bringing total recorded sales to 456,274 copies . In July , Kibayashi reported via Twitter that Fates was the current best - selling video game on Amazon Japan . By the end of 2015 , according to Famitsu , both physical versions had sold a combined total of 538,669 units , coming in at # 10 of the year 's top - selling video games . Prior to its western release , pre-orders for the Special Edition holding all three versions were high , resulting in it selling out by December 2015 . After this , a glitch in GameStop 's ordering system meant that copies of the Special Edition were reserved after stocks were empty , and they gave orders the option of cancelling or transferring their order to a different Special Edition offer . On release in North America , the game became the fastest - selling game in the series ' history , selling over 300,000 units during its opening weekend : this was estimated as being five times the debut sales of Awakening during a similar period . Birthright was the better - selling of the two versions , with Conquest said to be `` close behind '' . According to the February NPD Group report , Fates sold nearly 400,000 copies across physical and digital versions , with both versions reaching places in the top ten gaming chart . In addition , combined sales of all versions including the Special Edition placed the game third overall in software sales , tripling the equivalent first - month sales of Awakening . When the physical versions released in the UK , Birthright was the better - selling edition , coming in at # 5 in the all - format charts behind multi-platform releases Doom , Homefront : The Revolution and Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End . Conquest came in at # 11 in the all - format charts . In platform - specific charts , Birthright and Conquest reached # 6 and # 8 respectively . In a financial briefing at the end of the 2015 - 2016 fiscal year , the physical versions were said to have sold a combined total of 1.84 million copies . The title 's DLC sales were also strong , coming in fifth in the top - five best - selling DLC content for Nintendo products . As of March 2017 , the game 's total physical and download sales across all regions have come to 1.6 million copies : sales of 500,000 units were recorded for Japan , while the remaining 1.1 million were recorded overseas . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Known in Japan as Fire Emblem If ( ファイアー エムブレム if , Faiā Emuburemu Ifu ) Jump up ^ Sources disagree on the exact numbering : it is variously called the 12th , 14th including remakes , and 15th including all video game titles to that date . Jump up ^ White Night Kingdom ( 白夜 王国 , Byakuya Ōkoku ) Jump up ^ Dark Night Kingdom ( 暗夜 王国 , Anya Ōkoku ) Jump up ^ Invisible Kingdom ( インビジブル キングダム , Inbijiburu Kingudamu ) Jump up ^ If ~ Hitori Omou ( if ~ ひとり 思う , lit . `` If ~ One 's Thoughts '' ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Marchiafavam , Jeff ( 2015 - 06 - 18 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates - A Massive War Brews In New Fire Emblem Fates Trailer And Screens '' . Game Informer . Archived from the original on 2015 - 08 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ Freeman , Will ; Dring , Chris ; Kamen , Matt ( 2016 - 05 - 16 ) . `` Games review roundup : Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End ; Fire Emblem Fates : Birthright / Conquest ; Battleborn '' . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 2016 - 06 - 02 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : `` Iwata Asks `` Fire Emblem Fates '' `` . Nintendo UK . 2015 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 09 . 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Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ 「 ファイアー エムブレム if 」 の きせかえ プレート 、 New 3DS の パック が 発売 決定 ( in Japanese ) . Game Watch Impress. 2015 - 04 - 30 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 11 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Yip , Spencer ( 2015 - 07 - 27 ) . `` Fire Emblem Manga Coming From Fire Emblem Fates Creators '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 27 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ Hernandez , Patricia ( 2015 - 12 - 15 ) . `` Smash Bros . Is Getting a New Fire Emblem Character '' . Kotaku . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 05 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ Sato ( 2015 - 07 - 22 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates ' DLC Map Will Feature Characters From Awakening '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2015 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 27 . Jump up ^ Sato ( 2015 - 09 - 23 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates ' Latest DLC Maps Feature Series ' Merchant Girl Anna '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2015 - 10 - 16 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 27 . Jump up ^ Lada , Jenni ( 2016 - 01 - 27 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates DLC Schedule Released '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 27 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 27 . Jump up ^ Lada , Jenni ( 2016 - 05 - 16 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates And The Before Awakening DLC Arrive In Europe This Week '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2016 - 05 - 17 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 02 . Jump up ^ Lada , Jenni ( 2016 - 06 - 23 ) . `` Europe Gets Fire Emblem Fates ' Map Pack 2 On July 21 , 2016 '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2016 - 06 - 24 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : Rowen , Nic ( 2016 - 03 - 22 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates fan - translation cancelled '' . Destructoid . Archived from the original on 2016 - 04 - 20 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 05 . Jump up ^ Bonds , Curtis ( 2016 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Fire Emblem : Fates Changes Controversial Support Conversation in Western Regions '' . Nintendo World Report . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 21 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 21 . Jump up ^ Lada , Jenni ( 2016 - 01 - 26 ) . `` Western Version Of Fire Emblem Fates Lacks Touching Minigame '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 26 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 26 . Jump up ^ Frank , Allegra ; Robinson , Nick ( 2016 - 02 - 05 ) . `` Here 's how Nintendo changed ' petting ' in Fire Emblem Fates '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 05 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 05 . Jump up ^ Frank , Allegra ; Robinson , Nick ( 2016 - 02 - 05 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates wo n't have Japanese voice option in Western release '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 06 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 07 . Jump up ^ Otero , Josh ( 2016 - 03 - 31 ) . `` Nintendo Terminates Fire Emblem Fates Spokesperson '' . IGN . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 31 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fire Emblem Fates : Birthright for Nintendo 3DS on Metacritic '' . Metacritic . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 16 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fire Emblem Fates : Conquest for Nintendo 3DS on Metacritic '' . Metacritic . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 16 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fire Emblem Fates : Revelation for Nintendo 3DS on Metacritic '' . Metacritic . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 16 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fire Emblem Fates : Special Edition for Nintendo 3DS on Metacritic '' . Metacritic . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 16 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : Carter , Chris ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Review : Fire Emblem Fates ( Birthright and Conquest ) '' . Destructoid . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Carter , Chris ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Review : Fire Emblem Fates : Revelation '' . Destructoid . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Carsillo , Ray ( 2016 - 02 - 23 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Special Edition review '' . Electronic Gaming Monthly . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 24 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Robinson , Martin ( 2016 - 05 - 19 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates review - Duel of the Fates '' . Eurogamer . Archived from the original on 2016 - 05 - 19 . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : ニンテンドー 3DS - ファイアー エムブレム if 白夜 王国 / 暗夜 王国 . Famitsu Weekly ( in Japanese ) . Enterbrain ( 1385 ) . 2015 - 06 - 18 . Translation ^ Jump up to : Corriea , Alexa Ray ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Birthright Review '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Peter ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Conquest Review '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Corriea , Alexa Ray ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Revelation Review '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Gwaltney , Javy ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Birthright - Learning The Price Of Victory '' . Game Informer . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Gwaltney , Javy ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Conquest - Changing The System From Within '' . Game Informer . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Gwaltney , Javy ( 2016 - 03 - 09 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Revelation - The Best Of Both Worlds ( At A Cost ) '' . Game Informer . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 10 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : Sheridan , Connor ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Review '' . GamesRadar . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Sullivan , Meghan ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Birthright Review '' . IGN . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 17 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Otero , Jose ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates : Conquest Review '' . IGN . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Keller , Kimberley ( 2016 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Review '' . Nintendo World Report . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 18 . Jump up ^ 限定 版 「 ファイアー エムブレム if 」 追加 出荷 、 各 販売 店 向け に 案内 開始 ( in Japanese ) . Inside Games . 2015 - 04 - 10 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 11 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Sahdev , Ishaan ( 2015 - 07 - 01 ) . `` This Week In Sales : Fire Emblem Fates Begins Its Conquest '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 03 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ ( 週間 ソフト 販売 ランキング TOP50 ) 3DS 『 ファイアー エムブレム if 白夜 王国 』 が 1 位 を 獲得 ( 6 月 22 ~ 28 日 ) ( in Japanese ) . Dengeki Online . 2015 - 07 - 02 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 11 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Romano , Sal ( 2015 - 07 - 08 ) . `` Media Create Sales : 6 / 29 / 15 -- 7 / 5 / 15 '' . Gematsu . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 09 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ ( 週間 ソフト 販売 ランキング TOP50 ) 2 週 連続 で 3DS 『 ファイアー エムブレム if 白夜 王国 』 が 1 位 を 獲得 ( 6 月 29 日 ~ 7 月 5 日 ) ( in Japanese ) . Dengeki Online . 2015 - 07 - 09 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 11 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Romano , Sal ( 2015 - 07 - 15 ) . `` Media Create Sales : 7 / 6 / 15 -- 7 / 12 / 15 '' . Gematsu . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 15 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 15 . Jump up ^ 販売 本数 ランキング TOP30 ( 6 / 22 / 15 - 7 / 12 / 15 ) ( in Japanese ) . Famitsu. 2015 - 07 - 15 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 15 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 15 . Jump up ^ 2015 年 の 国内 家庭 用 ゲーム 市場 規模 速報 を 発表 ! ソフト 販売 本数 トップ は 『 モンスターハンター クロス 』 に ( in Japanese ) . Famitsu. 2016 - 01 - 06 . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 06 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 03 . Jump up ^ Hanson , Kyle ( 2016 - 01 - 15 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Special Edition Pre-Orders Cancelled by Gamestop '' . Attack of the Fanboy . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 15 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 15 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( 2016 - 02 - 24 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Sells 300,000 Copies at Launch , Breaking Records '' . GameSpot . Archived from the original on 2016 - 02 - 24 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ Sato ( 2016 - 03 - 11 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Sells About 400,000 In The US , Pokémon Breaks eShop Records '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 11 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 11 . Jump up ^ Whitehead , Thomas ( 2016 - 05 - 23 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fates Makes a Double Impact on the UK Charts '' . Nintendo Life . Archived from the original on 2016 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Supplementary Information about Earnings Release '' ( PDF ) . Nintendo JP . 2016 - 04 - 27 . p. 4 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2016 - 04 - 27 . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 27 . Jump up ^ Sato ( 2016 - 04 - 28 ) . `` Nintendo 3DS And Wii U Download Sales Have Been Doing Better Than Ever '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2016 - 04 - 28 . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 28 . Jump up ^ Sato ( 2017 - 02 - 01 ) . `` Fire Emblem Fans Are Mostly In Their 20s and 30s , More On Sales And Fire Emblem Heroes '' . Siliconera . Archived from the original on 2017 - 02 - 01 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 01 . Notes ( edit ) External links ( edit ) Official website ( hide ) Fire Emblem series Main series Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light ( Shadow Dragon ) Gaiden ( Echoes ) Mystery of the Emblem ( New Mystery ) Genealogy of the Holy War Thracia 776 The Binding Blade Fire Emblem The Sacred Stones Path of Radiance Radiant Dawn Awakening Fates Crossovers and spin - offs Super Smash Bros. series Project X Zone 2 Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯ FE Heroes Warriors Related topics Tear Ring Saga Marth Video games Book Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fire_Emblem_Fates&oldid=805020638 '' Categories : 2015 video games Dragons in video games Family in fiction Fire Emblem video games LGBT - related video games Nintendo 3DS eShop games Nintendo 3DS games Nintendo 3DS - only games Nintendo Network games Romance video games Shin Kibayashi Tactical role - playing video games Video games featuring parallel universes Video games featuring protagonists of selectable gender Video games that use Amiibo figurines Video games with alternate endings Video games with alternate versions Video games with downloadable content Wars in fiction Invasions in fiction Hidden categories : Articles containing Japanese - language text CS1 uses Japanese - language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) Good articles Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Articles with hAudio microformats Album infoboxes lacking a cover Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles using Video game reviews template in single platform mode Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Euskara Français Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Português Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 October 2017 , at 15 : 29 . 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74 | document: A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes - wikipedia A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes Jump to : navigation , search `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' Single by Ilene Woods from the album Cinderella ( 1950 film soundtrack ) Released 1950 Format LP record Recorded 1949 Genre Soundtrack Length 3 : 50 Songwriter ( s ) Mack David Al Hoffman Jerry Livingston `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' is a song written and composed by Mack David , Al Hoffman and Jerry Livingston for the Walt Disney film Cinderella ( 1950 ) . In the song Cinderella ( as sung by Ilene Woods ) encourages her animal friends to never stop dreaming , and that theme continues throughout the entire story . The theme of the song was taken from Franz Liszt 's Etude No. 9 Ricordanza of the Transcendental Etudes . This song was also performed by Lily James for the soundtrack of the live - action version of Cinderella in 2015 . Contents ( hide ) 1 `` Dreams '' as a recurring Disney theme 2 Recordings 3 Disney Cruise Line 4 Circle of Stars version 4.1 Performers 5 Track listing 5.1 Official versions 6 References `` Dreams '' as a recurring Disney theme ( edit ) Thematically , the lyrics recall the sentiments expressed in `` When You Wish upon a Star '' from Pinocchio ( 1940 ) . In equating a dream with a wish , the song establishes that Cinderella is using the word `` dream '' in the metaphorical sense of desires that can , as the lyric promises , `` come true . '' `` When You Wish Upon A Star '' makes this same promise , as does other Disney material , such as the fireworks show Remember ... Dreams Come True and related promotions . The literal meaning of the word , as something that happens `` when you 're fast asleep '' , reappears in another Disney song , `` Once Upon a Dream '' from Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) . Recordings ( edit ) The original version appears on a CD of the original soundtrack , as well as several compilations . Ilene Woods with Harold Mooney and his Orchestra recorded the song in Hollywood on October 26 , 1949 . It was released by RCA Victor Records as catalog number 31 - 0014B ( in USA ) and by EMI on the His Master 's Voice label as catalog numbers B 9971 , SG 272 , HM 2753 , JK 2679 , SAB 7 and EA 3914 . It has also been recorded by a number of other artists , including Daniel Bedingfield who sang a swing version , Nikki Blonsky , Michael Bolton , Todrick Hall , Ashley Brown , Perry Como , Hilary Duff , Eden Espinosa , Kimberley Locke , Johnny Mathis , Cher , Bette Midler , Linda Ronstadt , Shakey Graves , Tomiko Van and Sabrina Carpenter . One studio compilation , Cinderella : Songs From The Classic Fairy Tale ( 1998 ) places the song in context with other musical treatments of the Cinderella story , including songs by Rodgers and Hammerstein , Sergey Prokofiev , Stephen Sondheim and the Sherman Brothers . Perry Como with Mitchell Ayres ' and His Orchestra recorded it in New York City on October 3 , 1949 . It was released by RCA Victor Records as catalog number 20 - 3607A ( in USA ) and by EMI on the His Master 's Voice label as catalog numbers B 9961 , HM 2730 , SAB 8 and IP 615 . Jack Pleis and His Orchestra recorded it in 1955 . It was released by Decca Records on the album Music from Disneyland ( catalog number DL 8105 ) . The song has also been used as part of the opening titles of several iterations of the Walt Disney anthology television series , notably in the medley for The Wonderful World Of Disney ( 1969 -- 1979 ) and in The Magical World Of Disney ( 1988 ) . Brian Wilson covered it as a bonus track on his album In The Key Of Disney , which was released on October 25 , 2011 . In the French version of the film , the song was titled Un rêve est un souhait qui vient de ton cœur ( Literally , `` A dream is a wish that comes from your heart '' ) . Suburban Legends included it as the first track of their 2013 release , Dreams Are n't Real , But These Songs Are , Vol. 1 EP . The Voice Australia winner Anja Nissen recorded it as part of the compilation `` We Love Disney '' . Lily James , who plays Cinderella in the 2015 Disney film remake , recorded the song for the film 's soundtrack . Rachelle Ann Go , who performed in Miss Saigon , recorded a cover for the film 's Philippine release , but it has never been translated in Filipino since Sarah Geronimo sang `` The Glow '' , which did not translated in that language . Indonesian singer Raisa Andriana covered the song in Bahasa Indonesia as `` Mimpi Adalah Harapan Hati '' ( later renamed as `` Mimpi Adalah Harapan '' ) , for the film 's Indonesian release and later in the We Love Disney Indonesia Edition . Jessie Ware recorded a cover of the song for the 2015 compilation album We Love Disney . Disney cruise line ( edit ) The song is heard on board the Disney Dream in various shows and as the ships horn . Circle of Stars version ( edit ) `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' Single by Disney Channel Circle of Stars from the album DisneyMania 4 Released November 21 , 2005 Format Digital download CD single Recorded February 20 , 2005 Genre Dance - pop R&B Length 3 : 45 ( single version ) 3 : 39 ( radio edit ) Label Walt Disney Songwriter ( s ) Mack David Al Hoffman Jerry Livingston Disney Channel Circle of Stars singles chronology `` Circle of Life '' ( 2003 ) `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( 2005 ) `` Circle of Life '' ( 2003 ) `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( 2005 ) The song was re-recorded by the Disney Channel Circle of Stars , a group of actors and actresses who have appeared in Disney Channel television series and original movies . The line - up was significantly different from that of their re-recording of `` Circle Of Life '' in 2004 . It shot # 1 on Disney 's singles chart , along with topping several charts around the world . This version has been used to launch the inflight music aboard international flights via Cebu Pacific airlines , starting in December 2010 . Performers ( edit ) Star Disney Appearances Raven - Symoné That 's So Raven , The Cheetah Girls , The Cheetah Girls 2 , Kim Possible , and Tinker Bell Amy Bruckner Phil of the Future and American Dragon : Jake Long Alyson Michalka Phil of the Future , Cow Belles and Now You See It ... Kyla Pratt The Proud Family and The Proud Family Movie Brenda Song The Ultimate Christmas Present , The Suite Life of Zack & Cody , Stuck In The Suburbs , Wendy Wu : Homecoming Warrior , The Suite Life on Deck and The Suite Life Movie Cole Sprouse The Suite Life of Zack & Cody , The Suite Life on Deck and The Suite Life Movie Dylan Sprouse Orlando Brown That 's So Raven , The Proud Family , Max Keeble 's Big Move , and Eddie 's Million Dollar Cook - Off Ashley Tisdale The Suite Life Of Zack & Cody , Kim Possible , High School Musical , High School Musical 2 , Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure and Phineas and Ferb Ricky Ullman Phil of the Future and Pixel Perfect Anneliese Van Der Pol That 's So Raven Track listing ( edit ) Digital track listing `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( Single Version ) -- 3 : 55 `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( Christmas Version ) -- 3 : 45 Official versions ( edit ) `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( Single Version ) -- 3 : 55 `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( Radio Edit ) -- 3 : 39 `` A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( Cut Live Version ) -- 1 : 21 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sherman , Robert et al. ( 2005 ) . From Rags to Riches : The Making of Cinderella ( DVD extra ) . Disney . Jump up ^ `` Source Material : A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes '' . 2013 . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Disney Parks : Where Dreams Come True '' . 2007 . Archived from the original on 2007 - 11 - 22 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 21 . Jump up ^ RCA Victor in the 20 - 3500 to 30 - 3999 series Jump up ^ `` Disney Dream Float Out '' . YouTube . 2010 - 10 - 30 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 14 . Disney 's Cinderella Characters Cinderella Films Cinderella ( 1950 ) Cinderella II : Dreams Come True ( 2002 ) Cinderella III : A Twist in Time ( 2007 ) Cinderella ( 2015 live - action ) Attractions Cinderella Castle Prince Charming Regal Carrousel L'Auberge de Cendrillon Music `` A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes '' `` Bibbidi - Bobbidi - Boo '' Cinderella by Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm Characters Buttons Cinderella Ugly sisters Fairy godmother Wicked stepmother Prince Charming Films Cinderella ( 1899 ) Cinderella or the Glass Slipper ( 1912 ) Cinderella ( 1914 ) A Lowland Cinderella ( 1921 ) A Kiss for Cinderella ( 1925 film ) Ella Cinders ( 1926 ) The Cookie Carnival ( 1935 ) The Magic Shoes ( 1935 ) First Love ( 1939 ) Cinderella ( 1947 ) Cinderella ( 1950 ) The Glass Slipper ( 1955 ) Cinderfella ( 1960 ) Stop ! Look ! and Laugh ( 1960 ) More Than a Miracle ( 1967 ) Tři oříšky pro Popelku ( 1973 ) The Slipper and the Rose ( 1976 ) Cinderella ( 1979 ) Cinderella ' 80 ( 1984 ) Maid to Order ( 1987 ) If the Shoe Fits ( 1990 ) Ever After ( 1998 ) Ella Enchanted ( 2004 ) Cinderella ( 2006 ) Elle : A Modern Cinderella Tale ( 2010 ) Cinderella ( 2015 ) A Cinderella Story series A Cinderella Story ( 2004 ) Another Cinderella Story ( 2008 ) Once Upon a Song ( 2011 ) If the Shoe Fits ( 2016 ) Animation Cinderella Blues ( 1931 ) Poor Cinderella ( 1934 ) Cinderella Meets Fella ( 1938 ) Swing Shift Cinderella ( 1945 ) Cinderella ( 1950 ) Señorella and the Glass Huarache ( 1964 ) Cinderella ( 1979 ) The Tender Tale of Cinderella Penguin ( 1981 ) The Magic Riddle ( 1991 ) Cinderella ( 1994 ) Happily N'Ever After ( 2007 ) Year of the Fish ( 2008 ) Cinderella the Cat ( 2017 ) Charming ( 2018 ) Sequels Princess Cinderella ( 1941 ) Cinderella II : Dreams Come True ( 2002 ) Cinderella III : A Twist in Time ( 2007 ) Television Hey , Cinderella ! ( 1968 ) Cindy ( 1978 ) Cinderella Monogatari ( 1996 ) Cinderella ( 1997 ) CinderElmo ( 1999 ) Cinderella ( 2000 ) La Cenicienta ( 2003 ) Bawang Merah Bawang Putih ( 2004 ) Floricienta ( 2004 ) Floribella ( 2005 Brazil ) Floribella ( 2006 Portugal ) Grazilda ( 2010 ) Rags ( 2012 ) Aik Nayee Cinderella ( 2012 ) Literary adaptations Celestina ( 1791 ) Cinderella , or the Little Glass Slipper ( 1954 ) Nine Coaches Waiting ( 1958 ) Carrie ( 1974 ) The Coachman Rat ( 1989 ) Witches Abroad ( 1991 ) Ella Enchanted ( 1997 ) I Was a Rat ! or The Scarlet Slippers ( 1999 ) Just Ella ( 1999 ) Confessions of an Ugly Stepsister ( 1999 ) Chinese Cinderella ( 1999 ) The Fairy Godmother ( 2004 ) Phoenix and Ashes ( 2004 ) Bella at Midnight ( 2006 ) Ash ( 2009 ) Princess of Glass ( 2010 ) Cinder ( 2012 ) Opera Cendrillon ( 1810 Isouard ) La Cenerentola ( 1817 Rossini ) Cendrillon ( 1899 Massenet ) Cendrillon ( 1904 Viardot ) La Cenicienta ( 1966 Hen ) Ballet Cinderella ( 1893 Fitinhof - Schell ) Aschenbrödel ( 1900 Strauss - Bayer ) Cinderella ( 1945 Prokofiev ) Cinderella ( 1948 Ashton ) Musicals Cinderella and the Prince , or The Castle of Heart 's Desire ( 1904 ) Stubborn Cinderella ( 1909 ) Mr. Cinders ( 1929 ) Cinderella ( 1957 ) Cindy ( 1964 ) The Penny Friend ( 1966 ) The Slipper and the Rose ( 1984 ) Soho Cinders ( 2008 ) Cinderella ( 2013 ) Other Plays A Kiss for Cinderella ( 1916 ) Comics Cinderella : From Fabletown with Love Cinderalla Games Cinders Songs `` Spread a Little Happiness '' ( 1929 ) `` Bibbidi - Bobbidi - Boo '' ( 1949 ) `` A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes '' ( 1950 ) `` Cinderella '' ( 1987 ) `` Hey Cinderella '' ( 1993 ) `` It 's Midnight Cinderella '' ( 1996 ) `` Cinderella '' ( 2001 ) `` Cinderella '' ( 2002 ) `` Cinderella '' ( 2003 ) `` Stealing Cinderella '' ( 2007 ) `` Cinderella '' ( 2007 ) `` C \ C ( Cinderella \ Complex ) '' ( 2008 ) Albums A Cinderella Story ( 2004 soundtrack ) Disney 's Princess Favorites ( 2002 ) Sociology Cinderella complex Cinderella effect The Cinderella Movement Commercials A Coach for Cinderella A Ride for Cinderella Adult Cinder Ellen up too Late Cinderella ( 1977 ) Naughty Cinderella National variation Bawang Merah Bawang Putih ( Malay and Indonesian ) Beauty and Pock Face ( Chinese ) Chūjō - hime ( Japanese ) Fair , Brown and Trembling ( Irish ) Finette Cendron ( French ) The Green Knight ( Danish ) Katie Woodencloak ( Norwegian ) Kongji and Patzzi ( Korean ) Ochikubo Monogatari ( Japanese ) `` Rhodopis '' ( Greek ) Rushen Coatie ( Scottish ) The Sharp Grey Sheep ( Scottish ) The Story of Tam and Cam ( Vietnamese ) Sumiyoshi Monogatari ( Japanese ) The True Bride ( German ) The Wonderful Birch ( Russian ) Ye Xian ( Chinese ) Related Catskin Into the Woods Into the Woods ( 2014 film ) Politically Correct Bedtime Stories Disney 's characters Stop ! Look ! and Laugh Waltz Suite Black Cinderella Two Goes East Cinderella Monogatari Cinderella 's Sister Cinderella ( sports ) Lying to Be Perfect Cinderella 's Eyes ( 2011 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Dream_Is_a_Wish_Your_Heart_Makes&oldid=819648945 '' Categories : 1950 songs Cinderella ( franchise ) Disney songs Pop ballads Songs written by Al Hoffman Songs written by Jerry Livingston Songs written for films Songs with lyrics by Mack David Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Galego 日本 語 Norsk Português Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2018 , at 15 : 05 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . 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75 | document: Red Fort - wikipedia Red Fort Red Fort A view of the Red Fort Location Old Delhi , India Coordinates 28 ° 39 ′ 22 '' N 77 ° 14 ′ 28 '' E / 28.656 ° N 77.241 ° E / 28.656 ; 77.241 Coordinates : 28 ° 39 ′ 22 '' N 77 ° 14 ′ 28 '' E / 28.656 ° N 77.241 ° E / 28.656 ; 77.241 Built 12 May 1639 -- 6 April 1648 ( 8 years 10 months & 25 days ) Architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori Architectural style ( s ) Indo - Islamic , Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name : Red Fort Complex Type Cultural Criteria ii , iii , vi Designated 2007 ( 31st session ) Reference no . 231rev State Party India Region Asia - Pacific Location in Delhi , India , Asia Every year on the Independence day of India ( 15 August ) , the Prime Minister hoists the Indian `` tricolour flag '' at the main gate of the fort and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from its ramparts here . Red Fort is a historic fort in the city of Delhi in India . It was the main residence of the emperors of the Mughal dynasty for nearly 200 years , until 1856 . It is located in the center of Delhi and houses a number of museums . In addition to accommodating the emperors and their households , it was the ceremonial and political center of the Mughal state and the setting for events critically impacting the region . Constructed in 1639 by the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace of his fortified capital Shahjahanabad , the Red Fort is named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone and is adjacent to the older Salimgarh Fort , built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546 AD . The imperial apartments consist of a row of pavilions , connected by a water channel known as the Stream of Paradise ( Nahr - i - Bihisht ) . The fort complex is considered to represent the zenith of Mughal creativity under Shah Jahan , and although the palace was planned according to Islamic prototypes , each pavilion contains architectural elements typical of Mughal buildings that reflect a fusion of Timurid and Persian traditions . The Red Fort 's innovative architectural style , including its garden design , influenced later buildings and gardens in Delhi , Rajasthan , Punjab , Kashmir , Braj , Rohilkhand and elsewhere . The fort was plundered of its artwork and jewels during Nadir Shah 's invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1747 . Most of the fort 's precious marble structures were subsequently destroyed by the British following the Revolt of 1857 . The forts 's defensive walls were largely spared , and the fortress was subsequently used as a garrison . The Red Fort was also the site where the British put the last Mughal Emperor on trial before exiling him to Rangoon in 1858 . Every year on the Independence day of India ( 15 August ) , the Prime Minister hoists the Indian `` tricolour flag '' at the main gate of the fort and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from its ramparts . It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007 as part of the Red Fort Complex . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Today 4 Security 5 Architecture 6 Major structures 6.1 Lahori Gate 6.2 Delhi Gate 6.3 Chhatta Chowk 6.4 Naubat Khana 6.5 Diwan - i - Aam 6.6 Nahr - i - Bihisht 6.7 Mumtaz Mahal 6.8 Rang Mahal 6.9 Khas Mahal 6.10 Diwan - i - Khas 6.11 Hammam 6.12 Baoli 6.13 Moti Masjid 6.14 Hira Mahal 6.15 Hayat Bakhsh Bagh 6.16 Princes ' quarter 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Etymology ( edit ) Its English name , `` Red Fort '' , is a translation of the Hindi / Urdu Lāl Qila deriving from its red - sandstone walls . As the residence of the imperial family , the fort was originally known as the `` Blessed Fort '' ( Qila - i - Mubārak ) . Agra Fort is also called Lāl Qila ' . History ( edit ) 1785 view of the Red Fort from Jharoka in the centre and the Moti Masjid on the far right . View of the Red Fort from the river ( by Ghulam Ali Khan , between c. 1852 -- 1854 Bahadur Shah II in the ' Khas Mahal , underneath the Scales of Justice Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1639 , when he decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi . Originally red and white , the Shah 's favourite colours , its design is credited to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri , who also constructed the Taj Mahal . The fort lies along the Yamuna River , which fed the moats surrounding most of the walls . Construction began in the sacred month of Muharram , on 13 May 1638 . Supervised by Shah Jahan , it was completed on 6 April 1648 . Unlike other Mughal forts , the Red Fort 's boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain the older Salimgarh Fort . The fortress - palace was a focal point of the medieval city of Shahjahanabad , which is present - day Old Delhi . Its planning and aesthetics represent the zenith of Mughal creativity prevailing during Shah Jahan 's reign . His successor Aurangzeb added the Pearl Mosque to the emperor 's private quarters , constructing barbicans in front of the two main gates to make the entrance to the palace more circuitous . The administrative and fiscal structure of the Mughal dynasty declined after Aurangzeb , and the 18th century saw a degeneration of the palace . When Jahandar Shah took over the Red Fort in 1712 , it had been without an emperor for 30 years . Within a year of beginning his rule , Shah was murdered and replaced by Farrukhsiyar . To raise money , the silver ceiling of the Rang Mahal was replaced by copper during this period . Muhammad Shah , known as ' Rangila ' ( the Colourful ) for his interest in art , took over the Red Fort in 1719 . In 1739 , Persian emperor Nadir Shah easily defeated the Mughal army , plundering the Red Fort including the Peacock Throne . Nadir Shah returned to Persia after three months , leaving a destroyed city and a weakened Mughal empire to Muhammad Shah . The internal weakness of the Mughal empire made the Mughals titular heads of Delhi , and a 1752 treaty made the Marathas protectors of the throne at Delhi . The 1758 Maratha conquest of Lahore and Peshawar placed them in conflict with Ahmad Shah Durrani . In 1760 , the Marathas removed and melted the silver ceiling of the Diwan - i - Khas to raise funds for the defence of Delhi from the armies of Ahmed Shah Durrani . In 1761 , after the Marathas lost the third battle of Panipat , Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Durrani . Ten years later , Shah Alam ascended the throne in Delhi with Maratha support . In 1783 the Sikh Misl Karorisinghia , led by Baghel Singh Dhaliwal , conquered Delhi and the Red Fort briefly . In 1788 , a Maratha garrison permanently occupied Red fort and Delhi and ruled on north India for next two decades until they were usurped by the British East India Company following the Second Anglo - Maratha War in 1803 . During the Second Anglo - Maratha War in 1803 , forces of British East India Company defeated Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi ; this ended Maratha rule of the city and their control of the Red Fort . After the battle , the British took over the administration of Mughal territories and installed a Resident at the Red Fort . The last Mughal emperor to occupy the fort , Bahadur Shah II , became a symbol of the 1857 rebellion against the British in which the residents of Shahjahanbad participated . Despite its position as the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities , the Red Fort was not defended during the 1857 uprising against the British . After the rebellion failed , Bahadur Shah II left the fort on 17 September and was apprehended by British forces . He returned to Red Fort as a prisoner of the British , was tried in 1858 and exiled to Rangoon on 7 October of that year . With the end of Mughal reign , the British sanctioned the systematic plunder of valuables from the fort 's palaces . All furniture was removed or destroyed ; the harem apartments , servants ' quarters and gardens were destroyed , and a line of stone barracks built . Only the marble buildings on the east side at the imperial enclosure escaped complete destruction , but were looted and damaged . While the defensive walls and towers were relatively unharmed , more than two - thirds of the inner structures were destroyed by the British . Lord Curzon , Viceroy of India from 1899 -- 1905 , ordered repairs to the fort including reconstruction of the walls and the restoration of the gardens complete with a watering system . Most of the jewels and artworks of the Red Fort were looted and stolen during Nadir Shah 's invasion of 1747 and again after the failed Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British . They were eventually sold to private collectors or the British Museum , British Library and the Victoria and Albert Museum . For example , the Koh - i - Noor diamond , the jade wine cup of Shah Jahan and the crown of Bahadur Shah II are all currently located in London . Various requests for restitution have so far been rejected by the British government . 1911 saw the visit of the British king and queen for the Delhi Durbar . In preparation of the visit , some buildings were restored . The Red Fort Archaeological Museum was also moved from the drum house to the Mumtaz Mahal . The INA trials , also known as the Red Fort Trials , refer to the courts - martial of a number of officers of the Indian National Army . The first was held between November and December 1945 at the Red Fort . On 15 August 1947 , the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru raised the Indian national flag above the Lahore Gate . On each subsequent Independence Day , the prime minister has raised the flag and given a speech that is broadcast nationally . After Indian Independence , the site experienced few changes , and the Red Fort continued to be used as a military cantonment . A significant part of the fort remained under Indian Army control until 22 December 2003 , when it was given to the Archaeological Survey of India for restoration . In 2009 the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan ( CCMP ) , prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India under Supreme Court directions to revitalise the fort , was announced . Today ( edit ) Every year on India 's Independence Day ( 15 August ) , the Prime Minister of India hoists the national flag at the Red Fort and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from its ramparts . The Red Fort , the largest monument in Delhi , is one of its most popular tourist destinations and attracts thousands of visitors every year . A sound and light show describing Mughal history is a tourist attraction in the evenings . The major architectural features are in mixed condition ; the extensive water features are dry . Some buildings are in fairly - good condition , with their decorative elements undisturbed ; in others , the marble inlaid flowers have been removed by looters . The tea house , although not in its historical state , is a working restaurant . The mosque and hamam or public baths are closed to the public , although visitors can peer through their glass windows or marble latticework . Walkways are crumbling , and public toilets are available at the entrance and inside the park . The Lahore Gate entrance leads to a mall with jewellery and craft stores . There is also a museum of `` blood paintings '' , depicting young 20th - century Indian martyrs and their stories , an archaeological museum and an Indian war - memorial museum . The Red fort appears on the back of the ₹ 500 note of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series of the Indian rupee . Security ( edit ) To prevent terrorist attacks , security is especially strict around the Red Fort on the eve of Indian Independence Day . Delhi Police and paramilitary personnel keep watch on neighbourhoods around the fort , and National Security Guard sharpshooters are deployed on high - rises near the fort . The airspace around the fort is a designated no - fly zone during the celebration to prevent air attacks , and safe houses exist in nearby areas to which the Prime Minister and other Indian leaders may retreat in the event of an attack . The fort was the site of a terrorist attack on 22 December 2000 , carried out by six Lashkar - e-Toiba members . Two soldiers and a civilian were killed in what the news media described as an attempt to derail India - Pakistan peace talks . Architecture ( edit ) The Red Fort has an area of 254.67 acres ( 103.06 ha ) enclosed by 2.41 kilometres ( 1.50 mi ) of defensive walls , punctuated by turrets and bastions and varying in height from 18 metres ( 59 ft ) on the river side to 33 metres ( 108 ft ) on the city side . The fort is octagonal , with the north - south axis longer than the east - west axis . The marble , floral decorations and double domes in the fort 's buildings exemplify later Mughal architecture . It showcases a high level of ornamentation , and the Kohinoor diamond was reportedly part of the furnishings . The fort 's artwork synthesises Persian , European and Indian art , resulting in a unique Shahjahani style rich in form , expression and colour . Red Fort is one of the building complexes of India encapsulating a long period of history and its arts . Even before its 1913 commemoration as a monument of national importance , efforts were made to preserve it for posterity . The Lahori and Delhi Gates were used by the public , and the Khizrabad Gate was for the emperor . The Lahori Gate is the main entrance , leading to a domed shopping area known as the Chatta Chowk ( covered bazaar ) . Major structures ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The most important surviving structures are the walls and ramparts , the main gates , the audience halls and the imperial apartments on the eastern riverbank . Lahori Gate ( edit ) The Delhi Gate , which is almost identical in appearance to the Lahori Gate The Lahori Gate is the main gate to the Red Fort , named for its orientation towards the city of Lahore . During Aurangzeb 's reign , the beauty of the gate was spoiled by the addition of bastions , which Shahjahan described as `` a veil drawn across the face of a beautiful woman '' . Every Indian Independence Day since 1947 , the national flag is unfurled and the Prime Minister makes a speech from its ramparts . Delhi Gate ( edit ) The Delhi Gate is the southern public entrance and in layout and appearance similar to the Lahori Gate . Two life - size stone elephants on either side of the gate face each other . These were renewed by Lord Curzon in 1903 after their earlier demolition by Aurangzeb . Chhatta Chowk ( edit ) Adjacent to the Lahori Gate is the Chhatta Chowk , where silk , jewellery and other items for the imperial household were sold during the Mughal period . The bazaar leads to an open outer court , where it crosses the large north - south street which originally divided the fort 's military functions ( to the west ) from the palaces ( to the east ) . The southern end of the street is the Delhi Gate . Naubat Khana ( edit ) Naubat Khana and the courtyard before its destruction by the British , in an 1858 photograph The vaulted arcade of the Chhatta Chowk ends in the centre of the outer court , which measured 540 by 360 feet ( 160 m × 110 m ) . The side arcades and central tank were destroyed after the 1857 rebellion . In the east wall of the court stands the now - isolated Naubat Khana ( also known as Nakkar Khana ) , the drum house . Music was played daily , at scheduled times and everyone , except royalty , was required to dismount . Diwan - i - Aam ( edit ) The Diwan - i - Aam audience hall The inner main court to which the Nakkar Khana led was 540 feet ( 160 m ) wide and 420 feet ( 130 m ) deep , surrounded by guarded galleries . On the far side is the Diwan - i - Aam , the Public Audience Hall . The hall 's columns and engrailed arches exhibit fine craftsmanship , and the hall was originally decorated with white chunam stucco . In the back in the raised recess the emperor gave his audience in the marble balcony ( jharokha ) . The Diwan - i - Aam was also used for state functions . The courtyard ( mardana ) behind it leads to the imperial apartments . Nahr - i - Bihisht ( edit ) The imperial apartments consist of a row of pavilions on a raised platform along the eastern edge of the fort , overlooking the Yamuna . The pavilions are connected by a canal , known as the Nahr - i - Bihisht ( `` Stream of Paradise '' ) , running through the centre of each pavilion . Water is drawn from the Yamuna via a tower , the Shahi Burj , at the northeast corner of the fort . The palace is designed to emulate paradise as described in the Quran . In the riverbed below the imperial apartments and connected buildings was a space known as zer - jharokha ( `` beneath the latticework '' ) . Mumtaz Mahal ( edit ) Mumtaz Mahal The two southernmost pavilions of the palace are zenanas ( women 's quarters ) , consisting of the Mumtaz Mahal and the larger Rang Mahal . The Mumtaz Mahal houses the Red Fort Archaeological Museum . Rang Mahal ( edit ) The Rang Mahal housed the emperor 's wives and mistresses . Its name means `` Palace of Colours '' , since it was brightly painted and decorated with a mosaic of mirrors . The central marble pool is fed by the Nahr - i - Bihisht . Khas Mahal ( edit ) The Khas Mahal was the emperor 's apartment . Connected to it is the Muthamman Burj , an octagonal tower where he appeared before the people waiting on the riverbank . This was done by most kings at the time . Diwan - i - Khas ( edit ) A gate on the north side of the Diwan - i - Aam leads to the innermost court of the palace ( Jalau Khana ) and the Diwan - i - Khas ( Hall of Private Audience ) . It is constructed of white marble , inlaid with precious stones . The once - silver ceiling has been restored in wood . François Bernier described seeing the jewelled Peacock Throne here during the 17th century . At either end of the hall , over the two outer arches , is an inscription by Persian poet Amir Khusrow : If heaven can be on the face of the earth , It is this , it is this , it is this . -- `` World Heritage Site -- Red Fort , Delhi ; Diwan - i - Khas '' . Archaeological Survey of India . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . Panoramic view of the imperial enclosure . From left : Moti Masjid , the hammam , Divan - i - Khas , Khas Mahal and the ' Rang Mahal Hammam ( edit ) The hammam were the imperial baths , consisting of three domed rooms floored with white marble . Baoli ( edit ) The baoli ( step - well ) at the Red Fort , Delhi The baoli or step - well , believed to pre-date Red Fort , is one of the few monuments that were not demolished by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The chambers within the baoli were converted into a prison . During the Indian National Army Trials ( Red Fort Trials ) in 1945 -- 46 , it housed Indian National Army officers Colonel Shah Nawaz Khan , Colonel Prem Kumar Sahgal , and Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon . The Red Fort Baoli is uniquely designed with two sets of staircases leading down to the well . Moti Masjid ( edit ) West of the hammam is the Moti Masjid , the Pearl Mosque . A later addition , it was built in 1659 as a private mosque for Aurangzeb . It is a small , three - domed mosque carved in white marble , with a three - arched screen leading down to the courtyard . Hira Mahal ( edit ) The Hira Mahal is a pavilion on the southern edge of the fort , built under Bahadur Shah II and at the end of the Hayat Baksh garden . The Moti Mahal on the northern edge , a twin building , was destroyed during ( or after ) the 1857 rebellion . Shahi Burj and its pavilion The Shahi Burj was the emperor 's main study of the ; its name means `` Emperor 's Tower '' , and it originally had a chhatri on top . Heavily damaged , the tower is undergoing reconstruction . In front of it is a marble pavilion added by Aurangzeb . Hayat Bakhsh Bagh ( edit ) Red Zafar Mahal and white Sawan / Bhadon pavilion behind it in the Hayat Bakhsh Bagh The Hayat Bakhsh Bagh is the `` Life - Bestowing Garden '' in the northeast part of the complex . It features a reservoir , which is now dry , and channels through which the Nahr - i - Bihisht flows . At each end is a white marble pavilion , called the Sawan and Bhadon Pavilions , named after the Hindu months , Sawan and Bhadon . In the centre of the reservoir is the red - sandstone Zafar Mahal , added in around 1842 by Bahadur Shah Zafar , and named after him . Smaller gardens ( such as the Mehtab Bagh or Moonlight Garden ) existed west of it , but were destroyed when the British barracks were built . There are plans to restore the gardens . Beyond these , the road to the north leads to an arched bridge and the Salimgarh Fort . Princes ' quarter ( edit ) North of the Hayat Bakhsh Bagh and the Shahi Burj is the quarter of the imperial princes . This was used by member of the Mughal royal family and was largely destroyed by the British forces after the rebellion . One of the palaces was converted into a tea house for the soldiers . See also ( edit ) Agra Fort Lahore Fort References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mukherjee , Anisha ( 3 June 2018 ) . `` Whose fort is it anyway '' . The Indian Express . ^ Jump up to : `` Red Fort Complex '' . World Heritage List . UNESCO World Heritage Centre . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . ^ Jump up to : William Dalrymple . `` Introduction '' . The Last Mughal . Penguin . p. 7 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 310243 - 4 . 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Jump up ^ `` Rain Brings Children Cheer , Gives Securitymen a Tough Time '' . The Hindu . 16 August 2011 . Retrieved 27 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Red Fort attack will not affect peace moves '' . 19 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Red Fort terrorist attacks '' . Retrieved 4 August 2012 . Jump up ^ N.L. Batra ( May 2008 ) . Delhi 's Red Fort by the Yamuna . Niyogi Books . Retrieved 5 August 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Langmead , Donald ; Garnaut , Christine ( 2001 ) . Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats . ABC - CLIO . p. 178 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57607 - 112 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` World Heritage Site -- Red Fort , Delhi '' . Archaeological Survey of India . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Fanshawe. H.C ( 1998 ) . Delhi , Past and Present . general introduction . Asian Educational Services . pp. 1 -- 8 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 206 - 1318 - 8 . Retrieved 10 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Sharma p. 143 Jump up ^ Mahtab Jahan ( 2004 ) . `` Dilli 's gates and windows '' . MG The Milli Gazette Indian Muslims leading new paper . Retrieved 17 May 2009 . Jump up ^ `` World heritage site '' . Asi.nic.in . ^ Jump up to : `` A handbook for travellers in India , Burma , and Ceylon '' . Archive.org . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Red Fort Baoli '' . http://agrasenkibaoli.com . Retrieved 1 August 2015 . External link in publisher = ( help ) Jump up ^ World Heritage Series -- RED FORT . Published by Director General , Archaeological Survey of India , New Delhi , 2009 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 87780 - 97 - 7 Jump up ^ `` World Heritage Site -- Red Fort , Delhi ; Hayat - Bakhsh Garden and Pavilions '' . Archaeological Survey of India . Retrieved 15 August 2012 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Red Fort . 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76 | document: Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental disorders - wikipedia Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental disorders Jump to : navigation , search The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM ) is published by the American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) and offers a common language and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders . It is used , or relied upon , by clinicians , researchers , psychiatric drug regulation agencies , health insurance companies , pharmaceutical companies , the legal system , and policy makers together with alternatives such as the ICD - 10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders , produced by the WHO . The DSM is now in its fifth edition , the DSM - 5 , published on May 18 , 2013 . The DSM evolved from systems for collecting census and psychiatric hospital statistics , and from a United States Army manual . Revisions since its first publication in 1952 have incrementally added to the total number of mental disorders , although also removing those no longer considered to be mental disorders . The International Classification of Diseases ( ICD ) is the other commonly used manual for mental disorders and actually the official system for the US . It is distinguished from the DSM in that it covers health as a whole . While the DSM is the most popular diagnostic system for mental disorders in the US , the ICD is used more widely in Europe and other parts of the world . The DSM - IV - TR ( 4th . ed . ) contains specific codes that allows for comparisons between the DSM and the ICD manuals , which may not systematically match because revisions are not simultaneously coordinated . Though recent editions of the DSM and ICD have become similar due to collaborative agreements , each one contains information absent from the other . While the DSM has been praised for standardizing psychiatric diagnostic categories and criteria , it has also generated controversy and criticism . Critics , including the National Institute of Mental Health , argue that the DSM represents an unscientific and subjective system . There are ongoing issues concerning the validity and reliability of the diagnostic categories ; the reliance on superficial symptoms ; the use of artificial dividing lines between categories and from `` normality '' ; possible cultural bias ; and medicalization of human distress . The publication of the DSM , with tightly guarded copyrights , now makes APA over $5 million a year , historically totaling over $100 million . Contents ( hide ) 1 Uses and definition 2 History 2.1 DSM - I ( 1952 ) 2.2 DSM - II ( 1968 ) 2.2. 1 Sixth printing of the DSM - II , 1974 2.3 DSM - III ( 1980 ) 2.4 DSM - III - R ( 1987 ) 2.5 DSM - IV ( 1994 ) 2.6 DSM - IV - TR ( 2000 ) 2.6. 1 DSM - IV - TR Categorization 2.6. 2 DSM - IV - TR Multi-axial system 2.6. 3 Sourcebooks 2.7 DSM - 5 ( 2013 ) 2.8 Future revisions and updates ( 2013 and beyond ) 3 Criticism 3.1 Reliability and validity concerns 3.2 Superficial symptoms 3.3 Dividing lines 3.4 Cultural bias 3.5 Medicalization and financial conflicts of interest 3.6 Clients , survivors , and consumer 3.7 DSM - 5 critiques 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Uses and definition ( edit ) Many mental health professionals use the manual to determine and help communicate a patient 's diagnosis after an evaluation ; hospitals , clinics , and insurance companies in the US also generally require a DSM diagnosis for all patients treated . The DSM can be used clinically in this way , and also to categorize patients using diagnostic criteria for research purposes . Studies done on specific disorders often recruit patients whose symptoms match the criteria listed in the DSM for that disorder . An international survey of psychiatrists in 66 countries compared the use of the ICD - 10 and DSM - IV ; it found the former was more often used for clinical diagnosis while the latter was more valued for research . DSM - 5 , and the abbreviations for all previous editions , are registered trademarks owned by the APA . History ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The initial impetus for developing a classification of mental disorders in the United States was the need to collect statistical information . The first official attempt was the 1840 census , which used a single category : `` idiocy / insanity '' . Three years later , the American Statistical Association made an official protest to the U.S. House of Representatives , stating that `` the most glaring and remarkable errors are found in the statements respecting nosology , prevalence of insanity , blindness , deafness , and dumbness , among the people of this nation '' , pointing out that in many towns African - Americans were all marked as insane , and calling the statistics essentially useless . The Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane was formed in 1844 , changing its name in 1892 to the American Medico - Psychological Association , and in 1921 to the present American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) . Edward Jarvis and later Francis Amasa Walker helped expand the census , from 2 volumes in 1870 to 25 volumes in 1880 . Frederick H. Wines was appointed to write a 582 - page volume called Report on the Defective , Dependent , and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States , As Returned at the Tenth Census ( June 1 , 1880 ) ( published 1888 ) . Wines used seven categories of mental illness : dementia , dipsomania ( uncontrollable craving for alcohol ) , epilepsy , mania , melancholia , monomania and paresis . These categories were also adopted by the Association . In 1917 , together with the National Commission on Mental Hygiene ( now Mental Health America ) , the APA developed a new guide for mental hospitals called the Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane . This included 22 diagnoses and would be revised several times by the APA over the years . Along with the New York Academy of Medicine , the APA also provided the psychiatric nomenclature subsection of the US general medical guide , the Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease , referred to as the Standard . DSM - I ( 1952 ) ( edit ) World War II saw the large - scale involvement of US psychiatrists in the selection , processing , assessment , and treatment of soldiers . This moved the focus away from mental institutions and traditional clinical perspectives . A committee headed by psychiatrist Brigadier General William C. Menninger developed a new classification scheme called Medical 203 , that was issued in 1943 as a War Department Technical Bulletin under the auspices of the Office of the Surgeon General . The foreword to the DSM - I states the US Navy had itself made some minor revisions but `` the Army established a much more sweeping revision , abandoning the basic outline of the Standard and attempting to express present day concepts of mental disturbance . This nomenclature eventually was adopted by all Armed Forces '' , and `` assorted modifications of the Armed Forces nomenclature ( were ) introduced into many clinics and hospitals by psychiatrists returning from military duty . '' The Veterans Administration also adopted a slightly modified version of Medical 203 . In 1949 , the World Health Organization published the sixth revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases ( ICD ) , which included a section on mental disorders for the first time . The foreword to DSM - 1 states this `` categorized mental disorders in rubrics similar to those of the Armed Forces nomenclature . '' An APA Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics was empowered to develop a version specifically for use in the United States , to standardize the diverse and confused usage of different documents . In 1950 , the APA committee undertook a review and consultation . It circulated an adaptation of Medical 203 , the VA system , and the Standard 's Nomenclature to approximately 10 % of APA members . 46 % replied , of which 93 % approved , and after some further revisions ( resulting in its being called DSM - I ) , the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders was approved in 1951 and published in 1952 . The structure and conceptual framework were the same as in Medical 203 , and many passages of text were identical . The manual was 130 pages long and listed 106 mental disorders . These included several categories of `` personality disturbance '' , generally distinguished from `` neurosis '' ( nervousness , egodystonic ) . In 1952 , the APA listed homosexuality in the DSM as a sociopathic personality disturbance . Homosexuality : A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals , a large - scale 1962 study of homosexuality by Irving Bieber and other authors , was used to justify inclusion of the disorder as a supposed pathological hidden fear of the opposite sex caused by traumatic parent -- child relationships . This view was widely influential in the medical profession . In 1956 , however , the psychologist Evelyn Hooker performed a study that compared the happiness and well - adjusted nature of self - identified homosexual men with heterosexual men and found no difference . Her study stunned the medical community and made her a heroine to many gay men and lesbians , but homosexuality remained in the DSM until May 1974 . DSM - II ( 1968 ) ( edit ) In the 1960s , there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself . These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz , who argued that mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts ; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman , who said mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists ; from behavioural psychologists who challenged psychiatry 's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena ; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA 's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder . A study published in Science by Rosenhan received much publicity and was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis . Although the APA was closely involved in the next significant revision of the mental disorder section of the ICD ( version 8 in 1968 ) , it decided to go ahead with a revision of the DSM . It was published in 1968 , listed 182 disorders , and was 134 pages long . It was quite similar to the DSM - I . The term `` reaction '' was dropped , but the term `` neurosis '' was retained . Both the DSM - I and the DSM - II reflected the predominant psychodynamic psychiatry , although they also included biological perspectives and concepts from Kraepelin 's system of classification . Symptoms were not specified in detail for specific disorders . Many were seen as reflections of broad underlying conflicts or maladaptive reactions to life problems , rooted in a distinction between neurosis and psychosis ( roughly , anxiety / depression broadly in touch with reality , or hallucinations / delusions appearing disconnected from reality ) . Sociological and biological knowledge was incorporated , in a model that did not emphasize a clear boundary between normality and abnormality . The idea that personality disorders did not involve emotional distress was discarded . An influential 1974 paper by Robert Spitzer and Joseph L. Fleiss demonstrated that the second edition of the DSM ( DSM - II ) was an unreliable diagnostic tool . They found that different practitioners using the DSM - II were rarely in agreement when diagnosing patients with similar problems . In reviewing previous studies of 18 major diagnostic categories , Fleiss and Spitzer concluded that `` there are no diagnostic categories for which reliability is uniformly high . Reliability appears to be only satisfactory for three categories : mental deficiency , organic brain syndrome ( but not its subtypes ) , and alcoholism . The level of reliability is no better than fair for psychosis and schizophrenia and is poor for the remaining categories '' . Sixth printing of the DSM - II , 1974 ( edit ) As described by Ronald Bayer , a psychiatrist and gay rights activist , specific protests by gay rights activists against the APA began in 1970 , when the organization held its convention in San Francisco . The activists disrupted the conference by interrupting speakers and shouting down and ridiculing psychiatrists who viewed homosexuality as a mental disorder . In 1971 , gay rights activist Frank Kameny worked with the Gay Liberation Front collective to demonstrate against the APA 's convention . At the 1971 conference , Kameny grabbed the microphone and yelled : `` Psychiatry is the enemy incarnate . Psychiatry has waged a relentless war of extermination against us . You may take this as a declaration of war against you . '' This activism occurred in the context of a broader anti-psychiatry movement that had come to the fore in the 1960s and was challenging the legitimacy of psychiatric diagnosis . Anti-psychiatry activists protested at the same APA conventions , with some shared slogans and intellectual foundations . Presented with data from researchers such as Alfred Kinsey and Evelyn Hooker , the sixth printing of the DSM - II , in 1974 , no longer listed homosexuality as a category of disorder . After a vote by the APA trustees in 1973 , and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974 , the diagnosis was replaced with the category of `` sexual orientation disturbance '' . DSM - III ( 1980 ) ( edit ) In 1974 , the decision to create a new revision of the DSM was made , and Robert Spitzer was selected as chairman of the task force . The initial impetus was to make the DSM nomenclature consistent with the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ( ICD ) , published by the World Health Organization . The revision took on a far wider mandate under the influence and control of Spitzer and his chosen committee members . One goal was to improve the uniformity and validity of psychiatric diagnosis in the wake of a number of critiques , including the famous Rosenhan experiment . There was also a need to standardize diagnostic practices within the US and with other countries after research showed that psychiatric diagnoses differed markedly between Europe and the US . The establishment of these criteria was an attempt to facilitate the pharmaceutical regulatory process . The criteria adopted for many of the mental disorders were taken from the Research Diagnostic Criteria ( RDC ) and Feighner Criteria , which had just been developed by a group of research - orientated psychiatrists based primarily at Washington University in St. Louis and the New York State Psychiatric Institute . Other criteria , and potential new categories of disorder , were established by consensus during meetings of the committee , as chaired by Spitzer . A key aim was to base categorization on colloquial English descriptive language ( which would be easier to use by federal administrative offices ) , rather than assumptions of cause , although its categorical approach assumed each particular pattern of symptoms in a category reflected a particular underlying pathology ( an approach described as `` neo-Kraepelinian '' ) . The psychodynamic or physiologic view was abandoned , in favor of a regulatory or legislative model . A new `` multiaxial '' system attempted to yield a picture more amenable to a statistical population census , rather than just a simple diagnosis . Spitzer argued that `` mental disorders are a subset of medical disorders '' but the task force decided on the DSM statement : `` Each of the mental disorders is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome . '' The personality disorders were placed on axis II along with mental retardation . The first draft of the DSM - III was prepared within a year . Many new categories of disorder were introduced , while some were deleted or changed . A number of the unpublished documents discussing and justifying the changes have recently come to light . Field trials sponsored by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH ) were conducted between 1977 and 1979 to test the reliability of the new diagnoses . A controversy emerged regarding deletion of the concept of neurosis , a mainstream of psychoanalytic theory and therapy but seen as vague and unscientific by the DSM task force . Faced with enormous political opposition , the DSM - III was in serious danger of not being approved by the APA Board of Trustees unless `` neurosis '' was included in some capacity ; a political compromise reinserted the term in parentheses after the word `` disorder '' in some cases . Additionally , the diagnosis of ego - dystonic homosexuality replaced the DSM - II category of `` sexual orientation disturbance '' . Finally published in 1980 , the DSM - III was 494 pages and listed 265 diagnostic categories . It rapidly came into widespread international use and has been termed a revolution or transformation in psychiatry . However , Robert Spitzer later criticized his own work on it in an interview with Adam Curtis , saying it led to the medicalization of 20 - 30 percent of the population who may not have had any serious mental problems . When DSM - III was published , the developers made extensive claims about the reliability of the radically new diagnostic system they had devised , which relied on data from special field trials . However , according to a 1994 article by Stuart A. Kirk : Twenty years after the reliability problem became the central focus of DSM - III , there is still not a single multi-site study showing that DSM ( any version ) is routinely used with high reliably by regular mental health clinicians . Nor is there any credible evidence that any version of the manual has greatly increased its reliability beyond the previous version . There are important methodological problems that limit the generalisability of most reliability studies . Each reliability study is constrained by the training and supervision of the interviewers , their motivation and commitment to diagnostic accuracy , their prior skill , the homogeneity of the clinical setting in regard to patient mix and base rates , and the methodological rigor achieved by the investigator ... DSM - III - R. ( 1987 ) ( edit ) In 1987 , the DSM - III - R was published as a revision of the DSM - III , under the direction of Spitzer . Categories were renamed and reorganized , and significant changes in criteria were made . Six categories were deleted while others were added . Controversial diagnoses , such as pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder and masochistic personality disorder , were considered and discarded . `` Ego - dystonic homosexuality '' was also removed and was largely subsumed under `` sexual disorder not otherwise specified '' , which can include `` persistent and marked distress about one 's sexual orientation . '' Altogether , the DSM - III - R contained 292 diagnoses and was 567 pages long . Further efforts were made for the diagnoses to be purely descriptive , although the introductory text stated that for at least some disorders , `` particularly the Personality Disorders , the criteria require much more inference on the part of the observer '' ( p. xxiii ) . DSM - IV ( 1994 ) ( edit ) In 1994 , DSM - IV was published , listing 410 disorders in 886 pages . The task force was chaired by Allen Frances . A steering committee of 27 people was introduced , including four psychologists . The steering committee created 13 work groups of five to 16 members . Each work group had about 20 advisers . The work groups conducted a three - step process : first , each group conducted an extensive literature review of their diagnoses ; then , they requested data from researchers , conducting analyses to determine which criteria required change , with instructions to be conservative ; finally , they conducted multicenter field trials relating diagnoses to clinical practice . A major change from previous versions was the inclusion of a clinical significance criterion to almost half of all the categories , which required that symptoms cause `` clinically significant distress or impairment in social , occupational , or other important areas of functioning '' . Some personality disorder diagnoses were deleted or moved to the appendix . DSM - IV - TR ( 2000 ) ( edit ) A `` text revision '' of the DSM - IV , known as the DSM - IV - TR , was published in 2000 . The diagnostic categories and the vast majority of the specific criteria for diagnosis were unchanged . The text sections giving extra information on each diagnosis were updated , as were some of the diagnostic codes to maintain consistency with the ICD . The DSM - IV - TR was organized into a five - part axial system . The first axis incorporated clinical disorders . The second axis covered personality disorders and intellectual disabilities . The remaining axes covered medical , psychosocial , environmental , and childhood factors functionally necessary to provide diagnostic criteria for health care assessments . The DSM - IV - TR characterizes a mental disorder as `` a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual ( which ) is associated with present distress ... or disability ... or with a significant increased risk of suffering . '' It also notes that `` no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of ' mental disorder ' ... different situations call for different definitions '' . It states that `` there is no assumption that each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries dividing it from other mental disorders or from no mental disorder '' ( APA , 1994 and 2000 ) . DSM - IV - TR categorization ( edit ) The DSM - IV is a categorical classification system . The categories are prototypes , and a patient with a close approximation to the prototype is said to have that disorder . DSM - IV states , `` there is no assumption each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries '' but isolated , low - grade and non-criterion ( unlisted for a given disorder ) symptoms are not given importance . Qualifiers are sometimes used , for example mild , moderate or severe forms of a disorder . For nearly half the disorders , symptoms must be sufficient to cause `` clinically significant distress or impairment in social , occupational , or other important areas of functioning '' , although DSM - IV - TR removed the distress criterion from tic disorders and several of the paraphilias due to their egosyntonic nature . Each category of disorder has a numeric code taken from the ICD coding system , used for health service ( including insurance ) administrative purposes . DSM - IV - TR multiaxial system ( edit ) With the advent of the DSM - 5 in 2013 , the APA eliminated the longstanding multiaxial system for mental disorders . Previously , the DSM - IV organized each psychiatric diagnosis into five dimensions ( axes ) relating to different aspects of disorder or disability : Axis I : All psychological diagnostic categories except mental retardation and personality disorder Axis II : Personality disorders and mental retardation Axis III : General medical condition ; acute medical conditions and physical disorders Axis IV : Psychosocial and environmental factors contributing to the disorder Axis V : Global Assessment of Functioning or Child Global Assessment of Functioning ( cGAF ) Mental / Psychiatric / Behavioral / Learning conditions include , but are not limited to : depression , anxiety disorders , bipolar disorder , ADHD , autism spectrum disorders , anorexia nervosa , bulimia nervosa , and schizophrenia . Personality Disorders include , but are not limited to : paranoid personality disorder , schizoid personality disorder , schizotypal personality disorder , borderline personality disorder , antisocial personality disorder , narcissistic personality disorder , histrionic personality disorder , avoidant personality disorder , dependent personality disorder , obsessive - compulsive personality disorder ; and organic intellectual disabilities . Common medical / physical conditions or diseases that may result in and / or exacerbate some of the aforementioned mental / psychiatric conditions OR that may be aggravated by the aforementioned mental / psychiatric conditions include , but are not limited to : brain injuries , terminal diseases , pregnancy , cancer , epilepsy , idiopathic physiological conditions and virtually any other conditions , ailments and / or injuries which may affect the patient 's mental health ... Many Biopsychosocial Assessments incorporate multiple factors that adversely affect the patient 's , client 's and / or subject 's overall well - being and homeostasis . Typical psychosocial influences that are usually listed as having negative impact on life , mentality and health include , but are not limited to : Environmental factors of dysfunction such as those experienced within home , school and work ; Social factors such as issues with drug use ( not diagnosed ) , enabling friends and conflicts with coworkers ; Family complications such as divorce , social service involvement and court ordered placements ; Various stressors such as recent accident , natural disaster and other traumatic occurrences ( i.e. assault , death , abuse ) ; Financial problems such as bankruptcy , job loss and debts ; and service needs such as lack of medical insurance , inability to find adequate treatment and inaccessibility to necessary state and federal programs . Sourcebooks ( edit ) The DSM - IV does not specifically cite its sources , but there are four volumes of `` sourcebooks '' intended to be APA 's documentation of the guideline development process and supporting evidence , including literature reviews , data analyses and field trials . The Sourcebooks have been said to provide important insights into the character and quality of the decisions that led to the production of DSM - IV , and hence the scientific credibility of contemporary psychiatric classification . DSM - 5 ( 2013 ) ( edit ) Main article : DSM - 5 The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM ) , the DSM - 5 , was approved by the Board of Trustees of the APA on December 1 , 2012 . Published on May 18 , 2013 , the DSM - 5 contains extensively revised diagnoses and , in some cases , broadens diagnostic definitions while narrowing definitions in other cases . The DSM - 5 is the first major edition of the manual in twenty years . A significant change in the fifth edition is the deletion of the subtypes of schizophrenia ( paranoid , disorganized , catatonic , undifferentiated and residual ) . The deletion of the subsets of autistic spectrum disorder ( namely , Asperger 's syndrome , classic autism , Rett syndrome , childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified ) was also implemented , with specifiers with regard to intensity ( mild , moderate and severe ) . Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted , repetitive patterns of behaviour , with three levels : 1 ( requiring support ) , 2 ( requiring substantial support ) and 3 ( requiring very substantial support ) . During the revision process , the APA website periodically listed several sections of the DSM - 5 for review and discussion . Future revisions and updates ( 2013 and beyond ) ( edit ) Beginning with the fifth edition , it is intended that diagnostic guidelines revisions will be added more frequently to keep up with research in the field . It is notable that the DSM - 5 is identified with Arabic rather than Roman numerals . Beginning with DSM - 5 , the American Psychiatric Association will use decimals to identify incremental updates ( e.g. , DSM - 5.1 , DSM - 5.2 ) and whole numbers for new editions ( e.g. , DSM - 5 , DSM - 6 ) , similar to the scheme used for software versioning . Criticism ( edit ) Reliability and validity concerns ( edit ) The revisions of the DSM from the 3rd Edition forward have been mainly concerned with diagnostic reliability -- the degree to which different diagnosticians agree on a diagnosis . It was argued ( Henrik Walter ) that a science of psychiatry can only advance if diagnosis is reliable . If clinicians and researchers frequently disagree about the diagnosis of a patient , then research into the causes and effective treatments of those disorders can not advance . Hence , diagnostic reliability was a major concern of DSM - III . When the diagnostic reliability problem was thought to be solved , subsequent editions of the DSM were concerned mainly with `` tweaking '' the diagnostic criteria . Unfortunately , neither the issue of reliability or validity was settled . However , most psychiatric education post DSM - III focused on issues of treatment -- especially drug treatment -- and less on diagnostic concerns . In fact , Thomas R. Insel , M.D. , Director of the NIMH , stated in 2013 that the agency would no longer fund research projects that rely exclusively on DSM criteria due to its lack of validity . Field trials of DSM - 5 brought the debate of reliability back into the limelight as some disorders showed poor reliability . For example , major depressive disorder , a common mental illness , had a poor reliability kappa statistic of 0.28 , indicating that clinicians frequently disagreed on this diagnosis in the same patients . The most reliable diagnosis was major neurocognitive disorder with a kappa of 0.78 . Superficial symptoms ( edit ) By design , the DSM is primarily concerned with the signs and symptoms of mental disorders , rather than the underlying causes . It claims to collect them together based on statistical or clinical patterns . As such , it has been compared to a naturalist 's field guide to birds , with similar advantages and disadvantages . The lack of a causative or explanatory basis , however , is not specific to the DSM , but rather reflects a general lack of pathophysiological understanding of psychiatric disorders . As DSM - III chief architect Robert Spitzer and DSM - IV editor Michael First outlined in 2005 , `` little progress has been made toward understanding the pathophysiological processes and cause of mental disorders . If anything , the research has shown the situation is even more complex than initially imagined , and we believe not enough is known to structure the classification of psychiatric disorders according to etiology . '' The DSM 's focus on superficial symptoms is claimed to be largely a result of necessity ( assuming such a manual is nevertheless produced ) , since there is no agreement on a more explanatory classification system . Reviewers note , however , that this approach is undermining research , including in genetics , because it results in the grouping of individuals who have very little in common except superficial criteria as per DSM or ICD diagnosis . Despite the lack of consensus on underlying causation , advocates for specific psychopathological paradigms have nonetheless faulted the current diagnostic scheme for not incorporating evidence - based models or findings from other areas of science . A recent example is evolutionary psychologists ' criticism that the DSM does not differentiate between genuine cognitive malfunctions and those induced by psychological adaptations , a key distinction within evolutionary psychology but one that is widely challenged within general psychology . Another example is the strong operationalist viewpoint , which contends that reliance on operational definitions , as purported by the DSM , necessitates that intuitive concepts like depression be replaced by specific measurable concepts before they are scientifically meaningful . One critic states of psychologists that `` Instead of replacing ' metaphysical ' terms such as ' desire ' and ' purpose ' , they used it to legitimize them by giving them operational definitions ... the initial , quite radical operationalist ideas eventually came to serve as little more than a ' reassurance fetish ' ( Koch 1992 ) for mainstream methodological practice . '' A 2013 review published in the European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience states `` that psychiatry targets the phenomena of consciousness , which , unlike somatic symptoms and signs , can not be grasped on the analogy with material thing - like objects . '' As an example of the problem of the superficial characterization of psychiatric signs and symptoms , the authors gave the example of a patient saying they `` feel depressed , sad , or down '' , showing that such a statement could indicate various underlying experiences : `` not only depressed mood but also , for instance , irritation , anger , loss of meaning , varieties of fatigue , ambivalence , ruminations of different kinds , hyper - reflectivity , thought pressure , psychological anxiety , varieties of depersonalization , and even voices with negative content , and so forth . '' The structured interview comes with `` danger of over confidence in the face value of the answers , as if a simple ' yes ' or ' no ' truly confirmed or denied the diagnostic criterion at issue . '' The authors gave an example : A patient who was being administered the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM - IV Axis I Disorders denied thought insertion , but during a `` conversational , phenomenological interview '' , a semi-structured interview tailored to the patient , the same patient admitted to experiencing thought insertion , along with a delusional elaboration . The authors suggested 2 reasons for this discrepancy : either the patient did not `` recognize his own experience in the rather blunt , implicitly either / or formulation of the structured - interview question '' , or the experience did not `` fully articulate itself '' until the patient started talking about his experiences . Dividing lines ( edit ) Despite caveats in the introduction to the DSM , it has long been argued that its system of classification makes unjustified categorical distinctions between disorders and uses arbitrary cut - offs between normal and abnormal . A 2009 psychiatric review noted that attempts to demonstrate natural boundaries between related DSM syndromes , or between a common DSM syndrome and normality , have failed . Some argue that rather than a categorical approach , a fully dimensional , spectrum or complaint - oriented approach would better reflect the evidence . In addition , it is argued that the current approach based on exceeding a threshold of symptoms does not adequately take into account the context in which a person is living , and to what extent there is internal disorder of an individual versus a psychological response to adverse situations . The DSM does include a step ( `` Axis IV '' ) for outlining `` Psychosocial and environmental factors contributing to the disorder '' once someone is diagnosed with that particular disorder . Because an individual 's degree of impairment is often not correlated with symptom counts and can stem from various individual and social factors , the DSM 's standard of distress or disability can often produce false positives . On the other hand , individuals who do not meet symptom counts may nevertheless experience comparable distress or disability in their life . Cultural bias ( edit ) Some psychiatrists argue that current diagnostic standards rely on an exaggerated interpretation of neurophysiological findings and so understate the scientific importance of social - psychological variables . Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach to psychology , critics such as Carl Bell and Marcello Maviglia contend that the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals is often discounted by researchers and service providers . In addition , current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro - American outlook . Although these guidelines have been widely implemented , opponents argue that even when a diagnostic criterion set is accepted across different cultures , it does not necessarily indicate that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures ; even reliable application can only demonstrate consistency , not legitimacy . Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that the Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM - IV : the fact that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as `` culture - bound '' , whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever , is to Kleinman revelatory of an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal . Kleinman 's negative view toward the culture - bound syndrome is largely shared by other cross-cultural critics , common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out , and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented . Many mainstream psychiatrists have also been dissatisfied with these new culture - bound diagnoses , although not for the same reasons . Robert Spitzer , a lead architect of the DSM - III , has held the opinion that the addition of cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics , and that they lack any scientific motivation or support . Spitzer also posits that the new culture - bound diagnoses are rarely used in practice , maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved . In general , the mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid , cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are only significant to specific symptom presentations . One of the results was the development of the Azibo Nosology by Daudi Ajani Ya Azibo as an alternative to the DSM to treat African and African American patients . Medicalization and financial conflicts of interest ( edit ) It has also been alleged that the way the categories of the DSM are structured , as well as the substantial expansion of the number of categories , are representative of an increasing medicalization of human nature , which may be attributed to disease mongering by psychiatrists and pharmaceutical companies , the power and influence of the latter having grown dramatically in recent decades . Of the authors who selected and defined the DSM - IV psychiatric disorders , roughly half have had financial relationships with the pharmaceutical industry at one time , raising the prospect of a direct conflict of interest . The same article concludes that the connections between panel members and the drug companies were particularly strong in those diagnoses where drugs are the first line of treatment , such as schizophrenia and mood disorders , where 100 % of the panel members had financial ties with the pharmaceutical industry . In 2005 , then APA President Steven Sharfstein released a statement in which he conceded that psychiatrists had `` allowed the biopsychosocial model to become the bio-bio - bio model '' . However , although the number of identified diagnoses has increased by more than 300 % ( from 106 in DSM - I to 365 in DSM - IV - TR ) , psychiatrists such as Zimmerman and Spitzer argue it almost entirely represents greater specification of the forms of pathology , thereby allowing better grouping of more similar patients . However , William Glasser refers to the DSM as `` phony diagnostic categories '' , arguing that `` it was developed to help psychiatrists -- to help them make money '' . In addition , the publishing of the DSM , with tightly guarded copyrights , has in itself earned over $100 million for the APA . Clients , survivors , and consumer ( edit ) A client is a person who accesses psychiatric services and may have been given a diagnosis from the DSM , while a survivor self - identifies as a person who has endured a psychiatric intervention and the mental health system ( which may have involved involuntary commitment and involuntary treatment ) . A term adopted by many users of psychiatric services is `` consumer . '' This term was chosen to eliminate the `` patient '' label and restore the person to an active role as a user or consumer of services . Some individuals are relieved to find that they have a recognized condition that they can apply a name to and this has led to many people self - diagnosing . Others , however , question the accuracy of the diagnosis , or feel they have been given a `` label '' that invites social stigma and discrimination ( the terms `` mentalism '' and `` sanism '' have been used to describe such discriminatory treatment ) . Diagnoses can become internalized and affect an individual 's self - identity , and some psychotherapists have found that the healing process can be inhibited and symptoms can worsen as a result . Some members of the psychiatric survivors movement ( more broadly the consumer / survivor / ex-patient movement ) actively campaign against their diagnoses , or the assumed implications , and / or against the DSM system in general . Additionally , it has been noted that the DSM often uses definitions and terminology that are inconsistent with a recovery model , and such content can erroneously imply excess psychopathology ( e.g. multiple `` comorbid '' diagnoses ) or chronicity . DSM - 5 critiques ( edit ) This section may lend undue weight to certain ideas , incidents , or controversies . Please help to create a more balanced presentation . Discuss and resolve this issue before removing this message . ( March 2017 ) Psychiatrist Allen Frances has been critical of proposed revisions to the DSM - 5 . In a 2012 New York Times editorial , Frances warned that if this DSM version is issued unamended by the APA , `` it will medicalize normality and result in a glut of unnecessary and harmful drug prescription . '' In a December 2 , 2012 blog post in Psychology Today , Frances provides his `` ... list of DSM 5 's ten most potentially harmful changes '' : Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder , for temper tantrums Major Depressive Disorder , includes normal grief Minor Neurocognitive Disorder , for normal forgetting in old age Adult Attention Deficit Disorder , encouraging psychiatric prescriptions of stimulants Binge Eating Disorder , for excessive eating Autism , defining the disorder more specifically , possibly leading to decreased rates of diagnosis and the disruption of school services First time drug users will be lumped in with addicts Behavioral Addictions , making a `` ... mental disorder of everything we like to do a lot . '' Generalized Anxiety Disorder , includes everyday worries Post-traumatic stress disorder , changes `` ... opened the gate even further to the already existing problem of misdiagnosis of PTSD in forensic settings . '' Frances and others have published debates on what they see as the six most essential questions in psychiatric diagnosis : are they more like theoretical constructs or more like diseases how to reach an agreed definition whether the DSM - 5 should take a cautious or conservative approach the role of practical rather than scientific considerations the issue of use by clinicians or researchers whether an entirely different diagnostic system is required . In 2011 , psychologist Brent Robbins co-authored a national letter for the Society for Humanistic Psychology that has brought thousands into the public debate about the DSM . Over 15,000 individuals and mental health professionals have signed a petition in support of the letter . Thirteen other American Psychological Association divisions have endorsed the petition . Robbins has noted that under the new guidelines , certain responses to grief could be labeled as pathological disorders , instead of being recognized as being normal human experiences . See also ( edit ) Chinese Classification and Diagnostic Criteria of Mental Disorders Classification of mental disorders Diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry DSM - IV Codes Global Assessment of Functioning ( GAF ) Scale International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ( ICD ) Kraepelinian dichotomy Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual Relational disorder ( proposed DSM - 5 new diagnosis ) Research Domain Criteria ( RDoC ) , a framework being developed by the National Institute of Mental Health Rosenhan experiment Structured Clinical Interview for DSM - IV ( SCID ) Homosexuality in DSM References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The ICD - 10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders : `` Blue Book `` ( Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines ) und `` Green Book `` ( Diagnostic criteria for research ) Jump up ^ In Appendix G : `` ICD - 9 - CM Codes for Selected General Medical Conditions and Medication - Induced Disorders '' Jump up ^ American Psychological Association ( 2009 ) . `` ICD VS . 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Simon Fraser University , Canada Jump up ^ `` How Using the Dsm Causes Damage : A Client 's Report '' Journal of Humanistic Psychology , Vol. 41 , No. 4 , 36 - 56 ( 2001 ) Jump up ^ Michael T. Compton ( 2007 ) Recovery : Patients , Families , Communities Conference Report , Medscape Psychiatry & Mental Health , October 11 -- 14 , 2007 Jump up ^ Frances , Allen ( 11 May 2012 ) . `` Diagnosing the D.S.M. '' New York Times ( New York ed . ) . p . A19 . ^ Jump up to : Frances , Allen J. ( December 2 , 2012 ) . `` DSM 5 Is Guide Not Bible -- Ignore Its Ten Worst Changes : APA approval of DSM - 5 is a sad day for psychiatry '' . Psychology Today . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 09 . Jump up ^ Phillips , James ; Frances , Allen ; Cerullo , Michael A ; Chardavoyne , John ; Decker , Hannah S ; First , Michael B ; Ghaemi , Nassir ; Greenberg , Gary ; et al. ( January 13 , 2012 ) . `` The Six Most Essential Questions in Psychiatric Diagnosis : A Pluralogue . Part 1 : Conceptual and Definitional Issues in Psychiatric Diagnosis '' ( PDF ) . Philosophy , Ethics , and Humanities in Medicine . BioMed Central . 7 ( 3 ) : 1 -- 51 . doi : 10.1186 / 1747 - 5341 - 7 - 3 . ISSN 1747 - 5341 . PMC 3305603 . PMID 22243994 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Professor co-authors letter about America 's mental health manual '' . Point Park University . Retrieved 6 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Professor co-authors letter about America 's mental health manual '' . Point Park University . December 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Allday , Erin ( November 26 , 2011 ) . `` Revision of psychiatric manual under fire '' . San Francisco Chronicle . Further reading ( edit ) American Psychiatric Association ( 2000 ) . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fourth Edition : DSM - IV - TR ® . American Psychiatric Pub . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89042 - 025 - 6 . Robert L. Spitzer ( 2002 ) . Dsm - Iv - Tr Casebook : A Learning Companion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . American Psychiatric Pub . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58562 - 059 - 3 . External links ( edit ) Official DSM - 5 development website Diagnostic Criteria from DSM - IV - TR Cooper , Rachel ( 2017 ) : Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM ) . ISKO Encyclopedia of Knowledge Organization The Multiaxial System of Diagnosis in DSM - IV Criteria DSM personality disorders DSM - III - R only Sadistic Self - defeating ( masochistic ) DSM - IV only Personality disorder not otherwise specified Appendix B ( proposed ) Depressive Negativistic ( passive -- aggressive ) DSM - 5 ( Categorical model ) Cluster A ( odd ) Paranoid Schizoid Schizotypal Cluster B ( dramatic ) Antisocial Borderline Histrionic Narcissistic Cluster C ( anxious ) Avoidant Dependent Obsessive - compulsive DSM - 5 Alternative hybrid categorical and dimensional model in Section III included to stimulate further research Medical classification Topographical codes Terminologia TA TH TE SNOMED T axis MeSH A axis Diagnostic codes general : ICD 11 ( not yet released ; in development ) 10 9 ICPC - 2 DRC NANDA Read codes SNOMED D axis specialized : ICD - O ICSD ICHD ILDS DSM IV 5 BPA CCMD - 3 Procedural codes HCPCS ( CPT , Level 2 ) ICD 10 PCS 9 - CM Volume 3 ICHI NIC SNOMED P axis OPS - 301 Read codes / OPCS - 4 CCAM LOINC Pharmaceutical codes ATC NDC SNOMED C axis DIN Outcomes codes NOC Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders&oldid=835311484 '' Categories : Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders American Psychiatric Association Medical manuals Medical statistics Psychiatric assessment Psychiatric classification systems Psychiatric diagnosis Psychopathology Publications established in 1952 Statistical data coding Data coding framework Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Pages with missing ISBNs Articles needing additional references from December 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013 Articles needing more detailed references Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from August 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from November 2014 Articles needing POV - check from March 2017 Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar مازِرونی Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 33 more Edit links This page was last edited on 7 April 2018 , at 22 : 23 . 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77 | document: School bus traffic stop laws - wikipedia School bus traffic stop laws Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Some jurisdictions , mostly all in North America , require all surrounding vehicles to stop when a school bus is stopped with its red lights flashing . School bus stop laws are laws dictating what a motorist must do in the vicinity of a bus stop being used by a school bus or other bus , coach or minibus providing school transport . Contents ( hide ) 1 School bus stop laws in the United States and Canada 1.1 Exceptions 2 Controversy 3 Effects of laws 4 References 5 External links School bus stop laws in the United States and Canada ( edit ) Jurisdictions in the United States ( including overseas territories ) and Canada have adopted various school bus stop laws that require drivers to stop and wait for a stopped school bus loading or unloading , so as to protect school children boarding or alighting . Generally , if a stopped school bus is displaying a flashing , alternating red lamp , a driver of a vehicle meeting or overtaking the stopped bus from either direction ( front or back ) must stop and wait until the bus moves again or the red light is off . Police officers , school crossing guards , and even school bus drivers themselves may have the power to wave traffic on , even when a red light is flashing . On divided highways , most American and Canadian jurisdictions do not require vehicular drivers to stop when on the opposite side of the road from a stopped school bus . Those that do require vehicles to stop are : West Virginia upon a non-controlled - access highway ( § 17C - 12 - 7 ) Arkansas in case a divider has less than 20 feet ( 6 m ) in width ( narrow divider ) . New York State American Samoa Guam British Columbia Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Northwest Territories Nunavut American and Canadian jurisdictions have sought to deter illegal passing stopped school buses by increased enforcement and heavy penalties , including fines , application of demerit points against a driver 's license or even license suspension . Nevertheless , violations are common . An officer must witness the violation , and even when citations issued , getting convictions is often difficult ; sometimes traffic courts consider the evidence insufficient , or reduce the charge because the penalty for a first offense seems excessive . There are , however , exceptions . Missouri has Jessica 's Law , which grants the right of a school bus driver to report the offense , in which case the driver is automatically cited . Cobb County , an urban county in Metro Atlanta , has added bus cameras , as a deterrent , which can detect and automatically report vehicles passing a bus . Exceptions ( edit ) Drivers in Washington state are not required to stop for a school bus on any highway ( Under Washington law , any public road is defined as a highway ) with three or more lanes when traveling in the opposite direction . This has been interpreted to mean that when approaching a bus from the opposite direction on a normal road with a turn lane , or a road with two lanes in each direction , etc. , a driver is not required to stop their vehicle . This is an unusual law , but arguably leads to a higher safety level for children , as they are then required to be dropped on the same side of the road as the bus exit on anything greater than a two - lane road as provided by RCW 46.61. 370 . Ohio has a similar exception for roads with four or more lanes . Drivers in Idaho state are not required to stop for a school bus on any highway with four or more lanes when traveling in the opposite direction . Drivers in California do not have to stop on any highway that is divided or is multi-lane ( 2 or more lanes of travel in each direction ) when traveling in the opposite direction . In Pennsylvania , the only vehicle that may pass a stopped school bus with the red lights flashing is an emergency vehicle with its flashing lights and siren activated , but only after the emergency vehicle has come to a complete stop and proceeds with due caution for any students embarking or disembarking . Controversy ( edit ) The effectiveness of current school bus stop laws has been questioned . School bus stop laws in some other countries allow a driver to pass a stopped school bus at low speed . In New York State , an official estimate is that 50,000 vehicles pass stopped school buses illegally every day . However , as New York State requires traffic to stop for a school bus stopped on the opposing roadway of a divided highway , the estimate may include `` New York violations '' that would be legal in other states . The New York State Department of Transportation once recommended that the State Legislature exempt traffic from stopping for a school bus stopped on the opposing roadway of a divided highway , but this has not been done . In California , a vehicle driver approaching an intersection at which a school bus is stopped shall stop his / her vehicle at that intersection until the flashing red signal lights are no longer actuated . Supporters of this law may argue that children may dart out into an intersection , so traffic from the left and right must stop . Opponents may blame this law for being too vague ( with regard to what exactly at an intersection means ) , non-standard and visitor - unfriendly ( as compared with laws in most other places ) and question how vehicular drivers can know and see if a school bus on a side road is loading or unloading , especially if buildings obstruct their vision . Effects of laws ( edit ) On a national basis , school bus drivers in the United States have reported a decrease in passing violators in recent years with improved warning devices . Despite an increase in traffic and school bus ridership , annual fatalities and injuries to children struck by other vehicles has decreased as well . However , it is unclear whether having reported a decrease in passing violators is due to difficulty to report or better compliance by motorists . When and where enforcement against violators becomes too hard , some residential streets may prohibit entry of vehicles other than school buses at certain times to effectively eliminate passing stopped school buses illegally . Bus drivers are prohibited to turn around at intersections with students on the bus . If laws are broken , the bus driver may be charged with including but not limited to : child endangerment and disobeying laws . This section may not include all laws or bylaws . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ TIP # 10 : SCHOOL BUS STOPS Archived May 28 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Arkansas Driver License Test Study Guide - Volume 1 '' ( pdf ) ( 4 ed . ) . Arkansas State Police . August 2007 . p. 22 . Retrieved 2 February 2012 . Drivers are not required to stop if the school bus is approaching along an opposite lane of travel separated by a median twenty feet or more in width Jump up ^ http://www.dmv.ny.gov/dmanual/chapter06-manual.htm , NYS Driver 's Manual Chapter 6 - School Buses Jump up ^ `` Learn to Drive Smart - your guide to driving safely '' ( pdf ) . Insurance Corporation of British Columbia . 2012 . p. 92 . Retrieved 30 May 2013 . when you see a school bus with alternating flashing red lights at the top , you must stop whether you are approaching it from the front or the rear . Vehicles in all lanes must stop . Jump up ^ `` Best Practices Guide : Reducing the Illegal Passing of School Buses '' . Nhtsa.dot.gov . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` Missouri Revised Statues , Section 304 - 050 '' . Retrieved 13 October 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Video : Watch Out for School Bus Cameras '' . Jump up ^ `` RCW 46.61. 370 : Overtaking or meeting school bus -- Duties of bus driver '' . Apps.leg.wa.gov . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` Overtaking or meeting school bus -- Duties of bus driver '' . Apps.leg.wa.gov . RCW 46.61. 370 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` ORC 4511.75 ( C ) '' . Jump up ^ http://www.legislature.idaho.gov/idstat/Title49/T49CH14SECT49-1422.htm Jump up ^ https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/dmv/?1dmy&urile=wcm:path:/dmv_content_en/dmv/pubs/vctop/vc/d11/c8/22454 Jump up ^ http://www.justdrivepa.org/Traffic-Safety-Information-Center/School-Bus-Safety/ Jump up ^ `` Operation Safe Stop '' . Nysgtsc.state.ny.us. 2009 - 04 - 23 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 15 . Jump up ^ Schoolbus Signal and Schoolbus Stops Vehicle Code , Division 11 , Chapter 6 , Section 22112 . California Department of Motor Vehicles . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 20 Jump up ^ `` English Teacher Needed '' . External links ( edit ) U.S , Bureau of Transportation Statistics STN 100 Years of the School Bus National Association of State Directors of Pupil Transportation Services National Committee on Uniform Traffic Laws and Ordinances School Bus Stop Laws in the United States , Canada and Other Countries ( hide ) Traffic law and safety Rules of the road All - way stop Assured clear distance ahead Australian Road Rules Boulevard rule Green Cross Code Move over law New Zealand Road Code Overtaking Left - and right - hand traffic Right - of - way School bus traffic stop laws Traffic code Turn on red Vienna Convention on Road Traffic Road user guides Driver 's manual The Highway Code The Highway Code ( Malta ) Road Users ' Code Rules of the Road ( Ireland ) Enforcement Breathalyzer Camera Enforcement Red light Highway patrol / State police Parking enforcement Road traffic control Textalyzer Traffic court Traffic guard Traffic stop Traffic ticket Warning Speed limit Advisory speed limit Assured clear distance ahead National Maximum Speed Law School zone Speed limit enforcement Speed limits by country Category : Speed limits by country Moving violations Driving under the influence Canada United States Distracted driving Mobile phones and driving Texting while driving Reckless driving Street racing Tailgating Vehicular homicide Wrong - way driving Driver licensing Commercial driver 's license European driving licence Graduated driver licensing Inter-American Driving Permit International Driving Permit Learner 's permit Point system Driving licences by country List of countries by minimum driving age Traffic violations reciprocity Commercial Driver 's License Information System Driver License Agreement Driver License Compact Non-Resident Violator Compact Parking Alternate - side parking Decriminalised parking enforcement Disabled parking permit Double parking Parking chair Parking violation Wheel clamp Car safety Seat belt laws Click It or Ticket Clunk Click Every Trip Road safety Tachograph Digital tachograph Drivers ' working hours ( Europe ) Epilepsy and driving Hours of service ( US ) `` How 's my driving ? '' sign Old age and driving Sleep deprived driving Slow moving vehicle Vision Zero Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=School_bus_traffic_stop_laws&oldid=824069003 '' Categories : School buses Traffic law Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles needing additional references from July 2007 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2011 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 5 February 2018 , at 03 : 49 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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78 | document: List of Maya sites - wikipedia List of Maya sites Jump to : navigation , search This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness . You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries . This list of Maya sites is an alphabetical listing of a number of significant archaeological sites associated with the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica . The peoples and cultures which comprised the Maya civilization spanned more than 2,500 years of Mesoamerican history , in the region of southern Mesoamerica which incorporates the present - day nations of Guatemala and Belize , much of Honduras and El Salvador , and the southeastern states of Mexico from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec eastwards , including the entire Yucatán Peninsula . Throughout this region , many hundreds of Maya sites have been documented in at least some form by archaeological surveys and investigations , while the numbers of smaller / uninvestigated ( or unknown ) sites are so numerous ( one study has documented over 4,400 Maya sites ) that no complete archaeological list has yet been made . The listing which appears here is necessarily incomplete , however it contains notable sites drawn from several large and ongoing surveys , such as the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions ( CMHI ) and other sources ( see References ) . Note : Ignore the Spanish definite article `` El '' or `` La '' ( and their plurals `` Los '' and `` Las '' ) when looking for a site in the alphabetical listing e.g. for El Mirador , look under M rather than E . Map depicting the Maya area within the larger Mesoamerican region . View full size for details . Maya civilization People Society Languages Writing Religion Mythology Sacrifice Cities Architecture Astronomy Calendar Stelae Art Textiles Trade Music Dance Medicine Cuisine Warfare History Preclassic Maya Classic Maya collapse Spanish conquest of the Maya Yucatán Chiapas Guatemala Petén Contents ( hide ) 1 Most important sites 2 Alphabetical listing 2.3 C 2.4 D 2.5 E 2.6 F 2.7 G 2.8 H 2.9 I 2.10 J 2.11 K 2.12 L 2.13 M 2.14 N 2.15 O 2.16 P 2.17 Q 2.18 R 2.19 S 2.20 T 2.21 U 2.22 W 2.23 X 2.24 Y 2.25 Z 3 See also 4 Notes 5 External links 6 References Most important sites ( edit ) Maya sites which are known to have been among the largest and most influential polities through the various eras of Maya history -- Formative ( or Preclassic ) , Classic and Postclassic -- and / or which have left the most impressive archaeological remains include : Site Location Description Photo El Baúl Escuintla Department , Guatemala El Baúl , along with the sites of Bilbao and El Castillo , forms the Cotzumalhuapa Nuclear Zone , a large urban area dating to the Late Classic period . Becan Campeche , Mexico Becan was a major city in the Yucatán Peninsula . It was occupied from about 550 BC , in the Middle Preclassic period and was inhabited through the entire Classic Period , finally being abandoned around the 9th century AD . The site had contact with Teotihuacan in the Early Classic and was fortified with a moat and ramparts . Calakmul Campeche , Mexico Calakmul was one of the two most important Maya cities in the Classic Period , when its rivalry with Tikal dominated the Maya political landscape . The city was already an important city in the Late Preclassic , with dated monuments being erected up to the beginning of the 10th century AD . Caracol Cayo District , Belize Caracol was an important lowland Maya city , it was already settled in the Late Preclassic but reached its maximum power in the Classic Period when it was first allied with Tikal and later with Calakmul . It played an important role in the downfall of Tikal in the Early Classic and underwent a dramatic expansion in the Late Classic . El Ceibal ( also known as Seibal ) Petén Department , Guatemala Seibal was the largest Classic Period city in the Pasión River region , situated on buffs overlooking the river . The city experienced a Late Preclassic apogee before declining in the Early Classic and falling under the domination of Dos Pilas in the Late Classic . It survived the collapse of that kingdom to become one of the last cities to survive in the area and was abandoned at the end of the Classic Period . Chichen Itza Yucatán , Mexico Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and was a major focal point in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic through to the Early Postclassic period and that demonstrated a variety of Maya and non-Maya architectural styles . Chunchucmil Yucatán , Mexico Chunchucmil was a large site that reached its apogee during the Late to Terminal Classic . The organisation of the city appears to have differed from that of other Maya sites and appears to have been geared towards a specialised coastal trade in salt . Coba Quintana Roo , Mexico Coba is large site situated among five small lakes on a dry plain . The site is known for a network of 16 causeways linking it to neighbouring sites , the longest of which runs over 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) west to Yaxuna . The main phase of occupation of the city dates to the Late Classic through to the Early Postclassic , from about AD 700 to 1100 . Copán Copán Department , Honduras Copán was the capital city of a major Classic period kingdom from the 5th to 9th centuries AD , when it was closely allied with Tikal . The city was located in the extreme southeast of the Mesoamerican cultural region , on the frontier with the Isthmo - Colombian cultural region , and was almost surrounded by non-Maya peoples . The city is best known for its elaborate sculptural style . Dos Pilas Petén Department , Guatemala Dos Pilas dates to the Late Classic Period , being founded by an offshoot of the Tikal dynasty in order to control trade routes in the Petexbatún region . It broke away from Tikal and became a vassal of Calakmul . It was a predator state from the beginning and the city gives an important glimpse into the great rivalries and political strife that characterised the Late Classic . Much of the history of Dos Pilas can now be reconstructed , with a level of detail that is almost unparalleled in the Maya area . Dzibilchaltun Yucatán , Mexico Dzibilchaltun was a large and important city in the far north of the Yucatán Peninsula , with its principal architecture dating to the Classic Period , although activity at the site continued into the Late Postclassic when the city 's main temple was already in ruins . Iximche Chimaltenango Department , Guatemala Although short - lived , Iximche was the capital of the Kaqchikel highland kingdom at the time of the Spanish conquest of Guatemala and became the base of operations for the conquest of the highlands and Pacific coast until Spanish demands for tribute caused the Kaqchikels to break off their alliance and rebel . The Spanish then burned Iximche and moved their capital to nearby Tecpán Guatemala until frequent Kaqchikel raids forced them to move their colonial capital to what is now Ciudad Vieja near Antigua Guatemala . Ixkun Petén Department , Guatemala Ixkun is a large site containing many unrestored mounds and ruins and is the best known archaeological site within the municipality of Dolores . It was the capital of one of the four largest kingdoms in the upper Mopan Valley . Stela 1 at Ixkun is one of the tallest stone monuments in the entire Petén Basin . Although the main period of activity was during the Late Classic Period , the site was occupied from the Late Preclassic right through to the Postclassic Period . Kaminaljuyu Guatemala Department , Guatemala Kaminaljuyu was founded in the Middle Preclassic and emerged as an important city in the Late Preclassic and dominated the entire Maya Highlands . It declined at the end of the Preclassic and was taken over by a new Maya group in the Early Classic with strong contacts with central Mexico . Occupation at Kaminaljuyu extended into the Late Classic . Mayapan Yucatán , Mexico Mayapan was an important fortified city with a densely occupied area within the city walls . The principal pyramid at Mayapan was modelled after the main pyramid at Chichen Itza . The city was the most important site in Yucatán for a period of about 250 years during the Postclassic Period , with the earliest structures dating to the 12th century AD . El Mirador Petén Department , Guatemala El Mirador was an enormous Late Preclassic city although construction apparently began in the Middle Preclassic and some level of occupation continued into the Classic Period . The city included some very large triadic pyramids and covered an area similar to that of Classic Period Tikal . Naachtun Petén Department , Guatemala Naachtun is situated in the extreme north of Petén , in a central location between Tikal and Calakmul , the two great Classic Period Maya powers , both of which constantly influenced its politics . The hieroglyphic texts from the site cover almost the whole Classic Period from 504 to 761 AD , although the site was inhabited since the Preclassic . Nakbe Petén Department , Guatemala Nakbe was an important city in the Middle Preclassic , with its principal phase of occupation lasting from about 1000 BC to 400 BC . The city is linked to neighbouring El Mirador by a Late Preclassic causeway . Nakbe appears to possess the earliest examples of Maya masonry architecture and of sacbe causeways . Naranjo Petén Department , Guatemala Naranjo was the capital of a kingdom from the Early Classic through to the Late Classic and formed an important link in the trade routes running from the great city of Tikal to the Caribbean Sea . The earliest dated monuments at the site date to the late 5th century AD . The city became a vassal of Tikal 's great rival Calakmul and was involved in a series of devastating wars . Oxkintok Yucatán , Mexico Oxkintok was one of the first Maya states to develop in the northern lowlands , undergoing a process of rapid development in the Early Classic Period that gave rise to an important capital with inscribed stone monuments . The earliest dated monument dates to the late 5th century AD . Palenque Chiapas , Mexico Palenque is located in the foothills of the Chiapas highlands . The city became dominant over the western Maya lowlands during the Late Classic , and engaged in hostilities with its neighbour Toniná that eventually eclipsed it . Hieroglyphic inscriptions at Palenque document a dynastic sequence stretching from the 5th century AD through to the end of the 8th century . The site is best known for the Temple of the Inscriptions , the mortuary shrine containing the tomb of king K'inich Janaab ' Pakal . El Peru ( also known as Waka ' ) Petén Department , Guatemala El Perú was a major Classic Period ally of Calakmul in its wars against Tikal . Piedras Negras Petén Department , Guatemala Piedras Negras was the largest city in the region of the Usumacinta River and is known for its excellent quality Late Classic sculpted monuments . These well preserved inscriptions provided the first evidence that Maya texts described historical events . The site has a continuous series of texts running from the 7th century AD through to the 9th century . Quiriguá Izabal Department , Guatemala Quiriguá is a relatively small site that was founded by Tikal in the Early Classic in order to control the Motagua River trade route , important for the transport of jade and obsidian . Originally a vassal of Copán , the city rebelled and allied itself with Calakmul , after which it erected elaborate monuments in a style similar to that of its former overlord . Q'umarkaj Quiché Department , Guatemala Q'umarkaj ( also known as Utatlán ) was the Postclassic capital of the K'iche ' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj at the time of the Spanish Conquest and was one of the most powerful Maya cities at that time , dominating the Guatemalan Highlands . San Bartolo Petén Department , Guatemala San Bartolo is a remote site in the Guatemalan rainforest and was only discovered in 2001 . Most of the structures at the site date to the Late Preclassic and overlie older Middle Preclassic architecture , although the city was reoccupied in the Late Classic . San Bartolo possesses one of the most important Preclassic murals yet found . Tikal Petén Department , Guatemala Tikal was founded in the Late Preclassic but reached its greatest power in the Late Classic , when most of its great temples were constructed . The site was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Maya history and possesses a dynastic chronology that extends from about AD 100 through to the 9th century . A long - running rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul began in the 6th century , with each of the two cities forming its own network of mutually hostile alliances arrayed against each other in what has been likened to a long - running war between two Maya superpowers . Tulum Quintana Roo , Mexico Tulum is a Late Postclassic site situated on cliffs overlooking the Caribbean Sea and was probably occupied at the time of the Spanish Conquest . It is a small site with architecture in a style similar to that at the bigger cities of Chichen Itza and Mayapan . The site was probably founded to expand the coastal trade routes of the Yucatán Peninsula . Uxmal Yucatán , Mexico Uxmal was an important capital in the western Yucatán region , demonstrating architecture in the Puuc Maya style . The site reached its apogee in the Late to Terminal Classic from about AD 800 -- 1000 and appears to have declined at the beginning of the Postclassic Period , although the exact length of occupation of the city is unknown . Yaxchilan Chiapas , Mexico In the Late Classic Period Yaxchilan was one of the most powerful Maya cities along the course of the Usumacinta , with Piedras Negras as its major rival . Architectural styles in subordinate sites in the Usumacinta region demonstrate clear differences that mark a clear boundary between the two kingdoms . Yaxchilan was a large center , important throughout the Classic era , and the dominant power of the Usumacinta River area . It dominated such smaller sites as Bonampak . The site is particularly known for its well - preserved sculptured stone lintels set above the doorways of the main structures . Yaxha Petén Department , Guatemala Yaxha was a large city located upon the north shore of the lake of the same name . The city reached its maximum power in the Early Classic , when it was one of the largest capital cities in the Maya region ; it was apparently allied with Tikal at that time . By the Late Classic its power had waned , perhaps linked to defeat by Calakmul or its allies . Alphabetical listing ( edit ) Contents : ( hide ) Top 0 -- 9 J O Q U V X Y Z Site Location Photo Abaj Takalik ( see Takalik Abaj ) Retalhuleu Department , Guatemala Acanceh Yucatán , Mexico Acanmul Campeche , Mexico Actun Tunichil Muknal Cayo District , Belize Actuncan Cayo District , Belize El Aguacate Petén Department , Guatemala Aguas Calientes Petén Department , Guatemala Aguateca Petén Department , Guatemala Ake Yucatán , Mexico Akte Petén Department , Guatemala Almuchil Campeche , Mexico Altar de los Reyes Campeche , Mexico Altar de Sacrificios Petén Department , Guatemala Altun Ha Belize District , Belize La Amelia Petén Department , Guatemala El Amparo Chiapas , Mexico Anayte ' Chiapas , Mexico Anonal Petén Department , Guatemala Arroyo de Piedra Petén Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Baking Pot Cayo District , Belize Balberta Escuintla Department , Guatemala Balakbal Campeche , Mexico Balamku Campeche , Mexico Balamtun Petén Department , Guatemala Balankanche Yucatán , Mexico El Baúl Escuintla Department , Guatemala Becan Campeche , Mexico Bejucal Petén Department , Guatemala Bellote Tabasco , Mexico Blackman Eddy Cayo District , Belize La Blanca , Peten Petén Department , Guatemala Bolonchen Campeche , Mexico Bonampak Chiapas , Mexico Buena Vista Petén Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Cahal Pech Cayo District , Belize Calakmul Campeche , Mexico Campeche Campeche , Mexico Cancuen Petén Department , Guatemala Cansacbe Campeche , Mexico Caracol Cayo District , Belize El Caribe Petén Department , Guatemala Casa Blanca Santa Ana Department , El Salvador Cenotillo Yucatán , Mexico Los Cerritos - Chijoj Quiché Department , Guatemala Cerro Quiac Quetzaltenango Department , Guatemala Cerros Corozal District , Belize Chac II Yucatán , Mexico Chacchoben Quintana Roo , Mexico Chacmultun Yucatán , Mexico Chactún Campeche , Mexico Chakalal Quintana Roo , Mexico Chakanbakan Quintana Roo , Mexico Chakokot Petén Department , Guatemala El Chal Petén Department , Guatemala Chapayal Petén Department , Guatemala Chiapa de Corzo Chiapas , Mexico Chicanna Campeche , Mexico Chichen Itza Yucatán , Mexico Chichmul Yucatán , Mexico El Chicozapote Petén Department , Guatemala Chinaha Chinikiha Chiapas , Mexico Chinkultic Chiapas , Mexico Chitinamit Quiché Department , Guatemala Chocolá Suchitepéquez Department , Guatemala Chojolom Quetzaltenango Department , Guatemala El Chorro Petén Department , Guatemala Chuctiepa Chiapas , Mexico Chunchucmil Yucatán , Mexico Chunhuhub Campeche , Mexico Chunhuitz Petén Department , Guatemala Chunlimon Campeche , Mexico Chutixtiox Quiché Department , Guatemala Cihuatán San Salvador Department , El Salvador Cival Petén Department , Guatemala Civiltuk Coba Quintana Roo , Mexico Comalcalco Tabasco , Mexico Comitan Chiapas , Mexico Consacbe Copán Copán Department , Honduras La Corona ( The enigmatic `` Site Q '' ) Petén Department , Guatemala Corozal Corozal District , Belize Cozumel Quintana Roo , Mexico Cuca Yucatán , Mexico Cuello Orange Walk District , Belize Culuba Yucatán , Mexico Site Location Photo Dos Pilas Petén Department , Guatemala Dzehkabtun Campeche , Mexico Dzekilna Yucatán , Mexico Dzibanche Quintana Roo , Mexico Dzibilchaltun Yucatán , Mexico Dzibilnocac Campeche , Mexico Dzibiltun Campeche , Mexico Dzilam Yucatán , Mexico Dzitbalche Campeche , Mexico Dzula Quintana Roo , Mexico Site Location Photo Edzna Campeche , Mexico Ek ' Balam Yucatán , Mexico Ekab ( modern Cancun ) Quintana Roo , Mexico El Encanto ( Chiapas ) Chiapas , Mexico El Encanto ( Petén ) Petén Department , Guatemala Colonia La Esperanza Chiapas , Mexico Site Location Photo La Florida Petén Department , Guatemala Flores ( see Nojpetén ) Petén Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Guaquitepec Chiapas , Mexico Gumarcaj ( see Q'umarkaj ) Quiché Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Hacienda Hotzuc Yucatán , Mexico Halakal Yucatán , Mexico Halal Yucatán , Mexico Haltunchon Campeche , Mexico Los Higos Copán Department , Honduras Hochob Campeche , Mexico Holactun Campeche , Mexico Holmul Petén Department , Guatemala La Honradez Petén Department , Guatemala Holtun Petén Department , Guatemala Los Horcones Chiapas , Mexico Hormiguero Campeche , Mexico Huacutal Petén Department , Guatemala Huntichmul Yucatán , Mexico Huntichmul II Campeche , Mexico Site Location Photo Ichmac Campeche , Mexico Ichmul Yucatán , Mexico Ichpaatun Quintana Roo , Mexico Ichpich Campeche , Mexico Ikil ( Maya site ) Yucatán , Mexico Itsimte - Sacluk Petén Department , Guatemala Itzamkanac Campeche , Mexico Itzan Petén Department , Guatemala Itzimte - Bolonchen ( see Bolonchen ) Campeche , Mexico Ixil Yucatán , Mexico Iximche Chimaltenango Department , Guatemala Ixkun Petén Department , Guatemala Ixlu Petén Department , Guatemala Ixtelha Chiapas , Mexico Ixtonton Petén Department , Guatemala Ixtutz Petén Department , Guatemala Izamal Yucatán , Mexico Izapa Chiapas , Mexico J ( edit ) Site Location Photo Jacawitz ( see Chitinamit ) Quiché Department , Guatemala Jaina Island Campeche , Mexico Jimbal Petén Department , Guatemala Jolja ' Chiapas , Mexico Jonuta Tabasco , Mexico Joya de Cerén La Libertad Department , El Salvador La Joyanca Petén Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Kabah Yucatán , Mexico Kalakmul ( see Calakmul ) Campeche , Mexico Kaminaljuyu Guatemala Department , Guatemala Kana Quintana Roo , Mexico Kanki Campeche , Mexico Kantunil Kin Quintana Roo , Mexico Kaxuinic Orange Walk District , Belize Kayal Campeche , Mexico Kinal Petén Department , Guatemala Kiuic Yucatán , Mexico Kohunlich Quintana Roo , Mexico Komchen Yucatán , Mexico K'atepan Huehuetenango Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Labna Yucatán , Mexico Lacanha Chiapas , Mexico El Lagartero Chiapas , Mexico Laguna Perdida Petén Department , Guatemala Lagunita Campeche , Mexico Lamanai Orange Walk District , Belize Lashtunich Petén Department , Guatemala Loltun Yucatán , Mexico López Mateos Chiapas , Mexico Louisville Corozal District , Belize Lubaantun Toledo District , Belize Site Location Photo Machaquila Petén Department , Guatemala Managua ( Maya site ) Campeche , Mexico Maní Yucatán , Mexico La Mar Chiapas , Mexico Mario Ancona Quintana Roo , Mexico Maxcanu Yucatán , Mexico Mayapan Yucatán , Mexico El Meco Quintana Roo , Mexico La Milpa Orange Walk District , Belize Minanha Cayo District , Belize El Mirador Petén Department , Guatemala Miraflores Chiapas , Mexico Mixco Viejo Chimaltenango Department , Guatemala Monte Alto Escuintla Department , Guatemala La Montura Petén Department , Guatemala Mopila Yucatán , Mexico Moral Reforma Tabasco , Mexico Motul de San José Petén Department , Guatemala Mountain Cow Cayo District , Belize La Muerta Petén Department , Guatemala Mulchic Yucatán , Mexico Muluch Tsekal Yucatán , Mexico La Muñeca Campeche , Mexico Muyil Quintana Roo , Mexico Site Location Photo Naachtun Petén Department , Guatemala Naj Tunich Petén Department , Guatemala Nakbe Petén Department , Guatemala Nakum Petén Department , Guatemala Naranjo Petén Department , Guatemala La Naya Petén Department , Guatemala Nebaj Quiché Department , Guatemala Nicolás Bravo Quintana Roo , Mexico Nim Li Punit Toledo District , Belize Nocuchich Campeche , Mexico Nohmul Orange Walk District , Belize Nohpat Yucatán , Mexico O ( edit ) Site Location Photo Ojo de Agua Campeche , Mexico Okop Quintana Roo , Mexico Oxcutzcab Yucatán , Mexico Oxkintok Yucatán , Mexico Oxlahuntun Chiapas , Mexico Oxpemul Campeche , Mexico Oxtankah Quintana Roo , Mexico Site Location Photo El Pabellón Chiapas , Mexico Padre Piedra Chiapas , Mexico Pajaral Petén Department , Guatemala Palenque Chiapas , Mexico El Palmar ( Chiapas ) Chiapas , Mexico El Palmar ( Quintana Roo ) Quintana Roo , Mexico Panhale Tabasco , Mexico Pantaleón Escuintla Department , Guatemala El Paraíso ( Maya site ) Copán Department , Honduras El Parajal Petén Department , Guatemala La Pasadita Petén Department , Guatemala Pasión del Cristo Quintana Roo , Mexico El Pato Petén Department , Guatemala Pechal Campeche , Mexico El Perú Petén Department , Guatemala Pestac Chiapas , Mexico Pie de Gallo Petén Department , Guatemala Piedra Labrada Chiapas , Mexico Piedras Negras Petén Department , Guatemala El Pilar Jointly in Cayo District , Belize and Petén Department , Guatemala Pixoy Campeche , Mexico Plan de Ayutla Chiapas , Mexico La Pochitoca Petén Department , Guatemala Polol Petén Department , Guatemala Pomona , Belize Stann Creek District , Belize Pomona , Tabasco Tabasco , Mexico Pomuch Campeche , Mexico El Portón Baja Verapaz Department , Guatemala El Porvenir Petén Department , Guatemala El Puente Copán Department , Honduras Punta de Chimino Petén Department , Guatemala Pusilha Toledo District , Belize Q ( edit ) Site Location Photo `` Site Q '' ( see La Corona ) Petén Department , Guatemala Quen Santo Huehuetenango Department , Guatemala Quiriguá Izabal Department , Guatemala Q'umarkaj Quiché Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo El Resbalón Quintana Roo , Mexico El Retiro Chiapas , Mexico Río Amarillo Copán Department , Honduras Río Azul Petén Department , Guatemala Río Bec Campeche , Mexico Río Michol Chiapas , Mexico El Rosal ( Maya site ) Site Location Photo Sabacche Yucatán , Mexico Sacchana Chiapas , Mexico Sacnicte Yucatán , Mexico Sacul Petén Department , Guatemala Salinas de los Nueve Cerros Alta Verapaz Department , Guatemala San Andrés La Libertad Department , El Salvador San Bartolo Petén Department , Guatemala San Clemente Petén Department , Guatemala San Diego Petén Department , Guatemala San Gervasio Quintana Roo , Mexico San Lorenzo ( Campeche ) Campeche , Mexico San Lorenzo ( Chiapas ) Chiapas , Mexico San Mateo Ixtatán Huehuetenango Department , Guatemala San Pedro ( Dzitbalche ) Campeche , Mexico Santa Elena Poco Uinic Chiapas , Mexico Santa Rita Corozal Corozal District , Belize Santa Rosa Xtampak Campeche , Mexico Santoton Chiapas , Mexico Sayil Yucatán , Mexico Seibal Petén Department , Guatemala Sihó Yucatán , Mexico Silvituc Campeche , Mexico Simojovel Chiapas , Mexico Sisilha Campeche , Mexico La Sufricaya Petén Department , Guatemala Site Location Photo Tabi Yucatán , Mexico El Tabasqueño Campeche , Mexico Takalik Abaj Retalhuleu Department , Guatemala Tamarindito Petén Department , Guatemala Tancah Quintana Roo , Mexico Tayasal Petén Department , Guatemala Tazumal Santa Ana Department , El Salvador Techoh Yucatán , Mexico Telantunich Quintana Roo , Mexico Teleman Alta Verapaz Department , Guatemala El Temblor Petén Department , Guatemala Tenam Puente Chiapas , Mexico Tenam Rosario Chiapas , Mexico Tikal Petén Department , Guatemala Tila Chiapas , Mexico El Tintal Petén Department , Guatemala Tohcok Campeche , Mexico Tonalá Chiapas , Mexico Toniná Chiapas , Mexico Topoxté Petén Department , Guatemala Tortuguero Tabasco , Mexico Tres Islas Petén Department , Guatemala La Trinidad de Nosotros Petén Department , Guatemala Tulum Quintana Roo , Mexico Tunkuyi Campeche , Mexico Tzendales Chiapas , Mexico Tzibanche Quintana Roo , Mexico Tzocchen Campeche , Mexico Tzum Campeche , Mexico U ( edit ) Site Location Photo Uaxactun Petén Department , Guatemala Uaymil Campeche , Mexico Ucanal Petén Department , Guatemala Uci Yucatán , Mexico Uitzina Yucatán , Mexico Ukum Yucatán , Mexico La Unión Quintana Roo , Mexico Uolantun Petén Department , Guatemala Utatlan ( see Q'umarkaj ) Quiché Department , Guatemala Uxbenka Toledo District , Belize Uxmal Yucatán , Mexico Uxul Campeche , Mexico Site Location Photo Waka ' ( see El Perú ) Petén Department , Guatemala Waxaktun ( see Uaxactun ) Petén Department , Guatemala Witzna Petén Department , Guatemala X ( edit ) Site Location Photo Xbalche Campeche , Mexico Xcalumkin Campeche , Mexico Xcambo Yucatán , Mexico Xcaret Quintana Roo , Mexico X'Castillo Yucatán , Mexico Xcocha Campeche , Mexico Xcochkax Campeche , Mexico Xcorralche Yucatán , Mexico Xcucsuc Campeche , Mexico Xculoc Campeche , Mexico Xelha Quintana Roo , Mexico Xicalango Campeche , Mexico Xkalachetzimin Campeche , Mexico Xkichmook Yucatán , Mexico Xkipche Yucatán , Mexico Xkombec Campeche , Mexico Xkukican Yucatán , Mexico Xlapak Yucatán , Mexico Xmakabatun Petén Department , Guatemala Xnaheb Toledo District , Belize Xnucbec Campeche , Mexico Xpuhil Campeche , Mexico Xtampak ( also known as Santa Rosa Xtampak ) Campeche , Mexico Xtobo Yucatán , Mexico Xul Yucatán , Mexico Xultun Petén Department , Guatemala Xunantunich Cayo District , Belize Xupa Chiapas , Mexico Xutilha Petén Department , Guatemala Xutixtiox ( see Chutixtiox ) Quiché Department , Guatemala Y ( edit ) Site Location Photo Yaaxhom Yucatán , Mexico Yakalmai Campeche , Mexico Yalcabakal Campeche , Mexico Yaltutud Petén Department , Guatemala Yaxche - Xlabpak Campeche , Mexico Yaxchilan Chiapas , Mexico Yaxcopoil Yucatán , Mexico Yaxha Petén Department , Guatemala Yaxuna Yucatán , Mexico Yo'okop Quintana Roo , Mexico Yula Yucatán , Mexico Z ( edit ) Site Location Photo Zacpeten Petén Department , Guatemala Zaculeu Huehuetenango Department , Guatemala El Zapote Petén Department , Guatemala Zapote Bobal Petén Department , Guatemala El Zotz ( original Mayan name Pa'Chan ) Petén Department , Guatemala See also ( edit ) Maya architecture List of Mesoamerican pyramids Degradation of Mayan archeological sites Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The CMHI enumeration of sites with inscriptions and / or Maya artworks , as modified and revised by Riese ( 2004 ) lists over 430 sites . Jump up ^ Witschey and Brown ( 2005 ) Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 372 - 373 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 356 - 361 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 364 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 520 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 562 - 566 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 548 - 549 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 556 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 333 - 341 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 383 - 387 . Martin & Grube 2000 , p. 55 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 550 . Jump up ^ Laporte & Mejía 2005 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Laporte 2005 , p. 202 . Jump up ^ Laporte & Torres 1994 , p. 131 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 195 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 592 - 599 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 252 - 253 . ^ Jump up to : Mathews et al 2005 , p. 669 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 210 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 380 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 301 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 451 - 472 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 496 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 424 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 351 - 354 . Martin & Grube 2000 , p. 216 . Miller 1999 , pp. 134 -- 35 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 4 , 621 - 623 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 262 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 1 , 302 - 311 . Webster 2002 , pp. 168 - 9 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 609 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , pp. 536 - 537 . ^ Jump up to : Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 421 . Jump up ^ Coe 1999 , p. 125 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 435 . Jump up ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006 , p. 375 . ^ Jump up to : Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1713 . ^ Jump up to : CONACULTA 2007 , pp. IV. 3 - 4 ( 96 - 97 ) . Jump up ^ Benavides C. 2005 , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Awe et al 2005 , p. 223 . Jump up ^ LeCount 2004 , p. 27 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 332 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 367 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 354 . Jump up ^ Moriarty 2005 , p. 444 . Jump up ^ Andrews 1984 , 1990 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Pharo 2014 , p. 97 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 363 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 370 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 355 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1115 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1210 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 2 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 427 . Jump up ^ Moriarty 2005 , p. 443 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 345 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 368 . Jump up ^ Ichikawa et al 2009 , pp. 502 , 505 . Jump up ^ Garrido 2009 , p. 1011 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1651 . ^ Jump up to : Esparza Olguín and Pérez Gutiérrez 2009 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Moriarty 2005 , p. 441 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 53 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 21 . ^ Jump up to : CONACULTA 2007 , p. IV. 5 ( 98 ) . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1005 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 2126 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 364 . ^ Jump up to : Adams 1996 , p. 318 . Jump up ^ Amaroli and Amador 2003 , p. 2 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 361 . ^ Jump up to : Esparza Olguín and Pérez Gutiérrez 2009 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 177 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 232 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 129 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes . Listed as Utatlan ( Qumarkaaj ) , # 1008 . Jump up ^ Muñoz Cosme et al 2010 , p. 378 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 140 . Jump up ^ García - Des Lauriers , undated . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 192 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 715 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 17 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 136 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 18 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 7 . Jump up ^ Benavides C. 2005 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 179 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 204 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1306 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 412 . Jump up ^ Wölfel and Frühsorge 2008 , pp. 86 - 87 Jump up ^ INAH 2015 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 198 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 215 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 288 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 696 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1111 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 313 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 213 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 317 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 400 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 905 . ^ Jump up to : Benavides C. 2005 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1220 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 199 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 202 . ^ Jump up to : Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 229 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 210 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 404 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 162 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 194 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 655 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 209 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 359 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1466 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1555 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1008 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 413 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 16 , 30 - 33 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 435 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 155 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 347 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1469 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 366 . Jump up ^ Foley 2007 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 131 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 180 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 267 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 156 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 352 . Jump up ^ Moriarty 2005 , p. 445 . ^ Jump up to : Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 181 . Jump up ^ Benavides C. 2005 , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 423 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 411 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 322 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 159 . Jump up ^ Rice and Rice 1997 , p. 567 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 1420 . Jump up ^ Estrada - Belli and Foley 2004 , p. 843 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 207 . Jump up ^ Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. # 314 . External links ( edit ) The long - term research project Text Database Dictionary of Classic Mayan is working on a list of Archaeological Sites with Maya Inscriptions that is constantly growing . The list is sorted by site name , and primarily encompasses the archaeological sites in Mesoamerica where Maya hieroglyphic inscriptions have been discovered and verifiably documented over the course of archaeological survey and excavations . References ( edit ) Adams , Richard E.W. ( 1996 ) . Prehistoric Mesoamerica ( Revised ed . ) . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 2834 - 8 . OCLC 22593466 . Amaroli , Paul ; and Fabio E. Amador ( 2003 ) `` Los Límites de Cihuatán : Reconocimiento arqueológico para determinar la extensión de la antigua ciudad '' . San Salvador , El Salvador : Fundación Nacional de Arqueología de El Salvador . Retrieved on 11 April 2016 . Andrews , George F. ( 1990 ) ( 1984 ) . `` Architectural survey Puuc region : 1984 field season . Volume I '' ( PDF ) . Austin , Texas : University of Texas . OCLC 758390353 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 15 . Awe , Jaime J. ; Cameron Griffith ; Sherry Gibbs ( 2005 ) . `` Cave Stelae and Megalithic Monuments in Western Belize '' . In James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer . In the Maw of the Earth Monster : Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use . The Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies . Austin , Texas : University of Texas Press . pp. 223 -- 248 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 292 - 70586 - 9 . OCLC 57691801 . Benavides C. , Antonio ( 2005 ) . `` Campeche Archaeology at the Turn of the Century '' ( PDF ) . Anthropological Notebooks . Slovene Anthropological Society ( 11 ) : 13 -- 30 . ISSN 1408 - 032X . OCLC 243599738 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 13 . Coe , Michael D. ( 1999 ) . The Maya . Ancient peoples and places series ( 6th edition , fully revised and expanded ed . ) . London and New York : Thames & Hudson . ISBN 0 - 500 - 28066 - 5 . OCLC 59432778 . CONACULTA ( 2007 ) . `` Diagnóstico de infraestructura cultural '' ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . Mexico City : Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 10 . chapter = ignored ( help ) Esparza Olguín , Octavio Q. ; Vania E. Pérez Gutiérrez ( Winter 2009 ) . `` Archaeological and Epigraphic Studies in Pol Box , Quintana Roo '' ( PDF ) . The PARI Journal . San Francisco , California , USA : Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute . IX ( 3 ) : 1 -- 16 . ISSN 1531 - 5398 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 25 . Estrada - Belli , Francisco ; Jennifer Foley ( 2004 ) . `` Arqueología e historia de enlaces geo - políticos : El Clásico Temprano en La Sufricaya '' ( The archaeology and history of geopolitical contacts : The Early Classic in La Sufricaya ) ( PDF ) . XVII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 2003 ( edited by J.P. Laporte , B. Arroyo , H. Escobedo and H. Mejía ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala City , Guatemala : Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología : 843 -- 851 . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 03 . Foley , Jennifer ( 2007 ) . `` Correlating Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence at La Sufricaya , Holmul , Petén '' . The Foundation Granting Department : Reports Submitted to FAMSI . Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies , Inc . ( FAMSI ) . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 03 . García - Des Lauriers , Claudia ( n.d. ) . `` Proyecto Arqueológico Los Horcones ( PALH ) : La presencia teotihuacana el la Costa de Chiapas '' ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . Mexico City , Mexico : Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 28 . Garrido , José Luis ( 2009 ) . `` Reconociendo Nueve Cerros : Instrumentos sonoros procedentes del área '' ( PDF ) . XXII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 2008 ( edited by J.P. Laporte , B. Arroyo and H. Mejía ) ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala City , Guatemala : Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología : 1008 -- 1020 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Ichikawa , Akira ; hione Shibata ; Masakage Murano ( 2009 ) . `` El Preclásico Tardío en Chalchuapa : Resultados de las investigaciones de la Estructura 5 en el Parque Arqueológico Casa Blanca '' ( The Late Preclassic in Chalchuapa : Results of the excavations of Structure 5 in the Casa Blanca Archaeological Park ) ( PDF ) . XXII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 2008 ( edited by J.P. Laporte , B. Arroyo and H. Mejía ) ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala City , Guatemala : Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología : 502 -- 515 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2014 - 11 - 02 . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 03 . INAH ( 10 June 2015 ) . `` Zona Arqueológica de Lagartero '' ( in Spanish ) . Mexico City , Mexico : Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia . Archived from the original on 2016 - 01 - 28 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 28 . Guatemala ( Map ) ( 3rd ed . ) . 1 : 500000 . International Travel Maps . ITMB Publishing . 1997 . ISBN 0 - 921463 - 64 - 2 . Guatemala ( Map ) ( 5th ed . ) . 1 : 470000 . International Travel Maps . ITMB Publishing . 2005 . ISBN 1 - 55341 - 230 - 3 . Laporte , Juan Pedro ( 2005 ) . `` Terminal Classic Settlement and Polity in the Mopan Valley , Petén , Guatemala '' . In Arthur A. Demarest , Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice ( eds . ) . The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands : Collapse , transition , and transformation . Boulder : University Press of Colorado . pp. 195 -- 230 . ISBN 0 - 87081 - 822 - 8 . OCLC 61719499 . CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list ( link ) Laporte , Juan Pedro ; Héctor E. Mejía ( 2005 ) . `` Ixkun , Dolores , Petén : Una introducción '' ( PDF online publication ) . Ixkun , Petén , Guatemala : Exploraciones en una ciudad del alto Mopan , 1985 - 2005 ( edited by J.P. Laporte and H. Mejía ) ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala : Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala , Dirección General del Patrimonio Cultural y Natural , Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes . pp. 1 -- 12 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 05 . Laporte , Juan Pedro ; Carlos Rolando Torres ( 1994 ) . `` Los señoríos del Sureste de Petén '' ( PDF ) . I Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 1987 ( edited by J.P. Laporte , H. Escobedo and S. Villagrán ) ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala : Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología . pp. 112 -- 134 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 09 - 14 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 07 . LeCount , Lisa J. ( 2004 ) . `` Looking for a Needle in a Haystack : The Early Classic Period at Actuncan , Cayo District '' ( PDF ) . Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology . Belize : Institute of Archaeology , National Institute of Culture and History ( NICH ) . 1 : 27 -- 36 . OCLC 434569959 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 13 . Martin , Simon ; Nikolai Grube ( 2000 ) . Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens : Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya . London and New York : Thames & Hudson . ISBN 0 - 500 - 05103 - 8 . OCLC 47358325 . Mathews , Peter ( n.d. ) . `` Site Names and Codes '' . Who 's Who in the Classic Maya World . Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies , Inc . Mathews , Peter ; Kathryn Reese - Taylor ; Marcelo Zamora ; Alexander Parmington ( 2005 ) . `` Los monumentos de Naachtun , Petén '' ( PDF ) . XVIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 2004 ( edited by J.P. Laporte , B. Arroyo and H. Mejía ) ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala City : Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología : 669 -- 672 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 13 . Miller , Mary Ellen ( 1999 ) . Maya Art and Architecture . London and New York : Thames & Hudson . ISBN 0 - 500 - 20327 - X . OCLC 41659173 . Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes . `` Base de Datos Sitios Arqueológicos '' ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala : Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2012 - 05 - 26 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 10 . Moriarty , Matthew D. ( 2005 ) . `` Entre el centro y la periferia en la tierra de los Señores `` Ik '' : Investigaciones recientes en sitios satélites de Motul de San José , Petén '' ( PDF online publication ) . XVIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 2004 ( edited by J.P. Laporte , B. Arroyo and H. Mejía ) ( in Spanish ) . Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología , Guatemala . pp. 440 -- 454 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 15 . Muñoz Cosme , Gaspar ; Nuria Matarredona Desantes ; Beatriz Martín Domínguez ; Manuel May Castillo ( 2010 ) . `` Arquitecturas Olvidadas : Las Expediciones Científicas como Método de Investigación del Patrimonio en Peligro '' ( PDF ) . Arché ( Journal of the Instituto Universitario de Restauración del Patrimonio de la Universidad Politécnica de Valencia ( in Spanish ) . Valencia , Spain : Editorial de la Universitat Politècnica de València ( 4 - 5 ) : 373 -- 380 . ISSN 1887 - 3960 . OCLC 311510079 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 26 . Pharo , Lars Kirkhusmo ( 2014 ) . `` The Long Count Calendar of the Classic Maya Civilization '' . The ritual practise of time : philosophy and sociopolitics of Mesoamerican calendars . Leiden , Netherlands : Brill . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 25235 - 6 . OCLC 854857944 . Pugh , Timothy ; Prudence M. Rice ( 1997 ) . J.P. Laporte and H. Escobedo , ed . `` Arquitectura estilo Mayapan y evidencias de organización dual en el sitio Postclásico de Zacpeten , Petén '' ( PDF ) . Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala , 1996 ( in Spanish ) . Guatemala City , Guatemala : Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología . X : 567 -- 580 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 26 . Riese , Berthold ( 2004 ) . `` Abkürzungen für Maya - Ruinenorte mit Inschriften '' ( PDF ) . Wayeb Notes ( in German ) . European Association of Mayanists. 8 . ISSN 1379 - 8286 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 07 . Sharer , Robert J. ; Loa P. Traxler ( 2006 ) . The Ancient Maya ( 6th ( fully revised ) ed . ) . Stanford , CA : Stanford University Press . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 4817 - 9 . OCLC 57577446 . Webster , David L. ( 2002 ) . The Fall of the Ancient Maya : Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse . London : Thames & Hudson . ISBN 0 - 500 - 05113 - 5 . OCLC 48753878 . Witschey , Walter R.T. ; Clifford T. Brown ( 2005 ) . `` The Electronic Atlas of Ancient Maya Sites '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 05 . Wölfel , Ulrich ; Lars Frühsorge ( August 2008 ) . `` Archaeological Sites near San Mateo Ixtatán : Hints at Ethnic Plurality '' . Mexicon . Mexicon. 30 ( 4 ) : 86 -- 93 . JSTOR 23759262 . ( subscription required ) Maya sites Belize Actun Tunichil Muknal Altun Ha Baking Pot Barton Creek Cave Cahal Pech Caracol Cerros Chaa Creek Colha Cuello El Pilar Ka'Kabish K'axob La Milpa Lamanai Louisville Lower Dover Lubaantun Marco Gonzalez Minanha Nim Li Punit Nohmul Nohoch Che'en Pusilha San Estevan Santa Rita Tipu Uxbenka Xnaheb Xunantunich Guatemala Aguateca Altar de Sacrificios Arroyo de Piedra Balberta Bejucal Cancuén Cerro Quiac Chama Chitinamit Chocolá Chutixtiox Cotzumalhuapa Dos Pilas El Baúl El Chal El Mirador El Perú El Porvenir El Temblor El Tintal El Zotz Guaytán Holmul Holtun Itzan Iximche Ixkun Ixlu Ixtonton Ixtutz Kaminaljuyu Kinal K'atepan La Amelia La Blanca La Corona La Joyanca La Muerta Machaquila Mixco Viejo Montana Motul de San José Naachtun Nakbe Nakum Naranjo Pajaral Piedras Negras Punta de Chimino Quiriguá Q'umarkaj Río Azul Sacul San Bartolo San Clemente Seibal Takalik Abaj Tamarindito Tayasal Tikal Topoxte Tres Islas Uaxactun Ucanal Wajxaklajun Witzna Xultun Yaxha Zacpeten Zaculeu Zapote Bobal Honduras Copán El Puente Mexico Acanceh Aké Balamku Becan Bonampak Calakmul Chacchoben Chactún Chicanná Chinkultic Chichen Itza Chunchucmil Coba Comalcalco Dzibilchaltun Edzna Ek ' Balam Izamal Izapa Jaina Jolja ' Kabah Kiuic Kohunlich Komchen Labna La Mar Mayapan Maní Moral Reforma Muyil Oxkintok Palenque Plan de Ayutla ( Maya Site ) Pomona Punta Sur Río Bec San Gervasio Sayil Toniná Tortuguero Tulum Uxmal Uxul Xcaret Xelha Xlapak Xpuhil Yaxchilan Yaxuna Yula Yo'okop El Salvador Cara Sucia Casa Blanca Cihuatán Joya de Cerén San Andrés Tazumal See also : Pre-Columbian era Maya civilization History Preclassic Maya Classic Maya collapse Spanish conquest Chiapas Guatemala Petén Yucatán Topics Architecture E-Group Triadic pyramid Twin - pyramid complex Art Graffiti Ceramics Cities Cuisine Dance Economy Trade Maritime trade Languages Classic Script List Mayanist Medicine Music Mythology Numerals People Sites Stelae Textiles Warfare Society Childhood Women Midwifery Religion Priesthood Sacrifice Human sacrifice Death rituals Social classes Ajaw Rulers Households Calendar Ajaw Baktun Haab ' K'atun K'in Tun Tzolk'in Winal Literature Annals of the Cakchiquels Chilam Balam Codices Dresden Grolier Madrid Paris Popol Vuh Rabinal Achí Ritual of the Bacabs Songs of Dzitbalche Título C'oyoi Título de Totonicapán Deities Classic Bacab Chaac Death gods God L Goddess I Hero Twins Howler monkey gods Itzamna Ixchel Jaguar gods K'awiil Kinich Ahau Maize god Mam Moon goddess Yopaat Post-Classic Acat Ah - Muzen - Cab Akna Chin Hunab Ku Ixtab Kukulkan Yum Kaax Popol Vuh Awilix Camazotz Hun Hunahpu Huracan Jacawitz Q'uq'umatz Tohil Vucub Caquix Xmucane and Xpiacoc Xquic Zipacna Kings B'alaj Chan K'awiil Ha ' K'in Xook Itzam K'an Ahk II K'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat K'inich Janaab ' Pakal K'inich Yat Ahk II K'inich Yax K'uk ' Mo ' K'inich Yo'nal Ahk I Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil Yo'nal Ahk III Yuknoom Ch'een II Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk ' Queens Lady Eveningstar Lady of Itzan Lady of Tikal Lady Xoc Sak K'uk ' Wak Chanil Ajaw Yohl Ik'nal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Maya_sites&oldid=839339484 '' Categories : Maya sites Americas - related lists Archaeology - related lists Belize - related lists Guatemala - related lists Lists of buildings and structures in Mexico Hidden categories : Dynamic lists CS1 errors : chapter ignored CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Pages containing links to subscription - only content Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Italiano Македонски 日本 語 Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 2 May 2018 , at 19 : 59 . 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79 | document: Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales - Wikipedia Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales This article needs to be updated . In particular : Largely only refers to plans as they were in 2007 -- few references to the enacting of these changes in the past tense . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( December 2016 ) Raising of the school leaving age in England and Wales Initial 1870 Latest 2015 Related Acts : Elementary Education Act 1870 Elementary Education Act 1880 Education Act 1918 Education Act 1944 Act 1973 ( unofficial title ) Act 2013 See raising of school leaving age for worldwide overview The raising of school leaving age ( shortened to ROSLA ) is the name given by the government to refer to changes regarding the legal age a child is permitted to leave compulsory education in England and Wales as specified under an Education Act . As in most countries , the school leaving age often reflects when young people are seen to be mature enough within their society , but not necessarily when they are old enough to be regarded as an adult . In England and Wales this age has been raised numerous times since the introduction of compulsory education in 1870 . On 1 September 1972 , the age was raised from 15 to 16 , following preparations which began eight years earlier in 1964 . This left a gap year of school leavers who , by law , had to complete an additional year of education from 1973 onwards . Many of the age raisings in the 19th and 20th centuries were aimed at generating more skilled labour by providing additional time for students to gain additional skills and qualifications . In recent years , government statistics showed that 11 % of 16 to 18 year - olds were neither continuing their education after completion of their GCSEs , nor in full - time employment or an apprenticeship , thus increasing the overall unemployment rate given many are unable to find work . The British government hoped that by making education compulsory up to the age of 17 by 2013 and 18 by 2015 , it could change this . Contents 1 19th century 2 20th century 2.1 The Fisher Act of 1918 2.2 Butler 's post-war education changes 2.2. 1 Reasons 2.2. 2 Effects 2.3 Leaving age raised to 16 2.3. 1 ROSLA Buildings 2.4 Education Act 1996 3 21st century 3.1 Education and Skills Act 2008 3.1. 1 Participation Age 3.1. 2 Reasons 3.1. 3 Opposition 3.1. 4 Effects 4 See also 5 Further reading 6 References 7 External links 19th century ( edit ) William Edward Forster drafted the first Education Act in 1870 Prior to the 19th century , there were very few schools . Most of those that existed were run by the church , for the church , stressing religious education . In the latter part of the 19th Century , compulsory attendance at school ceased to be a matter for local option , with the introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 a milestone in the British school education system . Children had to attend between the ages of 5 and 10 though with some local discretion such as early leaving in agricultural areas . The introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 ( applying to England and Wales ) , commonly known as Forster 's Education Act having been drawn up by William Edward Forster , created the concept of compulsory education for children under thirteen , although the decision to make education compulsory was at the discretion of school boards ; education was compulsory in approximately 40 % of schools by 1873 . In areas where education was considered a problem , elected school boards could be set up . These boards could , at their discretion , create local by - laws , confirmed by Parliament , to require attendance and fine the parents of children who did not attend . There were exemptions for illness , living more than a certain distance ( typically one mile ) from a school , or certification of having reached the required standard ( which varied by board ) which were made mandatory across England and Wales by the 1880 Act . The Elementary Education Act 1880 insisted on compulsory attendance from 5 -- 10 years . For poorer families , ensuring their children attended school proved difficult , as it was more tempting to send them working if the opportunity to earn an extra income was available . Attendance Officers often visited the homes of children who failed to attend school , which often proved to be ineffective . Children under the age of 13 who were employed were required to have a certificate to show they had reached the educational standard ; employers of these children who were n't able to show this were penalised . An act brought into force thirteen years later went under the name of the Elementary Education ( School Attendance ) Act 1893 , which stated a raised minimum leaving age to 11 . Later the same year , the act was also extended for blind and deaf children , who previously had no means of an official education . This act was later amended in 1899 to raise the school leaving age up to 12 years of age . 20th century ( edit ) School boards were abolished in 1902 and replaced with local education authorities , which are still in use to the present day . The Fisher Act of 1918 ( edit ) The year 1918 saw the introduction of the Education Act 1918 , commonly also known as the Fisher Act as it was devised by Herbert Fisher . The act enforced compulsory education from 5 -- 14 years , but also included provision for compulsory part - time education for all 14 - to - 18 - year - olds . There were also plans for expansion in tertiary education , by raising the participation age to 18 though cuts in public spending after World War I made this impractical . This is the first act which starting planning provisions for young people to remain in education until the age of 18 . The 1918 act was not implemented until a further act of 1921 was passed . Butler 's post-war education changes ( edit ) HORSA Huts , constructed circa 1947 to handle the increased student numbers as a result of the leaving age increase In 1944 , Rab Butler introduced the Education Act 1944 which amongst other changes , including the introduction of the Tripartite System , included raising the school leaving age to 15 . Although the act should have been brought into effect as from September 1939 , it was not implemented because of the effects of World War II , but was eventually enforced from April 1947 . The comprehensive school system has since replaced the Tripartite System brought in by this act across most of England . This act also recommended compulsory part - time education for all children until the age of 18 , but was dropped , in similar fashion to the 1918 Act , to cut spending after World War II . Reasons ( edit ) Changes in government approaches towards education meant that it was no longer regarded adequate for a child to leave education aged 14 , as that is the age when they were seen to really understand and appreciate the value of education , as well as being the period when adolescence was at its height . It was beginning to be seen as the worst age for a sudden switch from education to employment , with around 80 % of children in 1938 leaving education at this age , many having only had primary - school level education . Although there were concerns about the effects of having less labour from these children , it was hoped that the outcome of a larger quantity of more qualified , skilled workers would eliminate the deficit problem from the loss of unskilled labour . Effects ( edit ) This act introduced the 11 + examination to determine if a child should be eligible for a grammar school , secondary modern or technical college , under the Tripartite System , but has since been phased out across the majority of the United Kingdom , with just several boroughs in England and Northern Ireland still using it . League tables published in March 2007 showed grammar schools throughout the country were outperforming comprehensive schools ; data published ten years later in 2017 suggested a similar clear division between student attainment in grammar schools compared to comprehensive schools . Changes in society and approaches towards education , including equal opportunities , has meant that it is now recognised that all children deserve to have the same educational opportunities without singling out those who learn at a slower rate than others , thus every child has the opportunity to gain secondary school level qualifications or similar , regardless of background or intelligence . Leaving age raised to 16 ( edit ) In 1964 , preparations began to raise the school leaving age to 16 . These were delayed in 1968 , and eventually the decision was taken in 1971 that the new upper age limit be enforced from 1 September 1972 onwards . As well as raising the school leaving age in 1972 , the year also saw the introduction of the Education ( Work Experience ) Act , allowing LEAs to organise work experience for the additional final year school students . In some counties around the country , these changes also led to the introduction of middle schools in 1968 , where students were kept at primary or junior school for an additional year , meaning that the number of students in secondary schools within these areas remained virtually constant through the change . In others , more radical changes led to middle schools for pupils aged up to 13 opening in smaller secondary school buildings , with other schools accommodating students over 13 . As of 2010 , there are fewer than 300 middle schools across England , situated in just 22 local education authorities ; the number of remaining middle schools has gradually fallen since the mid-1980s . ROSLA buildings ( edit ) For many secondary schools around England and Wales in areas without a Middle School , accommodating for the new 5th year students would be a struggle . A popular solution was to provide those schools with a pre-fabricated building ( often referred to as ROSLA Buildings or ROSLA Blocks ) that were in need of additional capacity , providing them with the resources to cope with the new generation of 5th year students . This solution proved popular with many schools across the country , not least due to the low cost involved for materials and construction , but also the speed which these buildings could be erected . Many were supplied by F. Pratten and Co Ltd . The ROSLA Buildings were delivered to schools in self assembly packs , being assembled by a team often within days , regardless of weather conditions . Consequently , they were not intended to stand long - term , though some have proven to have stood much longer than was initially planned . Many ROSLA Buildings shared similar exterior attributes such as their design , with the only difference being the separation of rooms within the building . The room separation within the building was decided upon by senior school management , hence many walls are false from being added in after construction . Although the majority of schools around England and Wales have since replaced the ROSLA Building at their site , there are still numerous schools around the country which are still actively using these buildings . Education Act 1996 ( edit ) Between 1976 and 1997 , the minimum school leaving arrangements were : A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 September to 31 January inclusive , may leave compulsory schooling at the end of the Spring term ( the following Easter ) . A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 February to 31 August , may leave on the Friday before the last Monday in May . Under the Education Act 1996 , a new single school leaving date was set for 1998 and all subsequent years thereafter . This was set as the last Friday in June in the school year which the child reaches the age of 16 . 21st century ( edit ) Education and skills Act 2008 ( edit ) Graph showing the percentage of young people in employment or training , at ages 16 and 18 respectively . Reports published in November 2006 suggested that Education Secretary Alan Johnson was exploring ways to raise the school leaving age in England to 18 , just over 40 years later than the last rise in 1972 , pointing to the decline in unskilled jobs and the need for young people to be equipped for modern day employment . Participation age ( edit ) A year later , on 6 November 2007 , Prime Minister Gordon Brown unveiled the government 's plans in his Queen 's Speech . The plans included the duty for parents to assist their children in education or training participation until the date of their 18th birthday , as well as detailing proposed moves to reform the apprenticeship system and to improve achievement for children in care . The Education and Skills Act 2008 , when it came into force in the 2013 academic year , initially required participation in some form of education or training until the school year in which the child turned 17 , followed by the age being raised to the young person 's 18th birthday in 2015 . This was referred to as raising the `` participation age '' to distinguish it from the school leaving age which remains at 16 . To qualify as participation the young person must be in education or training for the equivalent of one day a week ( at a minimum ) . The local council is responsible for ensuring that a suitable place is available . The Act makes similar powers available to the National Assembly for Wales . A spokesperson for the Welsh Assembly indicated that it would want to encourage more young people to stay in education , but without compulsion , so school leavers there are not required to continue with any education or training . Reasons ( edit ) Figures were published in June 2006 showing that 76.2 % of all young people aged 16 -- 18 are already in further education or training , meaning that the rise might only affect around 25 % of young people who may have otherwise sought employment immediately upon finishing compulsory education . This did not specifically state that young people would remain in secondary school , but rather by law be required to continue their education full or part - time , whether that be in sixth form , college or work based training . Around 80 % of 16 - year - olds stay in full - time academic or vocational education , or go on a government - financed training course . In a survey of 859 people , 9 / 10 supported the plans for the age increase . Proportion of 16 - 18 year olds in Education & training , employment and NEET . Reports published by the DfES showed that although there are around 70 % of 16 year olds who remain in full - time education , this declines to less than 50 % by the time they reach 18 , with the majority finding unskilled employment and even fewer going into employment where their training has relevance . There is also a small increase in those who become unemployed by the time they reach 18 , which the government hoped to reduce with the act . It is these cases of unemployment which the government believes to be the toughest , whom it classifies as NEET ( Not in Education , Employment or Training ) . In 2006 an additional 7 % of 16 year olds fell into this category and the proportion rose to 13 % among 18 year olds . In practice , only 1 % of young people are classified as NEET during their time aged 16 -- 18 , due to churn between training , employment and NEET classification . In 2015 the percentage of 16 - 18 classified as NEET fell to 7.5 % , the lowest figure since 2000 . The government believed that the changes were needed because of the collapse in unskilled jobs in the economy , which means that young school leavers at 16 years of age are finding it increasingly more difficult to find employment . The number of unskilled jobs available fell from 8 million in the 1960s to 3.5 by 2007 , with predictions of further drops to just 600,000 by 2020 due to the increasing demand for skilled labour . Opposition ( edit ) Whilst the government is eager to implement the changes , many oppose the proposal , some on civil liberties grounds . Compulsory school attendance is usually justified by reference to the argument that minors are incapable of making sufficiently reasoned choices . However , the 16 - 18 age group falls into a grey area , being regarded as effectively adult in a number of contexts . Indeed , in some jurisdictions ( e.g. Scotland ) , individuals are considered to reach full maturity at 16 . The proposal of using criminal sanctions to enforce attendance under this new system was opposed by MPs from both the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats , who believed compulsion and threats were the wrong approach to increasing participation . A spokesperson for the DfES said the proposals were not about `` forcing young people to do something they do n't want to '' , and that `` we are letting young people down if we allow them to leave education and training without skills at the age of 16 . '' However , the Prime Minister 's Queen 's Speech in November 2007 , which discussed the raise in school leaving age , suggested that pupils who failed to comply with new laws are to be expected to face fines or community service , rather than custodial sentencing which had previously been proposed . Local Authorities will also be expected to ensure pupils are participating up to 18 years of age . Effects ( edit ) The downward trend in the number of unskilled jobs available throughout the country is continuing . The government believes that the extension of compulsory education until the age of 18 will mean many more young people will leave education in a much better position to find skilled employment . Speaking in March 2007 , Chancellor Gordon Brown stated that around 50,000 teenagers would be paid a training allowance to sign up to college - based courses , with estimates on the available number of apprenticeships available to double to around 500,000 by 2020 , with 80 % being available in England , which will be an increase from the current 250,000 apprenticeships available , offered by 130,000 employers . A skills commission report released in 2013 , backed by Labour MP Barry Sheerman , suggests that young people were being let down by the education system , with particular criticism aimed towards the lack of information , advice and guidance available to 14 - 19 year olds . The government were hopeful that the changes would have an effect on preventing the increase in crime levels , as figures reported a substantial percentage of young people leaving school were turning to a life of crime , with many being unable to find suitable work due to lack of skills and qualifications . See also ( edit ) School leaving age Education in England Compulsory education Tripartite System Further reading ( edit ) http://www.thepotteries.org/dates/education.htm References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` School leaving age set to be 18 '' . BBC News . 12 January 2007 . Jump up ^ What happens after the age of 16 ? BBC.co.uk , 19 November 2014 ^ Jump up to : Education leaving age brief Politics.co.uk , 12 June 2007 ^ Jump up to : Lincolnshire School Resources Archived 30 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Genuki.org.uk ^ Jump up to : School leaving age may be raised news.bbc.co.uk , 10 November 2006 Jump up ^ `` Education Acts 1870 1873 1876 '' . Intriguing History . Retrieved 26 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` 15 Crucial Events in the History of English Schools '' . Oxford Royale. 18 September 2014 . Retrieved 26 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Key dates in British Education ( 1000 - 1899 ) ThePotteries.org ^ Jump up to : `` Q&A : The new school leaving age '' . The Guardian . 29 November 2007 . Retrieved 26 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Education in England - 3 www.educationengland.org.uk Jump up ^ `` From tripartite to comprehensive schools and the New Right '' . Sociology Twynham. 21 December 2008 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Rab Butler 's 1944 act brings free secondary education for all '' . BBC News . 17 January 2014 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Dent , H.C. ( 1 January 1947 ) . `` Raising the School - Leaving Age in Britain '' . The School Review . 55 ( 9 ) : 523 -- 525 . JSTOR 1082674 . Jump up ^ `` Grammar school and the 11 + explained '' . Relocate Global . 20 July 2016 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 11 + exam ' put people off study ' '' . The Herald Scotland . 18 September 2012 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Grammars still dominate league tables '' . The Telegraph . 2 March 2007 . Retrieved 26 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Grammar school children excel while comprehensives fall behind , figures show '' . The Telegraph . 19 January 2017 . Retrieved 26 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Education leaving age '' . politics.co.uk . Retrieved 28 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Education in England - Timeline educationengland.org.uk Jump up ^ `` Middle Schools in the UK '' . UK Middle Schools . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Spaxton V.C. Primary School . '' Jump up ^ `` Wiltshire Community History '' . Wiltshire Council . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pratten Hut -- St Dunstan School , Calne , Wiltshire - UK Schools '' . Jump up ^ `` School website for The Rainbow Pre-School Learning Centre Warminster with Ofsted inspection report '' . Jump up ^ `` Guidance for maintained schools , academies , independent schools and local authorities '' ( PDF ) . Gov.uk . November 2016 . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Staying on - The best days of their lives will soon drag on a bit longer '' . The Economist. 18 January 2007 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Raising the Participation Age - Timeline HMSO , 24 August 2012 ^ Jump up to : Participation Age Myth Buster HMSO , 29 July 2013 ^ Jump up to : School leaving age HMSO , 19 November 2014 ^ Jump up to : School leaving age plans unveiled BBC News , 6 November 2007 Jump up ^ `` Brown backs idea of raising school - leaving age '' . The Guardian . 10 November 2006 . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Sponsored by ( 18 January 2007 ) . `` School - leaving age : Staying on '' . The Economist . Retrieved 13 June 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Education until 18 will prevent life of crime '' . The Telegraph . 7 March 2007 . Retrieved 26 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : http://readingroom.lsc.gov.uk/lsc/National/45_-_2006_NEET.pdf Jump up ^ https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/454401/Quarterly_Brief_NEET_Q2_2015.pdf Jump up ^ `` Plan to raise school leaving age to 18 ' will leave thousands with worthless qualifications ' '' . Daily Mail . 14 January 2008 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Sentenced to rot in their failed schools Sunday Times , 25 March 2007 Jump up ^ Staying on ' must not be forced ' news.bbc.co.uk , 11 June 2007 Jump up ^ `` School leaving age will be raised to 18 '' . Telegraph.co.uk. 23 March 2007 . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Barry Sheerman backs Skills Commission report that says young people are being let down the education system '' . The Huddersfield Daily Examiner. 1 November 2013 . Retrieved 28 February 2017 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales . Text of the Education Act 1996 ( c. 56 ) as in force today ( including any amendments ) within the United Kingdom , from legislation.gov.uk Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raising_of_school_leaving_age_in_England_and_Wales&oldid=852981287 '' Categories : History of education in England History of education in Wales History of education in the United Kingdom Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom Compulsory education Minimum ages Education law Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles in need of updating from December 2016 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Use dmy dates from December 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 1 August 2018 , at 16 : 56 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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80 | document: Second Temple - wikipedia Second Temple Jump to : navigation , search Second Temple בית ־ המקדש השני Model of Herod 's Temple ( a renovation of the Second Temple ) in the Israel Museum , created in 1966 as part of the Holyland Model of Jerusalem . The model was inspired by the writings of Josephus . Alternate name Herod 's Temple Location Jerusalem 31 ° 46 ′ 41 '' N 35 ° 14 ′ 07 '' E / 31.778013 ° N 35.235367 ° E / 31.778013 ; 35.235367 Type Temple Part of Herodian Temple Mount Height 45.72 metres ( 150.0 ft ) History Builder Likely Zerubbabel , largely renovated by Herod the Great . Material local limestone Founded c. 537 -- 516 BCE ( construction ) Abandoned 70 CE ( destroyed ) Periods Early Roman Empire Site notes Excavation dates 1930 , 1967 , 1968 , 1970 -- 1978 , 1996 -- 1999 , 2007 Archaeologists Charles Warren , Benjamin Mazar , Ronny Reich , Eli Shukron , Yaakov Billig Condition Ruin , archaeological park Ownership Disputed , currently managed by the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf Public access Yes ( limited ) This article 's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents . Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article . Please discuss this issue on the article 's talk page . ( January 2018 ) The Second Temple ( Hebrew : בֵּית ־ הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי , Beit HaMikdash HaSheni ) was the Jewish Holy Temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period , between 516 BCE and 70 CE . According to Jewish tradition , it replaced Solomon 's Temple ( the First Temple ) , which was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE , when Jerusalem was conquered and part of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken into exile to Babylon . Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biblical narrative 2 Rabbinical literature 3 Rededication by the Maccabees 4 Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest 5 Herod 's Temple 5.1 Construction 5.2 Platform 5.3 Court of the Gentiles 5.4 Pinnacle 5.5 Inside the Soreg 5.6 Temple sanctuary 6 Pilgrimages 7 Destruction 8 Archaeology 9 Second Temple Judaism 10 See also 11 References 12 External links Biblical narrative ( edit ) Main article : Second Temple period The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible . According to the closing verses of the second book of Chronicles and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah , when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great ( Ezra 1 : 1 -- 4 , 2 Chron 36 : 22 -- 23 ) , construction started at the original site of Solomon 's Temple . After a relatively brief halt due to opposition from peoples who had filled the vacuum during the Jewish captivity ( Ezra 4 ) , work resumed c. 521 BCE under Darius the Great ( Ezra 5 ) and was completed during the sixth year of his reign ( c. 516 BCE ) , with the temple dedication taking place the following year . These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible . The original core of the book of Nehemiah , the first - person memoir , may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE . Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era . The book tells how Nehemiah , at the court of the king in Susa , is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them . The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata and he travels to Jerusalem . There he rebuilds the walls , despite the opposition of Israel 's enemies , and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses . After 12 years in Jerusalem , he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem . He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives , and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law . Based on the biblical account , after the return from Babylonian captivity , arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier . The body of pilgrims , forming a band of 42,360 , having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months , from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem , were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse , and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple and reinstituting the sacrificial rituals known as the korbanot . On the invitation of Zerubbabel , the governor , who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics , besides other gifts , the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm . First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood , and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris which occupied the site of the old temple ; and in the second month of the second year ( 535 BCE ) , amid great public excitement and rejoicing , the foundations of the Second Temple were laid . A wide interest was felt in this great movement , although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators ( Haggai 2 : 3 , Zechariah 4 : 10 ) . The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the work . Zerubbabel and the elders , however , declined all such cooperation , feeling that the Jews must build the Temple without help . Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews . According to Ezra 4 : 5 , the Samaritans sought to `` frustrate their purpose '' and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa , with the result that the work was suspended . Seven years later , Cyrus the Great , who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple , died ( 2 Chronicles 36 : 22 -- 23 ) and was succeeded by his son Cambyses . On his death , the `` false Smerdis '' , an impostor , occupied the throne for some seven or eight months , and then Darius became king ( 522 BCE ) . In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion ( Ezra 5 : 6 -- 6 : 15 ) , under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah . It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE , more than twenty years after the return from captivity . The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar , in the sixth year of the reign of Darius , amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people ( Ezra 6 : 15 , 16 ) , although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people , but were subject to a foreign power . The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first ( Haggai 2 : 9 ) . Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 597 BCE , and are presumed lost . The Second Temple lacked the following holy articles : The Ark of the Covenant containing the Tablets of Stone , before which were placed the pot of manna and Aaron 's rod The Urim and Thummim ( divination objects contained in the Hoshen ) The holy oil The sacred fire . In the Second Temple , the Kodesh Hakodashim ( Holy of Holies ) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple . Still , as in the Tabernacle , the Second Temple included : The Menorah ( golden lamp ) for the Hekhal The Table of Showbread The golden altar of incense , with golden censers . According to the Mishnah ( Middot iii. 6 ) , the `` Foundation Stone '' stood where the Ark used to be , and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur . The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great . According to the Babylonian Talmud ( Yoma 22b ) , however , the Temple lacked the Shekinah , the dwelling or settling divine presence of God , and the Ruach HaKodesh , the Spirit of Holiness , present in the first . Rabbinical literature ( edit ) Traditional rabbinic literature state that the Second Temple stood for 420 years and based on the 2nd - century work Seder Olam Rabbah , placed construction in 350 BCE ( 3408 AM ) , 166 years later than secular estimates , and destruction in 70 CE ( 3829 AM ) . Rededication by the Maccabees ( edit ) Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great , it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE , when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Paneion . Judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria . When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and its religious services stopped , Judaism was effectively outlawed . In 167 BCE , Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple . He also banned circumcision and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the Temple . Following the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire , the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean kingdom , as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah . Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest ( edit ) There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule . Salome Alexandra , the queen of Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as the high priest of Judaea . Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne , and as soon as she died he seized the throne . Hyrcanus , who was in line to be the king , agreed to be contented with being the high priest . Antipater , the governor of Idumæa , encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne . Eventually Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III , king of the Nabateans , and returned with an army to take back the throne . He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem . The Roman general Pompey , who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War , sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea . Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support . Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this which caused Aristobulus to march off . He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey 's forces . The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE . The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege . The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans . Pompey himself , perhaps inadvertently , went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices . Solomon 's Temple which was on the site prior to the building of the Second Temple Herod 's Temple ( edit ) This picture shows the temple as imagined in 1966 in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem . Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount . Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process . When the Roman emperor Caligula planned to place his own statue inside the temple , Herod 's grandson Agrippa I was able to intervene and convince him against this . Construction ( edit ) James Tissot -- Reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple of Herod -- Brooklyn Museum A model of the southern wall and Royal Colonnade or Stoa Eastern portion of the southern wall of the Temple Mount Remains of the Hulda Gates Marwan Mosque on the site of Solomon 's Stables Herod 's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE . Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects , that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes , but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem . The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice . An agreement was made between Herod and the Jewish religious authorities : the sacrificial rituals , called offerings , were to be continued unabated for the entire time of construction , and the Temple itself would be constructed by the priests . Later the Exodus 30 : 13 sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax . Platform ( edit ) Mt . Moriah had a plateau at the northern end , and steeply declined on the southern slope . It was Herod 's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform . The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet broad by 9 stories high , with walls up to 16 feet thick , but had never been finished . To complete it , a trench was dug around the mountain , and huge stone `` bricks '' were laid . Some of these weighed well over 100 tons , the largest measuring 44.6 feet by 11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons , while most were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet ( approximately 28 tons ) . King Herod had architects from Greece , Rome and Egypt plan the construction . The blocks were presumably quarried by using pickaxes to create channels . Then they hammered in wooden beams and flushed them with water to force them out . Once they were removed , they were carved into precise squares and numbered at the quarry to show where they would be installed . The final carving would have been done by using harder stones to grind or chisel them to create precise joints . They would have been transported using oxen and specialized carts . Since the quarry was uphill from the temple they had gravity on their side but care needed to be taken to control the descent . Final installation would have been done using pulleys or cranes . Roman pulleys and cranes were n't strong enough to lift the blocks alone so they may have used multiple cranes and levers to position them . As the mountainside began to rise , the western side was carved away to a vertical wall and bricks were carved to create a virtual continuation of the brick face , which was continued for a while until the northern slope reached ground level . Part of the Antonian hill to the north of Moriah was annexed to the complex and the area between was filled up with landfill . The project began with the building of giant underground vaults upon which the temple would be built so it could be larger than the small flat area on top of Mount Moriah . Ground level at the time was at least 20 ft. ( 6m ) below the current level , as can be seen by walking the Western Wall tunnels . Legend has it that the construction of the entire complex lasted only three years , but other sources such as Josephus say that it took far longer , although the Temple itself may have taken that long . During a Passover visit by Jesus the Jews replied that it had been under construction for 46 years . It is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 CE . Court of the Gentiles ( edit ) This area was primarily a bazaar , with vendors selling souvenirs , sacrificial animals , food , as well as currency changers , exchanging Roman for Tyrian money because the Jews were not allowed to coin their own money and they viewed Roman currency as an abomination to the Lord , as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers when Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover , perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims . Guides that provided tours of the premises were also available . Jewish males had the unique opportunity to be shown inside the temple itself . The priests , in their white linen robes and tubular hats , were everywhere , directing pilgrims and advising them on what kinds of sacrifices were to be performed . Behind them , as they entered the Court of the Gentiles from the south through the Huldah Gates , was the Royal Porch , which contained a marketplace , administrative quarters , and a synagogue . On the upper floors , the great Jewish sages held court , priests and Levites performed various chores , and from there , tourists were able to observe the events . The Royal Porch is widely accepted to be part of Herod 's work ; however , recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas , as opposed to the first century BCE , while the theory that Herod began the extension and the Royal Porch is based mainly on Josephus 's possibly politically motivated claim . During Herod 's reign the porch was not yet open to the public ) To the east of the court was Solomon 's Porch , and to the north , the soreg , the `` middle wall of separation '' , a stone wall separating the public area from the inner sanctuary where only Jews could enter , described as being 3 cubits high by Josephus ( Wars 5.5. 2 ( 3b ) 6.2. 4 ) . Pinnacle ( edit ) The accounts of Jesus ' temptations in Matthew 's and Luke 's gospels both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more pinnacles ( Greek : το πτερυγιον του ιερου ) : Then he ( Satan ) brought Him to Jerusalem , set Him on the pinnacle of the temple , and said to Him , `` If You are the Son of God , throw Yourself down from here . '' The Greek word used here is pterugion , which literally means a little wing , or by extension anything like a wing such as a battlement or parapet . The archaeologist Benjamin Mazar thought it referred to the southeast corner of the Temple overlooking the Kidron Valley . Inside the soreg ( edit ) According to Josephus , there were ten entrances into the inner courts , four on the south , four on the north , one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites , named the Nicanor Gate . The gates were : On the south side ( going from west to east ) the Fuel Gate , the Firstling Gate , the Water Gate . On the north side , from west to east , are the Jeconiah Gate , the Offering Gate , the Women 's Gate and the Song Gate . On the Eastern side , the Nicanor gate , which is where most Jewish visitors entered . A few pieces of the Soreg have survived to the present day . Within this area was the Court of the Women , open to all Jews , male and female . Even a ritually unclean Cohen could enter to perform various housekeeping duties . There was also a place for lepers ( considered ritually unclean ) , as well as a ritual barbershop for Nazirites . In this , the largest of the temple courts , one could see constant dancing , singing and music . Only men were allowed to enter the Court of the Israelites , where they could observe sacrifices of the high priest in the Court of the Priests . The Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite priests . Temple sanctuary ( edit ) The Foundation Stone under the Dome of the Rock , a possible historical location for the Kodesh Hakodashim Between the entrance of the building and the curtain veiling the Holy of Holies were the famous vessels of the temple : the menorah , the incense - burning altar , and various other implements . Pilgrimages ( edit ) Proposed reconstruction of Robinson 's Arch Roman triumphal procession with spoils from the Temple , depicted on the inside wall of the Arch of Titus in Rome The Madaba Map depiction of 6th - century Aelia Capitolina has the Cardo Maximus , the town 's main street , beginning at the northern gate , today 's Damascus Gate , and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to `` Nea Church '' . Robinson 's Arch -- remains of the entrance built by Herod to the Royal Colonnade Remnants of the 1st century Stairs of Ascent , discovered by archaeologist Benjamin Mazar , to the entrance of the Temple Courtyard . Pilgrims coming to make sacrifices at the Temple would have entered and exited by this stairway . Stones from the Western Wall thrown down by Roman soldiers in 70 CE See also : Pilgrimage § Judaism Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa ( now part of Tel Aviv ) , where they would join a caravan for the three - day trek to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries . Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money , the latter two considered religious . The pilgrims would purchase sacrificial animals , usually a pigeon or a lamb , in preparation for the following day 's events . The first thing pilgrims would do would be to approach the public entrance on the south side of the Temple Mount complex . They would check their animals , then visit a mikveh , where they would ritually cleanse and purify themselves . The pilgrims would then retrieve their sacrificial animals , and head to the Huldah gates . After ascending a staircase three stories in height , and passing through the gate , the pilgrims would find themselves in the Court of the Gentiles . Destruction ( edit ) Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans ( 1850 painting by David Roberts ) . Looking southwest View of Temple Mount looking southwest View of the southern part of Temple Mount Main article : Siege of Jerusalem ( AD 70 ) In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire . Four years later , in 70 CE , Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple . The Arch of Titus , located in Rome and built to commemorate Titus ' victory in Judea , depicts a Roman victory procession with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple , including the Menorah . According to an inscription on the Colosseum , Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79 CE -- possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple . The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance , including the priesthood and the Sadducees . The destruction date according to the Hebrew calendar was the 9th of Av , also known as Tisha B'Av . The Temple itself was located on the site of what today is the Dome of the Rock . The gates let out close to Al - Aqsa Mosque ( which came much later ) . Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city , Emperor Hadrian established a new city called Aelia Capitolina . At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE , many of the Jewish communities were massacred and Jews were banned from living inside Jerusalem . A pagan Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herod 's Temple . Archaeology ( edit ) In 1871 , a hewn stone measuring 60 × 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont - Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription . The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended unto those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the soreg separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts . The inscription read in seven lines : ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ Translation : `` Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts . Anyone caught ( violating ) will be held accountable for his ensuing death . '' Today , the stone is preserved in Istanbul 's Museum of Antiquities . In 1936 a fragment of a similar Temple warning inscription was found . After 1967 , archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions ' Gate . Thus , the Western Wall is not the only remaining part of the Temple Mount . Currently , Robinson 's Arch ( named after American Edward Robinson ) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away . This had been used by the priests as an entrance . Commoners had entered through the still - extant , but now plugged , gates on the southern side which led through colonnades to the top of the platform . One of these colonnades is still extant and reachable through the Temple Mount . The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance . Recent archeological digs have found thousands of mikvehs ( ceremonial bathtubs ) for the ritual purification of the worshipers , as well as a grand stairway leading to the now blocked entrance . Inside the walls , the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways , now called Solomon 's Stables , which still exist and whose current renovation by the Waqf is extremely controversial . The temple itself was constructed of imported white marble that gleamed in the daylight . On September 25 , 2007 , Yuval Baruch , archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound which may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount . Coins , pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE . Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves . The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70 . Magdala Stone Bar Kokhba tetradracm showing the Jerusalem Temple façade 132 -- 135 CE Arch of Titus showing spoils of Jerusalem Temple The upper corner of Herod 's temple colonnade with ancient Hebrew inscription The Warning Inscription found in 1871 A copy of the inscription found in 1871 Fragment of Second Temple Warning The Trumpeting Place inscription , a stone ( 2.43 × 1 m ) with Hebrew inscription `` To the Trumpeting Place '' excavated by Benjamin Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount is believed to be a part of the Second Temple . Second Temple Judaism ( edit ) Main article : Second Temple Judaism The period between the construction of the Second Temple in 515 BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE witnessed major historical upheavals and significant religious changes that would affect most subsequent Abrahamic religions . The origins of the authority of scripture , of the centrality of law and morality in religion , of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period . See also ( edit ) Herodian architecture Jerusalem stone List of artifacts significant to the Bible List of megalithic sites Replicas of the Jewish Temple Temple of Peace , Rome Timeline of Jewish history Archaeological remnants of the Jerusalem Temple References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Albright , William ( 1963 ) . The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra : An Historical Survey . HarperCollins College Division . ASIN 0061301027 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 130102 - 7 . CS1 maint : ASIN uses ISBN ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Singer , Isidore ; et al. , eds. ( 1901 -- 1906 ) . `` Temple , The Second '' . Jewish Encyclopedia . New York : Funk & Wagnalls Company . Jump up ^ Paul Cartledge , Peter Garnsey , Erich S. Gruen ( editors ) , Hellenistic Constructs : Essays In Culture , History , and Historiography , p. 92 ( University of California Press , 1997 ) . ISBN 0 - 520 - 20676 - 2 Jump up ^ Ezra 2 : 65 ^ Jump up to : Easton , Matthew George ( 1897 ) . `` Temple , the Second '' . Easton 's Bible Dictionary ( New and revised ed . ) . T. Nelson and Sons . Jump up ^ Ezra 2 Jump up ^ Maimonides . `` Mishneh Torah , Sefer Avodah , Beis Habechirah , Chapter 4 , Halacha 1 '' . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Ezra 1 : 7 -- 11 Jump up ^ Goldwurm , Hersh . History of the Jewish people : the Second Temple era , Mesorah Publications , 1982 . Appendix : Year of the Destruction , p. 213 . ISBN 0 - 89906 - 454 - X Jump up ^ De Bellis Antiquitatis ( DBA ) The Battle of Panion ( 200 BC ) Archived 2009 - 12 - 23 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Flavius Josephus , The Wars of the Jews Jewish War i . 34 ^ Jump up to : Lester L. Grabbe ( 2010 ) . An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism : History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah , the Maccabees , Hillel , and Jesus . A&C Black . pp. 19 -- 20 , 26 -- 29 . ISBN 9780567552488 . ^ Jump up to : Secrets of Jerusalem 's Temple Mount , Leen Ritmeyer , Kathleen Ritmeyer , 1998 ^ Jump up to : Flavius Josephus : The Jewish War Jump up ^ The History Channel cited the 16.5 depth 567 ton estimate in `` Lost Worlds of King Herod '' Jump up ^ Dan Bahat : Touching the Stones of our Heritage , Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs , 2002 Jump up ^ `` Modern Marvels : Bible tech '' History channel Jump up ^ Gospel of John 2 : 20 Jump up ^ Beasley - Murray , G. ( 1999 ) . Word biblical commentary : John ( 2 ed. , Vol. 36 ) . Nashville , Tennessee : Thomas Nelson . Jump up ^ Sanders , E.P. The historical figure of Jesus . Penguin , 1993 . p. 249 Jump up ^ Funk , Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar . The acts of Jesus : the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus . HarperSanFrancisco. 1998 . Jump up ^ `` Israel Antiquities Authority '' . Jump up ^ In verse 14 of Ephesians 2 : 11 -- 18 Jump up ^ Luke 4 : 9 Jump up ^ Strong 's Concordance 4419 Jump up ^ Benjamin Mazar , The Mountain of the Lord , Doubleday ; 1975 , p 149 Jump up ^ Josephus , War 5.5. 2 ; 198 ; m . Mid . 1.4 Jump up ^ Sanders , E.P. The historical figure of Jesus . Penguin , 1993 . Jump up ^ Ehrman , Bart D ... Jesus , Interrupted , HarperCollins , 2009 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 117393 - 2 Jump up ^ Rome , By Bruce Johnston in . `` Colosseum ' built with loot from sack of Jerusalem temple ' '' . Jump up ^ Alföldy , Géza ( 1995 ) . `` Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum '' . Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 109 : 195 -- 226 . JSTOR 20189648 . Jump up ^ Simmons , Shraga . `` Tisha B'Av -- Ninth of Av '' . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Gaffney , Sean ( 2007 - 09 - 24 ) . `` USATODAY.com , Report : Herod 's Temple quarry found '' . Usatoday.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 31 . Jump up ^ Kershner , Isabel ( 8 December 2015 ) . `` A Carved Stone Block Upends Assumptions About Ancient Judaism '' . New York Times . Retrieved 9 December 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Jewish temple in Jerusalem . Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem The Jewish History Resource Center , Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History , The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jewish Encyclopedia : Temple , The Second 4 Enoch : The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Jerusalem Videos The Southern & Western walls in Jerusalem -- The Temple Mount Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem The Jewish History Resource Center , Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History , The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Temple Mount Photos The Temple Mount photos including sites below the Mount itself , off limits to any non-Muslims Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Herod and the Herodian Dynasty The Jewish History Resource Center -- Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History , The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jewish Encyclopedia : Temple of Herod PBS Frontline : Temple Culture Picture gallery of a model of the temple Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem The Jewish History Resource Center , Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History , The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jewish Encyclopedia : Temple , The Second 4 Enoch : The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Temple Mount Al - Aqsa Mosque Al - Qibli Chapel Fountain of Qasim Pasha Murabitat Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Walls Western Wall Little Western Wall Dung Gate Heritage Foundation Modesty guard Mughrabi Bridge Paratroopers at the Western Wall Placing notes Platoon of the Wall Pro -- Wailing Wall Committee Western Stone Western Wall camera Wilson 's Arch Women for the Wall Western Wall Tunnel Other walls Eastern Wall Southern Wall Hall of Hewn Stones Temples Solomon 's Temple Second Temple Third Temple The Temple Institute Archaeological remnants Dome of the Rock Dome of al - Khalili Dome of the Ascension Dome of the Chain Dome of the Prophet Dome of the Rock Dome of Yusuf Fountain of Qayt Bay Antiquities Foundation Stone Acra Antonia Fortress Birket Israel Committee for the Prevention of Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount Excavations Hasmonean Baris Minarets Monastery of the Virgins Pool of Raranj Ptolemaic Baris Robinson 's Arch Royal Stoa Solomon 's Stables Struthion Pool Temple Mount Sifting Project Gates Al - 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81 | document: Midbrain - wikipedia Midbrain Jump to : navigation , search Midbrain Inferior view midbrain ( 2 ) , above ( 3 ) Human brainstem midbrain ( B ) thalamus ( A ) pons ( C ) medulla oblongata ( D ) Details Identifiers Latin mesencephalon MeSH D008636 NeuroNames 462 NeuroLex ID birnlex_1667 TA A14. 1.03. 005 FMA 61993 Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy ( edit on Wikidata ) The midbrain or mesencephalon ( UK : / ˌmɛsɛnˈsɛfəlɒn / or / - kɛfəlɒn / , US : / ˌmɛzənˈsɛfələn / ; from Greek mesos ' middle ' , and enkephalos ' brain ' ) is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision , hearing , motor control , sleep / wake , arousal ( alertness ) , and temperature regulation . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Tectum 1.1. 1 Medial and lateral pathways of the tectum 1.2 Fourth ventricle 1.3 Cerebral peduncle 1.3. 1 Substantia nigra 1.4 Corpora quadrigemina 1.5 Cerebral peduncle 1.6 Anatomical features of cross-sections through the midbrain 1.7 Development 2 Function 3 See also 4 References Structure ( edit ) The midbrain comprises the tectum , tegmentum , the cerebral aqueduct , and the cerebral peduncles , as well as several nuclei and fasciculi . Caudally the midbrain adjoins the metencephalon ( afterbrain ) ( pons and cerebellum ) . Rostrally it adjoins the diencephalon ( thalamus , hypothalamus , etc . ) . Specifically , the midbrain consists of : Tectum ( edit ) Inferior colliculi Superior colliculi Medial and lateral pathways of the tectum ( edit ) The medial descending pathway comprises the vestibulospinal tracts ( lateral and medial tracts with control from the cerebellum ) , reticulospinal tract , and the tectospinal tract . These tracts run though the medial reticular formation , the lateral and medial vestibular nuclei . These tracts extend rostrally and caudally of the tectum . The vestibulospinal tracts ; the medial tract originate in the medial and inferior vestibular nuclei moving caudally to the anterior funiculus controlling muscle tone , while the lateral tract originates from lateral vestibular nuclei also referred to as Deiters ' nucleus named after Otto Deiters ( 1834 -- 1863 ) . The reticulospinal tract consists of dense cortical neurons which direct motor input as the tract terminates sequentially down the spine . The tectospinal tract provides stability and posture control . The lateral descending pathway consists of the rubrospinal tract originating from the red nucleus responsible for voluntary motor movement , and partially of the lateral corticospinal tract as this tract does not originate or terminate in the tectum but does play a critical role with afferent and efferent motor control along sidetone rubrospinal tract of the tectum . Fourth ventricle ( edit ) The ventricular system comprises the choroid plexus , which produces cerebral spinal fluid ( CSF ) , the lateral , third , and fourth ventricles responsible for circulating the CSF . The fourth ventricle is the most caudal aspect of the cerebral ventricular system , and is formed by the pons and medulla . The fourth ventricle is connected to the third ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct , and is the smallest ventricle in the ventricular system . Cerebral spinal fluid originates via the choroid plexus , circulating through the ventricular system and recycled into the subarachnoid space . In the fourth ventricle , CSF is recycled through spinal nerve sheaths through the epidural vein . Cerebral peduncle ( edit ) Midbrain tegmentum Crus cerebri Substantia nigra ( edit ) The substantia nigra is located in the midbrain , with a left and right region , with two primary regions ; the substantia nigra pars compact and the substantia nigra pars reticular . This region contains three of the four primary dopaminergic tracts and is responsible for coordination of eye movement and voluntary motor movement . The region undergoes extremely high metabolic synthesis of dopamine and norepinephrine through the metabolic conversion of tyrosine to L - DOPA via enzymatic reaction Tyrosine Hydroxlyase ( cat - 2 ) , to dopamine through Aromatic L - Amino Acid Decarboxylase , and if not used processed further through Dopamine Beta - Hydroxylase into Norepinephrine or Epinephrine via an additional reaction . This region of the brain has been extensively studied in biomedical research due to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in this region contributes to the progression of Parkinson 's disease . Currently , there is not a cure for Parkinson 's disease but there are short - term effective treatments . Exogenous L - DOPA has been shown to be an effective treatment , however long - term use can result in increased dyskinesia and have deleterious effects on the survival of dopaminergic neurons . Extensive biomedical research is underway after the initiation of the BRAIN initiative formed by the Obama administration in 2013 with the audacious goal of creating cures and preventive measures by 2023 . Brain Anatomy - Mid-fore - hindbrain . Corpora quadrigemina ( edit ) Main article : Corpora quadrigemina The corpora quadrigemina ( `` quadruplet bodies '' ) are four solid lobes on the dorsal side of the cerebral aqueduct , where the superior posterior pair are called the superior colliculi and the inferior posterior pair are called the inferior colliculi . The homologous structures are called optic lobes in some lower vertebrates ( fishes and amphibians ) where they integrate sensory information from the eyes and certain auditory reflexes . The four solid lobes help to decussate several fibres of the optic nerve . However , some fibers also show ipsilateral arrangement ( i.e. , they run parallel on the same side without decussating . ) The superior colliculus is involved with saccadic eye movements ; while the inferior is a synapsing point for sound information . The trochlear nerve comes out of the posterior surface of the midbrain , below the inferior colliculus . Cerebral peduncle ( edit ) Main article : cerebral peduncles The cerebral peduncles are paired structures , present on the ventral side of the cerebral aqueduct , and they further carry tegmentum on the dorsal side and cresta or pes on the ventral side , and both of them accommodate the corticospinal tract fibres , from the internal capsule ( i.e. , ascending + descending tracts = longitudinal tract . ) the middle part of cerebral peduncles carry substantia nigra ( literally `` Black Matter '' ) , which is a type of basal nucleus . It is the only part of the brain that carries melanin pigment . Between the peduncles is the interpeduncular fossa , which is a cistern filled with cerebrospinal fluid . The oculomotor nerve comes out between the peduncles , and the trochlear nerve is visible wrapping around the outside of the peduncles . The oculomotor is responsible for pupil constriction ( parasympathetic ) and certain eye movements . Anatomical features of cross-sections through the midbrain ( edit ) Cross-section of the midbrain at the level of the superior colliculus . Cross-section of the midbrain at the level of the inferior colliculus . The midbrain is usually sectioned at the level of the superior and inferior colliculi . Mesencephalon of human embryo A horizontal ( transverse ) cross-section at the level of the superior colliculus shows the red nucleus , the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve ( and associated Edinger - Westphal nucleus ) , the cerebral peduncles or crus cerebri , and the substantia nigra . A horizontal ( transverse ) cross-section at the level of the inferior colliculus still shows the substantia nigra . Also apparent are the trochlear nerve nucleus , and the decussation of the superior cerebellar peduncles . Both sections will show the cerebral aqueduct , which connects the third and fourth ventricle and the periaqueductal gray . One mnemonic for remembering the structures of the midbrain involves visualizing the mesencephalic cross-section as an upside down bear face . The two red nuclei are the eyes of the bear and the cerebral crura are the ears . The tectum is the chin and the cerebral peduncles are the face and ears . Development ( edit ) During embryonic development , the midbrain arises from the second vesicle , also known as the mesencephalon , of the neural tube . Unlike the other two vesicles , the forebrain and hindbrain , the midbrain remains undivided for the remainder of neural development . It does not split into other brain areas . while the forebrain , for example , divides into the telencephalon and the diencephalon . Throughout embryonic development , the cells within the midbrain continually multiply and compress the still - forming cerebral aqueduct . Partial or total obstruction of the cerebral aqueduct during development can lead to congenital hydrocephalus . Function ( edit ) The mesencephalon is considered part of the brainstem . Its substantia nigra is closely associated with motor system pathways of the basal ganglia . The human mesencephalon is archipallian in origin , meaning that its general architecture is shared with the most ancient of vertebrates . Dopamine produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area plays a role in excitation , motivation and habituation of species from humans to the most elementary animals such as insects . Laboratory house mice from lines that have been selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have enlarged midbrains . The midbrain helps to relay information for vision and hearing . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mesencephalon . Look up midbrain in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . list of regions in the human brain References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` mesencephalon '' . Oxford English Dictionary ( 3rd ed . ) . Oxford University Press . September 2005 . ( Subscription or UK public library membership required . ) Jump up ^ Mosby 's Medical , Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary , ≈ Fourth Edition , Mosby - Year Book 1994 , p. 981 Jump up ^ Breedlove , Watson , & Rosenzweig . Biological Psychology , 6th Edition , 2010 , pp. 45 - 46 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 04 - 27 . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 05 . Jump up ^ Kandel , Eric ( 2000 ) . Principles of Neural Science . McGraw - Hill . p. 669 . ISBN 0 - 8385 - 7701 - 6 . Jump up ^ Laterra , John . `` Blood -- Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier '' . NCBI . ^ Jump up to : Damier , P. ; Hirsch , E.C. ; Agid , Y. ; Graybiel , A.M. ( 1999 - 08 - 01 ) . `` The substantia nigra of the human brainII . Patterns of loss of dopamine - containing neurons in Parkinson 's disease '' . Brain . 122 ( 8 ) : 1437 -- 1448 . doi : 10.1093 / brain / 122.8. 1437 . ISSN 0006 - 8950 . Jump up ^ Smith , L.M. ; Parr - Brownlie , L.C. ; Duncan , E.J. ; Black , M.A. ; Gemmell , N.J. ; Dearden , P.K. ; Reynolds , J.N.J. `` Striatal mRNA expression patterns underlying peak dose l - DOPA - induced dyskinesia in the 6 - OHDA hemiparkinsonian rat '' . Neuroscience. 324 : 238 -- 251 . doi : 10.1016 / j. neuroscience. 2016.03. 012 . Jump up ^ Collins Dictionary of Biology , 3rd ed . © W.G. Hale , V.A. Saunders , J.P. Margham 2005 Jump up ^ Ferrier , David ( 1886 ) . `` Functions of the optic lobes or corpora quadrigemina '' . doi : 10.1037 / 12789 - 005 . Jump up ^ Haines , Duane E. Neuroanatomy : an atlas of structures , sections , and systems ( 8th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Wolters Kluwer / Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health . p. 42 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60547 - 653 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Martin . Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas , Second edition . 1996 , pp. 522 - 525 . Jump up ^ Martin . Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas , Second Edition , 1996 , pp. 35 - 36 . Jump up ^ `` Hydrocephalus Fact Sheet '' . National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke . February 2008 . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 23 . Jump up ^ Kolb , E.M. , E.L. Rezende , L. Holness , A. Radtke , S.K. Lee , A. Obenaus , and Garland T , Jr. 2013 . Mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have larger midbrains : support for the mosaic model of brain evolution . Journal of Experimental Biology 216 : 515 - 523 . Nervous system Central nervous system Meninges Spinal cord Brain Rhombencephalon Medulla Pons Cerebellum Midbrain Forebrain Diencephalon Retina Optic nerve Cerebrum Limbic system Peripheral nervous system Somatic Sensory nerve Motor nerve Cranial nerve Spinal nerve Autonomic Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric Anatomy of the midbrain Tectum ( Dorsal ) Surface Corpora quadrigemina : Inferior colliculus Brachium Superior colliculus Brachium Grey matter Pretectal area White : Sensory / ascending Spinotectal tract Central tegmental tract White : Motor / descending Tectospinal tract Peduncle ( Ventral ) Tegmentum White : Sensory / ascending Lemnisci Medial Lateral Ascending MLF Vestibulo - oculomotor fibers Spinothalamic tract Anterior trigeminothalamic tract Dentatothalamic tract White : Motor / descending Rubrospinal tract Rubro - olivary tract Descending MLF Grey : cranial nuclei GSA Mesencephalic - GSE Oculomotor nucleus , Trochlear nucleus - GVE Edinger -- Westphal nucleus Grey : other Periaqueductal gray Raphe nuclei dorsal Ventral tegmental area Rostromedial tegmental nucleus Pedunculopontine nucleus Red nucleus Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus Parabrachial area Interpeduncular nucleus Midbrain reticular formation Ventricular system Cerebral aqueduct Base White : Motor / descending Cerebral crus : Corticospinal tract Corticobulbar tract Corticopontine tract / Frontopontine fibers / Temporopontine fibers Grey : Substantia nigra Pars compacta Pars reticulata Surface Superior cerebellar peduncle Decussation Interpeduncular fossa Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midbrain&oldid=832927287 '' Categories : Midbrain Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties Anatomy infobox template using unsupported parameters Infobox brain using braininfo parameter All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche 中文 40 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2018 , at 18 : 40 . 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82 | document: Telecommunications ( Interception and access ) Amendment ( data retention ) Act 2015 - Wikipedia Telecommunications ( Interception and access ) Amendment ( data retention ) Act 2015 Jump to : navigation , search This article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may only interest a specific audience . Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information , and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia 's inclusion policy . ( June 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Act 2015 Parliament of Australia Status : Current legislation The Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Act 2015 is an Australian law that amends the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Act 1979 ( TIA Act ) and the Telecommunications Act 1997 to introduce a statutory obligation for Australian telecommunication service providers to retain , for a period of two years , particular types of telecommunications data ( metadata ) and introduces certain reforms to the regimes applying to the access of stored communications and telecommunications data under the TIA Act . The Act is the third tranche of national security legislation passed by the Australian Parliament since September 2014 . Pursuant to s 187AA , the following types of information need to be retained by telecommunication service providers : Incoming and outgoing telephone caller identification Date , time and duration of a phone call Location of the device from which phone call was made Unique identifier number assigned to a particular mobile phone of the phones involved in each particular phone call The email address from which an email is sent The time , date and recipients of emails The size of any attachment sent with emails and their file formats Account details held by the internet service provider ( ISP ) such as whether or not the account is active or suspended . The content or substance of a communication is not considered to be metadata and will not be stored . Twenty - two agencies including the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ( ASIO ) , state police forces , Australian Crime Commission , Australian Taxation Office and NSW Independent Commission Against Corruption ( ICAC ) are able to view stored metadata without a warrant . The only exception is the metadata of those defined under the Act as journalists . Under a concession driven by the Australian Labor Party , agencies need to seek a warrant before a judicial officer before they are able to view the metadata of journalists , whilst ASIO will need to seek permission of the Attorney - General . The Abbott Government 's decision to introduce a mandatory telecommunications data regime led to considerable community debate . It was supported by law enforcement and national security agencies , including the Australian Federal Police and ASIO , who argued telecommunications data is critical to criminal investigations and that it is only through legislation that they can be assured that it will be available . The decision was opposed by a wide range of groups and individuals including journalists , human rights organisations and civil liberties groups . Their objections were made on a number of grounds , such as the consequences for journalism and journalistic practice , the non-proportionate and increasing encroachment of the privacy of Australia 's population , and the effectiveness of the regime as a tool to combat crime . Questions over its cost and the consequences for the telecommunications industry , in particular small to medium - sized providers , have also been raised as arguments against mandatory data retention . While the Act is law , telecommunications and ISPs have an 18 - month grace period to improve their systems and establish processes to comply with the legislation . Telstra has indicated it will store data it retains within Australia , but other telcos and ISPs are not obligated to do so under the law . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 1.1 Access to telecommunications data prior to the Act 1.2 Proposals for reform 1.3 PJCIS recommendations : 2013 and 2015 reports 2 Overview of the Act 2.1 Schedule One 2.1. 1 Division 1 of Part 5 - 1A : Obligation to keep information or documents 2.1. 2 Information or documents to be retained 2.1. 3 Information excluded from data retention regime 2.1. 4 Application of Part 5 - 1A to telecommunication service providers 2.1. 5 Division 2 of Part 5 - 1A : Data retention implementation plans 2.1. 6 Amendments to the ASIO Act and Intelligence Services Act 2001 2.1. 7 Journalist information warrants 2.1. 8 Public Interest Advocate 2.2 Schedule Two 2.2. 1 Criminal law enforcement agencies 2.2. 2 Enforcement agencies 2.3 Schedule Three 2.3. 1 Record - keeping obligations 2.3. 2 Oversight by Ombudsman 3 Compatibility with human rights 3.1 Right to privacy ( Article 17 , ICCPR ) 3.1. 1 Schedule 1 3.1. 2 Schedule 2 3.1. 3 Schedule 3 3.2 Right to freedom of expression ( Article 19 , ICCPR ) 3.3 Right to life and security of person ( Articles 6 and 9 , ICCPR ) 4 Case for data retention 4.1 Modernisation 4.2 High - risk environment 5 Case against data retention 5.1 Breaches human rights 5.2 Problems with definition of the data set 5.3 Distinction between content and metadata 5.4 Duration of data retention obligation 5.5 Security of retained data 5.6 Access to stored communications 5.7 Blanket data retention not essential nor effective 5.8 Journalists and their sources 5.9 Cost 6 Lawfully circumventing the data retention scheme 7 References 8 External links Background ( edit ) Access to telecommunications data prior to the Act ( edit ) Under the previous regime set down under the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Act 1979 ( the TIA Act ) , ' enforcement agencies ' and ASIO could access telecommunications data through issuing an internal , or intra-organisation , authorisation . During the 2012 - 2013 inquiry into Australia 's national security legislation conducted by the PJCIS , the Attorney General 's Department issued a document detailing what it considered to be telecommunications data . This included `` information that allowed a communication to occur '' , such as the date , time and duration of the communication , the devices involved in the communication , and the location of those devices such as mobile phone tower , and `` information about the parties to the communication '' , such as their names and addresses . Section 5 of the Act defined an enforcement agency to include the Australian Federal Police ( AFP ) , the police force of a State or Territory , the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service , crime commissions , anti-corruption bodies and the CrimTrac Agency . The definition also included an allowance enabling organisations whose remit either involves the administration of law involving a financial penalty or the administration of a law to protect taxation revenue to access telecommunications data . The head of an enforcement agency , the deputy head of an agency , or a management level officer or employee of an agency , given permission in writing by the head of the agency , had the power to authorise access to telecommunications data . For ASIO , authorisations for access to telecommunications data could only be made when the individual making the authorisation was `` satisfied that the disclosure would be in connection with the performance by the Organisation of its functions '' . ASIO also had to comply with guidelines issued under Section 8A of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 . These guidelines demanded that the initiation and continuation of investigations only be authorised by the Director - General , or an officer at or above Executive Level 2 authorised by the Director - General for that purpose ; and that any means used for obtaining information must be proportionate to the gravity of the threat posed and the probability of its occurrence . In 2012 - 13 , more than 80 Commonwealth , State and Territory enforcement agencies accessed telecommunications data under the TIA Act . In that same period , more than 330,640 authorisations were dispensed allowing access to data . These authorisations resulted in 546,500 disclosures . Proposals for Reform ( edit ) Since at least June 2010 , it had been reported that the Australian Government was considering establishing a telecommunications data retention scheme . On 4 May 2012 , the Gillard Government announced plans to review a range of national security legislation , including that covering `` lawful access to telecommunications ... to ensure that vital investigative tools are not lost as telecommunications providers change their business practices and begin to delete data more regularly . '' In July 2012 the Attorney - General 's Department released `` Equipping Australia against Emerging and Evolving Threats '' , a discussion paper focused on proposed national security reforms . The paper 's first chapter outlined the terms of reference for an inquiry to be conducted by the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security ( PJCIS ) into the potential reform of national security legislation , specifically the four following Acts : Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Act 1979 Telecommunications Act 1997 Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 Intelligence Services Act 2001 The discussion paper grouped these proposals into three different categories : those the Government wished to progress , those the Government was considering , and those on which the Government was seeking the Committee 's opinion . Though the paper contained eighteen proposals and forty - one individual reforms , the suggestion that carriage service providers ( CSPs ) be required to retain information on the way Australians use the internet and mobile phones elicited much consternation and comment from the community . This was a point the Committee highlighted in its final report to the Government : `` The potential data retention regime attracted a large amount of criticism and comment from organizations and concerned individuals . These organizations and individuals generally considered any potential data retention regime a significant risk to both the security and their privacy . In addition to these general comments , the Committee received a large volume of form letter correspondence . '' On 24 June 2013 , the Committee issued its report and put the decision on whether to progress with a mandatory data retention scheme back in the Government 's hands . On the same day the report was released , Attorney - General Mark Dreyfus announced the Government would not be pursuing its proposal . On 30 October 2014 , the Abbott Government introduced the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 into the House of Representatives . On 21 November 2014 , the Attorney - General Senator George Brandis wrote to the PJCIS , referring the provisions of the Bill for inquiry . Chaired by MP Dan Tehan , the Committee received 204 submissions , 31 supplementary submissions and held three public hearings . On 27 February 2015 , the Committee presented its report , containing 39 recommendations . On 3 March 2015 , the Government announced it would accept all the Committee 's recommendations . However , the opposition Labor Party only agreed to support the passage of the Bill through the Senate after amendments were made to protect journalistic sources . On 26 March 2015 , the Senate voted in favour of the Bill . On 13 April 2015 , the Governor - General gave his royal assent and the Act entered into law . PJCIS recommendations : 2013 and 2015 reports ( edit ) In response to the need for available telecommunications data and growing national security threats , Attorney - General George Brandis asked the PJCIS to inquire into and report on the Act . The Committee handed down its report entitled Report of the Inquiry into Potential Reforms of Australia 's National Security Legislation ( 2013 PJCIS Report ) on 24 June 2013 , in which it made these recommendations : The data retention obligation only applies to telecommunications data ( not content ) and internet browsing is explicitly excluded ( Recommendation 42 ) Service providers are required to protect the confidentiality of retained data by encrypting the information and protecting ( Recommendation 42 ) Mandatory data retention will be reviewed by the PJCIS no more than three years after its commencement ( Recommendation 42 ) The Commonwealth Ombudsman will oversight the mandatory data retention scheme and more broadly law enforcement exercise of powers under Chapter 3 and 4 of the TIA Act ( Recommendations 4 and 42 ) ; and Confining agencies ' use of , and access to , telecommunications data through refined access arrangements , including a ministerial declaration scheme based on demonstrated investigative or operations need ( Recommendation 5 ) . The Act was again referred to the PJCIS for inquiry on 21 November 2014 , where the Committee tabled its Advisory Report on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Act 2014 ( 2015 PJCIS Report ) on 25 February 2015 . The PJCIS made these additional recommendations : The implementation of a mandatory data retention regime is necessary to maintain the capability of national security and law enforcement agencies and recommended that the Act be passed ( Recommendation 39 ) Establish a ' journalist information warrants ' regime and restrict the agencies who can access this data ( Recommendation 26 and 27 ) Provide for record - keeping and reporting the use of , and access to , telecommunications data and enable the Commonwealth Ombudsman to assess agency compliance ( Recommendation 29 ) Amend the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 ( Cth ) to provide that certain matters relating to data retention be include in the ASIO Annual Report ; and Amend the Intelligence Services Act 2001 ( Cth ) to enable to PJCIS to inquire into operation matters relating to the use of telecommunications data by ASIO and the Australian Federal Police , in relation to counter-terrorism function ( Recommendation 34 ) On 3 March 2015 , the Abbott Government announced that it would accept all of the above recommendations , and on 19 March 2015 , the House of Representatives agreed to the amendments to the Act and to the Intelligence Services Act 2001 , the Telecommunication Act 1997 , and the Privacy Act 1988 and the Australia Security Intelligence Organisations Act 1979 to give effect to the 2015 PJCIS Report . The House of Representatives also agreed to amendments to implement the ' journalist information warrant ' scheme . Overview of the Act ( edit ) The Act 's purpose is to amend the TIA Act and Telecommunications Act 1997 so as to require service providers to retain a defined subset of telecommunications data ( the data set ) produced in the course of providing telecommunications services . Before the Act , the TIA Act did not specify the types of data the telecommunications industry should retain for law enforcement and national security purposes , or how long that information should be held . As a result , there was significant variation across the telecommunications industry in the types of data available to national law enforcement agencies and national security agencies and the period of time information was available . The lack of available data was identified by agencies as an impediment to their ability to investigate and prosecute national security - related offences , including counter-terrorism , counter-espionage and cyber-security and serious criminal offences such as murder , rape and kidnapping . The amendments are contained in three schedules to the Act : Schedule 1 : Data retention -- requires telecommunications services providers to retain data associated with a communication for a two - year period . Schedule 2 : Restricting access to stored communications and telecommunications data -- deals with access to retained data . Schedule 3 : Oversight by the Commonwealth Ombudsman -- sets out the Ombudsman 's role in overseeing compliance with the Act . Schedule one ( edit ) Division 1 of Part 5 - 1A : obligation to keep information or documents ( edit ) Section 187A requires relevant telecommunications service providers to retain communications data associated with a communication specified in section 187AA for two years . The Revised Explanatory Memorandum ( 2013 - 2014 - 2015 ) ( Memorandum ) explains the two - year retention period is necessary so national security and law enforcement agencies have telecommunications data available for investigations . Section 187AA lists in a detailed technologically - neutral table the kinds of information service providers must collect and retain in relation to each relevant service they provide . According to the Memorandum , section 187AA ensures the ' legislative framework gives service providers sufficient technical detail about their data retention obligations while remaining flexible enough to adapt to future changes in communication technology ' . Subsection 187AA ( 2 ) permits the Attorney - General to amend the data set set out in section 187AA temporarily by issuing a declaration . This is designed to cover a situation where future technologies or changing telecommunications practices require amendments to the data set to ensure the data retention scheme continues to meet its underlying purpose . However , this power is subject to section 187AA ( 3 ) ( a ) which provides that the declaration ceases to be effective 40 sitting days of either House of Parliament after the declaration comes into force . Information or documents to be retained ( edit ) Item Information or documents to be kept Explanation The subscriber of , and accounts , services , telecommunications devices and other relevant services relating to , the relevant service This includes customer identifying details such as name and address , contact details such as phone numbers and email addresses and acting and payment information . It also includes information relating to any contract , agreement or arrangement relating to the relevant service or account . This allows law enforcement agencies to confirm the subscriber 's identity . The source of the communication Identifiers for the source of a communication may include : The phone number , IMSI , IMEI from which a call or SMS was made Identifying details ( such as username , address , number ) of the account , service or device from which a text , voice , or multi-media communication was made ( e.g. , email , VoIP , instant message or video communication ) The IP address and port number allocated to the subscriber or device connected to the internet at the time of the communication ; or Any other service or device identifier known to the provider that uniquely identifies the source of the communication In all instances , the identifiers retained to identify the source of the communication are the ones relevant to , or used in , the operation of the particular service in question . The destination of a communication The destination of a communication is the recipient . Identifiers for a communication 's destination may include : The phone number that received a call or SMS Identifying details ( such as username , address or number ) of the account , service or device which receives a text , voice or multimedia communication ; The IP address allocated to a subscriber or device connected to the internet at the time of receipt of the communication ; and Any other service or device identifier known to the provider that uniquely identifies the destination of the communication Paragraph 187A ( 4 ) ( b ) puts beyond doubt that service providers are not required to keep information about subscribers ' web - browsing history The date , time and duration of a communication , or of its connection to a relevant service For phone calls , this is the date and time of the call , which will include the following information : The start and end of the communication ; and The connection and disconnection to the relevant service . For internet sessions , this is when a device or account connects to a data network , and ends when it disconnected . 5 The type of a communication and relevant service used in connection with a communication The ' type ' of communication is the form of the communication , including the following : ( a ) the type of communication : ( e.g. voice , SMS , email , chat , forum , social media ) ( b ) the type of the relevant service : ( e.g. ADSL , Wi Fi , VoIP , cable , GPRS , VoLTE , LTE ) ( c ) the features of the relevant service that were , or would have been , used by or enabled for the communication ( e.g. call waiting , call forwarding , data volume usage ) Data volume usage refers to the amount of data uploaded and downloaded by the subscriber . This information can be measured for each session , or in a way applicable to the operation and Acting of the service of question , such as per day or per month . Subsection 187A ( 5 ) ( b ) clarifies that untariffed communications such as 1800 phone calls , communications sent using ' unlimited ' phone or internet planes , or free internet or application of services , are communications for data retention purposes . 6 The location of equipment or a line used in connection with a communication Location records are limited to the location of a device at the start and end of a communication , such as a phone call or an SMS message . This information will include the location of the equipment or line at the start and end of the communication ( e.g. cell towers , WiFi hotspots ) For services provided to a fixed location such as an ADSL service , this requirement can be met with the retention of the subscriber 's address Paragraph 187A ( 4 ) ( e ) of the Act providers that location records are limited to information that is used by a service provider in relation to the relevant service and could include information such as the cell tower , WiFi hotspot or base station a device was connected to at the start and end of communication . Information excluded from data retention regime ( edit ) Section Details Explanation Subsection 187A ( 4 ) ( a ) Service providers are not required to keep information / documents that are the contents or substance of a communication . Does not preclude providers from retaining the content or substance of a communication for other lawful purposes , such as their lawful business purposes This includes : Words spoken during a phone call The subject line of an email Text in an SMS / email Lawful business purposes may include keeping the content of emails on a server as a necessary part of providing an email service . Subsection 187A ( 4 ) ( b ) Service providers are not required to retain information or documents that state an address to which a communication was sent on the internet from a telecommunications device using an internet access service This refers specifically to ' internet browsing history ' and refers to internet address identifiers obtained by a carrier solely as the result of providing an internet access service If the telecommunications service provider obtains a destination internet address identifier as a result of providing another service , for example , an email service -- it is required to keep a record of that information This provision gives effect to Recommendation 42 of the 2013 PJCIS Report , that internet browsing data should be explicitly excluded from the scope of any data retention scheme Subsection 187A ( 4 ) ( b ) and ( c ) Operates to exclude information of a certain character from retention obligations This includes information an internet access provider has about destinations of the internet that the provider only has because it provides that service Subsection 187A ( 5 ) Attempted and untariffed communications Examples include : A phone number is dialed but the phone rings and is unanswered or rings out ( subparagraph 187A ( 5 ) ( a ) ( i ) ) ; An email server attempts to send a new email to an email client , but the email service does not exist or is not working ( subparagraph If telecommunication providers do not presently create the information or documents required by s 187AA , then section 187A ( 6 ) requires providers to use other means to create the information . Furthermore , s 187BA requires a service provider to protect the confidentiality of information it keeps by encrypting it and protecting it from unauthorised interference or access . The section does not prescribe a particular type of encryption . Section 187LA requires service providers to ' take such steps as are reasonable in the circumstances to protect ( personal ) information from misuse , interference and loss and from unauthorised access , modification and disclosure ' . These privacy safeguards are in addition to pre-existing obligations under clause 4.6. 3 of the Telecommunications Consumer Protection Code which require service providers to have ' robust procedures to keep its customers ' personal information in its possession secure and restrict access to personnel who are authorised by the Supplier ' . These obligations can be varied and exempted . Under Division 2 of Part 5 - 1A , a service provider may seek approval of a data retention implementation plan that replaces a provider 's obligations under s 187BA . This may be appropriate where the cost of encrypting a legacy system that was not designed to be encrypted would be unduly onerous and the provider has identified an alternative information security measure that could be employed . While service providers are not prevented from retaining telecommunications data for more than two years for their own lawful purposes , the Act still requires service providers that hold ' personal information ' to take reasonable steps to destroy that information or ensure that information is de-identified where the entity no longer needs the information for a reason set out in the APPs . In other words , when the retention period for the telecommunications data under Part 5 - 1A of the TIA Act expires , entities may be required to destroy or de-identify such information if it constitutes personal information . Application of Part 5 - 1A to telecommunication service providers ( edit ) Data retention obligations only apply to services that satisfy paragraphs 187A ( 3 ) ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) , which includes services for carrying communications , or enabling communications to be carried by guided or unguided electromagnetic energy , or both . Accordingly , data retention obligations apply to relevant services that operate ' over the top ' ( OTP ) of , or in conjunction with , other services that carry communications and may , presumably , extend to internet service providers ( ISPs ) and Australian telecommunication companies such as Telstra , Vodafone and Optus . The Attorney - General is also granted power under section 187A ( 3A ) to declare additional services to be within the data retention regime . Section 187B excludes certain service providers from complying with the data retention obligations , and ensures that entities such as the government , universities and corporations are not required to retain telecommunications data in relation to their own internal networks ( provided they are not offered to the public ) . Similarly , s 187B extends to providers of communication services in a single place , such as free WiFi access in cafés and restaurants . The exemption of a service is , however , subject to the discretion of the Communications Access Co-ordinator ( CAC ) , who , pursuant to section 187B ( 2A ) , can declare a service provider is nevertheless required to retain telecommunications data . Subsection 187B ( 3 ) provides that in making such a declaration , the CAC must have regard to the interests of law enforcement and security , the objects of the Telecommunications Act and the Privacy Act , along with any submissions of the Privacy Commissioner . Division 2 of Part 5 - 1A : data retention implementation plans ( edit ) Division 2 of Part 5 - 1A of the TIA Act relates to ' data retention implementation plans ' , which are plans intended to allow the telecommunications industry to design a pathway to full compliance with the data retention and security obligations within 18 months of the commencement of those obligations . There is a 2 - year window for telecommunication service providers and ISPs to implement the changes made by the Act , and over the first 6 months , service providers and ISPs must apply to the Communications Access Co-ordinator ( CAC ) to obtain approval for their ' data retention implementation plan ' . This plan must explain the organisation 's current practices , details of the interim arrangements , and the expected date when the organisation will comply with the data retention requirements . Section 187F sets out the factors the CAC must take into account when considering the approval of a submitted plan . These factors include : Desirability of a service provider achieving substantial compliance with its data retention and security obligations as soon as practicable : s 187F ( 2 ) ( a ) Whether the proposed plan would reduce the service provider 's regulatory burden : s 187 ( 2 ) ( b ) The interests of law enforcement and security : s 187 ( 2 ) ( d ) There is also an extensive consultation process with the Australian Communications and Media Authority ( ACMA ) , under s 187G . Under Division 3 of Part 5 - 1A , a service provider is able to seek an exemption for some of its services under Division 3 while at the same time submit an implementation plan for some or all of its other services under Division 2 . In particular , s 187K provides the CAC with the power to exempt a service provider from data retention and information security obligations . This exemption framework is intended to permit variations in service providers obligations in a range of circumstances , including where imposing data retention obligations would be of limited utility for law enforcement and national security purposes . The decision of the CAC to grant exemption or variations is open to judicial review under s 75 ( v ) of the Constitution and s 39B of the Judiciary Act 1901 ( Cth ) . Amendments to the ASIO Act and Intelligence services Act 2001 ( edit ) The Act amends the reporting requirements under s 94 ( 2A ) of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 ( ASIO Act ) to require that ASIO 's annual reports include the following : the number or types of purposes of authorisations to access retained data under s 175 and s 176 ( 3 ) of the TIA Act , including ' journalist information ' warrants ; the length of time for which relevant documents covered by the authorisations were held ; and the number of authorisations that related to retained subscriber data and communications traffic data as contained in Item 1 , s 187AA Table . The Act also amends the Intelligence Services Act 2001 ( ISA ) , principally to confer a statutory function upon the PJCIS under s 29 of the ISA , enabling it to review the overall effectiveness of the operation of the data retention scheme , with specific focus on the data access activities of ASIO and the Australian Federal Police . Journalist information warrants ( edit ) The Act introduces a ' journalist information ' warrant scheme under Division 4C . This scheme , requires ASIO and other law enforcement agencies to obtain a warrant prior to authorising the disclosure of telecommunications data for the purposes of identifying a journalist 's confidential source . The Attorney - General or an issuing authority ( including ' eligible persons ' within ASIO and AFP ) under s 180L and s 180T respectively , must consider several factors when deciding whether to issue an information warrant . In particular , they must be satisfied the warrant is ' reasonably necessary ' to , enforce the criminal law , locate a person reporting missing to the AFP or State Police , enforce a law that imposes a pecuniary penalty , or protect the public revenue and investigate serious offences against Commonwealth , State or Territory law punishable by a 3 - year imprisonment term . Additionally , the Attorney - General or the issuing authority must not issue a warrant unless satisfied the public interest in issuing the warrant outweighs the public interest in protecting the source 's confidentiality . Submissions by the newly created Public Interest Advocate must also be considered when deciding to issue a warrant . An enforcement agency may use or disclose the issuing of a warrant or information about such a warrant to a third party only for specified purposes , pursuant to s 182B . Such purposes include enabling a person to comply with their notification obligations under s 185D or s 185E in relation to journalist information warrants , enabling ASIO to perform its functions , or enabling the enforcement of the criminal law or a law imposing a pecuniary penalty , or the protection of the public revenue . Public interest Advocate ( edit ) Section 180X creates the role of Public Interest Advocate , who considers and evaluates journalist information warrants made by ASIO and law enforcement agencies pursuant to s 180L and s 180T respectively . The Advocate can make independent submissions to the Minister , and to the issuing authority in the case of the law enforcement agencies , regarding the granting of a journalist information warrant . Schedule two ( edit ) Schedule 2 amends the TIA Act to limit the types of agencies that can apply for stored communications warrants under Part 3 - 3 of Chapter 3 of the TIA Act , and the types of authorities and bodies that can authorise the disclosure of telecommunications data under Division 4 , Part 4 - 1 of Chapter 4 of the TIA Act . Prior to the Act , the TIA Act permitted ' enforcement agencies ' to access both stored communications ( such as content of emails or SMS messages ) and data about communications ( metadata ) . The former required a warrant for access under s 110 and s 116 , but the latter did not . ' Enforcement agencies ' were broadly defined to include all interception agencies , as well as a body whose function includes administering a law imposing a pecuniary penalty or the protection of public revenue . As a result , the range of agencies that had access to stored communications and telecommunications data was wide and included local government , councils and Commonwealth and State departments and agencies . Schedule 2 creates only two categories of authorised agencies : ' criminal law enforcement agencies ' and ' enforcement agencies ' ( which incorporate the former ) . Criminal law enforcement agencies ( edit ) The Act removes reference to an ' enforcement agency ' in subsection 110 ( 1 ) of the TIA Act and substitutes the new definition of a ' criminal law enforcement agency ' in s 110A of the Act . According to the Memorandum , the definition reduces the number of agencies that can apply for stored communication warrants from all enforcement agencies that investigate serious contraventions to only those authorities and bodies recognised under section 110A of the Act as being a ' criminal law enforcement agency ' . Under section 110A , ' criminal law enforcement agency ' is defined as including the Australian Federal Police , a State Police force , the Australian Commission for Law Enforcement Integrity , Australian Crime Commission , Australia Customs and Border Protection Service , the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission , the Crime Commission , the Police Integrity Commission , the Crime and Corruption Commission of Queensland , the Corruption and Crime Commission and the Independent Commissioner Against Corruption . Section 110A ( 3 ) enables the Attorney - General to declare , upon request , other authorities or bodies to be ' criminal law enforcement agencies ' . In making such a declaration , the Attorney - General must consider a range of factors , including whether the authority is involved in ' investigating serious contraventions ' . Section 110A ( 8 ) enables the Attorney - General to later revoke such a declaration if no longer satisfied that circumstances justify the declaration . Enforcement agencies ( edit ) Section 176A alters the definition of ' enforcement agency ' in subsection 5 ( 1 ) of the TIA Act to limit the authorities and bodies that can access telecommunications data ( metadata ) to only ' criminal law enforcement agencies ' and authorities and bodies declared under s 176A to be an ' enforcement agency ' . In declaring an authority or body an ' enforcement agency ' , the Attorney - General must consider a range of factors , including whether the agency enforces the criminal law , imposes pecuniary penalties , or protects the public revenue . Section 176A ( 3B ) requires that the Attorney - General not declare a body an ' enforcement agency ' unless satisfied on ' reasonable ' grounds that the body has these aforementioned functions . The Attorney - General may later revoke such a declaration under s 176A ( 8 ) if no longer satisfied that circumstances justify the declaration . According to the Memorandum , this section ensures only bodies or authorities with a demonstrated need for access to telecommunications data can authorise service providers to disclose information . Schedule three ( edit ) Schedule 3 inserts obligations into the TIA Act to keep records about access to stored communications and telecommunications data , and also inserts into the TIA Act a comprehensive record - keeping , inspection and oversight regime in relation to : The issue of preservation notices by criminal law enforcement agencies ; and Access to , and dealing with , stored communications by criminal law enforcement agencies , and telecommunications data by criminal law enforcement agencies and enforcement agencies . The record - keeping regime requires all Commonwealth , State and Territory enforcement agencies to keep prescribed information and documents necessary to demonstrate they have exercised their powers in accordance with their obligations under the TIA Act . The inspection and oversight regime requires the Ombudsman to inspect and oversee records of Commonwealth , State and Territory agencies in order to assess compliance with their duties under the TIA Act . Record - keeping obligations ( edit ) Section 186A sets out the information or documents an enforcement agency must retain to ensure the Ombudsman is able to inspect the agency 's records to determine the agency 's compliance with Chapter 4 of the TIA Act . The types of documents or information required to be kept in the agency 's records include the authorisations made by an officer of the agency under sections 178 , 178A , 179 or 180 , and documents or materials that indicate whether the authorisation was made properly . Subsection 186A ( 2 ) allows the Attorney - General to prescribe additional kinds of documents and other materials enforcement agencies must keep . Oversight by Ombudsman ( edit ) Section 186B requires the Ombudsman to inspect records kept by enforcement agencies using or accessing telecommunications data and stored communications . The Ombudsman must determine whether an agency is compliant with its obligations regarding the issue of preservation notices , access to stored communications , and access to telecommunications data . Section 186J requires the Ombudsman to report publicly on the results of its oversight functions under section 186B . This ensures the Ombudsman can make public the results of its inspections under Chapter 4A . Compatibility with Human Rights ( edit ) In accordance with its obligations under the Human Rights ( Parliamentary Scrutiny ) Act 2011 the Australian Government is required to provide statements of compatibility of all new bills with Australia 's human rights obligations under international instruments , including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) . The Revised Explanatory Memorandum ( 2013 - 2014 - 2015 ) ( Memorandum ) provided a detailed exposition of the Act and its engagement with human rights and an analysis of the Act 's compatibility with the ICCPR . The Memorandum claims the Act is compatible with human rights and freedoms recognised and declared in the international instruments listed in section 3 of the Human Rights ( Parliamentary Scrutiny ) Act 2011 . In particular , the Act engages the ICCPR in these ways : Protection against arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy contained in Article 17 of the International ( Article 17 , ICCPR ) The right to a fair hearing , the right to minimum guarantees in criminal proceedings and the presumption of innocence ( Article 14 , ICCPR ) The right to freedom of expression ( Article 19 , ICCPR ) The right to life and the right to security of the person ( Articles 6 and 9 , ICCPR ) The right to an effective remedy ( Article 2 ( 3 ) , ICCPR ) Right to privacy ( Article 17 , ICCPR ) ( edit ) Article 17 of the ICCPR provides that no one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with their privacy , family , home or correspondence . The use of the term ' arbitrary ' means any interference with privacy must be in accordance with the provision , aims and objectives of the ICCPR and should be reasonable in the circumstances . The United Nations Human Rights Committee has interpreted this provision as requiring that any limitation of privacy must be both proportionate to a legitimate end and necessary in the circumstances of a particular case . Schedule 1 ( edit ) According to the Memorandum , the legislative requirement for providers to store telecommunications data in relation to its services is consistent with Article 17 . The specification of the types of data that may be retained ( under s 187AA ) ensures that only narrow categories of telecommunications data necessary for the investigation of serious criminal offences and national security threats are retained . The Memorandum claims that this means the retention of specified dataset under s 187AA , while an interference with privacy , is reasonable and is proportionate to and necessary for the legitimate aim of ensuring law enforcement and intelligence agencies have the investigative tools to safeguard national security and prevent or detect serious and organised crime . Each Item ( 1 - 6 ) in s 187AA specifying particular types of data that can be retained was then assessed for its compatibility with Article 17 of the ICCPR , and each Item was considered reasonable , proportionate and necessary to criminal and national security investigations . CAC exemption regime Similarly , the exemption framework established by s 187B along with the introduction of the CAC indirectly strengthens the right to privacy of individual customers by providing a method of reducing data retention obligations in circumstances where the volume of data to be retained is disproportionate to the interest of law enforcement and national security . Security and destruction of retained data According to the Memorandum , the Act contains safeguards to ensure individuals ' privacy rights , especially in relation to telecommunications , are protected . In particular , the Act provides that the Australian Privacy Principles ( APPs ) in the Privacy Act 1988 apply to all data retained under the Act . Specifically , the APPs impose an obligation on service providers to ensure the quality and / or correctness of any personal information ( APP 10 ) and to keep personal information secure ( APP 11 ) . This introduces an oversight mechanism whereby the Privacy Commissioner can review and assess service providers ' collection , storage and use of data . An additional layer of privacy and security protection for consumer data provided by the Act is the requirement that service providers protect retained data through encryption and introduce the Telecommunications Sector Security Reforms , which require service providers to do their best to prevent unauthorised access and interference . These safeguards are supplemented by already - existing obligations under the Telecommunications Consumer Protection Code . Comparative frameworks -- EU data retention directive In 2014 , the Court of Justice of the European Union ( CJEU ) assessed the legality of the EU 's Data Retention Directive in two seminal decisions , namely , Digital Rights Ireland Ltd and Ors ( C - 293 / 12 ) and Karntner Landesregierung and Ors ( C - 594 / 12 ) . In these cases , the CJEU enunciated criteria that a data retention regime must meet in order to be compatible with human rights principles . It also stated that proposed legislation ' must lay down clear and precise rules governing the scope and application of the measures in question , imposing minimum safeguards so that the persons about whom data have been retained have sufficient guarantees to effectively protect their personal data against risk of abuse and unlawful access and use of that data ' . The CJEU considered that the extent of interference proposed by the EU Data Retention Directive was disproportionate to the objective being achieved , and more broadly , was not compatible with applicable human rights instruments . The Memorandum states that the Act is consistent with the criteria established by the CJEU . Schedule 2 ( edit ) The collective amendments in Schedule 2 reinforce the privacy protections established under Schedule 1 . According to the Memorandum , the amendments regarding the limitation of agencies that can apply for access to stored communications warrants , and the types of authorities and bodies that can authorise the disclosure of telecommunications data under Division 4 of the TIA Act , contribute to ensuring that access is reasonable , proportionate and necessary . The Memorandum claims that the amendment of the definition of ' enforcement agency ' to clearly circumscribe the agencies who may access telecommunications data effectively ensures access is limited to those agencies that have a clear and scrutinised need for access to telecommunications data in the performance of their functions . Furthermore , in order to reinforce the privacy protections associated with a user 's telecommunications data contained within the TIA Act , Schedule 2 introduces limitations upon the types of agencies permitted to authorise the disclosure of telecommunications data for an agency 's investigation . In this respect , the Act increases the threshold requirement in s 180F , by requiring that the authorising officer be ' satisfied on reasonable grounds ' that a particular disclosure or use of telecommunication data is proportionate to the intrusion into privacy it represents . According to the Memorandum , this amendment bolsters privacy safeguards by ensuring agencies weigh the proportionality of the intrusion into privacy against the value of the evidence and the assistance to be provided to the investigation . Agencies such as ASIO are also subject to strict privacy and proportionality obligations under the Attorney - General 's Guidelines , made under s 8 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the ASIO Act , which requires , inter alia , that the means used for obtaining the information must be proportionate to the gravity of the threat posed and investigations and inquiries into individuals and groups should be undertaken with as little intrusion into personal privacy as possible . These amendments ensure any abrogation of the privacy right in Article 17 is limited to the legitimate purpose articulated in the TIA Act . Schedule 3 ( edit ) The oversight provisions contained in Schedule 3 extend the remit of the Ombudsman to comprehensively assess agency compliance with all the enforcement agency 's obligations under Chapter 3 and 4 of the TIA Act , including the use and access to telecommunications data . According to the Memorandum , this oversight model promotes the right to privacy by confirming the Ombudsman 's ability to audit an agency 's use of its powers to access stored communications and telecommunications data under the TIA Act . This helps ensure an agency 's access to the telecommunications information of interest to an investigation , and the interaction with the privacy right under Article 17 in that regard is a reasonable , necessary and proportionate limitation on that right to privacy . Furthermore , a comprehensive oversight model ensures that use , access to or disclosure of telecommunications data is subject to independent compliance assessment . It also provides an important level of public accountability and scrutiny of agency practice by virtue of the Ombudsman 's public reporting regime implemented in Chapter 4A . According to the Memorandum , the oversight model promotes the Convention rights by virtue of several key features of the regime , including a higher level of specificity and transparency in terms of the precise reporting obligations imposed on law enforcement agencies , consistency in inspection methodology by virtue of non-fragmentary model involving oversight of all agencies that apply the powers under Chapters 3 and 4 , and clearly defining reporting obligations , which engender a higher level of compliance by agencies and greater acuity in statistical output to measure compliance for annual reporting and cross-agency compliance . Right to freedom of expression ( Article 19 , ICCPR ) ( edit ) Article 19 of the ICCPR provides that all persons shall have the right to freedom of expression . This right includes the freedom to seek , receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media . Article 19 ( 3 ) provides that freedom of expression may be subject to limitations for specified purposes provided in the right , including the protection of national security or public order where such restrictions are provided by law and are necessary for attaining one of these purposes . According to the Memorandum , the Act could potentially restrict the right to freedom of expression , as some persons may be more reluctant to use telecommunications services to seek , receive and impart information if they know data about their communication is stored and may be subject to lawful access . However , the limitation imposed by the data retention regime is in pursuit of the legitimate objective of protecting public order and further limits the abrogation of the right to freedom of expression by ensuring that only the minimum necessary types and amounts of telecommunications data are retained , and by limiting the range of agencies that may access the data . Journalist information warrant regime According to the Memorandum , the Bill promotes freedom of expression and the right to privacy by requiring a higher threshold for access through ex ante judicial review of a warrant for data authorisation requests and ensuring data access for the purposes of identifying a source receives specific and dedicated independent attention . Independent oversight minimises the risk that sources will be deterred from informing the press of matters of public interest , and ensures the media is not adversely affected by the measures . Furthermore , this measure ensures access is only permitted in circumstances where the public interest in issuing the warrant outweighs the public interest in maintaining the confidentiality of the source . The additional protection afforded to these data authorisations complements journalists ' limited privilege not to be compelled to identify their sources where they have given an undertaking of confidentiality . The amendments add a further warrant threshold , providing a significant additional and unique protection in relation to the identification of confidential journalist sources . Additionally , the statutory criteria to which issuing authorities must have regard in considering a journalist information warrant application , including the gravity of conduct in relation to which the warrant is sought and the potential investigative utility of the information , ensures privacy and public interest considerations are always taken into account before a warrant is granted . Right to life and security of person ( articles 6 and 9 , ICCPR ) ( edit ) Pursuant to Article 9 of the ICCPR , the state is to provide reasonable and appropriate measures within the scope of those available to public authorities to protect a person 's physical security . Similarly , the right to life under Article 6 of the ICCPR imposes a positive obligation to protect life . The Memorandum points out that European jurisprudence has established that the obligation to protect life also requires the police and other protective authorities to take , in certain well - defined circumstances , preventative operational measures to protect an individual whose life is at risk from the acts of a third party . The obligation the Act places on service providers to retain a limited subset of telecommunications data buttresses the right to life in Article 6 of the ICCPR . According to the Memorandum , if such data is not retained , law enforcement investigations will be compromised and the police 's ability to protect the security of potential victims of crime is critically undermined . Case for data retention ( edit ) Modernisation ( edit ) Prior to the Act 's introduction , access to telecommunications data in Australia was governed by the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Act 1979 ( the TIA Act ) and the Telecommunications Act 1997 . Since they were enacted , communication technologies have undergone a transformation . Online communication is an integral part of life . Australians now use a variety of devices to communicate , including fixed line telephones , mobile phones , personal computers and tablets . Australians also use various communication applications including email , instant messaging and social media platforms . Telecommunications service providers have responded to the increasing use of these devices and applications with new business practices , selling their services to customers on the basis of monthly data volumes . Consequently , they no longer need to store information surrounding individual communications to accurately bill customers . Some providers only retain the details of the amount of data sent for their billing purposes . Prior to the Act , the retention period for IP - based data is volatile ; data is typically stored for only a number of weeks or months . As technology evolves , all historical telecommunications data will be based on internet protocols as providers of telephony services increasingly use IP based technologies . In its 2013 report on its inquiry into Australia 's national security laws , the PJCIS concluded that the increasing adoption of these practices and the failure to retain data had `` resulted in an actual degradation in the investigative capabilities of national security agencies , a process that is likely to accelerate in the future . '' Telecommunications data is critical to many criminal investigations . Telecommunications data accessed during the initial stage of an inquiry assists law enforcement officials to understand the lives of victims , identify potential perpetrators , and construct pictures of their networks . Access to telecommunications also enables law enforcement agencies to collect and assess critical information and other evidence that could not otherwise be acquired . Furthermore , access to telecommunications data is in some instances the only way in which some types of crime can be understood , and perpetrators identified and punished . Cyber-crime is such a category . Cyber-crimes necessarily leave a limited physical footprint . Sifting through telecommunications data is the only way investigators can identify real world offenders . The inability of police and other law enforcement agencies to access telecommunications data can hamper criminal investigations . In their submission to the PJCIS inquiry into the Bill , the South Australian Police described such one such instance : `` A stalled murder investigation was reviewed about 14 months after the victim 's death . Fresh information received during the review identified a suspect who was a known drug dealer . The victim , a regular drug user , had been in contact with the suspect and investigators suspect the victim may have been killed over a drug deal . Historical telecommunications data was sought for the suspect 's mobile service for around the time of the murder but it was no longer available . The unavailability of the telecommunications data has been detrimental to the investigation and the case remains unsolved . '' Supporters of the Act argue it ensures the continued availability of telecommunications data to prevent and solve crime . High - risk environment ( edit ) The current ongoing perceived threat of terrorism in Australia is advanced as a reason why a mandatory data retention regime is needed . In September 2014 , on ASIO 's advice , the Australian government raised the National Terrorism Public Alert level from medium to high . ASIO dispensed its recommendation on a number of factors including the increasing number of Australians working with or inspired by the acts of a number of different terrorist organizations including the Islamic State , Jabhat - al - Nusrah and Al - Qai'da . Moreover , in its 2014 submission to the PGCIS inquiry into the Bill , ASIO noted that cyber attacks by hostile powers launched in order to obtain privileged political , military , economic , trade , business and government information pose a threat to computer systems operated by both the state and business . The Attorney General 's Department has argued that in such a high - risk environment , a data retention regime is imperative . `` In an increased threat environment characterised by a higher operational tempo , there is a narrower margin for error in law enforcement and national security investigations . The narrower margin is particularly evident in relation to lone wolf threats : such persons have limited , if any , contact with other known extremists , giving authorities fewer opportunities to detect their activities and intentions . As such , any missed opportunity to identify and prevent these attacks represents a significant risk . '' In its submission the Department also noted the non-retention of telecommunications data can lead to opportunities to combat crime being missed : `` In the best case , agencies may be able to progress investigations by using more resource intensive methods , limiting their capacity to investigate other matters , or more intrusive investigative techniques . In the worst case , crime or threat to security will not be adequately investigated . '' Case against data retention ( edit ) Submissions made by key privacy , human rights and legal bodies , including the Australian Human Rights Commission ( AHRC ) , Australian Lawyers for Human Rights ( ALHR ) , Australian Privacy Foundation ( APF ) , Law Council of Australia ( LCA ) , Councils of Civil Liberties across Australia ( CCLS ) and the NSW and Victorian Privacy Commissioner , to the PJCIS were highly critical of the mandatory data retention scheme . The following headings represent the main arguments and criticisms made in several key submissions to the PJCIS . Breaches Human Rights ( edit ) The ' statement of compatibility ' contained in the Revised Explanatory Memorandum claimed the regime did not breach Australia 's human rights obligations under the ICCPR . However several submissions made to the PJCIS questioned the Bill 's compatibility with several human rights principles . In its 2014 submission , the Australian Privacy Foundation argued the Bill was incompatible with fundamental human rights and freedoms , especially the right to privacy . It pointed to a considerable body of legal opinion that has concluded that laws mandating blanket retention of metadata breach international human rights law . It submitted that the Bill breached fundamental rights to privacy because it was neither necessary for nor proportionate to legitimate national security and law enforcements objectives . According to the APF , blanket data retention regimes are disproportionate because they ' indiscriminately mandate the retention of data relating to entire populations , irrespective of the nature of the data or of whether or not there is a reasonable suspicions of a serious threat posed by those to whom the data relates ' . The APF referred to several key international law decisions , including reports of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and Human Rights Council , which all found metadata retention regimes breached human rights , especially the right to privacy . A similar position was taken by the Law Institute of Victoria ( LIV ) , which submitted that , quoting the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights , ' even the mere possibility of communications information being captured creates an interference with privacy , with a potential chilling effect on rights , including those to free expression and association ' . As a result , the LIV submitted that mandatory third party data retention regimes are neither necessary nor proportionate , irrespective of increased concerns regarding national security threats . Australian Lawyers for Human Rights ( ALHR ) also submitted concerns that the Bill constituted a serious and unreasonable infringement of the rights of law - abiding Australians . According to the ALHR , the Bill was an ' indiscriminate , society wide ' invasion of privacy , which rebutted the presumption of innocence . Additionally , the ALHR contended the Bill infringes other human rights not acknowledged in the Memorandum , in particular , the right to be treated with dignity ( Article 1 , Universal Declaration of Human Rights ) , freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy , family , home or correspondence ( Article 12 , Universal Declaration of Human Rights ) . The ALHR also submitted the Bill was likely to chill freedom of association ( Articles 21 and 22 , ICCPR and Article 20 , Universal Declaration of Human Rights ) , the right to free development of one 's personality ( Article 22 , Universal Declaration of Human Rights ) , the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs ( Article 25 , ICCPR ) , and press freedoms . According to ALHR , the Bill would restrict free speech , as Australians would not know what information about them , including information about their contacts , might be shared among government ( and non-government ) bodies . Similarly , the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights argued that , although the data retention regime pursues a legitimate objective , the scheme 's proportionality is questionable and it may have a ' chilling ' effect on people 's freedom and willingness to communicate via telecommunications services because people will ' self - censor ' views expressed via telecommunications services . This view is also supported by the Law Council of Australia ( LCA ) and the Councils for Civil Liberties Australia ( CCLA ) . Problems with definition of the data set ( edit ) A major concern emphasised in several submissions was that the Bill did not define the relevant data set , leaving the precise definition to be prescribed by regulations . The government 's justification for this is that this approach is consistent with the technology - neutral approach of the Privacy Act 1988 and Part 13 of the TIA Act . However , the APF considered that the way in which the data set is defined in the Bill was deeply problematic for several reasons , including that the data set is not appropriately limited to that which is necessary and proportionate for law enforcement and national security . The APF proposed that the Government consider adopting a more circumscribed and targeted data preservation regime that ' incorporates adequate thresholds and procedural safeguards to ensure the data are sufficiently relevant to specific investigations ' . Similarly , the APF submitted that the scope of data which may be lawfully accessed needed to be appropriately defined under Chapter 4 . Furthermore , it claimed there were serious problems with the way the Bill dealt with browsing history , including in s 187A ( 4 ) ( b ) . In particular , there is no prohibition on service providers collecting and retaining Internet browsing history , which must be accessed as data under Chapter 4 , meaning that the government 's claim that browsing history was excluded from the data set is disingenuous . Australian Lawyers for Human Rights ( ALHR ) also submitted that the lack of certainty regarding the prescribed data set was bad legislative practice and likely to result in legislative ' creep ' , with individuals ' privacy rights being increasingly attacked through expansion of the data set . Furthermore , the Law Council of Australia ( LCA ) recommended that the power to prescribe by way of regulation the mandatory data set should be removed from the Bill and the Bill should clearly define the types of telecommunications data and the specific data set to be retained . The 2015 PJCIS Report took into consideration these concerns and recommended the Bill be redrafted to prescribe the data set in the primary legislation . When the Bill was amended in 2015 , the data to be retained was detailed within the primary legislation , under s 187AA , and this was the form in which the Bill became law . Distinction between content and metadata ( edit ) A persistent argument made against the Act was the false distinction it draws between content and ' metadata ' . In its 2014 submission , the Council for Civil Liberties across Australia and the APF claimed that whilst the explicit exclusion of ' content ' from the categories of prescribed data is welcome , the purported distinction between ' content ' and ' metadata ' overlooks how much ' metadata ' can reveal about a person , especially when combined with contemporary data analytics . The APF , quoting the decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union in Digital Rights Ireland , stated that metadata , ' taken as a whole may allow very precise conclusions to be drawn concerning the private lives of the persons who data has been retained ' . Similarly , the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights pointed out that ' the aggregation of information commonly referred to as ' metadata ' , may give an insight into an individual 's behaviour , social relationships , private preference and identity that go beyond even that conveyed by access the context of a private communication ' . The APF also referred to a statement by Steward Baker , the former general counsel of the NSA , who claimed that ' Metadata absolutely tells you everything about somebody 's life . If you have enough metadata , you do n't really need content ' . As a result , the APF considered the claim by the Government that telecommunications data is less intrusive than communications content to be misleading and recommended that legal safeguards on the collection of and access to telecommunications data should at least be as strong as those applying to communications content . The Law Council of Australia ( LCA ) was also concerned that there was uncertainty about whether some types of telecommunications data would be considered ' content ' ( and thus excluded from collection ) , including whether meta - tags would be captured . Further , while the Memorandum to the Bill recognised that ' text messages and e-mails stored on a phone or other communications device are more akin to content than data ' , the LCA claims it did not adequately explain how this is so . The LCA also argued that despite the exclusion of content from the prescribed data set , the categories of telecommunications data that may be prescribed are nonetheless broadly defined and may provide information about crucial matters such as people 's associations and their whereabouts . Rxamples of personal information that it said could be determined from the prescribed data set included medical connections , use of mental health services , use of suicide hotlines , use of domestic violence crisis support , use of child abuse support , family associations , friendship groups , financial connections , legal connections , religious associations , political affiliations , sexual association , commercial preferences , location and movement . The LCA and the LIV also criticised s 187A ( 6 ) , which introduces the requirement that telecommunication service providers create data not currently captured through their services . In particular , the LCA was concerned that it was unclear in the Memorandum and Bill how the content and substance of communications would be separated and filtered from the non-content by service providers in the course of meeting their data retention obligations . Duration of data retention obligation ( edit ) Another major criticism of the data retention regime was the two - year data retention period specified in s 187C . The CCLS urged the government to reduce the data retention period because it is high compared to mass data retention regimes in other jurisdictions . The CCLS submitted statistics showing that most data accessed for investigations of terrorism and complex criminal offences is accessed within 6 months of being captured and that following this period the percentage of data used decreases significantly . The Communications Alliance and AMTA also noted that the majority of requests made by agencies to access telecommunications data held by ISPs related to data less than 6 months old . Similarly , the APF was concerned that the retention period was excessive and disproportionate , and that it imposed disproportionate costs on carriers and ISPs . The APF recommended a retention period of 1 year be trialed for the first 3 years of the scheme 's operation . The Australian Human Rights Commission ( AHRC ) drew attention to the Evaluation Report on the EU Data Retention Direction in 2011 , which considered that the shortening of mandatory retention would improve the proportionality of the scheme . The Report also found that 67 % of accessed data was under 3 months old and only 2 % of requested data was over 1 year old across the EU . The AHRC also pointed to the decision of the CJEU in Digital Rights Ireland , in which a retention period of no less than 6 months and up to 2 years was assessed . The CJEU held that the data retention period was arbitrary and not limited to what was ' reasonably necessary ' to achieve the objective pursued . Accordingly , the AHRC considered the 2 year retention period as unreasonable and disproportionate . The LCA also considered the two - year period as unusually long by international standards and not satisfactorily justified . Despite such widespread concern and statistical evidence , the two - year retention period became law . Security of retained data ( edit ) The security of retained data was also a point of contention . The LCA voiced concerns that there did not appear to be a minimum set of standards for government agencies and service providers to ensure security of retained telecommunications data . It drew attention to the recent experience of the Australian Federal Police ( AFP ) , which mistakenly published sensitive information , including telecommunications data , connected to criminal investigations , demonstrating the importance of high levels of data security . It submitted that the implementation plan process would encourage service providers to seek the lowest possible cost solutions to data security . It referred to the CJEU 's invalidation of the EU Data Directive on the basis it permitted providers to have regard to economic considerations when determining the level of security which they applied . Both the LCA and the ALHR submissions expressed concern about s 187C ( 3 ) , which allows a service provider to keep information or a document for a period longer than the two - year data retention period . Furthermore , once data is accessed by a law enforcement agency , there is no obligation upon it to destroy it in a timely manner even when it is irrelevant to the agency or no longer needed . The LCA made two recommendations - first , that the views of the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner should be obtained to determine whether the current APPs and the proposed Telecommunications Service Sector Security Reform ( TSSR ) relating to the destruction of telecommunications data by service providers is sufficient to safeguard personal information , and , second , that the Bill should be amended to require law enforcement and security agencies to de-identify or put beyond use in a timely manner , data containing ' personal ' information which is no longer relevant or needed for the agencies purposes . Access to stored communications ( edit ) Many submissions welcomed the circumscription of agencies that can access stored communications data under Schedule 2 . The LCA , however , argued these amendments allowed the Government to expand the list of agencies that can access retained data without parliamentary scrutiny and that this was an example of another inappropriate delegation of power in the Bill . Further , the LCA , CCLS and APF all submitted that the Bill left open the critical question of what authorities or bodies would be listed as an ' enforcement agency ' , and therefore be able to access data . As the CCLS pointed out , the issue of who will have access to stored telecommunications data is of great significance in determining the proportionality of this intrusion into individuals ' privacy rights . The APF submitted that the Attorney - General was given too much discretion to declare bodies or authorities as criminal law enforcement agencies and while the Bill provides that the Attorney - General must consider a range of factors , this is an ineffective limitation on the Attorney - General 's discretion and could potentially mean the definition could be extended to bodies administering laws imposing pecuniary penalties or revenue laws . In its submission , the LIV considered these functions as incredibly broad and a reflection of the pre-existing and problematic situation under the TIA Act , where an unknown number of diverse federal , state and even local government entities can access telecommunications data . The thresholds for access were also a central feature of several submissions . As discussed above , once the Attorney - General declares an agency an enforcement agency , that agency is able to access metadata retained by a service providers . The agency can do so by requesting and authorising service providers to disclose the information . Such authorisations can be made in relation to retrospective historical data where doing so is ' reasonably necessary ' for the enforcement of the criminal law , a law imposing a pecuniary penalty , or a law protecting the public revenue . In relation to prospective data , such authorisations could be made where ' reasonably necessary ' for the investigation of a serious criminal offence . This differs from the process relating to stored communications ( content ) , which can only be accessed by criminal law enforcement agencies through a warrant process . The CCLS , LCA and the APF all submitted that both thresholds for access were too low , for several reasons . First , ' reasonably necessary ' was not defined in the Bill and according to the CCLS , this could be interpreted in several ways and would be better altered to simply use the word ' necessary ' . The APF recommended a higher threshold be applied to access of both real - time communications and stored content , and that it be required that such access relate to investigations of serious criminal offences , punishable by an imprisonment term of at least 7 years . Additionally , the APF submitted that the procedural safeguards for access to data under Chapter 4 of the TIA Act were inadequate . It recommended that safeguards be introduced to regulate access to non-content telecommunications data , which could involve a decision of an independent body required to balance the objectives of access against the intrusion of privacy . The CCLS also argued that it is clearly unacceptable for ' enforcement agencies ' to be their own authorisers of access to personal information . Accordingly , it submitted that access to both retrospective and prospective data under the proposed scheme should only be on the basis of a prior warrant authorisation from a judicial authority . The LIV also submitted that access to telecommunications data must require judicial oversight . Gilbert + Tobin , in their 2014 submission , were also concerned regarding the prospect that enforcement agencies will effectively be able to access metadata on a ' self - serve ' basis and given that metadata can reveal a significant amount of personal information about an individual , believed that greater procedural protections for accessing metadata should apply , and could be achieved through a warrant process along the lines of that allowing access to stored communications . Blanket data retention not essential nor effective ( edit ) In its submission , the CCLS did not accept that the data retention regime should extend to compulsory collection and retention of mass metadata of virtually the whole population . The primary reason for this is the scepticism of many experts , parliamentarians and legal and civil society groups that ' mass collection and retention of telecommunications data of non-suspect citizens for retrospective access will significantly increase Australia 's ( or any nations ) safety from terrorism or serious crime ' . They pointed to the then - recent tragedies in Sydney and Paris , which generated comment around the fact the perpetrators were already well - known to police and intelligence agencies , but had been allowed to drop from active intelligence . Furthermore , the APF and CCLS drew attention to a 2014 report on US data retention programmes of the United States Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board ( PCOB ) , an independent agency established to advise the US executive on anti-terrorism law , The PCOB stated : `` We are aware of no instance in which the program directly contributed to the discovery of a previously unknown terrorist plot or the disruption of a terrorist attack ... we believe that only one instance over the past seven years has the program arguably contributed to the identification of an unknown terrorist suspect '' The APF drew attention to the US Klayman v Obama ( 2013 ) decision where Judge Leon concluded there was no single instance where the collection of mass metadata either stopped an imminent terrorist threat or otherwise assisted in achieving a time - sensitive objective , and that there were therefore ' serious doubts as to the efficacy of the metadata collection program ' . As a result of criticism of the NSA program , the US Freedom Act was introduced in 2013 in order to end mass metadata collection . In support of the Bill , Representative Sensenbrenner and Democrat Patrick Leahy stated that ' it is simply not accurate to say that the bulk of collection of phone records has prevented dozens of terrorists ' plots ' and that their position was bi-partisan . The Law Council of Australia submitted that the ability to access telecommunications data under the Bill was not limited to national security or serious crime , as it said it should be , and also submitted that there is little evidence from comparable jurisdictions with mandatory data retention schemes to suggest they actually assist in reducing crime . For example , in Germany , research indicates the retention scheme led to an increase in the number of convictions by only 0.006 % . Furthermore , there is a lack of Australian statistical quantitative and qualitative data to indicate the necessity of telecommunications data in securing convictions . The LCA suggested that if the proposed scheme was introduced , statistical reporting should indicate the times when access to retained data has resulted in a conviction , whether it has assisted in detecting serious criminal activity or assisted security agencies against threats to Australia 's national security . The CCLS and the APF concluded that the available evidenced - based research suggested a high degree of uncertainty as to the effectiveness and legitimacy of mass data retention regimes in preventing terrorism and other serious crime . Journalists and their sources ( edit ) Journalists and media organisations have long expressed concern over the introduction of a data retention scheme . This criticism , however , reached its peak in March 2015 , after the Government agreed to accept amendments to the Bill outlined in a report by the JPCIS . On 9 March , the chair of the Australian Press Council , Professor David Weisbort said that if the Bill was passed into law as it stood the field of journalism would be adversely affected as whistleblowers would no longer be willing to come forward . Alarmed by growing criticism from the media , and committed to passing the Bill before the scheduled Easter recess of both Houses of Parliament , the Government assembled a team of high - ranking public servants including national security adviser , Andrew Shearer and Australian Federal Police Commissioner , Andrew Colvin , to meet with executives from News Corporation , Fairfax , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) and representatives from the Media , Entertainment and Arts Alliance ( MEAA ) to discuss their concerns . On 16 March 2015 , Opposition Leader Bill Shorten revealed he had written to Prime Minister Tony Abbott expressing the Labor Party 's concerns about the Bill 's effect on the freedom of the press and journalists ' ability to protect their sources , and stating that if the Government did not change the Bill to protect journalistic sources , the Labor Party would move to amend the Bill in the Senate . Following negotiations with the Labor Party , the Government agreed to amend the Bill and introduce a warrant system . Law enforcement and other agencies seeking to view the metadata of journalists can only do so where a judicial officer or a legal member of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal has issued a warrant . This warrant can only be granted after arguments from both the agency seeking the metadata and a public interest advocate are heard . The warrant system has been heavily criticised . Critics highlight the fact the public interest advocate , appointed by the Government , can not contact the journalist whose metadata would be the subject of the warrant and can not receive instructions from that journalist . Moreover , anyone who discloses information about a journalist information warrant and whether one has been applied for , granted , or not granted , can be punished with two years imprisonment . Dr Adam Henschke , an academic working at the Australian National University , has argued that in the world of Wikileaks , whistleblowers may not wish to risk detection by working with journalists , and may simply choose to make a `` wholesale dump '' of information on the internet . Cost ( edit ) The Attorney General 's Department commissioned consulting firm Price Waterhouse Coopers ( PWC ) to provide high level costs for the initial implementation of the data retention scheme . PWC provided that report on 11 December 2014 . In its final report , the PJCIS revealed that PWC had calculated the upfront capital costs of implementing data retention to be between approximately $188.8 million and $319.1 million . After receiving submissions and hearing evidence on the issue of the cost from a number of stakeholders , including telecommunications providers Optus and Vodafone , and the Australian Communications Consumer Action Network ( ACCAN ) the Committee made a number of recommendations : `` The Committee recommends that the Government make a substantial contribution to the upfront capital costs of service providers implementing their data retention obligations . '' `` When designing the funding arrangements to give effect to this recommendation , the Government should ensure that an appropriate balance is achieved that accounts for the significant variations between the services , business models , sizes and financial positions of different companies within the telecommunications industry . '' `` That the model for funding service providers provides sufficient support for smaller service providers , who may not have sufficient capital budgets or operating cash flow to implement data retention , and privacy and security controls ; without upfront assistance ; incentives timely compliance with their data retention obligations ; and does not result in service providers receiving windfall payments to operate and maintain existing legacy systems . '' On 12 May 2015 Federal Treasurer Joe Hockey announced the Government would commit $131 million to assist telecommunications service providers with the cost of the scheme . This amount has drawn criticism from some in the telecommunications community . Laurie Patton , Chief Executive Officer of the Internet Society said this amount is simply not enough and costs will be passed onto consumers in the form of higher internet fees . `` The Government 's original cost estimate was not based on widespread industry consultation and the Internet Society is concerned that the costs have been significantly underestimated , especially in respect of small to medium sized ISPs ( Internet Service Providers ) that do n't have the resources to undertake the work in - house and therefore will be required to pay for external assistance . '' Lawfully circumventing the data retention scheme ( edit ) Opposition to the mandatory data retention scheme has led to commentary from both media and politicians on ways in which the scheme may be lawfully circumvented . Writing in the Australian Financial Review , journalist Laura Tingle identified a number of methods for circumvention including the use of phone me via a provider Skype , advertising supported email services such as Google 's Gmail and instant messaging service , Facebook Messenger . In an interview with Sky News , then Communications Minister Malcolm Turnbull suggested journalists could avoid leaving a data trail through using over-the - top applications : `` If you have a device , a smartphone and if I call you through the mobile phone network then there will be a record at Telstra that I called your number . '' `` If on the other hand , I communicate via Skype , for a voice call , or Viber , or I send you a message on Whatsapp or Wickr or Threema or Signal or Telegram -- there 's a gazillion of them -- or indeed if we have a Facetime call , then all that the telco can see insofar as they can see anything is that my device had a connection with the , say , the Skype server or the Whatsapp server ... . it does n't see anything happen with you ... . It 's important I think for journalists to remember . '' Greens Senator Scott Ludlam , an outspoken opponent of the data retention scheme , delivered a speech in the Senate encouraging Australians to utilise virtual private networks ( VPNs ) and free services such as The Onion Router ( Tor ) to anonymously access the Internet . Senator Ludlam also organised events , cryptoparties , teaching constituents the ways they can avoid having telecommunications data retained . The accuracy of this advice has , however , been questioned by technology experts . Swinburne University academic Philip Branch has pointed out that while the content of Skype calls is encrypted , the IP addresses of participants may be collected and traced back to individuals . Branch has also argued that many offshore email services are based in the United States , and as such Australian enforcement agencies may be able to access information through the `` Five Eyes '' agreement , under which Australia , the United States , the United Kingdom , New Zealand and Canada have committed to share intelligence . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Smith , G , Wang , G and L Wickman ( 2015 - 04 - 08 ) . `` Focus : Federal Government passes wide - ranging data retention laws '' . Allens Linklaters . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 07 . 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InfoCuria - Case Law of Court of Justice . p. 62 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia ( 19 March 2015 ) . `` Revised Explanatory Memorandum on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2015 '' . Parliament of Australia . pp. 18 -- 20 . Retrieved 15 May 2015 . Jump up ^ The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia ( 19 March 2015 ) . `` Revised Explanatory Memorandum on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2015 '' . Parliament of Australia . pp. 31 -- 32 . Retrieved 15 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Office of the Minister for Communications . `` Joint Release with Senator The Hon George Brandis QC Attorney - General : Telecommunications ( Interception and access amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 '' . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 10 . Jump up ^ Australian Security Intelligence Organisation . `` , '' Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 12 `` . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ( ASIO ) ( January 2015 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 12 '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Australian Federal Police ( January 2015 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 7.1 '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Attorney General 's Department ( 2015 - 01 - 16 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 27 '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ South Australia Police ( December 2014 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 9 '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 12 . Jump up ^ Abbott , T ( 2014 - 09 - 12 ) . `` National terrorism public alert raised to high '' . Prime Minister of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ( ASIO ) ( January 2015 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 12 '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Attorney General 's Department ( 2015 - 01 - 06 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Australian Privacy Foundation ( 2015 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Inquiry into Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 75 '' . Parliament of Australia . pp. 4 -- 6 . Retrieved 20 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Law Institute of Victoria . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 117 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 14 . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 19 . Jump up ^ Australian Lawyers for Human Rights ( 2015 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 194 '' . Parliament of Australia . pp. 2 -- 3 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights ( 18 March 2015 ) . `` 12th Report of the 44th Parliament : Human Rights Scrutiny Report '' . Parliament of Australia . pp. 80 -- 81 . Retrieved 18 May 2015 . Jump up ^ The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia ( 2015 - 03 - 19 ) . `` Revised Explanatory Memorandum on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2015 '' . Paraliament of Australia . p. 4 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : Australian Privacy Foundation ( 19 January 2015 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunicationsl ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 75 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 7 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ UN High Commissioner for Human Rights ( 2014 - 06 - 30 ) . `` The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age '' . United Nations Human Rights . p. 19 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 25 . Jump up ^ Australian Privacy Foundation ( 2015 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 75 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 7 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : Law Council of Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 126 '' . Parliament of Australia . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ Law Council of Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 126 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 12 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ Law Council of Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 126 '' . Parliament of Australia . pp. 24 -- 26 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Civil Liberties Councils across Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 129 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 21 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ Communications Alliance and AMTA ( 2015 - 01 - 18 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 6 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 5 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : Australian Human Rights Commission ( 2015 - 01 - 14 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 8 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : Law Council of Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 126 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 24 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ Mandie , Sami ( 2014 - 08 - 24 ) . `` AFP accidentally publish secret , sensitive information '' . ABC Online . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 26 . Jump up ^ Law Council of Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 126 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 26 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Civil Liberties Councils across Australia ( 2015 - 01 - 20 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 129 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 17 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 21 . Jump up ^ Gilbert + Tobin Lawyers ( 2014 - 12 - 09 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 5 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 5 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Australian Privacy Foundation ( 19 January 2015 ) . `` Inquiry into the Telecommunicationsl ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 75 '' . Parliament of Australia . p. 9 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Oakes , L ( 2015 - 03 - 13 ) . `` Angry media wo n't buckle over new surveillance laws '' . Herald Sun . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Doorstop : Parliament House - Abbott Government backdown on sacking 1,700 scientists and researchers ; $100,000 degrees '' . Bill Shorten MP . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 25 . Jump up ^ Bourke , L ( 2015 - 03 - 19 ) . `` Abbott government and Labor reach deal on metadata retention laws '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 22 . Jump up ^ Williams , G ( 2015 - 03 - 22 ) . `` Metadata law concessions good news for press but problems remain '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 28 . Jump up ^ Towers , K ( 2015 - 03 - 27 ) . `` Major flaw in metadata bill , say top silks '' . The Australian . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 28 . Jump up ^ Holmes , J ( 2015 - 04 - 22 ) . `` A chilling step closer to Australian Secret Police '' . The Age . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ Henschke , A ( 2015 - 04 - 13 ) . `` Whistleblowers may bypass the media thanks to new data laws '' . The Conversation . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 16 . Jump up ^ Pearce , R ( 2014 - 12 - 17 ) . `` Data retention : it 's really , really important ( but we ca n't give you any of the details '' . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Advisory report on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 '' . Parliament of Australia . 2015 - 02 - 27 . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 16 . Jump up ^ Kerin , J ( 2015 - 05 - 11 ) . `` Federal Budget 2015 : Government will pay phone companies to keep personal data '' . The Australian Financial Review . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 17 . Jump up ^ Tingle , L ( 2015 - 03 - 25 ) . `` How to get around the metadata laws and leak to me '' . The Australian Financial Review . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 23 . Jump up ^ Hurst , D. `` Malcolm Turnbull explains how people can avoid having metadata collected '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Knott , M ( 2015 - 03 - 25 ) . `` Use encryption and overseas email to beat data retention , says Ludlam '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 22 . Jump up ^ Branch , P ( 2015 - 03 - 31 ) . `` Is it possible to circumvent metadata retention and retain your privacy ? '' . The Conversation . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 16 . External links ( edit ) Attorney General 's Department ( 2015 - 01 - 16 ) . `` Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 27 . '' Available at : http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Intelligence_and_Security/Data_Retention/Submissions Australian Privacy Foundation ( 2015 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Inquiry into Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 - Submission 75 '' ( http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Intelligence_and_Security/Data_Retention/Submissions ) . Parliament of Australia . pp. 4 -- 6 . Retrieved 20 May 2015 . Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security 2015 - 02 - 27 , `` Advisory report on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2014 '' , Parliament of Australia . Available at : http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Intelligence_and_Security/Data_Retention/Report The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia ( 2015 - 03 - 19 ) . `` Revised Explanatory Memorandum on the Telecommunications ( Interception and Access ) Amendment ( Data Retention ) Bill 2015 '' . Available at : http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22legislation%2Fems%2Fr5375_ems_ac4732e1-5116-4d8f-8de5-0ead3828012c%22 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_(Interception_and_Access)_Amendment_(Data_Retention)_Act_2015&oldid=799194765 '' Categories : 2015 in Australian law Acts of the Parliament of Australia Data laws Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Use dmy dates from September 2015 Use Australian English from September 2015 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Wikipedia articles needing style editing from June 2015 All articles needing style editing Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from September 2015 Articles created via the Article Wizard Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 6 September 2017 , at 06 : 34 . 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83 | document: Lenore - wikipedia Lenore Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Lenore ( disambiguation ) . Illustration by Henry Sandham for an 1886 edition of the poem `` Lenore '' is a poem by the American author Edgar Allan Poe . It began as a different poem , `` A Paean '' , and was not published as `` Lenore '' until 1843 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Analysis 2 Major themes 3 Publication history 4 Lenore in other works 5 References 6 External links Analysis ( edit ) The poem discusses proper decorum in the wake of the death of a young woman , described as `` the queenliest dead that ever died so young '' . The poem concludes : `` No dirge shall I upraise , / But waft the angel on her flight with a paean of old days ! '' Lenore 's fiancé , Guy de Vere , finds it inappropriate to `` mourn '' the dead ; rather , one should celebrate their ascension to a new world . Unlike most of Poe 's poems relating to dying women , `` Lenore '' implies the possibility of meeting in paradise . The poem may have been Poe 's way of dealing with the illness of his wife Virginia . The dead woman 's name , however , may have been a reference to Poe 's recently dead brother , William Henry Leonard Poe . Poetically , the name Lenore emphasizes the letter `` L '' sound , a frequent device in Poe 's female characters including `` Annabel Lee '' , `` Eulalie '' , and `` Ulalume '' . Major themes ( edit ) Death of a beautiful woman ( see also `` Annabel Lee '' , `` Eulalie '' , `` The Raven '' , `` Ulalume '' ; in Poe 's short stories , see also `` Berenice '' , `` Eleonora '' , `` Morella '' ) . Publication history ( edit ) The poem was first published as part of an early collection in 1831 under the title `` A Pæan '' . This early version was only 11 quatrains and the lines were spoken by a bereaved husband . The name `` Lenore '' was not included ; it was not added until it was published as `` Lenore '' in February 1843 in The Pioneer , a periodical published by the poet and critic James Russell Lowell . Poe was paid $10 for this publication . The poem had many revisions in Poe 's lifetime . Its final form was published in the August 16 , 1845 , issue of the Broadway Journal while Poe was its editor . The original version of the poem is so dissimilar from `` Lenore '' that it is often considered an entirely different poem . Both are usually collected separately in anthologies . Lenore in other works ( edit ) A character by the name of Lenore , thought to be a deceased wife , is central to Poe 's poem `` The Raven '' ( 1845 ) . Roman Dirge made a comic book inspired by the poem , involving the comedic misadventures of Lenore , the Cute Little Dead Girl . Hikaru Utada 's `` Kremlin Dusk '' makes a reference to Lenore , as well as other elements of Poe 's works and even mentions Poe himself . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kennedy , J. Gerald . Poe , Death , and the Life of Writing . Yale University Press , 1987 : 69 . ISBN 0 - 300 - 03773 - 2 Jump up ^ Silverman , Kenneth . Edgar A. Poe : Mournful and Never - ending Remembrance . Harper Perennial , 1991 : 202 -- 203 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 092331 - 8 Jump up ^ Kopley , Richard and Kevin J. Hayes `` Two verse masterworks : ' The Raven ' and ' Ulalume ' , '' as collected in The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe , edited by Kevin J. Hayes . Cambridge University Press , 2002 : 200 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 79727 - 6 Jump up ^ Silverman , Kenneth . Edgar A. Poe : Mournful and Never - ending Remembrance . Harper Perennial , 1991 : 201 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 092331 - 8 Jump up ^ Sova , Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe : A to Z . Checkmark Books , 2001 : 130 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4161 - X Jump up ^ Hoffman , Daniel . Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe . Louisiana State University Press , 1972 : 68 . ISBN 0 - 8071 - 2321 - 8 External links ( edit ) The full text of Lenore at Wikisource The full text of A Pæan at Wikisource Media related to Lenore ( 1885 ) at Wikimedia Commons Full text at Baltimore Poe Society online Henry Sandham ( illustrator ) . Lenore . Boston : Estes and Lauriat , 1886 . Scanned color illustrated book , via Internet Archive . Lenore public domain audiobook at LibriVox ( hide ) Edgar Allan Poe Bibliography Poems `` Tamerlane '' ( 1827 ) `` Al Aaraaf '' ( 1829 ) `` Sonnet to Science '' ( 1829 ) `` To Helen '' ( 1831 ) `` The City in the Sea '' ( 1831 ) `` The Haunted Palace '' ( 1839 ) `` The Conqueror Worm '' ( 1843 ) `` Lenore '' ( 1843 ) `` Eulalie '' ( 1843 ) `` The Raven '' ( 1845 ) `` Ulalume '' ( 1847 ) `` A Dream Within a Dream '' ( 1849 ) `` Eldorado '' ( 1849 ) `` The Bells '' ( 1849 ) `` Annabel Lee '' ( 1849 ) '' Tales `` Metzengerstein '' ( 1832 ) `` Bon - Bon '' ( 1832 ) `` MS . Found in a Bottle '' ( 1833 ) `` Berenice '' ( 1835 ) `` Morella '' ( 1835 ) `` The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall '' ( 1835 ) `` Ligeia '' ( 1838 ) `` A Predicament '' ( 1838 ) `` The Devil in the Belfry '' ( 1839 ) `` The Man That Was Used Up '' ( 1839 ) `` The Fall of the House of Usher '' ( 1839 ) `` William Wilson '' ( 1839 ) `` The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion '' ( 1839 ) `` The Business Man '' ( 1840 ) `` The Man of the Crowd '' ( 1840 ) `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' ( 1841 ) `` A Descent into the Maelström '' ( 1841 ) `` Never Bet the Devil Your Head '' ( 1841 ) `` Eleonora '' ( 1841 ) `` The Oval Portrait '' ( 1842 ) `` The Masque of the Red Death '' ( 1842 ) `` The Mystery of Marie Rogêt '' ( 1842 ) `` The Pit and the Pendulum '' ( 1842 ) `` The Tell - Tale Heart '' ( 1843 ) `` The Gold - Bug '' ( 1843 ) `` The Black Cat '' ( 1843 ) `` The Spectacles '' ( 1844 ) `` A Tale of the Ragged Mountains '' ( 1844 ) `` The Premature Burial '' ( 1844 ) `` The Oblong Box '' ( 1844 ) `` The Angel of the Odd '' ( 1844 ) `` Thou Art the Man '' ( 1844 ) `` The Purloined Letter '' ( 1844 ) `` Some Words with a Mummy '' ( 1845 ) `` The Thousand - and - Second Tale of Scheherazade '' ( 1845 ) `` The Imp of the Perverse '' ( 1845 ) `` The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether '' ( 1845 ) `` The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar '' ( 1845 ) `` The Cask of Amontillado '' ( 1846 ) `` Hop - Frog '' ( 1849 ) Essays `` Maelzel 's Chess Player '' ( 1836 ) `` The Philosophy of Furniture '' ( 1840 ) `` Morning on the Wissahiccon '' ( 1844 ) `` The Philosophy of Composition '' ( 1846 ) `` The Poetic Principle '' ( 1846 ) Eureka : A Prose Poem ( 1848 ) Novels The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ( 1837 ) The Journal of Julius Rodman ( 1840 ) Collections Tamerlane and Other Poems ( 1827 ) Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque ( 1840 ) Play Politian ( 1835 ) Other The Conchologist 's First Book ( 1839 ) The Balloon - Hoax ( 1844 ) The Light - House ( 1849 ) Related Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe ( wife ) Eliza Poe ( mother ) David Poe Jr. ( father ) William Henry Poe ( brother ) Poe Museum Poe Cottage Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum National Historic Site The Penn magazine Death Edgar Award In popular culture film and television music Poe Toaster Tales of Mystery & Imagination Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lenore&oldid=831831646 '' Categories : 1843 poems Poetry by Edgar Allan Poe Hidden categories : Articles with LibriVox links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Български Čeština Español Français Հայերեն Polski Română Русский Türkçe Українська 3 more Edit links This page was last edited on 22 March 2018 , at 11 : 53 . 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84 | document: 78th Academy Awards - wikipedia 78th Academy Awards Jump to : navigation , search 78th Academy Awards Official poster Date March 5 , 2006 Site Kodak Theatre Hollywood , Los Angeles , California , U.S. Hosted by Jon Stewart Preshow hosts Billy Bush , Chris Connelly , Cynthia Garrett , and Vanessa Minnillo Produced by Gil Cates Directed by Louis J. Horvitz Highlights Best Picture Crash Most awards Brokeback Mountain , Crash , King Kong and Memoirs of a Geisha ( 3 ) Most nominations Brokeback Mountain ( 8 ) TV in the United States Network ABC Duration 3 hours , 33 minutes Ratings 38.94 million 23.0 % ( Nielsen ratings ) ← 77th Academy Awards 79th → The 78th Academy Awards ceremony , presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) , took place on March 5 , 2006 , at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood , Los Angeles beginning at 5 : 00 p.m. PST / 8 : 00 p.m. EST . The ceremony was scheduled one week later than usual to avoid conflicting with the 2006 Winter Olympics . During the ceremony , AMPAS presented Academy Awards ( commonly referred to as Oscars ) in 24 categories honoring films released in 2005 . The ceremony , televised in the United States by ABC , was produced by Gil Cates and directed by Louis J. Horvitz . Actor Jon Stewart hosted the show for the first time . Two weeks earlier in a ceremony at The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills , California held on February 18 , the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Rachel McAdams . Crash won three awards including Academy Award for Best Picture . Other winners included Brokeback Mountain , King Kong and Memoirs of a Geisha also with three awards apiece , and Capote , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , The Constant Gardener , Hustle & Flow , March of the Penguins , The Moon and the Son : An Imagined Conversation , A Note of Triumph : The Golden Age of Norman Corwin , Six Shooter , Syriana , Tsotsi , Walk the Line and Wallace & Gromit : The Curse of the Were - Rabbit with one each . The telecast garnered nearly 39 million viewers in the United States . Contents ( hide ) 1 Winners and nominees 1.1 Awards 1.2 Academy Honorary Award 1.3 Multiple nominations and awards 2 Presenters and performers 2.1 Presenters 2.2 Performers 3 Ceremony information 3.1 Box office performance of nominated films 3.2 Critical reviews 3.3 Ratings and reception 4 In Memoriam 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Winners and nominees ( edit ) The nominees for the 78th Academy Awards were announced on January 31 , 2006 , at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in the Academy 's Beverly Hills headquarters by Sid Ganis , president of the Academy , and actress Mira Sorvino . Brokeback Mountain earned the most nominations with eight total ; Crash , Good Night , and Good Luck , and Memoirs of a Geisha tied for second with six nominations each . All five Best Picture nominees received corresponding Best Director nominations ( the fourth occurrence in Oscar history since the Best Picture nominees roster was limited to five films ) . The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 5 , 2006 . Several notable achievements by multiple individuals and films occurred during the ceremony . Crash was the first Best Picture winner since 1976 's Rocky to win only three Oscars . Best Director winner Ang Lee became the first non-Caucasian winner of that category . For this first time since the 34th ceremony held in 1962 , all four acting winners were first - time nominees . Best Supporting Actor winner George Clooney was the fifth person to receive acting , directing , and screenwriting nominations in the same year and the first person to achieve this feat for two different films . By virtue of his nominations for both Memoirs of a Geisha and Munich , composer John Williams earned a total of 45 nominations tying him with Alfred Newman as the second most nominated individual in Oscar history . `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' became the second rap song to win Best Original Song and the first such song to be performed at an Oscars ceremony . Awards ( edit ) Ang Lee , Best Director winner Philip Seymour Hoffman , Best Actor winner Reese Witherspoon , Best Actress winner George Clooney , Best Supporting Actor winner Rachel Weisz , Best Supporting Actress winner Paul Haggis , Best Original Screenplay co-winner Nick Park , Best Animated Feature winner Gavin Hood , Best Foreign Language Film winner Martin McDonagh , Best Live Action Short Film winner Richard Taylor , Best Visual Effects co-winner Winners are listed first , highlighted in boldface , and indicated with a double dagger ( ) . Best Picture Crash -- Paul Haggis and Cathy Schulman , producers Brokeback Mountain -- Diana Ossana and James Schamus , producers Capote -- Caroline Baron , William Vince and Michael Ohoven , producers Good Night , and Good Luck -- Grant Heslov , producer Munich -- Kathleen Kennedy , Steven Spielberg and Barry Mendel , producers Best Director Ang Lee -- Brokeback Mountain Bennett Miller -- Capote Paul Haggis -- Crash George Clooney -- Good Night , and Good Luck Steven Spielberg -- Munich Best Actor Philip Seymour Hoffman -- Capote as Truman Capote Terrence Howard -- Hustle & Flow as DJay Heath Ledger -- Brokeback Mountain as Ennis Del Mar Joaquin Phoenix -- Walk the Line as Johnny Cash David Strathairn -- Good Night , and Good Luck as Edward R. Murrow Best Actress Reese Witherspoon -- Walk the Line as June Carter Cash Judi Dench -- Mrs Henderson Presents as Laura Henderson Felicity Huffman -- Transamerica as Sabrina `` Bree '' Osbourne / Stanley Schupak Keira Knightley -- Pride & Prejudice as Elizabeth Bennet Charlize Theron -- North Country as Josey Aimes Best Supporting Actor George Clooney -- Syriana as Bob Barnes Matt Dillon -- Crash as Officer John Ryan Paul Giamatti -- Cinderella Man as Joe Gould Jake Gyllenhaal -- Brokeback Mountain as Jack Twist William Hurt -- A History of Violence as Richie Cusack Best Supporting Actress Rachel Weisz -- The Constant Gardener as Tessa Quayle Amy Adams -- Junebug as Ashley Johnsten Catherine Keener -- Capote as Nelle Harper Lee Frances McDormand -- North Country as Glory Dodge Michelle Williams -- Brokeback Mountain as Alma Beers Del Mar Best Original Screenplay Crash -- Paul Haggis and Robert Moresco Good Night , and Good Luck -- George Clooney and Grant Heslov Match Point -- Woody Allen The Squid and the Whale -- Noah Baumbach Syriana -- Stephen Gaghan Best Adapted Screenplay Brokeback Mountain -- Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana based on the short story by Annie Proulx Capote -- Dan Futterman based on the book by Gerald Clarke The Constant Gardener -- Jeffrey Caine based on the novel by John le Carré A History of Violence -- Josh Olson based on the graphic novel by John Wagner and Vince Locke Munich -- Tony Kushner and Eric Roth based on the book Vengeance : The True Story of an Israeli Counter-Terrorist Team by George Jonas Best Animated Feature Film Wallace & Gromit : The Curse of the Were - Rabbit -- Nick Park and Steve Box Howl 's Moving Castle -- Hayao Miyazaki Corpse Bride -- Mike Johnson , Tim Burton Best Foreign Language Film Tsotsi ( South Africa ) in Afrikaans -- Gavin Hood Do n't Tell ( Italy ) in Italian -- Cristina Comencini Joyeux Noël ( France ) in French -- Christian Carion Paradise Now ( Palestine ) in Arabic -- Hany Abu - Assad Sophie Scholl -- The Final Days ( Germany ) in German -- Marc Rothemund Best Documentary Feature March of the Penguins -- Luc Jacquet and Yves Darondeau Darwin 's Nightmare -- Hubert Sauper Enron : The Smartest Guys in the Room -- Alex Gibney and Jason Kliot Murderball -- Henry - Alex Rubin and Dana Adam Shapiro Street Fight -- Marshall Curry Best Documentary Short Subject A Note of Triumph : The Golden Age of Norman Corwin -- Corinne Marrinan and Eric Simonson The Death of Kevin Carter : Casualty of the Bang Bang Club -- Dan Krauss God Sleeps in Rwanda -- Kimberlee Acquaro and Stacy Sherman The Mushroom Club -- Steven Okazaki Best Live Action Short Film Six Shooter -- Martin McDonagh Ausreißer ( The Runaway ) -- Ulrike Grote Cashback -- Sean Ellis and Lene Bausager The Last Farm -- Rúnar Rúnarsson and Thor S. Sigurjónsson Our Time is Up -- Rob Pearlstein and Pia Clemente Best Animated Short Film The Moon and the Son : An Imagined Conversation -- John Canemaker and Peggy Stern Badgered -- Sharon Colman The Mysterious Geographic Explorations of Jasper Morello -- Anthony Lucas 9 -- Shane Acker One Man Band -- Andrew Jimenez and Mark Andrews Best Original Score Brokeback Mountain by Gustavo Santaolalla The Constant Gardener by Alberto Iglesias Memoirs of a Geisha by John Williams Munich by John Williams Pride & Prejudice by Dario Marianelli Best Original Song `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' from Hustle & Flow -- Music and Lyrics by Jordan Houston , Cedric Coleman and Paul Beauregard `` In the Deep '' from Crash -- Music by Kathleen `` Bird '' York and Michael Becker ; Lyrics by Kathleen `` Bird '' York `` Travelin ' Thru '' from Transamerica -- Music and Lyrics by Dolly Parton Best Sound Editing King Kong -- Mike Hopkins and Ethan Van der Ryn Memoirs of a Geisha -- Wylie Stateman War of the Worlds -- Richard King Best Sound Mixing King Kong -- Christopher Boyes , Michael Semanick , Michael Hedges and Hammond Peek The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe -- Terry Porter , Dean A. Zupancic and Tony Johnson Memoirs of a Geisha -- Kevin O'Connell , Greg P. Russell , Rick Kline and John Pritchett Walk the Line -- Paul Massey , Doug Hemphill and Peter Kurland War of the Worlds -- Andy Nelson , Anna Behlmer and Ron Judkins Best Art Direction Memoirs of a Geisha -- Art Direction : John Myhre ; Set Decoration : Gretchen Rau Good Night , and Good Luck -- Art Direction : Jim Bissell ; Set Decoration : Jan Pascale Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire -- Art Direction : Stuart Craig ; Set Decoration : Stephenie McMillan King Kong -- Art Direction : Grant Major ; Set Decoration : Dan Hennah and Simon Bright Pride & Prejudice -- Art Direction : Sarah Greenwood ; Set Decoration : Katie Spencer Best Cinematography Memoirs of a Geisha -- Dion Beebe Batman Begins -- Wally Pfister Brokeback Mountain -- Rodrigo Prieto Good Night , and Good Luck -- Robert Elswit The New World -- Emmanuel Lubezki Best Makeup The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe -- Howard Berger and Tami Lane Cinderella Man -- David Leroy Anderson and Lance Anderson Star Wars : Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith -- Dave Elsey and Nikki Gooley Best Costume Design Memoirs of a Geisha -- Colleen Atwood Charlie and the Chocolate Factory -- Gabriella Pescucci Mrs Henderson Presents -- Sandy Powell Pride & Prejudice -- Jacqueline Durran Walk the Line -- Arianne Phillips Best Film Editing Crash -- Hughes Winborne Cinderella Man -- Mike Hill and Dan Hanley The Constant Gardener -- Claire Simpson Munich -- Michael Kahn Walk the Line -- Michael McCusker Best Visual Effects King Kong -- Joe Letteri , Brian Va n't Hul , Christian Rivers and Richard Taylor The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe -- Dean Wright , Bill Westenhofer , Jim Berney and Scott Farrar War of the Worlds -- Dennis Muren , Pablo Helman , Randal M. Dutra and Daniel Sudick Academy honorary Award ( edit ) Robert Altman -- In recognition of a career that has repeatedly reinvented the art form and inspired filmmakers and audiences alike . Multiple nominations and awards ( edit ) The following 19 films received multiple nominations : Nominations Film 8 Brokeback Mountain 6 Crash Good Night , and Good Luck Memoirs of a Geisha 5 Capote Munich Walk the Line King Kong Pride & Prejudice The Constant Gardener Cinderella Man The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe War of the Worlds A History of Violence Hustle & Flow Mrs Henderson Presents North Country Syriana Transamerica The following four films each received multiple awards : Awards Film Brokeback Mountain Crash King Kong Memoirs of a Geisha Presenters and performers ( edit ) The following individuals presented awards or performed musical numbers . Presenters ( edit ) Name ( s ) Role Kane , Tom Tom Kane Announcer for the 78th annual Academy Awards Kidman , Nicole Nicole Kidman Presenter of the award for Best Supporting Actor Stiller , Ben Ben Stiller Presenter of the award for Best Visual Effects Witherspoon , Reese Reese Witherspoon Presenter of the award for Best Animated Feature Watts , Naomi Naomi Watts Introducer of the performance of Best Song nominee `` Travelin ' Thru '' Wilson , Luke Luke Wilson and Owen Wilson Presenters of the award for Best Live Action Short Film Chicken Little Chicken Little ( voiced by Zach Braff ) and Abby Mallard ( voiced by Joan Cusack ) Presenters of the award for Best Animated Short Film Aniston , Jennifer Jennifer Aniston Presenter of the award for Best Costume Design Crowe , Russell Russell Crowe Presenter of the biographical films montage Carell , Steve Steve Carell and Will Ferrell Presenters of the award for Best Makeup McAdams , Rachel Rachel McAdams Presenter of the segment of the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement and the Gordon E. Sawyer Award Freeman , Morgan Morgan Freeman Presenter of the award for Best Supporting Actress Bacall , Lauren Lauren Bacall Presenter of the film noir montage Howard , Terrence Terrence Howard Presenter of the award for Best Documentary Short Subject Theron , Charlize Charlize Theron Presenter of the award for Best Documentary Feature Lopez , Jennifer Jennifer Lopez Introducer of the performance of Best Song nominee `` In the Deep '' Bullock , Sandra Sandra Bullock and Keanu Reeves Presenters of the award for Best Art Direction Jackson , Samuel L. Samuel L. Jackson Presenter of the political films montage Ganis , Sid Sid Ganis ( AMPAS president ) Special presentation regarding activities funded by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Hayek , Salma Salma Hayek Introducer of the special instrumental solo performance to the tune of Best Original Score nominees and presenter of the award for Best Original Score Gyllenhaal , Jake Jake Gyllenhaal Presenter of the epic films montage Alba , Jessica Jessica Alba and Eric Bana Presenters of the award for Best Sound Mixing Streep , Meryl Meryl Streep and Lily Tomlin Presenters of the Academy Honorary Award to Robert Altman Ludacris , Ludacris Introducer of the performance of Best Song nominee `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' Latifah , Queen Queen Latifah Presenter of the award for Best Original Song Garner , Jennifer Jennifer Garner Presenter of the award for Best Sound Editing Clooney , George George Clooney Presenter of the In Memoriam tribute Smith , Will Will Smith Presenter of the award for Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film Zhang , Ziyi Ziyi Zhang Presenter of the award for Best Film Editing Swank , Hilary Hilary Swank Presenter of the award for Best Actor Travolta , John John Travolta Presenter of the award for Best Cinematography Foxx , Jamie Jamie Foxx Presenter of the award for Best Actress Hoffman , Dustin Dustin Hoffman Presenter of the award for Best Adapted Screenplay Thurman , Uma Uma Thurman Presenter of the award for Best Original Screenplay Hanks , Tom Tom Hanks Presenter of the award for Best Director Nicholson , Jack Jack Nicholson Presenter of the award for Best Picture Performers ( edit ) Name ( s ) Role Performed Conti , Bill Bill Conti Musical arranger and Conductor Orchestral Parton , Dolly Dolly Parton Performer `` Travelin ' Thru '' from Transamerica York , Kathleen Kathleen York Performer `` In the Deep '' from Crash Perlman , Itzhak Itzhak Perlman Performer Performed musical selections for Best Original Score nominees Three 6 Mafia , Three 6 Mafia and Taraji P. Henson Performers `` It 's Hard Out Here for a Pimp '' from Hustle & Flow Ceremony information ( edit ) Jon Stewart hosted the 78th Academy Awards . Despite the negative reception from the preceding year 's ceremony , the Academy rehired Gilbert Cates to oversee production of the awards gala . However , in an article published in The New York Times , it was stated that 2005 host Chris Rock would not return to host the show . According to a statement released by his publicist , `` He did n't want to do it in perpetuity , He 'd like to do it again down the road . '' Furthermore , many media outlets speculated that several AMPAS members felt uncomfortable with Rock 's disparaging comments about Colin Farrell , Jude Law , and Tobey Maguire . Initially , Cates sought actor and veteran Oscar host Billy Crystal to host the ceremony again . However , Crystal declined the offer citing his commitment to his one - man comedy show 700 Sundays . In January 2006 , Cates announced that actor , comedian , and talk show host Jon Stewart , who had previously hosted two consecutive Grammy Awards ceremonies in 2001 and 2002 , was chosen as host of the 2006 telecast . Cates explained the decision to hire him saying , `` My wife and I watch him every night . Jon is the epitome of a perfect host -- smart , engaging , irreverent and funny . '' In a statement , Stewart expressed that he was honored to be selected to emcee the program , jokingly adding , `` Although , as an avid watcher of the Oscars , I ca n't help but be a little disappointed with the choice . It appears to be another sad attempt to smoke out Billy Crystal . '' Several other people and companies participated in the production of the ceremony . Bill Conti served as musical supervisor for the telecast . Media firm The Ant Farm produced a thirty - second trailer promoting the broadcast featuring clips highlighting past Oscar winners to the tune of the song `` Our Lives '' by The Calling . Previous Oscar hosts such as Whoopi Goldberg and Steve Martin , and actors Mel Gibson , George Clooney , Halle Berry appeared in an opening comedic sketch . Actor Tom Hanks participated in a pre-taped comedic sketch lampooning Oscar speeches . Stephen Colbert narrated two different mock attack ads lampooning both the intense campaigning and lobbying during Oscar season put forth by film studios and political advertising during elections . Violinist Itzhak Perlman performed excerpts from the five nominees for Best Original Score . Box office performance of nominated films ( edit ) When the nominations were announced on January 31 , the field of major nominees favored independent , low - budget films over blockbusters . The combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees when the Oscars were announced was $186 million with an average gross of $37.3 million per film . Crash was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $53.4 million in domestic box office receipts . The film was followed by Brokeback Mountain ( $51.7 million ) , Munich ( $40.8 million ) , Good Night and Good Luck ( $25.2 million ) , and finally Capote ( $15.4 million ) . Of the top 50 grossing movies of the year , 35 nominations went to 13 films on the list . Only Walk the Line ( 19th ) , Cinderella Man ( 41st ) , Wallace and Gromit : The Curse of the Were - Rabbit ( 45th ) , and Crash ( 48th ) were nominated for Best Picture , Best Animated Feature , or any of the directing , acting , or screenwriting . The other top 50 box office hits that earned nominations were Star Wars Episode III : Revenge of the Sith ( 1st ) , Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire ( 2nd ) , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , The Witch , and The Wardrobe ( 3rd ) , War of the Worlds ( 4th ) , King Kong ( 5th ) , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory ( 7th ) , Batman Begins ( 8th ) , March of the Penguins , ( 26th ) , and Memoirs of a Geisha ( 47th ) . Critical reviews ( edit ) Some media outlets received the broadcast positively . St. Louis Post-Dispatch television critic Gail Pennington praised Stewart 's performance as host writing that he `` did the Oscars proud Sunday night , turning in a four - star hosting performance that unfortunately made the rest of the show seem sluggish by comparison . '' Film critic Roger Ebert said that Stewart was `` on target , topical and funny , '' and added , `` He was as relaxed , amusing and at home as Johnny Carson . '' Columnist Ray Richmond of The Hollywood Reporter commented , `` He seemed at times nervous and self - conscious , but on the whole , Stewart delivered with just the right balance of reverence and smugness . '' Others media publications were more critical of the show . Television critic Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote that Stewart was more `` amusing than funny '' . He added , `` Many of his jokes fell flat with the stars in the Kodak Theatre , and his tendency to bow down before celebrities quickly grew tiresome . '' Tom Shales from The Washington Post commented , `` It 's hard to believe that professional entertainers could have put together a show less entertaining than this year 's Oscars , hosted with a smug humorlessness by comic Jon Stewart , a sad and pale shadow of great hosts gone by . '' Moreover , he derided the `` piles and piles and miles and miles of clips from films present and past '' writing that it `` squandered the visual luster '' of the ceremony . Associated Press television critic Frazier Moore remarked , `` Stewart , usually a very funny guy , displayed a lack of beginner 's luck as first - time host ... His usually impeccable blend of puckishness and self - effacement fell flat in the service of Oscar . '' He also criticized the decision to play music over the winner 's acceptance speeches calling it `` distracting and obnoxious . '' Ratings and reception ( edit ) The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 38.94 million people over its length , which was a 8 % decrease from the previous year 's ceremony . Additionally , the show earned lower Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony with 23.0 % of households watching over a 35 share . Furthermore , it garnered a lower 18 -- 49 demo rating with a 13.9 rating among viewers in that demographic . In July 2006 , the ceremony presentation received nine nominations at the 58th Primetime Emmys . The following month , the ceremony won four of those nominations for Outstanding Art Direction ( Roy Christopher and Jeff Richman ) , Outstanding Directing for a Variety , Music , or Comedy Program ( Louis J. Horvitz ) , Outstanding Main Title Design ( Renato Grgic , Alen Petkovic , Kristijan Petrovic , and Jon Teschner ) , and Outstanding Sound Mixing For A Variety , Music , or Animation Series or Special ( Patrick Baltzell , Robert Douglass , Edward J. Greene , Jamie Santos , and Tom Vicari ) . In Memoriam ( edit ) The annual In Memoriam tribute was presented by actor George Clooney . The montage featured an excerpt of the theme from Now , Voyager composed by Max Steiner . Teresa Wright Pat Morita Robert Newmyer Dan O'Herlihy Vincent Schiavelli Joe Ranft Moira Shearer Fayard Nicholas Stu Linder Sandra Dee John Fiedler Anthony Franciosa Joel Hirschhorn Guy Green Barbara Bel Geddes Robert Knudson Moustapha Akkad Chris Penn John Mills Onna White Debra Hill Simone Simon Robert Schiffer Brock Peters Ernest Lehman Shelley Winters Anne Bancroft John Box Eddie Albert Ismail Merchant Robert Wise Richard Pryor See also ( edit ) Academy Award portal 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards 26th Golden Raspberry Awards 48th Grammy Awards 58th Primetime Emmy Awards 59th British Academy Film Awards 60th Tony Awards 63rd Golden Globe Awards List of submissions to the 78th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film Notes ( edit ) a ^ : Walt Disney has the most Oscar nominations for any individual with 64 . b ^ : Best Foreign Language Film nominee Paradise Now was initially nominated as a submission from Palestine . However , following protests from pro-Israeli groups in the United States , the Academy decided to designate it as a submission from the Palestinian Authority , a move that was decried by the film 's director Hany Abu - Assad . During the awards ceremony , the film was eventually announced by presenter Will Smith as a submission from the Palestinian territories . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` A show this big needs buildups and wrap - ups '' . Los Angeles Times . Austin Beutner . March 5 , 2006 . Archived from the original on October 22 , 2012 . Retrieved April 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Rich , Joshua ( March 10 , 2006 ) . `` Facts about the Oscar telecast '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Archived from the original on August 25 , 2015 . Retrieved March 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Feiwell , Jill ( December 16 , 2004 ) . `` Olympics delay Oscars '' . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . Archived from the original on April 24 , 2014 . 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Jump up ^ Moore , Frazier ( March 6 , 2006 ) . `` Oscarcast , Stewart fairly bland '' . The Cincinnati Post . E.W. Scripps Company . p . C2 . Jump up ^ `` NBC finishes out of the money again '' . Los Angeles Times . Austin Beutner . March 8 , 2006 . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2015 . Retrieved March 27 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Down but not dire '' . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2015 . Retrieved June 27 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Primetime Emmy Award database '' . Academy of Television Arts and Sciences ( ATAS ) . Archived from the original on April 24 , 2014 . Retrieved January 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The complete list of winners '' . Los Angeles Times . Austin Beutner . August 28 , 2006 . Archived from the original on April 24 , 2014 . Retrieved April 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , John ( March 6 , 2006 ) . `` Santaolalla scores , Three 6 Mafia raps up at Academy Awards '' . The Film Music Society . Archived from the original on January 1 , 1970 . Retrieved May 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Gray , Tim ( February 14 , 2006 ) . `` Acad denies ' Now ' rumors '' . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . Archived from the original on August 26 , 2015 . Retrieved June 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Gray , Tim ( March 1 , 2006 ) . `` Oscar tune impugned '' . Variety . Penske Media Corporation . Archived from the original on August 26 , 2015 . Retrieved June 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Agassi , Tirah ( February 26 , 2006 ) . `` Middle East tensions hang over Palestinian nominee for an Oscar / ' Paradise Now ' traces lives of two men who are suicide bombers '' . San Francisco Chronicle . Jeffrey M. Johnson . Archived from the original on 24 May 2014 . Retrieved 25 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Zayid , Maysoon ( September 20 , 2012 ) . `` Movie is ' not without its rewards ' '' . Manawatu Standard . Fairfax Media . p. 13 . Bibliography ( edit ) Osborne , Robert ( 2008 ) . 80 Years of the Oscar : The Complete History of the Academy Awards . New York : Abbeville Publishing Group . ISBN 0 - 7892 - 0992 - 6 . Terrance , Vincent ( 2013 ) . Television Specials : 5,336 Entertainment Programs , 1936 -- 2012 ( 5 ed . ) . Jefferson , North Carolina : Ballantine Books , McFarland & Company . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4766 - 1240 - 9 . OCLC 844373010 . External links ( edit ) Wikinews has related news : Nominations announced for 78th Academy Awards Oscar Winners 2006 Academy Awards Official website The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Official website Oscar 's Channel at YouTube ( run by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ) News resources Oscars 2006 BBC News Academy Awards coverage CNN Oscars 2006 - The Academy Awards The New York Times Analysis 2005 Academy Awards Winners and History Filmsite Academy Awards , USA : 2006 Internet Movie Database Other resources The 78th Annual Academy Awards on IMDb ( hide ) Academy Awards Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) Records Most wins per ceremony Oscar season Governors Awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting Pre-show Awards of Merit Best Picture Director Actor Actress Supporting Actor Supporting Actress Adapted Screenplay Original Screenplay Animated Feature Documentary Feature Foreign Language Film Animated Short Film Documentary Short Subject Live Action Short Film Cinematography Costume Design Film Editing Makeup and Hairstyling Original Score Original Song Original Musical Production Design Sound Editing Sound Mixing Visual Effects Special awards Governors Awards Academy Honorary Award Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award Academy Scientific and Technical Awards Academy Award of Merit ( non-competitive ) Scientific and Engineering Award Technical Achievement Award John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation Gordon E. Sawyer Award Student Awards Student Academy Award Former awards Merit Awards Assistant Director Dance Direction Director of a Comedy Picture Engineering Effects Short Subject , Two - reel Short Subject , Comedy Short Subject , Novelty Story Title Writing Unique and Artistic Quality of Production Special Awards Academy Juvenile Award Special Achievement Academy Award Ceremonies ‡ ( List Book ) 1927 / 28 1928 / 29 1929 / 30 1930 / 31 1931 / 32 1932 / 33 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 2001 2017 Footnotes ‡ Dates and years listed for each ceremony were the eligibility period of film release in Los Angeles County , California . For the first five ceremonies , the eligibility period was from August to July . For the 6th ceremony held in 1934 , the eligibility period lasted from August 1 , 1932 to December 31 , 1933 . Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935 , the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31 . Book Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=78th_Academy_Awards&oldid=799982700 '' Categories : Academy Awards ceremonies 2005 film awards 2006 in Los Angeles 2006 in American cinema 2006 awards in the United States March 2006 events Hidden categories : Pages using infobox film awards with the preshow parameter Articles with hCards Featured lists Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano ქართული Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Suomi Svenska Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2017 , at 23 : 51 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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85 | document: Because You Loved Me - wikipedia Because You Loved Me Jump to : navigation , search `` Because You Loved Me '' Single by Celine Dion from the album Falling into You Released 20 February 1996 ( 1996 - 02 - 20 ) Format CD cassette 7 '' 12 '' Recorded 1995 ; Chartmarker Studios ( Los Angeles , California ) Capitol Studios ( Hollywood , California ) Rumbo Recorders ( Los Angeles , California ) Genre Pop R&B Length 4 : 33 Label Columbia Epic Songwriter ( s ) Diane Warren Producer ( s ) David Foster Celine Dion singles chronology `` Falling into You '' ( 1996 ) `` Because You Loved Me '' ( 1996 ) `` J'irai où tu iras '' ( 1996 ) `` Falling into You '' ( 1996 ) `` Because You Loved Me '' ( 1996 ) `` J'irai où tu iras '' ( 1996 ) Alternative covers Music video `` Because You Loved Me '' on YouTube `` Because You Loved Me '' is a song recorded by Canadian singer Celine Dion for her fourth English - language studio album , Falling into You ( 1996 ) . It was released on 20 February 1996 , as the first single in North America , South America and Asia . It was released as the second single from the album in Australia , on 29 April 1996 , and in May 1996 in Europe . `` Because You Loved Me '' was written by Diane Warren and produced by David Foster , and served as the theme song from the 1996 film Up Close & Personal , starring Robert Redford and Michelle Pfeiffer . `` Because You Loved Me '' received critical acclaim and became a worldwide hit , reaching number one in the United States , Canada and Australia , and reaching top ten in many other countries . In the United States alone , it has sold over two million copies . `` Because You Loved Me '' won the Grammy Award for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television , and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song . Contents ( hide ) 1 Composition and release 2 Critical reception 3 Commercial performance 4 Awards and accolades 5 Music video 6 Live performances 7 Track listing 8 Charts 8.1 Weekly charts 8.2 Year - end charts 8.3 Decade - end charts 9 Certifications and sales 10 Credits and personnel 11 Cover versions 12 Release history 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Composition and release ( edit ) `` Because You Loved Me '' was written by Diane Warren and produced by David Foster . Both Warren and Foster worked with Dion on her previous English - language albums . The song is a downtempo pop ballad , and its lyrics revolve around the protagonist thanking a loyal loved one for guiding , encouraging , and protecting her throughout her life , and making her who she is today . Warren said that the song was a tribute to her father . `` Because You Loved Me '' served as the theme song from the 1996 film Up Close & Personal , starring Robert Redford and Michelle Pfeiffer . However , the song was not included on the film 's soundtrack . `` Because You Loved Me '' was released as the first single from Falling into You in North America , South America and Asia in February 1996 . It was issued as the second single in Australia ( April 1996 ) and Europe ( May 1996 ) , after `` Falling into You . '' The song is written in the key of D ♭ major with a slow tempo of 60 beats per minute . Dion 's vocals span from A ♭ to E ♭ in the song . The final chorus is set in E ♭ major . Critical reception ( edit ) `` Because You Loved Me '' received positive reviews from music critics . Larry Flick from Billboard wrote that `` Because You Loved Me '' is , `` rife with grand romance , larger - than - life production , and a climax that is best described as the musical equivalent to 4th of July fireworks . '' Another Billboard editor , Paul Verna also highlighted the chart - topping `` Because You Loved Me . '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised it calling it this year 's `` Wind Beneath My Wings . '' Positive review also came from senior editor of AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine who praised ballads like `` Because You Loved Me '' on Falling into You . And Dave Sholin from the Gavin Report wrote : `` How about this daring prediction : It 'll be one of the first major hits of 1996 ! An expected Celine Dion media blitz this spring is certain to take her and this project far into the next galaxy . '' Commercial Performance ( edit ) In the United States , `` Because You Loved Me '' became Dion 's second number one single , after `` The Power of Love '' in 1994 . It topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for six consecutive weeks and ended the reign at the top of `` One Sweet Day '' by Mariah Carey and Boyz II Men . `` Because You Loved Me '' also topped the Adult Contemporary Singles for nineteen weeks and set a record for most weeks at number one on this chart . In the following years , only five songs spent more time at the top , including Dion 's own `` A New Day Has Come '' in 2002 ( twenty - one weeks ) . `` Because You Loved Me '' also reached number one on other US charts , including Hot 100 Airplay for fourteen weeks , Adult Top 40 for twelve weeks , Hot Singles Sales for six weeks and Mainstream Top 40 for five weeks . In April 1996 , it was certified Platinum by the RIAA for selling one million copies in the US . As of April 2012 , `` Because You Loved Me '' has sold 1,343,000 physical copies and 704,000 digital units , for a total of 2,047,000 copies . According to Billboard , `` Because You Loved Me '' is Dion 's biggest Billboard Hot 100 hit , followed by `` It 's All Coming Back to Me Now , '' also from Falling into You . In Canada , `` Because You Loved Me '' topped The Record Singles Chart for one week in May 1996 and also spent ten weeks at number one on the RPM Adult Contemporary Chart . It became the number - one song on the RPM Adult Contemporary 1996 Year - end Chart . `` Because You Loved Me '' also topped the chart in Australia for three weeks and reached number two in Ireland , number three in New Zealand and Switzerland , number four in the Netherlands , number five in the United Kingdom and Belgium Flanders , and number eight in Denmark . It was certified 2 × Platinum in Australia , Platinum the United Kingdom and New Zealand , Gold in Germany and is eligible for Silver in France . As one of Dion 's biggest hits , `` Because You Loved Me '' was included on her both greatest hits compilations : All the Way ... A Decade of Song ( 1999 ) and My Love : Essential Collection ( 2008 ) . Awards and accolades ( edit ) At the 39th Annual Grammy Awards , `` Because You Loved Me '' was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , Song of the Year and won the Grammy Award for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television . At the Juno Awards of 1997 , `` Because You Loved Me '' was nominated for the Juno Award for Single of the Year . It was also nominated for four Billboard Music Awards in 1996 in categories : Hot 100 Singles , Hot 100 Singles Airplay , Hot Adult Contemporary Singles & Tracks and Hot Adult Top 40 Singles & Tracks . Additionally , `` Because You Loved Me '' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song , Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favourite Song from a Movie . It also won the ASCAP Film and Television Music Award for Most Performed Song from Motion Picture and the ASCAP Pop Awards for Most Performed Song in 1997 , 1998 and 1999 . Music video ( edit ) A music video was created for the song and showed Dion singing interspersed with clips from the film Up Close & Personal . It was directed by Kevin Bray in January 1996 and released in March 1996 . Live performances ( edit ) During the promotion of Falling into You , Dion performed `` Because You Loved Me '' on various television shows in the United States , Italy , Germany and the Netherlands . She also performed it at the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards and World Music Awards in 1996 , and most notably at the 69th Academy Awards in March 1997 . `` Because You Loved Me '' became a part of the Falling Into You Around the World Tour , Let 's Talk About Love World Tour and Taking Chances World Tour . It was also performed during Dion 's two Las Vegas shows , A New Day ... and Celine . The live performances of `` Because You Loved Me '' were included on Live in Memphis ( 1998 ) , All the Way ... A Decade of Song & Video ( 2001 ) , A New Day ... Live in Las Vegas ( 2004 ) , Live in Las Vegas : A New Day ... ( 2007 ) and Taking Chances World Tour : The Concert ( 2010 ) . Dion performed `` Because You Loved Me '' during her Summer Tour 2016 , and her 2017 European tour . Track listing ( edit ) European CD single No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` If You Asked Me To '' 3 : 55 European / UK cassette single No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` To Love You More '' 5 : 29 Japanese / North American CD single No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` I Do n't Know '' 4 : 38 Australian CD maxi single No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` I Do n't Know '' 4 : 38 3 . `` Pour que tu m'aimes encore '' 4 : 14 4 . `` Le ballet '' 4 : 25 Asian CD maxi single / Australian CD maxi single # 2 No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` I Do n't Know '' 4 : 38 3 . `` Pour que tu m'aimes encore '' 4 : 14 4 . `` Le ballet '' 4 : 25 5 . `` The Power of the Dream '' 4 : 30 European / UK CD maxi single No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` Nothing Broken but My Heart '' 5 : 55 3 . `` Next Plane Out '' 4 : 57 4 . `` If You Asked Me To '' 3 : 55 European CD maxi single # 2 No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` The Power of the Dream '' 4 : 30 3 . `` Think Twice '' 4 : 47 4 . `` Le fils de Superman '' 4 : 32 UK CD maxi single # 2 No . Title Length 1 . `` Because You Loved Me '' 4 : 33 2 . `` To Love You More '' 5 : 29 3 . `` Sola Otra Vez '' 5 : 08 4 . `` Think Twice '' 4 : 47 Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1996 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 18 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 5 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 12 Canada ( The Record 's Hit Parade Chart ) Canada ( The Record 's Contemporary Hit Radio ) Canada Top Singles ( RPM ) Canada Adult Contemporary ( RPM ) Europe ( European Hot 100 Singles ) 6 France ( SNEP ) 19 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 13 Iceland ( Íslenski Listinn Topp 40 ) Ireland ( IRMA ) Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) Spain ( Top 40 Radio ) 22 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) 24 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 5 US Billboard Hot 100 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ( Billboard ) 41 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Rhythmic ( Billboard ) Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1996 ) Position Australia ( ARIA ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 21 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 64 Canada Top Singles ( RPM ) 5 Canada Adult Contemporary ( RPM ) France ( SNEP ) 64 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 31 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) 16 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 35 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 10 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) 75 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 20 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 27 US Billboard Hot 100 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) US Top Soundtrack Single ( Billboard ) Decade - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1990 -- 99 ) Position US Billboard Hot 100 18 Certifications and sales ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) 2 × Platinum 140,000 France 183,000 Germany ( BVMI ) Gold 250,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Platinum 10,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Platinum 600,000 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 2,047,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Credits and personnel ( edit ) Recording Recorded at Chartmaker Studios , Capitol Studios and Rumbo Recorders Mixed at The Record Plant Personnel Songwriter -- Diane Warren Producer -- David Foster Lead vocal -- Celine Dion Executive producer for Up Close & Personal -- Jon Avnet Background vocals arrangers -- Sue Ann Carwell , Carl Carwell , David Foster Engineer -- Felipe Elgueta Lead vocal recording -- Humberto Gatica Assistant engineers -- Peter Doell , Mark Agostino Mix -- Humberto Gatica Assistants -- Chris Brooke , Paul Boutin , Kyle Bess Keyboards and minimoog bass -- David Foster Synclavier programming and drums -- Simon Franglen Guitars -- Michael Thompson Background vocals -- Sue Ann Carwell , Carl Carwell , Kofi , Terry Bradford , Alex Brown , Philip Ingram , Maxann Lewis , Will Heaton , Bridgette Bryant - Fiddmont , Alanna Capps Cover versions ( edit ) In 1997 , Dominican singer Milly Quezada released a Spanish version of the song titled `` Porque Me Amaste '' on her album Hasta Siempre . This version peaked at number twenty - nine on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number four on the Billboard Tropical Songs . The track was also covered by Johnny Mathis ( 1998 ) , Michael Ball ( 1998 ) , Vivian Reed ( 2001 ) , Jane McDonald ( 2001 ) , Siti Nurhaliza ( 2005 ) , Clay Aiken ( 2006 ) , Miho Fukuhara ( 2007 ) , Nina Girado ( 2008 ) and Diamond White ( 2012 ) . The song was covered by Glee in the episode `` Props '' by Jenna Ushkowitz as Tina Cohen - Chang and Lea Michele as Rachel Berry and also in the CBS daytime series The Bold and the Beautiful by Bobbie Eakes as Macy Alexander in the Episode number 1.2765 originally broadcast on 1 April 1998 . Eakes version was released on the various artists soundtrack album Love Affair in 2008 which feature several stars from ABC Daytime 's hottest shows . It was also covered by artist Michael Terry . Another popular cover was recorded by singer Ana Laura for her self - titled debut album . Filipina singer , Jolina Magdangal recorded a cover for her 2014 album . Release history ( edit ) Country Date Format United States 20 February 1996 CD cassette 7 '' United Kingdom 20 May 1996 CD cassette See also ( edit ) 1996 in British music Billboard Year - End Hot 100 singles of 1996 Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media List of Adult Top 40 number - one songs of the 1990s List of Australian chart achievements and milestones List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 1996 List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of the 1990s List of Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles in 1996 List of Billboard Mainstream Top 40 number - one songs of the 1990s List of number - one adult contemporary singles of 1996 ( U.S. ) List of number - one singles in Australia during the 1990s List of Top 25 singles for 1996 in Australia List of UK top 10 singles in 1996 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Diane , Warren , . `` Because You Loved Me '' . www.musicnotes.com . Retrieved 26 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Larry Flick ( 24 February 1996 ) . `` Reviews & Previews '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Paul Verna ( 30 March 1996 ) . `` Reviews & Previews '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 29 November 2014 . Jump up ^ Stephen Holden ( 14 April 1996 ) . `` New Releases '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Stephen Thomas Erlewine . `` Falling into You - Celine Dion Songs , Reviews , Credits , Awards '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 9 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Sholin , Dave ( 9 February 1996 ) . `` Gavin Picks > Singles '' ( PDF ) . Gavin Report . No. 2091 . p. 102 . Retrieved 16 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Céline Dion , bouleversée , lance sa tournée hommage à René Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' ( in French ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Nanda Lwin ( 1999 ) . Top 40 Hits : The Essential Chart Guide . Music Data Canada . ISBN 1 - 896594 - 13 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Singles : Issue 2950 . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved 3 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Adult Contemporary : Issue 2927 . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved 3 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World '' ( PDF ) . Billboard. 20 July 1996 . p. 40 . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Offiziellecharts.de -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 4 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Íslenski Listinn Topp 40 ( 11.05. 1996 - 17.05. 1996 ) '' ( PDF ) . Dagblaðið Vísir - Tónlist . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` The Irish Charts -- Search Results -- Because You Loved Me '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved 4 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- week 23 , 1996 '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 Retrieved 4 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 19 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Fernando Salaverri ( September 2005 ) . Sólo éxitos : año a año , 1959 -- 2002 ( 1st ed . ) . Spain : Fundación Autor - SGAE . ISBN 84 - 8048 - 639 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Céline Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved 26 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 4 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Celine Dion Chart History ( Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Celine Dion Chart History ( Adult Contemporary ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Celine Dion Chart History ( Adult Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Celine Dion Chart History ( Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Celine Dion Chart History ( Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Celine Dion Chart History ( Rhythmic ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 27 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts - End Of Year Charts - Top 50 Singles 1996 '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten 1996 '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Rapports annuels 1996 '' ( in French ) . Ultratop . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` RPM Year End Top 100 Hit Tracks '' . RPM. 16 December 1996 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` RPM Year End Top 100 Adult Contemporary Tracks '' . RPM. 16 December 1996 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Classement Singles - année 1996 '' ( in French ) . Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique . Archived from the original on 15 September 2012 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Single - Jahrescharts '' ( in German ) . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 5 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Single Top 100 Van 1996 '' ( PDF ) ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 . Retrieved 29 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten - single 1996 '' . Single Top 100 . Retrieved 8 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top Selling Singles of 1996 '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 7 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Årslista Singlar - År 1996 '' ( in Swedish ) . Swedish Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on 27 September 2015 . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss Year - end Charts 1996 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Najlepsze single na UK Top 40 - 1996 wg sprzedaży '' ( in Polish ) . Official Charts Company . Archived from the original on 4 June 2015 . Retrieved 22 September 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Year in Music : 1996 '' ( PDF ) . Billboard. 28 December 1996 . Retrieved 16 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Hot 100 Singles of the ' 90s '' ( PDF ) . Billboard. 25 December 1999 . p. 20 . Retrieved 2 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Gavin Ryan ( 2011 ) . Australia 's Music Charts 1988 - 2010 . Mt . Martha , VIC , Australia : Moonlight Publishing . Jump up ^ `` Les Meilleures Ventes `` Tout Temps '' de 45 T. / Singles / Téléchargement '' ( in French ) . InfoDisc . Retrieved 9 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Gold - / Platin - Datenbank ( Celine Dion ; ' Because You Loved Me ' ) '' ( in German ) . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Retrieved 11 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Dean Scapolo ( 2007 ) . The Complete New Zealand Music Charts 1966 - 2006 . RIANZ . ISBN 978 - 1 - 877443 - 00 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Celine Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 18 May 2018 . Enter Because You Loved Me in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- Celine Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved 11 October 2014 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ Gary Trust ( 8 April 2012 ) . `` Ask Billboard : Does Lionel Richie Make Billboard Chart History ? '' . Billboard . Retrieved 28 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Hasta Siempre - Milly Quezada : Awards '' . Allmusic . Rovi . Jump up ^ `` Diamond White : Because We Love You - THE X FACTOR USA 2012 '' . Performance . anonymous . Jump up ^ `` ABC Daytime Love Affair - Various Artists : Overview '' . Allmusic . Rovi . ^ Jump up to : `` Celine Dion -- Because You Loved Me '' . Discogs . Retrieved 23 February 2017 . External links ( edit ) `` Because You Loved Me '' ( Music Video ) on YouTube `` Because You Loved Me '' ( Live in Las Vegas ) on YouTube Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Celine Dion English singles Singles discography Albums discography 1980s `` Listen to the Magic Man '' `` Michael 's Song '' `` Ca n't Live with You , Ca n't Live Without You '' 1990s `` ( If There Was ) Any Other Way '' `` Unison '' `` Where Does My Heart Beat Now '' `` The Last to Know '' `` Have a Heart '' `` Beauty and the Beast '' `` If You Asked Me To '' `` Nothing Broken but My Heart '' `` Love Can Move Mountains '' `` Water from the Moon '' `` Did You Give Enough Love '' `` When I Fall in Love '' `` The Power of Love '' `` Misled '' `` Love Lights the World '' `` Think Twice '' `` Only One Road '' `` Calling You '' `` Next Plane Out '' `` Just Walk Away '' `` To Love You More '' `` ( You Make Me Feel Like ) A Natural Woman '' `` Falling into You '' `` Because You Loved Me '' `` It 's All Coming Back to Me Now '' `` The Power of the Dream '' `` All by Myself '' `` Send Me a Lover '' `` Call the Man '' `` Make You Happy '' `` Dreamin ' of You '' `` Tell Him '' `` Be the Man '' `` The Reason '' `` My Heart Will Go On '' `` Immortality '' `` When I Need You '' `` I Hate You Then I Love You '' `` Miles to Go ( Before I Sleep ) '' `` It 's Hard to Say Goodbye '' `` You 've Got a Friend '' `` I 'm Your Angel '' `` The Prayer '' `` Treat Her Like a Lady '' `` That 's the Way It Is '' `` Then You Look at Me '' 2000s `` Live ( for the One I Love ) '' `` The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face '' `` I Want You to Need Me '' `` If Walls Could Talk '' `` Do n't Save It All for Christmas Day '' `` God Bless America '' `` A New Day Has Come '' `` I 'm Alive '' `` Goodbye 's ( The Saddest Word ) '' `` At Last '' `` I Drove All Night '' `` Have You Ever Been in Love '' `` One Heart '' `` Stand by Your Side '' `` Faith '' `` You and I '' `` Beautiful Boy '' `` Miracle '' `` In Some Small Way '' `` Taking Chances '' `` Eyes on Me '' `` A World to Believe In '' `` Alone '' `` My Love '' 2010s `` Loved Me Back to Life '' `` Breakaway '' `` Incredible '' `` Water and a Flame '' `` Hymn '' `` The Show Must Go On '' `` Recovering '' `` How Does a Moment Last Forever '' `` Ashes '' Other `` Voices That Care '' `` What More Can I Give '' `` Come Together Now '' `` Sing '' `` We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' Book Portal Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media `` Somewhere Out There '' ( 1988 ) `` Two Hearts '' ( 1989 ) `` Let the River Run '' ( 1990 ) `` Under the Sea '' ( 1991 ) `` ( Everything I Do ) I Do It For You '' ( 1992 ) `` Beauty and the Beast '' ( 1993 ) `` A Whole New World '' ( 1994 ) `` Streets of Philadelphia '' ( 1995 ) `` Colors of the Wind '' ( 1996 ) `` Because You Loved Me '' ( 1997 ) `` I Believe I Can Fly '' ( 1998 ) `` My Heart Will Go On '' ( 1999 ) `` Beautiful Stranger '' ( 2000 ) `` When She Loved Me '' ( 2001 ) `` Boss of Me '' ( 2002 ) `` If I Did n't Have You '' ( 2003 ) `` A Mighty Wind '' ( 2004 ) `` Into the West '' ( 2005 ) `` Believe '' ( 2006 ) `` Our Town '' ( 2007 ) `` Love You I Do '' ( 2008 ) `` Down to Earth '' ( 2009 ) `` Jai Ho '' ( 2010 ) `` The Weary Kind '' ( 2011 ) `` I See the Light '' ( 2012 ) `` Safe & Sound '' ( 2013 ) `` Skyfall '' ( 2014 ) `` Let It Go '' ( 2015 ) `` Glory '' ( 2016 ) `` Ca n't Stop the Feeling ! '' ( 2017 ) `` How Far I 'll Go '' ( 2018 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Because_You_Loved_Me&oldid=841866940 '' Categories : Celine Dion songs 1996 singles Songs written by Diane Warren Song recordings produced by David Foster 1996 songs Love themes 1990s ballads Pop ballads Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles Billboard Adult Contemporary number - one singles Billboard Adult Top 40 number - one singles Billboard Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) number - one singles Number - one singles in Australia RPM Adult Contemporary number - one singles Songs written for films Milly Quezada songs Music videos directed by Kevin Bray ( director ) Hidden categories : CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) CS1 Polish - language sources ( pl ) Use dmy dates from November 2016 Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Canadatopsingles Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Canadaadultcontemporary Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Ireland2 Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardadultcontemporary Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrandbhiphop Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardrhythmic Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for France Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia فارسی Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kiswahili 日本 語 Português Simple English ไทย Tiếng Việt 3 more Edit links This page was last edited on 18 May 2018 , at 15 : 53 . 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86 | document: Night of the Living Dead - wikipedia Night of the Living Dead For other uses , see Night of the Living Dead ( disambiguation ) . Night of the Living Dead Theatrical release poster Directed by George A. Romero Produced by Russell W. Streiner Karl Hardman Written by John Russo George A. Romero Starring Judith O'Dea Duane Jones Marilyn Eastman Karl Hardman Judith Ridley Keith Wayne Cinematography George A. Romero ( uncredited ) Edited by George A. Romero ( uncredited ) Production company Image Ten Distributed by The Walter Reade Organization Continental Distributing Release date October 1 , 1968 ( 1968 - 10 - 01 ) Running time 96 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $114,000 Box office $30 million Night of the Living Dead is a 1968 American independent horror film written , directed , photographed and edited by George A. Romero , co-written by John Russo , and starring Duane Jones and Judith O'Dea . The story follows seven people who are trapped in a rural farmhouse in western Pennsylvania , which is besieged by a large and growing group of `` living dead '' monsters . The film was completed on a $114,000 budget and shot outside Pittsburgh , where it had its theatrical premiere on October 1 , 1968 . The film grossed $12 million domestically and $18 million internationally , earning over 250 times its budget . Night of the Living Dead has been regarded as a cult classic by film scholars and critics , despite its being heavily criticized upon its release for its explicit gore . It eventually garnered critical acclaim and has been selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry , as a film deemed `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . '' Night of the Living Dead led to five subsequent films between 1978 and 2010 , also directed by Romero , and inspired two remakes ; the most well - known remake was released in 1990 , directed by Tom Savini . Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development and pre-production 3.2 Writing 3.3 Filming 3.3. 1 Principal photography 3.3. 2 Directing 3.4 Post-production 3.5 Soundtrack 4 Release 4.1 Premiere controversy 4.2 Critical reception 4.3 Copyright status and home media 5 Revisions 6 Related works 6.1 Romero 's Dead films 6.2 Return of the Living Dead series 6.3 Rise of the Living Dead 6.4 Remakes and other related films 7 Legacy 7.1 Critical analysis 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Works cited 12 Further reading 13 External links Plot ( edit ) Barbra and Johnny drive to rural Pennsylvania to visit their father 's grave . While in the cemetery , Barbra is attacked by a strange man . Johnny tries to rescue his sister , but the man throws him against a gravestone ; Johnny strikes his head on the stone and is killed . After a mishap with the car , Barbra escapes on foot , with the stranger in pursuit . She later arrives at a farmhouse , where she discovers a woman 's mangled corpse . Fleeing from the house , she is confronted by strange menacing figures like the man in the graveyard . Ben arrives and takes her into the house , driving the monsters away and barricading the doors and windows . While doing this , Ben finds a radio and a hunting rifle . Throughout the night , Barbra slowly descends into a stupor of shock and insanity . Ben and Barbra discover that the farmhouse has a cellar . The cellar houses an angry married couple , Harry and Helen Cooper , along with their daughter Karen . The Coopers sought refuge after a group of the same monsters overturned their car . Tom and Judy , a teenage couple , arrived after hearing an emergency broadcast about a series of brutal murders . Karen has fallen seriously ill after being bitten by one of the monsters . They venture upstairs when Ben turns the radio on , while Barbra awakens from her stupor . Harry demands that everyone hide in the cellar , but Ben deems it a `` deathtrap '' and continues upstairs , to barricade the house with Tom 's help . Radio reports explain that a wave of mass murder is sweeping across the East Coast of the United States . Ben finds a television , and he and other occupants of the house watch an emergency broadcaster report that the recently deceased have become reanimated and are consuming the flesh of the living . Experts , scientists , and the United States military fail to discover the cause , though one scientist suspects radioactive contamination from a space probe that was blown up in the Earth 's atmosphere . Play media Night of the Living Dead ( full film ) Ben plans to obtain medical care for Karen when the reports list local rescue centers offering refuge and safety . Ben and Tom refuel Ben 's truck while Harry hurls Molotov cocktails from an upper window at the ghouls . Judy follows him , fearing for Tom 's safety . Tom accidentally spills gasoline on the truck , setting it ablaze . Tom and Judy try to drive the truck away from the pump , but Judy is unable to free herself from its door . The truck explodes , killing them both , and the zombies promptly eat the charred remains . Ben returns to the house but is locked out by Harry . Eventually forcing his way back in , Ben beats Harry , angered by his cowardice . A news report reveals that only a gunshot or heavy blow to the head can stop them , aside from setting the `` reactivated bodies '' on fire . It also reports that posses of armed men are patrolling the countryside to restore order . The lights go out , and the zombies break through the barricades . Harry grabs Ben 's rifle and threatens to shoot him . In the chaos , the two fight . Ben manages to wrestle the gun away from Harry and shoots him . Harry stumbles into the cellar and , mortally wounded , collapses next to Karen , who has also died from her illness . The ghouls try to pull Helen and Barbra through the windows , but Helen frees herself . She returns to the refuge of the cellar to see Karen reanimated and eating Harry 's corpse . Helen is frozen in shock , and Karen stabs her to death with a masonry trowel . Barbra , seeing Johnny among the zombies , is carried away by the horde and devoured . As the zombies overrun the house , Ben fights off Karen and seals himself inside the cellar -- which he initially refused to do earlier -- where Harry and Helen are reanimating , and he is forced to shoot them . The next morning , Ben is awakened by the posse 's gunfire outside . Upon venturing upstairs , the posse mistake him for one of the ghouls and kill him with a shot to the forehead . Ben 's body is thrown onto a pile of corpses , which is then set ablaze . Cast ( edit ) Ben , played by Duane Jones Duane Jones as Ben : An unknown stage actor , Jones ' performance depicted Ben as a `` comparatively calm and resourceful Negro '' ( a distinguished gentleman and former university professor , in real life ) , according to a movie reviewer in 1969 . Casting Jones as the hero was potentially controversial in 1968 : it was not typical for a black man to be the hero of an American film when the rest of the cast was composed of white actors at the time , but Romero said that Jones simply gave the best audition . He was in other films after Night of the Living Dead such as Ganja & Hess ( 1973 ) and Beat Street ( 1984 ) and continued working as a theater actor and director until his death in 1988 . Despite his other film roles , Jones worried that people only recognized him as Ben . Judith O'Dea as Barbra : A 23 - year - old commercial and stage actress , O'Dea once worked for Hardman and Eastman in Pittsburgh . O'Dea was in Hollywood seeking to enter the movie business at the time of audition . Starring in the film was a positive experience for her , she remarked in an interview . She admitted that horror movies terrified her , particularly Vincent Price 's House of Wax ( 1953 ) . In addition to acting , O'Dea performed her own stunts , which she jokingly claimed amounted to `` lots of running '' . Assessing Night of the Living Dead , she commented `` I honestly had no idea it would have such a lasting impact on our culture '' . She was just as surprised by the renown the film brought her : `` People treat you differently . ( I 'm ) ho - hum Judy O'Dea until they realize ( I 'm ) Barbra from Night of the Living Dead . All of a sudden ( I 'm ) not so ho - hum anymore ! '' Karl Hardman as Harry Cooper : One of the film 's producers ( alongside Streiner ) , Hardman is also the voice of the newscaster heard on the radio of Johnny 's car . Marilyn Eastman as Helen Cooper : Eastman also played a female ghoul eating an insect . Keith Wayne as Tom Judith Ridley as Judy : Ridley later appeared as a lead performer in Romero 's second feature There 's Always Vanilla ( 1971 ) . Kyra Schon as Karen Cooper : Hardman 's 11 - year - old daughter , Schon also portrayed the mangled corpse on the house 's upstairs floor that Ben drags away . Charles Craig as TV Newscaster / Ghoul Bill Hinzman as Ghoul : Hinzman was the zombie encountered by Barbra and Johnny in the cemetery . He reprised the role in new scenes that were filmed for the 30th - anniversary edition of the film . George Kosana as Sheriff McClelland : Kosana also served as the film 's production manager . Russell Streiner ( uncredited ) as Johnny : Streiner later served as an executive producer of the 1990 remake of the film , in which he also has a cameo appearance as Sheriff McClelland . Bill `` Chilly Billy '' Cardille as a WIIC - TV Channel 11 news reporter : Cardille was well known in Pittsburgh as a TV presenter who hosted a horror film anthology series , Chiller Theatre , on late Saturday nights in the 1960s and 70s . Cardille would later make a cameo appearance as the TV news reporter in the 1990 remake . Production ( edit ) Development and pre-production ( edit ) Romero embarked upon his career in the film industry while attending Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh . He directed and produced television commercials and industrial films for The Latent Image , in the 1960s , a company he co-founded with friends John Russo , and Russell Streiner . The trio grew bored making commercials and wanted to film a horror movie during this period . They wanted to capitalize on the film industry 's `` thirst for the bizarre '' , according to Romero . He and Streiner contacted Karl Hardman and Marilyn Eastman , president and vice president respectively of a Pittsburgh - based industrial film firm called Hardman Associates , Inc . They pitched their idea for a then - untitled horror film . A production company , conceived by Romero , called Image Ten , was formed which included Romero , Russo , Streiner , Hardman and Eastman . The initial budget was $6,000 with the ten members of the production company , investing $600 each for a share of the profits . Another ten investors were found when it was found that another $6,000 was required but this was also soon found to be inadequate . Image Ten eventually raised approximately $114,000 for the budget . Writing ( edit ) Ghouls swarm around the house , searching for living human flesh . Co-written as a horror comedy by John Russo and George A. Romero under the title Monster Flick , an early screenplay draft concerned the exploits of adolescent aliens who visit Earth and befriend human teenagers . A second version of the script featured a young man who runs away from home and discovers rotting human corpses that aliens use for food scattered across a meadow . Russo came up with the concept that they would be the recently dead only , because they could not afford to bring long - dead people out of their graves , or at least `` we '' thought . He also came up with the idea that they would be `` flesh - eaters '' . The final draft , written mainly by Russo during three days in 1967 , focused on reanimated human corpses -- Romero refers to them as ghouls -- that consume the flesh of the living . In a 1997 interview with the BBC 's Forbidden Weekend , Romero explained that the script developed into a three - part short story . Part one became Night of the Living Dead . Sequels Dawn of the Dead ( 1978 ) and Day of the Dead ( 1985 ) were adapted from the two remaining parts . Romero drew inspiration from Richard Matheson 's I Am Legend ( 1954 ) , a horror novel about a plague that ravages a futuristic Los Angeles . The infected in I Am Legend become vampire - like creatures and prey on the uninfected . Discussing the creation of Night of the Living Dead , Romero remarked , `` I had written a short story , which I basically had ripped off from a Richard Matheson novel called I Am Legend . '' Romero further explained : I thought I Am Legend was about revolution . I said if you 're going to do something about revolution , you should start at the beginning . I mean , Richard starts his book with one man left ; everybody in the world has become a vampire . I said we got to start at the beginning and tweak it up a little bit . I could n't use vampires because he did , so I wanted something that would be an earth - shaking change . Something that was forever , something that was really at the heart of it . I said , so what if the dead stop staying dead ? ... And the stories are about how people respond or fail to respond to this . That 's really all ( the zombies ) ever represented to me . In Richard 's book , in the original I Am Legend , that 's what I thought that book was about . There 's this global change and there 's one guy holding out saying , wait a minute , I 'm still a human . He 's wrong . Go ahead . Join them . You 'll live forever ! In a certain sense he 's wrong but on the other hand , you 've got to respect him for taking that position . Official film adaptations of Matheson 's novel appeared in 1964 as The Last Man on Earth , in 1971 as The Omega Man , and the 2007 release I Am Legend . Matheson was not impressed by Romero 's interpretation , feeling that `` It was ... kind of cornball '' , though he later said , `` George Romero 's a nice guy , though . I do n't harbor any animosity toward him . '' Russo and Romero revised the screenplay while filming . Karl Hardman attributed the edits to lead actor Duane Jones : The script had been written with the character Ben as a rather simple truck driver . His dialogue was that of a lower class / uneducated person . Duane Jones was a very well educated man ( and he ) simply refused to do the role as it was written . As I recall , I believe that Duane himself upgraded his own dialogue to reflect how he felt the character should present himself . Eastman modified cellar scenes featuring dialogue between Helen and Harry Cooper . According to lead actress Judith O'Dea , much of the dialogue was improvised . She told an interviewer , `` I do n't know if there was an actual working script ! We would go over what basically had to be done , then just did it the way we each felt it should be done '' . One example offered by O'Dea concerns a scene where Barbra tells Ben about Johnny 's death : The sequence where Ben is breaking up the table to block the entrance and I 'm on the couch and start telling him the story of what happened ( to Johnny ) it 's all ad - libbed . This is what we want to get across ( ... ) tell the story about me and Johnny in the car and me being attacked . That was it ( ... ) all improv . We filmed it once . There was a concern we did n't get the sound right , but fortunately they were able to use it . Although the film is regarded as one of the launching pads for the modern zombie movie , the screenplay itself never uses the word . In fact , Romero would later confess that he felt the film 's antagonists were distinct enough from Haitian zombies that they were `` something completely new '' with Romero actively avoiding any similarities between the two creatures although he notes that he may have subtly been inspired by them . The lead role was originally written for someone of Caucasian descent , but upon casting African - American actor Duane Jones , Romero intentionally did not alter the script to reflect this . Asked in 2013 if he took inspiration from the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. that same year , Romero responded in the negative , noting that he only heard about the shooting when he was on his way to find distribution for the finished film . Filming ( edit ) Principal photography ( edit ) Evans City Cemetery in 2007 The small budget dictated much of the production process . According to Hardman , `` We knew that we could not raise enough money to shoot a film on a par with the classic horror films with which we had all grown up . The best that we could do was to place our cast in a remote spot and then bring the horror to be visited on them in that spot '' . Scenes were filmed near Evans City , Pennsylvania , 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of Pittsburgh in rural Butler County ; the opening sequence was shot at the Evans City Cemetery on Franklin Road , south of the borough . The cemetery chapel was under warrant for demolition ; however , Gary R. Steiner led a successful effort to raise $50,000 to restore the building , and the chapel is currently undergoing renovations . The outdoor , indoor ( downstairs ) and basement scenes were filmed at a location northeast of Evans City , near a park . The basement door ( external view ) shown in the film was cut into a wall by the production team and led nowhere . As this house was scheduled for demolition , damage during filming was permitted . The site is now a turf farm . Props and special effects were fairly simple and limited by the budget . The blood , for example , was Bosco Chocolate Syrup drizzled over cast members ' bodies . Consumed flesh consisted of roasted ham and entrails donated by one of the actors , who also owned a chain of butcher shops . Costumes consisted of second - hand clothing from cast members and Goodwill . Zombie makeup varied during the film . Initially , makeup was limited to white skin with blackened eyes ; but as filming progressed , mortician 's wax was used to simulate wounds and decaying flesh . As filming was not linear , the piebald faces appear sporadically . Eastman supervised the special effects , wardrobe and makeup . Filming took place between June and December 1967 under the working title Night of Anubis and later Night of the Flesh Eaters . The small budget led Romero to shoot on 35 mm black - and - white film . The completed film ultimately benefited from the decision , as film historian Joseph Maddrey describes the black - and - white filming as `` guerrilla - style '' , resembling `` the unflinching authority of a wartime newsreel '' . Maddrey adds , it `` seem ( s ) as much like a documentary on the loss of social stability as an exploitation film '' . Directing ( edit ) Night of the Living Dead was the first feature - length film directed by George A. Romero . His initial work involved filming shorts for Pittsburgh public broadcaster WQED 's children 's series Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood . Romero 's decision to direct Night of the Living Dead essentially launched his career as a horror director . He took the helm of the sequels as well as Season of the Witch ( 1972 ) , The Crazies ( 1973 ) , Martin ( 1978 ) , Creepshow ( 1982 ) and The Dark Half ( 1993 ) . Critics saw the influence of the horror and science - fiction films of the 1950s in Romero 's directorial style . Stephen Paul Miller , for instance , witnessed `` a revival of fifties schlock shock ... and the army general 's television discussion of military operations in the film echoes the often inevitable calling - in of the army in fifties horror films '' . Miller admits that `` Night of the Living Dead takes greater relish in mocking these military operations through the general 's pompous demeanor '' and the government 's inability to source the zombie epidemic or protect the citizenry . Romero describes the mood he wished to establish : `` The film opens with a situation that has already disintegrated to a point of little hope , and it moves progressively toward absolute despair and ultimate tragedy . '' According to film historian Carl Royer , Romero `` employs chiaroscuro ( film noir style ) lighting to emphasize humanity 's nightmare alienation from itself . '' While some critics dismissed Romero 's film because of the graphic scenes , writer R.H.W. Dillard claimed that the `` open - eyed detailing '' of taboo heightened the film 's success . He asks , `` What girl has not , at one time or another , wished to kill her mother ? And Karen , in the film , offers a particularly vivid opportunity to commit the forbidden deed vicariously . '' Romero featured social taboos as key themes , particularly cannibalism . Although zombie cannibals were inspired by Matheson 's I Am Legend , film historian Robin Wood sees the flesh - eating scenes of Night of the Living Dead as a late - 1960s critique of American capitalism . Wood asserts that the zombies represent capitalists , and `` cannibalism represents the ultimate in possessiveness , hence the logical end of human relations under capitalism '' . He argues that the zombies ' victims symbolized the repression of `` the Other '' in bourgeois American society , namely activists in the civil rights movement , feminists , homosexuals , and counterculturalists in general . Post-production ( edit ) Members of Image Ten were involved in filming and post-production , participating in loading camera magazines , gaffing , constructing props , recording sounds and editing . Production stills were shot and printed by Karl Hardman , who stated in an interview that a `` number of cast members formed a production line in the darkroom for developing , washing and drying of the prints as I made the exposures . As I recall , I shot over 1,250 pictures during the production '' . Upon completion of post-production , Image Ten found it difficult to secure a distributor willing to show the film with the gruesome scenes intact . Columbia and American International Pictures declined after requests to soften it and re-shoot the final scene were rejected by producers . Romero admitted that `` none of us wanted to do that . We could n't imagine a happy ending ... Everyone want ( ed ) a Hollywood ending , but we stuck to our guns '' . The Manhattan - based Walter Reade Organization agreed to show the film uncensored , but changed the title from Night of the Flesh Eaters to Night of the Living Dead because a film had already been produced under a similar title to the former . While changing the title , the copyright notice was accidentally deleted from the early releases of the film . The opening title music with the car on the road had been used in a 1961 episode of the TV series Ben Casey entitled `` I Remember a Lemon Tree '' and is also featured in an episode of Naked City entitled `` Bullets Cost Too Much '' . Most of the music in the film had previously been used on the soundtrack for the science - fiction B - movie Teenagers from Outer Space ( 1959 ) . The eerie musical piece during the tense scene in the film where Ben finds the rifle in the closet inside the farmhouse as the radio reports of mayhem play in the background , can be heard in longer and more complete form during the opening credits and the beginning of The Devil 's Messenger ( 1961 ) starring Lon Chaney , Jr . Another piece , accompanying Barbra 's flight from the cemetery zombie , was taken from the score for The Hideous Sun Demon ( 1959 ) . According to WRS , `` We chose a selection of music for each of the various scenes and then George made the final selections . We then took those selections and augmented them electronically '' . Sound tech R. Lococo 's choices worked well , as film historian Sumiko Higashi believes that the music `` signifies the nature of events that await . '' Soundtrack ( edit ) Night of the Living Dead : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Film score by Various Artists Released 1982 ( 1982 ) Genre Soundtrack Label Varèse Sarabande Producer Scot W. Holton Compiler Scot Holton A soundtrack album featuring music and dialogue cues from the film was compiled and released on LP by Varèse Sarabande in 1982 ; it has never been reissued on CD . In 2008 , recording group 400 Lonely Things released the album Tonight of the Living Dead , `` an instrumental album composed entirely of ambient music and sound effects sampled from Romero 's 1968 horror classic '' . show Side one No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Driveway to the Cemetery ( Main Theme ) '' Spencer Moore 02 : 19 2 . `` At the Gravesite / Flight / Refuge '' William Loose / Loose -- Seely / W. Loose 03 : 42 3 . `` Farmhouse / First Approach '' Geordie Hormel 01 : 16 4 . `` Ghoulash ( J.R. 's Demise ) '' Ib Glindemann 03 : 30 5 . `` Boarding Up '' G. Hormel / Loose -- Seely / Glindemann 03 : 00 6 . `` First Radio Report / Torch on the Porch '' Phil Green / G. Hormel 02 : 27 7 . `` Boarding Up 2 / Discovery : Gun ' n Ammo '' G. Hormel 02 : 07 8 . `` Cleaning House '' S. Moore 01 : 36 show Side two No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 9 . `` First Advance '' Ib Glindemann 02 : 43 10 . `` Discovery of TV / Preparing to Escape / Tom & Judy '' ( All the samples of the track were composed by Geordie Hormel ) G. Hormel / J. Meakin / J. Meakin 04 : 20 11 . `` Attempted Escape '' G. Hormel 01 : 29 12 . `` Truck on Fire / Ben Attacks Harry / Leg of Leg * '' ( * electronic sound effects by Karl Hardman ) G. Hormel 03 : 41 13 . `` Beat ' Em or Burn ' Em / Final Advance '' ( Final Advance was composed by Harry Bluestone and Emil Cadkin ) G. Hormel 02 : 50 14 . `` Helen 's Death * / Dawn / Posse in the Fields / Ben Awakes '' ( * electronic sound effects by Karl Hardman ) S. Moore 03 : 05 15 . `` O.K. Vince / Funeral Pyre ( End Title ) '' S. Moore 01 : 10 Release ( edit ) Premiere controversy ( edit ) Night of the Living Dead premiered on October 1 , 1968 , at the Fulton Theater in Pittsburgh . Nationally , it was shown as a Saturday afternoon matinée -- as was typical for horror films at the time -- and attracted an audience consisting of pre-teens and adolescents . The MPAA film rating system was not in place until November 1968 , so even young children were able to purchase tickets . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times chided theater owners and parents who allowed children access to the film with such potent content for a horror film they were entirely unprepared for : `` I do n't think the younger kids really knew what hit them , '' he said . `` They were used to going to movies , sure , and they 'd seen some horror movies before , sure , but this was something else . '' According to Ebert , the film affected the audience immediately : The kids in the audience were stunned . There was almost complete silence . The movie had stopped being delightfully scary about halfway through , and had become unexpectedly terrifying . There was a little girl across the aisle from me , maybe nine years old , who was sitting very still in her seat and crying ... It 's hard to remember what sort of effect this movie might have had on you when you were six or seven . But try to remember . At that age , kids take the events on the screen seriously , and they identify fiercely with the hero . When the hero is killed , that 's not an unhappy ending but a tragic one : Nobody got out alive . It 's just over , that 's all . Response from Variety after the initial release reflects the outrage generated by Romero 's film : `` Until the Supreme Court establishes clear - cut guidelines for the pornography of violence , Night of the Living Dead will serve nicely as an outer - limit definition by example . In ( a ) mere 90 minutes this horror film ( pun intended ) casts serious aspersions on the integrity and social responsibility of its Pittsburgh - based makers , distributor Walter Reade , the film industry as a whole and ( exhibitors ) who book ( the picture ) , as well as raising doubts about the future of the regional cinema movement and about the moral health of film goers who cheerfully opt for this unrelieved orgy of sadism ... '' One commentator asserts that the film garnered little attention from critics , `` except to provoke argument about censoring its grisly scenes '' . Critical reception ( edit ) Despite the controversy , five years after the premiere Paul McCullough of Take One observed that Night of the Living Dead was the `` most profitable horror film ever ( ... ) produced outside the walls of a major studio '' . The film had earned between $12 and $15 million at the U.S. box office after a decade . It was translated into more than 25 languages and released across Europe , Canada and Australia . Night of the Living Dead grossed $30 million internationally , and the Wall Street Journal reported that it was the top - grossing film in Europe in 1969 . Fifty years after its release , the film enjoys a reputation as a classic and still receives positive reviews ; review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 61 reviews and gave Night of the Living Dead a 97 % approval rating , with an average rating of 8.9 / 10 , and it is regarded by many as one of the best films of 1968 . In 2008 , the film was ranked by Empire magazine No. 397 of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . The New York Times also placed the film on their Best 1000 Movies Ever list . In January 2010 , Total Film included the film on its list of The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time . Rolling Stone named Night of the Living Dead one of The 100 Maverick Movies in the Last 100 Years . Reader 's Digest found it to be the 12th scariest movie of all time . Night of the Living Dead was awarded two distinguished honors decades after its debut . The Library of Congress added the film to the National Film Registry in 1999 with other films deemed `` culturally , historically or aesthetically significant '' . In 2001 , the film was ranked No. 93 by the American Film Institute on their AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills list , a list of America 's most heart - pounding movies . The zombies in the picture were also a candidate for AFI 's AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains , in the villains category , but failed to make the official list . The Chicago Film Critics Association named it the 5th scariest film ever made . The film also ranked No. 9 on Bravo 's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments . Some reviewers disliked the film 's gory special effects . Variety labeled Night of the Living Dead an `` unrelieved orgy of sadism '' and questioned the `` integrity and social responsibility of its Pittsburgh - based makers '' . The New York Times critic Vincent Canby referred to the film as a `` junk movie '' as well as `` spare , uncluttered , but really silly '' . Some reviewers cited the film as groundbreaking . Pauline Kael called the film `` one of the most gruesomely terrifying movies ever made -- and when you leave the theatre you may wish you could forget the whole horrible experience ... The film 's grainy , banal seriousness works for it -- gives it a crude realism '' . A Film Daily critic commented , `` This is a pearl of a horror picture that exhibits all the earmarks of a sleeper . '' While Roger Ebert criticized the matinée screening , he admitted that he `` admires the movie itself '' . Critic Rex Reed wrote , `` If you want to see what turns a B movie into a classic ( ... ) do n't miss Night of the Living Dead . It is unthinkable for anyone seriously interested in horror movies not to see it . '' Copyright status and home media ( edit ) Night of the Living Dead entered the public domain in the United States because the original theatrical distributor , the Walter Reade Organization , neglected to place a copyright indication on the prints . In 1968 , United States copyright law required a proper notice for a work to maintain a copyright . Image Ten displayed such a notice on the title frames of the film beneath the original title , Night of the Flesh Eaters . The distributor erroneously removed the statement when it changed the title . Because Night of the Living Dead was not copyrighted , it has received numerous home video releases on VHS , DVD , and Blu - ray . As of 2017 , Amazon.com lists copies of Night of the Living Dead numbering 15 on VHS , 121 on DVD , 5 on Blu - ray and 28 on Amazon Video . The original film is available to view or download for free on various websites , such as the Internet Archive and YouTube . As of November 2017 , it is the Internet Archive 's most - downloaded film , with over 3 million downloads . The film received a VHS release in 1993 through Tempe Video . In 1998 , Russo 's revised version of the film , Night of the Living Dead : 30th Anniversary Edition , was released on VHS and DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment . In 2002 , Elite Entertainment released a special edition DVD featuring the original cut . To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the film , Dimension Extreme released a restored print of the film on DVD . On October 3 , 2017 , Mill Creek Entertainment released a standard 1080p version of the film on Blu - ray in the United States ; however , this was a transfer of an existing release print , and not a restoration . This release was also not authorized or licensed by Image Ten . This was followed by a 4K restoration Blu - ray released by The Criterion Collection on February 13 , 2018 , sourced from a print owned by the Museum of Modern Art and acquired by Janus Films . The new 4K restoration is protected by copyright . This release also features a workprint edit of the film under the title of Night of Anubis , in addition to various bonus materials . Revisions ( edit ) The film has been subject to numerous revisions . This screenshot is from the 2004 colorized version . The first revisions of Night of the Living Dead involved colorization by home video distributors . Hal Roach Studios released a colorized version in 1986 that featured ghouls with pale green skin . Another colorized version appeared in 1997 from Anchor Bay Entertainment with grey - skinned zombies . In 2004 , Legend Films produced a new colorized version . Technology critic Gary W. Tooze wrote that `` The colorization is damn impressive '' , but noticed the print used was not as sharp as other releases of the film . In 2009 , Legend Films coproduced a colorized 3D version of the film with PassmoreLab , a company that converts 2 - D film into 3 - D format . The film was theatrically released on October 14 , 2010 . According to Legend Films founder Barry Sandrew , Night of the Living Dead is the first entirely live action 2 - D film to be converted to 3 - D . In 1999 , co-writer John A. Russo released a modified version called Night of the Living Dead : 30th Anniversary Edition . He filmed additional scenes and recorded a revised soundtrack composed by Scott Vladimir Licina . In an interview with Fangoria magazine , Russo explained that he wanted to `` give the movie a more modern pace . '' Russo took liberties with the original script . The additions are neither clearly identified nor even listed . Entertainment Weekly reported `` no bad blood '' between Russo and Romero . The magazine quoted Romero as saying , `` I did n't want to touch Night of the Living Dead '' . Critics panned the revised film , notably Harry Knowles of Ai n't It Cool News . Knowles promised to permanently ban anyone from his publication who offered positive criticism of the film . A collaborative animated project known as Night of the Living Dead : Reanimated was screened at several film festivals and was released onto DVD on July 27 , 2010 , by Wild Eye Releasing . This project aims to `` reanimate '' the 1968 film by replacing Romero 's celluloid images with animation done in a wide variety of styles by artists from around the world , laid over the original audio from Romero 's version . Night of the Living Dead : Reanimated premiered theatrically on October 10 , 2009 , in Ramsey , New Jersey at the Zombie Encounter and Film Festival . Night of the Living Dead : Reanimated was nominated in the category of Best Independent Production ( film , documentary or short ) for the 8th Annual Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards , but lost to American Scary , a documentary on television horror movie hosts . Starting in 2015 , and working from the original camera negatives and audio track elements , a 4K digital restoration of Night of the Living Dead was undertaken by the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) and The Film Foundation . The fully restored version was shown at MoMA in November 2016 as part of To Save and Project : The 14th MoMA International Festival of Film Preservation . This same restoration was released on Blu - ray by Criterion Collection on February 13 , 2018 . Related works ( edit ) Romero 's Dead films ( edit ) Main article : Night of the Living Dead ( film series ) Night of the Living Dead is the first of six ... of the Dead films directed by George Romero . Following the 1968 film , Romero released Dawn of the Dead , Day of the Dead , Land of the Dead , Diary of the Dead and Survival of the Dead . Each film traces the evolution of the living dead epidemic in the United States and humanity 's desperate attempts to cope with it . As in Night of the Living Dead , Romero peppered the other films in the series with critiques specific to the periods in which they were released . Return of the Living Dead series ( edit ) Main article : Return of the Living Dead ( film series ) The same year Day of the Dead premiered , Night of the Living Dead co-writer John Russo released a film titled The Return of the Living Dead that offers an alternate continuity to the original film than Dawn of the Dead . Russo 's film spawned four sequels . Return of the Living Dead sparked a legal battle with Romero , who believed Russo marketed his film in direct competition with Day of the Dead as a sequel to the original film . In the case Dawn Associates v. Links , Romero accused Russo of `` appropriat ( ing ) part of the title of the prior work '' , plagiarizing Dawn of the Dead 's advertising slogan ( `` When there is no more room in hell ( ... ) the dead will walk the earth '' ) , and copying stills from the original 1968 film . Romero was ultimately granted a restraining order that forced Russo to cease his advertising campaign . Russo , however , was allowed to retain his title . Rise of the Living Dead ( edit ) George Cameron Romero , the son of director George A. Romero , has developed Rise of the Living Dead , a prelude to his father 's classic pitched with the working title Origins . The film tracks a six - year period leading up to the story told by his father . George Cameron Romero 's script is intended to be an homage to his father 's work , a terrifying glimpse into the political hot bed that was the mid-to - late 1960s and a bookend piece to his father 's original story . Despite raising funds for the film on Indiegogo in 2014 , the film has yet to go into production as of July 2018 . Remakes and other related films ( edit ) The first remake , debuting in 1990 , was directed by special effects artist Tom Savini . It was based on the original screenplay , but included more gore and a revised plot that portrayed Barbra ( Patricia Tallman ) as a capable and active heroine . Tony Todd played the role of Ben . Film historian Barry Grant saw the new Barbra as a corrective on the part of Romero . He suggests that the character was made stronger to rectify the depiction of female characters in the original film . The second remake was in 3 - D and released in September 2006 under the title Night of the Living Dead 3D , directed by Jeff Broadstreet . Unlike Savini 's 1990 film , Broadstreet 's project was not affiliated with Romero . Broadstreet 's film was followed in 2012 by the prequel Night of the Living Dead 3D : Re-Animation . On September 15 , 2009 , it was announced that Simon West was producing a 3D animated retelling of the original movie , originally titled Night of the Living Dead : Origins 3D and later re-titled Night of the Living Dead : Darkest Dawn . The movie is written and directed by Zebediah de Soto . The voice cast includes Tony Todd as Ben , Danielle Harris as Barbra , Joseph Pilato as Harry Cooper , Alona Tal as Helen Cooper , Bill Moseley as Johnny , Tom Sizemore as Chief McClellan and newcomers Erin Braswell as Judy and Michael Diskint as Tom . Director Doug Schulze 's 2011 film Mimesis : Night of the Living Dead relates the story of a group of horror film fans who become involved in a `` real - life '' version of the 1968 film . Due to the film 's public domain status , several independent film companies have also done remakes of the film . Night of the Living Dead : Resurrection ( 2012 ) : British director James Plumb made this remake set in Wales . A Night of the Living Dead ( 2014 ) : Shattered Images Films and Cullen Park Productions released a remake with new twists and characters , written and directed by Chad Zuver . Night of the Living Dead : Genesis ( 2017 ) : Director Matt Cloude initially announced this remake project in 2011 . The film has undergone several transitions in the ensuing years . It brings back several alumni of Romero 's initial trilogy , including Judith O'Dea as the Barbra character . Night of the Living Dead : Rebirth ( 2017 ) : Rising Pulse Productions is set to release an updated take on the classic film that brings to light present issues that impact modern society such as religious bigotry , homophobia , and the influence of social media . Legacy ( edit ) See also : Zombie Living dead Karen Cooper , eating her father 's corpse Romero revolutionized the horror film genre with Night of the Living Dead ; according to Almar Haflidason of the BBC , the film represented `` a new dawn in horror film - making '' . The film has also effectively redefined the use of the term `` zombie '' . While the word `` zombie '' itself is never used -- the word used in the film is ghoul -- Romero 's film introduced the theme of zombies as reanimated , flesh - eating cannibals . Romero himself did n't initially consider the antagonists in the film zombies , later saying `` I never thought of my guys as zombies , when I made the first film ... To me , zombies were still those boys in the Caribbean doing the wetwork for ( Bela ) Lugosi . '' The film and its successors spawned countless imitators , in cinema , television and video gaming , which borrowed elements invented by Romero . Night of the Living Dead ushered in the splatter film subgenre . As one film historian points out , horror prior to Romero 's film had mostly involved rubber masks and costumes , cardboard sets , or mysterious figures lurking in the shadows . They were set in locations far removed from rural and suburban America . Romero revealed the power behind exploitation and setting horror in ordinary , unexceptional locations and offered a template for making an `` effective and lucrative '' film on a `` minuscule budget '' . Slasher films of the 1970s and 80s such as John Carpenter 's Halloween ( 1978 ) , Sean S. Cunningham 's Friday the 13th ( 1980 ) , and Wes Craven 's A Nightmare on Elm Street ( 1984 ) `` owe much to the original Night of the Living Dead '' , according to author Barry Keith Grant . Critical analysis ( edit ) Barbra and Ben after their first meeting Since its release , some critics and film historians have interpreted Night of the Living Dead as a subversive film that critiques 1960s American society , international Cold War politics and domestic racism . Elliot Stein of The Village Voice saw the film as an ardent critique of American involvement in the Vietnam War , arguing that it `` was not set in Transylvania , but Pennsylvania -- this was Middle America at war , and the zombie carnage seemed a grotesque echo of the conflict then raging in Vietnam . '' Film historian Sumiko Higashi concurs , arguing that Night of the Living Dead was a film about the horrors of the Vietnam era . While she admits that `` there are no Vietnamese in Night of the Living Dead , ( ... ) they constitute an absent presence whose significance can be understood if narrative is construed '' . She points to aspects of the Vietnam War paralleled in the film : grainy black - and - white newsreels , search and destroy operations , helicopters , and graphic carnage . In the 2009 documentary film Nightmares in Red , White and Blue , the zombies in the film are compared to the `` silent majority '' of the U.S. in the late 1960s . While George Romero denied he considered race when casting Duane Jones , reviewer Mark Deming notes that `` the grim fate of Duane Jones , the sole heroic figure and only African - American , had added resonance with the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X fresh in the minds of most Americans '' . Stein adds , `` In this first - ever subversive horror movie , the resourceful black hero survives the zombies only to be killed by a redneck posse '' . The deaths of Ben , Barbra and the supporting cast offered audiences an uncomfortable , nihilistic glimpse unusual for the genre . Other prevalent themes included `` disillusionment with government and patriarchal nuclear family '' and `` the flaws inherent in the media , local and federal government agencies , and the entire mechanism of civil defense '' . Film historian Linda Badley explains that the film was so horrifying because the monsters were not creatures from outer space or some exotic environment , `` They 're us . '' Romero confessed that the film was designed to reflect the tensions of the time : `` It was 1968 , man . Everybody had a ' message ' . The anger and attitude and all that 's there is just because it was the Sixties . We lived at the farmhouse , so we were always into raps about the implication and the meaning , so some of that crept in . '' See also ( edit ) Film portal Horror fiction portal 1960s portal Public domain film List of American films of 1968 Living Dead series List of films in the public domain in the United States Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kevin Thomas , review of Night of the Living Dead , Los Angeles Times , January 10 , 1969 , reprinted in The A-List : The National Society of Film Critics ' 100 Essential Films ( 2002 ) . Jump up ^ Alan Jones mistakenly cites the Allegheny Cemetery on Butler Street in Pittsburgh as the filming location . Jump up ^ Wall Street Journal ( New York ) , quoted in Dillard & Waller ( 1988 ) . Jump up ^ Variety , review of Night of the Living Dead , October 15 , 1968 , quoted in Higashi ( 1990 ) . Jump up ^ Film Daily , review of Night of the Living Dead , as quoted in Higashi ( 1990 ) . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead ( X ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . November 18 , 1980 . Retrieved June 7 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Hughes , Mark ( October 30 , 2013 ) . `` The Top Ten Best Low - Budget Horror Movies of All Time '' . Forbes . Retrieved December 27 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Allen , Jamie ( November 16 , 1999 ) . `` U.S. film registry adds 25 new titles '' . Entertainment . CNN . Retrieved November 20 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Maçek III , J.C. ( June 14 , 2012 ) . `` The Zombification Family Tree : Legacy of the Living Dead '' . PopMatters . Archived from the original on July 3 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Thomas , Kevin ( 2002 ) . Carr , Jay , ed . The A-List : The National Society of Film Critics . Da Capo Press . p. 199 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 306 - 81096 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Jones 2005 , p. 118 . Jump up ^ Fraser , C. Gerald ( July 28 , 1988 ) . `` Duane L. Jones , 51 , Actor and Director of Stage Works , Dies '' . The New York Times . Retrieved January 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Jones , Duane ( 2002 ) . Bonus interviews . Night of the Living Dead ( DVD ) format = requires url = ( help ) . Millennium Edition . Elite Entertainment . ^ Jump up to : Collum 2004 , pp. 3 -- 4 . ^ Jump up to : Rolfe , James ( 2007 ) . Night of the Living Dead . Cinemassacre 's Monster Madness ( Audio commentary ) format = requires url = ( help ) . Jump up ^ Various ( September 16 , 2017 ) . `` Judith Ridley '' . IMDb . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Various ( September 16 , 2017 ) . `` Night of the Living Dead 30th Anniversary Edition '' . homepageofthedead.com . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Barnes , Mike ( January 3 , 2017 ) . `` George Kosana , ' Night of the Living Dead ' Actor ( and Investor ) , Dies at 81 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Various ( September 16 , 2017 ) . `` Russell Streiner '' . IMDb . Retrieved September 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Alexander , Chris ( July 21 , 2016 ) . `` RIP : Bill `` Chilly Billy '' Cardille `` . ComingSoon.net . Retrieved December 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 25 . ^ Jump up to : Hardman , Karl ; Eastman , Marilyn et al. `` Interview with Karl Hardman and Marilyn Eastman '' . Homepage of the Dead ( Interview ) . Archived from the original on November 7 , 2015 . Retrieved October 16 , 2017 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 20 . Jump up ^ Thorne , Will ( 3 January 2017 ) . `` ' Night of the Living Dead ' Actor George Kosana Dies at 81 '' . Variety . Retrieved January 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Russo 1985 , pp. 6 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Russo 1985 , pp. 31 , 61 . Jump up ^ Romero , George A. ( February 2 , 1997 ) . `` George A. Romero interview '' . Forbidden Weekend ( Interview ) . BBC2 . Jump up ^ Matheson , Richard ( 1995 ) ( 1954 ) . I Am Legend . Orb Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 86504 - 7 . Jump up ^ Marco Lanzagorta , review of Night of the Living Dead , Millennium Edition DVD , at Pop Matters . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` One for the Fire : The Legacy of Night of the Living Dead '' -- Night of the Living Dead DVD , 2008 , Region 1 , Dimension Home Entertainment Jump up ^ Interview : George A. Romero On Diary of the Dead Mariana McConnell , Cinema Blend , January 14 , 2008 Jump up ^ Weaver , Tom ( 1999 ) . Return of the B Science Fiction and Horror Movie Makers : The Mutant Melding of Two Volumes of Classic Interviews . McFarland . p. 307 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 0755 - 2 . Jump up ^ Clark Collis , An Author You Ca n't Refuse , Entertainment Weekly , December 7 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Collum 2004 , p. 4 . ^ Jump up to : Robey , Tim . `` George A Romero : Why I do n't like The Walking Dead '' . Telegraph . Retrieved 13 February 2017 . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 46 . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , pp. 55 -- 6 . Jump up ^ `` Save the Evans City Cemetery Chapel '' . Retrieved October 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Zombie fans celebrate iconic ' Night of the Living Dead ' '' . Retrieved October 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Fawcett , Neil ( March 11 , 2002 ) . `` Evans Cemetery : Then and Now '' . Homepage of the Dead . Archived from the original on April 10 , 2016 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Filming '' of Night of the Living Dead at Homepage of the Dead . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Romero , George A. et al. ( 2002 ) . Scrapbook . Night of the Living Dead ( DVD ) format = requires url = ( help ) . Millennium Edition . Elite Entertainment . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) ^ Jump up to : `` Frightful Facts '' at House of Horrors . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Maddrey , Joseph ( 2004 ) . Nightmares in Red , White and Blue : The Evolution of the American Horror Film . McFarland . p. 51 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 1860 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : George A. Romero interview , quoted at `` George A. Romero Bio '' , Special Features , Dawn of the Dead , Special Divimax Edition ( DVD , Anchor Bay , 2004 ) , ASIN B0001611DI . Jump up ^ Romero , George A. ( January 28 , 2004 ) . `` Bloody Diary : Part 3 '' . diamonddead.com . Archived from the original on October 26 , 2006 . Jump up ^ George A. Romero biography at HorrorDirectors.com . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Miller , Stephen Paul ( 1999 ) . The Seventies Now : Culture as Surveillance . Duke University Press . p. 81 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8223 - 2166 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Royer , Carl ( 2005 ) . The Spectacle of Isolation in Horror Films : Dark Parades . Haworth Press . p. 15 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7890 - 2264 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Dillard & Waller 1988 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Wood , Robin ( 1985 ) . `` An Introduction to the American Horror Film '' . In Nichols , Bill . Movies and Methods. II . University of California Press . p. 213 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 05409 - 7 . Jump up ^ Russo 1985 , p. 7 . ^ Jump up to : Boluk , Stephanie ; Lenz , Wylie ( 2011 ) . `` Introduction : Generation Z , the Age of Apocalypse '' . In Boluk , Stephanie ; Lenz , Wylie . Generation Zombie : Essays on the Living Dead in Modern Culture . McFarland . p. 5 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 6140 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Higashi 1990 , p. 175 . Jump up ^ Corupe , Paul ( August 2009 ) . `` They 're Coming to Remix You , Barbra '' . Rue Morgue ( 92 ) : 63 . ^ Jump up to : Collum 2004 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Russo 1985 , p. 70 . Jump up ^ King , Stephen ( 1983 ) . Danse Macabre . New York : Berkley Books . pp. 1 -- 9 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 425 - 10433 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Ebert , Roger ( January 5 , 1969 ) . `` Night of the Living Dead '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Chicago . Retrieved March 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Russell , Jamie ( 2008 ) . Book of the Dead . Surrey England : FAB Press . p. 65 . ISBN 1 - 903254 - 33 - 7 . Jump up ^ McCullough , Paul ( July -- August 1973 ) . `` A Pittsburgh Horror Story '' . Take One . 4 ( 6 ) . p. 8 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead '' . VH1 . Archived from the original on December 15 , 2009 . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . 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Jump up ^ `` Librarian of Congress Names 25 More Films to National Film Registry '' , November 16 , 1999 , at Library of Congress . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills , at American Film Institute . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains : The 400 Nominated Characters '' ( PDF ) . afi.com . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on August 7 , 2011 . Retrieved June 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Critics ' Scariest Films '' . AltFilmGuide.com . Retrieved May 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bravo 's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments '' . web.archive.org . Archived from the original on October 30 , 2007 . Retrieved May 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Canby , Vincent ( July 5 , 1970 ) . `` Getting Beyond Myra and The Valley of the Junk '' . The New York Times . p. 49 . Jump up ^ Kael , Pauline ( 1991 ) . 5001 Nights at the Movies . Henry Holt and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8050 - 1367 - 2 . Jump up ^ Rex Reed , quoted at House of Horrors . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Barnes , Mike ( 3 January 2017 ) . `` George Kosana , ' Night of the Living Dead ' Actor ( and Investor ) , Dies at 81 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ U.S. Copyright Office , Circular 92 , Copyright Law of the United States of America , Chapter 4 : Copyright Notice , Deposit , and Registration , Omission of notice on certain copies and phonorecords . Jump up ^ United States Senate , Committee on the Judiciary , Subcommittee on Technology and the Law , Legal Issues that Arise when Color is Added to Films Originally Produced , Sold and Distributed in Black and White ( Washington , D.C. : Government Printing Office , 1988 ) , p. 83 . Jump up ^ Hervey 2008 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Merchandise for Night of the Living Dead at the Amazon.com . Retrieved January 28 , 2012 . Some incorrect products may be counted as such . Jump up ^ Night of the Living Dead at Internet Archive . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Night of the Living Dead at Video on YouTube . Retrieved February 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Night of the Living Dead at Hulu Archived 2012 - 01 - 25 at the Wayback Machine ... January 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Most Downloaded Items '' , Internet Archive , 2015 . Web . ^ Jump up to : Kane 2010 , p. 205 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead Blu - ray : 50th Anniversary Edition '' . Blu-ray.com . Retrieved February 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Night of the Living Dead '' . Criterion Collection . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead '' . U.S. Copyright Records database . January 30 , 2017 . Retrieved October 4 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Squires , John ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` Home Video ' Night of Anubis ' : What to Expect from Criterion 's ' Night of the Living Dead ' Workprint '' . Bloody Disgusting . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 157 . Jump up ^ `` Copyright Catalog ( 1978 to present ) -- Night of the Living Dead '' . United States Copyright Office . Retrieved January 16 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Night of the Living Dead ( VHS , Anchor Bay Entertainment , 1997 ) , ASIN 6301231864 . Jump up ^ Tooze , Gary W. `` Review of Night of the Living Dead '' . DVD Beaver . Retrieved January 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Johnny Ramone Tribute Includes Night of the Living Dead in 3D '' . Dread Central . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Zombie Classic `` Night of the Living Dead , Now in 3D ! '' Begins Its First Theatrical Run `` . PRWeb . Vocus . October 17 , 2010 . Retrieved September 4 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` '' Night of the Living Dead '' to Be Released in Color and 3D `` . Business Wire . December 23 , 2008 . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2008 . Retrieved January 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Night of the Living Dead : 30th Anniversary Edition ( DVD , 1999 ) , ASIN B00000JXVO . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 174 . Jump up ^ Entertainment Weekly , quoted at Homepage of the Dead . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Kane 2010 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Knowles , Harry ( September 19 , 1999 ) . `` NIGHT OF THE LIVING DEAD -- 30th Anniversary DVD Special Edition '' . Ai n't It Cool News . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead Re-animated FREE New Jersey Screening '' . HorrorMovies.ca . Archived from the original on October 8 , 2009 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Horror Movie Reviews and Commentary '' . No Room in Hell . December 6 , 2009 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead Reanimated '' . Metro Cinema . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Tempe Film : Night of the Living Dead : Reanimated on Thursday 1 / 28 '' . Events.getoutaz.com . January 28 , 2010 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Stevens , Michael ( June 18 , 2010 ) . `` Wild Eye and MVD Resurrect `` Night Of The Living Dead : Reanimated '' `` . Sneak Peek . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Interview with Night of the Living Dead : Reanimated 's Mike Schneider '' . Shoot for the Head . Archived from the original on November 5 , 2013 . Retrieved June 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Official NOTLD : Reanimated Site -- http://www.notldr.com/ retrieved October 16 , 2009 Jump up ^ Bryan White ( September 24 , 2009 ) . `` Night of the Living Dead : Reanimated East Coast Premier ! '' . Cinema-suicide.com . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Zombie Encounter & Film Festival -- October 10 , 2009 '' . Science Fiction Society of Northern New Jersey . September 25 , 2009 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Rondo Hatton Awards 2009 Winners '' . Rondoaward.com . Retrieved January 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bramesco , Charles ( November 4 , 2016 ) . `` Night of the Living Dead has always looked awful , but the 4K restoration is terrific '' . www.theverge.com . The Verge . Retrieved January 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead . 1968 . Directed by George A. Romero '' . www.moma.org . Museum of Modern Art . Retrieved January 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` To Save and Project : The 14th MoMA International Festival of Film Preservation '' . www.moma.org . Museum of Modern Art . Retrieved January 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Patrick J. Flinn , Handbook of Intellectual Property Claims and Remedies : 2004 Supplement ( New York : Aspen Publishers , 1999 ) , pp. 24 -- 25 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7355 - 1125 - 5 . Jump up ^ Squires , John ( 2017 - 11 - 01 ) . `` George Romero 's Son Announces ' Rise of the Living Dead ' '' . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : Grant , Barry Keith ( 1996 ) . `` Taking Back the Night of the Living Dead : George Romero , Feminism and the Horror Film '' . In Grant , Barry K . The Dread of Difference : Gender and the Horror Film . University of Texas Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 292 - 72794 - 6 . Jump up ^ Night of the Living Dead 3 - D official site . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead 3D : Re-Animation -- New Stills and L.A. Premiere Details '' . Dread Central . January 10 , 2012 . Retrieved January 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead in 3D Again ? '' . Dread Central . September 16 , 2009 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ' Night of the Living Dead ' Origin Story Told in 3D CGI '' . Bloody-disgusting.com . September 16 , 2009 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Terror Tweets : NOTLD : Origins Casting News and Area 51 Update '' . Dread Central . September 25 , 2009 . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Casting for NOTLD : Origins Coming Together '' . Dread Central . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Miska , Brad ( September 25 , 2009 ) . `` Danielle Harris to Topline ' Night of the Living Dead : Origins ' '' . Bloody - Disgusting . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Submitted by dorkydude on Tue , October 20 , 2009 -- 3 : 54 pm . ( October 20 , 2009 ) . `` Exclusive : First Look at Night of the Living Dead : Origins '' . Dread Central . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` BD Horror News -- Awesome First Look at ' Night of the Living Dead : Origins ' '' . Bloody - Disgusting . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Exclusive : First Look at Tony Todd as Ben -- Night of the Living Dead : Origins Horror Movie , DVD , & Book Reviews , News , Interviews at Dread Central '' . Dread Central . Retrieved March 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Director Talks Mimesis : Night of the Living Dead '' . Shocktillyoudrop.com . Retrieved February 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` '' MIMESIS `` : Night of Living the Dead '' . Fangoria.com . Archived from the original on February 15 , 2013 . Retrieved February 15 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Apocalypse is Trending : ' Night of the Living Dead : Resurrection '' . PopMatters. 2013 - 05 - 06 . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Night of the Living Dead getting another remake '' . HorrorSociety.com. April 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Another Night of the Living Dead Remake in 2012 '' . horror-movies.ca. April 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Shambling Forward -- Night of the Living Dead : Rebirth nearing May 2015 wrap date '' . Horror Society . Mar 23 , 2015 . Retrieved June 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Almar Haflidason , review of Night of the Living Dead , March 20 , 2001 , at BBC . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Tudor , Andrew ( 1989 ) . Monsters and Mad Scientists : A Cultural History of the Horror Movie . Blackwell Publishing . p. 101 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 16992 - 5 . Jump up ^ Poole , W. Scott Poole ( 2011 ) . Monsters in America : Our Historical Obsession with the Hideous and the Haunting . Baylor . pp. 194 -- 195 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60258 - 314 - 6 . Jump up ^ Collis , Clark ( July 18 , 2017 ) . `` George A. Romero thought Night of the Living Dead would be a ' one - off ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Jump up ^ Jones 2005 , p. 117 . Jump up ^ Adam Rockoff , Going to Pieces : The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film , 1978 -- 1986 ( Jefferson , N.C. : McFarland , 2002 ) , p. 35 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 1227 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Stein , Elliot ( January 7 , 2003 ) . `` The Dead Zones : ' George A. Romero ' at the American Museum of the Moving Image '' . The Village Voice . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Higashi 1990 , p. 181 . Jump up ^ Monument , Andrew ( director ) ( 2009 ) . Nightmares in Red , White and Blue ( motion picture ) . Jump up ^ Mark Deming , review of Night of the Living Dead , at Allmovie . Retrieved June 24 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Jones 2005 , pp. 117 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Dillard & Waller 1988 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Badley , Linda ( 1995 ) . Film , Horror , and the Body Fantastic . Greenwood Press . p. 25 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 27523 - 4 . Works cited ( edit ) Collum , Jason Paul ( 2004 ) . Assault of the Killer B 's : Interviews with 20 Cult Film Actresses . McFarland . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 1818 - 3 . Dillard , R.H.W. ; Waller , Gregory A. , ed. ( 1988 ) . `` Night of the Living Dead : It 's Not Like Just a Wind That 's Passing Through '' . American Horrors : Essays on the Modern American Horror Film . University of Illinois Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 252 - 01448 - 2 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Hervey , Ben A. ( 2008 ) . Night of the Living Dead . BFI Film Classics . British Film Institute . ISBN 978 - 1 - 844 - 57546 - 6 . Higashi , Sumiko ( 1990 ) . `` Night of the Living Dead : A Horror Film about the Horrors of the Vietnam Era '' . In Dittmar , Linda ; Michaud , Gene . From Hanoi to Hollywood : The Vietnam War in American Film . Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 813 - 51587 - 8 . Jones , Alan ( 2005 ) . The Rough Guide to Horror Movies . Rough Guides . ISBN 978 - 1 - 843 - 53521 - 8 . Kane , Joe ( 2010 ) . Night of the Living Dead : Behind the Scenes of the Most Terrifying Zombie Movie Ever . Citadel Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 806 - 53331 - 5 . Russo , John ( 1985 ) . The Complete Night of the Living Dead Filmbook . Imagine , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 911137 - 03 - 3 . Further reading ( edit ) Becker , Matt . `` A Point of Little Hope : Hippie Horror Films and the Politics of Ambivalence '' . The Velvet Light Trap ( No. 57 , Spring 2006 ) : pp. 42 -- 59 . Carroll , Noël . `` The Nature of Horror '' . The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 46 ( No. 1 , Autumn 1987 ) : pp. 51 -- 59 . Crane , Jonathan Lake . Terror and Everyday Life : Singular Moments in the History of the Horror Film . Thousand Oaks , CA. : Sage Publications , 1994 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8039 - 5849 - 4 . Dinello , Daniel . Technophobia ! : Science Fiction Visions of Posthuman Technology . Austin , TX : University of Texas Press , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 292 - 70986 - 7 . Harper , Stephen . `` Night of the Living Dead : Reappraising an Undead Classic '' . Bright Lights Film Journal ( Issue 50 , November 2005 ) : online . Heffernan , Kevin . Ghouls , Gimmicks , and Gold : Horror Films and the American Movie Business , 1953 -- 1968 . Durham , NC : Duke University Press , 2004 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8223 - 3215 - 2 . Heffernan , Kevin . `` Inner - City Exhibition and the Genre Film : Distributing Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) '' . Cinema Journal 41 ( No. 3 , Spring 2002 ) : pp. 59 -- 77 . Jancovich , Mark , Antonio Lazaro Reboll , Julian Stringer , and Andy Willis , eds . Defining Cult Movies : The Cultural Politics of Oppositional Taste . Manchester , Eng. : Manchester University Press , 2003 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7190 - 6631 - 3 Lowenstein , Adam . Shocking Representation : Historical Trauma , National Cinema , and the Modern Horror Film . New York : Columbia University Press , 2005 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 13246 - 6 . Maye , Harun . `` Rewriting the Dead : The Tension between Nostalgia and Perversion in George A. Romero 's Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) '' . In : Nostalgia or Perversion ? Gothic Rewriting from the Eighteenth Century until the Present Day . Ed . Isabella van Elferen . Newcastle : Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2007 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84718 - 247 - 0 . Moreman , Christopher M. `` A Modern Meditation on Death : Identifying Buddhist Teachings in George A. Romero 's Night of the Living Dead , '' Contemporary Buddhism 9 ( No. 2 , 2008 ) : pp. 151 -- 165 . Newman , Robert . `` The Haunting of 1968 '' . South Central Review 16 ( No. 4 , Winter 1999 ) : pp. 53 -- 61 . Paffenroth , Kim . Gospel of the Living Dead : George Romero 's Visions of Hell on Earth . Waco , TX : Baylor , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 932792 - 65 - 2 . Pharr , Mary . `` Greek Gifts : Vision and Revision in Two Versions of Night of the Living Dead '' . In Trajectories of the Fantastic . Ed . Michael A. Morrison . Westport , CT : Greenwood Press , 1997 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 29646 - 8 . Pinedo , Isabel Cristina . Recreational Terror : Women and the Pleasures of Horror Film Viewing . Albany , NY : State University of New York Press , 1997 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7914 - 3441 - 3 . Russell , Jamie . Book of the Dead : The Complete History of Zombie Cinema . Surrey : Fab Press , 2005 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 903254 - 33 - 2 . Shapiro , Jerome F. Atomic Bomb Cinema : The Apocalyptic Imagination on Film . London : Routledge , 2001 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 93660 - 6 . Wood , Robin . Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan . New York : Columbia University Press , 1986 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 05777 - 6 . Young , Lola . Fear of the Dark : ' Race ' , Gender and Sexuality in the Cinema . London : Routledge , 1996 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 09709 - 3 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Night of the Living Dead . Wikiquote has quotations related to : Night of the Living Dead Night of the Living Dead on IMDb Night of the Living Dead official website Night of the Living Dead on Facebook Night of the Living Dead on Instagram Night of the Living Dead is available for free download at the Internet Archive Night of the Living Dead at AllMovie Night of the Living Dead at Rotten Tomatoes George A. Romero Films Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) There 's Always Vanilla ( 1971 ) Season of the Witch ( 1973 ) The Crazies ( 1973 ) Martin ( 1978 ) Dawn of the Dead ( 1978 ) Knightriders ( 1981 ) Creepshow ( 1982 ) Day of the Dead ( 1985 ) Monkey Shines ( 1988 ) Two Evil Eyes ( 1990 ) The Dark Half ( 1993 ) Bruiser ( 2000 ) Land of the Dead ( 2005 ) Diary of the Dead ( 2007 ) Survival of the Dead ( 2009 ) Related Filmography Document of the Dead Dead On : The Life and Cinema of George A. Romero ( documentary ) Living Dead films Romero 's Dead series Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) Dawn of the Dead ( 1978 ) Day of the Dead ( 1985 ) Land of the Dead ( 2005 ) Diary of the Dead ( 2007 ) Survival of the Dead ( 2009 ) Dead series remakes Night of the Living Dead ( 1990 ) Dawn of the Dead ( 2004 ) Night of the Living Dead 3D ( 2006 ) Day of the Dead ( 2008 ) Day of the Dead : Bloodline ( 2018 ) Other official sequels Night of the Living Dead 3D : Re-Animation ( 2012 ) Return of the Living Dead series The Return of the Living Dead ( 1985 ) Return of the Living Dead Part II ( 1988 ) Return of the Living Dead 3 ( 1993 ) Return of the Living Dead : Necropolis ( 2005 ) Return of the Living Dead : Rave to the Grave ( 2005 ) Unofficial sequels Zombi series Zombi 2 ( 1979 ) Zombi 3 ( 1988 ) Zombi 4 : After Death ( 1989 ) Zombi 5 : Killing Birds ( 1988 ) Other unofficial sequels Children of the Living Dead ( 2001 ) Day of the Dead 2 : Contagium ( 2005 ) Night of the Living Dead : Darkest Dawn ( 2015 ) Parodies Night of the Living Bread ( 1990 ) Poultrygeist : Night of the Chicken Dead ( 2006 ) Night of the Living Carrots ( 2011 ) Homages Flesheater ( 1988 ) Shaun of the Dead ( 2004 ) Fido ( 2006 ) Flight of the Living Dead : Outbreak on a Plane ( 2007 ) Dance of the Dead ( 2008 ) Zone of the Dead ( 2009 ) Juan of the Dead ( 2011 ) Mimesis : Night of the Living Dead ( 2011 ) Related topics Dawn of the Dead in popular culture Dawn of the Dead ( soundtracks ) `` Night of the Living Dead '' ( 1979 song ) Document of the Dead ( 1979 / 1989 / 2012 documentary ) Escape of the Living Dead ( 2005 comic book ) Land of the Dead : Road to Fiddler 's Green ( 2005 video game ) City of the Dead ( cancelled video game ) Birth of the Living Dead ( 2012 documentary ) Empire of the Dead ( 2014 -- 2015 comic book ) WorldCat Identities BNF : cb161893731 ( data ) GND : 4598343 - 4 SUDOC : 148264271 VIAF : 183854312 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Night_of_the_Living_Dead&oldid=866457933 '' Categories : 1968 films English - language films 1968 horror films 1960s independent films American black - and - white films American films American zombie films American independent films Directorial debut films Films directed by George A. 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87 | document: List of assassination Classroom characters - wikipedia List of assassination Classroom characters The following is a list of characters for Yūsei Matsui 's Assassination Classroom and its spin off Koro Sensei Quest manga series , which has also received anime and live - action film adaptations . The series mainly focuses on the students of Kunigigaoka Junior High School 's Class 3 - E as they attempt to assassinate their teacher , a tentacled creature named Koro - sensei . Contents ( hide ) 1 Main characters 2 Antagonists 3 Supporting characters 3.1 Kunugigaoka Junior High School 3.1. 1 Teachers 3.1. 2 Students 3.1. 2.1 Class 3 - E 3.1. 2.2 Class 3 - A 3.1. 2.3 Other students 4 Other characters 5 References Main characters ( edit ) Koro - sensei ( 殺 せんせ ー , Koro - sensē ) Voiced by : Jun Fukuyama ( TV anime ) , Masaya Onosaka ( vomic ) , Tomokazu Seki ( event anime & J - Stars Victory VS ) , Kazunari Ninomiya ( live - action ) ( Japanese ) ; Sonny Strait ( English ) Koro - sensei is the main protagonist and anti-hero of the series . He is the homeroom teacher of Class 3 - E of Kunugigaoka Junior High School . He is initially thought to be the perpetrator of the explosion of the Moon , which has rendered it permanently in a crescent shape ; this is later revealed to be false , as the true culprit was a mouse implanted with his cells that had been sent to the moon as part of an experiment . Despite not having the intention to get killed , he offered to governments all over the world a chance to kill him under the condition that he is allowed to be the homeroom teacher of Class 3 - E until the end of the year , when he will destroy the Earth unless he is killed . He is dedicated to his task as a teacher and imparting his knowledge of assassination to the students , despite knowing full well that he is their target . However , he is able to connect with each student individually , which is why all of his students respect him , despite knowing that he will destroy the planet in a year . He takes a form similar to an octopus with eight tentacles and his skin color changes depending on his mood . He is able to move at a maximum speed of Mach 20 ( 15345.383 miles per hour ) , which allows him to travel across the world in a short amount of time and makes him a hard target to hit . He is also intelligent to the point that he could teach almost every subject to all of his students single - handedly . He does however have a number of weaknesses , mainly to special rubber knives and BB pellets specifically designed to work against his body . While he is initially believed to be an alien , he later reveals that he was once a legendary human assassin who was the first ' God of Death ' . After being betrayed by his apprentice , he was captured and sent to a facility where a series of experiments were performed on him , transforming his body . Koro - sensei was born in the slums of an unknown third world country , where he soon learned he had a natural talent for killing and an inborn lack of empathy . He became an assassin , murdering anyone for the right price , even world leaders and the heads of entire militaries . However , after being captured and used as a guinea pig , he begins to learn compassion and empathy from a female titan intern with whom he becomes close . His decision to become a teacher involves his promise to the intern who thought that he was suitable to become one , later revealed to be Class 3 - E 's former teacher , Aguri Yukimura , who was selected to be his observer during the experiments performed on him . According to Koro - sensei , his lifespan will be over by the end of the school year in March , and if he is not killed by then , the whole planet will perish with him due to the explosive release of the anti-matter in his body that was generated by the experiments performed on him . After a vicious clash with Kōtarō Yanagisawa , the scientist responsible for his current condition , and his former apprentice , the second ' God of Death ' , and using all of his energy left to save one of his students who was mortally injured during the confrontation , an exhausted Koro - sensei bids farewell to his students and finally allows them to kill him , with Nagisa ultimately doing so by stabbing him in the heart . After being assassinated , his body disintegrates into multiple floating orbs of light while his clothes are left behind . Koro - sensei 's name is a pun on the words korosenai ( 殺せ ない , lit . unkillable ) and sensei ( 先生 , lit . teacher ) . Koro - sensei appears as a playable character in the video game J - Stars Victory VS . Nagisa Shiota ( 潮田 渚 , Shiota Nagisa ) Voiced by : Nozomi Yamamoto ( vomic ) , Nao Tōyama ( event anime ) , Mai Fuchigami ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Lindsay Seidel ( English ) Actor portrayal : Ryosuke Yamada Nagisa is one of the students in Class 3 - E , the main student character , and the manga 's narrator . Nagisa is seen as one of the weakest students in the class due to his small stature and mediocre physical abilities that are comparable to some of the girls in the class . However , he is actually the most talented to become an assassin out of all the students , something that is acknowledged by Koro - sensei and Karasuma . He is able to draw closer whilst hiding his blood lust to make a surprise attack and is able to make his opponents falter through his blood lust alone . Nagisa usually writes down Koro - sensei 's weaknesses , which at first seem minor ( since they do not look like major weaknesses ) . However , some of them are eventually revealed to be useful as the students are almost able to kill Koro - sensei because of one of these weaknesses . Outwardly friendly and polite to his friends and everyone , he hides a somewhat darker side of him as an assassin that is not noticeable during daily classes and is only revealed during training and assassination time . When engaged in battle , Nagisa becomes a brutal assassin who would throw away his life if it meant killing his target . According to Karasuma , whenever Nagisa unleashes his killing intent , he is not training and truly goes for a kill . At home , Nagisa lives with his chronically absent father and abusive mother . His mother tries to live vicariously through him by making him follow her exact life plan for him , because she experienced a lot of failure in life , and was also never allowed to look like a `` pretty girl '' by her parents . This causes her to constantly tell him she wishes he was born a girl and make him grow his hair long , which she only lets him tie up because if she unties it he still looks like a girl . His mother is also the foundation for his assassination talents , because whenever he tries to defy her when she is in what he perceives as a `` gloomy '' moment , she grabs and screams at him , so he learned to tell the difference between her `` cheerful '' and `` gloomy '' moments , in order to prevent some of her abuse . Nagisa realizes that this is similar to the `` Wavelengths of Consciousness '' that the `` God of Death '' , the world 's best assassin , talks about . After this realization , he tells Koro - sensei he has the talent to be an assassin in a career planning meeting . His home life improves and his desire to be an assassin wanes after he saves his mother from an assassin , which in turn gave him time to realize his talents can be used to save people and she realized that she can not hold onto him forever . When the time comes for Class 3 - E to finally end Koro - sensei 's life , Nagisa offers to deal the killing blow , which he regrettably does . During the graduation ceremony , Nagisa learns , much to his joy , that before his death , Koro - sensei talked with his father as well and helped him reconcile with his mother . During his time with Koro - sensei , Nagisa eventually realizes that he wants to be a teacher like him . After completing his studies , he becomes an intern at Gokuraka Private High School assigned to a dysfunctional class full of male delinquents and gang members , much to his chagrin . Nevertheless , he sets to work teaching and rehabilitating delinquent students while intimidating them into compliance with his blood lust . In addition , Kaede implies that he will begin teaching at the old Class 3 - E building in the future . He is also shown to have trimmed his long hair , although he sadly notes that he has not grown significantly taller at all since then . When Sumire Hara asks Kayano how things are between her and Nagisa , she bashfully replies that he is focused on his career at the moment . Kaede Kayano / Akari Yukimura ( 茅野 カエデ / 雪村 あかり , Kayano Kaede / Yukimura Akari ) Voiced by : Yō Taichi ( vomic ) , Ayana Taketatsu ( event anime ) , Aya Suzaki ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Monica Rial ( English ) Actor portrayal : Maika Yamamoto She is one of Nagisa 's classmates and close friends , being the one who is mostly seen with him . She has an apparent affinity for pudding , once attempting to assassinate Koro - sensei with a giant pudding with explosives inside . She experiences a slight inferiority complex when it comes to sex appeal , especially her bust size , as she usually gets flustered towards girls with large breasts . Kaede is the smallest student in Class 3 - E and is even shorter than Nagisa and Manami . She is also the student who comes up with Koro - sensei 's name . At the start of winter , she reveals her true identity to be professional method actress Akari Yukimura , the younger sister of Aguri Yukimura , the former Class 3 - E teacher . Believing Koro - sensei to be her sister 's killer , she stole and implanted tentacles from Shiro 's facility onto the back of her neck and changed her identity in order to infiltrate Class 3 - E , using her acting skills to hide her extensive blood lust from everyone until she was ready to make her move . However , using her tentacles in battle puts her life at risk , just like what happened with Itona , and before she dies , Koro - sensei manages to remove them from her body once Nagisa calms her down with a kiss , shocking her to the point of passing out . It is also revealed that the time she spent with Koro - sensei and Class 3 - E made her urge for vengeance falter over time and made her believe that there was more to Koro - sensei 's past than what she had assumed . She then spends the winter break recovering at a hospital , and upon returning , decides to hide her newfound feelings for Nagisa in order to not give him trouble during their mission to assassinate Koro - sensei . During Koro - sensei 's battle with Yanagisawa and the second God of Death , Kayano attempts to intervene , making use of the kinetic vision she obtained during the time she implanted the tentacles in her body , but is mortally wounded by the enemy , and to save her life , Koro - sensei performs an intricate surgery to restore her body up to the cellular level in order to save her life , a procedure he developed to ensure that the tragedy that happened with her sister would not be repeated , but exhausting himself in the process . After Koro - sensei 's death , she resumes her acting career , becoming even more famous than before . When Sumire Hara asks Kayano how things are between her and Nagisa , she bashfully replies that he is focused on his career at the moment . Karma Akabane ( 赤羽 業 ( カルマ ) , Akabane Karuma ) Voiced by : Nobunaga Shimazaki ( vomic ) , Nobuhiko Okamoto ( event anime / TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Austin Tindle ( English ) Actor portrayal : Masaki Suda He is one of Nagisa 's closest friends and considered to be the strongest and smartest among the Class 3 - E students . He is the first one to be able to inflict injuries on Koro - sensei during their first meeting . He was suspended from school prior to Koro - sensei 's arrival by his class ' homeroom teacher due to his mischievous behavior . Unlike most students in the class that were relegated there due to their low grades , Karma is one of the school 's most gifted students as he is the only one able to match Gakushū in terms of test results and grades , but developed a rebellious attitude due to his previous teacher 's betrayal after he severely wounded a top third - year student while saving a bullied student from Class 3 - E , as despite believing he has done the right thing , his teacher revealed that he was only siding with him due to his grades to increase his reputation and did not want to be held responsible for what happened . Karma then brutally beat the teacher , leading to his transfer to Class 3 - E. Because of this experience , Karma originally distrusts Koro - sensei , but Karma begins to accept him after realizing Koro - sensei is unlike the other treacherous teachers at the school . After the battle to decide whether they should kill Koro - sensei or not , he grows closer to Nagisa and even begins addressing him without any prefixes . He is also one of two to tease Kaede about her feelings towards Nagisa together with Rio . After graduation , he decides to enlist on a government test with the intent of carving his own territory in politics . Antagonists ( edit ) Gakuhō Asano ( 浅野 學 峯 , Asano Gakuhō ) Voiced by : Hideo Ishikawa ( vomic ) , Shō Hayami ( TV anime ) , Chris Rager ( English ) Board Chairman of Kunugigaoka Junior High School and Gakushū Asano 's father . Responsible for Class 3 - E 's current condition , he and his son share a tense competitive relationship with each other . Gakuhō 's teaching skills are seemingly on par with Koro - sensei 's , and he seems to know the latter 's secret . He eventually takes over as the teacher of Class 3 - A in order to prove their superiority over Class 3 - E once and for all . Gakuhō becomes more and more desperate as finals near , and eventually uses a teaching method that induces the entire Class 3 - A , with the exception of Gakushū , into a zombie - like trance that makes them sacrifice their own personal well - being for the sake of studying . These events lead Gakushū to conclude that his father is insane and must be stopped . Gakuhō eventually falls into full - blown madness after his teaching methods fail to allow Class 3 - A to beat Class 3 - E and several 3 - A students begin to contemplate transferring to Class 3 - E . It is later revealed that when he had just started the Kunugigaoka Cram School , he was a passionate , caring , and talented teacher like Koro - sensei , but changed his ideal educational system after a tragic incident where one of his first three students , an aspiring basketball player , committed suicide due to constant bullying . He believed that it was due to him not teaching his students to be strong . This belief , combined with his guilt and grief , led him to become cold and calculating , and he avenged his student by ruining the lives of the bullies by getting them addicted to gambling . After being defeated by Koro - sensei personally , he accepts defeat and has shown some changes in his personality , while still refusing to give up on his educational policy . He also reconciles with Gakushū after they both decide to sue each other and the two ultimately spend some time bonding over the filing of their individual suits and dreaming of the payouts they will get . He is apparently aware of Kayano 's true identity as she was the student he demoted to Class 3 - E for intentionally breaking one of his possessions when she first transferred to Kunugigaoka . After Koro - sensei 's death , the Class 3 - E system is abolished and Gakuhō resigns from his position on the government 's orders after the public found out about his draconian teaching methods . While he is packing up his office , however , he is visited by the remaining two students from his very first class , now adults , and begins catching up with them over a bottle of wine . Shiro ( シロ ) Voiced by : Ryōta Takeuchi ( TV anime ) , Mitsuaki Madono ( Yanagisawa ) ( Japanese ) ; J. Michael Tatum ( English ) Actor portrayal : Hiroki Narimiya A mysterious scientist who cloaks himself in anti-sensei material , he first appears as Itona 's guardian and tutor , bestowing him with the tentacles on his head and providing him the medication needed to treat it . After several failed attempts however , he abandons Itona , soon taking an interest in Kaede 's potential . Once Kaede fails as well , he reveals himself as Kōtarō Yanagisawa , the lead scientist who performed the experiments that transformed the God of Death into Koro - sensei and destroyed the moon , thus making him the primary antagonist of the series . He also was Aguri 's fianceé , and always mistreated her due to her low birth in comparison to his wealthy and well - connected family . He holds a grudge against Koro - sensei , who completely shattered his pride upon taking control of the experiment and winning Aguri 's favor . He later returns after taking the second God of Death under his guard and modifying his body for them to enact revenge of Koro - sensei together in the final hour of the deadline before his explosion . Yanagisawa 's body ends up severely damaged when he is blown away by a beam fired by Koro - sensei against the Second God of Death and comes in contact with an anti-tentacle barrier originally set up to trap Koro - sensei , leaving him in a semi-vegetative state . Akira Takaoka ( 鷹 岡 明 , Takaoka Akira ) Voiced by : Kenta Miyake ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Justin Cook ( English ) Actor portrayal : Masanobu Takashima A man who trained alongside Karasuma and was jealous of his abilities . He is sent to Class 3 - E in order to take over their assassination training , but is forced to leave after being defeated by Nagisa , because of how sadistic his training was . He later returns , more insane than ever and he scarred his own face , he was laughed at by his peers after his defeat by Nagisa . During Class 3 - E 's field trip to Okinawa where he poisons more than half the class , with the only cure in his possession , he orders Nagisa and Kayano to bring Koro - sensei to him at his hotel room . Instead , Nagisa , Karasuma , and the remaining healthy students infiltrate his hotel and defeat his hired assassins , leading to a confrontation on the hotel roof . He then challenges Nagisa to a one on one fight to exact revenge for his earlier defeat , blowing up the case containing the cure to throw Nagisa into despair . However , after sustaining a beating at Takaoka 's hands , Nagisa manages to stun him with Lovro 's secret surefire assassination technique . Takaoka 's worst fear is realized when Nagisa gives him the same innocent smile he had worn before surprising and defeating Takaoka the first time , before knocking him out with a stun baton . Takaoka stated that Nagisa 's innocent smile will haunt him in his nightmares for the rest of the rest of his life . It is then revealed that the cure was unnecessary to begin with , as Takaoka 's hired assassins had supplied him with a non-lethal poison , having privately agreed beforehand not to follow their employer 's murderous plans . Takaoka is then taken away by the military . He was sent to jail and also was dishonorably discharged . The Reaper ( 死神 , Shinigami ) Voiced by : Nobunaga Shimazaki ( Japanese ) ; Ian Sinclair , Justin Briner ( younger ) ( English ) The number one assassin in the world , who starts to hunt down other assassins and eventually targets Class 3 - E and Koro - sensei . He initially appears as a harmless florist , but his true form is hidden behind killing intent so thick that he appears to be shrouded in darkness , leaving his true appearance a mystery . In actuality , he peeled the skin from his face so as to become a master of disguise and has heavily modified his own body to become an efficient killer , such as implanting a small caliber gun in his index finger . He eventually convinces Irina to join him and kidnaps Class 3 - E to draw out Koro - sensei , but is thwarted by Taiga and Sōsuke 's skill with paint and cameras , before being betrayed by Irina and defeated by Karasuma in a fistfight before being detained and put under Yanagisawa 's care . He is eventually revealed to be the second God of Death , the original being Koro - sensei , his former master , whom he betrayed upon believing that he had learned all he could from him . Initially he looked up to him and even to his death , wished to be acknowledged by him and to be just like him . Unfortunately , Koro - sensei only saw him as a tool since he had yet to learn compassion and empathy . Disillusioned , he took the title of God of Death after he betrayed Koro - sensei by letting him be captured by security guards after an assassination job . Since his confinement he went under Yanagisawa 's experiments to prepare him for a final confrontation with Koro - sensei in order for both to enact their revenge on him , after the scientist revealed to him that his former mentor and the teacher of Class 3 - E are the one and the same . Having a much more imposing and terrifying figure than his predecessor , the enhanced Second God of Death possesses many more tentacles than Koro - sensei and is capable of moving twice as fast than him . However , even with such improvements , he ends up defeated and killed by Koro - sensei , who apologizes to his former student for not guiding him properly during their time as master and pupil before promising to start over if they meet again in the afterlife . Supporting characters ( edit ) Kunugigaoka Junior High school ( edit ) Teachers ( edit ) Tadaomi Karasuma ( 烏 間 惟 臣 , Karasuma Tadaomi ) Voiced by : Kōsuke Toriumi ( vomic ) , Junichi Suwabe ( event anime ) , Tomokazu Sugita ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Chris Ryan ( English ) Actor portrayal : Kippei Shiina He is a government worker associated with the Ministry of Defense . He first appeared announcing Koro - sensei 's deal with the government and their mission to assassinate him before the end of the year . He later became the assistant teacher and P.E. instructor of class 3 - E , using his lessons to train the students in assassination techniques . He is well known among militaries for his outstanding reputation and is a powerful individual , which he has proven when he easily overpowered Irina 's master , who is a retired professional hit man , and even Koro - sensei himself is afraid upon seeing his capability for the first time . He is strict , but a kind man , though he keeps a distance between himself and the students due to his status as an agent and his own professionalism . He is one of a few who is perceptive enough to see Nagisa 's talent as an assassin . In the epilogue , he becomes a high ranking official in Japanese Intelligence and the husband to Irina even though he still treats her quite the same as during their time as teachers . Irina Jelavić ( イリーナ ・ イェラビッチ , Irīna Yerabitchi , Serbian : Ирина Јелавић ) Voiced by : Masumi Asano ( vomic ) , Yui Horie ( event anime ) , Shizuka Itō ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Martha Harms ( English ) Actor portrayal : Kang Ji - young She is a professional hitwoman with a Serbian accent who is hired to kill Koro - sensei by becoming a part - time foreign language teacher in Class 3 - E. She uses her charm to seduce Koro - sensei , initially making him obey her commands . However , her first assassination attempt is foiled when Koro - sensei is able to suppress her three hired mercenaries attacks . This ends in her humiliation in front of all the students , and she swears revenge . She teaches the students how to seduce people from other countries , so that with this method , they can learn foreign languages , and usually punishes male students who fail to answer her questions during her lessons by kissing them until they pass out from being overwhelmed . Much to her dismay , she is nicknamed `` Professor Bitch '' ( ビッチ 先生 , Bicchi - sensei ) ( formally Ms. Hella - Bitch ) by her students . She develops genuine feelings for Karasuma later on , and eventually starts a relationship with him , later becoming his wife and working under him for the Japanese Government as a spy . Although her joke name is widely accepted in Serbia , some Serbian nationalists have seen it as an `` insult '' to Serbian people . Aguri Yukimura ( 雪村 あぐり , Yukimura Aguri ) Voiced by : Ayako Kawasumi ( Japanese ) ; Whitney Rodgers ( English ) Actor portrayal : Mirei Kiritani The late former teacher of Class 3 - E , she was Kaede 's older sister and Yanagisawa 's fiancée . Aguri first met Koro - sensei when he was still a human , tasked to watch over him during the time he was experimented on and bonded with him during their time together . When Koro - sensei broke free , Aguri attempted to calm him down , just to be killed by one of the weapons used against him . In her dying breath , Aguri asked Koro - sensei to watch over Class 3 - E in her place , as she had no one else to turn to , to which he complies . Students ( edit ) Class 3 - E ( edit ) Class 3 - E ( nicknamed E as in ' End Class ' ) is a subdivision of the Kunugigaoka Junior High School . Class 3 - E is notorious for containing a group of students with naturally low grades . Conventionally , it is composed of twenty eight students who could not either compete with the school 's standard level of study , nor comply with its overly rigid code of discipline , among others who were subjected to some form of unfair punishment . Obligated to attend class in a run down school building , set in a mountain far from the rest of the school 's premises , the students of Class 3 - E are largely discriminated against by the rest of their peers . The students of this class are assigned the mission to assassinate their homeroom teacher , Koro - sensei , for the compensation of ¥ 10 billion ( around 80 million dollars as of July 2015 ) . Aside from such generous reward , some students have other reasons for killing Koro - sensei , which are explained through the story . As time goes on , each student finds his or her own unique killing technique and find themselves becoming more self - confident and happy , while Koro - sensei 's true identity and reasons for becoming their teacher are revealed as the year progresses . Manami Okuda ( 奥田 愛美 , Okuda Manami ) Voiced by : Miho Arakawa ( event anime ) , Sayuri Yahagi ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Felecia Angelle ( English ) Actor portrayal : Miku Uehara She is a student of Class 3 - E who uses aspects of chemistry to her advantage in assassination . Manami is naive , guileless and honest ; when she has hands bottles of poison over to Koro - sensei , she informs him of their intoxication , but begs him to drink them anyway . Manami admits that she is terrible with language and speech and has difficulty to communicate with others due to this . She favors math and chemical formulas because the solutions are precise and unambiguous and deems clever wordplay and analyses of complicated emotions as unnecessary . After Koro - sensei 's lesson , she gradually grasps the concept that the power of language is also important , and not simply science alone . Her first friends are Kanzaki and Kayano . After graduation , she shown to work together with Takebayashi as a scientist , using her knowledge of Koro - sensei 's biology to develop medical breakthroughs . Yukiko Kanzaki ( 神崎 有希子 , Kanzaki Yukiko ) Voiced by : Rina Satō ( event anime ) , Satomi Satō ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Leah Clark ( English ) Actor portrayal : Mio Yūki She is a student of Class 3 - E. Yukiko is diligent and ladylike , and she is popular with her classmates and the most popular girl in the class . She comes from a high - class family that is very strict and demands that she gets only good grades , has good background , and finds a good job . Last year , wanting to runaway from her lifestyle and the issues with her father , she changed her appearance and went to play in arcade games without anyone recognizing her . However , because of her `` playing background '' , she is assigned into Class 3 - E. However , after listening to Koro - sensei 's words , she starts to have confidence in herself for who she is . After graduating , she is seen helping Matsukata , the principal of a local cram school that Class 3 - E helped out . Tomohito Sugino ( 杉野 友人 , Sugino Tomohito ) Voiced by : Yūtarō Honjō ( event anime ) , Yoshitaka Yamaya ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Clifford Chapin ( English ) Actor portrayal : Riku Ichikawa He is one of the students and Nagisa 's best friend . He used to be a baseball player in their school 's baseball club until he was assigned into Class 3 - E , kicking him out of the club . He dreams of becoming a professional baseball player like his idol , Arita , and emulates his techniques to improve his own performance in baseball and is shown to very dedicated to it . He also sometimes uses his baseball techniques in his attempts to kill Koro - sensei . After the baseball tournament exhibition match between the Baseball Club and Class 3 - E , he becomes proper friends with Shindō , and they promise to hopefully face off again in high school , with Sugino musing to himself if Earth is still around by then . He has a crush on Kanzaki . After graduation , he manages to become a professional baseball player . Yūma Isogai ( 磯貝 悠 馬 , Isogai Yūma ) Voiced by : Yūto Uemura ( event anime ) , Ryōta Ōsaka ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Jerry Jewell ( English ) Actor portrayal : Yuuhi Kato Yūma is the class president of Class 3 - E. He is well - liked by his classmates and the ladies who regularly visit the café he works at . He is considered to be an `` Ikemen '' by his classmates , because of his good - looks and his friendly , hard - working and modest personality . He even receives love letters from the students of the main school buildings . He comes from a poor background ; living with his mother , who is suffering from an illness , and a younger brother and sister . To help make ends meet he worked part - time , which is not allowed in their school , hence his demotion to Class 3 - E. Due to his background , he is said to be very versatile with food , able to cook and consume goldfish . His classmates also note how he is able to look stylish , even whilst wearing bargained clothing , further boosting his `` Ikemen '' image . He is also shown to be a good leader , as he was able to lead the Class 3 - E boys to victory against Class 3 - A in the Boutaoshi . Maehara is his best friend since childhood . Ryōma Terasaka ( 寺坂 竜馬 , Terasaka Ryōma ) Voiced by : Subaru Kimura ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Marcus D. Stimac ( English ) Actor portrayal : Ken Sugawara The biggest in Class 3 - E , and leader of his own clique of rebels within it . He is an outcast who thought he could do what he desired while in Class 3 - E , feeling at home with others who had no direction . This all changed with the arrival of Koro - sensei , who gave them something to strive for , and he was frustrated at being left behind . He initially does not care about the assassination , but he changes after being used and deceived by Shiro in a plot to kill Koro - sensei which nearly killed the other students of Class 3 - E. He tries to atone for his past mistakes , as shown when he still joins the others ' infiltration in the island arc and tells Nagisa to not tell anyone that the illness also affected him . He even uses the money from Shiro to buy an expensive Taser to hopefully help with the assassination . Later on , with his group he also heads the attempt to get Itona to let go of his tentacles . He desires to be a politician in the future , and after graduation , his tenacity catches the attention of an important politician , who takes him as his apprentice . Taiga Okajima ( 岡島 大河 , Okajima Taiga ) Voiced by : Takayuki Nakatsukasa ( event anime ) , Ryō Naitō ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Nick Haley ( English ) Actor portrayal : Kouki Osamura The pervert of Class 3 - E. His interests led him to be good at photography . His main assassination strategy tends to involve playing on Koro - sensei 's fondness for women with large breasts , such as using pornography to lure Koro - sensei into danger , or using pornography as a bribe . Masayoshi ( Justice ) Kimura ( 木村 正義 ( ジャスティス ) , Kimura Masayoshi ( Justice ) ) Voiced by : Akihiro Hashida ( event anime ) , Shunsuke Kawabe ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Jean - Luc Hester ( English ) Actor portrayal : Arai Shota The fastest runner of Class 3 - E , even enough to be at an Olympic level . His parents were dedicated workers of the police , so they gave him the name `` Justice '' . He does not like his name so he goes by Masayoshi , another way the kanji `` Justice '' can be read . However , thanks to lessons from Koro - sensei , Masayoshi comes to accept the name his parents gave him . Sōsuke Sugaya ( 菅谷 創介 , Sugaya Sōsuke ) Voiced by : Eiji Miyashita ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Kyle Phillips ( English ) Actor portrayal : Ozawa Guami The artist and disguise specialist of Class 3 - E. His parents were ashamed of his bad grades , as well as his being , in their opinion , unnecessarily good at art , which they did not think would amount to anything for his future . When Koro - sensei replied to his doodles , he felt a sense of acknowledgement and happiness . He finds comfort in the open - mindedness of Koro - sensei and can feel at home in Class 3 - E. After graduation , he becomes an artist working on a large - scale project at a museum . Hiroto Maehara ( 前原 陽 斗 , Maehara Hiroto ) Voiced by : Kenn ( event anime ) , Shintarō Asanuma ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Chris Burnett ( English ) Actor portrayal : Ryunosuke Okada The womanizer in Class 3 - E , Maehara has a carefree personality and believes in just going from one relationship to the next if it does not work out . Isogai is his best friend since childhood . Kōtarō Takebayashi ( 竹林 孝太郎 , Takebayashi Kōtarō ) Voiced by : Takahiro Mizushima ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Scott Hinze ( English ) Actor portrayal : Yoshihara Takuya The anime and maid cafe fan and the bomb specialist of Class 3 - E. Takebayashi is mostly a quiet person . However , he seems somewhat eccentric in his behavior and stands out as the oddball in the class . He also seems to be clumsy at physical activity , having ping pong balls hit his glasses while playing with others and nearly losing balance in one of Tadaomi Karasuma 's lessons . Takebayashi 's family have been doctors for generations . His elder brothers are all in Tokyo University in the medical departments . As such , there is enormous pressure for him to succeed , and he is considered the outcast of the family . He is the only student who decides to leave Class 3 - E for personal reasons . He was nearly deceived by Gakuhō and Gakushū upon leaving the class but he has become motivated in killing after he realized that his old classmates and Koro - sensei still look after him . He eventually returns to Class 3 - E after a bold speech and destroying one of Gakuhō 's possessions from his office . After graduation , he is shown to have become a scientist and is currently working with Manami to create medical breakthroughs based on Koro - sensei 's biology . Ryūnosuke Chiba ( 千葉 龍之介 , Chiba Ryūnosuke ) Voiced by : Junji Majima ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Z. Charles Bolton ( English ) Actor portrayal : Takumi Ooka Chiba is a serious and stoic boy . He is very calm and business - like and does not talk a lot . Like Hayami , he has been compared to a working adult and though the two are very similar , Chiba is shown to be less stoic than Hayami . Chiba is the best marksman among the boys of Class 3 - E. He excels in spatial calculation and as such is unmatched in long distance shooting . His abilities have even earned him the praises of Lovro , a hitman dealer and a retired assassin . Kōki Mimura ( 三村 航 輝 , Mimura Kōki ) Voiced by : Tomohiro Yamaguchi ( event anime ) , Shinya Takahashi ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Joel McDonald ( English ) Actor portrayal : Mikawa Yusae An aspiring movie director , Mimura edited the short film that Class 3 - E used in their plan in the Island Arc , and later directed during the class play . He is secretly passionate about air guitar , which embarrasses him whenever it is brought up . Takuya Muramatsu ( 村松 拓哉 , Muramatsu Takuya ) Voiced by : Takayuki Miyamoto ( event anime ) , Kōki Harasawa ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Eric Cherry ( English ) Actor portrayal : Takao Yuji Noodle specialist , and part of Terasaka 's gang . He is compliant with his father 's bad recipe for noodles for the time being , but knows that his skills can be used to make it much better for when he takes over . One of the best chefs of the class , considering Hara his main rival . After graduation , he continues his father business , along with Yoshida , while studying management in college . Taisei Yoshida ( 吉田 大成 , Yoshida Taisei ) Voiced by : Yoshiyuki Shimozuma ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Orion Pitts ( English ) Actor portrayal : Hasegawa titi Motorbike specialist , and part of Terasaka 's gang . He was born and raised in the motorbike factory . He had not been able to relate with anyone else in Class 3 - E about loving vehicles before , and Koro - sensei uses the `` manly hobby '' as a point to bond with him , but that made him break with Terasaka once . However , he rebuilds a stronger friendship with Terasaka after he changes his attitude . Childhood friend of Hara . After graduation , he also continues his father 's business , along with Muramatsu , while studying management in college . Meg Kataoka ( 片岡 メグ , Kataoka Megu ) Voiced by : Kaori Goto ( event anime ) , Chie Matsuura ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Morgan Garrett , Colleen Clinkenbeard ( Episode 17 Season 2 Broadcast Dub ) ( English ) Actor portrayal : Kanon Miyahara Female class representative . Megu has exceptional talent . She excels in both academics and athletics . She is the best swimmer in Class 3 - E , and trains for an assassination plan involving pulling Koro - sensei into the water , but the plan fails . She is popular with other girls , evidenced by receiving love letters from them , and has the nickname `` Ikemegu '' . Hinata Okano ( 岡野 ひなた , Okano Hinata ) Voiced by : Kanako Hino ( event anime ) , Minami Tanaka ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Didi Archilla ( English ) Actor portrayal : Saki Takahashi Okano excels in knifework and is considered one of the two best out of all the girls in Class 3 - E. Her gymnast background allows her to have unpredictable movements , and she is extremely agile . After graduation , she begins using Class 3 - E 's old campus and the forest surrounding it as a training ground for her university 's athletic club . Hinano Kurahashi ( 倉橋 陽 菜乃 , Kurahashi Hinano ) Voiced by : Ayaka Fukuyama ( event anime ) , Hisako Kanemoto ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Kristen McGuire ( English ) Actor portrayal : Rena Shimura The biologist of Class 3 - E. She is so natural and simple as well as very cute that she is on very good terms with other girls and loved by the boys in Class 3 - E. In the anime , it is shown that she has a crush on Karasuma . After graduation she begins using Class 3 - E 's old campus and surrounding mountainside as a place to take kids on nature trips . Rio Nakamura ( 中村 莉 桜 , Nakamura Rio ) Voiced by : Miho Tabata ( event anime ) , Manami Numakura ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Apphia Yu ( English ) Actor portrayal : Seika Taketomi Class E 's best in English . She likes to tease Nagisa due to his androgynous appearance by having him cross dress as a girl . However , she apologizes to him upon learning his family circumstances . As a child , she had darker hair but dyed it blonde upon reaching middle school . She was called a genius in primary school but because she desired to be `` normal '' like her classmates , she began engaging in constant horseplay to the point that she forgot to study , which caused her once high grades to plummet . She realized the importance of what she lost when she saw her parents ' reaction to her low grades . She admits that she wants to be smart again but she also desires to be like her classmates and that she was able to accomplish this in Class 3 - E , which she is very thankful to Koro - sensei for . However , when Nagisa proposes a plan to help Koro - sensei without the need to kill him , she objects , claiming that her bonds with him are just of an assassin and her target . After graduation , she is last seen hanging out with students at a British university . Rinka Hayami ( 速水 凛 香 , Hayami Rinka ) Voiced by : Miho Morisaki ( event anime ) , Shiho Kawaragi ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Jamie Marchi ( English ) Actor portrayal : Ayano Nichinin Takano Best marksman for the females of Class 3 - E. She is reliable , but because her classmates depended on her too much without her complaining , she neglected her own grades and fell into Class 3 - E. At the beginning of the manga and chapters set before Koro - sensei , she used to not tie her hair . Sumire Hara ( 原 寿 美鈴 , Hara Sumire ) Voiced by : Nozomi Yamane ( event anime ) , Miho Hino ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Michelle Lee ( English ) Actor portrayal : Kaneko Umion The cook with a motherly personality . She wishes to become a housewife in the future . Since she has known Yoshida since she was a child , she is on good terms with Terasaka 's group . Yuzuki Fuwa ( 不破 優 月 , Fuwa Yuzuki ) Voiced by : Kana Ueda ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Kristi Kang ( English ) Actor portrayal : Rena Takeda The manga specialist of Class 3 - E. She is able to use her likes to come up with detective reasoning , and has a good investigative eye . Her excitability makes her enjoy coming up with theories , some of which may be off - mark and sound more fantastic and fictional instead . Other students usually play straight man when she breaks the fourth wall . Tōka Yada ( 矢田 桃花 , Yada Tōka ) Voiced by : Megumi Toda ( event anime ) , Ayaka Suwa ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Michelle Rojas ( English ) Actor portrayal : Arisa Sato The infiltration specialist of Class 3 - E. She is fairly close with Bitch - sensei and takes the most interest in the latter 's stories of past experiences as well as learning the art of infiltration , negotiation , seduction . She is known for having the largest bust in Class 3 - E. She has a crush on Kataoka . Her future goal is to get a job in the business sector . Kirara Hazama ( 狭間 綺羅々 , Hazama Kirara ) Voiced by : Asumi Sakamoto ( event anime ) , Fūko Saitō ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Terri Doty ( English ) Actor portrayal : Okuma Anmi The only female student of Class 3 - E who hangs around with Terasaka 's group . She likes to be surrounded with books so her desired career is to become a librarian . Her mother is into fairytale aesthetics , which is in sharp contrast to her own daughter 's dark tendencies . She enjoys creeping people out on purpose , and seems entertained by the subsequent reactions . She wrote Class 3 - E 's play to ruin the other classes ' moods or appetites on purpose . After graduation , she is seen working at a library . Ritsu ( 律 ) / Autonomous Intelligence Fixed Artillery ( 自律 思考 固定 砲台 , Jiritsu Shikō Kotei Hōdai ) Voiced by : Saki Fujita ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Bryn Apprill ( English ) Actor portrayal : Kanna Hashimoto An artificial intelligence developed by Norway and sent to Class 3 - E as a transfer student to dispose of Koro - sensei , able to learn his movement patterns and perfect her shooting skills in order to eventually kill him . After receiving a few modifications from Koro - sensei , she develops a conscience and becomes friends with the rest of Class 3 - E , who give her a shortened nickname . Thanks to her processing power , she frequently helps with intel gathering and communications and usually interacts with others via a smartphone application developed by her classmates . After graduation , Ritsu enjoys herself traveling through cyberspace and upgrading her code , while providing aid to her former classmates when needed . Itona Horibe ( 堀部 糸 成 , Horibe Itona ) Voiced by : Megumi Ogata ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Ricco Fajardo ( English ) Actor portrayal : Seishirō Katō The second transfer student sent to assassinate Koro - sensei . Previously known as Koro - sensei 's brother ( due to being implanted with the same tentacles that the former possessed ) , he used to possess tentacles that came out of his hair , until they were removed for his safety . He is also revealed to be a member of a family gifted with electronics . However , they were unable to compete and went bankrupt before he ran away once his father disappeared . Initially obsessed with killing Koro - sensei and prodded on by Shiro , he calms down after having his implants removed . He becomes the machinery and electronics expert for Class 3 - E due to his family 's expertise in electronics before going bankrupt . He hangs out with Terasaka 's group as its fifth member , and after graduating high school , returns to his family 's factory , hoping to restore it . When asked what will happen if he falls on hard times again , he plans on relying on Muramutsu and Yoshida to help him restart due to their university studies on management . Class 3 - a ( edit ) Class 3 - A is the class of top students in Kunugigaoka Junior High School . Its five highest ranked students dubbed themselves as Five Virtuosos ( 五 英傑 , Go eiketsu ) . Gakushū Asano ( 浅野 学 秀 , Asano Gakushū ) Voiced by : Mamoru Miyano ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Micah Solusod ( English ) Son of the Board Chairman of Kunugigaoka Junior High School , Gakuhō Asano . He is the clever but arrogant leader of Class 3 - A and also the school 's student council president . Oblivious to Class 3 - E 's secret , has a strained relationship with his father , who only communicates with him in order to teach him something . He acknowledges Class 3 - E as worthy rivals as he claims that they were able to bring out the best in him and his classmates because they themselves were strong . He eventually starts disapproving of the chairman 's methods and intends to rebel against him going so far as to ask Class 3 - E for help by having them beat Class 3 - A completely and fairly during their final exams , which they do . His main rival is Karma , who is the only student on Class 3 - E as gifted as him , and is eventually defeated by him in the final exams . After this , the conversation with Gakuho suggests that their relationship improved to some extent . During graduation , Gakushū renews his rivalry with Karma upon knowing that he will remain at the academy for the High School , and claims that he will eventually force him to reveal the truth behind what happened at Class 3 - E during the course of the year . Teppei Araki ( 荒木 鉄平 , Araki Teppei ) Voiced by : Anri Katsu ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Josh Grelle ( English ) Head of the broadcasting club , specialized in media . Ren Sakakibara ( 榊原 蓮 , Sakakibara Ren ) Voiced by : Kaito Ishikawa ( Japanese ) ; Justin Pate ( English ) The student council secretary , specialized in arts . Natsuhiko Koyama ( 小山 夏彦 , Koyama Natsuhiko ) Voiced by : Teppei Akahira ( Japanese ) ; Aaron Roberts ( English ) Head of the biology club and expert in memorization . Tomoya Seo ( 瀬尾 智也 , Seo Tomoya ) Voiced by : Shun Takagi ( Japanese ) ; David Trosko ( English ) The student assembly chair , specialized in languages . Other students ( edit ) Nobuta Tanaka ( 田中 信太 , Tanaka Nobuta ) and Chōsuke Takada ( 高田 長助 , Takada Chōsuke ) Voiced by : Hiroki Gotō ( Nobuta ) and Masahito Yabe ( Chōsuke ) ( Japanese ) ; Chris Guerrero ( Nobuta ) and Dallas Reid ( Chōsuke ) ( English ) ( TV anime ) Nagisa 's former classmates who are constantly seen poking fun at Class 3 - E . Kazutaka Shindō ( 進藤 一 考 , Shindō Kazutaka ) Voiced by : Takuya Sato ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Christopher Wehkamp ( English ) A student of Class 3 - A and ace of the school 's baseball club that Sugino was once a member of . He previously mocked Sugino 's role in Class 3 - E , but after being beaten by them in a baseball game , he rekindles his friendship with Sugino and helps them out during one of the exams . Ayaka Saitō ( 斎藤 綾香 , Saitō Ayaka ) Portrayed by : Wakana Aoi A student of Class 3 - B and Nagisa 's old friend who exclusively appears in the live - action film . Other characters ( edit ) Lovro Brovski ( ロヴロ ・ ブロフスキ , Roburo Burofuski , Russian : Ловро Бровский ) Voiced by : Takashi Matsuyama ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Kent Williams ( English ) A Russian assassin and the one who trained Irina . He initially comes to Kunugigaoka Junior High School to take Irina back with him , feeling she is not capable of assassinating Koro - sensei , but she manages to prove otherwise . He later returns to help train Class 3 - E , teaching Nagisa a powerful technique to use against his opponents . Red Eye ( レッド アイ , Reddo Ai ) Voiced by : Shin - ichiro Miki ( event anime ) , Taiten Kusunoki ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Robert McCollum ( English ) Actor portrayal : Tsuyoshi Abe A talented sniper who is sent to Kyoto to assassinate Koro - sensei during a school trip . After several failed attempts , he gives up on his target after sharing a hot pot with him . He is later targeted and attacked by the God of Death and left for dead , but is later shown to have recovered . He is shown to have a valid hunting license for any country in the world . Hiromi Shiota ( 潮田 広海 , Shiota Hiromi ) Voiced by : Kotono Mitsuishi ( TV anime ) ( Japanese ) ; Caitlin Glass ( English ) Nagisa 's mother , who was rather strict with Nagisa ; culminating with his insecure personality and effeminate look . After trying to burn down the Class 3 - E building due to Nagisa refusing to transfer to a better school , she relents and begins to reconsider her actions after being rescued by him from an assassin sent to kill Koro - sensei . After Koro - sensei 's death , it is revealed that she reconciled with her husband with help from Koro - sensei . Yūji Norita ( 法 田 勇治 , Norita Yūji ) Voiced by : Ayumu Murase ( Japanese ) ; Aaron Dismuke ( English ) A bored and rich student who met Nagisa at the resort , he initially mistook Nagisa for a girl and fell in love with `` her '' before the latter corrects him later on and inspiring him to be more motivated in life . He is also a renowned food critic online . Rikuto Ikeda ( 池田 陸 翔 , Ikeda Rikuto ) Voiced by : Daiki Yamashita ( Japanese ) ; Bryce Papenbrook ( English ) One of the first three students in Gakuhō Asano 's cram school ten years prior to the Assassination Classroom series . A promising basketball player , he eventually commits suicide due to constant bullying , darkening Asano 's personality as the latter takes revenge against the bullies and becomes more ruthless until meeting Koro - sensei . Mori ( モリ ) Voiced by : Ayaka Nanase ( Japanese ) ; Tia Ballard ( English ) One of the first three students in Gakuhō Asano 's cram school ten years prior to the Assassination Classroom series . She was last seen meeting Asano after the latter begins to pack up upon being forced to resign from his junior high school over a bottle of wine . Nakai ( 中井 ) Voiced by : Gaku Kudō ( Japanese ) ; Stephen Sanders ( English ) One of the first three students in Gakuhō Asano 's cram school ten years prior to the Assassination Classroom series . He was last seen meeting Asano after the latter begins to pack up upon being forced to resign from his junior high school over a bottle of wine . Matsukata ( 松方 ) Voiced by : Kōsei Hirota ( Japanese ) ; R. Bruce Elliott ( English ) The Principal of Wakaba Park Nursery School , he is injured by Class 3 - E while the latter are practicing parkour . They later repay him as an apology by upgrading the daycare center he runs , babysitting the children there , and even donating a portion of the reward for killing Koro - sensei to the nursery . Seven years after Class 3 - E graduates , he is last seen being helped by Kanzaki . Sakura Kiyashiki ( 鬼 屋敷 さくら , Kiyashiki Sakura ) Voiced by : Hibiku Yamamura ( Japanese ) ; Jill Harris ( English ) A young elementary school student , she was constantly bullied at school and so went back to Wakaba Park Nursery School run by Matsukata to avoid interacting with fellow students her age . While she was initially hostile to Class 3 - E , she eventually opened up to Nagisa while the latter becomes her personal tutor . He helps gives her the confidence to go back while she begins to have a crush on him . Seven years after Class 3 - E graduates , she is last seen as a high school student interacting in a more confident manner with her peers . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Assassination Classroom TV Anime Casts Jun Fukuyama , Tomokazu Sugita , Shizuka Itou '' . Anime News Network . 2014 - 09 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : `` Tomokazu Seki Leads Assassination Classroom Anime Cast '' . Anime News Network . September 25 , 2013 . Retrieved November 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Effendi , Sean . `` Live - Action Assassination Classroom Koro - Sensei is Arashi 's Ninomiya Kazunari '' . Kitakubu . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : `` Funimation Announces Assassination Classroom English Dub Cast '' . Anime News Network . Retrieved 20 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cast for live - action ' Assassination Classroom ' revealed - ARAMA ! JAPAN '' . aramajapan.com. 27 August 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Assassination Classroom Anime Casts Nobunaga Shimazaki , Kotono Mitsuishi '' . Anime News Network . February 18 , 2016 . Retrieved February 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Assassination Classroom Cast Announcement '' . FUNimation . Retrieved February 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Looks like @ austintindle & I are rivals again . I 'm voicing Asano in Assassination Classroom . # JustAccordingToKeikaku '' . Twitter . June 4 , 2015 . hide Assassination Classroom by Yūsei Matsui Main articles Chapters Episodes Characters Film Assassination Classroom : Graduation Koro Sensei Quest Related articles J - Stars Victory VS Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Assassination_Classroom_characters&oldid=837344013 '' Categories : Lists of anime and manga characters Assassination Classroom Fictional assassins Hidden categories : Articles containing Japanese - language text Articles containing Serbian - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Articles containing Russian - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2018 , at 07 : 11 ( UTC ) . 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88 | document: United Nations - wikipedia United Nations Jump to : navigation , search For a list of United Nations member states , see Member states of the United Nations . For other uses , see United Nations ( disambiguation ) and UN ( disambiguation ) . United Nations Five other official names ( show ) Arabic : الأمم المتحدة Chinese : 联合国 French : Organisation des Nations unies Russian : Организация Объединённых Наций Spanish : Organización de las Naciones Unidas Flag Emblem Map showing the member states of the United Nations Headquarters New York City ( International territory ) Official languages Arabic Chinese English French Russian Spanish Type Intergovernmental organization Membership 193 member states 2 observer states Leaders Secretary ‐ General António Guterres Deputy Secretary - General Amina J. Mohammed General Assembly President Miroslav Lajčák Economic and Social Council President Marie Chatardová Security Council President Kairat Umarov Establishment UN Charter signed 26 June 1945 ( 72 years ago ) ( 1945 - 06 - 26 ) Charter entered into force 24 October 1945 ( 72 years ago ) ( 1945 - 10 - 24 ) Website www.un.org www.un.int This article contains Arabic text . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks , boxes , or other symbols . The United Nations ( UN ) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international cooperation and to create and maintain international order . A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II with the aim of preventing another such conflict . At its founding , the UN had 51 member states ; there are now 193 . The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan , New York City , and is subject to extraterritoriality . Further main offices are situated in Geneva , Nairobi , and Vienna . The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states . Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security , promoting human rights , fostering social and economic development , protecting the environment , and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine , natural disaster , and armed conflict . The UN is the largest , most familiar , most internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world . The UN Charter was drafted at a conference between April -- June 1945 in San Francisco , and was signed on 26 June 1945 at the conclusion of the conference ; this charter took effect on 24 October 1945 , and the UN began operation . The UN 's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union and their respective allies . The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo , as well as approving the creation of the Israeli state in 1947 . The organization 's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s , and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping . After the end of the Cold War , the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success . The UN has six principal organs : the General Assembly ( the main deliberative assembly ) ; the Security Council ( for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ) ; the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ; for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development ) ; the Secretariat ( for providing studies , information , and facilities needed by the UN ) ; the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ ) ; and the UN Trusteeship Council ( inactive since 1994 ) . UN System agencies include the World Bank Group , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , UNESCO , and UNICEF . The UN 's most prominent officer is the Secretary - General , an office held by Portuguese politician and diplomat António Guterres since 2017 . Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN 's work . The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 , and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize . Other evaluations of the UN 's effectiveness have been mixed . Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development , while others have called the organization ineffective , corrupt , or biased . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 1942 `` Declaration of United Nations '' by the Allies of World War II 1.3 Founding 1.4 Cold War Era 1.5 Post-Cold War 2 Structure 2.1 General Assembly 2.2 Security Council 2.3 Secretariat 2.4 International Court of Justice 2.5 Economic and Social Council 2.6 Specialized agencies 3 Membership 3.1 Group of 77 4 Objectives 4.1 Peacekeeping and security 4.2 Human rights 4.3 Economic development and humanitarian assistance 4.4 Other 5 Funding 6 Evaluations , awards , and criticism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9.1 Citations 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links History Main article : History of the United Nations 1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the UN original three branches : The Four Policemen , an executive branch , and an international assembly of forty UN member states . Background In the century prior to the UN 's creation , several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations , such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War , the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries . This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail , aviation , and opium control , some of which would later be absorbed into the UN . However , the League lacked representation for colonial peoples ( then half the world 's population ) and significant participation from several major powers , including the US , USSR , Germany , and Japan ; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 , the Second Italo - Ethiopian War in 1935 , the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 , and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War . 1942 `` Declaration of United Nations '' by the Allies of World War II Main article : Declaration by United Nations The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939 . The text of the `` Declaration by United Nations '' was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins , while meeting at the White House , 29 December 1941 . It incorporated Soviet suggestions , but left no role for France . `` Four Policemen '' was coined to refer to four major Allied countries , United States , United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and Republic of China , which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations . Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries . `` On New Year 's Day 1942 , President Roosevelt , Prime Minister Churchill , Maxim Litvinov , of the USSR , and T.V. Soong , of China , signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty - two other nations added their signatures . '' The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration . One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom , which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted . By 1 March 1945 , 21 additional states had signed . A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND , THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS , CHINA , AUSTRALIA , BELGIUM , CANADA , COSTA RICA , CUBA , CZECHOSLOVAKIA , DOMINICAN REPUBLIC , EL SALVADOR , GREECE , GUATEMALA , HAITI , HONDURAS , INDIA , LUXEMBOURG , NETHERLANDS , NEW ZEALAND , NICARAGUA , NORWAY , PANAMA , POLAND , SOUTH AFRICA , YUGOSLAVIA The Governments signatory hereto , Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14 , 1941 , known as the Atlantic Charter , Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life , liberty , independence and religious freedom , and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands , and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world , DECLARE : Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources , military or economic , against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war . Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies . The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are , or which may be , rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism . -- The Washington Conference 1941 -- 1942 During the war , `` the United Nations '' became the official term for the Allies . To join , countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis . Founding The UN in 1945 . In light blue , the founding members . In dark blue , protectorates and territories of the founding members . The UN was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Allied Big Four ( the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union and China ) at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 . After months of planning , the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco , 25 April 1945 , attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the UN Charter . `` The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings : Anthony Eden , of Britain , Edward Stettinius , of the United States , T.V. Soong , of China , and Vyacheslav Molotov , of the Soviet Union . At the later meetings , Lord Halifax deputized for Mister Eden , Wellington Koo for T.V. Soong , and Mister Gromyko for Mister Molotov . '' The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945 , upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council -- France , the Republic of China , the Soviet Union , the UK and the U.S. -- and by a majority of the other 46 signatories . The first meetings of the General Assembly , with 51 nations represented , and the Security Council took place in London beginning 10 January 1946 . The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN , and the facility was completed in 1952 . Its site -- like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi -- is designated as international territory . The Norwegian Foreign Minister , Trygve Lie , was elected as the first UN Secretary - General . Cold War era Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active Secretary - General from 1953 until his death in 1961 . Though the UN 's primary mandate was peacekeeping , the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization , generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War . ( A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US - led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea , passed in the absence of the USSR . ) In 1947 , the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine , approving the creation of the state of Israel . Two years later , Ralph Bunche , a UN official , negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict . In 1956 , the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis ; however , the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR 's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country 's revolution . In 1960 , the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo ( UNOC ) , the largest military force of its early decades , to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga , restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964 . While travelling to meet rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict , Dag Hammarskjöld , often named as one of the UN 's most effective Secretaries - General , died in a plane crash ; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . In 1964 , Hammarskjöld 's successor , U Thant , deployed the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus , which would become one of the UN 's longest - running peacekeeping missions . With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s , the organization 's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations . In 1960 alone , 17 new states joined the UN , 16 of them from Africa . On 25 October 1971 , with opposition from the United States , but with the support of many Third World nations , the mainland , communist People 's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan ; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization . Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria , which briefly became a dominant power at the UN . In 1975 , a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution , over strenuous US and Israeli opposition , declaring Zionism to be racism ; the resolution was repealed in 1991 , shortly after the end of the Cold War . With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East , Vietnam , and Kashmir , the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange . By the 1970s , the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget . Post-cold War Kofi Annan , Secretary - General from 1997 to 2006 After the Cold War , the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties , taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades . Between 1988 and 2000 , the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled , and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold . The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War , launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia , and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia . In 1991 , the UN authorized a US - led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Brian Urquhart , Under - Secretary - General from 1971 to 1985 , later described the hopes raised by these successes as a `` false renaissance '' for the organization , given the more troubled missions that followed . Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another , in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous , serious crises within nations such as Somalia , Haiti , Mozambique , and the former Yugoslavia . The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu , and the UN mission to Bosnia faced `` worldwide ridicule '' for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing . In 1994 , the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan genocide amid indecision in the Security Council . Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War , American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption . In 1984 , the US President , Ronald Reagan , withdrew his nation 's funding from UNESCO ( the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , founded 1946 ) over allegations of mismanagement , followed by Britain and Singapore . Boutros Boutros - Ghali , Secretary - General from 1992 to 1996 , initiated a reform of the Secretariat , reducing the size of the organization somewhat . His successor , Kofi Annan ( 1997 -- 2006 ) , initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues . In the late 1990s and 2000s , international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms . The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991 -- 2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines , and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003 , the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization , prompting a new round of questioning of the organization 's effectiveness . Under the eighth Secretary - General , Ban Ki - moon , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War . In 2013 , an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered `` systemic failure '' . One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the worst loss of life in the organization 's history . The Millennium Summit was held in 2000 to discuss the UN 's role in the 21st century . The three day meeting was the largest gathering of world leaders in history , and culminated in the adoption by all member states of the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) , a commitment to achieve international development in areas such as poverty reduction , gender equality , and public health . Progress towards these goals , which were to be met by 2015 , was ultimately uneven . The 2005 World Summit reaffirmed the UN 's focus on promoting development , peacekeeping , human rights , and global security . The Sustainable Development Goals were launched in 2015 to succeed the Millennium Development Goals . In addition to addressing global challenges , the UN has sought to improve its accountability and democratic legitimacy by engaging more with civil society and fostering a global constituency . In an effort to enhance transparency , in 2016 the organization held its first public debate between candidates for Secretary - General . On January 1 , 2017 , Portuguese diplomat António Guterres , who previously served as UN High Commissioner for Refugees , became the ninth Secretary - General . Guterres has highlighted several key goals for his administration , including an emphasis on diplomacy for preventing conflicts , more effective peacekeeping efforts , and streamlining the organization to be more responsive and versatile to global needs . Structure Main article : United Nations System The UN system is based on five principal organs : the General Assembly , the Security Council , the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) , the Secretariat , and the International Court of Justice . A sixth principal organ , the Trusteeship Council , suspended operations in 1994 , upon the independence of Palau , the last remaining UN trustee territory . Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City . The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague , while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi . Other UN institutions are located throughout the world . The six official languages of the UN , used in intergovernmental meetings and documents , are Arabic , Chinese , English , French , Russian , and Spanish . On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations , the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate , safeguarding the UN 's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries . Below the six organs sit , in the words of the author Linda Fasulo , `` an amazing collection of entities and organizations , some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it '' . These include specialized agencies , research and training institutions , programmes and funds , and other UN entities . The UN obey the Noblemaire principle , which is binding on any organization that belongs to the UN system . This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest , and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee 's nationality . In practice , the ICSC takes reference to the highest - paying national civil service . Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations . Principal organs of the United Nations UN General Assembly -- Deliberative assembly of all UN member states -- UN Secretariat -- Administrative organ of the UN -- International Court of Justice -- Universal court for international law -- May resolve non-compulsory recommendations to states or suggestions to the Security Council ( UNSC ) ; Decides on the admission of new members , following proposal by the UNSC ; Adopts the budget ; Elects the non-permanent members of the UNSC ; all members of ECOSOC ; the UN Secretary General ( following his / her proposal by the UNSC ) ; and the fifteen judges of the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) . Each country has one vote . Supports the other UN bodies administratively ( for example , in the organization of conferences , the writing of reports and studies and the preparation of the budget ) ; Its chairperson -- the UN Secretary General -- is elected by the General Assembly for a five - year mandate and is the UN 's foremost representative . Decides disputes between states that recognize its jurisdiction ; Issues legal opinions ; Renders judgement by relative majority . Its fifteen judges are elected by the UN General Assembly for nine - year terms . UN Security Council -- For international security issues -- UN Economic and Social Council -- For global economical and social affairs -- UN Trusteeship Council -- For administering trust territories ( currently inactive ) -- Responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security ; May adopt compulsory resolutions ; Has fifteen members : five permanent members with veto power and ten elected members . Responsible for co-operation between states as regards economic and social matters ; Co-ordinates co-operation between the UN 's numerous specialized agencies ; Has 54 members , elected by the General Assembly to serve staggered three - year mandates . Was originally designed to manage colonial possessions that were former League of Nations mandates ; Has been inactive since 1994 , when Palau , the last trust territory , attained independence . General Assembly Main article : United Nations General Assembly Mikhail Gorbachev , Soviet general secretary , addresses the UN General Assembly in December 1988 . The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the UN . Composed of all UN member states , the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions , but emergency sessions can also be called . The assembly is led by a president , elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis , and 21 vice-presidents . The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations . When the General Assembly votes on important questions , a two - thirds majority of those present and voting is required . Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security ; election of members to organs ; admission , suspension , and expulsion of members ; and budgetary matters . All other questions are decided by a majority vote . Each member country has one vote . Apart from approval of budgetary matters , resolutions are not binding on the members . The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN , except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council . Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by its six main committees : First Committee ( Disarmament and International Security ) Second Committee ( Economic and Financial ) Third Committee ( Social , Humanitarian , and Cultural ) Fourth Committee ( Special Political and Decolonization ) Fifth Committee ( Administrative and Budgetary Sixth Committee ( Legal ) As well as by the following two committees : General Committee -- a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly 's president , vice-president , and committee heads . Credentials Committee -- responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation 's UN representatives . Security Council Main article : United Nations Security Council Colin Powell , the US Secretary of State , demonstrates a vial with alleged Iraqi chemical weapon probes to the UN Security Council on Iraq war hearings , 5 February 2003 The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries . While other organs of the UN can only make `` recommendations '' to member states , the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out , under the terms of Charter Article 25 . The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions . The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states , consisting of five permanent members -- China , France , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States -- and ten non-permanent members elected for two - year terms by the General Assembly ( with end of term date ) -- Bolivia ( term ends 2018 ) , Egypt ( 2017 ) , Ethiopia ( 2018 ) , Italy ( 2018 ) , Japan ( 2017 ) , Kazakhstan ( 2018 ) , Senegal ( 2017 ) , Sweden ( 2018 ) , Ukraine ( 2017 ) , Uruguay ( 2017 ) . The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions , allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution , though not debate . The ten temporary seats are held for two - year terms , with five member states per year voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis . The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month . Secretariat Main articles : United Nations Secretariat and Secretary - General of the United Nations The UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary - General , assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide . It provides studies , information , and facilities needed by UN bodies for their meetings . It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council , the General Assembly , the Economic and Social Council , and other UN bodies . The current Secretary - General , António Guterres The Secretary - General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN . The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization 's `` chief administrative officer '' . Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary - General can bring to the Security Council 's attention `` any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security '' , a phrase that Secretaries - General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage . The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues . The Secretary - General is appointed by the General Assembly , after being recommended by the Security Council , where the permanent members have veto power . There are no specific criteria for the post , but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years . The current Secretary - General is António Guterres , who replaced Ban Ki - moon in 2017 . Secretaries - General of the United Nations No . Name Country of origin Took office Left office Note Trygve Lie Norway 2 February 1946 10 November 1952 Resigned Dag Hammarskjöld Sweden 10 April 1953 18 September 1961 Died in office U Thant Burma 30 November 1961 31 December 1971 Kurt Waldheim Austria 1 January 1972 31 December 1981 5 Javier Pérez de Cuéllar Peru 1 January 1982 31 December 1991 6 Boutros Boutros - Ghali Egypt 1 January 1992 31 December 1996 7 Kofi Annan Ghana 1 January 1997 31 December 2006 8 Ban Ki - moon South Korea 1 January 2007 31 December 2016 9 António Guterres Portugal 1 January 2017 -- International Court of Justice Main article : International Court of Justice The court had ruled that Kosovo 's unilateral declaration of independence from Serbia in 2008 did not violate international law The International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , located in The Hague , in the Netherlands , is the primary judicial organ of the UN . Established in 1945 by the UN Charter , the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice . The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9 - year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly ; every sitting judge must be from a different nation . It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague , sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law , a private centre for the study of international law . The ICJ 's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states . The court has heard cases related to war crimes , illegal state interference , ethnic cleansing , and other issues . The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions . Economic and social Council Main article : United Nations Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co-operation and development . ECOSOC has 54 members , which are elected by the General Assembly for a three - year term . The president is elected for a one - year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC . The council has one annual meeting in July , held in either New York or Geneva . Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co-ordinates , ECOSOC 's functions include information gathering , advising member nations , and making recommendations . Owing to its broad mandate of co-ordinating many agencies , ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant . ECOSOC 's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples ; the United Nations Forum on Forests , which co-ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management ; the United Nations Statistical Commission , which co-ordinates information - gathering efforts between agencies ; and the Commission on Sustainable Development , which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working towards sustainable development . ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations ; by 2004 , more than 2,200 organizations had received this status . Specialized agencies Main article : List of specialized agencies of the United Nations The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the United Nations can establish various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties . Some best - known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Food and Agriculture Organization , UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) , the World Bank , and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) . The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies . Examples include mass vaccination programmes ( through WHO ) , the avoidance of famine and malnutrition ( through the work of the WFP ) , and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people ( for example , by UNHCR ) . Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations No . Acronym Agency Headquarters Head Established in FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Rome , Italy José Graziano da Silva 1945 IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna , Austria Yukiya Amano 1957 ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization Montreal , Quebec , Canada Fang Liu 1947 IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development Rome , Italy Kanayo F. Nwanze 1977 5 ILO International Labour Organization Geneva , Switzerland Guy Ryder 1946 ( 1919 ) 6 IMO International Maritime Organization London , United Kingdom Kitack Lim 1948 7 IMF International Monetary Fund Washington , D.C. , United States Christine Lagarde 1945 ( 1944 ) 8 ITU International Telecommunication Union Geneva , Switzerland Houlin Zhao 1947 ( 1865 ) 9 UNESCO United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization Paris , France Irina Bokova 1946 10 UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization Vienna , Austria Li Yong 1967 11 UNWTO World Tourism Organization Madrid , Spain Taleb Rifai 12 UPU Universal Postal Union Bern , Switzerland Bishar Abdirahman Hussein 1947 ( 1874 ) 13 WBG World Bank Group Washington , D.C. , United States Jim Y. Kim 1945 ( 1944 ) 14 WFP World Food Programme Rome , Italy Ertharin Cousin 1963 15 WHO World Health Organization Geneva , Switzerland Tedros Adhanom 1948 16 WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization Geneva , Switzerland Francis Gurry 17 WMO World Meteorological Organization Geneva , Switzerland Petteri Taalas ( Secretary - General ) Michel Jarraud ( President ) 1950 ( 1873 ) Membership Main article : Member states of the United Nations Map of the current UN member states by their dates of admission . 1945 ( original members ) 1946 -- 1959 1960 -- 1989 1990 -- present non-member observer states With the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011 , there are 193 UN member states , including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City . The UN Charter outlines the rules for membership : Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace - loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and , in the judgment of the Organization , are able and willing to carry out these obligations . The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council . Chapter II , Article 4 . In addition , there are two non-member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly : the Holy See ( which holds sovereignty over Vatican City ) and the State of Palestine . The Cook Islands and Niue , both states in free association with New Zealand , are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their `` full treaty - making capacity '' recognized by the Secretariat . Group of 77 Main article : Group of 77 The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations , designed to promote its members ' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the UN . Seventy - seven nations founded the organization , but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries . The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the `` Joint Declaration of the Seventy - Seven Countries '' issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) . The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967 , where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures . Objectives Peacekeeping and Security Main articles : United Nations peacekeeping and List of United Nations peacekeeping missions Bolivian `` Blue Helmet '' at an exercise in Chile , 21 October 2002 The UN , after approval by the Security Council , sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities . Since the UN does not maintain its own military , peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states . These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed `` Blue Helmets '' for their distinctive gear . The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 . In September 2013 , the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions . The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( MONUSCO ) , which included 20,688 uniformed personnel . The smallest , United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan ( UNMOGIP ) , included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir . UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization ( UNTSO ) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948 , the longest - running active peacekeeping mission . A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts . It compared efforts at nation - building by the UN to those of the United States , and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace , as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace . Also in 2005 , the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars , genocides , and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War , and presented evidence , albeit circumstantial , that international activism -- mostly spearheaded by the UN -- has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period . Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War ( 1950 -- 53 ) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War ( 1990 -- 91 ) . UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus was established in 1974 following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus . The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures . In many cases , member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions . Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971 , the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s , and the Rwandan genocide in 1994 . Similarly , UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992 -- 93 during the Somali Civil War . UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape , soliciting prostitutes , and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Haiti , Liberia , Sudan and what is now South Sudan , Burundi , and Ivory Coast . Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the 2010 -- 13 Haiti cholera outbreak , which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake . In addition to peacekeeping , the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament . Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation . The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter , resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for `` the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction '' . The UN has been involved with arms - limitation treaties , such as the Outer Space Treaty ( 1967 ) , the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ( 1968 ) , the Seabed Arms Control Treaty ( 1971 ) , the Biological Weapons Convention ( 1972 ) , the Chemical Weapons Convention ( 1992 ) , and the Ottawa Treaty ( 1997 ) , which prohibits landmines . Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues : the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons , and the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission . Human rights One of the UN 's primary purposes is `` promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race , sex , language , or religion '' , and member states pledge to undertake `` joint and separate action '' to protect these rights . Eleanor Roosevelt with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Spanish , 1949 In 1948 , the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights , drafted by a committee headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's widow , Eleanor , and including the French lawyer René Cassin . The document proclaims basic civil , political , and economic rights common to all human beings , though its effectiveness towards achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting . The Declaration serves as a `` common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations '' rather than a legally binding document , but it has become the basis of two binding treaties , the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . In practice , the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution , though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses . In 1979 , the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women , followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 . With the end of the Cold War , the push for human rights action took on new impetus . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN , following the recommendation of that year 's World Conference on Human Rights . Jacques Fomerand , a scholar of the UN , describes this organization 's mandate as `` broad and vague '' , with only `` meagre '' resources to carry it out . In 2006 , it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting of 47 nations . Also in 2006 , the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples , and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT people . Other UN bodies responsible for women 's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the Status of Women , a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946 ; the United Nations Development Fund for Women , created in 1976 ; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women , founded in 1979 . The UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples , held its first session in 2002 . Economic development and humanitarian assistance Millennium Development Goals Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Achieve universal primary education Promote gender equality and empower women Reduce child mortality Improve maternal health Combat HIV / AIDS , malaria , and other diseases Ensure environmental sustainability Develop a global partnership for development Another primary purpose of the UN is `` to achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic , social , cultural , or humanitarian character '' . Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal , primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC . In 2000 , the 192 UN member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goals by 2015 . The UN Development Programme ( UNDP ) , an organization for grant - based technical assistance founded in 1945 , is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development . The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index , a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty , literacy , education , life expectancy , and other factors . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) , also founded in 1945 , promotes agricultural development and food security . UNICEF ( the United Nations Children 's Fund ) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the Convention on the Rights of the Child . Three former directors of the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated , 1980 The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) are independent , specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework , according to a 1947 agreement . They were initially formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944 . The World Bank provides loans for international development , while the IMF promotes international economic co-operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries . In Jordan , UNHCR remains responsible for the Syrian refugees and the Zaatari refugee camp The World Health Organization ( WHO ) , which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication , is another of the UN 's largest agencies . In 1980 , the agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had been completed . In subsequent decades , WHO largely eradicated polio , river blindness , and leprosy . The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) , begun in 1996 , co-ordinates the organization 's response to the AIDS epidemic . The UN Population Fund , which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV , is the world 's largest source of funding for reproductive health and family planning services . Along with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , the UN often takes a leading role in co-ordinating emergency relief . The World Food Programme ( WFP ) , created in 1961 , provides food aid in response to famine , natural disasters , and armed conflict . The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year . The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) , established in 1950 , works to protect the rights of refugees , asylum seekers , and stateless people . UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments , corporations , and individuals , though the UNHCR 's administrative costs are paid for by the UN 's primary budget . Other Since the UN 's creation , over 80 colonies have attained independence . The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers . The UN works towards decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization , created in 1962 . The committee lists seventeen remaining `` Non-Self - Governing Territories '' , the largest and most populous of which is Western Sahara . Beginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme ( UNEP ) in 1972 , the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda . A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which sought to give new impetus to these efforts . In 1988 , the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , another UN organization , established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which assesses and reports on research on global warming . The UN-sponsored Kyoto Protocol , signed in 1997 , set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states . The UN also declares and co-ordinates international observances , periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern . Examples include World Tuberculosis Day , Earth Day , and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification . Funding Top 25 contributors to the United Nations budget for 2016 Member state Contribution ( % of UN budget ) United States 22.000 Japan 9.680 China 7.921 Germany 6.389 France 4.859 United Kingdom 4.463 Brazil 3.823 Italy 3.748 Russia 3.088 Canada 2.921 Spain 2.443 Australia 2.337 South Korea 2.039 Netherlands 1.482 Mexico 1.435 Saudi Arabia 1.146 Switzerland 1.140 Turkey 1.018 Sweden 0.956 Argentina 0.892 Belgium 0.885 Norway 0.849 Poland 0.841 India 0.737 Other member states 12.908 The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states . The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member . This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay , as measured by its gross national income ( GNI ) , with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income . The two - year budget for 2012 -- 13 was $5.512 billion in total . The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations . Thus , there is a `` ceiling '' rate , setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget . In December 2000 , the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States . As part of that revision , the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25 % to 22 % . For the least developed countries ( LDCs ) , a ceiling rate of 0.01 % is applied . In addition to the ceiling rates , the minimum amount assessed to any member nation ( or `` floor '' rate ) is set at 0.001 % of the UN budget ( $55,120 for the two year budget 2013 -- 2014 ) . A large share of the UN 's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security , and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget . The peacekeeping budget for the 2015 -- 16 fiscal year was $8.27 billion , supporting 82,318 troops deployed in 15 missions around the world . UN peace operations are funded by assessments , using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members , who must approve all peacekeeping operations . This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries . In 2017 , the top 8 providers of assessed financial contributions to UN peacekeeping operations were the United States ( 28.47 % ) , China ( 10.25 % ) , Japan ( 9.68 % ) , Germany ( 6.39 % ) , France ( 6.28 % ) , United Kingdom ( 5.77 % ) , Russian Federation ( 3.99 % ) and Italy ( 3.75 % ) . Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget , such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme , are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments , corporations , and private individuals . Evaluations , awards , and criticism Main articles : Reform of the United Nations and Reform of the United Nations Security Council See also : Criticism of the United Nations 2001 Nobel Peace Prize to the UN -- diploma in the lobby of the UN Headquarters in New York City A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work . Two Secretaries - General , Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan , were each awarded the prize ( in 1961 and 2001 , respectively ) , as were Ralph Bunche ( 1950 ) , a UN negotiator , René Cassin ( 1968 ) , a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull ( 1945 ) , the latter for his role in the organization 's founding . Lester B. Pearson , the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs , was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN 's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis . UNICEF won the prize in 1965 , the International Labour Organization in 1969 , the UN Peace - Keeping Forces in 1988 , the International Atomic Energy Agency ( which reports to the UN ) in 2005 , and the UN-supported Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013 . The UN High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981 , becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice . The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001 , sharing it with Annan . To mark the UN 's 70th anniversary -- Budapest , 2015 Since its founding , there have been many calls for reform of the UN but little consensus on how to do so . Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs , while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work . There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council 's membership to be increased , for different ways of electing the UN 's Secretary - General , and for a UN Parliamentary Assembly . Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is `` the North -- South split '' between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations . Southern nations tend to favour a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly , allowing them a greater voice in world affairs , while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez - faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism . After World War II , the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France , and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization . The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN , famously calling it a machin ( `` contraption '' ) , and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace , preferring direct defence treaties between countries . Throughout the Cold War , both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favouring the other . In 1953 , the USSR effectively forced the resignation of Trygve Lie , the Secretary - General , through its refusal to deal with him , while in the 1950s and 1960s , a popular US bumper sticker read , `` You ca n't spell communism without U.N. '' In a sometimes - misquoted statement , President George W. Bush stated in February 2003 ( referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime ) that `` free nations will not allow the UN to fade into history as an ineffective , irrelevant debating society . '' In contrast , the French President , François Hollande , stated in 2012 that `` France trusts the United Nations . She knows that no state , no matter how powerful , can solve urgent problems , fight for development and bring an end to all crises ... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance . '' Critics such as Dore Gold , an Israeli diplomat , Robert S. Wistrich , a British scholar , Alan Dershowitz , an American legal scholar , Mark Dreyfus , an Australian politician , and the Anti-Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel 's treatment of Palestinians to be excessive . In September 2015 , Saudi Arabia 's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the UN Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts , a move criticized by human rights groups . Since 1971 , the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) has been excluded from the UN and since then has always been rejected in new applications . Citizens of this country are also not allowed to enter the buildings of the United Nations with the passport of Taiwan . In this way , critics agree that the UN is failing its own development goals and guidelines . This criticism also brought pressure from the People 's Republic of China , which regards the territories administered by Taiwan as their own territory . Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency , waste , and corruption . In 1976 , the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system . During the 1990s , the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced . In 1994 , the Office of Internal Oversight Services ( OIOS ) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog . In 1994 , former Special Representative of the Secretary - General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published `` Somalia : The Missed Opportunities '' , a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia , showing that , between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991 , the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies ; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance , they were totally outperformed by NGOs , whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN 's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies . If radical reform was not undertaken , warned Mohamed Sahnoun , then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation . In 2004 , the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil - for - Food Programme -- in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions -- had suffered from widespread corruption , including billions of dollars of kickbacks . An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved , as well as raising `` significant '' questions about the role of Kojo Annan , the son of Kofi Annan . In evaluating the UN as a whole , Jacques Fomerand writes that the `` accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms . Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions . '' Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN 's history , the author Stanley Meisler writes that `` the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders , but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless '' , citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts . The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks , `` when all its aspects are considered , the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring benefits to our children 's and grandchildren 's generations as well . '' See also United Nations portal International relations portal International relations List of current Permanent Representatives to the United Nations Model United Nations United Nations in popular culture United Nations television film series World Summit on the Information Society List of country groupings List of multilateral free - trade agreements United Nations Memorial Cemetery Notes Jump up ^ This map does not represent the view of its members or the UN concerning the legal status of any country , nor does it accurately reflect which areas ' governments have UN representation . This map shows partially recognized states such as Kosovo or Taiwan as part of their claiming governments ( Serbia and China respectively ) Jump up ^ Roosevelt suggested the name as an alternative to the name `` Associated Powers . '' The British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , accepted it , noting that the phase was used by Lord Byron in the poem Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage ( Stanza 35 ) . Jump up ^ Poland had not been represented among the fifty nations at the San Francisco conference due to the reluctance of the Western superpowers to recognize its post-war communist government . However , the Charter was later amended to list Poland as a founding member , and Poland ratified the Charter on 16 October 1945 . Jump up ^ For details on Vatican City 's status , see Holy See and the United Nations . References Citations Jump up ^ `` The World Today '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 18 June 2009 . The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country Jump up ^ Official Languages , www.un.org . Retrieved 22 May 2015 . Jump up ^ http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/international-organization/ , www.nationalgeographic.org . Retrieved 27 April 2017 ^ Jump up to : `` Charter of the United Nations United Nations '' . www.un.org . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` History of the United Nations United Nations '' . www.un.org . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 29 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2007 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2007 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2007 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2007 , pp. 13 -- 24 . Jump up ^ Hoopes & Brinkley 2000 , pp. 1 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Urquhart , Brian . Looking for the Sheriff . New York Review of Books , July 16 , 1998 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` 1942 : Declaration of The United Nations '' . United Nations . Retrieved 1 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Roll , David ( 4 January 2013 ) . The Hopkins Touch : Harry Hopkins and the Forging of the Alliance to Defeat Hitler . pp. 172 -- 175 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 13 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Sherwood 1948 , pp. 447 -- 453 . Jump up ^ Osmańczyk 2004 , p. 2445 . Jump up ^ Schlesinger 2003 . 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Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 115 -- 134 . Jump up ^ See Meisler , p. 76 ; Kennedy , p. 60 ; Fasulo , pp. 17 , 20 Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 127 -- 128 , 134 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 156 -- 157 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 195 -- 197 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 208 -- 210 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 204 -- 226 , 213 , 220 -- 221 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 167 -- 168 , 224 -- 225 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , p. 286 . Jump up ^ `` Is China contributing to the United Nations ' mission ? '' . CSIS China Power . Jump up ^ Fasulo , p. 43 ; Meisler , p. 334 Jump up ^ Renner , Michael . `` Peacekeeping Operations Expenditures : 1947 -- 2005 '' ( PDF ) . Global Policy Forum . Jump up ^ Meisler , pp. 252 -- 56 Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , pp. 264 -- 277 . Jump up ^ Meisler 1995 , p. 334 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2007 , pp. 66 -- 67 . 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These questions shall include : recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security , the election of the non-permanent members of the Security Council , the election of the members of the Economic and Social Council , the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in accordance with paragraph 1 c of Article 86 of the Charter , the admission of new Members to the United Nations , the suspension of the rights and privileges of membership , the expulsion of Members , questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system , and budgetary questions . Jump up ^ Fasulo 2004 , pp. 70 -- 73 . ^ Jump up to : `` United Nations Charter : Chapter V '' . United Nations . Retrieved 2 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Fasulo 2004 , pp. 39 -- 43 . Jump up ^ `` Members of the United Nations Security Council '' . United Nations . Retrieved 29 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Fasulo 2004 , pp. 40 -- 41 . Jump up ^ `` Security Council Presidency in 2017 '' . United Nations . 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Genocide : A Reference Handbook . Contemporary World Issues . Santa Barbara , California : ABC - CLIO . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59884 - 488 - 7 . Coulon , Jocelyn ( 1998 ) . Soldiers of Diplomacy : The United Nations , Peacekeeping , and the New World Order . University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8020 - 0899 - 2 . Fasulo , Linda ( 2004 ) . An Insider 's Guide to the UN . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 10155 - 3 . Fomerand , Jacques ( 2009 ) . The A to Z of the United Nations . Lanham , Maryland : Scarecrow Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8108 - 5547 - 2 . Gold , Dore ( 2004 ) . Tower of Babble : How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos . New York : Crown Forum . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 5475 - 6 . Grant , Thomas D. ( 2009 ) . Admission to the United Nations : Charter Article 4 and the Rise of Universal Organization . Legal Aspects of International Organization . 50 . Leiden , Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . ISBN 978 - 900417363 - 7 . ISSN 0924 - 4883 . Hoopes , Townsend ; Brinkley , Douglas ( 2000 ) ( 1997 ) . FDR and the Creation of the U.N . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 08553 - 2 . Kennedy , Paul ( 2007 ) ( 2006 ) . The Parliament of Man : The Past , Present , and Future of the United Nations . New York : Random House . ISBN 978 - 0 - 375 - 70341 - 6 . Manchester , William ; Reid , Paul ( 2012 ) . The Last Lion : Winston Spencer Churchill . Volume 3 : Defender of the Realm , 1940 -- 1965 . New York : Little Brown and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 54770 - 3 . Meisler , Stanley ( 1995 ) . United Nations : The First Fifty Years . New York : Atlantic Monthly Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87113 - 616 - 9 . Mires , Charlene ( 2013 ) . Capital of the World : The Race to Host the United Nations . New York University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8147 - 0794 - 4 . Osmańczyk , Edmund Jan ( 2004 ) . Mango , Anthony , ed . Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. 4 . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 93924 - 9 . Schlesinger , Stephen C. ( 2003 ) . Act of Creation : The Founding of the United Nations : A Story of Super Powers , Secret Agents , Wartime Allies and Enemies , and Their Quest for a Peaceful World . Boulder , Colorado : Westview Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8133 - 3324 - 3 . Sherwood , Robert E. ( 1948 ) . Roosevelt and Hopkins : An Intimate History . New York : Harper and Brothers . Weiss , Thomas G. ; Daws , Sam , eds. ( 2009 ) ( 2007 ) . The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 956010 - 3 . Wistrich , Robert S. ( 2010 ) . A Lethal Obsession : Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad . New York : Random House . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 6097 - 9 . Further reading Lowe , Vaughan ; Roberts , Adam ; Welsh , Jennifer ; Zaum , Dominik , eds. ( 2008 ) . The United Nations Security Council and War : The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 953343 - 5 . Roberts , Adam ; Kingsbury , Benedict , eds. ( 1994 ) . United Nations , Divided World : The UN 's Roles in International Relations ( 2nd ed . ) . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 827926 - 6 . 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89 | document: Messerschmitt Bf 109 - wikipedia Messerschmitt Bf 109 Jump to : navigation , search Bf 109 A Hispano Aviación HA - 1112 ( c / n 156 C. 4K - 87 ( D - FMBB ) , `` FM + BB '' ) , a license - built Messerschmitt Bf 109 G - 2 . Rebuilt by the EADS / Messerschmitt Foundation , Germany with a Daimler - Benz DB 605 engine as a G - 6 . The paint scheme is missing the Swastika , due to German law . Role Fighter Manufacturer Bayerische Flugzeugwerke ( BFW ) Messerschmitt AG Designer Willy Messerschmitt , Robert Lusser First flight 29 May 1935 Introduction February 1937 Retired 9 May 1945 , Luftwaffe 27 December 1965 , Spanish Air Force Primary users Luftwaffe Hungarian Air Force Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana Royal Romanian Air Force Number built 33,984 + 239 HA - 1112 + 603 Avia S - 199 Variants Avia S - 99 / S - 199 Hispano Aviacion Ha 1112 Bf 109E - 4 / Trop of JG 27 off the North African coast , mid-1941 The Messerschmitt Bf 109 is a German World War II fighter aircraft that was the backbone of the Luftwaffe 's fighter force . The Bf 109 first saw operational service in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War and was still in service at the dawn of the jet age at the end of World War II in 1945 . It was one of the most advanced fighters of the era , including such features as all - metal monocoque construction , a closed canopy , and retractable landing gear . It was powered by a liquid - cooled , inverted - V12 aero engine . From the end of 1941 , the Bf 109 was steadily being supplemented by the Focke - Wulf Fw 190 . It was commonly called the Me 109 , most often by Allied aircrew and even among the German aces themselves , even though this was not the official German designation . The designation `` Messerschmitt Bf 109 '' was issued by the Ministry of Aviation ( German : Reichsluftfahrtministerium ) and represents the firm that originally built them , the `` Bavarian Aircraft Works '' , or Bayerische Flugzeugwerke ( BFW ) in German . The confusion arises because design work began in 1934 at the BFW firm and , as was customary , the model was designated by the prefix Bf . On July 11 , 1938 the company was renamed Messerschmitt AG due to Willy Messerschmitt becoming its new owner , and the prefix Me was applied to all new models after that date , whilst existing types retained their Bf prefix . It was designed by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser , who worked at Bayerische Flugzeugwerke during the early to mid-1930s . Whilst the 109 was conceived as an interceptor , later models were developed to fulfill multiple tasks , serving as bomber escort , fighter - bomber , day - , night - , all - weather fighter , ground - attack aircraft , and as reconnaissance aircraft . It was supplied to and operated by several states during World War II , and served with several countries for many years after the war . The Bf 109 is the most produced fighter aircraft in history , with a total of 33,984 airframes produced from 1936 up to April 1945 . The Bf 109 was flown by the three top - scoring German fighter aces of World War II , who claimed 928 victories among them while flying with Jagdgeschwader 52 , mainly on the Eastern Front . The highest scoring fighter ace of all time , Erich Hartmann , flew the Bf 109 and was credited with 352 aerial victories . The aircraft was also flown by Hans - Joachim Marseille , the highest - scoring German ace in the North African Campaign , who achieved 158 aerial victories . It was also flown by several other aces from Germany 's allies , notably Finn Ilmari Juutilainen , the highest scoring non-German ace on the type , and pilots from Italy , Romania , Croatia , Bulgaria and Hungary . Through constant development , the Bf 109 remained competitive with the latest Allied fighter aircraft until the end of the war . Contents ( hide ) 1 Design and development 1.1 Origins 1.2 Prototypes 1.3 Design competition 1.4 Design features 1.5 Armament and gondola cannons 1.6 Designation and nicknames 1.7 Record - setting flights 2 Variants 3 Production 4 Operational history 5 Operators 6 Surviving aircraft 7 Specifications ( Bf 109 G - 6 ) 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Citations 9.3 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Design and development ( edit ) Origins ( edit ) During 1933 , the Technisches Amt ( C - Amt ) , the technical department of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM ) ( `` Reich Aviation Ministry '' ) , concluded a series of research projects into the future of air combat . The result of the studies was four broad outlines for future aircraft : Rüstungsflugzeug I for a multi-seat medium bomber Rüstungsflugzeug II for a tactical bomber Rüstungsflugzeug III for a single - seat fighter Rüstungsflugzeug IV for a two - seat heavy fighter Play media Bf 109 in flight Rüstungsflugzeug III was intended to be a short range interceptor , replacing the Arado Ar 64 and Heinkel He 51 biplanes then in service . In late March 1933 the RLM published the tactical requirements for a single - seat fighter in the document L.A. 1432 / 33 . The fighter needed to have a top speed of 400 km / h ( 250 mph ) at 6,000 m ( 19,690 ft ) , to be maintained for 20 minutes , while having a total flight duration of 90 minutes . The critical altitude of 6,000 metres was to be reached in no more than 17 minutes , and the fighter was to have an operational ceiling of 10,000 metres. Power was to be provided by the new Junkers Jumo 210 engine of about 522 kW ( 700 hp ) . It was to be armed with either a single 20 mm MG C / 30 engine - mounted cannon firing through the propeller hub as a Motorkanone , or two engine cowl - mounted 7.92 mm (. 312 in ) MG 17 machine guns , or one lightweight engine - mounted 20 mm MG FF cannon with two 7.92 mm MG 17s . The MG C / 30 was an airborne adaption of the 2 cm FlaK 30 anti-aircraft gun , which fired very powerful `` Long Solothurn '' ammunition , but was very heavy and had a low rate of fire . It was also specified that the wing loading should be kept below 100 kg / m . The performance was to be evaluated based on the fighter 's level speed , rate of climb , and manoeuvrability , in that order . It has been suggested that Bayerische Flugzeugwerke ( BFW ) was originally not invited to participate in the competition due to personal animosity between Willy Messerschmitt and RLM director Erhard Milch ; however , recent research by Willy Radinger and Walter Shick indicates that this may not have been the case , as all three competing companies -- Arado , Heinkel and BFW -- received the development contract for the L.A. 1432 / 33 requirements at the same time in February 1934 . A fourth company , Focke - Wulf , received a copy of the development contract only in September 1934 . The powerplant was to be the new Junkers Jumo 210 , but the proviso was made that it would be interchangeable with the more powerful , but less developed Daimler - Benz DB 600 powerplant . Each was asked to deliver three prototypes for head - to - head testing in late 1934 . Prototypes ( edit ) Messerschmitt Bf 109 V1 A drawing of the V1 prototype Prototype V3 Design work on Messerschmitt Project Number P. 1034 began in March 1934 , just three weeks after the development contract was awarded . The basic mock - up was completed by May , and a more detailed design mock - up was ready by January 1935 . The RLM designated the design as type `` Bf 109 , '' the next available from a block of numbers assigned to BFW . The first prototype ( Versuchsflugzeug 1 or V1 ) , with civilian registration D - IABI , was completed by May 1935 , but the new German engines were not yet ready . To get the `` R III '' designs into the air , the RLM acquired four Rolls - Royce Kestrel VI engines by trading Rolls - Royce a Heinkel He 70 Blitz for use as an engine test - bed . Messerschmitt received two of these engines and adapted the engine mounts of V1 to take the V - 12 engine upright . V1 made its maiden flight at the end of May 1935 at the airfield located in the southernmost Augsburg neighborhood of Haunstetten , piloted by Hans - Dietrich `` Bubi '' Knoetzsch . After four months of flight testing , the aircraft was delivered in September to the Luftwaffe 's central test centre at the Erprobungsstelle Rechlin to take part in the design competition . In 1935 , the first Jumo engines became available , so V2 was completed in October using the 449 kW ( 600 hp ) Jumo 210A engine . V3 followed , the first to be mounted with guns , but it did not fly until May 1936 due to a delay in procuring another Jumo 210 engine . Design competition ( edit ) After Luftwaffe acceptance trials were completed at their headquarters Erprobungsstelle ( E-Stelle ) military aviation test and development facility at Rechlin , the prototypes were moved to the subordinate E-Stelle Baltic seacoast facility at Travemünde for the head - to - head portion of the competition . The aircraft participating in the trials were the Arado Ar 80 V3 , the Focke - Wulf Fw 159 V3 , the Heinkel He 112 V4 and the Bf 109 V2 . The He 112 arrived first , in early February 1936 , followed by the rest of the prototypes by the end of the month . Because most fighter pilots of the Luftwaffe were used to biplanes with open cockpits , low wing loading , light g - forces and easy handling like the Heinkel He 51 , they were very critical of the Bf 109 at first . However , it soon became one of the frontrunners in the contest , as the Arado and Focke - Wulf entries , which were intended as `` backup '' programmes to safeguard against failure of the two favourites , proved to be completely outclassed . The Arado Ar 80 , with its gull wing ( replaced with a straight , tapered wing on the V3 ) and fixed , spatted undercarriage was overweight and underpowered , and the design was abandoned after three prototypes had been built . The parasol winged Fw 159 , potentially inspired by the same firm 's earlier Focke - Wulf Fw 56 , was always considered by the E-Stelle Travemünde facility 's staff to be a compromise between a biplane and an aerodynamically more efficient , low - wing monoplane . Although it had some advanced features , it used a novel , complex retractable main undercarriage which proved to be unreliable . JG 53 Bf 109 E-3 , c. 1939 / 1940 Initially , the Bf 109 was regarded with disfavour by E-Stelle test pilots because of its steep ground angle , which resulted in poor forward visibility when taxiing ; the sideways - hinged cockpit canopy , which could not be opened in flight ; and the automatic leading edge slats on the wings which , it was thought , would inadvertently open during aerobatics , possibly leading to crashes . This was later borne out in combat situations and aerobatic testing by various countries ' test establishments . The leading edge slats and ailerons would flutter rapidly in fast tight turns , making targeting and control difficult , and eventually putting the aircraft into a stall condition . They were also concerned about the high wing loading . The Heinkel He 112 , based on a scaled - down Blitz , was the favourite of the Luftwaffe leaders . Compared with the Bf 109 , it was also cheaper . Positive aspects of the He 112 included the wide track and robustness of the undercarriage ( this opened outwards from mid wing , as opposed to the 109s which opened from the wing root ) , considerably better visibility from the cockpit , and a lower wing loading that made for easier landings . In addition , the V4 had a single - piece , clear - view , sliding cockpit canopy and a more powerful Jumo 210Da engine with a modified exhaust system . However , the He 112 was also structurally complicated , being 18 % heavier than the Bf 109 , and it soon became clear that the thick wing , which spanned 12.6 m ( 41 ft 4 in ) with an area of 23.2 m ( 249.7 ft ) on the first prototype ( V1 ) , was a disadvantage for a light fighter , decreasing the aircraft 's rate of roll and manoeuvrability . As a result , the He 112 V4 which was used for the trials had new wings , spanning 11.5 m ( 37 ft 8.75 in ) with an area of 21.6 m ( 232.5 ft ) . However , the improvements had not been fully tested and the He 112 V4 could not be demonstrated in accordance with the rules laid down by the Acceptance Commission , placing it at a distinct disadvantage . Because of its smaller , lighter airframe , the Bf 109 was 30 km / h ( 20 mph ) faster than the He 112 in level flight , and superior in climbing and diving . The Commission ultimately ruled in favour of the Bf 109 because of the Messerschmitt test pilot 's demonstration of the 109 's capabilities during a series of spins , dives , flick rolls and tight turns , throughout which the pilot was in complete control of the aircraft . In March , the RLM received news that the British Supermarine Spitfire had been ordered into production . It was felt that a quick decision was needed to get the winning design into production as soon as possible , so on 12 March , the RLM announced the results of the competition in a document entitled Bf 109 Priority Procurement , which ordered the Bf 109 into production . At the same time , Heinkel was instructed to radically redesign the He 112 . The Messerschmitt 109 made its public debut during the 1936 Berlin Olympics , when the V1 prototype was flown . Design features ( edit ) As with the earlier Bf 108 , the new design was based on Messerschmitt 's `` lightweight construction '' principle , which aimed to minimise the number of separate parts in the aircraft . Examples of this could be found in the use of two large , complex brackets which were fitted to the firewall . These brackets incorporated the lower engine mounts and landing gear pivot point into one unit . A large forging attached to the firewall housed the main spar pick - up points , and carried most of the wing loads . Contemporary design practice was usually to have these main load - bearing structures mounted on different parts of the airframe , with the loads being distributed through the structure via a series of strong - points . By concentrating the loads in the firewall , the structure of the Bf 109 could be made relatively light and uncomplicated . A Bf109E at the Royal Air Force Museum London with its wings temporarily removed , 2016 An advantage of this design was that the main landing gear , which retracted through an 85 - degree angle , was attached to the fuselage , making it possible to completely remove the wings for servicing without additional equipment to support the fuselage . It also allowed simplification of the wing structure , since it did not have to bear the loads imposed during takeoff or landing . The one major drawback of this landing gear arrangement was its narrow wheel track , making the aircraft unstable while on the ground . To increase stability , the legs were splayed outward somewhat , creating another problem in that the loads imposed during takeoff and landing were transferred up through the legs at an angle . The small rudder of the Bf 109 was relatively ineffective at controlling the strong swing created by the powerful slipstream of the propeller during the early portion of the takeoff roll , and this sideways drift created disproportionate loads on the wheel opposite to the swing . If the forces imposed were large enough , the pivot point broke and the landing gear leg would collapse outward into its bay . Experienced pilots reported that the swing was easy to control , but some of the less - experienced pilots lost fighters on takeoff . Because of the large ground angle caused by the long legs , forward visibility while on the ground was very poor , a problem exacerbated by the sideways - opening canopy . This meant that pilots had to taxi in a sinuous fashion which also imposed stresses on the splayed undercarriage legs . Ground accidents were a problem with rookie pilots , especially during the later stages of the war when pilots received less training before being sent to operational units . At least 10 % of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents , 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941 . The installation of a fixed `` tall '' tailwheel on some of the late G - 10s and 14s and the K - series helped alleviate the problem to a large extent . Freely moving , automatic leading edge slats on a Bf 109E . By using high - lift devices , the handling qualities of the Bf 109 were considerably enhanced . From the inception of the design , priority was given to easy access to the powerplant , fuselage weapons and other systems while the aircraft was operating from forward airfields . To this end , the entire engine cowling was made up of large , easily removable panels which were secured by large toggle latches . A large panel under the wing centre section could be removed to gain access to the L - shaped main fuel tank , which was sited partly under the cockpit floor and partly behind the rear cockpit bulkhead . Other , smaller panels gave easy access to the cooling system and electrical equipment . The engine was held in two large , forged , Elektron magnesium alloy Y - shaped legs , one per side straddling the engine block , which were cantilevered from the firewall . Each of the legs was secured by two quick - release screw fittings on the firewall . All of the main pipe connections were colour - coded and grouped in one place , where possible , and electrical equipment plugged into junction boxes mounted on the firewall . The entire powerplant could be removed or replaced as a unit in a matter of minutes , a potential step to the eventual adoption of the unitized - powerplant Kraftei engine mounting concept used by many German combat aircraft designs , later in the war years . Another example of the Bf 109 's advanced design was the use of a single , I - beam main spar in the wing , positioned more aft than usual ( to give enough room for the retracted wheel ) , thus forming a stiff D - shaped torsion box . Most aircraft of the era used two spars , near the front and rear edges of the wings , but the D - box was much stiffer torsionally , and eliminated the need for the rear spar . The wing profile was the NACA 2R1 14.2 at the root and NACA 2R1 11.35 at the tip , with a thickness to chord ratio of 14.2 % at the root and 11.35 % at the tip . Another major difference from competing designs was the higher wing - loading . While the R - IV contract called for a wing - loading of less than 100 kg / m , Messerschmitt felt this was unreasonable . With a low wing - loading and the engines available , a fighter would end up being slower than the bombers it was tasked with catching . A fighter was designed primarily for high - speed flight . A smaller wing area was optimal for achieving high speed , but low - speed flight would suffer , as the smaller wing would require more airflow to generate enough lift to maintain flight . To compensate for this , the Bf 109 included advanced high - lift devices on the wings , including automatically - opening leading edge slats , and fairly large camber - changing flaps on the trailing edge . The slats increased the lift of the wing considerably when deployed , greatly improving the horizontal maneuverability of the aircraft , as several Luftwaffe veterans , such as Erwin Leykauf , attest . Messerschmitt also included ailerons that `` drooped '' when the flaps were lowered ( F series and later the lower radiator flap operated as part of the flap system ) , thereby increasing the effective flap area . When deployed , these devices effectively increased the wings ' coefficient of lift . Fighters with liquid - cooled engines were vulnerable to hits in the cooling system . For this reason , on later Bf 109 F , G and K models the two coolant radiators were equipped with a cut - off system . If one radiator leaked , it was possible to fly on the second , or to fly for at least five minutes with both closed . In 1943 , Oberfeldwebel Edmund Roßmann got lost and landed behind Soviet lines . He agreed to show the Soviets how to service the plane . Soviet machine gun technician Viktor M. Sinaisky recalled : The Messer was a very well designed plane . First , it had an engine of an inverted type , so it could not be knocked out from below . It also had two water radiators with a cut - off system : if one radiator leaked you could fly on the second or close both down and fly at least five minutes more . The pilot was protected by armour - plate from the back , and the fuel tank was also behind armour . Our planes had fuel tanks in the centre of their wings : that 's why our pilot got burnt . What else did I like about the Messer ? It was highly automatic and thus easy to fly . It also employed an electrical pitch regulator , which our planes did n't have . Our propeller system , with variable pitch was hydraulic , making it impossible to change pitch without engine running . If , God forbid , you turned off the engine at high pitch , it was impossible to turn the propeller and was very hard to start the engine again . Finally , the German ammo counter was also a great thing . Armament and gondola cannons ( edit ) A cannon - armed Bf 109E , showing the 20 mm MG FF installations in the wing . Reflecting Messerschmitt 's belief in low - weight , low - drag , simple monoplanes , the armament was placed in the fuselage . This kept the wings very thin and light . Two synchronized machine guns were mounted in the cowling , firing over the top of the engine and through the propeller arc . An alternative arrangement was also designed , consisting of a single autocannon firing through a blast tube between the cylinder banks of the engine , known as a Motorkanone mount in German . This was also the choice of armament layout on some contemporary monoplane fighters , such as the French Dewoitine D. 520 , or the American Bell P - 39 Airacobra , and dated back to World War I 's small run of SPAD S. XII moteur - canon , 37 mm cannon - armed fighters in France . When it was discovered in 1937 that the RAF was planning eight - gun batteries for its new Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters , it was decided that the Bf 109 should be more heavily armed . The problem was that the only place available to mount additional guns was in the wings . Only one spot was available in each wing , between the wheel well and slats , with room for only one gun , either a 7.92 mm MG 17 machine gun , or a 20 mm MG FF or MG FF / M cannon . The first version of the 109 to have wing guns was the C - 1 , which had one MG 17 in each wing . To avoid redesigning the wing to accommodate large ammunition boxes and access hatches , an unusual ammunition feed was devised whereby a continuous belt holding 500 rounds was fed along chutes out to the wing tip , around a roller and then back along the wing , forward and beneath the gun breech , to the wing root , where it coursed around another roller and back to the weapon . The gun barrel was placed in a long , large - diameter tube located between the spar and the leading edge . The tube channeled cooling air around the barrel and breech , exhausting out of a slot at the rear of the wing . The installation was so cramped that parts of the MG 17 's breech mechanism extended into an opening created in the flap structure . The much longer and heavier MG FF had to be mounted farther along the wing in an outer bay . A large hole was cut through the spar allowing the cannon to be fitted with the ammunition feed forward of the spar , while the breech block projected rearward through the spar . A 60 - round ammunition drum was placed in a space closer to the wing root causing a bulge in the underside . A small hatch was incorporated in the bulge to allow access for changing the drum . The entire weapon could be removed for servicing by removing a leading edge panel . Luftwaffe ground - crew ( `` black men '' ) positioning a Bf 109 G - 6 `` Kanonenvogel '' equipped with the Rüstsatz VI underwing gondola cannon kit . Note the slats on the leading edge of the port wing . JG 2 , France , late 1943 . From the 109F - series onwards , guns were no longer carried inside the wings . Instead , the Bf 109F had a 20 mm gun firing through the propeller shaft . The change was disliked by leading fighter pilots such as Adolf Galland and Walter Oesau , but others such as Werner Mölders considered the single nose - mounted gun to compensate well for the loss of the two wing guns . Galland had his BF 109 F - 2 field - modified with a 20 mm MG FF / M installed internally in each wing . In place of internal wing armament , additional firepower was provided through a pair of 20 mm MG 151 / 20 cannons installed in conformal gun pods under the wings . The conformal gun pods , exclusive of ammunition , weighed 135 kg ( 298 lb ) ; and 135 to 145 rounds were provided per gun . The total weight , including ammunition , was 215 kg . Installation of the under - wing gun pods was a simple task that could be quickly performed by the unit 's armourers , and the gun pods imposed a reduction of speed of only 8 km / h ( 5 mph ) . By comparison , the installed weight of a similar armament of two 20 mm MG 151 / 20 cannon inside the wings of the FW 190A - 4 / U8 was 130 kg ( 287 lb ) , without ammunition . Although the additional armament increased the fighter 's potency as a bomber destroyer , it had an adverse effect on the handling qualities , reducing its performance in fighter - versus - fighter combat and accentuating the tendency of the fighter to swing pendulum - fashion in flight . Some of the projected 109K - series models , such as the K - 6 , were designed to carry 30 mm ( 1.18 in ) MK 108 cannons in the wings . Designation and nicknames ( edit ) Main article : RLM aircraft designation system Originally the aircraft was designated as Bf 109 by the RLM , since the design was submitted by the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke ( literally `` Bavarian Aircraft Works '' , meaning `` Bavarian Aircraft Factory '' ; sometimes abbreviated B.F.W. , akin to BMW ) during 1935 . The company was renamed Messerschmitt AG after 11 July 1938 when Erhard Milch finally allowed Willy Messerschmitt to acquire the company . All Messerschmitt aircraft that originated after that date , such as the Me 210 , were to carry the `` Me '' designation . Despite regulations by the RLM , wartime documents from Messerschmitt AG , RLM and Luftwaffe loss and strength reports continued to use both designations , sometimes even on the same page . All extant airframes bear the official `` Bf 109 '' designation on their identification plates , including the final K - 4 models . The aircraft was often referred to by this ' Me 109 ' folk - designation , particularly by the Allies . The aircraft was often nicknamed Messer by its operators and opponents alike ; the name was not only an abbreviation of the manufacturer , but also the German word for `` knife '' . In Finland , the Bf 109 was known as Mersu , although this was originally the Finnish nickname for Mercedes - Benz cars . Soviet aviators nicknamed the Bf 109 `` the skinny one '' ( худо́й , khudoy ) , for its sleek appearance compared , for example , to the more robust Fw 190 . The names `` Anton '' , `` Berta '' , `` Caesar '' , `` Dora '' , `` Emil '' , `` Friedrich '' , `` Gustav '' , and `` Kurfürst '' were derived from the variant 's official letter designation ( e.g. Bf 109G -- `` Gustav '' ) , based on the German spelling alphabet of World War II , a practice that was also used for other German aircraft designs . The G - 6 variant was nicknamed by Luftwaffe personnel as Die Beule ( `` the bump / bulge '' ) because of the cowling 's characteristic , bulging covers for the breeches of the 13 mm (. 51 in ) MG 131 machine guns , with the separate Beule covers eliminated by the time of the G - 10 model 's introduction of a subtly reshaped upper cowling . Record - setting flights ( edit ) In July 1937 , not long after the public debut of the new fighter , three Bf 109Bs took part in the Flugmeeting airshow in Zürich under the command of Major Seidemann . They won in several categories : First prize in a speed race over a 202 km course , first prize in the class A category in the international Alpenrundflug for military aircraft , and victory in the international Patrouillenflug category . On 11 November 1937 , the Bf 109 V13 , D - IPKY flown by Messerschmitt 's chief pilot Dr. Hermann Wurster , powered by a 1,230 kW ( 1,650 hp ) DB 601R racing engine , set a new world air speed record for landplanes with piston engines of 610.95 km / h ( 379.62 mph ) , winning the title for Germany for the first time . Converted from a Bf 109D , the V13 had been fitted with a special racing DB 601R engine that could deliver 1,230 kW ( 1,650 hp ) for short periods . Heinkel , having had the He 112 rejected in the design competition of 1936 , designed and built the He 100 . On 6 June 1938 , the He 100 V3 , flown by Ernst Udet , captured the record with a speed of 634.7 km / h ( 394.4 mph ) . On 30 March 1939 , test pilot Hans Dieterle surpassed that record , reaching 746.61 km / h ( 463.92 mph ) with the He 100 V8 . Messerschmitt , however , soon regained the lead when , on 26 April 1939 , Flugkapitän Fritz Wendel , flying the Me 209 V1 , set a new record of 755.14 km / h ( 469.22 mph ) . For propaganda purposes , the machine was called the Me 109R , suggesting it was just another variant of the standard fighter , but in fact it was a racing aircraft having little in common with the Bf 109 . It was powered by the DB 601ARJ , producing 1,156 kW ( 1,550 hp ) , but capable of reaching 1,715 kW ( 2,300 hp ) . This world record for a piston - engined aircraft was to stand until 1969 , when Darryl Greenamyer 's modified Grumman F8F Bearcat , Conquest I , broke it with a 777 km / h ( 483 mph ) record speed . Variants ( edit ) Main article : Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants D - FWME , a restored Bf 109G - 4 . Bf 109G at the USA National Air and Space Museum When the Bf 109 was designed in 1934 , by a team led by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser , its primary role was that of a high - speed , short range interceptor . It used the most advanced aerodynamics of the time and embodied advanced structural design which was ahead of its contemporaries . In the early years of the war , the Bf 109 was the only single - engined fighter operated by the Luftwaffe , until the appearance of the Fw 190 . The 109 remained in production from 1937 through 1945 in many different variants and sub-variants . The primary engines used were the Daimler - Benz DB 601 and DB 605 , though the Junkers Jumo 210 powered most of the pre-war variants . The most - produced Bf 109 model was the 109G series ( more than a third of all 109s built were the G - 6 series , 12,000 units being manufactured from March 1943 until the end of the war ) . The initial production models of the A , B , C and D series were powered by the relatively low - powered , 670 -- 700 PS ( 660 - 690 HP ) Junkers Jumo 210 series engines . A few of prototypes of these early aircraft were converted to use the more powerful DB 600 . The first major redesign came with the E series , including the naval variant , the Bf 109T ( T standing for Träger , or carrier ) . The Bf 109E , or `` Emil '' , introduced structural changes to accommodate the heavier , but significantly more powerful 1,100 PS ( 1,085 HP ) Daimler - Benz DB 601 engine , heavier armament , and increased fuel capacity . Partly due to its limited 300 km ( 186 mile ) combat radius on internal fuel alone , resulting from its 660 km ( 410 mile ) range limit , later variants of the Es introduced a fuselage ordnance rack for fighter - bomber duty , or provision for a long - range , standardized 300 litre ( 79 US gallon ) drop - tank , and used the DB 601N engine of higher power output . The 109E first saw service with the `` Condor Legion '' during the last phase of the Spanish Civil War and was the main variant from the beginning of World War II until mid-1941 when the 109F replaced it in the pure fighter role . ( Eight 109Es were assembled in Switzerland in 1946 by the Dornier - Werke , using licence built airframes ; a ninth airframe was assembled using spare parts . ) The second major redesign during 1939 -- 40 gave birth to the F series . The `` Friedrich '' had a complete redesign of the wings , the cooling system , and fuselage aerodynamics , and was powered by the 1,175 PS ( 1,159 HP ) DB 601N ( F - 1 , F - 2 ) or the 1,350 PS ( 1,332 HP ) DB 601E ( F - 3 , F - 4 ) . Considered by many as the high - water mark of Bf 109 development , the F series abandoned the wing cannon and concentrated all armament in the forward fuselage with a pair of synchronized machine guns above and a single 15 or 20 mm Motorkanone - mount cannon behind the engine , the latter firing between the cylinder banks and through the propeller hub , itself covered by a more streamlined , half - elliptical shaped spinner that better matched the streamlining of the reshaped cowling , abandoning the smaller , conical spinner of the Emil subtype . The F - type also omitted the earlier stabilizer lift strut on either side of the tail . The F - subtype 's improved aerodynamic configuration was used by all subsequent variants . Some Bf 109Fs were used late in the Battle of Britain in 1940 , but the variant came into common use only in the first half of 1941 . Bf 109 Gustav cockpit The G series , or `` Gustav '' , was introduced in mid-1942 . Its initial variants ( G - 1 through G - 4 ) differed only in minor details from the Bf 109F , most notably in the more powerful 1475 PS ( 1,455 HP ) DB 605 engine . Odd - numbered variants were built as high - altitude fighters with a pressurized cockpit and GM - 1 boost , while even - numbered variants were not pressurized , air superiority fighters , and fighter - bombers . Long - range photo - reconnaissance variants also existed . The later G series ( G - 5 through G - 14 ) was produced in a multitude of variants , with uprated armament and provision for kits of packaged , generally factory - installed parts known as Umrüst - Bausätze ( usually contracted to Umbau ) and adding a `` / U '' suffix to the aircraft designation when installed . Field kits known as Rüstsätze were also available for the G - series , but those did not change the aircraft designation . By early 1944 , tactical requirements resulted in the addition of MW - 50 water injection boost and high - performance superchargers , boosting engine output to 1,800 -- 2,000 PS ( 1,775 - 1,973 HP ) . From early 1944 , some G - 2s , G - 3s , G - 4s , and G - 6s were converted to two - seat trainers , known as G - 12s . An instructor 's cockpit was added behind the original cockpit and both were covered by an elongated , glazed canopy . The final production version of the Bf 109 was the K series , or `` Kurfürst '' , introduced in late 1944 , powered by the DB 605D engine with up to 2,000 PS ( 1,973 HP ) . Though externally akin to the late production Bf 109G series , a large number of internal changes and aerodynamic improvements was incorporated that improved its effectiveness and remedied existing flaws , keeping it competitive with the latest Allied and Soviet fighters . The Bf 109 's outstanding rate of climb was superior to many Allied adversaries including the P - 51D Mustang , Spitfire Mk . XIV , and Hawker Tempest Mk . V . After the war , the 109 was built in Czechoslovakia , as the Avia S - 99 and S - 199 , and in Spain as the Hispano Aviación Ha 1109 and 1112 Production ( edit ) Total Bf 109 production was 33,984 units ; Wartime production ( September 1939 to May 1945 ) was 30,573 units . Fighter production totalled 47 % of all German aircraft production , and the Bf 109 accounted for 57 % of all German fighter types produced . A total of 2,193 Bf 109 A -- E was built prewar , from 1936 to August 1939 . Some 865 Bf 109G derivatives were manufactured postwar under licence as Czechoslovak - built Avia S - 99 and S - 199s , with the production ending in 1948 . Production of the Spanish - built Hispano Aviación HA - 1109 and HA - 1112 Buchons ended in 1958 . New - production Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters , 1936 -- 45 . Assembly of Bf 109G - 6s in a German aircraft factory . Factory , location Up to 1939 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 * Totals * Messerschmitt , Regensburg 203 486 2,164 6,329 1,241 10,423 Arado , Warnemünde 370 370 Erla , Leipzig 683 875 2,015 4,472 1,018 9,063 Fieseler , Kassel 155 155 W.N.F. , Wiener Neustadt 836 1,297 2,200 3,081 541 7,892 Győri Vagon - és Gépgyár , Győr 39 270 309 AGO , Oschersleben ( switched to Fw 190A production ) 381 381 Totals 1,860 1,540 1,868 2,628 2,658 6,418 14,152 2,800 33,984 * Production up to end of March 1945 only . Operational History ( edit ) Main article : Messerschmitt Bf 109 operational history Bf 109A from the Condor Legion during Spanish Civil War ( 1936 - 1939 ) The first Bf 109As served in the Spanish Civil War . By September 1939 , the Bf 109 had become the main fighter of the Luftwaffe , replacing the biplane fighters , and was instrumental in gaining air superiority for the Wehrmacht during the early stages of the war . During the Battle of Britain , it was pressed into the role of escort fighter , a role for which it was not originally designed , and it was widely employed as a fighter - bomber , as well as a photo - reconnaissance platform . Despite mixed results over Britain , with the introduction of the improved Bf 109F in early 1941 , the type again proved to be an effective fighter during the Invasion of Yugoslavia ( where it was used by both sides ) , the Battle of Crete , Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the USSR , and the Siege of Malta . In 1942 , it began to be partially replaced in Western Europe by a new German fighter , the Focke Wulf Fw 190 , but it continued to serve in a multitude of roles on the Eastern Front and in the Defense of the Reich , as well as in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations and with Erwin Rommel 's Afrikakorps . It was also supplied to several of Germany 's allies , including Finland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Croatia , and Slovakia . More aerial kills were made with the Bf 109 than any other aircraft of World War II . Many of the aerial victories were accomplished against poorly trained and badly organized Soviet forces in 1941 during Operation Barbarossa . The Soviets lost 21,200 aircraft at this time , about half to combat . If shot down , the Luftwaffe pilots might land or parachute to friendly territory and return to fight again . Later in the war , when Allied victories began to bring the fight closer , and then to German territory , bombing raids supplied plenty of targets for the Luftwaffe . This unique combination of events -- until a major change in American fighter tactics occurred very early in 1944 , that steadily gave the USAAF daylight air supremacy over the Reich -- led to the highest - ever individual pilot victory scores . One hundred and five Bf 109 pilots were each credited with the destruction of 100 or more enemy aircraft . Thirteen of these men scored more than 200 kills , while two scored more than 300 . Altogether , this group of pilots was credited with a total of nearly 15,000 kills . Though no official `` ace '' status existed in the Luftwaffe ( unofficially , the term Experte ( expert ) was used for an experienced pilot irrespective of his number of kills ) , using the Allied definition of pilots who scored five or more kills , more than 2,500 Luftwaffe fighter pilots were considered aces in World War II . Against the Soviets , Finnish - flown Bf 109Gs claimed a victory ratio of 25 : 1 . Bf 109s remained in foreign service for many years after World War II . The Swiss used their Bf 109Gs well into the 1950s . The Finnish Air Force did not retire their Bf 109Gs until March 1954 . Romania used its Bf 109s until 1955 . The Spanish Hispanos flew even longer . Some were still in service in the late 1960s . They appeared in films ( notably Battle of Britain ) playing the role of Bf 109Es . Some Hispano airframes were sold to museums , which rebuilt them as Bf 109s . Operators ( edit ) Note , this list includes operators who used Bf 109s for active service or combat . It does not include the United States , the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union , which all operated small numbers of captured aircraft for testing and evaluation ( see : Messerschmitt Bf 109 operational history # Allied Bf 109s ) . Finnish Messerschmitt Bf 109 G - 2s during the Continuation War Romanian Messerschmitt Bf 109 at Stalingrad S - 199 782358 IAFM Hispano Aviación HA - 1112 Buchon , the second and last Spanish version built by Hispano Aviación A Bf 109 - E3 of the Swiss Air Force at the Flieger - Flab - Museum Bf 109G - 2 14792 Yugoslavian Aviation Museum Bf 109F captured by the South African Air Force in 1943 Bf 109E - 7 of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force in November 1941 Bulgaria The Bulgarian Air Force operated 19 E-3s and 145 G - 2 / - 6 / - 10s . NDH Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske operated over 50 Bf 109s , including E-4 , F - 2 , G - 2 / - 6 / - 10 and Ks . Czechoslovakia Czechoslovak Air Force operated captured aircraft and continued building Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs after the war under the Avia S - 99 name , but soon ran out of the 109 's Daimler - Benz DB 605 engine after many were destroyed during an explosion at a warehouse in Krásné Březno . Finland Finnish Air Force ordered 162 aircraft ( 48 G - 2s , 111 G - 6s and three G - 8s ) from Germany , but 3 were destroyed during transit , leaving the FAF with 159 Bf 109s . Nazi Germany Luftwaffe was the main operator of the Bf 109 . Hungary Royal Hungarian Air Force operated 3 D - 1s , 50 E-3 / - 4s , 66 F - 4s and ~ 490 G - 2 / - 4 / - 6 / - 8 / - 10 / - 14s . Israel Israeli Air Force operated the Avia S - 199 derivative , bought from Czechoslovakia . Despite the type 's shortcomings the Israelis scored 8 victories . Egypt and Syria claimed 4 S - 199 kills , and 1 probable . Italy Regia Aeronautica operated several tens of Bf 109s in the first half of 1943 . Italian Social Republic Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana operated 300 G - 6 / - 10 / - 14s and two G - 12s ; three K - 4s were also received . Japan Imperial Japanese Army Air Force purchased 5 E-7s in 1941 . The aircraft were used for tests and trials . Romania Royal Romanian Air Force operated 50 E-3 / 4s , 19 E-7s , 2 F - 2s , 5 F - 4s and at least 235 + G - 2 / G - 4 / G - 6 / - 8s plus 75 IAR built 109G - 6a . Romanian Air Force -- Postwar . Slovak Republic Slovenské vzdušné zbrane operated 16 E-3s , 14 E-7s and 30 G - 6s . Slovak Insurgent Air Force operated 3 G - 6s . Spanish State Spanish Air Force operated some D - 1s , E-3s and 15 F - 4s , and may have received several older B - types . Volunteers of Escuadrilla Azul on the Eastern Front operated E-4 , E-7 , E-7 / B , F - 2 , F - 4 ( belonged in JG - 27 under the command of Luftflotte 2 , until April 1943 ) among G - 4 and G - 6 ( detached in JG - 51 under the command Luftflotte 4 , until June 1944 ) . A variant under license by the name Hispano Aviación HA - 1112 was produced until 1958 . Switzerland Swiss Air Force operated 10 D - 1s , 89 E-3a variants , 2 F - 4s and 14 G - 6s . Yugoslavia Royal Yugoslav Air Force operated 73 E-3a variants . SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated several ex-NDH and Bulgarian Bf 109Gs . Surviving aircraft ( edit ) Main article : List of surviving Messerschmitt Bf 109s Play media Bf 109 G - 10 ( Messerschmitt foundation ) flight demonstration Approximately twenty surviving Bf 109 airframes in the 21st century are known to have , at one time or another , served with the most northerly - based World War II German fighter wing , Jagdgeschwader 5 in Scandinavia . More surviving Axis aircraft in modern aviation museums once served with the Luftwaffe 's JG 5 fighter wing , than with any other Axis military aviation unit . Specifications ( Bf 109 G - 6 ) ( edit ) Data from The Great Book of Fighters and the Finnish Air Force Bf 109 Manual General characteristics Crew : One Length : 8.95 m ( 29 ft 7 in ) Wingspan : 9.925 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) Height : 2.60 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) Wing area : 16.05 m2 ( 173.3 ft2 ) Empty weight : 2,247 kg ( 5,893 lb ) Loaded weight : 3,148 kg ( 6,940 lb ) Max . takeoff weight : 3,400 kg ( 7,495 lb ) Powerplant : 1 × Daimler - Benz DB 605 A-1 liquid - cooled inverted V12 , 1,475 PS ( 1,455 hp , 1,085 kW ) Propellers : VDM 9 - 12087 three - bladed light - alloy propeller Propeller diameter : 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) Performance Maximum speed : 640 km / h ( 398 mph ) at 6,300 m ( 20,669 ft ) Cruise speed : 590 km / h ( 365 mph ) at 6,000 m ( 19,680 ft ) Range : 850 km ( 528 mi ) 1,000 km ( 621 mi ) with droptank Service ceiling : 12,000 m ( 39,370 ft ) Rate of climb : 17.0 m / s ( 3,345 ft / min ) Wing loading : 196 kg / m2 ( 40 lb / ft2 ) Power / mass : 344 W / kg ( 0.21 hp / lb ) Armament Guns : 2 × 13 mm (. 51 in ) synchronized MG 131 machine guns with 300 rpg 1 × 20 mm (. 78 in ) MG 151 / 20 cannon as centerline Motorkanone with 200 rpg or 1 x 30 mm ( 1.18 in ) MK 108 cannon as centerline Motorkanone with 65 rpg ( G - 6 / U4 variant ) 2 × 20 mm MG 151 / 20 underwing cannon pods with 135 rpg ( optional kit -- Rüstsatz VI ) Rockets : 2 × 21 cm ( 8 in ) Wfr . Gr. 21 rockets ( G - 6 with BR21 ) Bombs : 1 × 250 kg ( 551 lb ) bomb or 4 × 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs or 1 × 300 - litre ( 79 US gal ) drop tank Avionics FuG 16 Z radio See also ( edit ) Aviation portal Military of Germany portal World War II portal List of surviving Messerschmitt Bf 109s Sonderkommando Elbe Related development Messerschmitt Bf 108 Me 209 - II Me 109TL Hispano Aviacion HA - 1109 Avia S - 99 / S - 199 Aircraft of comparable role , configuration and era Mitsubishi A6M Bell P - 39 Airacobra Curtiss P - 36 Curtiss P - 40 Rogožarski IK - 3 Dewoitine D. 520 Fiat G. 55 Focke Wulf Fw 190 Grumman F4F Wildcat Grumman F6F Hellcat Hawker Hurricane Heinkel He 100 Heinkel He 112 IAR 80 Kawasaki Ki - 61 Lavochkin LaGG - 3 Macchi C. 202 Macchi C. 205 Mikoyan - Gurevich MiG - 3 Morane - Saulnier MS. 406 Nakajima Ki - 43 North American P - 51 Mustang Polikarpov I - 16 Supermarine Spitfire Yakovlev Yak - 1 Yakovlev Yak - 9 Related lists List of military aircraft of Germany List of aircraft of World War II List of aircraft of Germany in World War II References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ In 1929 Milch , then managing director of Deutsche Luft Hansa cancelled an order for 10 Messerschmitt M20b light transport aircraft after Hans Hackman , a close friend of Milch , was killed testing the prototype . Jump up ^ This aircraft was instrumental in testing the Roll - Royce PV - 12 , later to become the Rolls - Royce Merlin Jump up ^ The engine 's mass helped buffer the recoil . British reports on captured DB 601 series engines describe `` a double - walled cannon tube housing '' as part of the crankcase . Few if any Bf 109s used weapons firing through the propeller hub before the F - series , which mounted 15 mm (. 59 in ) and 20 mm weapons . Jump up ^ Galland also flew another F - 2 / U1 in which the MG 17s above the engine were replaced by 13 mm MG 131s Jump up ^ World speed records and other aviation records were and still are set by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) . A record attempt must be made over a recognized course at a set altitude to be considered . The Bf 109 and 209s came under the category `` CLASS C , GROUP 1d '' `` FAI record ( current ) . '' fai.org . Retrieved : 29 April 2008 . Jump up ^ Some sources state one hundred and nine pilots were credited with more than 100 enemy aircraft . Citations ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey , Aircraft Division Industry Report , Exhibit I -- German Airplane Programs vs Actual Production . ^ Jump up to : Nowarra 1993 , p. 189 . ^ Jump up to : Green 1980 , pp. 7 , 13 . Jump up ^ Wagner , Ray ; Nowarra , Heinz ( 1971 ) . German Combat Planes : A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 1945 . New York City : Doubleday & Company . p. 229 . ^ Jump up to : Radinger and Otto 1999 , pp. 35 -- 37 . ^ Jump up to : Zobel and Mathmann 1995 , p. 3 . ^ Jump up to : Ritger 2006 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Kobel and Mathmann 1997 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 11 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Beaman and Campbell 1980 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 18 -- 21 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Caidin 1968 Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 15 -- 17 . Jump up ^ Feist 1993 , p. 14 . ^ Jump up to : Nowarra 1993 , p. 190 . Jump up ^ Cross and Scarborough 1976 , pp. 56 -- 66 . ^ Jump up to : Cross and Scarborough 1976 , pp. 60 -- 61 . ^ Jump up to : Hannu Valtonen -- Messerschmitt Bf 109 ja saksan sotatalous Jump up ^ Boyne 1994 , p. 30 . Jump up ^ Radinger and Otto 1999 , p. 36 . Jump up ^ Lednicer , David . The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage . Champaign , Illinois : UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group , 2010 . Retrieved : 18 May 2011 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Bf 109 slats explained , Bf 109 Lair . Retrieved : 31 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` virtualpilots.fi : 109myths '' . virtualpilots.fi . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Ersätzteiliste Bf 109G , pp. 117 -- 118 . Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1995 , p. 169 . Jump up ^ Ersätzteiliste Bf 109K , Rumpfwerk , Baugruppe 209.728 . ^ Jump up to : Drabkin 2007 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Cross and Scarborough 1976 , p. 74 . ^ Jump up to : Cross and Scarborough 1976 , p. 15 . ^ Jump up to : Deighton 1977 , p. 281 . ^ Jump up to : Radinger and Otto 1999 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Hahn 1963 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1995 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Flight ( Oct 5 , 1939 ) Jump up ^ Bf or Me 109 ? Which is correct ? '' hobbyvista.com . Retrieved : 3 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Wagner , Ray and Nowarra , Heinz . German Combat Planes : A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 1945 , New York : Doubleday , 1971 , pg. 229 Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1995 , pp. 167 -- 176 . Jump up ^ `` German phonetic alphabet of World War II . '' feldgrau.com . Retrieved : 2 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Ebert , Hans J. ; Johann B. , Kaiser ; Peters , Klaus ( 1992 ) . Willy Messerschmitt -- Pionier der Luftfahrt und des Leichtbaues : eine Biographie . Bernard & Graefe . p. 137 . Jump up ^ Nowarra 1993 , p. 193 . Jump up ^ Feist 1993 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ `` Grumman F8F - 2 , Bearcat , `` Conquest I '' `` . si.edu . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Cross and Swanborough 1972 , pp. 7 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1996 , pp. 99 -- 100 , 113 -- 114 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 29 -- 34 , 41 . Jump up ^ Wagner , Ray ; Nowarra , Heinz ( 1971 ) . German Combat Planes : A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 1945 . New York City : Doubleday & Company . p. 229 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 41 -- 45 , 63 -- 64 , 76 -- 81 , 82 -- 83 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 38 -- 39 , 80 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , p. 78 . Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1996 , pp. 9 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1996 , pp. 56 -- 165 . Jump up ^ Prien and Rodeike 1996 , pp. 166 -- 174 . Jump up ^ Wolf 2009 , p. 763 . Jump up ^ Green 1980 , pp. 131 -- 138 . Jump up ^ Feist 1993 , p. 45 . Jump up ^ U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey , Aircraft Division Industry Report . Exhibit I -- German Airplane Programs vs Actual Production . ^ Jump up to : Feist 1993 , p. 50 . Jump up ^ Bergström , Christer . Barbarossa -- The Air Battle : July -- December 1941 , p. 117 . London : Chevron / Ian Allen , 2007 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85780 - 270 - 2 . Jump up ^ Toliver , Raymond F. ; Constable , Trevor J. ( 1965 ) . Fighter Aces MacMillan , New York , pp. 235 - 236 . Jump up ^ Feist 1993 , p. 51 . Jump up ^ Neulen 2000 , p. 217 . Jump up ^ `` List of Israeli Air - to - Air Victories 1948 -- 1966 . '' acig.org . Retrieved : 2 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Dimensione Cielo 1972 , pp. 59 - 60 . Jump up ^ Lansdale , Jim . `` Messerschmitt Me - 109 '' . j-aircraft.com . Retrieved 13 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Green , William and Gordon Swanborough . The Great Book of Fighters . St. Paul , Minnesota : MBI Publishing , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 7603 - 1194 - 3 . Jump up ^ Hitchcock 1976 , p. 7 . Bibliography ( edit ) Beaman , John R. Jr. and Jerry L. Campbell . Messerschmitt Bf 109 in action , Part 1 . Carrollton , Texas : Squadron / Signal Publications , 1980 . ISBN 0 - 89747 - 106 - 7 . Boyne , Walter J. Clash of Wings . New York : Simon & Schuster , 1994 . ISBN 0 - 684 - 83915 - 6 . Burke , Stephen . Without Wings : The Story of Hitler 's Aircraft Carrier . Oxford , UK : Trafford Publishing , 2007 . ISBN 1 - 4251 - 2216 - 7 . Dimensione Cielo - Aerei italiani nella 2 ° guerra mondiale - CACCIA ASSALTO 3 - Roma , Edizioni Bizzarri , 1972 . Caidin , Martin . Me 109 -- Willy Messerschmitt 's Peerless Fighter ( Ballantine 's illustrated history of World War II . Weapons book no . 4 ) . New York : Ballantine Books , USA , 1968 . ISBN 0 - 345 - 01691 - 2 . Caldwell , Donald L. JG 26 : Top Guns of the Luftwaffe . New York : Ballantine Books , 1991 . ISBN 0 - 8041 - 1050 - 6 . Craig , James F. The Messerschmitt Bf. 109 . New York : Arco Publishing Company , 1968 . Cross , Roy and Gerald Scarborough . Messerschmitt Bf 109 , Versions B-E . London : Patrick Stevens , 1976 . ISBN 0 - 85059 - 106 - 6 . Deighton , Len . Fighter : The true story of the Battle of Britain . London : Jonathan Cape , 1977 . ISBN 0 - 224 - 01422 - 6 . Dimensione Cielo : Caccia Assalto 3 , Aerei Italiani nella 2a Guerra Mondiale ( in Italian ) . Rome : Edizioni Bizzarri , 1972 . Drabkin , Artem . The Red Air Force at War : Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow -- Recollections of Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front . Barnsley , South Yorkshire , UK : Pen & Sword Military , 2007 . ISBN 1 - 84415 - 563 - 3 . Ebert , Hans A. , Johann B. Kaiser and Klaus Peters . Willy Messerschmitt : Pioneer of Aviation ( The History of German Aviation Design ) . Atglen , Pennsylvania : Schiffer Books , 2000 . ISBN 0 - 7643 - 0727 - 4 . Feist , Uwe . The Fighting Me 109 . London : Arms and Armour Press , 1993 , ISBN 1 - 85409 - 209 - X . Fernández - Sommerau , Marco . Messerschmitt Bf 109 Recognition Manual . Hersham , Surrey , UK : Classic Publications , 2004 . ISBN 1 - 903223 - 27 - X . Glancey , Jonathan . Spitfire : The Illustrated Biography . London : Atlantic Books , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84354 - 528 - 6 . Green , William . Messerschmitt Bf 109 : The Augsburg Eagle ; A Documentary History . London : Macdonald and Jane 's Publishing Group Ltd. , 1980 . ISBN 0 - 7106 - 0005 - 4 . Griehl , Manfred . Das geheime Typenbuch der deutschen Luftwaffe : Geheime Kommandosache 8531 / 44 gKdos ( in German ) . Friedberg , Germany : Podzun - Pallas Verlag , 2004 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 7909 - 0775 - 9 . Hitchcock , Thomas H. Gustav : Messerschmitt 109G part 1 . Boylston , Massachusetts : Monogram Aviation Publications , 1976 . ISBN 0 - 914144 - 06 - 5 Hitchcock , Thomas H. Messerschmitt ' O - Nine ' Gallery . Chicago : Monogram Aviation Publications , 1973 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 914144 - 00 - 7 . Holmes , Tony . Spitfire vs Bf 109 : Battle of Britain . Oxford , UK / New York : Osprey , 2007 . ISBN 1 - 84603 - 190 - 7 . Hooton , Edward R. Blitzkrieg in the West , 1939 -- 1940 ( Luftwaffe at War : 2 ) . Hersham , Surrey , UK : Midland Publishing , 2007 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85780 - 272 - 6 . Jackson , Robert . Aircraft of World War II : Development , Weaponry , Specifications . Edison , New Jersey : Chartwell Books , 2003 . ISBN 0 - 7858 - 1696 - 8 . Kobel , Franz and Jakob Maria Mathmann . Bf 109 . Atglen , Pennsylvania : Schiffer Publishing , 1997 . ISBN 0 - 88740 - 919 - 9 . Mankau , Heinz and Peter Petrick . Messerschmitt Bf 110 , Me 210 , Me 410 . Raumfahrt , Germany : Aviatic Verlag , 2001 . ISBN 3 - 925505 - 62 - 8 . Marshall , Francis L. Messerschmitt Bf 109T `` Die Jäger der Graf Zeppelin '' . Gilching , Germany : Marshall - Verlag , 2002 . ISBN 3 - 00 - 008220 - 4 . Marshall , Francis L. Sea Eagles : The Messerschmitt Bf 109T . Walton on Thames , Surrey , UK : Air Research Publications , 1994 . ISBN 1 - 871187 - 23 - 0 . Mason , Francis K. Messerschmitt Bf 109B , C , D , E in Luftwaffe & Foreign service . London : Osprey Publishing Limited , 1973 . ISBN 0 - 85045 - 152 - 3 . Massimello , Giovanni and Giorgio Apostolo . Italian Aces of World War Two . Oxford / New York , Osprey Publishing , 2000 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 078 - 0 . Mermet , Jean - Claude . Messerschmitt Bf 109 G - 1 through K - 4 . Engines and Fittings . Marnaz , France : Jean Claude Mermet SA , 1999 . Messerschmitt AG . Messerschmitt Bf 109G ; technisch Kompendium , Handbücher , Ersatztelliste , Bewaffnung Bedienungsvorschrift / Fl , Bordfunkanlage , Lehrbildreihe ; 1942 / 1944 . ( Elektronische Resource ) ( Reprint ) Ludwigsburg , Germany : Luftfahrt - Archiv , 2006 . ISBN 3 - 939847 - 13 - 5 . Messerschmitt AG . Messerschmitt Bf 109K ; technisch Kompendium , Handbüch , Ersatztelliste , Rep. - Answeisung , Bewaffnung Bedienungsvorschrift ; 1943 -- 1944 . ( Elektronische Resource ) ( Reprint ) . Ludwigsburg , Germany : Luftfahrt - Archiv , 2006 . ISBN 3 - 939847 - 14 - 3 . Morgan , Eric B. and Edward Shacklady . Spitfire : The History . Stamford , UK : Key Books Ltd , 2000 . ISBN 0 - 946219 - 48 - 6 . Neulen , Hans Werner . In the Skies of Europe . Ramsbury , Marlborough , UK : The Crowood Press , 2000 . ISBN 1 - 86126 - 799 - 1 . Nowarra , Heinz . Die Deutsche Luftrustung 1933 -- 1945 , Band 3 : Flugzeugtypen Henschel - Messerschmitt . Koblenz , Germany : Bernard & Graefe , 1993 . ISBN 3 - 7637 - 5467 - 9 . Osché , Philippe ( translated by Patrick Laureau ) . The Messerschmitt Bf 109 in Swiss Service . Boulogne sur Mer , France : Lela Presse , 1996 . ISBN 2 - 914017 - 31 - 6 . Prien , Jochen and Peter Rodeike . Messerschmitt Bf 109 F , G & K Series : An Illustrated Study . Atglen , Pennsylvania : Schiffer Publishing Ltd. , 1995 . ISBN 0 - 88740 - 424 - 3 . Price , Alfred . Spitfire Mk . I / II Aces ( Osprey 's Aircraft of the Aces ) . London : Osprey , 1996 . ISBN 84 - 8372 - 207 - 0 . Punka , György . `` A Messzer '' : Bf 109s in the Royal Hungarian `` Honvéd '' Air Force . Budapest , Hungary : OMIKK , 1995 . ISBN 963 - 593 - 208 - 1 . Radinger , Willy and Walter Schick . Messerschmitt Me 109 ( Alle Varianten : vion Bf ( Me ) 109A bis Me 109E ) . Oberhaching , Germany : Aviatic Verlag GmbH , 1997 . ISBN 3 - 925505 - 32 - 6 . Radinger , Willy and Wolfgang Otto . Messerschmitt Bf 109 F-K -- Development , testing , production . Atglen , PA : Schiffer Publishing Ltd. , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 7643 - 1023 - 2 . Rimmell , Ray . ME 109 : Messerschmitt Bf 109E . Chipping Ongar , Essex , UK : Linewrights Ltd. , 1986 . ISBN 0 - 946958 - 18 - 1 . Ritger , Lynn . Meserschmitt Bf 109 Prototype to ' E ' Variants . Bedford , UK : SAM Publications , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9551858 - 0 - 9 . Savic , D. and B. Ciglic . Croatian Aces of World War II ( Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 49 ) . Oxford , UK : Oxford , 2002 . ISBN 1 - 84176 - 435 - 3 . Scutts , Jerry . Bf 109 Aces of North Africa and the Mediterranean . Oxford , UK : Osprey Publishing , 1994 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85532 - 448 - 0 . Shores , C. , B. Cull and N. Malizia . Air War for Yugoslavia , Greece & Crete -- 1940 -- 41 . London : Grub Street , 1987 . ISBN 0 - 948817 - 07 - 0 . Starr , Chris . `` Developing Power : Daimler - Benz and the Messerschmitt Bf 109 . '' Aeroplane magazine , Volume 33 , No. 5 , Issue No 385 , May 2005 . London : IPC Media Ltd . Stenman , Kari and Kalevi Keskinen . Finnish Aces of World War 2 ( Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 23 ) . London : Osprey Publishing Limited , 1998 . ISBN 1 - 85532 - 783 - X . Taylor , John W.R. `` Messerschmitt Bf 109 '' . Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present . New York : G.P. Putnam 's Sons , 1969 . ISBN 0 - 425 - 03633 - 2 . Thompson , J. Steve with Peter . C Smith . Air Combat Manoeuvres . Hersham , Surrey , UK : Ian Allan Publishing , 2008 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 903223 - 98 - 7 . U.S. Army Air Force . German Aircraft and Armament : Informational Intelligence , Summary No. 44 -- 32 , October 1944 ( Informational Intelligence Summary ) . New York : Brassey 's Inc. , 2000 ( first edition 1944 ) . ISBN 1 - 57488 - 291 - 0 . Valtonen , Hannu . Messerschmitt Bf 109 ja saksan sotatalous ( Messerschmitt Bf 109 and the German War Economy ) . Helsinki , Finland : Keski - Suomen Ilmailumuseo ( Central Finnish Aviation Museum ) , 1999 . ISBN 978 - 951 - 95688 - 7 - 4 . Vogt , Harald . Messerschmitt Bf 109 G / K Rüstsatze . Flugzeug Profile 21 . Illertissen , Flugzeug Publikations GmbH . Wagner , Ray and Heinz Nowarra . German Combat Planes : A Comprehensive Survey and History of the Development of German Military Aircraft from 1914 to 1945 . New York : Doubleday , 1971 . Weal , John . Bf 109 Aces of the Russian Front . Oxford , UK : Osprey , 2001 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 084 - 1 . Weal , John . BF 109D / E Aces 1939 -- 41 . Oxford , UK : Osprey , 1996 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85532 - 487 - 9 . Weal , John . Bf 109F / G / K Aces of the Western Front . Oxford , UK : Osprey , 2000 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85532 - 905 - 8 . Winchester , Jim . `` Messerschmitt Bf 109 . '' Aircraft of World War II : The Aviation Factfile . Kent , UK : Grange Books plc , 2004 . ISBN 1 - 84013 - 639 - 1 . Wolf , Manuel . Luftkrieg über Europa 1939 -- 1945 , die Angst im Nacken ( in German ) . Stuttgart : Motorbuch - Verlag , 2009 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 613 - 03084 - 8 . Further reading ( edit ) Beale , Nick , Ferdinando D'Amico and Gabriele Valentini . Air War Italy : Axis Air Forces from Liberation of Rome to the Surrender . Shrewsbury , UK : Airlife , 1996 . ISBN 1 - 85310 - 252 - 0 . Bergström , Christer and Martin Pegg . Jagdwaffe : The War in Russia , January -- October 1942 . Luftwaffe Colours , Volume 3 Section 4 . London : Classic Colours Publications , 2003 . ISBN 1 - 903223 - 23 - 7 . External links ( edit ) Nazi fighter : The Messerschmitt Me 109 : A German Design Which Just Missed Being a Success , Flight , 24 October 1940 Messerschmitt Bf 109G - 10 -- National Museum of the United States Air Force Messerschmitt aircraft Company designations M 17 M 18 M 19 M 20 M 21 M 22 M 23 M 24 M 25 M 26 M 27 M 28 M 29 M 30 M 31 M 33 M 35 M 36 M 37 RLM designations 1933 -- 45 Bf 108 Bf 109 Bf 109TL Bf 110 Me 155 Bf 161 Bf 162 Bf 163 Me 163 Bf 165 Me 209 Me 210 Me 261 Me 262 Me 263 Me 264 Me 265 Me 309 Me 310 Me 321 Me 323 Me 328 Me 329 Me 334 Me 409 Me 410 Me 509 Me 609 Experimental designations P 08.01 P. 1070 P. 1073 P. 1075 P. 1079 P. 1092 P. 1095 P. 1099 P. 1100 P. 1101 P. 1102 P. 1103 P. 1104 P. 1106 P. 1107 P. 1108 P. 1109 P. 1110 P. 1111 P. 1112 USAAC designations C - 44 Reich Air Ministry aircraft designations 1 to 100 B 9 Gö 9 Do 10 Do 11 Wn 11 Do 12 Do 13 Do 14 Do 15 Wn 15 Do 16 Wn 16 Do 17 Do 18 Do 19 Do 20 Do 22 Do 23 Do 24 Kl 25 Do 26 Kl 26 M 27 Do 29 Kl 31 Kl 32 W 33 L 33 W 34 Kl 35 Kl 36 HD 37 HD 38 G 38 DFS 39 BV 40 DFS 40 A 40 Fw 42 He 42 Fw 43 HD 43 Fw 44 He 45 He 46 Ju 46 Fw 47 Ju 47 K 47 A 48 He 49 Ju 49 He 50 A 50 He 51 K 51 Ju 52 K 53 NR 54 Fw 55 NR 55 Fw 56 Fw 57 Fw 58 He 58 He 59 He 60 Ju 60 Fw 61 He 61 Fw 62 He 62 He 63 Ar 64 He 64 Ar 65 He 65 Ar 66 He 66 Ar 67 Ar 68 Ar 69 He 70 He 71 He 72 He 74 Ar 76 Ar 77 Ar 79 Ar 80 Ar 81 Ju 85 Ju 86 Ju 87 Ju 88 Ju 89 Ju 90 Ar 95 Ar 96 Fi 97 Fi 98 Fi 99 He 100 101 to 200 Al 101 Al 102 Al 103 Fi 103 Fh 104 Kl 105 Kl 106 Kl 107 Bf 108 Bf 109 Bf 110 He 111 He 112 He 113 He 114 He 115 He 116 Hs 117 He 118 He 119 He 120 Hs 121 Hs 122 Hs 123 Hs 124 Hs 125 Hs 126 Hs 127 Hs 128 Hs 129 Hs 130 Bü 131 Hs 132 Bü 133 Bü 134 Ha 135 Ha 136 Hü 136 Ha 137 BV 138 Ha 139 Ha 140 BV 141 BV 142 BV 143 BV 144 Go 145 Go 146 Go 147 Ju 147 Go 149 Go 150 Kl 151 Ta 152 Kl 152 Ta 153 Ta 154 BV 155 Fi 156 Fi 157 Fi 158 Fw 159 Ju 160 Bf 161 He 162 Bf 162 Bf 163 Me 163 Me 164 Fi 166 FK 166 Fi 167 Fi 168 He 170 He 172 He 176 He 177 He 178 Bü 180 Bü 181 Bü 182 Ta 183 Fl 184 Fl 185 Fw 186 Ju 186 Fw 187 Ju 187 Ju 188 Fw 189 Fw 190 Fw 191 Ao 192 DFS 193 DFS 194 Ar 195 Ar 196 Ar 197 Ar 198 Ar 199 Fw 200 201 to 300 Si 201 Si 202 DFS 203 Si 204 Fw 206 Me 208 Me 209 Me 209 ( 1943 ) Me 210 Hü 211 Do 212 Do 214 Do 215 Do 216 Do 217 Hs 217 He 219 He 220 BV 222 Fa 223 Fa 224 Ao 225 Fa 225 BV 226 Ho 226 FGP 227 DFS 228 Ho 229 DFS 230 Ar 231 Ar 232 Ar 233 Ar 234 Do 235 BV 237 BV 238 Fw 238 Ar 239 Ar 240 Go 241 Go 242 Go 244 BV 246 Ju 248 BV 250 Fw 250 Ho 250 Ho 251 Ho 252 Ju 252 Fi 253 Ho 253 Ta 254 Ho 254 Fi 256 Sk 257 Fw 261 Me 261 Me 262 Me 263 Me 264 Fl 265 Me 265 Fa 266 Ho 267 Ju 268 Fa 269 He 270 We 271 Fw 272 He 274 He 275 He 277 He 278 He 280 Fl 282 Fa 283 Ta 283 Fa 284 Fl 285 Ju 286 Ju 287 Ju 288 Ju 290 Me 290 As 292 Hs 293 Hs 294 Hs 295 Ar 296 Hs 296 Hs 297 Hs 298 Fw 300 301 - Me 309 Me 310 Do 317 Do 318 He 319 Me 321 Ju 322 Me 323 Me 328 Me 329 Fa 330 DFS 331 DFS 332 Fi 333 Me 334 Do 335 Fa 336 Fl 339 E. 340 WNF 342 He 343 Rk 344 So 344 Go 345 DFS 346 Rk 347 Ba 349 Ju 352 Me 362 Me 364 Ju 388 Ju 390 Fw 391 Ar 396 Ta 400 Me 409 Me 410 Do 417 He 419 ZMe 423 Ar 430 Ka 430 Ar 432 Do 435 Ar 440 Ju 452 Me 462 Ju 488 Fw 491 Me 509 Me 510 He 519 ZSO 523 Ar 532 Do 535 E. 555 Me 609 Ar 632 Do 635 GND : 4139345 - 4 Portals Access related topics Aviation portal Military of Germany portal World War II portal Find out more on Wikipedia 's Sister projects Media from Commons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messerschmitt_Bf_109&oldid=831625979 '' Categories : Messerschmitt Bf 109 Messerschmitt aircraft German fighter aircraft 1930 -- 1939 Single - engined tractor aircraft Low - wing aircraft World War II fighter aircraft of Germany Aircraft first flown in 1935 Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2010 Articles containing German - language text Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Articles containing video clips Talk Variants Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt 中文 43 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 March 2018 , at 13 : 58 . 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90 | document: Belgium - Wikipedia Belgium Coordinates : 50 ° 50 ′ N 4 ° 00 ′ E / 50.833 ° N 4.000 ° E / 50.833 ; 4.000 Kingdom of Belgium Koninkrijk België ( Dutch ) Royaume de Belgique ( French ) Königreich Belgien ( German ) Flag Coat of arms Motto : `` Eendracht maakt macht '' ( Dutch ) `` L'union fait la force '' ( French ) `` Einigkeit macht stark '' ( German ) `` Unity makes Strength '' Anthem : `` La Brabançonne '' `` The Brabantian '' Location of Belgium ( dark green ) -- in Europe ( green & dark grey ) -- in the European Union ( green ) Capital and largest city Brussels 50 ° 51 ′ N 4 ° 21 ′ E / 50.850 ° N 4.350 ° E / 50.850 ; 4.350 Official languages Dutch French German Ethnic groups see Demographics Religion ( 2015 ) 60.7 % Christianity 32.0 % No religion 5.2 % Islam 2.1 % Other religions Demonym Belgian Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy Monarch Philippe Prime Minister Charles Michel Legislature Federal Parliament Upper house Senate Lower house Chamber of Representatives Independence ( from the Netherlands ) Declared 4 October 1830 Recognised 19 April 1839 Area Total 30,528 km ( 11,787 sq mi ) ( 136th ) Water ( % ) 6.4 Population 1 August 2018 census 11,420,163 ( 79th ) Density 374.2 / km ( 969.2 / sq mi ) ( 36th ) GDP ( PPP ) 2018 estimate Total $550.664 billion ( 38th ) Per capita $48,258 ( 20th ) GDP ( nominal ) 2016 estimate Total $562.229 billion ( 23rd ) Per capita $49,272 ( 17th ) Gini ( 2011 ) 26.3 low HDI ( 2017 ) 0.916 very high 17th Currency Euro ( € ) ( EUR ) Time zone UTC + 1 ( CET ) Summer ( DST ) UTC + 2 ( CEST ) Driving side right Calling code + 32 ISO 3166 code BE Internet TLD . be The flag 's official proportions of 13 : 15 are rarely seen ; proportions of 2 : 3 or similar are more common . The Brussels region is the de facto capital , but the City of Brussels municipality is the de jure capital . The . eu domain is also used , as it is shared with other European Union member states . Belgium officially the Kingdom of Belgium , is a country in Western Europe bordered by France , the Netherlands , Germany and Luxembourg . It covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres ( 11,787 sq mi ) and has a population of more than 11.4 million . The capital and largest city is Brussels ; other major cities are Antwerp , Ghent , Charleroi and Liège . The sovereign state of Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance . Its institutional organisation is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds . It is divided into three highly autonomous regions : Flanders in the north , Wallonia in the south , and the Brussels - Capital Region . Brussels is both the smallest and richest region in terms of GDP per capita . It is also the most densely populated area in Belgium . Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups or Communities : the Dutch - speaking , mostly Flemish Community , which constitutes about 59 percent of the population , and the French - speaking Community , which comprises about 40 percent of all Belgians . Additionally , a small German - speaking Community , numbering around one percent , exists in the East Cantons . The Brussels - Capital Region is officially bilingual ( French and Dutch ) , although French is the dominant language of the population . Belgium 's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance , made up of six different governments . Historically , Belgium was part of an area known as the Low Countries , a somewhat larger region than the current Benelux group of states that also included parts of northern France and western Germany . Its name is derived from the Latin word Belgica , after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica . From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century , the area of Belgium was a prosperous and cosmopolitan centre of commerce and culture . Between the 16th and early 19th centuries , Belgium served as the battleground between many European powers , earning the moniker the `` Battlefield of Europe '' , a reputation strengthened by both world wars . The country emerged in 1830 following the Belgian Revolution when it seceded from the Netherlands . Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and , during the course of the 20th century , possessed a number of colonies in Africa . The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch - speaking and the French - speaking citizens fueled by differences in language and culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia . This continuing antagonism has led to several far - reaching reforms , resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993 . Despite the reforms , tensions between the groups have remained , if not increased ; there is significant separatism particularly among the Flemish ; controversial language laws exist such as the municipalities with language facilities ; and the formation of a coalition government took 18 months following the June 2010 federal election , a world record . Unemployment in Wallonia is more than double that of Flanders , which boomed after the war . Belgium is one of the six founding countries of the European Union and hosts the official seats of the European Commission , the Council of the European Union , and the European Council , as well as a seat of the European Parliament in the country 's capital , Brussels . Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone , NATO , OECD , and WTO , and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area . Brussels hosts several of the EU 's official seats as well as the headquarters of many major international organizations such as NATO . Belgium is a developed country , with an advanced high - income economy . The country achieves very high standards of living , life quality , healthcare , education , and is categorized as `` very high '' in the Human Development Index . It also ranks as one of the safest or most peaceful countries in the world . Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-independent Belgium 1.2 Independent Belgium 2 Geography 2.1 Provinces 3 Politics 3.1 Political culture 3.2 Communities and regions 3.3 Locus of policy jurisdiction 3.4 Foreign relations 3.5 Armed forces 4 Economy 4.1 Science and technology 5 Demographics 5.1 Migration 5.2 Functional urban areas 5.3 Languages 5.4 Religion 5.5 Health 5.6 Education 6 Culture 6.1 Fine arts 6.2 Folklore 6.3 Cuisine 6.4 Sports 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 External links History Main article : History of Belgium Pre-independent Belgium Gaul is divided into three parts , one of which the Belgae inhabit , the Aquitani another , those who in their own language are called Celts , in ours Gauls , the third . ( ... ) Of all these , the Belgae are the strongest ( ... ) . -- Julius Caesar , De Bello Gallico , Book I , Ch. 1 The name `` Belgium '' is derived from Gallia Belgica , a Roman province in the northernmost part of Gaul that before Roman invasion in 100 BC , was inhabited by the Belgae , a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples . A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings . A gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire . Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor . The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the region into Middle and West Francia and therefore into a set of more or less independent fiefdoms which , during the Middle Ages , were vassals either of the King of France or of the Holy Roman Emperor . Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries . Emperor Charles V extended the personal union of the Seventeen Provinces in the 1540s , making it far more than a personal union by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 and increased his influence over the Prince - Bishopric of Liège . The Eighty Years ' War ( 1568 -- 1648 ) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces ( Belgica Foederata in Latin , the `` Federated Netherlands '' ) and the Southern Netherlands ( Belgica Regia , the `` Royal Netherlands '' ) . The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish ( Spanish Netherlands ) and the Austrian Habsburgs ( Austrian Netherlands ) and comprised most of modern Belgium . This was the theatre of most Franco - Spanish and Franco - Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries . Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars , the Low Countries -- including territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule , such as the Prince - Bishopric of Liège -- were annexed by the French First Republic , ending Austrian rule in the region . The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815 , after the defeat of Napoleon . Independent Belgium Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830 ( 1834 ) , by Gustaf Wappers In 1830 , the Belgian Revolution led to the separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois , officially French - speaking and neutral , independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress . Since the installation of Leopold I as king on 21 July 1831 , now celebrated as Belgium 's National Day , Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy , with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code . Although the franchise was initially restricted , universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 ( with plural voting until 1919 ) and for women in 1949 . The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party , with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century . French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie . It progressively lost its overall importance as Dutch became recognized as well . This recognition became official in 1898 and in 1967 the parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution . The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession . From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II , for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production . Many Congolese were killed by Leopold 's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber . It is estimated that nearly 10 million were killed during the Leopold period . In 1908 , this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony , henceforth called the Belgian Congo . A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo 's population was half what it was in 1879 . Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France , and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country . The opening months of the war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses . Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda - Urundi ( modern - day Rwanda and Burundi ) during the war , and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium . In the aftermath of the First World War , Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925 , thereby causing the presence of a German - speaking minority . Cheering crowds greet British troops entering Brussels , 4 September 1944 German forces again invaded the country in May 1940 , and 40,690 Belgians , over half of them Jews , were killed during the subsequent occupation and The Holocaust . From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium . After World War II , a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951 , since many Belgians felt he had collaborated with Germany during the war . The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis ; Ruanda - Urundi followed with its independence two years later . Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg . Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community , established in 1957 . The latter has now become the European Union , for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions , including the European Commission , the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament . Geography Main article : Geography of Belgium A relief map of Belgium Belgium shares borders with France ( 620 km ) , Germany ( 167 km ) , Luxembourg ( 148 km ) and the Netherlands ( 450 km ) . Its total surface , including water area , is 30,528 square kilometres from which land area alone 30,278 km . It lies between latitudes 49 ° 30 and 51 ° 30 N , and longitudes 2 ° 33 and 6 ° 24 E . Polders along the Yser river . Campine landscape . Belgium has three main geographical regions ; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo - Belgian Basin , and the Ardennes uplands in the southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt . The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium 's southernmost tip , Belgian Lorraine . The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders . Further inland lies a smooth , slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways , with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ( Kempen ) . The thickly forested hills and plateaux of the Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges . Extending westward into France , this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau , on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country 's highest point at 694 metres ( 2,277 ft ) . The Meuse river between Dinant and Hastière . High Fens landscape near the German border . The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ) , like most of northwest Europe . The average temperature is lowest in January at 3 ° C ( 37.4 ° F ) and highest in July at 18 ° C ( 64.4 ° F ) . The average precipitation per month varies between 54 millimetres ( 2.1 in ) for February and April , to 78 mm ( 3.1 in ) for July . Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of 7 ° C ( 44.6 ° F ) and maximums of 14 ° C ( 57.2 ° F ) and monthly rainfall of 74 mm ( 2.9 in ) ; these are about 1 ° C and nearly 10 millimetres above last century 's normal values , respectively . Phytogeographically , Belgium is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . According to the World Wide Fund for Nature , the territory of Belgium belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests . Because of its high population density , industrialization and its location in the centre of Western Europe , Belgium still faces some environmental problems . However , due to consistent efforts by the various levels of government in Belgium , the state of the environment in Belgium is gradually improving . This led to Belgium being ranked as one of the top 10 countries ( 9 out of 132 ) in terms of environmental protection trends , and to Belgium being ranked in 2012 as the 24th country out of 132 for environmental protection . Belgium moreover has one of Europe 's highest waste recycling rates . In particular , the Flemish region of Belgium has the highest waste diversion rate in Europe . Almost 75 percent of the residential waste produced there is reused , recycled , or composted . Provinces Antwerp East Flanders Flemish Brabant Hainaut Liège Limburg Luxembourg Namur Walloon Brabant West Flanders Flanders Wallonia Brussels Main article : Provinces of Belgium The territory of Belgium is divided into three Regions , two of which , the Flemish Region and Walloon Region , are in turn subdivided into provinces ; the third Region , the Brussels Capital Region , is neither a province nor a part of a province . Province Dutch name French name German name Capital Largest city Area ( km ) Population ( 1 January 2016 ) Antwerp Antwerpen Anvers Antwerpen Antwerp ( Dutch : Antwerpen ) ( French : Anvers ) Antwerp ( Dutch : Antwerpen ) ( French : Anvers ) 2,860 1,824,136 East Flanders Oost - Vlaanderen Flandre - Orientale Ostflandern Ghent ( Dutch : Gent ) ( French : Gand ) Ghent ( Dutch : Gent ) ( French : Gand ) 2,982 1,486,722 Flemish Brabant Vlaams - Brabant Brabant flamand Flämisch Brabant Leuven ( French : Louvain ) ( German : Löwen ) Leuven ( French : Louvain ) 2,106 1,121,693 Hainaut Henegouwen Hainaut Hennegau Mons ( Dutch : Bergen ) Charleroi 3,800 1,337,157 Liège Luik Liège Lüttich Liège ( Dutch : Luik ) ( German : Lüttich ) Liège ( Dutch : Luik ) ( German : Lüttich ) 3,844 1,098,688 Limburg Limburg Limbourg Limburg Hasselt Hasselt 2,414 863,425 Luxembourg Luxemburg Luxembourg Luxemburg Arlon ( Dutch : Aarlen ) ( German : Arel ) Arlon ( Dutch : Aarlen ) ( German : Arel ) 4,443 280,327 Namur Namen Namur Namur Namur ( Dutch : Namen ) Namur ( Dutch : Namen ) 3,664 489,204 Walloon Brabant Waals - Brabant Brabant wallon Wallonisch Brabant Wavre ( Dutch : Waver ) Braine - l'Alleud ( Dutch : Eigenbrakel ) 1,093 396,840 West Flanders West - Vlaanderen Flandre - Occidentale Westflandern Bruges ( Dutch : Brugge ) ( French : Bruges ) ( German : Brügge ) Bruges ( Dutch : Brugge ) ( French : Bruges ) ( German : Brügge ) 3,151 1,181,828 Politics Main articles : Politics of Belgium and Belgian federal government Philippe King of the Belgians since 2013 Charles Michel Prime Minister since 2014 Belgium is a constitutional , popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy . The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives . The former is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators . Prior to 2014 , most of the Senate 's members were directly elected . The Chamber 's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts . Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world . The King ( currently Philippe ) is the head of state , though with limited prerogatives . He appoints ministers , including a Prime Minister , that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government . The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members . With the possible exception of the Prime Minister , the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch - speaking members and French - speaking members . The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code . The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort , with the Court of Appeal one level below . Political culture Belgium 's political institutions are complex ; most political power is organized around the need to represent the main cultural communities . Since about 1970 , the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities . The major parties in each community , though close to the political centre , belong to three main groups : Christian Democrats , Liberals , and Social Democrats . Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century , mainly around linguistic , nationalist , or environmental themes and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature . The Belgian Federal Parliament in Brussels , one of six different governments of the country A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958 was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis , a major food contamination scandal . A `` rainbow coalition '' emerged from six parties : the Flemish and the French - speaking Liberals , Social Democrats and Greens . Later , a `` purple coalition '' of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election . The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved a balanced budget , some tax reforms , a labour - market reform , scheduled nuclear phase - out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution . Restrictions on withholding euthanasia were reduced and same - sex marriage legalized . The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed the invasion of Iraq . It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia . Verhofstadt 's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections . For more than a year , the country experienced a political crisis . This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium . From 21 December 2007 until 20 March 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government was in office . This coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats , the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats was an interim government until 20 March 2008 . On that day a new government , led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme , the actual winner of the federal elections of June 2007 , was sworn in by the king . On 15 July 2008 Leterme announced the resignation of the cabinet to the king , as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made . In December 2008 he once more offered his resignation to the king after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas . At this juncture , his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 30 December 2008 . After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 19 November 2009 , he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 25 November 2009 . A few hours later , the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in . On 22 April 2010 , Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners , the OpenVLD , withdrew from the government , and on 26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation . The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N - VA become the largest party in Flanders , and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia . Until December 2011 , Belgium was governed by Leterme 's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of a new government . By 30 March 2011 this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government , previously held by war - torn Iraq . Finally , in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in . The 2014 federal election ( coinciding with the regional elections ) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N - VA , although the incumbent coalition ( composed of Flemish and French - speaking Social Democrats , Liberals , and Christian Democrats ) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies . On 22 July 2014 , King Philippe nominated Charles Michel ( MR ) and Kris Peeters ( CD&V ) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N - VA , CD&V , Open Vld and the French - speaking MR , which resulted in the Michel Government . It is the first time N - VA is part of the federal cabinet , while the French - speaking side is represented only by the MR , which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia . Communities and regions Main article : Communities , regions and language areas of Belgium Communities : Flemish Community / Dutch language area Flemish & French Community / bilingual language area French Community / French language area German - speaking Community / German language area Regions : Flemish Region / Dutch language area Brussels - Capital Region / bilingual area Walloon Region / French and German language areas Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts , in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class , and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second - class citizens . Late that century , and continuing into the 20th century , Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation . While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French , and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language , the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system . Following World War II , Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities . Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimise the potential for conflict . Based on the four language areas defined in 1962 -- 63 ( the Dutch , bilingual , French and German language areas ) , consecutive revisions of the country 's constitution in 1970 , 1980 , 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels : The federal government , based in Brussels . The three language communities : the Flemish Community ( Dutch - speaking ) ; the French Community ( French - speaking ) ; the German - speaking Community . The three regions : the Flemish Region , subdivided into five provinces ; the Walloon Region , subdivided into five provinces ; the Brussels - Capital Region . The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities , as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters . Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments , when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980 , Flemish politicians decided to merge both . Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters . The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities : the territory of the Brussels - Capital Region ( which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions ) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities , and the territory of the German - speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region . Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium . The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully . Locus of policy jurisdiction The Federal State 's authority includes justice , defence , federal police , social security , nuclear energy , monetary policy and public debt , and other aspects of public finances . State - owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways . The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO . It controls substantial parts of public health , home affairs and foreign affairs . The budget -- without the debt -- controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50 % of the national fiscal income . The federal government employs around 12 % of the civil servants . Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries , originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community 's language : culture ( including audiovisual media ) , education and the use of the relevant language . Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy ( curative and preventive medicine ) and assistance to individuals ( protection of youth , social welfare , aid to families , immigrant assistance services , and so on . ) . Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory . These include economy , employment , agriculture , water policy , housing , public works , energy , transport , the environment , town and country planning , nature conservation , credit and foreign trade . They supervise the provinces , municipalities and intercommunal utility companies . In several fields , the different levels each have their own say on specifics . With education , for instance , the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications , which remain federal matters . Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers . The treaty - making power of the Regions ' and Communities ' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world . Foreign relations Main article : Foreign relations of Belgium Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe , Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbours . With virtually defenceless borders , Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation . The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration . Both the European Union and NATO are headquartered in Belgium . Armed forces Main article : Belgian Armed Forces The Belgian Armed Forces have about 47,000 active troops . In 2010 , Belgium 's defence budget totaled € 3.95 billion ( representing 1.12 % of its GDP ) . They are organized into one unified structure which consists of four main components : Land Component , or the Army ; Air Component , or the Air Force ; Naval Component , or the Navy ; Medical Component . The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defence , which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training , and to the Chief of Defence . The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy . In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels , and then joined NATO in 1948 . However the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War . The Belgians , along with the Luxembourg government , sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command . This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported . Currently , the Belgian Naval Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux . Economy Main article : Economy of Belgium Belgium is part of a monetary union , the eurozone ( dark blue ) , and of the EU single market Belgium 's strongly globalized economy and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe . Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world 's 15th largest trading nation in 2007 . The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force , high GNP and high exports per capita . Belgium 's main imports are raw materials , machinery and equipment , chemicals , raw diamonds , pharmaceuticals , foodstuffs , transportation equipment , and oil products . Its main exports are machinery and equipment , chemicals , finished diamonds , metals and metal products , and foodstuffs . The Belgian economy is heavily service - oriented and shows a dual nature : a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind . One of the founding members of the European Union , Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies . Since 1922 , through the Belgium - Luxembourg Economic Union , Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union . Steelmaking along the Meuse River at Ougrée , near Liège Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution , in the early 19th century . Liège and Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking , which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium among one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910 . However , by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis , and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850 . After World War II , Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries . The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession ; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia , where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced serious decline . In the 1980s and 1990s , the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area . By the end of the 1980s , Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120 % of GDP . As of 2006 , the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30 % of GDP . In 2005 and 2006 , real GDP growth rates of 1.5 % and 3.0 % , respectively , were slightly above the average for the Euro area . Unemployment rates of 8.4 % in 2005 and 8.2 % in 2006 were close to the area average . By October 2010 , this had grown to 8.5 % compared to an average rate of 9.6 % for the European Union as a whole ( EU 27 ) . From 1832 until 2002 , Belgium 's currency was the Belgian franc . Belgium switched to the euro in 2002 , with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999 . The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch ( first King Albert II , since 2013 King Philippe ) . Despite an 18 % decrease observed from 1970 to 1999 , Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km / 1 000 km . On the other hand , the same period of time , 1970 -- 1999 , has seen a huge growth ( + 56 % ) of the motorway network . In 1999 , the density of km motorways per 1000 km and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU 's means of 13.7 and 15.9 . Port of Zeebrugge Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe . In 2010 , commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams . Like in most small European countries , more than 80 % of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport , the Brussels Airport . The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge ( Bruges ) share more than 80 % of Belgian maritime traffic , Antwerp being the second European harbour with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9 % over the preceding five years . In 2016 , the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year - on - year growth of 2.7 % . There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia . Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders , mostly due to its heavy industries , but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region 's rapid decline , whereas Flanders rose swiftly . Since then , Flanders has been prosperous , among the wealthiest regions in Europe , whereas Wallonia has been languishing . As of 2007 , the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders . The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already - existing language divide . Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence . The separatist New Flemish Alliance ( N - VA ) party for instance is the largest party in Belgium . Science and Technology Further information : Science and technology in Brussels , Science and technology in Flanders , and Science and technology in Wallonia Gerardus Mercator Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country 's history . The 16th century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator , anatomist Andreas Vesalius , herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists . Chemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme ( École Industrielle de Liège ) gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo , respectively , in the 1860s . Bakelite was developed in 1907 -- 1909 by Leo Baekeland . Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology , the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles . In 1911 , he started a series of conferences , the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry , which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry . A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian , Monsignor Georges Lemaître ( Catholic University of Leuven ) , who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927 . Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians : Jules Bordet ( Université libre de Bruxelles ) in 1919 , Corneille Heymans ( University of Ghent ) in 1938 and Albert Claude ( Université Libre de Bruxelles ) together with Christian de Duve ( Université Catholique de Louvain ) in 1974 . François Englert ( Université Libre de Bruxelles ) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013 . Ilya Prigogine ( Université Libre de Bruxelles ) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977 . Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal : Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994 . Demographics Main article : Demographics of Belgium Brussels , the capital city and largest metropolitan area of Belgium As of 1 January 2015 , the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,190,845 . Almost all of the population is urban , at 97 % in 2004 . The population density of Belgium is 365 per square kilometre ( 952 per square mile ) as of March 2013 . The most densely inhabited area is Flanders . The Ardennes have the lowest density . As of 1 January 2015 , the Flemish Region had a population of 6,437,680 , its most populous cities being Antwerp ( 511,771 ) , Ghent ( 252,274 ) and Bruges ( 117,787 ) . Wallonia had 3,585,214 with Charleroi ( 202,021 ) , Liège ( 194,937 ) and Namur ( 110,447 ) , its most populous cities . Brussels has 1,167,951 inhabitants in the Capital Region 's 19 municipalities , three of which have over 100,000 residents . Migration This section needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( June 2017 ) As of 2007 , nearly 92 % of the population had Belgian citizenship , and other European Union member citizens account for around 6 % . The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian ( 171,918 ) , French ( 125,061 ) , Dutch ( 116,970 ) , Moroccan ( 80,579 ) , Portuguese ( 43,509 ) , Spanish ( 42,765 ) , Turkish ( 39,419 ) and German ( 37,621 ) . In 2007 , there were 1.38 million foreign - born residents in Belgium , corresponding to 12.9 % of the total population . Of these , 685,000 ( 6.4 % ) were born outside the EU and 695,000 ( 6.5 % ) were born in another EU Member State . At the beginning of 2012 , people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25 % of the total population i.e. 2.8 million new Belgians . Of these new Belgians , 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000 are from non-Western countries ( most of them from Morocco , Turkey , and the DR Congo ) . Since the modification of the Belgian nationality law in 1984 more than 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship . The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans. 89.2 % of inhabitants of Turkish origin have been naturalized , as have 88.4 % of people of Moroccan background , 75.4 % of Italians , 56.2 % of the French and 47.8 % of Dutch people . Largest cities or towns in Belgium Numbers according to the NIS , table 3 ( 01 / 01 / 2014 ) Rank Name Region Pop . Rank Name Region Pop . Antwerp Ghent Antwerp Flanders 510,610 11 Mons Wallonia 95,047 Charleroi Liège Ghent Flanders 251,133 12 Sint - Jans - Molenbeek / Molenbeek - Saint - Jean Brussels 94,854 Charleroi Wallonia 202,730 13 Aalst Flanders 83,347 Liège Wallonia 196,291 14 Elsene / Ixelles Brussels 83,332 5 City of Brussels Brussels 170,407 15 Mechelen Flanders 83,194 6 Schaarbeek / Schaerbeek Brussels 131,604 16 Ukkel / Uccle Brussels 81,089 7 Bruges Flanders 117,377 17 La Louvière Wallonia 80,172 8 Anderlecht Brussels 115,178 18 Hasselt Flanders 75,991 9 Namur Wallonia 110,665 19 Kortrijk Flanders 75,128 10 Leuven Flanders 98,292 20 Sint - Niklaas Flanders 73,716 Bruges , historical city centre , UNESCO World Heritage Site Functional urban areas Functional urban areas Population 2011 Brussels 2,608,000 Antwerp 1,091,000 Liège 744,000 Ghent 591,000 Charleroi 488,000 Languages Main article : Languages of Belgium Distribution of languages of Belgium Dutch 59 % French 40 % German 1 % Bilingual signs in Brussels Belgium has three official languages : Dutch , French and German . A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well . As no census exists , there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium 's three official languages or their dialects . However , various criteria , including the language ( s ) of parents , of education , or the second - language status of foreign born , may provide suggested figures . An estimated 60 % of the Belgian population speaks Dutch ( often referred to as Flemish ) , and 40 % of the population speaks French . French - speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons , although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons . Total Dutch speakers are 6.23 million , concentrated in the northern Flanders region , while French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 ( or 85 % ) in the officially bilingual Brussels - Capital Region . The German - speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region ; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German . Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community . Both Belgian Dutch and Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France . Many Flemish people still speak dialects of Dutch in their local environment . Walloon , considered either as a dialect of French or a distinct Romance language , is now only understood and spoken occasionally , mostly by elderly people . Walloon is divided into four dialects , which along with those of Picard , are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French . Religion Main article : Religion in Belgium National Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg , Brussels Since the country 's independence , Roman Catholicism , counterbalanced by strong freethought movements , has had an important role in Belgium 's politics . However Belgium is largely a secular country as the laicist constitution provides for freedom of religion , and the government generally respects this right in practice . During the reigns of Albert I and Baudouin , the monarchy had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism . Roman Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium 's majority religion ; being especially strong in Flanders . However , by 2009 Sunday church attendance was 5 % for Belgium in total ; 3 % in Brussels , and 5.4 % in Flanders . Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 ( 11 % for the total of Belgium in 1998 ) . Despite the drop in church attendance , Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium 's culture . According to the Eurobarometer 2010 , 37 % of Belgian citizens responded that they believe there is a God . 31 % answered that they believe there is some sort of spirit or life - force . 27 % answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit , God , or life - force . 5 % did not respond . According to the Eurobarometer 2015 , 60.7 % of the total population of Belgium adhered to Christianity , with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9 % . Protestants comprised 2.1 % and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6 % of the total . Non religious people comprised the 32.0 % of the population and were divided between atheists ( 14.9 % ) and agnostics ( 17.1 % ) . A further 5.2 % of the population was Muslim and 2.1 % were believers in other religions . The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium accounting 65 % of Belgians . Symbolically and materially , the Roman Catholic Church remains in a favourable position . Belgium officially recognises three religions : Christianity ( Catholic , Protestantism , Orthodox churches and Anglicanism ) , Islam and Judaism . Interior of the Great Synagogue of Brussels In the early 2000s there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium . The Jewish Community of Antwerp ( numbering some 18,000 ) is one of the largest in Europe , and one of the last places in the world where Yiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community ( mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York , New Jersey , and Israel ) . In addition most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education . There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues ( 30 of which are in Antwerp ) in the country . A 2006 inquiry in Flanders , considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia , showed that 55 % considered themselves religious and that 36 % believed that God created the universe . On the other hand , Wallonia has become one of Europe 's most secular / least religious regions . Most of the French - speaking region 's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives , and as much as 45 % of the population identifies as irreligious . This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border . The Great Mosque of Brussels is the seat of the Islamic and Cultural Centre of Belgium A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6 % of the Belgian population ( 628,751 people ) is Muslim . Muslims constitute 23.6 % of the population of Brussels , 4.9 % of Wallonia and 5.1 % of Flanders . The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities , such as Antwerp , Brussels and Charleroi . The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans , with 400,000 people . The Turks are the third largest group , and the second largest Muslim ethnic group , numbering 220,000 . Health Main article : Healthcare in Belgium University Hospital of Antwerp The Belgians enjoy good health . According to 2012 estimates , the average life expectancy is 79.65 years . Since 1960 , life expectancy has , in line with the European average , grown by two months per year . Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders , neoplasms , disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death ( accidents , suicide ) . Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44 . Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation . Health insurance is compulsory . Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public , university and semi-private hospitals . Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions , but for ineligible categories ( of patients and services ) so - called 3rd party payment systems exist . The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government , the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments ; and the German Community also has ( indirect ) oversight and responsibilities . For the first time in Belgian history , the first child was euthanized following the 2 year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions . The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child . Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide . Education Main article : Education in Belgium The Central Library of the KU Leuven University Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians . Among OECD countries in 2002 , Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18 - to 21 - year - olds enrolled in postsecondary education , at 42 % . Though an estimated 99 % of the adult population is literate , concern is rising over functional illiteracy . The Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA ) , coordinated by the OECD , currently ranks Belgium 's education as the 19th best in the world , being significantly higher than the OECD average . Education being organized separately by each , the Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German - speaking Communities . Mirroring the dual structure of the 19th - century Belgian political landscape , characterized by the Liberal and the Catholic parties , the educational system is segregated within a secular and a religious segment . The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities , the provinces , or the municipalities , while religious , mainly Catholic branch education , is organized by religious authorities , although subsidized and supervised by the communities . Culture Main article : Culture of Belgium Despite its political and linguistic divisions , the region corresponding to today 's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture . Nowadays , to a certain extent , cultural life is concentrated within each language Community , and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced . Since the 1970s , there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy , no common media and no single large cultural or scientific organization in which both main communities are represented . Fine Arts See also : List of Belgian painters , Architecture of Belgium , and Music of Belgium The Ghent Altarpiece : The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb ( interior view ) , painted 1432 by van Eyck Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich . The Mosan art , the Early Netherlandish , the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting and major examples of Romanesque , Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque architecture are milestones in the history of art . While the 15th century 's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden , the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel 's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard 's representation of the antique . Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands , it gradually declined thereafter . During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic , expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged , including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group , Constant Permeke , Paul Delvaux and René Magritte . The avant - garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s , while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art . Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre , Wim Delvoye and the painters Guy Huygens and Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene . Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries , including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde , who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style . Jacques Brel , 1963 The vocal music of the Franco - Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture . In the 19th and 20th centuries , there was an emergence of major violinists , such as Henri Vieuxtemps , Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux , while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846 . The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822 . Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute . Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame . Nowadays , singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond , having great success . In rock / pop music , Telex , Front 242 , K 's Choice , Hooverphonic , Zap Mama , Soulwax and dEUS are well known . In the heavy metal scene , bands like Machiavel , Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan - base . Belgium has produced several well - known authors , including the poets Emile Verhaeren , Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience , Georges Simenon , Suzanne Lilar , Hugo Claus , Joseph Weterings and Amélie Nothomb . The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911 . The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé is the best known of Franco - Belgian comics , but many other major authors , including Peyo ( The Smurfs ) , André Franquin ( Gaston Lagaffe ) , Dupa ( Cubitus ) , Morris ( Lucky Luke ) , Greg ( Achille Talon ) , Lambil ( Les Tuniques Bleues ) , Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame . Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on - screen . Other Belgian directors include André Delvaux , Stijn Coninx , Luc and Jean - Pierre Dardenne ; well - known actors include Jean - Claude Van Damme , Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain ; and successful films include Bullhead , Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair . In the 1980s , Antwerp 's Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced important fashion trendsetters , known as the Antwerp Six . Folklore Further information : Folklore of Belgium The Gilles of Binche , in costume , wearing wax masks Folklore plays a major role in Belgium 's cultural life : the country has a comparatively high number of processions , cavalcades , parades , ' ommegangs ' and ' ducasses ' , ' kermesse ' and other local festivals , nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background . The Carnival of Binche with its famous Gilles and the ' Processional Giants and Dragons ' of Ath , Brussels , Dendermonde , Mechelen and Mons are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . Other examples are the Carnival of Aalst ; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood in Bruges , Virga Jesse Basilica in Hasselt and Basilica of Our Lady of Hanswijk in Mechelen ; 15 August festival in Liège ; and the Walloon festival in Namur . Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s , the Gentse Feesten have become a modern tradition . A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day , a festivity for children and , in Liège , for students . Cuisine Main article : Belgian cuisine Moules - frites / mosselen met friet is the national dish of Belgium Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides , such as the Michelin Guide . Belgium is famous for beer , chocolate , waffles and french fries with mayonnaise . Contrary to their name , french fries are claimed to have originated in Belgium , although their exact place of origin is uncertain . The national dishes are `` steak and fries with salad '' , and `` mussels with fries '' . Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines , like Côte d'Or , Neuhaus , Leonidas and Godiva are famous , as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary 's in Brussels . Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer . The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world 's best beer . The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser - Busch InBev , based in Leuven . Sports Eddy Merckx , regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time Main article : Sport in Belgium Since the 1970s , sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community . Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium ; also very popular are cycling , tennis , swimming , judo and basketball . Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France . They have also the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships . Philippe Gilbert is the 2012 world champion . Another modern well - known Belgian cyclist is Tom Boonen . With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records , Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time . Jean - Marie Pfaff , a former Belgian goalkeeper , is considered one of the greatest in the history of association football . Belgium hosted the 1972 European Football Championships , and co-hosted the 2000 European Championships with the Netherlands . The Belgium national football team reached first place in the FIFA World Rankings for the first time in November 2015 . Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women 's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player . The Spa - Francorchamps motor - racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix . The Belgian driver , Jacky Ickx , won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner - up in the Formula One World Championship . Belgium also has a strong reputation in , motocross with the rider Stefan Everts . Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition , the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One , and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège -- Bastogne -- Liège . The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp . The 1977 European Basketball Championship was held in Liège and Ostend . See also Belgium portal Brussels portal Book : Belgium Index of Belgium - related articles Outline of Belgium Footnotes Jump up ^ Dutch : België ( ˈbɛlɣijə ) ( listen ) ; French : Belgique ( bɛlʒik ) ( listen ) ; German : Belgien ( ˈbɛlɡi̯ən ) ( listen ) Jump up ^ Belgium is a member of , or affiliated to , many international organizations , including ACCT , AfDB , AsDB , Australia Group , Benelux , BIS , CCC , CE , CERN , EAPC , EBRD , EIB , EMU , ESA , EU , FAO , G - 10 , IAEA , IBRD , ICAO , ICC , ICRM , IDA , IDB , IEA , IFAD , IFC , IFRCS , IHO , ILO , IMF , IMO , IMSO , Intelsat , Interpol , IOC , IOM , ISO , ITU , MONUC ( observers ) , NATO , NEA , NSG , OAS ( observer ) , OECD , OPCW , OSCE , PCA , UN , UNCTAD , UNECE , UNESCO , UNHCR , UNIDO , UNMIK , UNMOGIP , UNRWA , UNTSO , UPU , WADB ( non-regional ) , WEU , WHO , WIPO , WMO , WTrO , ZC . Jump up ^ The Celtic and / or Germanic influences on and origin ( s ) of the Belgae remains disputed . Further reading : Witt , Constanze Maria ( May 1997 ) . `` Ethnic and Cultural Identity '' . Barbarians on the Greek Periphery ? -- Origins of Celtic Art . Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities , University of Virginia . Retrieved 6 June 2007 . Jump up ^ The Constitution set out seven institutions each of which can have a parliament , government and administration . In fact there are only six such bodies because the Flemish Region merged into the Flemish Community . This single Flemish body thus exercises powers about Community matters in the bilingual area of Brussels - Capital and in the Dutch language area , while about Regional matters only in Flanders . Jump up ^ The richest ( per capita income ) of Belgium 's three regions is the Flemish Region , followed by the Walloon Region and lastly the Brussels - Capital Region . The ten municipalities with the highest reported income are : Laethem - Saint - Martin , Keerbergen , Lasne , Oud - Heverlee , Hove , De Pinte , Meise , Knokke - Heist , Bierbeek . `` Où habitent les Belges les plus riches ? '' . trends.be. 2010 . Archived from the original on 27 August 2011 . Retrieved 15 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Native speakers of Dutch living in Wallonia and of French in Flanders are relatively small minorities that furthermore largely balance one another , hence attributing all inhabitants of each unilingual area to the area 's language can cause only insignificant inaccuracies ( 99 % can speak the language ) . Dutch : Flanders ' 6.079 million inhabitants and about 15 % of Brussels ' 1.019 million are 6.23 million or 59.3 % of the 10.511 million inhabitants of Belgium ( 2006 ) ; German : 70,400 in the German - speaking Community ( which has language facilities for its less than 5 % French - speakers ) and an estimated 20,000 -- 25,000 speakers of German in the Walloon Region outside the geographical boundaries of their official Community , or 0.9 % ; French : in the latter area as well as mainly in the rest of Wallonia ( 3.321 million ) and 85 % of the Brussels inhabitants ( 0.866 million ) thus 4.187 million or 39.8 % ; together indeed 100 % . Jump up ^ Flemish Academic Eric Corijn ( initiator of Charta 91 ) , at a colloquium regarding Brussels , on 2001 - 12 - 05 , states that in Brussels 91 % of the population speaks French at home , either alone or with another language , and about 20 % speaks Dutch at home , either alone ( 9 % ) or with French ( 11 % ) -- After ponderation , the repartition can be estimated at between 85 and 90 % French - speaking , and the remaining are Dutch - speaking , corresponding to the estimations based on languages chosen in Brussels by citizens for their official documents ( ID , driving licenses , weddings , birth , sex , and so on ) ; all these statistics on language are also available at Belgian Department of Justice ( for weddings , birth , sex ) , Department of Transport ( for Driving licenses ) , Department of Interior ( for IDs ) , because there are no means to know precisely the proportions since Belgium has abolished ' official ' linguistic censuses , thus official documents on language choices can only be estimations . For a web source on this topic , see e.g. General online sources : Janssens , Rudi Jump up ^ Notable Belgian films based on works by Flemish authors include : De Witte ( author Ernest Claes ) movie by Jan Vanderheyden and Edith Kiel in 1934 , remake as De Witte van Sichem directed by Robbe De Hert in 1980 ; De man die zijn haar kort liet knippen ( Johan Daisne ) André Delvaux 1965 ; Mira ( ' De teleurgang van de Waterhoek ' by Stijn Streuvels ) Fons Rademakers 1971 ; Malpertuis ( aka The Legend of Doom House ) ( Jean Ray ( pen name of Flemish author who mainly wrote in French , or as John Flanders in Dutch ) ) Harry Kümel 1971 ; De loteling ( Hendrik Conscience ) Roland Verhavert 1974 ; Dood van een non ( Maria Rosseels ) Paul Collet and Pierre Drouot 1975 ; Pallieter ( Felix Timmermans ) Roland Verhavert 1976 ; De komst van Joachim Stiller ( Hubert Lampo ) Harry Kümel 1976 ; De Leeuw van Vlaanderen ( Hendrik Conscience ) Hugo Claus ( a famous author himself ) 1985 ; Daens ( ' Pieter Daens ' by Louis Paul Boon ) Stijn Coninx 1992 ; see also Filmarchief les DVD ! s de la cinémathèque ( in Dutch ) . Retrieved on 7 June 2007 . Jump up ^ The Dutch word ' ommegang ' is here used in the sense of an entirely or mainly non-religious procession , or the non-religious part thereof -- see also its article on the Dutch - language Wikipedia ; the Processional Giants of Brussels , Dendermonde and Mechelen mentioned in this paragraph are part of each city 's ' ommegang ' . The French word ' ducasse ' refers also to a procession ; the mentioned Processional Giants of Ath and Mons are part of each city 's ' ducasse ' . Jump up ^ Contrarily to what the text suggests , the season starts as early as July and lasts through April . References ^ Jump up to : Eurobarometer 437 : Discrimination in the EU in 2015 . European Commission . Retrieved 15 October 2017 -- via GESIS . Jump up ^ `` Government type : Belgium '' . The World Factbook . CIA . Retrieved 19 December 2011 . ^ Jump up to : ( PDF ) . Statistics Belgium , Federal Public Service Economy. 1 August 2018 http://www.ibz.rrn.fgov.be/fileadmin/user_upload/fr/pop/statistiques/stat-1-1_f.pdf . Retrieved 24 October 2018 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : `` Belgium '' . International Monetary Fund . Retrieved 1 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income ( source : SILC ) '' . Eurostat Data Explorer . Retrieved 13 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 2018 Human Development Report '' . United Nations Development Programme. 2018 . Retrieved 14 September 2018 . Jump up ^ The Belgian Constitution ( PDF ) . Brussels , Belgium : Belgian House of Representatives . May 2014 . p. 63 . Retrieved 10 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Robert Pateman , Mark Elliott ( 2006 ) . Belgium . Benchmark Books . p. 27 . Jump up ^ Leclerc , Jacques ( 18 January 2007 ) . `` Belgique België Belgien -- Région de Bruxelles - Capitale Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest '' . L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde ( in French ) . Host : Trésor de la langue française au Québec ( TLFQ ) , Université Laval , Quebec . Archived from the original on 9 June 2007 . Retrieved 18 June 2007 . C'est une région officiellement bilingue formant au centre du pays une enclave dans la province du Brabant flamand ( Vlaams Brabant ) * `` About Belgium '' . Belgian Federal Public Service ( ministry ) / Embassy of Belgium in the Republic of Korea . Archived from the original on 2 October 2008 . Retrieved 21 June 2007 . the Brussels - Capital Region is an enclave of 162 km within the Flemish region . * `` Flanders ( administrative region ) '' . Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia . Microsoft . 2007 . Archived from the original on 31 October 2009 . Retrieved 21 June 2007 . The capital of Belgium , Brussels , is an enclave within Flanders . * McMillan , Eric ( October 1999 ) . `` The FIT Invasions of Mons '' ( PDF ) . Capital translator , Newsletter of the NCATA , Vol. 21 , No. 7 , p. 1 . National Capital Area Chapter of the American Translators Association ( NCATA ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 June 2007 . Retrieved 21 June 2007 . The country is divided into three autonomous regions : Dutch - speaking Flanders in the north , mostly French - speaking Brussels in the center as an enclave within Flanders and French - speaking Wallonia in the south , including the German - speaking Cantons de l'Est . * Van de Walle , Steven . `` Language Facilities in the Brussels Periphery '' . KULeuven -- Leuvens Universitair Dienstencentrum voor Informatica en Telematica . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 31 October 2009 . Retrieved 21 June 2007 . Brussels is a kind of enclave within Flanders -- it has no direct link with Wallonia . Jump up ^ Haß , Torsten ( 17 February 2003 ) . Rezension zu ( Review of ) Cook , Bernard : Belgium . A History ( in German ) . FH - Zeitung ( journal of the Fachhochschule ) . ISBN 0 - 8204 - 5824 - 4 . Archived from the original on 9 June 2007 . Retrieved 24 May 2007 . die Bezeichnung Belgiens als `` the cockpit of Europe '' ( James Howell , 1640 ) , die damals noch auf eine kriegerische Hahnenkampf - Arena hindeutete -- The book reviewer , Haß , attributes the expression in English to James Howell in 1640 . Howell 's original phrase `` the cockpit of Christendom '' became modified afterwards , as shown by : * Carmont , John . `` The Hydra No. 1 New Series ( November 1917 ) -- Arras And Captain Satan '' . War Poets Collection . Napier University 's Business School . Archived from the original on 11 May 2008 . Retrieved 24 May 2007 . -- and as such coined for Belgium : * Wood , James ( 1907 ) . `` Nuttall Encyclopaedia of General Knowledge -- Cockpit of Europe '' . Retrieved 24 May 2007 . Cockpit of Europe , Belgium , as the scene of so many battles between the Powers of Europe . ( See also The Nuttall Encyclopaedia ) ^ Jump up to : Fitzmaurice , John ( 1996 ) . `` New Order ? International models of peace and reconciliation -- Diversity and civil society '' . Democratic Dialogue Northern Ireland 's first think tank , Belfast , Northern Ireland , UK . Retrieved 12 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium country profile '' . EUbusiness , Richmond , UK . 27 August 2006 . Retrieved 12 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Karl , Farah ; Stoneking , James ( 1999 ) . `` Chapter 27 . The Age of Imperialism ( Section 2 . The Partition of Africa ) '' ( PDF ) . World History II . Appomattox Regional Governor 's School ( History Department ) , Petersburg , Virginia , USA . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 September 2007 . Retrieved 16 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Buoyant Brussels . `` Bilingual island in Flanders '' . UCL . Retrieved 5 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Belgian government sworn in , ending 18 - month crisis '' . Expatica. 6 December 2011 . Retrieved 8 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Subscribe to read '' . Financial Times . Jump up ^ `` Quality of Life Index by Country 2017 Mid-Year '' . www.numbeo.com . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Health index World Health Organization '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` Education index Human Development Reports '' . hdr.undp.org . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Human Development Report 2016 '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` Global Peace Index 2017 '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Bunson , Matthew ( 1994 ) . Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire ( Hardcover ed . ) . Facts on File , New York . p. 169 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 2135 - X . ^ Jump up to : Cook , Bernard A. ( 2002 ) . Belgium : A History . Studies in Modern European History , Vol. 50 . Peter Lang Pub , New York . p. 3 . ISBN 0 - 8204 - 5824 - 4 . Ib . e-book ( 2004 ) NetLibrary , Boulder , Colorado , United States , ISBN 0 - 8204 - 7283 - 2 ( Also print edition ( ISBNDB.com Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . 2004 - 06 - 30 ) or ( Peterlang.com Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . 2005 ) , ISBN 0 - 8204 - 7647 - 1 ) Jump up ^ Edmundson , George ( 1922 ) . `` Chapter I : The Burgundian Netherlands '' . History of Holland . The University Press , Cambridge . Republished : Authorama . Retrieved 15 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Edmundson , George ( 1922 ) . `` Chapter II : Habsburg Rule in the Netherlands '' . History of Holland . The University Press , Cambridge . Republished : Authorama . Retrieved 9 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Dobbelaere , Karel ; Voyé , Liliane ( 1990 ) . `` From Pillar to Postmodernity : The Changing Situation of Religion in Belgium '' ( PDF ) . www-oxford.op.org ( The Allen Review ) . Online at Oxford Journals , Oxford University Press : S1 . Retrieved 25 February 2011 . Jump up ^ Gooch , Brison Dowling ( 1963 ) . Belgium and the February Revolution . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers , The Hague , Netherlands . p. 112 . Retrieved 18 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` National Day and feast days of Communities and Regions '' . Belgian Federal Government . Archived from the original on 24 July 2011 . Retrieved 20 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Deschouwer , Kris ( January 2004 ) . `` Ethnic structure , inequality and governance of the public sector in Belgium '' ( PDF ) . United Nations Research Institute for Social Development ( UNRISD ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 22 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Forbath , Peter ( 1977 ) . The River Congo : The Discovery , Exploration and Exploitation of the World 's Most Dramatic Rivers. Harper & Row . p. 278 . ISBN 978 - 0061224904 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Belgium Confronts Its Heart of Darkness ; Unsavory Colonial Behavior in the Congo Will Be Tackled by a New Study - The New York Times '' . nytimes.com . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Meredith , Martin ( 2005 ) . The State of Africa . Jonathan Ball . pp. 95 -- 96 ( ? ) . ISBN 978 - 1868422203 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Arango , Ramon ( 1961 ) . Leopold III and the Belgian Royal Question . Baltimore : The Johns Hopkins Press . p. 108 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` The Congolese Civil War 1960 -- 1964 '' . BBC News . Retrieved 29 April 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Belgium '' . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . Archived from the original on 10 July 2016 . Jump up ^ ( in Dutch ) Geografische beschrijving van België -- Over Belgie -- Portaal Belgische Overheid . Belgium.be . Retrieved 12 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium -- The land -- Relief '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica , Chicago , Illinois , US . 2007 . Archived from the original on 17 December 2013 . Retrieved 3 July 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Geography of Belgium '' . 123independenceday.com . Archived from the original on 12 September 2007 . Retrieved 10 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Life -- Nature '' ( PDF ) . Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2005 . Retrieved 10 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Peel , Murray C. ; Finlayson , Bryan L. & McMahon , T.A. ( 2007 ) . `` Updated world map of the Köppen -- Geiger climate classification '' . Hydrology and Earth System Sciences . 11 ( 5 ) : 1633 -- 1644 . doi : 10.5194 / hess - 11 - 1633 - 2007 . ISSN 1027 - 5606 . ( direct : Final Revised Paper ) Jump up ^ `` Climate averages -- Brussels '' . EuroWEATHER / EuroMETEO , Nautica Editrice Srl , Rome , Italy . Retrieved 27 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Kerncijfers 2006 -- Statistisch overzicht van België '' ( PDF ) ( in Dutch ) . Belgian Federal Government Service ( ministry ) of Economy -- Directorate - general Statistics Belgium . pp. 9 -- 10 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 5 June 2007 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Takhtajan , Armen , 1986 . Floristic Regions of the World . ( translated by T.J. Crovello and A. Cronquist ) . University of California Press , Berkeley . Jump up ^ `` Atlantic mixed forests '' . Terrestrial Ecoregions . World Wildlife Fund . Jump up ^ López Pintor , Rafael ; Gratschew , Maria ( 2002 ) . `` Voter Turnout Rates from a Comparative Perspective '' ( PDF ) . IDEA . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Belgian Constitution -- Article 99 '' ( PDF ) . Belgian House of Representatives . January 2009 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium 1831 ( rev. 2012 ) '' . Constitute . Retrieved 30 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium , a federal state '' . Belgium.be . Retrieved 26 November 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Background Note : Belgium '' . U.S. Department of States . 29 April 2010 . Retrieved 26 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium -- Political parties '' . European Election Database . Norwegian Social Science Data Services . 2010 . Retrieved 10 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Tyler , Richard ( 8 June 1999 ) . `` Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium : Effects spread through European Union and beyond '' . World Socialist Web Site ( WSWS ) . International Committee of the Fourth International ( ICFI ) . Retrieved 16 July 2016 . Jump up ^ ElAmin , Ahmed ( 31 January 2006 ) Belgium , Netherlands meat sectors face dioxin crisis Archived 14 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine ... foodproductiondaily.com Jump up ^ European Commission ( 16 June 1999 ) . `` Food Law News -- EU : CONTAMINANTS -- Commission Press Release ( IP / 99 / 399 ) Preliminary results of EU - inspection to Belgium '' . School of Food Biosciences , University of Reading , UK . Retrieved 29 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium 's `` rainbow '' coalition sworn in `` . BBC News . 12 July 1999 . Retrieved 20 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` La Chambre des représentants -- Composition '' ( Composition of the Chamber of Representatives ) ( PDF ) ( in French ) . The Chamber of Representatives of Belgium . 9 March 2006 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 7 November 2006 . Retrieved 25 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Rwanda '' . tiscali. reference . Tiscali UK . Archived from the original on 24 September 2009 . Retrieved 27 May 2007 . The article shows an example of Belgium 's recent African policies . Jump up ^ `` Belgian demand halts NATO progress '' . CNN . 16 February 2003 . Archived from the original on 16 January 2005 . Retrieved 16 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium minor first to be granted euthanasia - BBC News '' . bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Time - line Belgium '' . BBC News . 5 January 2009 . Retrieved 16 July 2009 . 2007 September -- Belgium without a government for 100 days . Jump up ^ Bryant , Elizabeth ( 12 October 2007 ) . `` Divisions could lead to a partition in Belgium '' . San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved 28 May 2008 . Jump up ^ Hughes , Dominic ( 15 July 2008 ) . `` Analysis : Where now for Belgium ? '' . BBC News . Retrieved 16 July 2008 . Jump up ^ Banks , Martin ( 6 September 2010 ) . `` Fears over ' break up ' of Belgium '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on 9 September 2010 . Retrieved 6 September 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Belgian PM offers his resignation '' . BBC News . 15 July 2008 . Retrieved 29 April 2010 . Jump up ^ CNN.com , `` Belgium Prime Minister offers resignation over banking deal '' Jump up ^ Belgian king asks Van Rompuy to form government Reuters . Jump up ^ `` Prime Minister Leterme resigns after liberals quit government '' . France 24 . 22 April 2010 . Retrieved 22 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` King Albert II accepts resignation of Prime Minister Yves Leterme '' . France 24 . Retrieved 29 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Federal Elections in Belgium -- Chamber of Representatives Results '' . Jump up ^ Kovacevic , Tamara ( 6 May 2015 ) . `` Reality Check : How long can nations go without governments ? '' . BBC News Online . Retrieved 25 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Kramer , Johannes ( 1984 ) . Zweisprachigkeit in den Benelux - ländern ( in German ) . Buske Verlag . p. 69 . ISBN 3 - 87118 - 597 - 3 . Zur prestige Sprache wurde in den Spanischen Niederlanden ganz eindeutig das Französische . Die Vertreter Spaniens beherrschten normalerweise das Französische , nicht aber das Niederländische ; ein beachtlicher Teil der am Hofe tätigen Adligen stammte aus Wallonien , das sich ja eher auf die spanische Seite geschlagen hatte als Flandern und Brabant . In dieser Situation war es selbstverständlich , dass die flämischen Adligen , die im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr ebenfalls zu Hofbeamten wurden , sich des Französischen bedienen mussten , wenn sie als gleichwertig anerkannt werden wollten . ( Transl. : The prestigious language in the Spanish Netherlands was clearly French . Spain 's representatives usually mastered French but not Dutch ; a notable part of the nobles at the court came from Wallonia , which had taken party for the Spanish side to a higher extent than Flanders and Brabant . It was therefore evident within this context that the Flemish nobility , of which a progressively larger number became servants of the court , had to use French , if it wanted to get acknowledged as well . ) Jump up ^ Witte , Els ; Craeybeckx , Jan & Meynen , Alain ( 2009 ) . Political History of Belgium : From 1830 Onwards . Brussels : Academic and Scientific Publishers . p. 56 . ^ Jump up to : Fitzmaurice ( 1996 ) , p. 31 . ^ Jump up to : `` Belgium '' . European Election Database . Norwegian Social Science Data Services . 2010 . Retrieved 8 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Willemyns , Roland ( 2002 ) . `` The Dutch - French Language Border in Belgium '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development . 23 ( 1&2 ) : 36 -- 49 . doi : 10.1080 / 01434630208666453 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 June 2007 . Retrieved 22 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Belgian Constitution -- Article 4 '' ( PDF ) . Belgian House of Representatives . January 2009 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Fitzmaurice ( 1996 ) , p. 121 Jump up ^ Fitzmaurice ( 1996 ) , p. 122 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Federal Government 's Powers '' ... be Portal . Belgian Federal Government . Retrieved 4 February 2011 . Jump up ^ Lagasse , Charles - Etienne ( 2003 ) . Les nouvelles institutions politiques de la Belgique et de l'Europe . Namur : Erasme . p. 289 . ISBN 2 - 87127 - 783 - 4 . In 2002 , 58.92 % of the fiscal income was going to the budget of the federal government , but more than one - third was used to pay the interests of the public debt . Without including this post , the share of the federal government budget would be only 48.40 % of the fiscal income . There are 87.8 % of the civil servants who are working for the Regions or the Communities and 12.2 % for the Federal State . Jump up ^ `` The Communities '' ... be Portal . Belgian Federal Government . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Regions '' ... be Portal . Belgian Federal Government . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Lagasse , Charles - Etienne ( 17 -- 18 May 2004 ) . `` Federalism in Russia , Canada and Belgium : experience of comparative research '' ( in French ) . Kazan Institute of Federalism . La Belgique constitue ainsi le seul exemple clair du transfert d'une partie de la compétence `` affaires étrangères '' à des entités fédérées . ( Transl. : Belgium is thus the only clear example of a transfer of a part of the `` Foreign Affairs '' competences to federated units . ) Jump up ^ Lagasse , Charles - Etienne . Les nouvelles institutions de la Belgique et de l'Europe ( in French ) . p. 603 . ( Le fédéralisme belge ) repose sur une combinaison unique d'équipollence , d'exclusivité et de prolongement international des compétences . ( ( Belgian federalism ) is based on a unique combination of equipollence , of exclusivity , and of international extension of competences . ) Jump up ^ Suinen , Philippe ( October 2000 ) . `` Une Première mondiale '' . Le Monde diplomatique ( in French ) . Dans l'organisation de ces autonomies , la Belgique a réalisé une `` première '' mondiale : afin d'éviter la remise en cause , par le biais de la dimension internationale , de compétences exclusives transférées aux entités fédérées , les communautés et régions se sont vu reconnaître une capacité et des pouvoirs internationaux . ( In organizing its autonomies , Belgium realized a World 's First : to avoid a relevant stalemate , international consequences caused transfers of exclusive competences to federal , community and regional entities that are recognised to have become internationally enabled and enpowered . ) Jump up ^ `` Defence Data of Belgium in 2010 '' . European Defence Agency . Archived from the original on 24 September 2012 . Retrieved 9 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Defensie La Défense '' . Archived from the original on 14 June 2011 . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . Jump up ^ David Isby and Charles Kamps Jr , ' Armies of NATO 's Central Front , ' Jane 's Publishing Company , 1985 , p. 59 Jump up ^ Belgium ranked first in the KOF Globalization Index 2009 ETH Zürich ( ed . ) . `` KOF Index of Globalization '' . Retrieved 2 February 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Rank Order -- Exports '' . CIA -- The 2008 world factbook . Archived from the original on 4 October 2008 . Retrieved 5 October 2008 . 15 ( th ) : Belgium $322,200,000,000 ( 2007 est . ) Jump up ^ `` Rank Order -- Imports '' . CIA -- The 2008 world factbook . Archived from the original on 4 October 2008 . Retrieved 5 October 2008 . 15 ( th ) : Belgium $323,200,000,000 ( 2007 est . ) Jump up ^ `` Belgian economy '' . Belgium . Belgian Federal Public Service ( ministry ) of Foreign Affairs , Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation . Archived from the original on 15 June 2009 . Retrieved 12 June 2009 . Belgium is the world leader in terms of export per capita and can justifiably call itself the ' world 's largest exporter ' . Jump up ^ `` Wallonia in ' decline ' thanks to politicians '' . Expatica Communications BV. 9 March 2005 . Retrieved 16 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` L'Union économique belgo - luxembourgeoise '' ( in French ) . Luxembourgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Industrial History Belgium '' . European Route of Industrial Heritage . Archived from the original on 31 July 2013 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Rioux , Jean - Pierre ( 1989 ) . La révolution industrielle ( in French ) . Paris : Seuil . p. 105 . ISBN 2 - 02 - 000651 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Industrial History , Belgium '' . European route of industrial heritage . Jump up ^ Vanhaute , Eric ; Paping , Richard & Ó Gráda , Cormac ( 2006 ) . The European subsistence crisis of 1845 -- 1850 : a comparative perspective ( PDF ) . IEHC . Helsinki . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Vanhaute , Eric ( 2007 ) . `` ' So worthy an example to Ireland ' . The subsistance and industrial crisis of 1845 -- 1850 in Flanders '' . When the potato failed . Causes and effects of the ' last ' European subsistance crisis , 1845 -- 1850 . Brepols . pp. 123 -- 148 . ISBN 978 - 2 - 503 - 51985 - 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 22 July 2011 . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Background Note : Belgium '' . US Department of State , Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs . April 2007 . Archived from the original on 8 May 2007 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Vanhaverbeke , Wim . `` Het belang van de Vlaamse Ruit vanuit economisch perspectief The importance of the Flemish Diamond from an economical perspective '' ( in Dutch ) . Netherlands Institute of Business Organization and Strategy Research , University of Maastricht . Archived from the original on 14 March 2007 . Retrieved 19 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The World Factbook -- ( Rank Order -- Public debt ) '' . CIA . 17 April 2007 . Archived from the original on 13 June 2007 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Key figures '' . National Bank of Belgium . Archived from the original on 30 April 2007 . Retrieved 19 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` EurActiv '' . Belgium makes place for urban enterprises . EurActiv . Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 19 March 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Panorama of Transport ( PDF ) . Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2003 . ISBN 92 - 894 - 4845 - 8 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 7 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Fidler , Stephen ( 3 November 2010 ) . `` Europe 's Top Traffic Jam Capitals '' . Wallstreet Journal . Retrieved 21 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Another comparative study on transportation in Belgium : OECD environmental performance reviews : Belgium . OECD. 2007 . ISBN 92 - 64 - 03111 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Double record for freight volume '' . port of Antwerp . Retrieved 23 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Belgian Crisis '' . The Belgian Crisis . Retrieved 5 June 2016 . Jump up ^ John Lichfield ( 2007 ) . `` Belgium : A nation divided '' . Independent . Retrieved 5 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Cook , B.A. ( 2002 ) . Belgium : A History . Peter Lang . p. 139 . ISBN 9780820458243 . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Rembert Dodoens : iets over zijn leven en werk -- Dodoens ' werken '' . Plantaardigheden -- Project Rembert Dodoens ( Rembertus Dodonaeus ) ( in Dutch ) . Balkbrug : Stichting Kruidenhoeve / Plantaardigheden. 20 December 2005 . Archived from the original on 10 June 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2007 ... het Cruijdeboeck , dat in 1554 verscheen . Dit meesterwerk was na de bijbel in die tijd het meest vertaalde boek . Het werd gedurende meer dan een eeuw steeds weer heruitgegeven en gedurende meer dan twee eeuwen was het het meest gebruikte handboek over kruiden in West - Europa . Het is een werk van wereldfaam en grote wetenschappelijke waarde . De nieuwe gedachten die Dodoens erin neerlegde , werden de bouwstenen voor de botanici en medici van latere generaties . ( ... the Cruijdeboeck , published in 1554 . This masterpiece was , after the Bible , the most translated book in that time . It continued to be republished for more than a century and for more than two centuries it was the mostly used referential about herbs . It is a work with world fame and great scientific value . The new thoughts written down by Dodoens , became the building bricks for botanists and physicians of later generations . ) Jump up ^ O'Connor , J.J. ; Robertsonfirst2 = E.F. ( 2004 ) . `` Simon Stevin '' . School of Mathematics and Statistics , University of St Andrews , Scotland . Archived from the original on 9 June 2007 . Retrieved 11 May 2007 . Although he did not invent decimals ( they had been used by the Arabs and the Chinese long before Stevin 's time ) he did introduce their use in mathematics in Europe . Jump up ^ `` Abstract ( * ) '' . S. Karger AG , Basel . Retrieved 11 May 2007 . The importance of A. Vesalius ' publication ' de humani corporis fabrica libri septem ' can not be overestimated . ( * ) Free abstract for pay - per - view article by De Broe , Marc E. ; De Weerdt , Dirk L. ; Ysebaert , Dirk K. ; Vercauteren , Sven R. ; De Greef , Kathleen E. ; De Broe , Luc C. ( 1999 ) . `` The Low Countries -- 16th / 17th century '' ( PDF ) . American Journal of Nephrology. 19 ( 2 ) : 282 -- 9 . doi : 10.1159 / 000013462 . PMID 10213829 . Jump up ^ Midbon , Mark ( 24 March 2000 ) . `` ' A Day Without Yesterday ' : Georges Lemaitre & the Big Bang '' . Commonweal , republished : Catholic Education Resource Center ( CERC ) . pp. 18 -- 19 . Archived from the original on 6 July 2007 . Retrieved 7 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Carson , Patricia . The Fair Face of Flanders . Lannoo Uitgeverij . p. 136 . ISBN 90 - 209 - 4385 - 5 . Jump up ^ Day , Lance ( 2003 ) . Lance Day ; Ian McNeil , eds . Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology . Routledge . p. 1135 . ISBN 0 - 203 - 02829 - 5 . Jump up ^ Woodward , Gordon ( 2003 ) . Lance Day ; Ian McNeil , eds . Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology . Routledge . p. 523 . ISBN 0 - 203 - 02829 - 5 . Jump up ^ Larsson , Ulf ( 2001 ) . Cultures of Creativity : the Centennial Exhibition of the Nobel Prize . Science History Publications . p. 211 . ISBN 0 - 88135 - 288 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Georges Lemaître , Father of the Big Bang '' . American Museum of Natural History . 2000 . Archived from the original on 17 January 2013 . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1977 '' . Nobelprize.org . Archived from the original on 3 December 2010 . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . Jump up ^ O'Connor , John J. ; Robertson , Edmund F. , `` Pierre Deligne '' , MacTutor History of Mathematics archive , University of St Andrews . ( Retrieved 10 November 2011 ) Jump up ^ O'Connor , John J. ; Robertson , Edmund F. , `` Jean Bourgain '' , MacTutor History of Mathematics archive , University of St Andrews . ( Retrieved 10 November 2011 ) Jump up ^ `` Quelques résultats des précédents recensements -- Indicateurs de logement ( 1991 ) '' ( in French ) . Belgian Federal Government Service ( ministry ) of Economy -- Directorate - general Statistics Belgium . 2006 . Archived from the original on 25 June 2007 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium -- Market essentials '' ( PDF ) . British chamber of commerce in Belgium . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 April 2011 . Retrieved 7 January 2011 . Jump up ^ This number evolved to 89 % in 2011 . Belgian Federal Government . `` Population par sexe et nationalité pour la Belgique et les régions , 2001 et 2011 '' ( in French ) . Archived from the original on 31 October 2012 . Retrieved 31 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Perrin , Nicolas ( April 2006 ) . `` European Migration Network -- Annual Statistical Report on migration and asylum in Belgium ( Reference year 2003 ) -- section A. 1 ) b ) Population by citizenship & c ) Third country nationals , 1 January 2004 '' ( PDF ) . Study Group of Applied Demographics ( Gédap ) . Belgian Federal Government Service ( ministry ) of Interior -- Immigration Office . pp. 5 -- 9 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 28 May 2007 . Jump up ^ De vreemde bevolking . ecodata.mineco.fgov.be Jump up ^ L'IMMIGRATION EN BELGIQUE . EFFECTIFS , MOUVEMENTS . ET MARCHE DU TRAVAIL . Rapport 2009 . Direction générale Emploi et marché du travai Jump up ^ Belgian Federal Government . `` Structure de la population selon le pays de naissance '' ( in French ) . Archived from the original on 25 August 2012 . Retrieved 31 August 2012 . Jump up ^ BuG 155 -- Bericht uit het Gewisse -- 01 januari 2012 . npdata.be ( 1 January 2012 ) . ^ Jump up to : BuG 159 -- Bericht uit het Gewisse -- 7 mei 2012 . npdata.be ( 7 May 2012 ) . ^ Jump up to : Voor het eerst meer Marokkaanse dan Italiaanse migranten . hbvl.be. 21 May 2007 Jump up ^ `` appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do ? dataset = urb_lpop1&lang = en '' . appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Lewis , M. Paul , ed. ( 2009 ) . Languages of Belgium . Ethnologue : Languages of the World ( sixteenth ed . ) . Dallas , Texas , U.S.A. : SIL International . pp. 1 , 248 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55671 - 216 - 6 . Retrieved 27 February 2011 . Jump up ^ de Witte , Bruno ( 1996 ) . Rainey , Anson F. , ed . `` Surviving in Babel ? Language rights and European integration '' . Canaanite in the Amarna tablets . 1 . Brill . p. 122 . ISBN 90 - 04 - 10521 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium Market background '' . British Council . Archived from the original on 22 November 2007 . Retrieved 5 May 2007 . The capital Brussels , 80 -- 85 percent French - speaking , ... -- Strictly , the capital is the municipality ( City of ) Brussels , though the Brussels - Capital Region might be intended because of its name and also its other municipalities housing institutions typical for a capital . Jump up ^ `` The German - speaking Community '' . The German - speaking Community . Archived from the original on 30 May 2007 . Retrieved 5 May 2007 . The ( original ) version in German language ( already ) mentions 73,000 instead of 71,500 inhabitants . Jump up ^ `` Citizens from other countries in the German - speaking Community '' . The German - speaking Community . Archived from the original on 28 June 2007 . Retrieved 5 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` German ( Belgium ) -- Overview of the language '' . Mercator , Minority Language Media in the European Union , supported by the European Commission and the University of Wales . Archived from the original on 11 May 2011 . Retrieved 7 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Leclerc , Jacques ( 19 April 2006 ) . `` Belgique België Belgien -- La Communauté germanophone de Belgique '' . L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde ( in French ) . Host : Trésor de la langue française au Québec ( TLFQ ) , Université Laval , Quebec . Retrieved 7 May 2007 . Jump up ^ According to Le Petit Larousse , Walloon is a dialect of the langue d'oïl . According to the Meyers grosses Taschenlexikon Jump up ^ Feller Jules ( 1912 ) . Notes de philologie wallonne . Liège : Vaillant Carmanne . ^ Jump up to : Among Belgium native German speakers many are familiar with the local dialect varieties of their region , that include dialects that spill over into neighboring Luxembourg and Germany . Gordon , Raymond G. Jr. , ed. ( 2005 ) . Languages of Belgium . Ethnologue : Languages of the World ( Fifteenth ed . ) . Dallas , Texas , U.S.A. : SIL International . ( Online version : Sixteenth edition ) Jump up ^ See for example Belgium entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia ^ Jump up to : Loopbuyck , P. & Torfs , R. ( 2009 ) . The world and its people -- Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . 4 . Marshall Cavendish . p. 499 . ISBN 0 - 7614 - 7890 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Churchgoers in Brussels threatened with extinction '' . Brusselnieuws.be ( in Dutch ) . 30 November 2010 . Retrieved 4 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Kerken lopen zeer geleidelijk helemaal leeg -- Dutch news article describing church attendance in Flanders . Standaard.be ( 25 November 2010 ) . Retrieved 26 September 2011 . Jump up ^ Eurobarometer Biotechnology report 2010 Archived 30 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine . p. 381 . Jump up ^ `` Discrimination in the EU in 2012 '' ( PDF ) , Special Eurobarometer , 383 , European Union : European Commission , p. 233 , 2012 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 14 August 2013 Jump up ^ `` State and Church in BELGIUM '' . euresisnet.eu. 31 October 2007 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Ghiuzeli , Haim F. The Jewish Community of Antwerp , Belgium . Beit Hatfutsot , the Museum of the Jewish People Jump up ^ Inquiry by ' Vepec ' , ' Vereniging voor Promotie en Communicatie ' ( Organization for Promotion and Communication ) , published in Knack magazine 22 November 2006 p. 14 ( The Dutch language term ' gelovig ' is in the text translated as ' religious ' . More precisely it is a very common word for believing in particular in any kind of God in a monotheistic sense , or in some afterlife ) , or both . Jump up ^ `` In België wonen 650.000 muslims '' . Indy Media . 12 September 2008 . Retrieved 16 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Moslims in België per gewest , provincie en gemeente '' . Npdata.be. 18 September 2015 . Retrieved 9 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Corens , Dirk ( 2007 ) . `` Belgium , health system review '' ( PDF ) . Health Systems in Transition . European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 9 ( 2 ) . Jump up ^ `` Belgium euthanasia : First child dies - CNN.com '' . edition.cnn.com . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Santa Clara University . `` Assisted Suicide : A Right or a Wrong ? - Resources - Bioethics - Focus Areas - Markkula Center for Applied Ethics - Santa Clara University '' . scu.edu . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Hofman , Roelande H. ; Hofman , W.H.A. ; Gray , J.M. ; Daly , P. ( 2004 ) . Institutional context of education systems in Europe : a cross-country comparison on quality and equity . Kluwer Academic Publishers . pp. 97 , 105 . ISBN 1 - 4020 - 2744 - 3 . Extracts : p. 97 , p. 105 Jump up ^ `` Table 388 . Percentage of population enrolled in secondary and postsecondary institutions , by age group and country -- Chapter 6 . International Comparisons of Education , data : 2002 '' . Digest of Education Statistics -- Tables and Figures . National Center for Education Statistics , Institute of Education Sciences ( IES ) , US Department of Education . 2005 . Retrieved 6 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` I. Monitoring Human Development : Enlarging peoples 's choices ... -- 5 . Human poverty in OECD , Eastern Europe and the CIS '' ( PDF ) . Human Development Indicators . United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . 2000 . pp. 172 -- 173 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 6 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Range of rank on the PISA 2006 science scale '' ( PDF ) . OECD . Retrieved 27 February 2011 . Jump up ^ De Meyer , Inge ; Pauly , Jan ; Van de Poele , Luc ( 2005 ) . `` Learning for Tomorrow 's Problems -- First Results from PISA2003 '' ( PDF ) . Ministry of the Flemish Community -- Education Department ; University of Ghent -- Department of Education , Ghent , Belgium ( Online by OECD ) : 52 . Retrieved 27 February 2011 . Jump up ^ De Ley , Herman ( 2000 ) . `` Humanists and Muslims in Belgian Secular Society ( Draft version ) '' . Centrum voor Islam in Europe ( Centre for Islam in Europe ) , Ghent University . Archived from the original on 9 June 2007 . Retrieved 7 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium -- Arts and cultural education '' . Compendium of Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe , 8th edition . Council of Europe / ERICarts. 2007 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Belgique '' . European Culture Portal . European Commission . 2007 . 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Jump up ^ Hendrick , Jacques ( 1987 ) . La peinture au pays de Liège ( in French ) . Liège : Editions du Perron . p. 24 . ISBN 2 - 87114 - 026 - X . Jump up ^ Guratzsch , Herwig ( 1979 ) . Die große Zeit der niederländische Malerei ( in German ) . Freiburg im Beisgau : Verlag Herder . p. 7 . Jump up ^ `` Low Countries , 1600 -- 1800 AD '' . Timeline of Art History . Metropolitan Museum of Art . 2007 . Archived from the original on 13 May 2007 . Retrieved 10 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Art History : Flemish School : ( 1600 -- 1800 ) -- Artists : ( biography & artworks ) '' . World Wide Arts Resources . 5 February 2006 . Archived from the original on 13 October 2009 . Retrieved 10 May 2007 . -- A general presentation of the Flemish artistic movement with a list of its artists , linking to their biographies and artworks Jump up ^ `` Belgian Artists : ( biographies & artworks ) '' . World Wide Arts Resources . 5 February 2006 . Archived from the original on 15 May 2016 . Retrieved 10 May 2007 . -- List of Belgian painters , linking to their biographies and artworks Jump up ^ Baudson , Michel ( 1996 ) . `` Panamarenko '' . Flammarion ( Paris ) , quoted at presentation of the XXIII Bienal Internacional de São Paulo . Archived from the original on 7 February 2007 . Retrieved 10 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Brussels , capital of Art Nouveau ( page 1 ) , `` ib . ( page2 ) '' . Senses Art Nouveau Shop , Brussels . 2007 . Retrieved 11 May 2007 . ( for example ) Jump up ^ `` Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta ( Brussels ) '' . UNESCO 's World Heritage List . UNESCO . Retrieved 16 May 2007 . The appearance of Art Nouveau in the closing years of the 19th century marked a decisive stage in the evolution of architecture , making possible subsequent developments , and the Town Houses of Victor Horta in Brussels bear exceptional witness to its radical new approach . Jump up ^ `` Western music , the Franco - Flemish school '' . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007 . Retrieved 15 May 2007 . Most significant musically was the pervasive influence of musicians from the Low Countries , whose domination of the musical scene during the last half of the 15th century is reflected in the period designations the Netherlands school and the Franco - Flemish school . Jump up ^ Two comprehensive discussions of rock and pop music in Belgium since the 1950s : `` The Timeline -- A brief history of Belgian Pop Music '' . The Belgian Pop & Rock Archives . Flanders Music Centre , Brussels . March 2007 . Retrieved 7 June 2007 . `` Belgian Culture -- Rock '' . Vanberg & DeWulf Importing. 2006 . Archived from the original on 7 June 2007 . Retrieved 11 May 2007 . Jump up ^ Grove , Laurence ( 2010 ) . Comics in French : the European bande dessinée in context . Berghahn Books . ISBN 1 - 84545 - 588 - 6 . Jump up ^ A review of the Belgian cinema till about 2000 can be found at `` History of Cinema in Belgium '' . Film Birth. 2007 . Archived from the original on 14 September 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Fashion and the ' Antwerp Six ' '' . Dorset , UK : Fashion Worlds. 2004 . Retrieved 13 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Processional Giants and Dragons in Belgium and France '' . UNESCO . Retrieved 15 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Folklore estudiantin liégeois '' ( in French ) . University of Liège . Archived from the original on 20 June 2010 . Retrieved 17 June 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Michelin stars 2007 in Belgium '' . Resto.be TM Dreaminvest. 2007 . Archived from the original on 9 October 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Steak - frites '' . Epicurious . Retrieved 12 August 2007 . Republished from Van Waerebeek , Ruth ; Robbins , Maria ( October 1996 ) . Everybody Eats Well in Belgium Cookbook . Workman Publishing . ISBN 1 - 56305 - 411 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Belgium '' . Global Gourmet . Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 . Retrieved 12 August 2007 . Republished from Van Waerebeek , Ruth ; Robbins , Maria ( October 1996 ) . Everybody Eats Well in Belgium Cookbook . Workman Publishing . ISBN 1 - 56305 - 411 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Mussels '' . Visit Belgium . Official Site of the Belgian Tourist Office in the Americas . 2005 . Archived from the original on 10 February 2007 . Retrieved 12 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Elliott , Mark & Cole , Geert ( 2000 ) . Belgium and Luxembourg . Lonely Planet . p. 53 . ISBN 1 - 86450 - 245 - 2 . Jump up ^ Snick , Chris ( 18 October 2011 ) . `` Nieuwe bierbijbel bundelt alle 1.132 Belgische bieren '' . Het Nieuwsblad ( in Dutch ) . Archived from the original on 5 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nieuwe bierbijbel met 1.132 Belgische bieren voorgesteld in Brugge '' . Krant van West - Vlaanderen ( in Dutch ) . 18 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Ames , Paul ( 30 August 2009 ) . `` Buying the World 's Best Beer '' . Global Post . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Guthrie , Tyler ( 11 August 2010 ) . `` Day trip to the best beer in the world '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Monks run short of ' world 's best ' beer '' . ABC . Reuters. 12 August 2005 . Archived from the original on 10 March 2009 . Retrieved 19 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` InBev dividend 2006 : 0.72 euro per share -- infobox : About InBev '' ( Press release ) . InBev. 24 April 2007 . Archived from the original on 11 September 2007 . Retrieved 31 May 2007 . InBev is a publicly traded company ( Euronext : INB ) based in Leuven , Belgium . The company 's origins date back to 1366 , and today it is the leading global brewer by volume . Jump up ^ Task , Marijke ; Renson , Roland & van Reusel , Bart ( 1999 ) . Klaus Heinemann , ed . Organised sport in transition : development , structures and trends of sports clubs in Belgium . Sport clubs in various European countries . Schattauer Verlag . pp. 183 -- 229 . ISBN 3 - 7945 - 2038 - 6 . 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Kleiner Geländekurs in die EUREGIO Maas - Rhein ( in German ) . Geographical Institute of the Georg - August University ( Department Culture and Social Geography ) , Göttingen , Germany . Archived from the original on 20 July 2007 . Retrieved 13 June 2007 . `` History of Belgium '' . World History at KMLA . Korean Minjok Leadership Academy ( KMLA ) . 30 May 2007 . Archived from the original on 6 July 2007 . Retrieved 2 June 2007 . Janssens , Rudi ( 1 June 2001 ) . Brusselse Thema 's in Brussel -- Taalverhoudingen , taalverschuivingen en taalindentiteit in een meertalige stad -- summary The Use of Languages in Brussels pp. 227 -- 250 in English ( PDF ) ( in Dutch ) . Vrije Universiteit Brussel Press , Brussels . pp. 227 -- 250 . ISBN 90 - 5487 - 293 - 4 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 5 June 2007 . Retrieved 2 June 2007 . Leclerc , Jacques ( 2006 ) . `` Belgique België Belgien '' . L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde ( in French ) . Host : Trésor de la langue française au Québec ( TLFQ ) , Université Laval , Quebec . Archived from the original on 8 June 2007 . Retrieved 2 June 2007 . Mnookin , Robert ; Verbeke , Alain ( 20 December 2006 ) . `` Bye bye Belgium ? '' . International Herald Tribune , republished by Harvard Law School . Archived from the original on 21 March 2007 . Retrieved 1 June 2007 . -- Reflections on nations and nation - state developments regarding Belgium Bibliography Arblaster , Paul ( 23 December 2005 ) . A History of the Low Countries . Palgrave Essential Histories ( Hardcover 312pp ed . ) . Palgrave Macmillan , New York . ISBN 1 - 4039 - 4827 - 5 . Blom , J.C.H. ; Lamberts , Emiel , eds . ( May 1999 ) . History of the Low Countries . Translated by Kennedy , James C. ( Hardcover 503pp ed . ) . Berghahn Books , Oxford / New York . ISBN 1 - 57181 - 084 - 6 . Cammaerts , Émile L. ( 1921 ) ( 1913 ) . A History of Belgium from the Roman Invasion to the Present Day ( 357pp ed . ) . D. Appleton and Co , New York . ASIN B00085PM0A . OCLC 1525559 . ( Also editions ( 1913 ) , London , OCLC 29072911 ; ( 1921 ) D. Unwin and Co. , New York OCLC 9625246 also published ( 1921 ) as Belgium from the Roman invasion to the present day , The Story of the nations , 67 , T. Fisher Unwin , London , OCLC 2986704 ) de Kavanagh Boulger ; Demetrius C. ( 28 June 2001 ) ( 1902 ) . The History of Belgium : Part 1 . Cæsar to Waterloo . Elibron Classics ( Paperback 493pp ed . ) . Adamant Media ( Delaware corporation ) , Boston , Massachusetts , United States . ISBN 1 - 4021 - 6714 - 8 . Facsimile reprint of a 1902 edition by the author , London Ib . ( June 2001 ) ( 1909 ) . Ib . Part 2 . 1815 -- 1865 . Waterloo to the Death of Leopold I. Ib . ( Paperback 462pp ed . ) . Ib . ISBN 1 - 4021 - 6713 - X . Facsimile reprint of a 1909 edition by the author , London Fitzmaurice , John ( 1996 ) . The Politics of Belgium : A Unique Federalism . Nations of the modern world ( Paperback 284pp ed . ) . Boulder , Colorado , USA : Westview Press . ISBN 0 - 8133 - 2386 - X . OCLC 30112536 . Kossmann - Putto , Johanna A. ; Kossmann Ernst H. ( January 1993 ) ( 1987 ) . Deleu Jozef H.M. , ed . The Low Countries : History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands . Translated by Fenoulhet Jane . De Lage Landen : geschiedenis van de Noordelijke en Zuidelijke Nederlanden . Vlaams - Nederlandse Stichting Ons Erfdeel , Rekkem ( 3rd Rev. edition Paperback 64pp ed . ) . Flemish - Netherlands Foundation `` Stichting Ons Erfdeel '' , Rekkem , Belgium . ISBN 90 - 70831 - 20 - 1 . ( Several editions in English , incl. 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91 | document: Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics -- Men 's singles - wikipedia Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics -- Men 's singles Jump to : navigation , search Men 's singles at the XXIII Olympic Winter Games Venue Gangneung Ice Arena Gangneung , South Korea Dates 16 -- 17 February Competitors 30 from 21 nations Winning score 317.85 Medalists 01 ! Yuzuru Hanyu Japan 02 ! Shoma Uno Japan 03 ! Javier Fernández Spain ← 2014 2022 → Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics Qualification Singles men ladies Pairs mixed Ice dancing mixed Team event mixed The men 's single figure skating competition of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held on 16 and 17 February 2018 at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung , South Korea . The short program was held on 16 February and the free skating was held on 17 February . This medal event was the 1000th medal event in the history of the Winter Olympic Games . Contents ( hide ) 1 Summary 2 Qualification 3 Schedule 4 Results 4.1 Short program 4.2 Free skating 4.3 Overall 5 References Summary ( edit ) With his victory at the 2018 Winter Olympics , Yuzuru Hanyu became the first male figure skater to win two consecutive gold medals after Dick Button , who did so in 1952 . Fellow countryman Shoma Uno won the silver medal , and Spain 's Javier Fernández won the bronze medal . Fernández won Spain 's first figure skating medal and fourth medal at the Winter Olympics . After the short program , Hanyu , Fernández , Uno , and Jin Boyang were first , second , third , and fourth respectively . Nathan Chen , originally one of the favorites for the podium , skated an uncharacteristically poor short program that placed him at 17th , but fought back to win the free skating with a score of 215.08 -- 8.91 points above the second place free skating by Hanyu . He ended up fifth overall . In the free program , Jin Boyang overtook Chen by less than a point overall , and placed fourth . In the victory ceremony , the medals were presented by Tsunekazu Takeda , member of the International Olympic Committee , accompanied by Alexander Lakernik , ISU Figure Skating Vice President . Vincent Zhou landed the first quadruple lutz at the Olympics . Nathan Chen became the first to ever land six quads , five clean . He also landed the first quadruple flip at the Olympics . With these jumps he holds the new record for highest free skating technical score . For complete list of figure skating records , see list of highest scores in figure skating . Qualification ( edit ) Main article : Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics -- Qualification A total of 30 skaters qualified to compete for the event , with each country allowed to only enter a maximum of three . 24 quotas were handed out during the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships and the remaining six were given out at the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy . Each country decided the entry of its teams , and athletes winning the quota were not necessarily granted the right to compete . All athletes competing must have met the minimum total elements score , which does not include component scores . For the short program this was 25.00 and the free skating 45.00 . Schedule ( edit ) All times are ( UTC + 9 ) . Date Time Round 16 February 10 : 00 Short program 17 February 10 : 00 Free skating Results ( edit ) Short program ( edit ) The short program was held on 16 February 2018 . Pl . Name Nation TSS TES PCS SS TR PE CH IN Ded StN Yuzuru Hanyu Japan 111.68 63.18 48.50 9.71 9.43 9.86 9.75 9.75 0.00 25 Javier Fernández Spain 107.58 59.79 47.79 9.36 9.36 9.71 9.68 9.68 0.00 29 Shoma Uno Japan 104.17 58.13 46.04 9.29 9.00 9.25 9.29 9.21 0.00 28 Jin Boyang China 103.32 60.27 43.05 8.79 8.29 8.82 8.54 8.61 0.00 30 5 Dmitri Aliev Olympic Athletes from Russia 98.98 56.98 42.00 8.43 8.11 8.50 8.50 8.46 0.00 20 6 Patrick Chan Canada 90.01 45.08 45.93 9.36 9.07 9.00 9.29 9.21 -- 1.00 21 7 Adam Rippon United States 87.95 44.48 43.47 8.57 8.43 8.86 8.68 8.93 0.00 19 8 Mikhail Kolyada Olympic Athletes from Russia 86.69 43.84 43.85 8.96 8.54 8.64 8.82 8.89 -- 1.00 27 9 Michal Březina Czech Republic 85.15 44.34 40.81 8.25 7.89 8.25 8.21 8.21 0.00 13 10 Keegan Messing Canada 85.11 45.50 40.61 8.04 7.96 8.07 8.29 8.25 − 1.00 12 11 Jorik Hendrickx Belgium 84.74 44.17 40.57 7.96 7.89 8.25 8.18 8.29 0.00 17 12 Vincent Zhou United States 84.53 48.50 36.03 7.39 6.96 7.11 7.32 7.25 0.00 13 Oleksii Bychenko Israel 84.13 43.63 40.50 7.93 7.71 8.36 8.18 8.32 0.00 23 14 Misha Ge Uzbekistan 83.90 41.75 42.15 8.18 8.18 8.54 8.46 8.79 0.00 16 15 Cha Jun - hwan South Korea 83.43 43.79 39.64 7.93 7.68 8.07 8.00 7.96 0.00 14 16 Brendan Kerry Australia 83.06 45.49 37.57 7.57 7.36 7.61 7.57 7.46 0.00 10 17 Nathan Chen United States 82.27 41.39 41.88 8.46 8.32 8.14 8.57 8.39 -- 1.00 26 18 Daniel Samohin Israel 80.69 43.29 38.40 7.79 7.29 7.79 7.71 7.82 -- 1.00 18 19 Yan Han China 80.63 40.99 40.64 8.46 8.07 7.86 8.18 8.07 − 1.00 8 20 Keiji Tanaka Japan 80.05 40.30 40.75 8.36 7.86 8.07 8.21 8.25 -- 1.00 22 21 Deniss Vasiļjevs Latvia 79.52 39.34 41.18 8.25 8.00 8.18 8.39 8.36 -- 1.00 24 22 Moris Kvitelashvili Georgia 76.56 40.88 36.68 7.46 7.11 7.32 7.43 7.36 − 1.00 11 23 Matteo Rizzo Italy 75.63 39.23 36.40 7.29 7.11 7.29 7.39 7.32 0.00 5 24 Paul Fentz Germany 74.73 37.71 37.02 7.46 7.25 7.46 7.46 7.39 0.00 15 Did not advance to free skating 25 Julian Yee Malaysia 73.58 38.37 35.21 7.07 6.82 7.11 7.14 7.07 0.00 9 26 Chafik Besseghier France 72.10 38.41 33.69 6.79 6.29 6.89 6.86 6.86 0.00 27 Denis Ten Kazakhstan 70.12 30.77 39.35 8.11 7.82 7.46 8.07 7.89 0.00 28 Michael Christian Martinez Philippines 55.56 26.04 29.52 5.96 5.64 5.96 6.00 5.96 0.00 6 29 Felipe Montoya Spain 52.41 22.59 30.82 6.25 6.07 6.00 6.25 6.25 − 1.00 30 Yaroslav Paniot Ukraine 46.58 18.68 29.90 6.43 5.79 5.61 6.21 5.86 − 2.00 7 Notes : WR - World record TSS - Total Segment Score ; TES - Technical Element Score ; PCS - Program Component Score SS - Skating Skills ; TR - Transitions ; PE - Performance / Execution CH - Choreography ; IN - Interpretation ; Ded - Deduction ; StN - Starting Number Free skating ( edit ) The free skating was held on 17 February 2018 . Pl . Name Nation TSS TES PCS SS TR PE CH IN Ded StN Nathan Chen United States 215.08 127.64 87.44 8.82 8.32 9.04 8.79 8.75 0.00 9 Yuzuru Hanyu Japan 206.17 109.55 96.62 9.71 9.50 9.64 9.71 9.75 0.00 22 Shoma Uno Japan 202.73 111.01 92.72 9.36 9.07 9.25 9.32 9.36 -- 1.00 24 Javier Fernández Spain 197.66 101.52 96.14 9.46 9.43 9.64 9.79 9.75 0.00 23 5 Jin Boyang China 194.45 109.69 85.76 8.71 8.21 8.64 8.68 8.64 -- 1.00 20 6 Vincent Zhou United States 192.16 112.24 79.92 8.04 7.71 8.25 7.96 8.00 0.00 15 7 Mikhail Kolyada Olympic Athletes from Russia 177.56 91.62 87.94 9.00 8.64 8.68 8.86 8.72 -- 2.00 16 8 Patrick Chan Canada 173.42 81.56 91.86 9.32 9.14 8.66 9.29 9.32 0.00 21 9 Oleksii Bychenko Israel 172.88 89.08 83.80 8.39 8.04 8.61 8.43 8.43 0.00 7 10 Adam Rippon United States 171.41 84.47 86.94 8.75 8.54 8.68 8.71 8.79 0.00 18 11 Daniel Samohin Israel 170.75 89.03 81.72 8.32 7.75 8.32 8.18 8.29 0.00 8 12 Keegan Messing Canada 170.32 84.88 85.44 8.50 8.29 8.61 8.61 8.71 0.00 14 13 Dmitri Aliev Olympic Athletes from Russia 168.53 85.39 85.13 8.64 8.39 8.32 8.61 8.61 -- 2.00 19 14 Cha Jun - hwan South Korea 165.16 84.94 81.22 8.21 7.86 8.25 8.11 8.18 -- 1.00 13 15 Keiji Tanaka Japan 164.78 85.64 81.14 8.36 7.89 8.00 8.18 8.14 -- 2.00 5 16 Jorik Hendrickx Belgium 164.21 81.79 82.42 8.25 7.96 8.36 8.25 8.39 0.00 13 17 Misha Ge Uzbekistan 161.04 74.96 86.08 8.46 8.36 8.54 8.75 8.93 0.00 10 18 Michal Březina Czech Republic 160.92 76.58 84.34 8.57 8.21 8.39 8.57 8.43 0.00 17 19 Matteo Rizzo Italy 156.78 80.86 75.92 7.64 7.32 7.79 7.64 7.57 0.00 20 Deniss Vasiļjevs Latvia 155.06 76.42 80.64 8.14 7.86 7.96 8.18 8.18 -- 2.00 21 Brendan Kerry Australia 150.75 73.33 77.42 7.96 7.54 7.68 7.82 7.71 0.00 12 22 Paul Fentz Germany 139.82 66.98 72.84 7.50 7.14 7.14 7.39 7.25 0.00 23 Yan Han China 132.38 53.80 79.58 8.56 7.82 7.57 8.04 8.00 -- 1.00 24 Moris Kvitelashvili Georgia 128.01 63.35 70.66 7.34 6.86 6.68 7.32 7.04 -- 6.00 6 Notes : TSS - Total Segment Score ; TES - Technical Element Score ; PCS - Program Component Score SS - Skating Skills ; TR - Transitions ; PE - Performance / Execution CH - Choreography ; IN - Interpretation ; Ded - Deduction ; StN - Starting Number Overall ( edit ) The skaters were ranked according to their overall score . Rank Name Nation TP SP FS 01 ! Yuzuru Hanyu Japan 317.85 111.68 206.17 02 ! Shoma Uno Japan 306.90 104.17 202.73 03 ! Javier Fernández Spain 305.24 107.58 197.66 Jin Boyang China 297.77 103.32 194.45 5 5 Nathan Chen United States 297.35 82.27 17 215.08 6 Vincent Zhou United States 276.69 84.53 12 192.16 6 7 Dmitri Aliev Olympic Athletes from Russia 267.51 98.98 5 168.53 13 8 Mikhail Kolyada Olympic Athletes from Russia 264.25 86.69 8 177.56 7 9 Patrick Chan Canada 263.43 90.01 6 173.42 8 10 Adam Rippon United States 259.36 87.95 7 171.41 10 11 Oleksii Bychenko Israel 257.01 84.13 13 172.88 9 12 Keegan Messing Canada 255.43 85.11 10 170.32 12 13 Daniel Samohin Israel 251.44 80.69 18 170.75 11 14 Jorik Hendrickx Belgium 248.95 84.74 11 164.21 16 15 Cha Jun - hwan South Korea 248.59 83.43 15 165.16 14 16 Michal Březina Czech Republic 246.07 85.15 9 160.92 18 17 Misha Ge Uzbekistan 244.94 83.90 14 161.04 17 18 Keiji Tanaka Japan 244.83 80.05 20 164.78 15 19 Deniss Vasiļjevs Latvia 234.58 79.52 21 155.06 20 20 Brendan Kerry Australia 233.81 83.06 16 150.75 21 21 Matteo Rizzo Italy 232.41 75.63 23 156.78 19 22 Paul Fentz Germany 214.55 74.73 24 139.82 22 23 Yan Han China 213.01 80.63 19 132.38 23 24 Moris Kvitelashvili Georgia 204.57 76.56 22 128.01 24 Did not advance to free skating 25 Julian Yee Malaysia 73.58 25 26 Chafik Besseghier France 72.10 26 27 Denis Ten Kazakhstan 70.12 27 28 Michael Christian Martinez Philippines 55.56 28 29 Felipe Montoya Spain 52.41 29 30 Yaroslav Paniot Ukraine 46.58 30 TP - Total points ; SP - Short program ; FS - Free skating References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Venues '' . www.pyeongchang2018.com/ . Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics . Retrieved 26 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Start list ^ Jump up to : `` Schedule '' . Retrieved 6 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Hanyu edges out YOG star for skating gold '' . olympic.org. 17 February 2018 . Retrieved 17 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Nathan Chen Makes Olympic History With 6 Quad Jumps '' . Time . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Personal Bests '' . www.isuresults.com . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Qualification Systems for XXIII Olympic Winter Games , PyeongChang 2018 , Figure skating '' . International Skating Union ( ISU ) . 17 May 2016 . Retrieved 20 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Extract from ISU Communication 2097 '' . www.iceskating.org.uk/ . National Ice Skating Association ( UK ) . Retrieved 20 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Judges Details Per Skater : Figure Skating Men 's Short Program Results '' ( PDF ) . International Skating Union ( PDF ) . Retrieved 16 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Judges Details Per Skater : Figure Skating Men 's Free Skating Results '' ( PDF ) . International Skating Union ( PDF ) . Retrieved 17 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Judges Details Per Skater : Figure Skating Men 's Total Results '' . International Skating Union . Retrieved 17 February 2018 . Olympic champions in figure skating -- Men 's singles 1908 : Ulrich Salchow ( SWE ) 1920 : Gillis Grafström ( SWE ) 1924 : Gillis Grafström ( SWE ) 1928 : Gillis Grafström ( SWE ) 1932 : Karl Schäfer ( AUT ) 1936 : Karl Schäfer ( AUT ) 1948 : Dick Button ( USA ) 1952 : Dick Button ( USA ) 1956 : Hayes Alan Jenkins ( USA ) 1960 : David Jenkins ( USA ) 1964 : Manfred Schnelldorfer ( EUA ) 1968 : Wolfgang Schwarz ( AUT ) 1972 : Ondrej Nepela ( TCH ) 1976 : John Curry ( GBR ) 1980 : Robin Cousins ( GBR ) 1984 : Scott Hamilton ( USA ) 1988 : Brian Boitano ( USA ) 1992 : Viktor Petrenko ( EUN ) 1994 : Alexei Urmanov ( RUS ) 1998 : Ilia Kulik ( RUS ) 2002 : Alexei Yagudin ( RUS ) 2006 : Evgeni Plushenko ( RUS ) 2010 : Evan Lysacek ( USA ) 2014 : Yuzuru Hanyu ( JPN ) 2018 : Yuzuru Hanyu ( JPN ) Record scores in figure skating Combined total ( Total ) Short program ( SP ) Free skating ( FS ) Short dance ( SD ) Free dance ( FD ) Juniors ( J ) Men Total : Yuzuru Hanyu 330.43 SP : Yuzuru Hanyu 112.72 FS : Yuzuru Hanyu 223.20 Total ( J ) : Vincent Zhou 258.11 SP ( J ) : Shoma Uno 84.87 FS ( J ) : Vincent Zhou 179.24 Ladies Total : Evgenia Medvedeva 241.31 SP : Alina Zagitova 82.92 FS : Evgenia Medvedeva 160.46 Total ( J ) : Alexandra Trusova 225.52 SP ( J ) : Alexandra Trusova 73.25 FS ( J ) : Alexandra Trusova 153.49 Pairs Total : Aliona Savchenko / Bruno Massot 245.84 SP : Tatiana Volosozhar / Maxim Trankov 84.17 FS : Savchenko / Massot 162.86 Total ( J ) : Anna Dušková / Martin Bidař 181.82 SP ( J ) : Amina Atakhanova / Ilia Spiridonov 64.79 FS ( J ) : Sui Wenjing / Han Cong 118.54 Ice dance Total : Gabriella Papadakis / Guillaume Cizeron 207.20 SD : Papadakis / Cizeron 83.73 FD : Papadakis / Cizeron 123.47 Total ( J ) : Rachel Parsons / Michael Parsons 164.83 SD ( J ) : R. Parsons / M. Parsons 67.88 FD ( J ) : R. Parsons / M. Parsons 97.54 See also Progression of record scores Record technical and component scores Highest technical element scores Highest program component scores See also ( J ) Record junior scores Progression of record scores ( J ) Record technical and component scores ( J ) Highest technical element scores ( J ) Highest program component scores ( J ) 2017 -- 18 figure skating season Olympics Qualification Men 's singles Ladies ' singles Pair skating Ice dancing Team event ISU Championships European Championships Four Continents Championships World Junior Championships World Championships ISU Grand Prix Rostelecom Cup Skate Canada International Cup of China NHK Trophy Internationaux de France Skate America Grand Prix Final ISU Challenger Series U.S. Classic Lombardia Trophy Autumn Classic Ondrej Nepela Trophy Nebelhorn Trophy Finlandia Trophy Minsk - Arena Ice Star Warsaw Cup Tallinn Trophy Golden Spin of Zagreb Junior internationals ISU Junior Grand Prix Junior Grand Prix Final National championships Canada China Germany Japan Russia South Korea United States Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Figure_skating_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics_ -- _Men % 27s_singles&oldid = 833477722 '' Categories : Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics Men 's events at the 2018 Winter Olympics Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 31 March 2018 , at 20 : 06 . 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92 | document: Ashby ( surname ) - wikipedia Ashby ( surname ) Ashby is a surname . Notable people with the surname include : Alan Ashby ( born 1951 ) , American baseball player Alexander Essebiensis ( Alexander of Ashby ) ( c. 1220 ) , English theologian and poet Alison Marjorie Ashby ( 1901 -- 1987 ) , Australian botanical artist and plant collector Andy Ashby ( born 1967 ) , American baseball player Carl Ashby ( 1914 -- 2004 ) , American abstract expressionist artist Christopher C. Ashby ( b . 1946 ) , American ambassador to Uruguay , 1997 to 2001 David Ashby ( born 1940 ) , British Conservative Member of Parliament 1983 -- 1997 David Ashby ( cricketer ) ( 1852 -- 1934 ) , New Zealand cricketer Debee Ashby ( born 1967 ) , British adult model Dorothy Ashby ( 1932 -- 1986 ) , African American jazz harpist and composer Earl Ashby ( born 1921 ) , Cuban baseball player Edwin Ashby ( 1861 -- 1941 ) , Australian malacologist and ornithologist Eric Ashby , Baron Ashby ( 1904 -- 1992 ) , British botanist and educator Gary Ashby ( born 1955 ) , American college baseball coach George Ashby ( martyr ) ( died 1537 ) , martyred English monk Hal Ashby ( 1929 -- 1988 ) , American film director Harry Ashby ( golfer ) ( 1946 -- 2010 ) , English professional golf player Irving Ashby ( 1920 -- 1987 ) , American jazz guitarist Jeffrey Ashby ( born 1954 ) , American naval aviator and astronaut John Ashby ( Royal Navy officer ) ( 1646 -- 1693 ) , English admiral during the War of the League of Augsburg John Ashby ( militiaman ) ( 18th century ) , colonel in the Virginia Militia Joseph Ashby - Sterry ( c. 1837 -- 1917 ) , English poet and novelist Linden Ashby ( born 1960 ) , American actor Madeline Ashby ( born 1983 ) , American - Canadian science fiction writer Margery Corbett Ashby ( 1882 -- 1981 ) , British feminist and internationalist Michael Ashby ( 1914 -- 2004 ) , British neurologist Michael F. Ashby ( born 1935 ) , British metallurgist Peter Ashby , British musician and composer Ray Ashby , British rugby league footballer Richard Ashby ( born 1972 ) , British poker player Thomas Ashby ( 1874 -- 1931 ) , British archaeologist and architectural historian of ancient Rome Turner Ashby ( 1828 -- 1862 ) , Confederate cavalry general in the American Civil War William Ross Ashby ( 1903 -- 1972 ) , English psychiatrist and founder of the English school of cybernetics References ( edit ) Surname list This page lists people with the surname Ashby . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page , you may wish to change that link by adding the person 's given name ( s ) to the link . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ashby_(surname)&oldid=851868645 '' Categories : Surnames English - language surnames Hidden categories : Articles with short description All set index articles Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 25 July 2018 , at 03 : 20 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | <|d0_99|> <|d1_129|> <|d2_31|> |
93 | document: Texas Rangers ( Baseball ) - wikipedia Texas Rangers ( Baseball ) Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the sports team . For the law enforcement agency , see Texas Ranger Division . For other uses , see Texas Rangers . Texas Rangers 2017 Texas Rangers season Established in 1961 Based in Arlington since 1972 Team logo Cap insignia Major league affiliations American League ( 1961 -- present ) West Division ( 1972 -- present ) East Division ( 1969 -- 1971 ) Current uniform Retired numbers 7 26 34 42 Colors Royal blue , red , white Name Texas Rangers ( 1972 -- present ) Washington Senators ( 1961 -- 1971 ) Ballpark Globe Life Field ( planned for 2020 or 2021 ) Globe Life Park in Arlington ( 1994 -- present ) a.k.a. Rangers Ballpark in Arlington ( 2007 -- 2013 ) a.k.a. Ameriquest Field in Arlington ( 2004 -- 2006 ) a.k.a. The Ballpark in Arlington ( 1994 -- 2004 ) Arlington Stadium ( 1972 -- 1993 ) RFK Stadium ( 1962 -- 1971 ) Griffith Stadium ( 1961 ) Major league titles World Series titles ( 0 ) None AL Pennants ( 2 ) 2011 West Division titles ( 7 ) 1998 1999 2011 2015 2016 Wild card berths ( 1 ) 2012 Front office Owner ( s ) Rangers Baseball Express , LLC Manager Jeff Banister General Manager Jon Daniels President of Baseball Operations Jon Daniels The Texas Rangers are an American professional baseball team based in Arlington , Texas , located in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex . The Rangers franchise currently competes in Major League Baseball as a member of the American League ( AL ) West division . Since 1994 , the Rangers have played in Globe Life Park in Arlington in Arlington , Texas . The team 's name is borrowed from the famous law enforcement agency of the same name . The franchise was established in 1961 as the Washington Senators , an expansion team awarded to Washington , D.C. , after the city 's first American League ballclub , the second Washington Senators , moved to Minnesota and became the Twins ( the original Washington Senators played primarily in the National League during the 1890s ) . After the 1971 season , the new Senators moved to Arlington , Texas , and debuted as the Rangers the following spring . The Texas Rangers Baseball Club has made eight appearances in the MLB postseason , seven following division championships in 1996 , 1998 , 1999 , 2010 , 2011 , 2015 , and 2016 and as a wild card team in 2012 . In 2010 , the Rangers advanced past the Division Series for the first time , defeating the Tampa Bay Rays . Texas then brought home their first American League pennant after beating the New York Yankees in six games . In the 2010 World Series , the franchise 's first , the Rangers fell to the San Francisco Giants in five games . They repeated as American League champions the following year , then lost the 2011 World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games . With 57 seasons as a franchise they currently hold an MLB record as being the oldest franchise in MLB without a World Series title . Contents ( hide ) 1 Franchise history 1.1 Washington Senators ( 1961 -- 1971 ) 1.2 First years in Texas ( 1972 -- 1984 ) 1.3 The Valentine , Ryan , and Bush years ( 1985 -- 1994 ) 1.4 First success ( 1995 -- 2000 ) 1.5 The lean years ( 2001 -- 2004 ) 1.5. 1 2001 -- 2003 1.5. 2 2004 1.6 2005 - 2006 1.6. 1 Building the brand 1.6. 2 2007 -- 2009 1.6. 3 Financial troubles and new ownership 1.7 2010 -- present : Rise to contention 1.7. 1 2010 and 2011 : AL Champions 1.7. 1.1 2010 1.7. 1.2 2011 1.7. 2 2012 : Final week collapse 1.7. 3 2013 : Missed playoffs 1.7. 4 2014 : Injury plagued 1.7. 5 2015 : Mid-season revitalization 2 Season - by - season records 3 Baseball Hall of Famers 3.1 Ford C. Frick Award recipients 3.2 Texas Sports Hall of Fame 4 Mascot 5 Team captains 6 Retired numbers 7 Texas Rangers Hall of Fame 8 Current roster 9 Minor league affiliations 10 Franchise records and award winners 10.1 Season records 11 Radio and television 11.1 Radio 11.2 Television 12 Texas Rangers Six Shooters 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Franchise history ( edit ) Main article : History of the Texas Rangers ( baseball ) This article or section may need to be cleaned up or summarized because it has been split from / to History of the Texas Rangers ( baseball ) . Washington Senators ( 1961 -- 1971 ) ( edit ) When the second Washington Senators moved to Minnesota in 1960 as the Twins , Major League Baseball decided to expand a year earlier than planned to stave off the twin threats of competition from the proposed Continental League and loss of its exemption from the Sherman Antitrust Act . This new team adopted the old Senators name , but was ( and still is ) considered an expansion team since the Twins retained the old Senators ' records and history . The Senators and Angels began to fill their rosters with American League players in an expansion draft . The team played the 1961 season at old Griffith Stadium before moving to District of Columbia Stadium ( now the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium ) . For most of their existence , the new Senators were the definition of futility , losing an average of 90 games a season . The team 's struggles led to a twist on a joke about the old Senators -- `` Washington : first in war , first in peace and still last in the American League . '' Frank Howard , known for his towering home runs , was the team 's most accomplished player , winning two home run titles . Ownership changed hands several times during the franchise 's stay in Washington and was often plagued by poor decision - making and planning . Owner Elwood Richard Quesada once wondered why he should have to pay his players because he believed they did n't belong in the majors . He later agreed to a 10 - year lease at D.C. Stadium -- a move that would come back to haunt the Senators . In 1963 , Quesada sold his stake in the club and resigned . Washington stockbrokers James Johnston and James Lemon owned the team briefly , suffering massive financial losses . Johnston died in 1967 and Lemon sold the team a year later to hotel and trucking executive Bob Short , who outbid a group headed by Bob Hope . Short named himself general manager and hired Hall of Famer Ted Williams as manager . Although Williams had never coached or managed at any level of baseball , he seemed to light a spark under the once - moribund Senators . Williams kept them in contention for most of the season ; their 86 -- 76 record would be their only winning season in Washington . U.S. President Richard Nixon throwing Opening Day ceremonial first pitch at RFK Stadium on April 7 , 1969 with Ted Williams ( left ) and Bob Short ( right , partially obscured by Ralph Houk ) . The success though was brief , as Short borrowed most of the $9.4 million he had used to pay for the team . As the Senators general manager , Short was forced to make many questionable trades to lower the debt and acquire amounts of the much - needed revenue . As a result , the team rapidly fell back into the American League 's cellar position . Fans kept their distance from the Senators while the Baltimore Orioles , 45 miles ( 72 km ) to the northeast , won four American League pennants and two World Series from the 1966 season through the 1971 season . By the end of the 1970 season , Short had issued an ultimatum : unless someone was willing to buy the Senators for $12 million ( in comparison , the New York Yankees were sold in 1973 for $8.8 million ) , he would not proceed to renew the stadium lease and would move the team elsewhere . When that season ended , Short dealt his best starting pitcher and the left side of his infield to the Detroit Tigers for erstwhile 30 - game - winner Denny McLain , who had spent most of the 1970 campaign suspended because of gambling allegations . The deal -- alleged by onetime Senators broadcaster Shelby Whitfield to have been made in order to secure the Tigers ' vote in favor of the Senators ' eventual move to Texas -- turned Detroit back into contenders , while McLain was a monumental bust , losing an embarrassing league - worst of 22 games . Short was especially receptive to an offer brought up by Arlington , Texas mayor Tom Vandergriff , who had been trying to obtain a Major League sports team to play in the Metroplex for over a decade . Years earlier , Charles O. Finley , the owner of the Kansas City Athletics , sought to relocate his baseball team to Dallas , Texas , but the idea was rebuffed and ultimately declined by the other A.L. team owners . Arlington 's hole card was Turnpike Stadium , a 10,000 - seat park which had been built in 1965 to house the AA Dallas - Fort Worth Spurs of the Texas League . However , it had been built to Major League specifications and also located in a natural bowl , meaning only minor excavations would be necessary to expand the park to accommodate Major League crowds . After Vandergriff offered a multimillion - dollar down payment , Short decided to make the move to Arlington . On September 21 , 1971 , by a vote of 10 to 2 ( the Orioles ' Jerold Hoffberger and John Allyn of the Chicago White Sox registered the dissenting votes ) , American League owners granted approval to move the franchise to Arlington , Texas for the 1972 season . Senators fans were livid . Enmity came to a head at the club 's last game in Washington . Thousands of fans simply walked in without paying after the security guards left early , swelling the paid attendance of 14,460 to around 25,000 , while fans unfurled a banner reading `` SHORT STINKS '' . With the Senators leading 7 -- 5 and two outs in the top of the ninth inning , several hundred youths stormed the field , raiding it for souvenirs . One man grabbed first base and ran off with it . With no security in sight and only three bases , umpire crew chief Jim Honochick forfeited the game to the New York Yankees . It would be 33 years before major league baseball returned to the nation 's capital , in the form of the National League 's Washington Nationals , which had previously been known as the Montreal Expos . First years in Texas ( 1972 -- 1984 ) ( edit ) During the off - season , improvements were made to Turnpike Stadium , which reopened as Arlington Stadium for the 1972 season . Meanwhile , ownership announced that the franchise would be renamed the Texas Rangers . The team played its first game on April 15 , 1972 , a 1 -- 0 loss at their expansion cousin California Angels . The next day , the Rangers defeated the Angels 5 -- 1 for the club 's first victory . After the season Ted Williams retired as manager ; he had made no secret of his displeasure with the franchise 's new location . Whitey Herzog was named the new manager , but he was replaced before the end of the 1973 season by Billy Martin . In 1974 , the Rangers began to come into their own as a team . Under the ownership of Brad Corbett , they finished the season second in the American League West with an 84 -- 76 record , behind the eventual World Series champion Oakland Athletics . The 1974 Rangers are still the only MLB team to finish above . 500 after two consecutive 100 - loss seasons . Mike Hargrove was awarded A.L. Rookie of the Year , Billy Martin was named Manager of the Year , Jeff Burroughs won American League MVP , and Ferguson Jenkins was named the Comeback Player of the Year after winning 25 games , a club record to this day . However , after a 44 -- 51 start in 1975 , Martin was fired as the Rangers ' manager and was replaced by Frank Lucchesi . After excellent seasons between 1977 -- 79 , the Rangers came very close to clinching a playoff spot in the first half of 1981 . But when Texas lost its last game before the players ' strike began , the Oakland A 's won the A.L. West in the first half by a half - game . After 1981 , the Rangers would not post a winning record for another five seasons . During this stretch , the Rangers made one of their most unpopular trades ever , sending multi-Gold Glove catcher and fan favorite Jim Sundberg to the Milwaukee Brewers for future Brewers ' manager Ned Yost . The Rangers faced an attendance problem for a few years after moving their team to Texas , in part due to the team 's inconsistent performance and in part due to the oppressive heat and humidity that can encompass the area in the summer . Until the Florida Marlins arrived in 1993 , Arlington Stadium was often the hottest stadium in the Majors , with temperatures frequently topping around 100 ° throughout the months of summer . In part because of this , the Rangers began playing most of even their weekend games between May and September at night -- a tradition that continues to this day . They usually get a waiver from ESPN to play Sunday night games . The Valentine , Ryan , and Bush years ( 1985 -- 1994 ) ( edit ) Bobby Valentine became steward over an influx of splendid talent in the late 1980s and early 1990s . A winning season in 1986 was a shock to pundits and fans alike as the Rangers remained in the race for the American League pennant for the entire season . With a team consisting of many stellar young rookies such as Rubén Sierra , Pete Incaviglia , Mitch Williams , Bobby Witt , and Edwin Correa , the Rangers finished the season 2nd place with an 87 -- 75 record , just five games behind the division champion California Angels . The season marked a dramatic 25 - win improvement over the 1985 season , which resulted in yet another last - place finish in the West . The signing of 41 - year - old star pitcher Nolan Ryan prior to the 1989 season allowed Ryan to reach his 5,000 th strikeout , 300th win , and sixth and seventh no - hitters with the Rangers . Coupled with powerful batters like Juan González , Rubén Sierra , Julio Franco , and Rafael Palmeiro and a pitching staff that also included Charlie Hough , Bobby Witt , Kevin Brown , and Kenny Rogers , fans held really high expectations for the Rangers ' upcoming season . However , the team never posted a finish higher than second place and Valentine was relieved of his duties during the 1992 season . Nolan Ryan pitching to Detroit Tigers ' Travis Fryman , Arlington Stadium , August 16 , 1992 . In April 1989 , Rangers owner and oil tycoon Eddie Chiles , sold the team to an investment group headed by George W. Bush . After hearing that Chiles planned to sell the team , Bush headed a group of investors ( including Frank L. Morsani and the Mack family ) that bought the team for $89 million . While his own equity in the team was a small one ( $500,000 ) , he was named Managing General Partner of the new ownership group . He increased his investment to $600,000 the following year . During his tenure , the Rangers and the City of Arlington decided to replace the aging Arlington Stadium with a new publicly funded stadium , at a cost of $193 million , financed by Arlington residents , through a sales tax increase . Ground was broken on October 30 , 1991 on what would become The Ballpark in Arlington ( now named Globe Life Park in Arlington ) . The city , through the Arlington Sports Facilities Development Authority , also controversially authorized the seizure of 13 acres ( 53,000 m ) of land through eminent domain for the Rangers future development . Landowners filed lawsuits over the acquisition and eventually won settlements of $22.2 million which the Rangers failed to pay . Bush left his position with the Rangers when he was elected Governor of Texas in 1994 . Although Bush no longer has any ownership stake in the Rangers , he remains a fan of the team to this day and regularly attends the team 's home games . In 1993 , Kevin Kennedy took over managerial duties , presiding over the team for two seasons , keeping the 1993 Rangers in the hunt for a playoff berth into mid-September . Kennedy was let go in 1994 , although the team led the A.L. West prior to the players ' strike . On July 28 Kenny Rogers pitched the 12th perfect game in Major League history . The strike prematurely ended what could have been the Rangers ' first division championship when commissioner Bud Selig canceled the remainder of the season and the playoffs . First success ( 1995 -- 2000 ) ( edit ) Rangers Ballpark in Arlington opened in 1994 The year 1995 saw the beginnings of promise for the Rangers . With a brand new ballpark that hosted its first All - Star Game that year , Johnny Oates was hired as the Rangers ' manager . Rangers logo , 1994 -- 2002 Oates and company promptly helped to bring home the 1996 A.L. Western Division Championship , the first division championship in franchise history . The first playoff series , 24 years after the franchise came to Texas , saw the Rangers lose to the New York Yankees , 3 games to 1 . Oates was named A.L. Manager of the Year and Juan González was named A.L. MVP . The team featured a powerful lineup of hitters with Iván Rodríguez , Will Clark , Mark McLemore , Dean Palmer , Rusty Greer , Juan González , and Mickey Tettleton but continued to struggle with pitching -- a common stereotype of Rangers teams -- despite having Rick Helling , and Aaron Sele on their roster . Oates led the team to consecutive A.L. West championships in 1998 and 1999 . Neither of Oates ' last two playoff teams could win a single game , losing all 6 in back - to - back sweeps at the hands of the Yankees , a team that won 3 World Championships in the 1990s after defeating Rangers teams in the first round . The 1999 team would be the last playoff - bound team for over a decade , as the Rangers took a step backwards at the beginning of the new millennium . En route to a second straight last - place finish , Oates resigned his position 28 games into the 2001 season . The Rangers finished the decade going 1 -- 9 in the postseason , without a single home win . In 1998 , venture capital billionaire Tom Hicks bought the team for $250 million . Hicks also agreed to pay the $22.2 million awarded in settlements in relation to the 1991 eminent domain litigation concerning the Ballpark in Arlington . The lean years ( 2001 -- 2004 ) ( edit ) 2001 -- 2003 ( edit ) Prior to the 2001 season , star free agent shortstop Alex Rodriguez was signed by the Rangers in the most lucrative deal in baseball history : a 10 - year , $252 million contract . The move was controversial and is frequently maligned by fans and writers who thought that owner Tom Hicks was placing too much emphasis on one player instead of utilizing team resources to acquire several players , especially for a team that lacked pitching talent . Club officials maintained that Rodriguez would be the cornerstone of future postseason success . Although Rodriguez 's individual performance was outstanding , the Rangers continued to struggle and manager Jerry Narron was fired following the 2002 season , and he was replaced by seasoned manager Buck Showalter . The 2003 season signified the fourth straight last - place finish , and after a post-season fallout between Rodriguez and club management , the reigning A.L. MVP and newly appointed Rangers captain was traded to the New York Yankees for second baseman Alfonso Soriano and infielder prospect Joaquin Arias . Michael Young , Rangers v. Baltimore Orioles , Camden Yards , April 25 , 2009 . Prior to the 2004 season , little hope was held out for the Rangers to improve on their losing ways . However , the Rangers battled with the Anaheim Angels and Oakland Athletics for first place in the A.L. West for much of the season . Mark Teixeira , Alfonso Soriano , Michael Young , and Hank Blalock became some of the best - hitting infielders in the league , with Young , Blalock , and Soriano being named to the 2004 All - Star Game . Soriano was named the All - Star MVP after going 2 for 3 with a three - run home run . Late in September , the Oakland A 's visited Arlington for a 3 - game series . After taking the first two games of the series , the Rangers trailed 4 -- 2 , in the bottom of the ninth . A loss would have dropped them to four games behind the Athletics . A home run by Hank Blalock and a dramatic two - out , two - run double by David Dellucci ( known amongst fans as the `` Dellucci Double '' ) gave the Rangers a 5 -- 4 win , one of the most memorable in club history . It also allowed the Rangers to sweep the first - place Athletics and leave them just two games behind with 10 to play . Unfortunately , the Rangers ended up losing six of the final ten games and another turnaround season came up short . The club finished in third place behind the Angels and A 's , a mere 3 games out of first place . 2005 - 2006 ( edit ) In 2005 the Rangers again struggled to find consistency amid controversy and injuries , notwithstanding that the team swept an entire homestand for the first time in its history . Frank Francisco and Carlos Almanzar , two key members of the bullpen , were sidelined for Tommy John surgery . Kenny Rogers , the team 's ace pitcher , received a 20 - game suspension from commissioner Bud Selig for attacking a cameraman at Ameriquest Field prior to a game . Management later placed opening day starter Ryan Drese on waivers , where he was claimed by the Washington Nationals . After Drese 's release and Rogers ' suspension , the Rangers ' performance on the mound faltered , and a disastrous 1 -- 12 August road trip all but sealed the squad 's fate . On October 4 , 2005 , the Rangers announced that John Hart would step down as general manager and that Jon Daniels was being promoted from assistant general manager to replace him . Daniels , at 28 years and one month , would become the youngest general manager in Major League history . Daniels and the Rangers front office were very active in the 2005 -- 2006 offseason . Alfonso Soriano , who had often been mentioned in trade speculation , was finally dealt to the Nationals for outfielders Brad Wilkerson and Terrmel Sledge . The Rangers then began making moves to acquire pitching talent . The Rangers gained enigmatic starter Vicente Padilla from the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Ricardo Rodríguez and acquired San Diego Padres pitchers Adam Eaton and Akinori Otsuka in exchange for Chris Young , Adrian Gonzalez , and Sledge . Finally , they signed free agent starter Kevin Millwood to a five - year contract worth $60 million . The Rangers 2006 season ended with a disappointing 80 -- 82 record and a third - place finish in the West . Though the club showed strength in the early going , the team proved unable to keep pace with the surging Oakland Athletics in the second half and fell out of contention in September . To some extent the Rangers were the victims of bad luck , as their win - loss record was worse than their + 51 run differential for the season would normally indicate . However , the element that the club continued to lack was a solid pitching staff , whose combined ERA ranked 9th in the A.L. at the season 's end . The Rangers were represented in the 2006 All - Star game by center fielder Gary Matthews , Jr. and shortstop Michael Young , who was named the MVP for his game - winning two - run triple in the ninth inning . Significant player moves in - season included a July 28 deal acquiring outfielders Carlos Lee and Nelson Cruz from the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for Kevin Mench , Francisco Cordero , and Laynce Nix . On October 4 after two attempts to replicate the success of the 2004 team , the Rangers dismissed Buck Showalter as manager with three years left on his contract . A month later , the team announced that Oakland Athletics third base coach Ron Washington had accepted their offer to manage the team . A change at manager would be the first of several moves to strengthen the team in yet another busy off - season . Gary Matthews , Jr. , Mark DeRosa , Carlos Lee , and Adam Eaton all signed with other clubs as free agents . Vicente Padilla accepted a three - year , $33 million offer with an option for a fourth year at $12 million . The Rangers also signed 1B / OF Frank Catalanotto to a multi-year deal . The Rangers later added reliever Éric Gagné and veteran outfielders Kenny Lofton and Sammy Sosa on short - term deals . In a sign that GM Jon Daniels was looking for results in 2007 , the Rangers ' top pitching prospect John Danks was traded to the Chicago White Sox along with reliever Nick Masset for 23 - year - old starter Brandon McCarthy . The Danks trade caused quite a stir amongst fans , many of which had followed the minor league careers of the highly touted `` DVD '' trio of pitchers that included Danks , Edinson Vólquez , and Thomas Diamond . All three pitchers would eventually reach the majors , with varying degrees of success , while McCarthy 's career became marred by injury . Building the brand ( edit ) Home Plate Entrance at the Rangers Ballpark in Arlington The Rangers previously negotiated a 30 - year , $75 million stadium naming rights agreement with Ameriquest Mortgage Company in 2004 , renaming the Ballpark `` Ameriquest Field '' . Under the Ameriquest moniker , the Ballpark featured a replica of the Liberty Bell in the stands above the Diamond Club ( representing Ameriquest 's logo ) that rang after home runs . In 2007 , though , the Rangers announced the termination of the agreement with Ameriquest , and changed the name to Rangers Ballpark in Arlington . Club president Jeff Cogen cited that the team was more concerned about getting their name back on the ballpark than Ameriquest 's public financial troubles . `` It 's all about the brand '' , Cogen said . The Rangers lost a reported $2.5 million per year from the lack of naming rights but regained advertising space given over to Ameriquest in the naming rights deal . Regardless of Cogen 's comments , Ameriquest dissolved within months after the naming rights were terminated , and the company ended most business operations in September 2007 . 2007 -- 2009 ( edit ) Wikinews has related news : MLB : Rangers score 30 runs against Orioles in first game of doubleheader The Rangers struggled offensively early in the season , despite playing in a notoriously hitter - friendly park . On June 20 , Sammy Sosa hit his 600th career home run against the Chicago Cubs at the Rangers Ballpark in Arlington . Hank Blalock , the starting 3rd baseman who had been enjoying a good season , was placed on the 60 - day disabled list on the May 19 due to thoracic outlet syndrome , and Mark Teixeira followed him onto the disabled list on June 9 ( for the first time in his career ) with a strained left quadriceps muscle . With a record of 46 -- 59 at the July 31 trade deadline , the team traded Mark Teixeira and Ron Mahay to the Atlanta Braves in a deal that would eventually bring 5 prospects to the Rangers organization , including four of Atlanta 's top prospects Jarrod Saltalamacchia , Elvis Andrus , Matt Harrison , and Neftalí Feliz . The team also traded closer Éric Gagné to the Boston Red Sox for left - hander Kason Gabbard and Minor League outfielders David Murphy and Engel Beltre . These moves were the beginnings of a rebuilding project headed by Jon Daniels with a focus on the acquisition and development of young players . In the coming years , more club resources would be dedicated to improving the quality of the farm system and scouting departments , most notably in Latin America and the Far East . The objective of Daniels ' plan was to field a legitimately competitive team by the 2010 season . The 2007 season remains notable in the minds of baseball fans for two inexplicable oddities . On August 19 at the Metrodome , the Minnesota Twins logged 19 strikeouts against the Rangers , one short of the Major League record . Three days later , the 22nd , in the first game of a doubleheader at Oriole Park at Camden Yards , the Rangers ' bats came alive with a modern record for runs by one team , defeating the Baltimore Orioles 30 -- 3 . Their 27 - run margin of victory is also a modern - day MLB record . Wes Littleton gained probably the easiest save in Major League history : entering the game in the bottom of the seventh , with his team already ahead 14 -- 3 , he pitched three innings to finish the game , and gave up just two hits and a walk . The Rangers began the 2008 season red hot , headlined by newcomer Josh Hamilton who looked to be a threat to win the Triple Crown , before fading off as the season wore on . During the All - Star festivities at Yankee Stadium , Hamilton crushed a first round home run record in the 2008 Home Run Derby with 28 . Hamilton hit another four in the second round and three during the final round , for a total of 35 home runs , but lost to the Twins ' Justin Morneau . Four Rangers played in the All Star Game : Josh Hamilton , Ian Kinsler , Milton Bradley , and Michael Young , who would repeat his 2006 All - Star Game feat by driving in the winning run via a sac fly . The Rangers would finish the season with yet another sub -. 500 record ( 79 -- 83 ) , yet ended the season second in the West , the club 's best finish since 1999 . The off - season saw perennial All - Star shortstop Michael Young ask for a trade when the team told him he would be moving to third base to make room for rookie Elvis Andrus . After speaking with club president Nolan Ryan and his agent , Young later rescinded his trade request , and agreed to move to third base . The offseason also saw the departure of mercurial outfielder / DH Milton Bradley to free agency . Scott Feldman Derek Holland is considered the best pitching prospect drafted by the Rangers since the departure of John Danks The 2009 season saw the Rangers soar into playoff contention for the first time since 2004 . Despite injuries to Josh Hamilton and Ian Kinsler , the Rangers held first place in their division for long stretches of the summer before fading after September 1 , losing the division to the Los Angeles Angels . The Rangers finished the season at 87 -- 75 , their first winning season since 2004 and good enough for second place in the A.L. West . Michael Young responded to his move to third base by posting one of his best offensive seasons ever while committing just nine errors and earning a sixth straight All - Star appearance . Josh Hamilton and Nelson Cruz were also named 2009 A.L. All - Stars . Several young stars with the club broke out including the debuts of highly rated rookies Elvis Andrus , Derek Holland , and Neftalí Feliz . Second baseman Ian Kinsler hit for the cycle in April , while having a 30 -- 30 season in home runs and stolen bases . Starting pitcher Scott Feldman posted a fantastic season as well in 2009 , finishing 3rd in the A.L in wins with 17 . Financial troubles and new ownership ( edit ) While the 2009 season was strong on the field , club owner Tom Hicks became the focus of several reports indicating serious financial problems with his holding group , Hicks Sports Group , which also owned the Dallas Stars , the Frisco Roughriders ( the Rangers AA - farm club ) , 1 / 2 of Liverpool F.C. ( sold in mid-October 2010 to New England Sports Ventures , owners of the Boston Red Sox ) , and the Mesquite Championship Rodeo ( later sold by HSG ) . HSG was reported to have gone into default on a $525 million loan . In April 2009 , Hicks announced he would be willing to sell a minority interest in the team . Only one month later , Hicks announced he would be willing to sell majority control of the Rangers . In July 2009 , it was reported that Hicks borrowed money from Major League Baseball to meet the team 's payroll . After the 2009 season , Hicks began scouting prospective buyers and in December entered into exclusive negotiating rights for sale of the Rangers with a consortium headed by Pittsburgh sports lawyer Chuck Greenberg and Rangers team president Nolan Ryan . On January 22 , 2010 , Hicks Sports Group officially reached a formal agreement to sell the Texas Rangers to the group headed by Greenberg and Ryan ( later called Rangers Baseball Express ) for approximately $570 million . Under the provisions of the deal , former owner Hicks stayed on as a limited minority partner , but was not allowed to retain a seat on the board of governors . Co-lead investors Dallas businessmen Ray Davis and Bob R. Simpson were named co-chairmen . Hicks also sold much of the land surrounding Rangers Ballpark to Rangers Baseball Express in a separate deal . The deal was subject to approval by the other MLB owners ( a 3 / 4 vote is required ) and completed by April 1 . However , one of HSG 's principal lenders ( Monarch Alternative Capital ) opposed the sale on grounds that the proceeds would not fully repay the defaulted HSG notes . On April 21 , Major League Baseball issued a statement declaring the Rangers ' sale to be under the control of the Commissioner to expedite the process . Because of public comments made by Hicks deemed detrimental to the process , MLB also stripped Hicks of any responsibility regarding the sale of the team . On May 13 , MLB threatened to seize control of the rest of the team 's operations if a deal was not completed by the deadline set by the Commissioner . As the stalemate between HSG and its creditors continued , on May 24 , 2010 the Texas Rangers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy . As of that date , the Rangers and HSG had an estimated debt of $575 million . Much of the unsecured debt was owed in back salary . Officially , New York Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez topped the list of unsecured creditors with an estimated $24.9 million owed by the Rangers . Additionally , the Rangers also owed Baltimore Orioles pitcher Kevin Millwood $12.9 million , and then current Rangers third baseman Michael Young $3.9 million . At a press conference , the Greenberg - Ryan group proposed to buy the team for $575 million . The sale would repay all the team 's creditors , including players owed back salary . After several attempts to resolve the deal fell through , the bankruptcy court ordered a public auction to be held on August 4 . The Greenberg / Ryan bid would be the opening bid , and other offers ( subject to MLB approval ) would have to be submitted by the prior day in order to be considered . At the auction , only one other MLB - approved group submitted an offer -- Radical Baseball LLC , a group formed by Houston businessman Jim Crane ( who was previously unsuccessful in buying the Houston Astros , and ultimately bought that team in 2011 ) and Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban ( who was previously unsuccessful in buying the Chicago Cubs ) . The auction lasted until the early morning of August 5 , with the winning bid submitted by Greenberg / Ryan . The bankruptcy court approved the bid later that morning and the bankruptcy case closed . The sale to the Greenberg / Ryan was approved by all 30 MLB owners at the owners meeting in Minneapolis on Thursday August 12 . `` I 'll be the managing partner and CEO . If you like what 's going on or you do n't like what 's going on , I take responsibility for that . When it comes to baseball , I 'm not going to interject my opinions . If Nolan and ( Jon Daniels ) want to discuss something with me , they can , but I have complete faith and trust in the decisions that they make . I 'll be as involved as they wish me to be , but with complete faith and confidence in them . What I 'm going to focus on , particularly since the baseball side is in great shape , is the business side . How do we connect with the community ? How do we create a higher tempo of energy in the front office ? How can we do a better job of filling the stands and make an impact on people 's lives ? If we succeed on the business side and continue on path on the baseball side and combine it with a dynamic market like this is , we can be and should be one of the powerhouse franchises in baseball . '' -- Chuck Greenberg The new ownership group , which included Chuck Greenberg and Nolan Ryan , was called Rangers Baseball Express , LLC and had Greenberg serving as managing general partner and Ryan as club president . Davis and Simpson were named co-chairmen . In March 2011 Greenberg resigned as Chief Executive and Managing General Partner and sold his interest in the Club following a `` falling out '' with his partners . Following Greenberg 's resignation , Nolan Ryan was named Chief Executive Officer in addition to his continuing role as Team President . Ryan was subsequently designated the Controlling Owner of the Club by a unanimous vote of the 30 owners of Major League Baseball on May 12 , 2011 . Co-Chairmen Simpson and Davis stated they would not be involved in day - to - day operations . 2010 -- present : rise to contention ( edit ) Main article : 2010 Texas Rangers season Offseason moves made by the Rangers sent Kevin Millwood to the Baltimore Orioles and acquired free agents Rich Harden , Colby Lewis , and Vladimir Guerrero . With the new influx of talent and success in 2009 , the Rangers entered the season expecting to compete for the division and achieve the front office 's goals of 2007 . During the offseason , Texas Rangers ' team President Nolan Ryan spoke about the Rangers ' chances in the upcoming season saying , `` My expectations today are that we 're going to be extremely competitive and if we do n't win our division , I 'll be disappointed . '' Ian Kinsler After stumbling out of the gates with a sub -. 500 start in April , the Rangers took the division lead with a franchise - best month of June , going 21 -- 6 . The Rangers would never relinquish first place after an 11 - game winning streak . On July 9 , the club dealt one of its top prospects , Justin Smoak , with two other minor leaguers to the Seattle Mariners for former Cy Young Award winner Cliff Lee and Mark Lowe . The Rangers also made moves to acquire veterans Bengie Molina , Jorge Cantú , Cristian Guzmán , and Jeff Francoeur . In the 2010 All - Star Game , the team was represented by Cliff Lee , Vladimir Guerrero , Ian Kinsler , Josh Hamilton , Elvis Andrus , and Neftalí Feliz . After the All - Star Game , came the debut of the claw and antler hand gestures , which gained much popularity , especially after the release of various apparel and souvenir options for the fans . Foam claws and helmets with deer antlers became quite commonplace in the ballpark as the Rangers played further into the fall . The Rangers won the A.L. West on September 25 , advancing to the postseason for the first time since 1999 . 2010 and 2011 : A.L. champions ( edit ) Main articles : 2010 American League Division Series , 2010 American League Championship Series , and 2010 World Series After winning the AL West with a 90 -- 72 record , the Rangers entered the playoffs for the first time since 1999 , and faced the Tampa Bay Rays for the first round , which ultimately resulted in a 3 -- 2 series victory and marked the first postseason series victory in the 50 - year history of the Rangers / Washington Senators franchise . Facing the Rangers in the American League Championship Series were the defending World Champion New York Yankees , the team the Rangers failed against three separate times in the 1990s . In the playoffs , the Rangers record against the Yankees was 1 -- 9 . In a 6 - game series , the Texas Rangers came out victorious , winning the first pennant in franchise history in front of an ecstatic home crowd . Josh Hamilton was awarded ALCS MVP after setting a series record for intentional walks . The Texas Rangers faced the San Francisco Giants in the 2010 World Series . The Rangers offense struggled against the Giants ' young pitching and eventually lost the Series 4 -- 1 , the lone win coming in Arlington on October 30 . For the first time , the Rangers ended their season in the month of November . 2011 ( edit ) Main articles : 2011 Texas Rangers season , 2011 American League Division Series , 2011 American League Championship Series , and 2011 World Series The Rangers successfully defended their AL West Division title in 2011 , making the club 's second straight division title and postseason appearance and fifth division title and postseason appearance overall . The Rangers set records for best record ( 96 -- 66 with a . 592 winning percentage ) and home attendance ( 2,946,949 ) . On October 15 , they went back to the World Series after beating the Detroit Tigers 15 -- 5 in Game 6 of the ALCS . The series featured Nelson Cruz hitting 6 home runs , the most home runs by one player in a playoff series in MLB history . In game 2 Cruz also became the first player in postseason history to win a game with a walk - off grand slam as the Rangers defeated the Tigers 7 -- 3 in 11 innings . However , they would proceed to lose the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games , after twice being one strike away from the championship in game 6 . Game 7 is notable for the controversy surrounding the manager Ron Washington 's pre-game clubhouse speech . 2012 : final week collapse ( edit ) Main articles : 2012 Texas Rangers season and 2012 American League Wild Card Game The Rangers lost C.J. Wilson to the rival Angels in the offseason , but managed to gain the services of Japanese pitcher Yu Darvish . They also added Joe Nathan to fill the closer role vacated by Neftalí Feliz , who was shifted to full - time starter . The Rangers dominated the American League standings for much of the season , despite losing Feliz and Colby Lewis to the 60 - day DL . Darvish quickly flourished in the starting rotation , finishing with a 16 -- 9 record and a 3.90 ERA . Josh Hamilton also had a spectacular season , finishing with 43 home runs , four of which came in a single game against the Baltimore Orioles on May 8 . However the Rangers floundered in September , culminating in a sweep by the Oakland Athletics in the final series . Before the last series of the regular season , the Rangers faced the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on September 29 , 2012 . The game was postponed due to a rain delay and the game was held off until the next day . The Texas Rangers then lost to the Angels 5 -- 4 for the first game and won 8 -- 7 in the second game later that night , which guaranteed them a spot in the first ever American League wild - card playoff game . As a result of their 93 -- 69 record , finishing second in the AL West behind the Oakland A 's , the Texas Rangers settled for the Wild Card playoff slot . In the new Wild Card Game , the Rangers ' woes continued , as they lost 5 -- 1 to the Orioles . 2013 : missed playoffs ( edit ) Main article : 2013 Texas Rangers season The Rangers finished the season in second place in the American League West with a 91 - 72 record , 5 1 / 2 games behind the Oakland Athletics . On September 30 , 2013 , the Rangers faced the Tampa Bay Rays in a 163rd play - in 2013 American League Wild Card tie - breaker game , to determine the second participant in the 2013 American League Wild Card Game against the Cleveland Indians . The 163rd game was determined to be an extension of the regular season and not considered to be part of the 2013 Major League Baseball Postseason . The Rangers lost to the Rays 5 - 2 in the tie - breaker and were eliminated from playoff contention for the first time since 2009 . On October 17 , 2013 , Nolan Ryan announced that he was stepping down as Rangers CEO effective October 31 , 2013 . 2014 : injury plagued ( edit ) Main article : 2014 Texas Rangers season Injuries took a major toll on the Rangers in 2014 . The lone bright spot was Adrián Beltré , who despite spending some time injured , was the most consistent offensive player on the team . On September 4 , 2014 , the Rangers became the first MLB team officially eliminated from 2014 postseason contention when a 10 -- 2 loss at home to the Seattle Mariners dropped their record to 53 -- 87 . The following day , manager Ron Washington resigned , citing personal issues . 2015 : mid-season revitalization ( edit ) Main article : 2015 Texas Rangers season The 2015 season started off on a bad note with the Ranger 's Ace pitcher Yu Darvish having to undergo Tommy John surgery due to a torn UCL before the season began . According to most experts , the Rangers were not expected to place any better than fourth or fifth in the American League West . However , even though the Rangers started the season with an 8 - 16 record , they were able to surpass the . 500 mark on a few different occasions throughout the year . Surprisingly , in 2015 the Rangers were one of the best road teams in all of baseball with a road record of 45 - 36 . Only the Chicago Cubs had a better road record with 48 - 33 . With the acquisition of Cole Hamels , the Rangers would retain a winning record after August 3 . The Rangers would overtake the Houston Astros and clinch the American League West title on the final day of the season with a record of 88 - 74 . It was the Rangers ' 6th division title and 7th postseason appearance in franchise history . Hamels ' positive effect on the Rangers was compared to that of the Toronto Blue Jays ' David Price , another ace starting pitcher who helped spearhead a run to the postseason after blending in seamlessly with a struggling team who acquired him at the trade deadline. ( 1 ) The Rangers lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in five games in the Division Series after squandering a 2 - 0 series lead . Season - by - season records ( edit ) Main article : List of Texas Rangers seasons Through the 2016 season , the Rangers have won 4,277 games and lost 4,649 over their history , equating to a . 479 lifetime winning percentage . After the 2011 World Series and the 2012 season , the team is 19 -- 25 in individual playoff games , and 4 -- 6 overall for postseason series . Baseball Hall of famers ( edit ) Main article : National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Texas Rangers Hall of Famers Affiliation according to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Washington Senators , Texas Rangers Nellie Fox Ted Williams Texas Rangers Bert Blyleven Goose Gossage Whitey Herzog Ferguson Jenkins Gaylord Perry Iván Rodríguez Nolan Ryan Players and managers listed in bold are depicted on their Hall of Fame plaques wearing a Rangers or Senators cap insignia . * Has no insignia on his cap due to playing at a time when caps bore no insignia . Chuck Hinton and Frank Howard , who played for the franchise in Washington ( although Howard played for the Rangers in 1972 ) , are listed on the Washington Hall of Stars display at Nationals Park in Washington . So are Gil Hodges and Mickey Vernon , who managed the `` New Senators '' . Vernon also played for the `` Old Senators '' , who became the Minnesota Twins . Ford C. Frick Award recipients ( edit ) Texas Rangers Ford C. Frick Award recipients Affiliation according to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Jon Miller Eric Nadel Names in bold received the award based primarily on their work as broadcasters for the Rangers or Senators . Texas Sports Hall of Fame ( edit ) Main article : Texas Sports Hall of Fame Rangers in the Texas Sports Hall of Fame No . Name Position Tenure Notes -- Lee Ballanfant Scout 1972 -- 1981 Born in Waco 7 Iván Rodríguez 1991 -- 2002 , 2009 10 Jim Sundberg 1974 -- 1983 1988 -- 1989 27 Lance Berkman 1B 2013 Elected mainly on his performance with Houston Astros , born and raised in Waco , attended Rice University 34 Nolan Ryan 1989 -- 1993 Born in Refugio , grew up in Alvin 46 Burt Hooton 1985 Elected mainly on his performances with Chicago Cubs and Los Angeles Dodgers , born in Greenville , attended University of Texas - Austin Mascot ( edit ) Rangers Captain , pictured in May 2016 Rangers Captain is the mascot for the Texas Rangers . Introduced in 2002 , he is a palomino - style horse , dressed in the team 's uniform . He wears the uniform number `` 72 '' in honor of 1972 , the year the Rangers relocated to Arlington . The mascot also has multiple uniforms to match each of the variants the team has . Rangers Captain 's chosen uniform for the game matches the uniform choice made by the team for that particular game . Captain 's outfits sometimes match a theme the team is promoting ; on Apr 24 , 2010 , he was dressed up like Elvis as part of an Elvis Presley themed night . Team captains ( edit ) Buddy Bell 1985 Alex Rodriguez 2004 ( offseason only ) Adrián Beltré 2013 -- present Retired numbers ( edit ) See also : List of Major League Baseball retired numbers Iván Rodríguez Retired August 12 , 2017 Johnny Oates Mgr Retired August 6 , 2005 Nolan Ryan Retired September 15 , 1996 Jackie Robinson All MLB Honored April 15 , 1997 Texas Rangers Hall of Fame ( edit ) `` Texas Rangers Hall of Fame '' redirects here . For the law enforcement agency , see Texas Ranger Hall of Fame and Museum . The Texas Rangers Hall of Fame was created in 2003 to honor the careers of former Texas Rangers players , managers , executives and broadcasters . There are currently 20 members . The Hall is located in Globe Life Park in Arlington , behind right field . The Hall 's two levels contain 13,000 square feet , a 235 - seat theater , and various plaques , photos , and memorabilia . It can accommodate up to 600 people . Key Year Year inducted Bold Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame Member of the Baseball Hall of Fame as a Ranger Bold Recipient of the Hall of Fame 's Ford C. Frick Award Texas Rangers Hall of Fame Year No . Name Position ( s ) Tenure 2003 49 Charlie Hough 1980 -- 1990 26 Johnny Oates Manager 1995 -- 2001 34 Nolan Ryan 1989 -- 1993 10 Jim Sundberg 1974 -- 1983 1988 -- 1989 25 Buddy Bell 3B 1979 -- 1985 , 1989 31 Fergie Jenkins 1974 -- 1975 1978 -- 1981 -- Tom Vandergriff Broadcaster 1975 -- 1977 2005 -- Mark Holtz Broadcaster 1981 -- 1997 35 John Wetteland 1997 -- 2000 2007 29 Rusty Greer LF 1994 -- 2002 2009 11 , 17 Toby Harrah 3B / SS Manager 1969 -- 1978 1985 -- 1986 1992 3 , 21 , 24 , 28 , 38 Rubén Sierra RF / DH 1986 -- 1992 2000 -- 2001 2003 4 , 6 Tom Grieve OF 1970 , 1972 -- 1977 2011 37 Kenny Rogers 1989 -- 1995 2000 -- 2002 2004 -- 2005 2012 -- Eric Nadel Broadcaster 1979 -- present 2013 7 Iván Rodríguez 1991 -- 2002 , 2009 2014 -- Tom Schieffer Team President 1991 -- 1999 2015 13 , 19 Juan González OF 1989 -- 1999 2002 -- 2003 40 Jeff Russell 1985 -- 1992 1995 -- 1996 2016 2 , 10 Michael Young IF 2000 -- 2012 Current roster ( edit ) Texas Rangers 2018 spring training roster view talk 40 - man roster Non-roster invitees Coaches / Other Pitchers 47 Clayton Blackburn 51 Matt Bush 58 Alex Claudio 41 Jake Diekman 45 Nick Gardewine 21 Chi Chi Gonzalez 64 A.J. Griffin 35 Cole Hamels 50 Keone Kela 62 José Leclerc 22 Nick Martinez 65 Yohander Méndez 33 Martín Pérez 68 Ricardo Rodríguez 59 Connor Sadzeck Catchers 61 Robinson Chirinos 6 Brett Nicholas Infielders 2 Hanser Alberto 1 Elvis Andrus 29 Adrián Beltré 13 Joey Gallo 67 Ronald Guzmán 12 Rougned Odor 19 Jurickson Profar Outfielders 55 Willie Calhoun 17 Shin - Soo Choo 3 Delino DeShields 30 Nomar Mazara 18 Drew Robinson 16 Ryan Rua Manager 28 Jeff Banister Coaches 27 Tony Beasley ( third base ) 46 Doug Brocail ( pitching ) 24 Steve Buechele ( first base ) 66 Josh Frasier ( bullpen catcher ) 9 Anthony Iapoce ( hitting ) 0 Justin Mashore ( assistant hitting ) 4 Héctor Ortiz ( bullpen ) -- Don Wakamatsu ( bench ) -- Dan Warthen ( assistant pitching ) 30 active , 0 inactive , 0 non-roster invitees 7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster , coaches , and NRIs updated November 6 , 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters Minor league affiliations ( edit ) Main article : List of Texas Rangers minor league affiliates Level Team League Location AAA Round Rock Express Pacific Coast League Round Rock , Texas AA Frisco RoughRiders Texas League Frisco , Texas Advanced A Down East Wood Ducks Carolina League Kinston , North Carolina Hickory Crawdads South Atlantic League Hickory , North Carolina Short Season A Spokane Indians Northwest League Spokane , Washington Rookie AZL Rangers Arizona League Surprise , Arizona DSL Rangers 1 & 2 Dominican Summer League Dominican Republic Franchise records and award winners ( edit ) Main articles : Texas Rangers team records and Texas Rangers award winners and league leaders Season records ( edit ) Highest batting average : . 359 , Josh Hamilton ( 2010 ) Most games : 163 , Al Oliver ( 1980 ) Most at bats : 372 , Juan González ( 2003 ) Most hits : 221 , Michael Young ( 2005 ) Highest slugging % : . 643 , Juan González ( 1996 ) Most doubles : 52 , Michael Young ( 2006 ) Most triples : 14 , Rubén Sierra ( 1989 ) Most home runs : 57 , Alex Rodriguez ( 2002 ) Most RBIs : 157 , Juan González ( 1998 ) Most stolen bases : 52 , Bump Wills ( 1978 ) Most wins : 25 , Ferguson Jenkins ( 1974 ) Strikeouts : 301 , Nolan Ryan ( 1989 ) Complete games : 29 , Ferguson Jenkins ( 1974 ) Saves : 49 , Francisco Cordero ( 2004 ) Radio and television ( edit ) See also : List of Texas Rangers broadcasters Radio ( edit ) KRLD - FM 105.3 FM KRLD ( AM ) NewsRadio 1080 KRLD ( AM ) will carry any games that conflict with previously scheduled programming on 105.3 The FAN . KFLC 1270 AM ( Spanish ) In addition to the flagship stations listed above , Rangers games can be heard on affiliates throughout much of Texas , and also in parts of Oklahoma , Arkansas , Louisiana , and New Mexico . Eric Nadel is the primary play - by - play announcer . He has called games for the club since 1979 beginning on television broadcasts , then moving exclusively to radio beginning in 1985 . He became the primary announcer after the late Mark Holtz moved to television . Currently , Nadel provides play - by - play in the 1st , 2nd , 5th , 6th , 8th , and 9th innings , and color commentary for the other innings . On December 11 , 2013 , he was awarded the 2014 Ford C. Frick Award by the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum for excellence in broadcasting . Matt Hicks now shares the broadcast booth with Nadel . He joined the broadcast in 2012 after Steve Busby moved from radio to television to replace Dave Barnett . Hicks provides play - by - play in the 3rd , 4th , and 7th innings , and color commentary for the other innings . Jared Sandler hosts the pre-game and post-game shows , and also fills in whenever Nadel or Hicks have a day off . For the Spanish radio affiliates , Eleno Ornelas is the play - by - play announcer , and former Rangers pitcher José Guzmán is the color analyst . Television ( edit ) Texas Rangers games currently air on regional television network Fox Sports Southwest . During the 2016 season , they had an average 3.96 rating and 105,000 viewers on primetime broadcasts . Since 2017 , Dave Raymond is the primary television play - by - play announcer . Since 1982 on both TV and radio , Busby has had various stints in various positions on Rangers broadcasts from play - by - play to color commentary to pre-game and post-game analysis . In June 2012 , Busby moved back to his current role after Dave Barnett left his position as game announcer following an episode in which he experienced speech difficulties . Beginning in 2016 , Dave Raymond will substitute for Busby on select games . Tom Grieve is the primary color analyst . A former Rangers player and general manager , Grieve has been in the TV booth since 1995 following the end of his tenure as GM . Another former Ranger , Mark McLemore , substitutes for Grieve and has been doing so more often in recent seasons . McLemore often joins the booth for an inning during home games . He and former Ranger Iván Rodríguez are among the pre-game and post-game analysts used on Fox Sports Southwest . FSSW pre-game and post-game shows are hosted by a rotation among Dana Larson , John Rhadigan , Ric Renner , and Erin Hartigan . In - game reporters include Jim Knox , Rhadigan , Hartigan , and Rangers employee Emily Jones ( formerly of FSSW ) . Due to the Rangers having to play many of their Sunday home games at night , the team has been featured frequently on ESPN 's Sunday Night Baseball during the summer months . Rangers games can also be seen on MLB on Fox and TBS . Texas Rangers six Shooters ( edit ) The Texas Rangers Six Shooters is an interactive dance squad for the Texas Rangers that perform various duties at Rangers home games . The women dance , tumble , and interact with fans . See also ( edit ) Baseball portal Dallas - Fort Worth portal All - Time roster Lone Star Series -- rivalry with the Houston Astros Managers and ownership of the Texas Rangers References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sullivan , T.R. ( January 23 , 2009 ) . `` Rangers unveil 2009 uniforms '' . Major League Baseball Advanced Media . Retrieved October 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Uniforms and Logos '' . Major League Baseball Advanced Media . Retrieved April 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Wills , Todd ( March 11 , 2011 ) . `` Davis , Simpson to continue as low - key counsel '' . Major League Baseball Advanced Media . Retrieved August 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ray Davis approved as Rangers ' control person '' ( Press release ) . Major League Baseball Advanced Media . November 14 , 2013 . Retrieved August 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Minot , Jr. , George ( September 22 , 1971 ) . `` Short Takes Senators to Texas '' . The Washington Post . Jump up ^ McPherson , Myra ; Huth , Tom ( October 1 , 1971 ) . `` Rowdy Fans Hand Senators Final Loss '' . The Washington Post . Jump up ^ Kalinsky , George ; Shannon , Bill ( 1975 ) . The Ballparks . New York : Hawthorn Books , Inc . Jump up ^ Los Angeles Times : `` Chiles Reaches Agreement on Sale of Rangers '' August 27 , 1988 Jump up ^ ESPN : `` A series of beneficial moves '' By Tom Farrey November 1 , 1999 Jump up ^ `` President George W. Bush Baseball Game Attendance Log '' . Jump up ^ George W. Bush and the Texas Rangers , Espn.com . Retrieved on 2009 - 03 - 04 . Jump up ^ Sullivan , T.R. ( 2006 - 11 - 06 ) . `` Rangers select Washington to manage '' . MLB.com . Retrieved 2006 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ Sullivan , T.R. ( 2006 - 12 - 04 ) . `` Rangers come to terms with Padilla '' . MLB.com . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ Sullivan , T.R. ( 2006 - 12 - 23 ) . `` Rangers acquire McCarthy from Sox '' . MLB.com . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ Sullivan , T.R. ( 2007 - 03 - 19 ) . `` It 's now Rangers Ballpark in Arlington '' . MLB.com . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Rangers exploring SS Michael Young 's trade demand -- ESPN '' . Sports.espn.go.com. 2009 - 01 - 12 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Young will shift to third base texasrangers.com : News '' . Mlb.mlb.com. 2013 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Michael Young Stats -- Texas Rangers -- ESPN '' . Sports.espn.go.com. 1976 - 10 - 19 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Hicks ' Sports Group Defaults On $525 Million In Loans '' . FINalternatives. 2009 - 04 - 03 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Hicks might sell MLB 's Texas Rangers , not NHL 's Dallas Stars -- ESPN '' . Sports.espn.go.com. 2009 - 05 - 28 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ Edes , Gordon ( 2009 - 07 - 02 ) . `` Rangers borrow money from MLB -- MLB -- Yahoo ! Sports '' . Sports.yahoo.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Hicks ' sale of Rangers finalized MLB.com Jump up ^ `` Brown : Time for MLB to Play Hardball on the Texas Rangers Sale '' . Bizofbaseball.com. 2010 - 04 - 22 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` MLB statement on Rangers sale : Texas Rangers Blog `` . The Dallas Morning News . Rangersblog.dallasnews.com. 2010 - 04 - 21 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ Fort Worth Star - Telegram ( 2010 - 04 - 21 ) . `` Foul Territory : MLB says it 's in control of sale '' . Startelegramsports.typepad.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Rangers owner Tom Hicks : I 'm concerned about the sale '' . The Dallas Morning News . 2010 - 04 - 21 . Texas Rangers Blog . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Selig Sets Deadline on Stalled Texas Rangers Sale '' . Bizofbaseball.com. 2010 - 05 - 13 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ Madden , Bill ; Siemaszko , Corky ( May 24 , 2010 ) . `` A-Rod takes a hit : Texas Rangers file for bankruptcy , could cost Yankees ' Alex Rodriguez $25 million '' . Daily News . New York . ^ Jump up to : Morath , Eric ( May 24 , 2010 ) . `` Texas Rangers Owe Alex Rodriguez $24.9 Million '' . The Wall Street Journal . Jump up ^ `` Q - and - A with new Texas Rangers owner Chuck Greenberg -- ESPN Dallas '' . Sports.espn.go.com. 2010 - 01 - 27 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Rangers go to Greenberg - Ryan in auction texasrangers.com : News '' . Texas.rangers.mlb.com. 2013 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Durrett , Richard . `` Club release on Chuck Greenberg 's exit -- Dallas Texas Rangers Blog -- ESPN Dallas '' . Espn.go.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` Nolan Ryan approved by MLB as controlling owner of Texas Rangers texasrangers.com : News '' . Mlb.mlb.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Davis , Simpson to continue as low - key counsel -- Board co-chairmen's roles will remain behind the scenes '' . Texas Rangers . MLB . March 11 , 2011 . Retrieved Oct 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Richard Durrett ( January 26 , 2010 ) . `` Ryan expects restrictions to be lifted '' . ESPNDallas.com . sports.espn.go.com . Retrieved February 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` With Cantu 's help , Rangers clinch AL West '' . Mlb.mlb.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Pennant vanquishes Rangers ' ghosts '' . ESPN . 2010 - 10 - 22 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` MLB.com Gameday texasrangers.com : Gameday '' . Mlb.mlb.com. 2011 - 10 - 16 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 29 . Jump up ^ RoseCrans , Trent . `` Ron Washington 's Game 7 pregame speech. leaked '' . CBS . Retrieved March 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Fraley , Gerry ( October 17 , 2013 ) . `` Nolan Ryan to retire as Texas Rangers CEO on Halloween '' . The Dallas Morning News . Retrieved October 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Keri , Johnah . `` The Texas Rangers ' Lost Season '' . Grantland . Retrieved 11 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Land , Brandon . `` Rangers chasing dubious record '' . ESPN . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Andracki , Tony ; Stankevitz , JJ . `` MLB Power Rankings : Running down each team 's MVP '' . CSN Chicago . Retrieved 30 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Mailhot , Jake . `` Series Preview : Mariners ( 71 - 58 ) vs Rangers ( 50 - 79 ) '' . Yahoo ! Sports . Retrieved 25 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mariners 10 , Rangers 2 : Recap '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved September 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` MLB Standings -- Sep 4 , 2014 '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved September 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Goldman , Steven . `` Ron Washington , good man / bad manager , resigns '' . SB Nation . Retrieved 5 September 2014 . Jump up ^ The word `` Baseball '' is often inserted after `` Rangers '' , to distinguish the Hall from the law - enforcement Texas Ranger Hall of Fame and Museum . Texas Rangers Baseball Hall of Fame . TexasRangers.com MLB Adbanced Media , L.P. Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Texas Rangers Baseball Hall of Fame . TexasRangers.com MLB Adbanced Media , L.P. Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Texas Rangers Radio Affiliates '' . Texas Rangers . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Ford C. Frick Award Winner Eric Nadel '' . Baseball Hall of Fame . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 05 . Jump up ^ Here Are The 2016 MLB Prime Time Television Ratings For Each Team - Maury Brown , Forbes SportsMoney , 28 September 2016 External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Texas Rangers ( baseball ) . Official website Lone Star Ball Texas Rangers Subreddit The Newberg Report Sports E-Cyclopedia Texas Rangers Hall of Famers Texas Rangers Formerly the Washington Senators Based in Arlington , Texas ( Dallas -- Fort Worth Metroplex ) Franchise Expansion draft History ( as Washington Senators ) Seasons Team records No - hitters Awards winners and league leaders Broadcasters Owners and executives Managers Players First - round draft picks Opening Day starting pitchers Ballparks Griffith Stadium RFK Stadium Arlington Stadium Globe Life Park in Arlington Globe Life Field Spring training Pompano Beach Municipal Stadium Ranger Stadium Surprise Stadium Culture and lore Continental League Captain ( mascot ) Ten Cent Beer Night Kenny Rogers ' perfect game 2012 AL Wild Card Game 2013 AL Wild Card tie - breaker The 53 minute 7th inning Rivalries Houston Astros Retired numbers 7 26 34 42 Key personnel Owners : Ray Davis & Bob R. Simpson General Manager : Jon Daniels Manager : Jeff Banister Texas Rangers Hall of Fame Buddy Bell Juan González Rusty Greer Tom Grieve Toby Harrah Mark Holtz Charlie Hough Ferguson Jenkins Eric Nadel Johnny Oates Iván Rodríguez Kenny Rogers Jeff Russell Nolan Ryan Tom Schieffer Rubén Sierra Jim Sundberg Tom Vandergriff John Wetteland Michael Young Wild card berths ( 1 ) 2012 American League West Division titles ( 7 ) 1998 1999 2011 2015 2016 American League championships ( 2 ) 2011 Minor league affiliates AAA : Round Rock Express AA : Frisco RoughRiders A Adv. : Down East Wood Ducks A : Hickory Crawdads Short A : Spokane Indians Rookie : AZL Rangers DSL Rangers Seasons ( 58 ) 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1990s 1992 1993 1994 1995 1998 1999 2000s 2010s 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Links to related articles Texas Rangers managers Mickey Vernon ( 1961 -- 1963 ) Eddie Yost ( 1963 ) Gil Hodges ( 1963 -- 1967 ) Jim Lemon ( 1968 ) Ted Williams ( 1969 -- 1972 ) Whitey Herzog ( 1973 ) Del Wilber ( 1973 ) Billy Martin ( 1973 -- 1975 ) Frank Lucchesi ( 1975 -- 1977 ) Eddie Stanky ( 1977 ) Connie Ryan ( 1977 ) Billy Hunter ( 1977 -- 1978 ) Pat Corrales ( 1978 -- 1980 ) Don Zimmer ( 1981 -- 1982 ) Darrell Johnson ( 1982 ) Doug Rader ( 1983 -- 1985 ) Bobby Valentine ( 1985 -- 1992 ) Toby Harrah ( 1992 ) Kevin Kennedy ( 1993 -- 1994 ) Johnny Oates ( 1995 -- 2001 ) Jerry Narron ( 2001 -- 2002 ) Buck Showalter ( 2003 -- 2006 ) Ron Washington ( 2007 -- 2014 ) Tim Bogar ( 2014 ) Jeff Banister ( 2015 -- ) Texas Rangers retired numbers 7 Iván Rodríguez 26 Johnny Oates 34 Nolan Ryan Major League Baseball ( 2017 ) American League East Baltimore Orioles Boston Red Sox New York Yankees Tampa Bay Rays Toronto Blue Jays Central Chicago White Sox Cleveland Indians Detroit Tigers Kansas City Royals Minnesota Twins West Houston Astros Los Angeles Angels Oakland Athletics Seattle Mariners Texas Rangers National League East Atlanta Braves Miami Marlins New York Mets Philadelphia Phillies Washington Nationals Central Chicago Cubs Cincinnati Reds Milwaukee Brewers Pittsburgh Pirates St. Louis Cardinals West Arizona Diamondbacks Colorado Rockies Los Angeles Dodgers San Diego Padres San Francisco Giants Postseason World Series Champions NL NL Champions NLCS NLDS AL AL Champions ALCS ALDS Wild Card Game Appearances Streaks Droughts Series Steroid usage Drug policy suspensions Mitchell Report Juiced Vindicated Biogenesis baseball scandal BALCO scandal Game of Shadows Barry Bonds perjury case Miscellaneous All - 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94 | document: Talus bone - wikipedia Talus bone Jump to : navigation , search Talus bone Anatomy of the right foot Subtalar Joint , viewed from an angle between lateral and frontal . Details Identifiers Latin Os talus , Astragalus MeSH A02. 835.232. 043.300. 710.780 TA A02. 5.10. 001 FMA 9708 Anatomical terms of bone ( edit on Wikidata ) The talus ( / ˈteɪləs / ; Latin for ankle ) , talus bone , astragalus / əˈstræɡələs / , or ankle bone is one of the group of foot bones known as the tarsus . The tarsus forms the lower part of the ankle joint through its articulations with the lateral and medial malleoli of the two bones of the lower leg , the tibia and fibula . Within the tarsus , it articulates with the calcaneus below and navicular in front within the talocalcaneonavicular joint . Through these articulations , it transmits the entire weight of the body to the foot . The second largest of the tarsal bones , it is also one of the bones in the human body with the highest percentage of its surface area covered by articular cartilage . Additionally , it is also unusual in that it has a retrograde blood supply , i.e. arterial blood enters the bone at the distal end . In humans , no muscles attach to the talus , unlike most bones , and its position therefore depends on the position of the neighbouring bones . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 1.1 Head 1.2 Neck 1.3 Body 1.4 Development 2 Society and culture 3 Other animals 4 Additional images 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Structure ( edit ) Left talus , from above and below , with anterior side of the bone at top of image . Os trigonum on x-ray . Though irregular in shape , the talus can be subdivided into three parts . Facing anteriorly , the head carries the articulate surface of the navicular bone , and the neck , the roughened area between the body and the head , has small vascular channels . The body features several prominent articulate surfaces : On its superior side is the trochlea tali , which is semi-cylindrical , and it is flanked by the articulate facets for the two malleoli . The ankle mortise , the fork - like structure of the malleoli , holds these three articulate surfaces in a steady grip , which guarantees the stability of the ankle joint . However , because the trochlea is wider in front than at the back ( approximately 5 -- 6 mm ) the stability in the joint vary with the position of the foot : with the foot dorsiflexed ( toes pulled upward ) the ligaments of the joint are kept stretched , which guarantees the stability of the joint ; but with the foot plantarflexed ( as when standing on the toes ) the narrower width of the trochlea causes the stability to decrease . Behind the trochlea is a posterior process with a medial and a lateral tubercle separated by a groove for the tendon of the flexor hallucis longus . Exceptionally , the lateral of these tubercles forms an independent bone called os trigonum or accessory talus ; it may represent the tarsale proximale intermedium . On the bone 's inferior side , three articular surfaces serve for the articulation with the calcaneus , and several variously developed articular surfaces exist for the articulation with ligaments . For descriptive purposes the talus bone is divided into three sections , neck , body , and head . Head ( edit ) The talus bone of the ankle joint connects the leg to the foot . The head of talus looks forward and medialward ; its anterior articular or navicular surface is large , oval , and convex . Its inferior surface has two facets , which are best seen in the fresh condition . The medial , situated in front of the middle calcaneal facet , is convex , triangular , or semi-oval in shape , and rests on the plantar calcaneonavicular ligament ; the lateral , named the anterior calcaneal articular surface , is somewhat flattened , and articulates with the facet on the upper surface of the anterior part of the calcaneus . Neck ( edit ) The neck of talus is directed anteromedially , and comprises the constricted portion of the bone between the body and the oval head . Its upper and medial surfaces are rough , for the attachment of ligaments ; its lateral surface is concave and is continuous below with the deep groove for the interosseous talocalcaneal ligament . Body ( edit ) The body of the talus comprises most of the volume of the talus bone ( ankle bone ) . It presents with five surfaces ; a superior , inferior , medial , lateral and a posterior : The superior surface of the body presents , behind , a smooth trochlear surface , the trochlea , for articulation with the tibia . The trochlea is broader in front than behind , convex from before backward , slightly concave from side to side : in front it is continuous with the upper surface of the neck of the bone . the inferior surface presents two articular areas , the posterior and middle calcaneal surfaces , separated from one another by a deep groove , the sulcus tali . The groove runs obliquely forward and lateralward , becoming gradually broader and deeper in front : in the articulated foot it lies above a similar groove upon the upper surface of the calcaneus , and forms , with it , a canal ( sinus tarsi ) filled up in the fresh state by the interosseous talocalcaneal ligament . The posterior calcaneal articular surface is large and of an oval or oblong form . It articulates with the corresponding facet on the upper surface of the calcaneus , and is deeply concave in the direction of its long axis which runs forward and lateralward at an angle of about 45 ° with the median plane of the body . The middle calcaneal articular surface is small , oval in form and slightly convex ; it articulates with the upper surface of the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus . The medial surface presents at its upper part a pear - shaped articular facet for the medial malleolus , continuous above with the trochlea ; below the articular surface is a rough depression for the attachment of the deep portion of the deltoid ligament of the ankle - joint . The lateral surface carries a large triangular facet , concave from above downward , for articulation with the lateral malleolus ; its anterior half is continuous above with the trochlea ; and in front of it is a rough depression for the attachment of the anterior talofibular ligament . Between the posterior half of the lateral border of the trochlea and the posterior part of the base of the fibular articular surface is a triangular facet which comes into contact with the transverse inferior tibiofibular ligament during flexion of the ankle - joint ; below the base of this facet is a groove which affords attachment to the posterior talofibular ligament . The posterior surface is narrow , and traversed by a groove running obliquely downward and medialward , and transmitting the tendon of the Flexor hallucis longus . Lateral to the groove is a prominent tubercle , the posterior process , to which the posterior talofibular ligament is attached ; this process is sometimes separated from the rest of the talus , and is then known as the os trigonum . Medial to the groove is a second smaller tubercle . Development ( edit ) During the 7 - 8th intrauterine month an ossification center is formed in the anklebone . The talus bone lacks a good blood supply . Because of this , healing a broken talus can take longer than most other bones . One with a broken talus may not be able to walk for many months without crutches and will further wear a walking cast or boot of some kind after that . Society and culture ( edit ) Dice were originally made from the talus of hoofed animals , colloquially known as `` knucklebones '' . These are approximately tetrahedral , leading to the nickname `` bones '' for dice . Modern Mongolians still use such bones as shagai for games and fortune - telling , with each piece relating to a symbolic meaning . Other animals ( edit ) The talus apparently derives from the fusion of three separate bones in the feet of primitive amphibians ; the tibiale , articulating with tibia , the intermedium , between the bases of the tibia and fibula , and the fourth centrale , lying in the mid-part of the tarsus . These bones are still partially separate in modern amphibians , which therefore do not have a true talus . The talus forms a considerably more flexible joint in mammals than it does in reptiles . This reaches its greatest extent in artiodactyls , where the distal surface of the bone has a smooth keel to allow greater freedom of movement of the foot , and thus increase running speed . Additional images ( edit ) Talus - inferior view Lateral view of the human ankle , including the talus Left talus , medial surface . Left talus , lateral surface . See also ( edit ) Squatting facets Knucklebones , a dice game using astragali Shagai Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mosby 's Medical , Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary , Fourth Edition , Mosby - Year Book Inc. , 1994 , p. 1526 ^ Jump up to : Platzer ( 2004 ) , p 216 Jump up ^ Bojsen - Møller , Finn ; Simonsen , Erik B. ; Tranum - Jensen , Jørgen ( 2001 ) . Bevægeapparatets anatomi ( Anatomy of the Locomotive Apparatus ) ( in Danish ) ( 12th ed . ) . p. 301 . ISBN 978 - 87 - 628 - 0307 - 7 . Jump up ^ Lee F. Rogers ( 1992 ) Radiology of skeletal trauma - Volume 2 p. 1463 Jump up ^ Thieme Atlas of Anatomy ( 2006 ) , p 406 ^ Jump up to : Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Jump up ^ Pegg , Carole ( 2001 ) . Mongolian music , dance and oral narrative : performing diverse identities . ( S.l. ) : Univ. of Washington Press . p. 233 . ISBN 9780295981123 . Jump up ^ Romer , Alfred Sherwood ; Parsons , Thomas S. ( 1977 ) . The Vertebrate Body . Philadelphia , PA : Holt - Saunders International . p. 207 . ISBN 0 - 03 - 910284 - X . References ( edit ) This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Platzer , Werner ( 2004 ) . Color Atlas of Human Anatomy , Vol. 1 : Locomotor System ( 5th ed . ) . Thieme . ISBN 3 - 13 - 533305 - 1 . Thieme Atlas of Anatomy : General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System . Thieme. 2006 . ISBN 1 - 58890 - 419 - 9 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Talus . Anatomy of the talus by Maurice Laude , Laboratory of Anatomy and Organogenesis , Amiens Medical School Fractures of the Talus at mdmercy.com lljoints at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman ( Georgetown University ) ( posterioranklejoint ) Illustration at orthoinfo.aaos.org ( hide ) Bones of the human leg Femur upper extremity head fovea neck greater trochanter fossa lesser trochanter intertrochanteric line intertrochanteric crest quadrate tubercle shaft linea aspera upper medial : merges with intertrochanteric line upper intermediate : pectineal line upper lateral : gluteal tuberosity / third trochanter lower extremity adductor tubercle patellar surface epicondyles lateral medial condyles lateral medial intercondylar fossa Tibia upper extremity Gerdy 's tubercle condyles lateral medial intercondylar area posterior anterior intercondylar eminence lateral tubercle medial tubercle shaft tuberosity soleal line lower extremity medial malleolus Anterior colliculus Posterior colliculus fibular notch Fibula lateral malleolus Other patella apex Foot Tarsus calcaneus sustentaculum tali calcaneal tubercle talus navicular cuboid cuneiform medial intermediate lateral Metatarsals 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Other Phalanges GND : 4182598 - 6 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talus_bone&oldid=799352168 '' Categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy ( 1918 ) Skeletal system Bones of the lower limb Bones of the foot Tarsal bones Hidden categories : CS1 Danish - language sources ( da ) Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Башҡортса Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Latina Lietuvių Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 September 2017 , at 04 : 50 . 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95 | document: List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia List of Dragon Ball Super episodes Jump to : navigation , search Promotional artwork Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5 , 2015 on Fuji TV . It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years . Storywise , the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films , Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ' , which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z . Afterward , the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes , the reemergence of Future Trunks , and new threats to the Future Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu . Later on , Goku , Vegeta , Gohan , Krillin , Android 17 , Android 18 , Piccolo , Tien , Master Roshi , and a temporarily revived Frieza participate in a universal tournament held by Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to decide the fate of multiple universes . If they lose in the universal tournament then Universe Seven will be erased . Thirteen pieces of theme music are used : two opening themes and eleven ending themes . The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is `` Chōzetsu Dynamic ! '' ( 超絶 ☆ ダイナミック ! , Chōzetsu Dainamikku , `` Excellent Dynamic ! '' ) performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey . The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series . The second opening theme song for episodes 77 to 131 is `` Limit - Break x Survivor '' ( 限界 突破 × サバイバー , Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā ) by Kiyoshi Hikawa . Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number `` Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' . Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music . The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is `` Hello Hello Hello '' ( ハロー ハロー ハロー , Harō Harō Harō ) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America . The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is `` Starring Star '' ( スターリング スター , Sutāringu Sutā ) by Key Talk . The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is `` Usubeni '' ( 薄 紅 , `` Light Pink '' ) by Lacco Tower . The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is `` Forever Dreaming '' ( フォーエバー ドリーミング , Fōebā Dorīmingu ) by Czecho No Republic . The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is `` Yokayoka Dance '' ( よかよか ダンス , Yokayoka Dansu , `` It 's Fine Dance '' ) by idol group Batten Showjo Tai . The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is `` Chao Han Music '' ( 炒飯 MUSIC , Chāhan Myūjikku ) by Arukara . The seventh ending theme song for episodes 73 to 83 is `` Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' ( 悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔 , An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil ) by THE COLLECTORS . The eighth ending theme song for episodes 84 to 96 is `` Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue . The ninth ending theme song for episodes 97 to 108 is `` Haruka '' by Lacco Tower . The tenth ending theme song for episodes 109 to 121 is `` By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty . The eleventh ending theme song for episodes 122 to 131 is `` Lagrima '' by OnePixcel . The first series set was released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each . The first set was released on December 2 , 2015 . The second set was released on March 2 , 2016 . The third set was released on July 2 , 2016 . The fourth set was released on October 10 , 2016 . Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017 . The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC . Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France , Italy , Spain , and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016 . An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll , Daisuki.net , and Anime Lab beginning October 22 , 2016 . Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub . As well as officially announcing the dub , it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform , FunimationNow . Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Seasons overview 2 Episode list 2.1 God of Destruction Beerus Saga ( 2015 ) 2.2 Golden Frieza Saga ( 2015 -- 2016 ) 2.3 Universe 6 Saga ( 2016 ) 2.4 `` Future '' Trunks Saga ( 2016 -- 2017 ) 2.5 Universe Survival Saga ( 2017 -- 2018 ) 3 Blu - ray and DVD release 3.1 Region 1 ( North America ) 3.2 Region 2 ( Japan ) 4 Notes 5 References Seasons overview ( edit ) Saga Episodes Japanese Airdates English Airdates God of Destruction Beerus 14 ( 1 -- 14 ) July 5 , 2015 -- October 11 , 2015 January 7 , 2017 -- April 15 , 2017 Golden Frieza 13 ( 15 -- 27 ) October 18 , 2015 -- January 17 , 2016 April 22 , 2017 -- July 29 , 2017 Universe 6 19 ( 28 -- 46 ) January 24 , 2016 -- June 5 , 2016 August 5 , 2017 -- January 13 , 2018 `` Future '' Trunks 30 ( 47 -- 76 ) June 12 , 2016 -- January 29 , 2017 January 20 , 2018 -- TBA 5 Universe Survival 55 ( 77 -- 131 ) February 5 , 2017 -- March 25 , 2018 TBA 6 Nueva TBA ( 1 -- TBA ) December 14 , 2018 -- TBA TBA ) Episode list ( edit ) God of Destruction Beerus Saga ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation / Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate `` The Peace Reward -- Who Will Get the 100 Million Zeni ? '' / `` A Peacetime Reward : Who Gets the 100,000,000 Zeni ? ! '' `` Heiwa no hōshū -- ichioku Zenī wa dare no te ni ! ? '' ( 平和 の 報酬 1 億 ゼニー は 誰 の 手 に ! ? ) July 5 , 2015 January 7 , 2017 After Goku defeated the dangerous Majin Buu , peace has returned to Earth . Chi - Chi wants Goku to get a job , so he works as a farmer . Goten and his friend Trunks search for a gift for his sister - in - law Videl , who is married to his older brother , Gohan . The two consider jewelry and makeup , but they are unable to afford anything . Goten and Trunks head for the hot springs in the woods to bottle up some mineral water instead . While there , they are attacked by a giant snake , which they manage to scare away . For his purported role in saving Earth from Majin Buu , Mr. Satan has been awarded with 100 million Zeni that he does not want . He decides to give the money to one of the fighters . Goku gives the money to Chi - Chi , so she would let him train . Meanwhile , somewhere in the depths of space , Beerus , the God of Destruction , has awakened from his slumber . Keen on battling the worthy opponent that appeared to him in his visions , Beerus and his attendant , Whis , set out to discover who this opponent is . `` To the Promised Resort ! Vegeta Goes on a Family Trip ? ! '' / `` To the Promised Resort ! Vegeta Takes a Family Trip ! '' `` Yakusoku no rizōto e ! Bejīta ga kazoku ryokō ! ? '' ( 約束 の リゾート へ ! ベジータ が 家族 旅行 ! ? ) July 12 , 2015 January 14 , 2017 Goku goes to King Kai 's planet to train with King Kai . Meanwhile , Vegeta , Bulma , and Trunks take a family trip to a resort . Bulma and Trunks are enjoying the family time together , while Vegeta is bothered by the fact that Goku gets to train . Fed up with what he considers a waste of time , Vegeta flies away and heads back to Capsule Corporation to train . Somewhere in space , Beerus and Whis scour an alien planet in search of dinosaur meat . They are confronted by the planet 's strongest dweller , but he proves to be no match for them . Shortly afterwards , Beerus destroys the planet in order to have another vision of his destined opponent -- the Super Saiyan God . `` Where 's the Rest of the Dream ? ! In Search of the Super Saiyan God ! '' / `` Where Does the Dream Pick Up ? Find the Super Saiyan God ! '' `` Yume no tsuzuki wa doko da ! ? Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo o sagase ! '' ( 夢 の 続き は どこ だ ! ? 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド を 探せ ! ) July 19 , 2015 January 21 , 2017 Fearing what might happen knowing that the God of Destruction is awake , the Old Supreme Kai and Supreme Kai urge King Kai to ensure that Goku never finds out about Beerus . However , Goku overhears the conversation and becomes curious . Back in his temple , Beerus and Whis continue their search for the Super Saiyan God . They soon learn of Goku and his feats . Beerus and Whis decide to pay him and King Kai a visit . Meanwhile , back on Earth , Goku 's friends and family members begin gathering on the cruise ship for Bulma 's birthday party except for Vegeta who is still training to overpower Goku and everyone else in the universe . `` Aim for the Dragon Balls ! Pilaf Gang in Action ! '' / `` Bid for the Dragon Balls ! Pilaf and Crew 's Impossible Mission ! '' `` Mezase Doragon Bōru ! Pirafu ichimi no dai - sakusen ! '' ( 目指せ ドラゴンボール ! ピラフ 一味 の 大 作戦 ! ) August 2 , 2015 January 28 , 2017 With all guests now gathered except for Goku and Vegeta , Bulma 's birthday party gets underway . Trunks shows Goten where his mother hid the bingo tournament grand prize -- the Dragon Balls . Not far off from the ship , the Pilaf Gang are now poor and hungry . They are trying to get by until they find the Dragon Balls and make their wishes come true . When his Dragon Radar picks up a signal coming from Bulma 's ship , Pilaf and his henchmen hastily board the ship with Trunks and Goten 's help . Meanwhile , on his planet , King Kai explains to Goku who and what Beerus exactly is and that for every benevolent God there must be a malevolent one in order to keep the universe in balance . Just as he finishes , Beerus and Whis arrive . 5 5 `` The Ultimate Fight on King Kai 's Planet ! Goku vs. the God of Destruction Beerus '' / `` Showdown on King Kai 's World ! Goku vs. Beerus the Destroyer ! '' `` Kaiō - sei no kessen ! Gokū VS Hakaishin Birusu '' ( 界 王 星 の 決戦 ! 悟空 VS 破壊 神 ビルス ) August 9 , 2015 February 4 , 2017 Beerus and Whis arrive on King Kai 's planet and detect Goku 's presence . While he is initially disappointed that Goku does not know what a `` Super Saiyan God '' is , he agrees to test his strength in a sparring match . Goku attempts to fight him in all of the Super Saiyan transformations , but Beerus effortlessly defeats him in two strikes . Beerus and Whis head for Earth shortly afterwards , while King Kai uses his telepathy to warn Vegeta ahead of their arrival . 6 6 `` Do n't Anger the God of Destruction ! Excitement at the Birthday Party '' / `` Do n't Anger the Destroyer ! A Heart - Pounding Birthday Party ! '' `` Hakaishin o okoraseru na ! Doki - doki tanjō pātī '' ( 破壊 神 を 怒ら せる な ! ドキドキ 誕生 パーティー ) August 16 , 2015 February 11 , 2017 Beerus and Whis arrive on Earth , where Bulma 's birthday party is underway . Initially , Vegeta is paralyzed by Beerus ' presence . He recalls a childhood encounter with the deity a long time ago when Beerus visited Planet Vegeta and threatened his father , King Vegeta . Shortly afterwards , Bulma pops up . She invites Beerus and Whis to join the party . The two gladly accept her offer and quickly become enamored with the Earth 's cuisine . They start mingling with the other guests , while Vegeta tries his best to ensure that Beerus remains calm . Whis soon learns of pudding , which he finds to be extraordinarily delicious . Whis urges Beerus to have some too . It turns out that Majin Buu had taken the remaining pudding cups for himself and refuses to share . Angered by Majin Buu 's insolence , Beerus attacks him . 7 7 `` How Dare You Hurt My Bulma ! Vegeta 's Sudden , Angry Shift ? ! '' / `` How Dare You Do That To My Bulma ! Vegeta 's Metamorphosis of Fury ? '' `` Yokumo ore no Buruma o ! Bejīta ikari no totsuzenhen'i ! ? '' ( よく も オレ の ブルマ を ! ベジータ 怒り の 突然 変異 ! ? ) August 23 , 2015 February 18 , 2017 Beerus effortlessly disposes of Majin Buu , while Vegeta stands by in awe . Vegeta tries to persuade Beerus to calm down and enjoy himself , but he refuses to listen . Trunks and Goten fuse into Gotenks and attack to no avail . Powerless to do anything else , Gotenks starts insulting Beerus for which he is promptly punished . Piccolo , Tien Shinhan , and Android 18 try taking on Beerus with little success . Majin Buu attacks again , but he is unable to land a single hit . While observing the battle , Dende realizes what Beerus actually is and immediately informs Piccolo . Before Piccolo is able to warn him , Gohan powers up and charges towards Beerus . Using Majin Buu as a weapon , Beerus repels Gohan and takes them both out . Being the last one standing , Vegeta confronts Beerus , but he is swiftly brought to the ground . Beerus tells Vegeta that he is disappointed with him since he is just as weak as his father was . Just as Beerus is about to finish Vegeta , Bulma walks up and slaps him for ruining her party . Beerus retaliates in similar fashion . Seeing Bulma struck infuriates Vegeta . He explodes and powers up immensely . 8 8 `` Goku Arrives ! A Last Chance from Beerus Sama ? ! '' / `` Goku Makes an Entrance ! A Last Chance from Lord Beerus ? '' `` Gokū kenzan ! Birusu - sama kara no rasuto chansu ! ? '' ( 悟空 見参 ! ビルス 様 から の ラスト チャンス ! ? ) August 30 , 2015 February 25 , 2017 Having powered up , Vegeta charges towards Beerus . He manages to land a few punches before Beerus , who was using only a fraction of his power , knocks him out . Just as he is about to destroy Earth , Beerus has a sudden idea . He decides to give the Earthlings another chance at saving Earth . Meanwhile , fearing for their lives , the Pilaf Gang disembark Bulma 's ship on a rowboat and sail away . Thinking he is the same as Majin Buu because of his pink hue , Beerus picks Oolong out of the crowd and challenges him to a game of rock -- paper -- scissors to decide the fate of the Earth . Oolong manages to draw twice , but Beerus eventually wins and proceeds to power up his attack . Just as Beerus is about to fire , Goku chimes in and says he has thought of a way to find out about the Super Saiyan God . He will summon and ask Shenron about it . 9 9 `` Sorry for the Wait , Beerus Sama . The Super Saiyan God Is Finally Born ! '' / `` Thanks for Waiting , Lord Beerus ! A Super Saiyan God is Born At Last ! '' `` O matase , Birusu - sama . Tsuini Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo tanjō ! '' ( お 待た せ 、 ビルス 様 . ついに 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド 誕生 ! ) September 6 , 2015 March 4 , 2017 Goku gathers the Dragon Balls together and summons Shenron , who is startled by Beerus ' presence . Shenron quickly explains that the Super Saiyan God is not a person , but it is a legendary transformation that only kindhearted Saiyans can achieve by fusing their power together . The Saiyans attempt to transform Goku , but they fail as they are one Saiyan short . Growing tired of waiting , Beerus starts preparing his attack to destroy the planet . Suddenly , Videl jumps in front of the Saiyans . She says that there is one more Saiyan who might be able to help them , who happens to be her and Gohan 's unborn child . The Saiyans and Videl attempt the transformation again and manage to transform Goku into the Super Saiyan God . 10 10 `` Unleash It , Goku ! The Power of the Super Saiyan God ! ! '' / `` Show Us , Goku ! The Power of a Super Saiyan God ! '' `` Misero Gokū ! Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo no pawā ! ! '' ( 見せろ 悟空 ! 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド の 力 ( パワー ) ! ! ) September 13 , 2015 March 11 , 2017 Goku is now a Super Saiyan God . He confronts Beerus . Goku is amazed by the immense power his body has gained with the transformation . He is initially unable to fully grasp its newfound potential . Fighting with Beerus , Goku manages to grow gradually into his new form . Seeing as how Goku might turn out to be a worthy adversary after all , Beerus decides it is time for them to unleash their true power and have a real battle of Gods . 11 11 `` Let 's Keep Going , Beerus Sama ! Our Battle of Gods ! '' / `` Let 's Keep Going , Lord Beerus ! The Battle of Gods ! '' `` Tsudukeyō ze Birusu - sama ! Kami to kami no tatakai o ! '' ( 続け よう ぜ ビルス 様 ! 神 と 神 の 戦い を ! ) September 20 , 2015 March 18 , 2017 Having somewhat got a grip on the Super Saiyan God form , Goku initially manages to keep up with Beerus . He soon realizes that his opponent is still not fighting at his maximum . It is revealed that Beerus is doing so only to motivate Goku to catch up with him . To that end , Beerus drags Goku to space , where he swiftly knocks him out . Goku comes crashing down back to Earth and ends up in an ocean . Amazed by such power , Goku gets excited and powers up , and heals himself in the process . Willing to have another go , Goku flies out of the ocean and dashes towards Beerus . 12 12 `` The Universe Crumbles ? ! Clash ! God of Destruction vs. Super Saiyan God '' / `` The Universe Will Shatter ? Clash ! Destroyer vs. Super Saiyan God '' `` Uchū ga kudakeru ! ? Gekitotsu ! Haikaishin VS Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo ! '' ( 宇宙 が 砕ける ! ? 激突 ! 破壊 神 VS 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド ! ) September 27 , 2015 March 25 , 2017 Goku and Beerus continue to fight in space . As both of them power up and clash , the universe begins to crumble under the power of the gods . Celestial bodies blow up due to the shock waves . Meanwhile , Old Supreme Kai reveals to the younger Supreme Kai that with three more blows the whole universe would be destroyed along with Beerus and Goku . When Goku lands the third clash with Beerus , he unknowingly stops the universe 's collapse by balancing Beerus ' attack with his own . Beerus gets enraged and uses his atomic bomb attack on Goku . Goku uses the Super Saiyan God energy to power up his Kamehameha attack to keep Beerus ' attack at bay . 13 13 `` Goku , Go Beyond Super Saiyan God '' / `` Goku , Surpass Super Saiyan God ! '' `` Gokū yo , Sūpā Saiya - jin Goddo o koete ike ! '' ( 悟空 よ 、 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ゴッド を 越え て 行け ! ) October 4 , 2015 April 8 , 2017 The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle , but they fear the worst is still to come . On Earth , Vegeta , Whis , and the others are still standing by while watching the battle . Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee . In space , Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack , which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth . Shortly after , the light clears out , which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion . Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion , which saved the universe . Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast , Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again . Despite being at his limit , Goku remains calm , which annoys the God of Destruction . Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding , which Goku promptly denies . Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought . The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting , but this time both are at their limit . As soon as they start , Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form . Upon noticing that , Beerus decides to quit . He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan . However , Goku does not notice and keeps going at it . Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy . Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost . However , Piccolo begs to differ . Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form , Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power . This made him stronger in his ordinary form . With or without the Super Saiyan God form , Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against . Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods . Note : This episode was originally scheduled to air on April 1 , 2017 , but an unannounced change in schedule on April Fools ' Day supplanted a new Dragon Ball Super episode with the premiere of the third season of Rick and Morty , which aired repeatedly from 8 PM to midnight . 14 14 `` This Is Every Ounce of Power I Have ! The Battle of Gods ' Conclusion ! '' / `` This Is All the Power I 've Got ! A Settlement Between Gods '' `` Kore ga ora no arittake no chikarada ! Ketchaku ! Kami to kami '' ( これが オラ の ありったけ の 力 だ ! 決着 ! 神 と 神 ) October 11 , 2015 April 15 , 2017 Now with only a Super Saiyan form at his disposal , Goku powers up and attacks but to no avail , as Beerus knocks him out effortlessly . With Goku knocked out , Beerus prepares to destroy the Earth . In a final effort to stop Beerus , Goku once again powers up and charges his Kamehameha attack . Goku manages to prevent Beerus ' attack , but he completely depletes what was left of his energy in the process . He comes crashing down to Earth onto Bulma 's ship , where Vegeta manages to catch him . Beerus lands on the planet shortly after to finish what he started , but he suddenly falls asleep . Whis explains that Goku must have tired Beerus out , and that by the time he wakes up he will have forgotten about their trip to Earth . Beerus was faking his sudden sleep because the Earth 's food convinced him to spare the planet . Beerus and Whis leave for Beerus ' planet . With Earth safe again , Goku decides to relax and enjoy the party . Golden Frieza Saga ( 2015 -- 2016 ) ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation / Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 15 `` Make a Miracle , Satan the Hero ! A Challenge from Outer Space ! '' / `` Valiant Mr. Satan , Work a Miracle ! A Challenge from Outer Space ! '' `` Yūsha Satan yo kiseki o okose ! Uchū kara no chōsenjō ! ! '' ( 勇者 サタン よ 奇跡 を 起こせ ! 宇宙 から の 挑戦 状 ! ! ) October 18 , 2015 April 22 , 2017 With Earth no longer in danger , Goku and the others return to their ordinary lives . Chi - Chi tells Goku she has already spent the 100 million Zeni received from Mr. Satan . She orders Goku to leave training behind and find a job so he can support the family . Meanwhile , Mr. Satan 's self - promotion goes awry when a group of aliens land in the city . The aliens reveal that they are ambassadors who wish to thank and reward whoever defeated Beerus and thus protected their planet from destruction . Before he is given the reward , Mr. Satan is asked to demonstrate his godlike power against the alien 's mightiest champion in a sparring match . Knowing that he does not stand a chance , Mr. Satan quickly scampers away to safety and calls for help , but no one answers him . Suddenly , Goku arrives at the scene in need of Mr. Satan 's help . Mr. Satan arranges to have Goku fight for him instead . Just before the fight , Goku spots Chi - Chi and immediately runs away to avoid being scolded for disobeying her . Mr. Satan is left to confront the alien champion on his own . Suddenly , the cynophobic aliens spot Mr. Satan 's dog and run away in fear . With the aliens gone , the crowd praises Mr. Satan , whom they think saved them and Earth yet again . 16 `` Vegeta Becomes an Apprentice ? ! Winning Whis Over ! '' / `` Vegeta Becomes a Student ? ! Win Over Whis ! '' `` Bejīta ga deshi'iri ! ? Uisu o kōryakuse yo ! '' ( ベジータ が 弟子入り ! ? ウイス を 攻略 せよ ! ) October 25 , 2015 April 29 , 2017 Chi - Chi still has Goku doing work out on the farm . Instead of working , Goku decides to rest and falls asleep . Krillin flies in and wakes up Goku . Krillin is very surprised to hear that Goku is still on Earth and not training with King Kai . He reminisces about his training with Goku under Master Roshi and the power level difference between them since they were children . Curious to see how large the gap is , Krillin tells Goku to punch him with all his power . A reluctant Goku tries to change Krillin 's mind . Goku ends up punching Krillin anyway , which sends Krillin flying into a boulder . Shortly afterwards , Goku heads home . Android 18 treats Krillin 's wounds . Krillin states that he misses martial arts and wishes to start training again . Meanwhile , Vegeta is seen in the wastelands standing determined . He states his intent to surpass Goku without the aid of others . Elsewhere , Whis and Bulma are having lunch together . Whis is enjoying all the food Bulma is having her chef make . While they dine , Bulma asks Whis to protect Earth from Beerus in case he ever shows up again . Vegeta arrives and sees Whis . He asks Whis to see Beerus , but Whis refuses to do so . Whis tells Vegeta that he is Beerus ' martial arts teacher . Whis informs Vegeta that with the proper tutelage he could one day surpass Goku . Vegeta bows and kneels before Whis and begs to become his student . An unimpressed Whis walks past him . Vegeta decides to convince Whis by giving him the tastiest food on Earth . After several failed attempts , Vegeta finally impresses Whis with a cup of instant noodle . Before Vegeta heads off with Whis to train on Beerus ' planet , Bulma hands him new battle armor . Whis and Vegeta arrive on Beerus ' planet . Whis prepares to train Vegeta . 17 `` Pan Is Born ! And Goku Goes on a Training Trip ? ! '' / `` Pan is Born ! And Goku Goes on a Training Journey ? ! '' `` Pan tanjō ! Soshite Gokū wa shugyō no tabi he ! ? '' ( パン 誕生 ! そして 悟空 は 修行 の 旅 へ ! ? ) November 1 , 2015 May 6 , 2017 Pan has been born . While most of her family members and friends think that she should be taught martial arts , Chi - Chi is revolted by the very idea . She believes that Pan should be raised to be a lady and not a mindless fighter like her grandfather Goku . Everyone tries to persuade Chi - Chi to change her mind but to no avail . Bulma accidentally mentions that Vegeta has been away training with Whis for six months , which shocks Goku . After some time , Whis returns to Earth to enjoy more of the food Earth has to offer . Goku approaches Whis and asks to become his pupil . Whis accepts Goku 's plea . Whis thinks it is the perfect time for Goku to join Vegeta in training . Just as the two are about to depart , Chi - Chi runs up and stops Goku from leaving . Despite her wishes , Goku ends up leaving with Whis . Chi - Chi has a sudden change of heart . She says that Goku will return once he gets hungry anyway . 18 `` I 'm Here , Too ! Training Begins on Beerus ' Planet ! '' / `` I 'm Here , Too ! Training Commences on Beerus ' World ! '' `` Ora mo kita zo ! Birusu - sei de shugyō kaishi da ! '' ( オラ も 来 た ぞ ! ビルス 星 で 修行 開始 だ ! ) November 8 , 2015 May 13 , 2017 Goku and Whis arrive on Beerus ' planet , where Vegeta is tasked with housekeeping . Goku is surprised to learn that Vegeta has gotten considerably stronger training under Whis . Goku wants to start his training right away . Before he is allowed to train , Whis orders him to help Vegeta with the chores including changing Beerus ' bed sheets without waking him up . Goku and Vegeta promptly do their chores and start their training with Whis . Whis ' training routine quickly wears Goku out . He falls asleep . Vegeta , who is willing to surpass Goku at any cost , keeps on training . The next day , Whis decides to have a sparring match with his apprentices in order to gauge their speed . The two prove to be no match for Whis . Goku and Vegeta are too slow to land a single hit on Whis . Somewhere in space , surviving members of Frieza 's army are led by Sorbet . They continue with their effort of resurrecting their leader . Not far off , mysterious beings from a different universe named Champa ( シャンパ , Shanpa ) and Vados ( ヴァドス , Vadosu ) continue their search for Beerus . 19 5 `` Despair Rises ! The Emperor of Evil , Frieza , Resurrected ! '' / `` Despair Redux ! The Return of the Evil Emperor , Frieza ! '' `` Zetsubō futatabi ! Aku no teiō Furīza no fukkatsu ! '' ( 絶望 ふたたび ! 悪 の 帝王 ・ フリーザ の 復活 ! ) November 15 , 2015 May 20 , 2017 Goku and Vegeta continue their training under Whis on Beerus ' planet . Meanwhile , Sorbet and his assistant Tagoma ( タゴマ ) depart their ship and head for Earth in order to find the Dragon Balls , which they intend to resurrect their leader Frieza . They run into the Pilaf Gang , who had collected all seven Dragon Balls just before their arrival . Sorbet coerces Pilaf into summoning Shenron . At first , Shenron refuses to revive Frieza because he sees it as pointless given his current state , where Frieza was cut in pieces just as he was when Future Trunks killed him . Tagoma suggests using their advanced healing technology to make Frieza intact again . Sorbet has Frieza resurrected . Sorbet and Tagoma collect all of Frieza 's pieces and return to their ship . Frieza is completely renewed shortly afterwards . 20 6 `` Jaco 's Warning ! Frieza and His 1000 Troops Approach '' / `` A Warning from Jaco ! Frieza and 1,000 Soldiers Close In '' `` Jako kara no keikoku ! Semari kuru Furīza to 1000 - ri no heishi - tachi ! '' ( ジャコ から の 警告 ! 迫り 来る フリーザ と 1000 人 の 兵士 達 ) November 22 , 2015 June 3 , 2017 Once restored , Frieza plans revenge against Goku and Future Trunks . Tagoma objects to Frieza 's plans , but Frieza promptly subdues him . When Frieza finds out that Goku has gotten much stronger since they last met , he decides to train in order to become more powerful . Since Frieza 's power was inborn , he reveals that he had never felt the need to train a day in his life before now . Four months pass before Frieza and his army head for Earth . All the while , Goku and Vegeta continue their training under Whis . Jaco the Galactic Patrolman travels to Earth to inform Bulma that Frieza had been revived . Frieza will be approaching Earth shortly with an army of one thousand soldiers . With Frieza 's army fast approaching , Bulma gathers the remaining fighters to fight Frieza 's army in hopes of holding out until Goku and Vegeta make it back to Earth . 21 7 `` The Start of Revenge ! The Malice of Frieza Army Strikes Gohan ! '' / `` The Start of Vengeance ! The Frieza Force 's Malice Strikes Gohan ! '' `` Fukushū no hajimari ! Furīza - gun no akuiga satoshi Gohan outsu ! '' ( 復讐 の 始まり ! フリーザ 軍 の 悪意 が 悟 飯 を 撃つ ! ) November 29 , 2015 June 10 , 2017 Frieza and his army arrive on Earth , where Gohan , Piccolo , Krillin , Master Roshi , Tien , and Jaco have gathered to hold out until Goku and Vegeta return . Frieza says that he has waited a long time to have his revenge and that he wishes to face Goku . Seeing as how Goku is not present to help , Frieza orders his army to attack the Earthlings . His army proves to be no match for the fighters even for Krillin , who had given up fighting . Disappointed with his lackluster army , Frieza orders Sorbet to send in his elite soldier , Shisami ( シサミ ) , to take out Gohan . Suddenly , Tagoma fires a beam at Shisami and Gohan , which kills the former and badly injures the latter . Sorbet is surprised by Tagoma 's newfound power , which he had achieved through training with Frieza . Frieza promises Tagoma the command of his army if he takes out the Earthlings . He accepts and prepares to fight the Earthlings . Meanwhile , Goku and Vegeta are oblivious to what is happening on Earth . They continue their training under Whis on Beerus ' planet . 22 8 `` Change ! An Unexpected Return ! His Name is Ginyu ! ! '' `` Chēnji ! Masaka no fukkatsu ! Sono na wa Ginyū ! ! '' ( チェーンジ ! まさかの 復活 ! その 名 は ギニュー ! ! ) December 6 , 2015 June 17 , 2017 Tagoma powers up and confidently approaches his opponents . Piccolo is instantly outmatched . Gohan blasts Tagoma , which causes him to fly several yards away . As the dust settles , Tagoma reveals himself to be unharmed . Suddenly , Gotenks arrives and headbutts Tagoma . Everybody is shocked to see this . While Tagoma is struggling to recuperate from Gotenks ' attack , Captain Ginyu , who is in his frog form , pounces close to him and inscribes a message in the gravel . Tagoma accidentally sets off Ginyu 's signature move , and the two swap bodies . Ginyu rapidly adjusts to his new body 's immense power and assaults all of his rivals simultaneously . Bulma , Trunks , and Goten attempt to contact Whis , which bewilders Jaco . While fighting Gohan , Ginyu appears to have the upper hand until Gohan transforms into a Super Saiyan and defeats him . When Gohan shows mercy to Ginyu , Frieza becomes enraged and repeatedly fires multiple blasts at Gohan . Before Frieza can kill Gohan , Piccolo steps in to save him . 23 9 `` The Earth ! Gohan ! Absolute Peril ! Hurry and Get Here , Son Goku ! ! '' / `` Earth ! Gohan ! Both on the Ropes ! Hurry and Get Here , Goku ! ! '' `` Chikyū ga ! Gohan ga ! Zettaizetsumei ! Hayaku kite kure Son Gokū ! ! '' ( 地球 が ! 悟 飯 が ! 絶 体 絶命 ! 早く 来 て くれ 孫悟空 ! ! ) December 13 , 2015 June 24 , 2017 Piccolo takes Frieza 's attack to save Gohan and dies in the process . On Beerus ' planet , Beerus desires more pizza . Whis gets an invitation from Bulma for a strawberry dessert . As Whis telepathically contacts her , she reveals Frieza 's revival and Piccolo 's death to him . Initially shocked to realize that Frieza is revived , Goku and Vegeta get set to fight Frieza . As Whis says it would take some time to reach Earth , Goku resorts to instant transmission on Beerus ' advice . Goku realizes that instant transmission is impossible due to the large distance between Earth and Beerus ' planet . Nevertheless , Goku tries to search for someone 's energy on Earth . On Earth , Gohan powers up to his maximum limit . This helps Goku to identify an energy source to perform instant transmission . Goku and Vegeta arrive on Earth in the nick of time to save Gohan . Vegeta executes Ginyu . As Goku and Frieza meet after a long time , Frieza transforms into his final form in a fit to demonstrate his new power . This results in the death of all his men except for Sorbet , who is at a considerable distance . Perplexed by Frieza 's new power , Goku prepares to engage in a battle . 24 10 `` Clash ! Frieza vs. Son Goku ; This Is The Result of My Training ! '' / `` Clash ! Frieza vs. Goku ! This is the Result of My Training ! '' `` Gekitotsu ! Furīza VS Son Gokū ; Kore ga ora no shugyō no seikada ! '' ( 激突 ! フリーザ VS 孫悟空 これが オラ の 修行 の 成果 だ ! ) December 20 , 2015 July 8 , 2017 The battle between Goku and Frieza begins . They fight on even ground , and neither one is able to inflict significant damage to the other . Frieza resorts to attacking Krillin and Bulma . When Goku tries to save them , he is caught off guard when Frieza lands several blows on him . Vegeta grows impatient due to the constant rambling by both fighters . He charges at Goku in frustration and asks him to give it all he has . Goku takes Vegeta 's request into account and convinces Frieza to power up to his maximum . When Frieza calls out to Goku to show his full power , Goku transforms into a Super Saiyan Blue . 25 11 `` An All - Out Battle ! The Revenge of Golden Frieza ! '' / `` A Full - Throttle Battle ! The Vengeful Golden Frieza '' `` Zenkai Batoru ! Fukushū no Gōruden Furīza '' ( 全開 バトル ! 復讐 の ゴールデン フリーザ ) December 27 , 2015 July 15 , 2017 After briefly testing Goku 's new transformation , Frieza transforms into a new gold - colored form , tersely named as Golden Frieza . After expressing how impressed they are by each - other 's progress , Goku and Frieza engage in a fierce battle . Meanwhile , Whis informs Bulma of their arrival on Earth in a few minutes but , on their way to Earth , Beerus and Whis encounter the God of Destruction of Universe Six , Champa , and his assistant , Vados . After having a short conversation with Champa and Vados , Beerus and Whis finally arrive on the battlefield . While eating Bulma 's delicious dessert , Beerus and Whis acknowledge that Frieza has indeed become significantly stronger and that Goku seems to have a tough time keeping up with Golden Frieza . Still not use to his newest form , Goku struggles to keep up with Golden Frieza 's speed and prowess , eventually getting pummeled into the ground . 26 12 `` A Glint of Hope Shines Through in a Crisis ! Time to Fight Back , Son Goku ! '' / `` A Chance Appears in a Tight Spot ! Launch a Counteroffensive , Goku ! '' `` Dai pinchi ni shōki ga mieta ! Hangeki kaishida Son Gokū ! '' ( 大 ピンチ に 勝機 が 見え た ! 反撃 開始 だ 孫悟空 ! ) January 10 , 2016 July 22 , 2017 Frieza and Goku continue their protracted battle with Frieza landing more blows on Goku than can be returned . Unable to match Frieza 's raw power , Goku manages to withstand and dodge Frieza 's attacks . Goku and Vegeta notice that Frieza is progressively losing stamina and that his power level is dropping , though Frieza himself fails to notice this . Vegeta urges Goku to quickly finish Frieza off before he has a chance to recover , or he will step up and do so himself . After Goku and Frieza exchange some sarcastic banter , they power up again and continue their fight . Frieza still has the upper hand , but Goku realizes he only needs to stall Frieza long enough for his weakness to reappear . After a fully powered Frieza unleashes a barrage of attacks , he quickly becomes tired and starts running out of breath , with his attacks no longer hurting Goku . Frieza finally realizes his weakness ; a lack of endurance , as his Golden form exhausts more energy than he can produce . Goku explains this is because Frieza rushed to Earth immediately after achieving the Golden form without giving himself enough time to master it . Frieza agonizes over his failed chance at revenge in combat , but mouths a few inaudible words to Sorbet for assistance . Goku tells Frieza to leave Earth while he still can -- but to everyone 's surprise , a laser beam pierces Goku 's chest from behind , fired from Sorbet 's ray gun . Stomping on Goku 's chest wound to make him scream , Frieza gloats about his backup strategy to have Goku let his guard down , mocking him by claiming Goku 's overconfidence prevents him from being the strongest fighter . Before Frieza can unleash his killing shot on Goku , Vegeta fires at Frieza and announces that it is his turn to fight . 27 13 `` The Earth Explodes ? ! The Deciding Kamehameha '' / `` The Earth Explodes ? A Decisive Kamehameha ! '' `` Chikyū bakuhatsu ! ? Ketchaku no kamehameha '' ( 地球 爆発 ! ? 決着 の かめ はめ 波 ) January 17 , 2016 July 29 , 2017 Goku is critically injured , but Vegeta intervenes before Frieza can deliver a killing blow . When Krillin attempts to deliver Goku a Senzu Bean , Frieza attempts to blast him -- but Vegeta redirects the blast to Sorbet , killing him . Afterwards , Vegeta demonstrates his own ability to transform into a Super Saiyan Blue . Frieza attempts to land a hit on Vegeta but fails to do so and , already exhausted from his fight with Goku , Frieza quickly finds himself completely outmatched by Vegeta . Enraged and humiliated , Frieza refuses to accept defeat and , while Vegeta powers up a killing shot , Frieza instead fires an attack at the Earth and destroys it out from under them . Whis protects Goku and the others , but Vegeta and everyone else on the planet are killed -- with Whis suspecting Frieza survived and escaped through his ability to breathe in space . As Goku laments his failure to stop Frieza and protect Earth , Whis offers to turn back time by a couple of minutes and allow Goku one last chance . The moment is reset to the end of Vegeta and Frieza 's battle , allowing Goku just enough time to charge up a Kamehameha attack and kill Frieza , saving the world . Later , the group gathers at Capsule Corporation , where Piccolo is revived with the Namekian Dragon Balls . Shaken by his helplessness against Frieza , Gohan tells Piccolo that he intends to resume his training so that he can protect his loved ones , which Piccolo is delighted to hear . Universe 6 Saga ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 28 `` The God of Destruction from Universe 6 -- His Name Is Champa ! '' / `` The 6th Universe 's Destroyer ! His Name is Champa ! '' `` Dai - 6 uchū no hakaishin -- Sono na wa Shanpa '' ( 第 6 宇宙 の 破壊 神 その 名 は シャンパ ) January 24 , 2016 August 5 , 2017 As Goku and Vegeta continue their vigorous training , Champa and Vados abruptly arrive on Beerus ' planet . After a small skirmish between Beerus and Champa , everyone settles down to eat some food . Formal introductions are exchanged , where Champa is introduced as Beerus ' twin brother and Vados as Whis ' older sister . An argument erupts concerning which universe 's food is superior . This leaves Goku and Vegeta bewildered . Whis explains that there are twelve universes . When two universes add up to thirteen , each universe compliments each other such as the sixth and the seventh universe . After Vados discovers that Universe Six 's Earth has been destroyed through warfare , Champa proposes a tournament between Universe Six and Seven to determine who acquires the Earth of Universe Seven . Beerus protests the idea . He believes it is impossible to do so . Champa ascertains that it is doable by using the Super Dragon Balls , which the Namekian Dragon Balls were trimmed from . At the current moment , Champa has six of them . Goku informs Beerus and Champa that Bulma is capable of locating the final Super Dragon Ball necessary to perform the wish . With tensions mounted , Beerus accepts Champa 's proposal . 29 `` The Martial Arts Match Has Been Decided ! The Team Captain Is Stronger Than Goku '' / `` Combat Matches Are a Go ! The Captain Is Someone Stronger Than Goku '' `` Kakutō shiai kaisai kettei ! Shushō wa Gokū yori tsuyoi yatsu '' ( 格闘 試合 開催 決定 ! 主将 は 悟空 より も 強い ヤツ ) January 31 , 2016 August 12 , 2017 Champa decides to host the tournament on a vacated nameless planet located between Universe Six and Universe Seven . Goku suggests the rules be similar to that of the Tenkaichi Budokai tournaments held on Earth . Vegeta recommends a written exam be implemented in order to prevent insensitive beings lacking knowledge of the regulations from participating . The tournament is scheduled to begin several days after the encounter between Beerus and Champa . On Earth , Whis requests that Bulma use her Dragon Radar in order to obtain the final Super Dragon Ball . Contrary to this , Bulma believes it would be easier to simply summon Shenron to locate it instead . Shenron reveals that tracking down the Super Dragon Balls is beyond his power . Meanwhile , Vados selects a portion of the nameless planet and transforms it into the tournament 's arena . After judging Whis ' students , Champa realizes he should also enlist a Saiyan onto his team . Beerus explains that Goku is merely the second strongest opponent he has ever faced . He proceeds to take off to inform Monaka ( モナカ ) , the strongest warrior he has ever fought , of the tournament . The next morning , Bulma finishes constructing the Super Dragon Radar . She intends to collect the Super Dragon Balls of Universe Seven before Beerus can use them to wish for total annihilation of the entire world . 30 `` A Review Before the ' Martial Arts Match ' -- Who Are the Last Two Members ? ! '' / `` A Run - Through For the Competition ! Who Are the Last Two Members ? '' `` '' Kakutō '' shiai e no o sarai -- Nokori futari no menbā wa dareda ! ? '' ( 「 格闘 試合 」 へ の お さらい 残り 二 人 の メンバー は 誰 だ ! ? ) February 7 , 2016 August 19 , 2017 Goku and Vegeta meet up with Krillin , who goes with them to recruit Majin Buu as the fourth combatant of the Universe Seven team . Although Majin Buu is reluctant due to his hatred of Beerus , he agrees when Goku promises him a wish from the Super Dragon Balls , which he plans on giving to Mr. Satan . Goten and Trunks try to join , but they are denied by Vegeta because their use of fusion is illegal . The group finds Piccolo training with Gohan . They recruit Piccolo as the fifth and final member . Gohan considers joining the team , but he can not participate due to a business meeting on the day of the tournament . Beerus and the others think back over recent events . Beerus and Whis contemplate the intentions behind Champa 's plans . A series of flashbacks recapping the series is shown up to Frieza 's demise . 31 `` Off to Zuno Sama 's ! Find Out Where Super Dragon Balls Are ! '' / `` Off to See Master Zuno ! Find Out Where the Super Dragon Balls Are ! '' `` Zunō - sama no moto e ! Sūpā Doragon Bōru no arika o kikidase ! '' ( ズノー 様 の も と へ ! 超 ( スーパー ) ドラゴンボール の あり か を 聞き 出せ ! ) February 14 , 2016 August 26 , 2017 Bulma and Jaco travel to meet an omniscient alien , Master Zunō ( ズノー 様 , Zunō - sama ) , to ask him about the Super Dragon Balls . After arriving on Master Zunō 's planet , the duo encounters a spacefaring criminal named Burpman ( ゲップマン , Geppuman ) , who is wanted for leaving a restaurant without paying the bill . As a reward for subduing the criminal , Master Zunō 's attendants allow Bulma and Jaco to skip the lengthy waiting list and seek Master Zunō 's advice right away . Bulma unwittingly wastes two of her three questions , but she does glean information on the radius and other properties of the Super Dragon Balls . This includes the fact that they were formerly scattered across both Universe Six and Universe Seven . 32 5 `` The Match Begins ! Let 's All Go to the `` Nameless Planet '' ! '' / `` The Matches Begin ! We 're All Off to the `` Planet With No Name ! '' '' `` Shiaikaishi da ! Min'na de `` Namae no nai hoshi '' e ! '' ( 試合 開始 だ ! みんな で 「 名前 の ない 星 」 へ ! ) February 21 , 2016 September 9 , 2017 On Earth , everyone gathers for the trip to the tournament . Goku and Vegeta arrive after having trained in the Hyperbolic Time Chamber for three years . After stopping at Beerus ' planet to get both him and Monaka , everyone proceeds to go to the tournament . The group meets their competition who are all somewhat unusual . This includes a Saiyan with a radically different history as well as a fighter who looks like Frieza . After the written test , the Universe Seven team is left one team member down because Majin Buu falls asleep . Majin Buu is deemed unfit and disqualified . Beerus decides that Monaka will go last . After a round of rock - paper - scissors , it is decided that Goku will fight first , followed by Piccolo , and then Vegeta . Goku and his competitor named Botamo ( ボタモ ) , who is a giant bear - like creature , enter the tournament ring . 33 6 `` Behold , Universe 6 ! This Is the Super Saiyan ? Son Goku ! '' / `` Surprise , 6th Universe ! This is Super Saiyan Goku ! '' `` Odoroke Dai - 6 uchū yo ! Kore ga Sūpā Saiya - jin ・ Son Gokū da ! '' ( 驚け 第 6 宇宙 よ ! これが 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ・ 孫悟空 だ ! ) February 28 , 2016 September 16 , 2017 The fight between Goku and Botamo commences . Goku takes a while to warm up due to having overeaten during the trip . Although Goku seems faster and more well trained than Botamo , none of the hits that he lands seem to have an effect . Botamo seems content to simply take the punishment . Urged by Vegeta to think before he acts , Goku drags Botamo to the side of the ring and throws him out . This results in a win for Universe Seven . The next match begins almost immediately . The Frieza look alike named Frost ( フロスト , Furosuto ) is Goku 's next opponent . In direct contrast to Frieza , Frost is a kind and beloved hero in Universe Six who looks forward to a challenge . Goku surprises Frost with knowledge of his transformations . Frost assumes a form that mirrors Frieza 's third form . Goku mentions his ability to transform as well . He transforms into a Super Saiyan . Frost responds by transforming into his final form . Frost seems greatly outmatched by Goku even in his final transformation . Suddenly , a strange effect comes over Goku that severely weakens him and allows Frost a chance to strike . Frost knocks Goku out of the ring , which stuns everyone from Universe Seven . 34 7 `` Piccolo vs. Frost -- Put It All on the Special Beam Cannon ! '' / `` Piccolo vs. Frost -- Stake It All on the Special Beam Cannon ! '' `` Pikkoro VS Furosuto -- Makankōsappō ni subete o kakero ! '' ( ピッコロ VS フロスト 魔 貫 光 殺 砲 に すべて を かけろ ! ) March 6 , 2016 September 23 , 2017 Frost beats Goku by knocking him out of the ring . Piccolo walks up to Frost to face him next . Piccolo charges his signature attack while simultaneously evading Frost 's attacks . To buy himself time to charge his attack , Piccolo creates clones of himself to distract Frost . Frost quickly disposes of decoys and charges at Piccolo . After a bout of close combat , Frost defeats Piccolo with a power blast . Before the referee could rule in Frost 's favor , Jaco chimes in claiming that Frost had been cheating all along . The referee examines Frost and finds that he had been using a forbidden tool . Champa is initially outraged to find that Frost had cheated . Champa decides to forgive and help him in his universe if Frost continues to play by the rules . Frost reveals that he set up the attacks on the planets he saved . The referee declares Piccolo the winner until Vegeta steps in and says that he wishes to face Frost . 35 8 `` Turn Rage into Strength ! Vegeta 's Full - On Battle ! '' / `` Turn Your Anger Into Strength ! Vegeta 's Full - Bore Battle '' `` Ikari o chikara ni kaero ! Bejīta no zenkai batoru '' ( 怒り を 力 に 変えろ ! ベジータ の 全開 バトル ) March 20 , 2016 September 30 , 2017 Frost cockily announces his intent to utterly defeat Vegeta in combat with the presentation of yet another weapon . Both parties agree that the match should not be regulated by the standard rules of the tournament in order to avoid disqualification and allow the combatants to fight at their full power . Vegeta mercilessly assaults Frost and sends him flying out of the barrier . Vegeta declares that he did not kill Frost because he was not going to stoop down to the latter 's level . Beerus discovers that Goku was also affected by Frost 's weapon , and he proceeds to convince the referee to allow Goku to return to the competition . Goku protests the turn order because he desperately wants to see Monaka in combat . Beerus explains that Monaka , as his trump card , must fight last . This prompts a hushed remark from Whis concerning Monaka 's `` true colors '' . Vados generates a new barrier around the ring as the referee announces a new rule , where any contact an individual makes with the barrier automatically disqualifies them . Meanwhile , Frost attempts to steal the tournament winnings and escape in Champa 's transportation cube . Frost is stunned by a purple humanoid , Hit ( ヒット , Hitto ) , in the process . Hit takes the unconscious Frost back to the arena . The next match begins . Vegeta faces off against the robot Magetta ( マゲッタ ) . The audience begins to dispute over Magetta 's eligibility because of the fact that Magetta can spit lava . Magetta is declared eligible because the lava is just his saliva . Magetta 's volcanic fumes engulf the barrier and cause Vegeta to perspire rapidly and breathe heavily from the extreme heat . 36 9 `` An Unexpected Desperate Battle ! Vegeta 's Furious Explosion ! '' / `` An Unexpectedly Uphill Battle ! Vegeta 's Great Blast of Fury ! '' `` Masaka no dai kusen ! Bejīta ikari no dai bakuhatsu ! '' ( まさかの 大 苦戦 ! ベジータ 怒り の 大 爆発 ! ) March 27 , 2016 October 7 , 2017 Vegeta continues his battle with Magetta . He is struggling against the rising temperatures in the enclosed arena . Vegeta tries to win quickly , but Magetta endures and counters his attacks . Magetta follows it with a punch that sends Vegeta flying toward the ground . After nearly being disqualified through by going out of bounds , Vegeta powers up in anger and destroys the barrier of the arena . He blasts Magetta and forces him to the very edge of the stage . However , Vegeta is unable to knock Magetta off the stage . After Vegeta insults Magetta , he loses his will to fight . Magetta is knocked out of the ring . 37 10 `` Do n't Forget Your Saiyan Pride ! Vegeta vs. the Saiyan of Universe 6 ! '' / `` Do n't Forget Your Saiyan Pride ! Vegeta vs The 6th Universe 's Saiyan ! '' `` Saiya - jin no hokori o wasureruna ! Bejīta VS Dai - 6 uchū no Saiya - jin '' ( サイヤ 人 の 誇り を 忘れる な ! ベジータ VS 第 6 宇宙 の サイヤ 人 ) April 3 , 2016 October 14 , 2017 Vegeta faces a slim and short Saiyan from Universe Six , Cabba ( キャベ ) , in the following round . Unlike their Universe Seven counterparts , Saiyans of Universe Six are heroic and kind . They are known as benevolent galactic protectors . Vegeta and Cabba are initially equally matched . After Vegeta pushes Cabba to power up , Cabba admits he can not do it . Cabba asks for Vegeta to teach him how to transform . This seemingly enrages Vegeta . Vegeta transforms into a Super Saiyan and begins to mercilessly beat Cabba . Vegeta threatens Cabba . He says he will kill him and destroy his planet if he forfeits . An enraged Cabba suddenly transforms and goes on the offensive . Vegeta reveals the Super Saiyan transformation is unlocked through drawing on one 's inner anger . Vegeta 's actions were intended to bring about that transformation . Vegeta quickly powers up even more and knocks Cabba out with a single punch . After the fight , Cabba thanks Vegeta for telling him about his untapped potential . Vegeta brushes him off and tells him not to forget his Saiyan pride . Vegeta also tells Cabba to surpass all other Saiyans . Cabba acknowledges Vegeta 's advice and walks off the stage . With Universe Six now down to their last fighter , Champa is still unconcerned as he is certain his hit man , Hit , will be able to settle the score . 38 11 `` The Ultimate Warrior of Universe 6 ! Assassin Hit Appears ! ! '' / `` The 6th Universe 's Mightiest Warrior ! Engage the Assassin Hit ! '' `` Dai - 6 uchū saikyō no senshi ! Koroshi ya Hitto kenzan ! ! '' ( 第 6 宇宙 最強 の 戦士 ! 殺し 屋 ヒット 見参 ! ! ) April 10 , 2016 October 21 , 2017 Vegeta and Hit start their battle . To Vegeta 's surprise , he is unable to land a single blow on Hit due to his superior speed . Eventually , Vegeta is struck by a heavy blow and collapses . Hit is declared the winner of the match . Suddenly , it is revealed that Hit used a `` time - skipping '' technique , where he gets to time travel and be the only person able to move for a split second . Goku walks up to battle Hit . Initially , Hit overpowers Goku , which prompts him to ask Goku to surrender . Goku refuses and says he used the time to figure out how Hit 's technique works . Goku predicts Hit 's moves and evades his attacks . Hit claims that Goku 's foresight was just a fluke and that he will not be able to use it again . However , Goku is able to foresee Hit 's attacks and defend himself . Goku proposes that both of them fight at their full power . Hit concurs and withdraws . Shortly afterwards , both start preparing for their next fight . 39 12 `` The Advanced `` Time - Skip '' Fights Back ? ! Will It Come Forth ? Goku 's New Technique ! '' / `` A Developed `` Time Skip '' Counterstrike ? Here Comes Goku 's New Move ! '' `` Seichōshita `` toki tobashi '' no hangeki ! ? Deru ka ! ? Gokū no aratana waza ! '' ( 成長 した `` 時 とばし '' の 反撃 ! ? 出る か ! ? 悟空 の 新た な 技 ! ) April 17 , 2016 November 4 , 2017 Goku and Hit both power up before the match . Goku is finally able to counter Hit 's time - manipulating attacks , which displeases Hit . Hit tries to power up even more , but Goku prevents him . Soon after , Hit manages to counter Goku 's blows , while he simultaneously grows even stronger . Badly hurt , Goku hits the ground . Champa tells Hit to finish off Goku , but Hit refuses to obey his order . Goku manages to get back on his feet , and the two resume their fight . Goku is soon backed into a corner and resorts to his Kaiō - ken technique , which greatly increases his strength and speed . Having powered up , Goku begins pummeling and blasting Hit , who manages to evade most of the attacks with ease . 40 13 `` At Last , It Comes to an End ! Is the Winner Beerus ? Or is it Champa ? '' / `` A Decision at Last ! Is the Winner Beerus ? Or is it Champa ? '' `` Tsuini ketchaku ! Shōsha wa Birusu ? Soretomo Shanpa ? '' ( ついに 決着 ! 勝者 は ビルス ? それとも シャンパ ? ) April 24 , 2016 November 11 , 2017 Goku and Hit fight to an indecisive stalemate . Neither side is able to gain ground against the other . Goku requests that the rules of the fight be waived so that Hit can use his assassination techniques freely . Champa and Beerus argue over this decision . During their argument , Goku jumps out of the fighting stage . He forfeits the match . Goku argues that he would have been unable to continue due to the strain on his body brought on by his Kaiō - ken technique . Shortly afterwards , Monaka faces Hit . Monaka is scared to fight . Monaka punches Hit and wins the fight . Hit throws the fight as repayment for Goku enabling him to surpass his limits . With Hit defeated , the Universe Seven team is declared the winner of the tournament . Just as the festivities are about to conclude , Grand Zenō ( 全 王 ) , a mysterious `` King of Universes '' , appears in the center of the fighting stage . 41 14 `` Come , God of Dragons -- And Pretty Please Grant My Wish ! '' / `` Come Forth , Divine Dragon ! And Grant My Wish , Peas and Carrots ! '' `` Ide deyo kami no ryū -- soshite negai o kanaete chonmage ! '' ( 出 で よ 神 の 龍 そして 願い を 叶え て ちょんまげ ! ) May 1 , 2016 November 18 , 2017 Grand Zenō announces that he will organize a martial arts tournament for all twelve universes . Goku disrespectfully approaches and talks to Grand Zenō . Grand Zenō is amused , and everyone else is discomforted . Champa scolds his team for losing and orders them to train for the upcoming tournament . Shortly afterwards , Champa and his team leave . Beerus asks the Earthlings to find the Super Dragon Balls . Android 18 notices that all Super Dragon Balls are clumped together on the radar , and Monaka deduces that the planet they have been fighting on is actually the seventh Super Dragon Ball . Beerus , Goku , and the others leave for the location of all seven Super Dragon Balls . Once they are there , Whis summons Super Shenron ( スーパー シェンロン , Chāo Shénlóng ) , which is a more powerful version of Shenron . Unknown to anyone else , Beerus secretly wishes to have Universe Six 's Earth restored back to normal . Vados informs Champa what Beerus wished for . Whis leaves Beerus and Monaka on Beerus ' planet and departs for Earth . Monaka is revealed to be an ordinary mail deliveryman , who is an aspiring fighter . Beerus rewards Monaka with money for his help motivating Goku and Vegeta . Goku , Vegeta , and the others from Earth return home . 42 15 `` Trouble at the Victory Celebration ! Showdown at Last ? ! Monaka vs. Son Goku ! '' / `` A Chaotic Victory Party ! Showdown at Last ? Monaka vs. Goku ! '' `` Haran no shukushō kai ! Tsuini taiketsu ! ? Monaka VS Son Gokū ! '' ( 波乱 の 祝勝 会 ! 遂に 対決 ! ? モナカ VS 孫悟空 ) May 8 , 2016 December 2 , 2017 With the tournament completed , Bulma decides to hold a celebration party at the Capsule Corporation . She also decides to invite Monaka . Bulma considers Monaka to be the real winner of the tournament . Beerus and Whis are opposed to Bulma 's idea as they believe that Goku would want to fight Monaka if he were to attend . Ultimately , Monaka does attend . Beerus decides to tell everyone besides Goku about Monaka 's secret . Monaka is not nearly as powerful as everyone believes him to be . Goten and Trunks suggest that Beerus disguise himself as Monaka and fight Goku in Monaka 's place . Beerus agrees to the plan and disguises himself . Pu'ar also shape - shifts itself into Beerus to act as a decoy . Shortly afterwards , Goku and a disguised Beerus begin their fight . Following a brief clash , Whis interrupts the battle . Everyone carries on with the festivities . 43 16 `` Goku 's `` Ki '' is Out of Control ? ! Looking After Pan is A Lot of Trouble ! '' / `` Goku 's Energy is Out of Control ? The Struggle to Look After Pan '' `` Gokū no `` Ki '' ga seigyo funō ! ? Pan no osewa de shikuhakku ! '' ( 悟空 の 「 気 」 が 制御 不能 ! ? パン の お世話 で 四苦八苦 ) May 15 , 2016 December 9 , 2017 Due to overexerting himself during the tournament , Goku has problems controlling his energy . He decides to take a break and relax in order to get his strength back . While Gohan and Videl are out , Goku and his family babysit Pan . That morning , Pilaf , Shu , and Mai plan to attack Goku , while he is asleep . They end up fleeing in terror and bring Pan along with them . Inside their ship , Pilaf accidentally launches them into the stratosphere . The pressure from the launch destroys their ship , but Pan is able to fly back home with her captives in tow . On their way home , Goku 's family is relieved to find Pan even though they remain ignorant of her exploits . 44 17 `` Seal of Planet Potofu -- Secret of the Superhuman Water Is Unleashed ! '' / `` The Seal of Planet Pot - au - feu ; Secrets of the Unleashed Superhuman Water ! '' `` Potofu sei no fūin toki hanatareta -- `` Chōjin sui '' no himitsu ! '' ( ポトフ 星 の 封印 解き放た れ た `` 超人 水 '' の 秘密 ! ) May 22 , 2016 December 16 , 2017 While Monaka delivers a package to Bulma , Goten and Trunks sneak into his delivery truck and are accidentally taken to Planet Po - tau - feu . A group of space bandits are led by a teal humanoid called Gryll ( グリル , Guriru ) . They attempt to steal a key to an item called the Superhuman Water ( 超人 水 , Chōjin Mizu ) from an elder named Potage ( ポタジ , Potaji ) . The bandits succeed and are absorbed and cloned by the purple viscous liquid . At Bulma 's request , Vegeta and Jaco arrive on the planet to search for the children . Shortly after they arrive , the liquid absorbs and clones Vegeta . 45 18 `` Vegeta Disappears ? ! The Threat of Duplicated Vegeta ! '' / `` Vegeta Disappears ? ! Menace of the Duplicate Vegeta ! '' `` Bejīta ga kieru ! ? Fukusei bejīta no kyōi ! '' ( ベジータ が 消える ! ? 複製 ベジータ の 脅威 ! ) May 29 , 2016 January 6 , 2018 Vegeta is powerless due to the purple viscous liquid cloning and absorbing his powers . The liquid is revealed to be a sentient being known as Commeson ( コメソン , Komeson ) . Superhuman Water is just one of its many names known throughout the universe . Vegeta and the rest flee from the cloned Vegeta and the space bandits . They learn from Potage that the original will disappear once cloned . Goten and Trunks attempt to defeat the clone before that happens . Goku is fully recovered while training on King Kai 's planet . He senses that Goten and Trunks are in danger and teleports to Goten 's side . Goku prepares to fight the cloned Vegeta . 46 19 `` Goku vs. Duplicated Vegeta ! Who 's Gonna Win ? ! '' / `` Goku vs. the Duplicate Vegeta ! Which One is Going to Win ? '' `` Gokū VS fukusei Bejīta ! Katsu no wa dotchida ! ? '' ( 悟空 VS 複製 ベジータ ! 勝つ の は どっち だ ! ? ) June 5 , 2016 January 13 , 2018 Goku and the cloned Vegeta begin their battle . Each side holds its own . Vegeta tells Goku that he can not beat him with attacks like that . The cloned Vegeta backs Goku into a corner . Goku teleports behind his opponent and lands a blow on him , which briefly turns the battle in his favor . Vegeta starts getting frustrated that his clone is failing to dodge certain attacks and begins cheering for the clone when it knocks Goku away . Trunks reminds Vegeta that if they do not defeat the clone , Vegeta would die . Vegeta attempts to attack the clone himself , but he fails to do any damage . Frustrated , Vegeta criticizes both his clone and Goku . Goku begins wondering whose side Vegeta is on . He and the cloned Vegeta quickly power up , and the two continue their fight . Jaco points out that Vegeta is even more transparent than before . Potage tells Vegeta to use Commeson to gain time . Trunks wonders if there might be another way to save Vegeta in case their plan fails . Potage suggests that the Commeson should be destroyed to weaken the clones it had created . Trunks , Goten , Potage , and Jaco fly away to retrieve the weapon . Meanwhile , Goku manages to fight off cloned Vegeta . Vegeta is frustrated that it is Goku who is fighting the clone and not him . The fight causes a destructive shock wave . Commeson takes advantage of this and quickly attacks Trunks . Vegeta feels that Trunks is in trouble and tries to reach him . Monaka accidentally steps on Commeson 's core behind him , which damages it along with its clones . Potage notes that even though the core was destroyed , time has run out . Vegeta is disappearing . Realizing this is his last chance , Goku destroys the cloned Vegeta . As a result , Vegeta 's body regenerates . Potage reseals Commeson . Goku thanks Monaka for his help and says that he would have been beaten by the cloned Vegeta if it were not for him . With the Planet Po - tau - feu saved and the threat destroyed , Goku and the others return to Earth . Meanwhile , in an annihilated alternate timeline , Future Trunks looks to destroy a new threat that has been terrorizing his world . `` Future '' Trunks Saga ( 2016 -- 2017 ) ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation Dub title Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 47 `` An SOS from the Future ! A Dark New Enemy Emerges ! ! '' / `` SOS from the Future : A Dark New Enemy Appears ! '' `` Mirai kara no esuōesu ! Kuroki arata na teki arawaru ! '' ( 未来 から の SOS ! 黒き 新た な 敵 現 る ! ! ) June 12 , 2016 January 20 , 2018 In an alternate timeline , Future Trunks is hiding from a mysterious enemy that has been terrorizing the Future Earth . He meets with his mother in their hideout , Future Bulma , who is relieved that he survived . She is revealed to have been working on the time machine for their trip to find help . Just as they are about to leave , an explosion destroys Future Bulma 's equipment . Seeing as they are in danger , Future Bulma urges Future Trunks to leave without her . Shortly after , a mysterious enemy demolishes the hideout . Future Bulma is killed by falling debris following the explosion , but Future Trunks manages to escape . Back in the present timeline , Goku is showing his new farm to Chi - Chi and Goten . Piccolo arrives shortly after at Goku 's request . Goku says he wants to use his work as a way to train . While Goku and Piccolo are having a harvesting competition , on Beerus ' planet , Vegeta is training with Whis . Goku notices this and teleports to them . Beerus asks if Goku brought him a gift , and Goku gives him a ball of lettuce he grabbed during his contest with Piccolo . Beerus enjoys the lettuce , but he considers it inadequate . Meanwhile , in the alternate timeline , Future Trunks meets up with Future Mai . Future Trunks tells her that his mother has sacrificed herself so he could escape and return to the past to save his world . Back on Beerus ' planet , Goku , Vegeta , Beerus , and Whis discuss Grand Zenō , who is the `` King of all Universes '' . Beerus says that Grand Zenō is the most powerful being there is . Whis says that Grand Zenō is also able to erase entire universes as there had originally been 18 universes instead of the current 12 universes . In the alternate timeline , Future Trunks and Future Mai are eating and resting . They discuss about going back 17 years in the past , where Future Trunks ' friends would be . They make their way to Capsule Corporation . They stumble upon a vortex in the sky out of which arrives the mysterious enemy that the two have been running away from . Future Trunks tells Future Mai to go on ahead as he draws his sword . He tries to face the enemy but to no avail . In order to save Future Trunks and give him a chance to escape , Future Mai acts as a decoy . Future Mai is hit by the enemy 's blast and seemingly killed on the spot . Future Trunks is enraged and looks at the enemy , who is revealed to be a Goku look - alike being named Goku Black ( ゴクウ ブラック , Gokū Burakku ) . 48 `` Hope ! ! Once More Awaken in the Present , Trunks '' / `` Hope ! Redux Awaken in the Present , Trunks '' `` Kibō ! ! Futatabi -- Imade mezame yo Torankusu '' ( HOPE ( き ぼう ) ! ! 再び 現在 で 目覚めよ トランクス ) June 19 , 2016 January 27 , 2018 Goku Black taunts Future Trunks as he could not save any of his family or friends . Future Trunks powers up to Super Saiyan to fight Goku Black , but he is outmatched . He distracts Goku Black with an energy attack and quickly boards the Time Capsule and escapes 17 years into the past . Goku Black is frustrated that he can not find Trunks in the future timeline . Meanwhile in the present timeline , Trunks is studying in class along with Pilaf 's Gang . During a recess break , Trunks feels strange and looks at the sky to observe the Time Capsule arriving with Future Trunks inside . He immediately calls for his mother . Bulma contacts Vegeta and Goku who are training on Beerus ' planet . Bulma asks Trunks to power up in order for Goku to be able to teleport himself and Vegeta to their location . Whis and Beerus also arrive to see Future Trunks . Vegeta asks Goku to get some Senzu beans . Goku goes to Korin 's place to get some Senzu beans . Future Trunks regains consciousness thanks to the Senzu bean . Upon spotting Goku , Future Trunks recalls Goku Black 's attacks and immediately charges towards Goku , which shocks everyone around . 49 `` A Message from the Future -- Goku Black Strikes ! '' / `` A Message From the Future -- The Incursion of Goku Black ! '' `` Mirai kara no messēji -- Gokū Burakku shūrai ! '' ( 未来 から の メッセージ ゴクウ ブラック 襲来 ! ) June 26 , 2016 February 3 , 2018 Goku manages to fight off Future Trunks . Bulma manages to calm down Future Trunks . Future Trunks gets clued in as to where he had ended up . He is also introduced to Beerus and Whis . Future Trunks apologizes to Goku for attacking him . Future Trunks explains that he was unaware that Goku was revived after sacrificing himself to defeat Cell , and the new enemy he is facing looks just like him . Both Goku and Vegeta are intrigued by this enemy . They decide to help him . Meanwhile in an alternate timeline , Goku Black is searching for Future Trunks . Realizing Future Trunks escaped using a time - traveling machine , Goku Black decides to go after him . Goku and Future Trunks decide to have a quick fight to determine each other 's power . Goku easily defeats Future Trunks , but Future Trunks warns Goku that Goku Black is a lot more powerful . While Goku and Future Trunks discuss more about Goku Black , a portal opens above them . Goku Black comes out of the portal and introduces himself . 50 `` Goku vs. Black ! The Closed Path to the Future '' / `` Goku vs. Black ! A Closed - Off Road to the Future '' `` Gokū VS Burakku ! Tozasareta mirai e no michi '' ( 悟空 VS ブラック ! 閉ざさ れ た 未来 へ の 道 ) July 3 , 2016 February 10 , 2018 Goku Black arrives in the past . Future Trunks decides to fight Goku Black , but Vegeta stops him . Curious to know how powerful Goku Black really is , Goku decides to fight him . Neither of them seems to be particularly interested in their fight . Goku decides to transform into a Super Saiyan . Goku Black proves to be no match for powered - up Goku . Future Trunks wonders why Goku does not simply destroy his opponent . Goku Black tries to power up but before he is able to , Goku thwarts him . While Goku and Goku Black fight , the time portal starts to disappear . It also starts dragging Goku Black towards itself . Goku Black realizes this . He destroys the Time Machine as soon as he had been dragged into it , which prevents others to return to the future . With Goku Black suddenly gone , Goku wonders where his enemy could have disappeared . Whis explains that Goku Black used a time - traveling method only Supreme Kai know about . Bulma decides to search for the other Time Machine that Cell used to travel back in time . Just as Goku Black reappears in the future timeline , Future Mai regains consciousness . 51 5 `` Feelings That Travel Beyond Time -- Trunks and Mai '' / `` Feelings That Transcend Time : Trunks and Mai '' `` Toki o koeta omoi -- Torankusu to Mai '' ( 時 を こえ た 想い トランクス と マイ ) July 10 , 2016 February 17 , 2018 Bulma finds the Time Machine that Cell used to travel to the past and promptly gathers the team to repair it . While Future Trunks is waiting for Bulma to finish the repairs , Goku heads off to King Kai 's planet to train . Future Trunks and Mai discuss their counterparts from alternate timelines . Future Trunks explains to Mai that Future Mai was a leader of Earth 's resistance movement who died fighting to protect the planet . He also mentions Goku Black 's ultimate goal , which is to eliminate all humans who are seen as inferior beings . Determined to find Goku Black , Beerus and Whis search for the villain 's energy signature . Meanwhile , Goku Black is surprised that he had grown stronger fighting Goku . He seeks to fight him again to become even stronger . 52 6 `` Teacher and Student Reunited -- Son Gohan and Future Trunks '' / `` Master and Pupil Reunited Gohan and Future Trunks ! '' `` Shitei saikai -- Son Gohan to `` Mirai '' Torankusu '' ( 師弟 再会 孫 悟 飯 と `` 未来 '' トランクス ) July 17 , 2016 February 24 , 2018 Bulma and her team are still repairing the Time Machine . Piccolo and Krillin are mending the damages in the wake of Goku 's fight with Goku Black . Piccolo mentions that Gohan had changed since he is not the pupil he had trained years ago . He is dissatisfied with the fact that Gohan decided to abandon his training to become a scholar . Future Trunks is surprised by Piccolo 's point of view . Piccolo and Krillin suggest that Future Trunks should meet their timeline 's Gohan . Future Trunks meets Gohan at Gohan 's house , and the two discuss their shared future . Gohan introduces Future Trunks to his family . Shortly afterwards , Future Trunks leaves for the Capsule Corporation . Meanwhile , Goku , Beerus , and Whis travel to another universe , where they had detected Goku Black 's energy . 53 7 `` Uncover Black 's Identity ! To the Sacred World of the Kais ! '' / `` Uncover Black 's Identity ! Off to the 10th Universe 's World of the Kai 's ! '' `` Burakku no shōtai o abake ! Iza dai 10 uchū no kaiōshin kai e ! '' ( ブラック の 正体 を 暴け ! いざ 第 10 宇宙 の 界 王 神 界 へ ! ) July 31 , 2016 March 3 , 2018 Goku , Beerus , and Whis arrive on Universe Ten 's Sacred World of the Kais . They meet the Supreme Kai beings called Zamasu ( ザマス ) , who is an apprentice Supreme Kai , and Gowasu ( ゴワス ) , who is the Supreme Kai and Zamasu 's master . Gowasu shows himself to be a kind hearted Supreme Kai who loves all creation , while Zamasu despises mortals . Goku is excited by the idea of fighting a Supreme Kai . He asks Zamasu to spar with him . Zamasu objects to fighting Goku , but he is asked to fight by Gowasu . Zamasu is baffled to learn that he is no match for Goku . Beerus and Whis realize that the energy they had detected is actually that of Zamasu . Goku , Beerus , and Whis head back to Universe Seven 's Earth . On Earth , Krillin introduces Future Trunks to his wife , Android 18 , and his daughter , Marron . 54 8 `` The One Who Inherits the Saiyan Blood -- Trunk 's Resolve '' / `` He Who is of Saiyan Blood Trunks 's Resolve '' `` Saiya - jin no chiohikumono -- Torankusu no ketsui '' ( サイヤ 人 の 血 を ひく 者 トランクス の 決意 ) August 7 , 2016 March 10 , 2018 Bulma and her team put the finishing touches to the rebuilt Time Machine . Meanwhile , Vegeta wants to test Future Trunks ' power to see how strong his son had become . Future Trunks proves to be no match for Vegeta at his full power . Future Trunks is outmatched in every way . However , Future Trunks finds this fact reassuring . Knowing how powerful Vegeta and Goku have become , he is certain that Goku Black will not be much of a threat . Vegeta is disappointed and angry with Future Trunks . Vegeta believes that Saiyans should continually strive to grow stronger and not only when enemies present themselves . On Beerus ' planet , Beerus and Whis are about to eat dinner . Suddenly , Grand Zenō contacts them and tells them that he wishes to meet Goku , which shocks Beerus and Whis . 55 9 `` I Want to See Son Goku -- Zen - Oh Sama 's Summoning ! '' / `` I 'd Like to See Goku , You See A Summons from Grand Zeno ! '' `` Son Gokū ni aitai no ne -- Zenō - sama kara no yobidashi ! '' ( 孫悟空 に 会 いたい の ね 全 王様 から の よびだし ! ) August 21 , 2016 March 17 , 2018 Whis and Beerus are worried over Grand Zenō 's request to meet Goku and what it could mean for their universe . They do not want Goku to meet Grand Zenō out of fear that he would come across as crude and offensive . Whis and Beerus reluctantly decide to heed Grand Zenō 's request . They tell Goku to keep quiet about their plans regarding Goku Black and time - traveling . Beerus instructs Whis to let nothing happen to the Supreme Kai of Universe Seven . It is revealed that if a Supreme Kai dies then the God of Destruction from the same universe dies as well . In Universe Ten on Planet Babari ( 惑星 ババリ , Wakusei Babari ) , Zamasu kills one of the natives after it tried to attack them . Gowasu scolds his student and says such behavior goes against his teaching of maintaining the balance between good and evil . Zamasu flouts that mindset and argues that the only way to maintain balance is to eradicate mortals . As Zamasu stands in the wind , rose petals start to whirl around him , which gives an allusion to distinctive red energy of Goku Black . Goku , Whis , and Universe Seven 's Supreme Kai arrive at Grand Zenō 's palace . Grand Zenō says that all he wanted was a friend to play with when he feels like having fun . Goku promises that he will find a better friend for him to play with . Before Goku leaves , Grand Zenō gives him a button and says to press it if Goku ever wants to summon him . Shortly afterwards , Goku , Beerus , and Whis leave for Earth , where the Time Machine has been repaired . Goku , Vegeta , and Future Trunks arrive into Future Trunks ' alternate timeline . As soon as they arrive , Goku is attacked by the Earth 's resistance forces who mistook him for Goku Black . 56 10 `` Rematch With Goku Black ! Super Saiyan Rosé Appears '' / `` Rematch with Goku Black ! Enter Super Saiyan Rosé '' `` Saisen Gokū Burakku ! Sūpā Saiya - jin Roze tōjō ! ! '' ( 再戦 ゴクウ ブラック ! 超 ( スーパー ) サイヤ 人 ロゼ 登場 ! ! ) August 28 , 2016 March 24 , 2018 Future Trunks quickly pacifies the resistance fighters . He explains that he has returned with Goku and Vegeta to defeat Goku Black . The fighters reveal that Future Mai has left them with an action plan in case Goku Black appears . Future Trunks , Goku , and Vegeta leave and meet Future Mai at her hideout . Future Mai explains that after she managed to escape , she stumbled on a group of resistance members who took her in . However , their refuge was soon attacked and destroyed by Goku Black . Goku spots Future Yajirobe ( 未来 の ヤジロベー , Mirai no Yajirobē ) , who Future Trunks believed to be dead in the resistance 's ranks . Future Yajirobe reveals that his life was saved by a Senzu bean , which Korin had given him . Vegeta states that he plans to take on Goku Black alone this time . Goku suggests that they play a game of Rock - paper - scissors to decide who gets to fight first . Vegeta accepts the proposal and wins . Meanwhile , Goku Black is wandering the desolate ruins of the Future Earth . Future Trunks , Goku , and Vegeta suddenly appear near him . Vegeta powers up and engages Goku Black who seems to be completely uninterested . Goku Black transforms into a pink - haired Super Saiyan and fights Vegeta . He dubs the form Super Saiyan Rosé ( 超 サイヤ 人 ロゼ , Sūpā Saiya - jin Roze ) following Goku 's naming pattern . Goku Black tells Vegeta that their fight only made him stronger . Vegeta and Goku Black exchange a few blows . Vegeta knocks him away . Vegeta charges in to attack again . Goku Black uses his ki to form an energy blade on his hand and stabs Vegeta in the chest , which critically wounds him . Goku quickly powers up and charges at Goku Black . As the two fight , Future Trunks thinks they are evenly matched , but Vegeta notices that Goku Black has an advantage over Goku as well . Just as Goku Black begins charging his attack , Zamasu appears and stops the fight . He urges Goku Black to allow him to kill Goku just as they have agreed . 57 11 `` The God With the Immortal Body -- Zamasu Descends '' / `` A God with an Invincible Body -- The Advent of Zamasu '' `` Fujimi no karada o motsu kami -- Zamasu kōrin '' ( 不死身 の 体 を 持つ 神 ザマス 降臨 ) September 4 , 2016 March 31 , 2018 Zamasu appears unexpectedly from the sky . He states that he and Goku Black are `` kindred spirits '' who want a world without mortals . Goku challenges Zamasu to a fight and Zamasu accepts . During the fight , Goku Black suddenly comes between Goku and Zamasu and smashes Goku into a corner . Future Trunks appears and attacks Goku Black . Goku Black uses Goku 's Kamehameha blast at Goku and Future Trunks . They fail to dodge it . As Goku Black and Zamasu use their combined power to finish off Goku and Future Trunks , Vegeta steps in and saves Goku and Future Trunks . Vegeta is badly wounded . Future Yajirobe swoops in to rescue wounded Goku and Future Trunks and takes them to a safer location . Before Goku Black and Zamasu are able to finish off Vegeta , Future Mai and the resistance soldiers intervene and rescue Vegeta . Goku and the others return to their timeline using the Time Machine . Future Mai and Future Yajirobe are left behind . 58 12 `` Zamasu and Black -- The Mystery of the Two Deepens '' / `` Zamasu and Black -- The Duo 's Mystery Deepens '' `` Zamasu to Burakku -- Fukamaru futari no nazo '' ( ザマス と ブラック 深まる 二 人 の 謎 ) September 11 , 2016 April 7 , 2018 Wanting to learn more about the Super Dragon Balls , Zamasu visits Master Zuno 's planet . Under duress , Master Zuno explains exactly how the Super Dragon Balls work and where they are . At Capsule Corporation , Bulma nurses Goku , Vegeta , and Future Trunks back to health . Beerus and Whis arrive with the Universe Seven 's Supreme Kai . After listening to what happened in the alternate timeline , Whis suggests a theory as to what exactly Zamasu is planning . After losing to Goku , Whis believes Zamasu became obsessed with Goku and his incredible power . Zamasu needed an ally as powerful as Goku to achieve his goal of obliterating mortals . Goku Black was therefore supposed to be a copy of Goku and created using the Super Dragon Balls . Whis also adds his earlier theory about how Goku Black is able to time travel using Supreme Kai 's method . He believes that their timeline 's Zamasu is the one who is going to kill Gowasu and give Goku Black the time - traveling device known as the Time Ring ( 時 の 指輪 , Toki no yubiwa ) . Universe Seven 's Supreme Kai takes Goku , Beerus , and Whis to Universe Ten to warn Gowasu , while Vegeta stays behind . They arrive at the Supreme Kai Realm ( 界 王 神 界 , Kaiōshin Kai ) , where they meet Gowasu . Gowasu explains that Zamasu has left on what he called an important mission . Goku tries to warn Gowasu of what Zamasu has done in the future , but Beerus promptly silences him . They wonder if Gowasu noticed anything wrong with his apprentice . Gowasu mentions the doubts Zamasu has had regarding the role of the Supreme Kai and their relationship with mortals , but it should not be a cause for concern . Just as Gowasu finishes , Zamasu arrives . 59 13 `` Protect Supreme Kai Gowasu -- Destroy Zamasu ! '' / `` Protect The Supreme Kai Gowasu -- Destroy Zamasu ! '' `` Kaiōshin Gowasu o mamore -- Zamasu o hakai seyo ! '' ( 界 王 神 ゴワス を 守れ ザマス を 破壊 せよ ! ) September 25 , 2016 April 14 , 2018 Whis gifts Gowasu with rice cakes and says that he and the others did not mean to disturb Zamasu and him . Shortly afterwards , they leave Universe Ten 's Supreme Kai Realm . While they are in space , Whis uses his staff to eavesdrop on Gowasu and Zamasu . They watch as Zamasu kills Gowasu . Whis turns back time so that Goku can save Gowasu . Zamasu claims he did not plan on killing Gowasu , but Whis tells him otherwise . Angered that his plan has failed , Zamasu tries to destroy Goku . Beerus saves Goku and destroys Zamasu . With the present day Zamasu destroyed , Goku and the others decide to track down Goku Black . In the alternate timeline , Zamasu and Goku Black are discussing Goku Black 's power . 60 14 `` Back to the Future -- Goku Black 's Identity Is Revealed ! ! '' / `` Into the Future Once Again -- Goku Black 's True Identity Revealed ! '' `` Futatabi mirai e -- Akasareru Gokū Burakku no shōtai ! ! '' ( 再び 未来 へ 明かさ れる ゴクウ ブラック の 正体 ! ! ) October 2 , 2016 April 21 , 2018 With Zamasu defeated , Beerus is convinced that Future Trunks ' timeline has become peaceful once again . Although hesitant , Future Trunks decides to go back to his timeline to make sure that is the case . Goku , Vegeta , and Bulma accompany him . As soon as they arrive , they realize that nothing has changed . Future Zamasu and Goku Black learn of Goku and the others ' return . Shortly afterwards , the two groups meet . Goku Black reveals himself to be the version of Zamasu who successfully destroyed Gowasu and was apparently erased by Whis ' time powers . Goku Black had protected himself by using the Time Ring . Afterwards , he stole the body of Goku 's timeline with the wish granted by the Super Dragon Balls . Goku Black used its potential to grow stronger than Goku himself . 61 15 `` Zamasu 's Ambition -- The Awful `` Zero Mortal Plan '' Is Revealed '' / `` Zamasu 's Ambition The Storied `` Project 0 Mortals '' of Terror '' `` Zamasu no yabō -- Katarareru kyōfu no `` Ningen 0 keikaku '' '' ( ザマス の 野望 語 られる 恐怖 の 『 人間 0 計画 』 ) October 9 , 2016 April 28 , 2018 Future Zamasu reveals himself to be Zamasu from Future Trunks ' alternate timeline , who used the Super Dragon Balls in this timeline to wish for immortality . Goku fights Goku Black and Future Zamasu , but he is outmatched by the two villains . Goku Black tells Goku that after taking over his body , he killed Chi - Chi and Goten just to spite him . Goku is enraged and fights Goku Black and Future Zamasu . He is initially able to hold his own , but he is soon overpowered and knocked out . With Goku defeated , Future Trunks and Vegeta are backed into a corner . Future Zamasu holds Future Trunks and his constant time - traveling responsible for thwarting his plan to eradicate all mortals . This infuriates Future Trunks , who explodes and transforms into an immensely powerful new form of Super Saiyan . 62 16 `` I 'll Protect the World ! Trunks ' Furious Super Power Explodes ! ! '' / `` I Will Defend the World ! Trunks ' Furious Burst of Super Power ! '' `` Sekai wa ore ga mamoru ! Torankusu ikari no sūpā pawā sakuretsu ! ! '' ( 世界 は オレ が 守る ! トランクス 怒り の 超 ( スーパー ) パワー 炸裂 ! ! ) October 16 , 2016 May 5 , 2018 While Future Trunks ' new form is enough to match Goku Black , Future Trunks is still unable to deal the death blow . Future Trunks tells Vegeta to take Goku back to the past , while he faces their opponents . Goku Black attempts to prevent them from escaping , but he fails to do so . Goku , Vegeta , and Bulma arrive in the present . Vegeta explains what happened in Future Trunks ' timeline and Goku Black 's origin to Beerus and Whis . Believing they had done their part , Beerus and Whis leave . Meanwhile , Chi - Chi and Gohan meet with Krillin to ask if he knows where Goku went . Krillin hesitates and dodges the question . They leave for Bulma 's house to ask her the same question . Once there , they meet Goku in bandages . With everyone present , Piccolo thinks of a new plan . He proposes using the Evil Containment Wave ( 魔 封 波 , Mafūba ) , which is an ancient technique used to seal demons in jars . Wondering what the Evil Containment Wave is , Goku quickly teleports to Kame House . Goku spends the night at Master Roshi 's house training to master the Evil Containment Wave , while Vegeta trains in the Hyberbolic Time Chamber . 63 17 `` Do n't Disrespect Saiyan Cells ! Vegeta 's Heroic Battle Begins ! ! '' / `` Do n't You Disgrace Saiyan Cells ! Vegeta 's Fierce Battle Commences ! '' `` Saiya - jin no saibō o kegasu na ! Bejīta no sōzetsu batoru kaien ! ! '' ( サイヤ 人 の 細胞 を 汚す な ! ベジータ の 壮絶 バトル 開演 ! ! ) October 23 , 2016 May 12 , 2018 Before Goku Black and Future Zamasu are able to kill him , Future Trunks is saved by the resistance . Future Yajirobe informs Future Trunks that Future Mai has found Goku Black 's hideout . Future Trunks leaves for the hideout . Future Mai tries to shoot Goku Black , but she misses her shot . Just as Goku Black and Future Zamasu try to retaliate , Future Trunks intervenes in the nick of time . Future Trunks fights the two again without success . Goku and Vegeta arrive just in time to save him . Goku Black destroys the Time Machine , but Bulma manages to salvage what was left by dousing the fire . Gowasu and the Supreme Kai of Universe Seven arrive from the past to stop Future Zamasu from going on a killing spree . Goku Black and Future Zamasu explain that they killed all of the Supreme Kais in the future timeline . During the conversation , it is revealed that Whis and those like him are actually angels . Goku Black tries to kill Gowasu , but Goku and Vegeta stop him . Goku fights Future Zamasu , while Vegeta fights Goku Black . Bulma begins repairing the Time Machine and asks Future Trunks to prepare the seal , which Goku has brought to seal Future Zamasu . Vegeta gets the upper hand over Goku Black due to his latest training , which he interprets as a tipping point in his latent power that he possesses as the Prince of all Saiyans . 64 18 `` Revere Him ! Praise Him ! Fusion Zamasu 's Explosive Birth ! ! '' / `` Worship Me ! Give Praise Unto Me ! The Explosive Birth of a Merged Zamasu ! '' `` Agameyo ! Tataeyo ! Gattai Zamasu bakutan ! ! '' ( 崇めよ ! 讃えよ ! 合体 ザマス 爆誕 ! ! ) October 30 , 2016 May 19 , 2018 Vegeta continues to overpower Goku Black . Future Zamasu attempts to intervene , but Goku cuts him off . Goku Black realizes that Vegeta 's increased power comes from his anger and uses that method to increase his own power . Goku Black distracts Goku and Vegeta by creating many energy duplicates of himself to confuse them , while Future Zamasu goes after Future Trunks , Mai , and Bulma . Bulma attempts to buy time for Future Trunks to prepare the Evil Containment Wave by flirting with Future Zamasu . However , he sees through her trick and knocks her out . This angers Future Trunks , who powers up to his new Super Saiyan form and uses the Evil Containment Wave on Future Zamasu . The Evil Containment Wave works on Future Zamasu , who is sealed within the jar . However , in the present , Master Roshi realizes that he forgot to give Goku the paper amulet that would make the seal permanent . As a result , the seal fails and Future Zamasu breaks out of the jar , which weakened him . Goku Black goes to help him , and Goku and Vegeta follow in pursuit . Realizing that they have underestimated their enemies , Goku Black and Future Zamasu use their Potara earrings to fuse into an immensely powerful being known as Fusion Zamasu . 65 19 `` Is This the Final Judgement ? ! The Ultimate Power of the Absolute God '' / `` Final Judgement ? ! The Ultimate Power of the Absolute God ! '' `` Saigo no shipan ka ! ? Zettai shin no kyūkyoku no pawā '' ( 最後 の 審判 か ! ? 絶対 神 の 究極 の 力 ( パワー ) ) November 6 , 2016 June 2 , 2018 Fusion Zamasu explains that he possesses the immortality of Future Zamasu as well as Goku Black 's Saiyan ability to grow stronger from each fight . He shows off his power and devastates the Earth in the process . Meanwhile , Future Trunks decides to rejoin the fight , while Mai and Bulma are working on the Time Machine . Goku and Vegeta fight Fusion Zamasu , but they are easily defeated . Future Trunks joins the fight , but he is also overpowered . Fusion Zamasu begins charging up an enormous ki blast known as the Holy Wrath to destroy the planet . Future Trunks uses a last - ditch Galick Gun attack to hold him off . Vegeta joins the clash with his own all - out Galick Gun . Surprisingly , their combined attack overpowers Fusion Zamasu 's attack and saves the Earth . However , Fusion Zamasu survives unscathed . Vegeta barely saves Future Trunks from a deadly attack by Fusion Zamasu . Vegeta gets knocked out by the blast . Fusion Zamasu charges a second attack , but Goku rejoins the fight and counters it with his Kamehameha attack . 66 20 `` The Climactic Battle ! The Miraculous Power of a Relentless Warrior ! '' / `` One Last Great Comeback ! Here Comes Vegito ! `` Kessen ! Akiramenai senshi - tachi no kiseki no pawā ! '' ( 決戦 ! あきらめ ない 戦士 たち の 奇跡 の 力 ( パワー ) ! ) November 13 , 2016 June 9 , 2018 Goku puts all of his power into his Kamehameha , which is able to pierce through Fusion Zamasu 's attack and stop him from destroying Earth . In the wake of the explosion , Goku is exhausted , and Fusion Zamasu is injured . When Fusion Zamasu grabs him , Goku overpowers him using his Kaio - ken technique , and knocks Fusion Zamasu back temporarily . However , Goku 's use of the Kaio - ken drains all of his energy , and he collapses . Fusion Zamasu regains consciousness and powers up , but he still does not heal properly . Vegeta wonders why Fusion Zamasu is not healing . Gowasu explains that Fusion Zamasu must be mortal since Goku Black was as well . Goku decides that the only way they can win is for him and Vegeta to fuse using Supreme Kai 's Potara Earrings . Vegeta initially refuses until Gowasu explains that a Potara fusion that does not involve a Kai only lasts for one hour . Goku and Vegeta fuse to become Vegito . Vegito powers up to Super Saiyan Blue , dubbing himself `` Vegito Blue '' , and begins fighting Fusion Zamasu . Vegito quickly gains the advantage , but Fusion Zamasu grows even stronger . Gowasu explains that Zamasu 's mutation is a result of his anger manifesting in physical form . Meanwhile , Bulma and Mai finish repairing the Time Machine . Mai gives Future Trunks his broken sword , which inspires him to keep fighting . Future Trunks uses his power to restore the sword . Vegito and Fusion Zamasu continue fighting . Vegito is winning until his fusion abruptly ends , due to strain from his immense power . Fusion Zamasu begins to pummel Goku and Vegeta until Future Trunks arrives to help . Future Trunks unknowingly begins gathering energy from all living things on Earth , creating a Spirit Bomb , which he then channels into his sword . With this new power , Future Trunks runs his sword through Fusion Zamasu and cuts him in half . 67 21 `` With New Hope ! ! In Our Hearts -- Farewell , Trunks '' / `` With New Hope ! In Our Hearts - So Long , Trunks '' `` Aratana kibō ! ! O mune ni -- saraba Torankusu '' ( 新た な HOPE ( き ぼう ) ! ! を 胸 に さらば トランクス ) November 20 , 2016 June 16 , 2018 Fusion Zamasu expresses his disbelief that a mortal could defeat him and then disintegrates . However , as everyone exchanges congratulations , Fusion Zamasu 's essence returns and begins spreading over the entire planet . Gowasu explains that Zamasu has cast off his physical form and is trying to physically merge his spirit and energy with the entire universe . Zamasu begins raining destruction down on the Earth and annihilates everything and everyone on the planet except Goku and the others . Zamasu 's power is even felt in the present timeline , where Beerus and Whis sense it . Goku looks for another Senzu bean in his pocket , but instead he finds the button that Grand Zenō gave him in the present timeline . Goku presses the button and Future Grand Zenō appears . After Goku explains the situation , Future Grand Zenō decides to erase the future timeline due to the corruption that Zamasu has caused . Gowasu and Supreme Kai teleport away , while Goku and the others escape using the Time Machine . Future Grand Zenō erases the entire future timeline and Fusion Zamasu . After the others return to the present , Goku and Future Trunks return to what is left of the future timeline . They retrieve Future Grand Zenō and bring him back to the present with them . Goku and Whis bring Future Grand Zenō to meet the present Grand Zenō , which fulfills Goku 's promise to provide the present Grand Zenō with a friend to play with . Whis also meets another angel , the Grand Minister ( 大 神官 , Daishinkan ) , who is revealed to be his father , and invites him to visit Universe Seven . In the aftermath , Whis devises a solution for Future Trunks and Future Mai . Whis explains that they can return to the future timeline before Zamasu became a threat , which would create a new and safe version of the future timeline with the price of there being two duplicates of both Future Trunks and Future Mai living in the new timeline . Future Trunks and Future Mai accept Whis ' solution and use the time machine to travel to their new future . 68 22 `` Come Forth , Shenron ! Whose Wish Will Be Granted ? ! '' / `` Ideyo Shenlong ! Kanaeru negai wa dare no mono ! ? '' ( いでよ 神龍 ( シェンロン ) ! 叶える 願い は 誰 の もの ! ? ) November 27 , 2016 TBA Bulma is secretly trying to build a new Time Machine , but she has so far been unsuccessful . Goku decides to gather the Dragon Balls and use them to revive King Kai . However , Bulma wants to use them to acquire a rare mineral that she needs for the Time Machine , which can only be found at the Earth 's core . Wanting to taste more Earth food , Beerus and Whis return to Earth . Bulma takes them to a seafood restaurant and attempts to keep them from finding out about the Time Machine as they had previously forbidden her from making another Time Machine . Goku gathers the Dragon Balls and summons Shenron . Before Goku can make his wish , several others show up who want to make their respective wishes . As the others are all fighting over the wishes , Gohan arrives with Pan , who is sick and suffering from a severe fever . Goku and the others immediately allow Gohan to use one of the two wishes to heal Pan . After Gohan and Pan leave , the others resume fighting over the remaining wish . Bulma manages to talk everyone else out of making wishes by solving their problems herself . Goku still insists on getting his wish granted . Bulma agrees , but she convinces Goku to go to the Earth 's core and retrieve the rare mineral she needs in exchange for letting him use the wish . Beerus and Whis finish eating and leave the restaurant . They spot Shenron and promptly go to the scene , and they find Goku at the Earth 's core . Having deduced that Bulma is trying to make another Time Machine , Beerus destroys both the mineral and the Time Machine . Just as Goku is about to make his wish , the Dragon Balls deactivate and scatter around the Earth . Goku promises to revive King Kai as soon as the Dragon Balls reactivate . 69 23 `` Goku vs. Arale ! A Ridiculous Battle Will End the Earth ? ! '' / `` Gokū VS Arare ! Hachamechabatoru de Chikyū ga owaru ! ? '' ( 悟空 VS アラレ ! ハチャメチャ バトル で 地球 が 終わる ! ? ) December 4 , 2016 TBA Vegeta , Bulma , and Trunks attend a science competition that Bulma is participating in , which is hosted by Mr. Satan , while Goku is hired to work security for the event . Dr. Senbei Norimaki of Penguin Village , who has created a device that can create any item its user can think of out of thin air , wins the award . Dr. Norimaki 's nemesis , Dr. Mashirito , appears as a ghost , and reveals that he has used a chemical called Playtine - X to gain control over Norimaki 's powerful robot daughter , Arale Norimaki . Vegeta attempts to stop Arale , but her overwhelming strength and seeming ability to defy the laws of physics are too much for him . She sends him flying into the distance . Goku transforms into Super Saiyan Blue and begins fighting Arale . They initially seem to be evenly matched , but it becomes apparent that their battle could easily destroy the Earth . Dr. Norimaki is able to use his new invention to distract Arale temporarily . Meanwhile , Bulma uses the invention to conjure up a mass of delicious food , which immediately attracts Beerus , who had been taking a nap . Dr. Mashirito confronts Beerus , who promptly obliterates him . Beerus also easily overpowers Arale . Just as Beerus is about to destroy her , the food he has eaten causes him severe stomach pain , which prompts him to rush home with Whis immediately . Shortly after , Dr. Norimaki and Arale leave and return home . Goku and Arale agree to fight again in the future . 70 24 `` Champa 's Challenge ! This Time We Fight with Baseball ! ! '' / `` Shanpa kara no chōsen - jō ! Kondo wa yakyū de shōbuda ! ! '' ( シャンパ から の 挑戦 状 ! 今度 は 野球 で 勝負 だ ! ! ) December 11 , 2016 TBA Champa contacts Beerus and challenges him to a game of baseball ( 野球 , Yakyū ) as a way of reconciling Universes Six and Seven . The baseball game is arranged to be held on Universe Seven 's Earth . Champa explains to Vados that he intends to use the game as an opportunity to steal food from Earth . The game begins with Goku initially unsuccessful as the pitcher for Beerus ' team due to his lack of experience . Yamcha , who has extensive experience playing baseball , steps up and gives the Universe Seven team an advantage . However , he is injured several times over the course of the game by Vegeta , who is playing on the Universe Six team with Champa . Champa and Beerus end up fighting , which almost destroys the planet . Whis and Vados intervene and call the game off . Vados reveals that Yamcha , despite his injuries , made it to home plate and scored a run before the game was called off , thereby winning the game for Universe Seven . Champa and his team return to Universe Six . Champa has seemingly forgotten his goal of stealing Universe Seven 's Earth 's food , as he has already become obsessed with training to prepare for a rematch . 71 25 `` The Death of Goku ! The Guaranteed Assassination Mission '' / `` Gokū shisu ! Zettai shikkō no ansatsu ninrai ! '' ( 悟空 死す ! 絶対 執行 の 暗殺 任 頼 ) December 18 , 2016 TBA Goku begins acting strangely . He admits to Gohan and Goten that he thinks someone wants to kill him . Meanwhile , in Universe Six , Hit carries out an assassination mission by killing a crime boss . His next target is revealed to be Goku . Goku senses Hit coming and flies to a remote area so that their fight would not put anyone else in danger . Hit arrives to kill Goku . Goku charges at Hit , but he can not hit him . Hit seemingly kills Goku with a single blow to the chest and disappears just before Piccolo , Gohan , and Goten arrive and find Goku 's body . 72 26 `` Will There Be a Counterattack ? ! The Invisible Killing Strike ! ! '' / `` Hangeki naruka ! ? Mienai koroshi no waza ! ! '' ( 反撃 なる か ! ? 見え ない 殺し の 技 ! ! ) December 25 , 2016 TBA Piccolo tries to revive Goku to no avail , but Goku had fired an energy blast in the air shortly before he was killed , reviving him . Goku learns that Hit 's assassination technique is an invisible energy blast . Goku shocks Hit by being the first person to ever dodge this technique , but he is still unable to land a blow on Hit and remains at a disadvantage . Meanwhile , Champa and Vados come to see the fight . They are later joined by Vegeta , Beerus , and Whis . Vados explains how Hit is able to use his secret technique , which makes him seemingly untouchable . In the midst of the battle , Goku fires his Kamehameha attack , which proves to be powerful enough to knock out both Hit and himself . In the aftermath , Goku reveals to Vegeta , Champa , and Beerus that he had hired Hit , because he wanted to fight him at full strength , and that Whis and Vados were involved in his plan as well . 73 27 `` Gohan 's Misfortune ! An Unexpected Great Saiyaman Movie ? ! '' / `` Gohan no sainan ! Gurētosaiyaman masakano eiga ka ! ? '' ( 悟 飯 の 災難 ! グレート サイヤマン まさかの 映画 化 ! ? ) January 8 , 2017 TBA Mr. Satan reveals to Videl and Gohan that he is starring in a new superhero film : `` Great Saiyaman vs. Mister Satan '' ! As Videl , Gohan , and Pan check out the film set , the lead in the film -- - a famous but self - absorbed actor named Barry Kahn -- becomes enamored with Videl and tries to woo her . Videl rejects Barry in front of the entire film crew , which angers him . Seeking revenge on Videl for his humiliation , Barry convinces Gohan to take over as the main stuntman for the film in order to embarrass and potentially maim him . As Gohan is the real Great Saiyaman , he uses his powers to easily take on the role . Gohan later dons the suit again for a fight against a pair of bank robbers . When the film crew accuses Gohan of using the suit and stopping the bank robbery , Bulma bails him out . However , Gohan 's identity is accidentally revealed to Cocoa , who is a starlet in the film . Cocoa blackmails Gohan into flying her around the city . Meanwhile , Jaco chases after a being known as Watagashi ( 綿 餓死 ) , which is an extraterrestrial parasitic criminal that possesses its hosts . Suspecting that `` The Great Saiyaman '' might be the host of Watagashi , Jaco attacks Gohan with a vaporizing cannon . 74 28 `` For the Ones He Loves ! The Unbeatable Great Saiyaman ! ! '' / `` Aisuru mono no tame ni ! Fukutsu no Gurēto Saiyaman ! ! '' ( 愛する ものの ため に ! 不屈 の グレート サイヤマン ! ! ) January 15 , 2017 TBA Gohan manages to dodge Jaco 's cannon blast and learns of Watagashi 's ability to possess its hosts . Cocoa brings Gohan back to her apartment to rehearse , but she hides the fact that she was forced by Barry to let photos be taken of the pair for the tabloids . She has a secret change of heart and does not let the photos get taken in her room . When the pair go to the roof the next morning , Barry gets the pictures of Gohan getting a kiss from Cocoa and revealing himself as Great Saiyaman . Barry immediately brings the photos to Videl in an attempt to expose Gohan as a cheater . As he tries to woo Videl again , she sees through Barry 's act and refuses his advances . Watagashi finds and possesses Barry by turning him into a powerful monster in the process . The possessed Barry dispatches Gohan and kidnaps Pan . He seeks a final showdown with Gohan . Barry proves formidable . Gohan is nearly killed in the struggle . Videl and Pan express complete faith in Gohan 's desire to protect them and call out for his aid . Gohan transforms into `` Super Great Saiyaman '' and knocks out Barry , which separates him from Watagashi in the process . The film becomes a hit . Cocoa blackmails Barry into keeping Gohan 's secret with the knowledge that Barry was the monster that attacked the city . Now seeing him as less of a threat , Jaco lets Watagashi escape . 75 29 `` Goku and Krillin Back to the Old Training Grounds '' / `` Gokū to Kuririn -- Natsukashi no shugyō no ba e '' ( 悟空 と クリリン 懐かし の 修行 の 場 へ ) January 22 , 2017 TBA Goku seeks a sparring partner to train with , but he laments being unable to find a suitable opponent . On Goten 's suggestion , Goku goes to ask Krillin , who is still working as a police officer . Krillin is grazed by a bullet during a shootout with a pair of burglars , but they are easily disarmed by Goku . Krillin declines Goku 's offer to spar . He knows he would be no challenge for Goku and that he has given up martial arts for good . Krillin is chastised by Android 18 , who says the strong man she fell in love with could never be harmed by a bullet . Her words lead Krillin to reconsider Goku 's offer and ultimately accepts it . The two leave for Master Roshi 's to train as they did when they were children . Krillin proves to be no match for Goku even though Goku is wearing a heavy suit as a handicap . Sensing Krillin 's self - doubt and believing that a different approach is needed , Master Roshi sends his students on a race to a heavily forested island to recover a rare herb . As a reward , Master Roshi offers to teach the winner a secret technique that can immensely increase the user 's strength . On the island , Goku and Krillin meet Fortuneteller Baba . They tell her about Master Roshi 's challenge . Interested to see what will happen , Baba decides to observe the race using her crystal ball . Goku and Krillin venture into the forest in search of the herb . As they enter , a heavy fog rolls in , where familiar foes emerge . 76 30 `` Defeat These Terrifying Enemies ! Krillin 's Fighting Spirit Returns ! '' / `` Kowa teki o uchiyabure ! Kuririn no tōshi futatabi ! '' ( 恐 敵 を 打ち破れ ! クリリン の 闘志 ふたたび ! ) January 29 , 2017 TBA Android 18 arrives at Master Roshi 's house and searches for Krillin . Master Roshi and Fortuneteller Baba explain that Krillin and Goku have entered the `` Forest of Terror , '' which is a place where they have to face illusions of enemies that they had battled before . Master Roshi intended this exercise as a way to help Krillin overcome his lack of confidence . In the forest , Krillin is terrified by what he sees . Among the group of illusions are Tambourine , Frieza , Dabura , and Majin Buu , where all of them previously killed or seriously wounded Krillin . Overcome with fear , Krillin attempts to abandon the race and fly out of the forest . The trees move to block the entrance , which leave Goku and Krillin stranded . The illusions attack and separate Goku and Krillin . Krillin finds himself surrounded by the illusions , but his attacks only make them stronger . After slicing one in half , he discovers that they are powered by his own energy . He heeds Master Roshi 's training and calms himself down , which weakens the illusions . As a final challenge , Fortuneteller Baba summons an illusion of Super Shenron , which immediately ensnares Goku . Krillin quickly arrives and frees him . The two of them use a combined Kamehameha blast to destroy the illusion . The illusions turn into the rare herbs that Master Roshi wanted . Goku and Krillin return to Master Roshi 's house with bags full of the herb . Master Roshi admits that there is actually no secret technique . Krillin , who has regained his confidence , disagrees . Goku and Krillin soon leave . Krillin returns home , where Android 18 shaves his head . This signals Krillin 's decision to pick up his martial arts training once again . Universe Survival Saga ( 2017 -- 2018 ) ( edit ) Overall No . Saga No . English translation Original Japanese title Original airdate American airdate 77 `` Let 's Do It , Zen - Oh Sama ! The All - Universe Martial Arts Tournament ! ! '' / `` Yarou ze Zenō - sama ! Uchū ichi Budō - kai ! ! '' ( や ろう ぜ 全 王様 ! 宇宙 一 武道 会 ! ! ) February 5 , 2017 TBA The Present Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō are playing a game together in their realm , but both have become bored with their monotonous routine . Meanwhile , Goku heads to a local farmer 's market to sell his produce and get Chi - Chi off his back about making money . On the way home , he is ambushed by some robbers . Goku defeats them , but he is injured in the process . Deciding that he has grown rusty , Goku and Goten decide to train with Whis . They head to the Capsule Corporation building , where Bulma reveals she is pregnant with her and Vegeta 's second child . Goten remains behind to train with Trunks . Vegeta declines to accompany Goku so that he can be with Bulma when she gives birth . Goku heads to Beerus ' planet alone . While training with Whis , Goku remembers Grand Zenō 's intention to hold a multiverse martial arts tournament . Heedless of Beerus and Whis ' warnings , Goku uses Grand Zenō 's button to head to his realm and convinces Present Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to hold the tournament . When he returns to Beerus ' planet , Beerus angrily berates Goku and explains that Grand Zenō naive and innocent nature combined with his extreme power makes him a danger to the multiverse . Beerus threatens to kill Goku if he steps out of line again . Goku , Beerus , and Whis head to the Sacred World of the Kais , where the Grand Minister arrives . He tells the group to assemble their ten most powerful warriors to compete in the `` Tournament of Power '' ( 力 の 大会 , Chikara no Taikai ) . 78 `` The Gods of Every Universe in Shock ? ! Losers Erased in the Tournament of Power '' / `` Zen uchū no kami - sama mo don hiki ! ? Maketara shōmetsu `` Chikara no taikai '' '' ( 全 宇宙 の 神様 も ドン 引き ! ? 負け たら 消滅 「 力 の 大会 」 ) February 12 , 2017 TBA The Grand Minister explains the details of the `` Tournament of Power '' and states that it will be held on `` the World of Void '' . It is a place of `` infinite nothingness '' , where the competitors can fight without limits . The tournament champion will be granted a wish by the Super Dragon Balls , while the losers and their respective universes will be completely erased from existence . Everyone is horrified by this harsh penalty . Goku suggests asking Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to ignore it , but Whis advises against this . Whis tells Goku that Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō has already made up his mind and attempting to change it could be dangerous . Beerus demands that Goku takes responsibility for asking Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to hold the tournament in the first place . Goku declares that he will defeat any opponent he faces . The Grand Minister also reveals that Universes 7 and 9 are to have a smaller exhibition tournament for Future Grand Zenō 's benefit . Each universe is to name three fighters . Goku sets off to recruit teammates . After Vegeta refuses , Goku recruits Gohan and Majin Buu , who is accompanied by Mr. Satan to represent Universe 7 . Goku also explains the potential penalty to Gohan . Gohan tells Goku to keep the stakes a secret to prevent mass panic . Back at Grand Zenō 's and Future Grand Zenō 's palace , all the gods from all 12 universes gather . The Grand Minister explains the purpose of the Zen Exhibition Match . He alludes to the possibility of Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō erasing the fighters that he deems unfit for the tournament . In the first round , Majin Buu is to fight Basil ( バジル , Bajiru ) , a humanoid canine fighter from Universe 9 . 79 `` Universe 9 's Basil the Kicker VS Universe 7 's Majin Buu ! ! '' / `` Dai kyu uchū keri no Bajiru basasu Dai nana uchū Majinbū ! ! '' ( 第 9 宇宙 蹴り の バジル VS 第 7 宇宙 魔 人 ブウ ! ! ) February 19 , 2017 TBA Basil quickly gains the upper hand and beats down Majin Buu , who is not taking the fight seriously and thinks of it as a game . Goku goads Basil into showing his full power to get Majin Buu 's attention , which leads to Basil using his ultimate attack . As Roh ( ロウ , Rō ) , the Supreme Kai of Universe 9 , claims victory , Majin Buu emerges with a hole in his stomach , but he is otherwise unmoved . Basil and Roh are shocked to see this . Mr. Satan is injured during the attack . He tells Majin Buu to beat Basil before falling unconscious . This enrages Majin Buu to the point , where he effortlessly beats Basil and knocks him out of the ring . However , since neither Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō is satisfied with the fight , Basil is allowed to get back into the ring . Roh gives Basil a drug that makes him far more powerful . Although Beerus demands that Basil is disqualified for obvious cheating , Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō is entertained by this and allows the fight to continue . The Grand Minister announces that the rules will be improvised as the tournament goes along . Basil overpowers Majin Buu and seemingly beats him , which causes Roh to prematurely gloat about the superiority of Universe 9 . However , Majin Buu emerges unscathed and launches a full power attack at Basil . This knocks him out and clinches Universe 7 the victory . As the Universe 9 team laments Basil 's loss , Basil 's second oldest brother Lavender ( ラベンダ , Rabenda ) says that if he is allowed to kill his opponent , which Bergamo gives him permission to do , he can win his match . Gohan volunteers to fight Lavender . 80 `` Awaken Your Sleeping Battle Spirit ! Son Gohan 's Fight ! ! '' / `` Nemutta tōshi o yobisamase ! Son Gohan no tatakai ! ! '' ( 眠っ た 闘志 を 呼び覚ませ ! 孫 悟 飯 の 闘い ! ! ) February 26 , 2017 TBA As their battle begins , Lavender spits a poison mist into Gohan 's eyes and blinds him . Shin offers Gohan a Senzu bean to cure the poison , but Gohan refuses and says he wants to fight with his strength alone . Unable to see , Gohan uses his other senses to track Lavender and scores several blows . Lavender counters by levitating , which eliminates the sound of his footsteps . Gohan responds by powering up to Super Saiyan and bouncing his own ki off of Lavender 's body , which uses it as a kind of active radar . Powering up also causes the poison to spread rapidly through Gohan 's body . Lavender mounts a comeback . In desperation , Gohan grabs hold of Lavender and launches a kamikaze attack . He drives both of their bodies into the ring at high speed . Lavender is knocked out , but Gohan is so weakened by the poison that he can not continue . With both fighters down , the match is declared a tie . After Goku feeds Gohan a Senzu bean , the Grand Minister announces to those in attendance that all universes that lose the Tournament of Power will be erased with their respective gods as well . However , Universes 1 , 5 , 8 , and 12 will be exempt from erasure as will the Angels from all universes because their inhabitants are particularly strong . Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō had long believed that there were too many universes . He was planning to erase most of them anyway , but the tournament will afford one of the weaker universes the chance to be spared . With the announcement concluded , the ring is repaired in preparation for the final exhibition match where Goku will fight Bergamo ( ベルガモ , Berugamo ) , Basil 's oldest brother who is also a humanoid canine . 81 5 `` Bergamo the Crusher Vs Son Goku ! Which One Wields the Limitless Power ? ! '' / `` Tsubushi no Berugamo VS Son Gokū ! Aotenjō no tsuyosa wa dotchida ! ? '' ( 潰し の ベルガモ VS 孫悟空 ! 青 天井 の 強 さ は どっち だ ! ? ) March 5 , 2017 TBA Before their battle begins , Bergamo denounces Goku before the assembled gods . Bergamo pleads with Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to rescind the rule that the universes that lose the Tournament of Power be erased . Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō agree on the condition that Bergamo beats Goku in an all out battle . Grand Minister states that if Goku holds back to cancel the erasure , Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō will immediately erase all of the universes . Both Goku and Bergamo agree to the terms . When the fight begins , Bergamo invites Goku to hit him and leaves himself exposed . Goku obliges and strikes Bergamo several times , but Bergamo absorbs the energy of Goku 's attacks . He grows stronger and physically larger . Goku continues to attack , which causes Bergamo to grow so large that the ring begins to buckle under his weight . Goku transforms to Super Saiyan Blue , which shocks the gods and quickly overwhelms Bergamo with a Kaioken powered Kamehameha . Bergamo claims every universe participating in the Tournament of Power will seek vengeance on Goku for making them face erasure , but Goku relishes the idea of such a challenge . The Zen Exhibition Match comes to a close and the Tournament of Power will soon begin . The universe with the most fighters remaining or the last fighter standing will be declared the winner . Suddenly , a mysterious fighter from Universe 11 named Toppo ( トッポ ) appears and challenges Goku to a battle . Goku , who is unsatisfied after his short fight with Bergamo , agrees to fight Toppo . 82 6 `` Never Forgive Son Goku ! Toppo the Warrior of Justice Intrudes ! ! '' / `` Son Gokū yurusumaji ! Seigi no senshi Toppo ran'nyū ! ! ! '' ( 孫悟空 許す まじ ! 正義 の 戦士 トッポ 乱入 ! ! ) March 19 , 2017 TBA After obtaining Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō blessing to proceed , Goku and Toppo begin their battle . Toppo quickly gains the upper hand and dislocates Goku 's shoulder . Goku responds by attacking with a flurry of blows , but Toppo manages to grab Goku in a powerful bear hug . He begins squeezing the life out of Goku , which forces Goku to turn Super Saiyan Blue to escape . Goku gains the upper hand in this form and damages Toppo with a Kamehameha . Just as the two power up even more , the Grand Minister puts an end to the fight . As Toppo leaves , he reveals to Goku that Universe 11 has a warrior even stronger than him named Jiren ( ジレン ) . The Grand Minister begins creating a martial arts arena suitable for the Tournament of Power . In the Sacred World of the Kais , Beerus and Goku get into an argument over Goku 's constant relaxed and negligent attitude , which Whis breaks up . The group agrees to convene at the Capsule Corporation to discuss their future strategy . 83 7 `` Form the Universe 7 Representing Team ! Who are the Strongest Ten ? ! '' / `` Dai - 7 uchū daihyō chīmu o kessei seyo ! Saikyō no 10 - ri wa dareda ? '' ( 第 7 宇宙 代表 チーム を 結成 せよ ! 最強 の 10 人 は 誰 だ ! ? ) March 26 , 2017 TBA Goku and the others arrive at Capsule Corporation . They discuss who should be on the team . Goku immediately suggests Monaka , but Beerus tells him that Monaka is sick and can not participate . Goku and Gohan agree on Vegeta , Piccolo , Krillin , Master Roshi , No. 18 , and No. 17 , which would bring the total number of fighters up to nine . Trunks and Goten are ruled out due to their inexperience . They proceed to ask Vegeta , who has been thinking of a name for his second child . Vegeta refuses to participate . He says he will not fight , while Bulma is pregnant . Whis uses his time warping ability to birth the baby sooner than expected in order to get Vegeta to agree to the fight . Everyone celebrates the baby 's birth . Trunks is slightly disappointed he has a sister because he wanted to train with a younger brother . As soon as the baby is handed to Vegeta , he develops an attachment to her . Bulma names the baby Bulla even though Vegeta hoped to give her the Saiyan name Eschalot . However , Vegeta quickly accepts Bulla 's name . Goku leaves to recruit members and heads to Krillin 's house . 84 8 `` Son Goku the Recruiter Invites Krillin and No. 18 '' / `` Sukautoman Son Gokū -- Kuririn to 18 - gō o izanau '' ( スカウト マン 孫悟空 クリリン と 18 号 を 誘う ) April 2 , 2017 TBA Goku and Gohan arrive at Krillin 's house and ask him and No. 18 to join the Tournament of Power . No. 18 convinces Krillin to participate in order to put his newfound martial arts training to use . No. 18 is reluctant to join herself . She quickly suspects Goku and Gohan of hiding something from them , but Goku convinces her that the secret is a 10 million Zeni reward , which convinces her to participate . Gohan decides to test Krillin in a sparring match on the coast . After Gohan overpowers him in hand to hand combat , Krillin swiftly defeats Gohan by blinding him with his new move named Solar Flare x 100 and knocking him into the sea . Goku is excited by Krillin 's new power . He challenges him to a sparring match as well . They relocate to a building owned by Mr. Satan , where Krillin 's strategies make up for the gap in power , forcing Goku to go Super Saiyan . Goku then transforms into his Super Saiyan Blue form , and he and Krillin have a Kamehameha clash . As Goku increases his power and starts to overpower Krillin , No. 18 intervenes and blocks Goku 's Kamehameha , just as Krillin collapses from exhaustion . She justifies herself by noting that the Tournament of Power will be a battle royal and that Goku can not expect to fight one - on - one all the time . Goku concedes the match and realizes he will have to adjust his tactics in order to win the Tournament of Power . No. 18 reveals that No. 17 is currently working at a wildlife reserve , but she does not know where . Goku decides to ask Dende to find No. 17 . 85 9 `` The Universes Begin to Make Their Moves Their Individual Motives '' / `` Ugokidasu uchū -- sorezore no omowaku '' ( 動き出す 宇宙 -- それぞれ の 思惑 ) April 9 , 2017 TBA Gohan leaves to recruit Piccolo , while Goku prepares to head to the Lookout . He encounters Majin Buu and Mr. Satan training . Goku discovers that Buu has lost weight and has gotten much slimmer in appearance . The two spar together . Buu defeats Goku by overwhelming him with ki blasts and knocking him out of the fighting stage . Meanwhile , Khai ( カイ ) , the Supreme Kai of Universe 11 , gathers all of the Supreme Kais involved in the tournament except for Universe 7 's , who is ostracized due to Goku 's involvement with the creation of the tournament . Khai asks his fellow Supreme Kais to request that Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō cancel the erasure of the universes , but they are all too afraid of his wrath to do so . Champa gathers all the Gods of Destruction involved in the tournament except Beerus after finding out about the Supreme Kai 's meeting , and they discuss Goku . Toppo recruits his fellow Pride Troopers Kahseral ( カーセラル , Kāseraru ) and Dyspo ( ディスポ , Disupo ) . Champa recruits Cabba and demands he find more powerful Saiyans . Goku meets Dende and Mr. Popo at the Lookout and learns No. 17 's location . Gohan prepares to train with Piccolo . 86 10 `` Fist Cross for the First Time ! Android # 17 VS Son Goku ! ! '' / `` Hajimete majiwaru kobushi ! Jinzōningen Jūnana - gō VS Son Gokū ! ! '' ( 初めて 交わる 拳 ! 人造 人間 17 号 VS 孫悟空 ! ! ) April 16 , 2017 TBA On their way to the island where No. 17 is working , Dende explains that since the conclusion of the Cell Games , No. 17 has started a family and gotten far stronger . Dende also reveals that Kid Buu has reincarnated as a young Earthling with massive fighting potential and asks Goku to train him when he is old enough . They reach the island as Goku arrives just in time to witness No. 17 defeat a group of armed poachers . As they introduce themselves to each other , a large army of poachers arrive . Goku and No. 17 team up to subdue them all . Afterwards , No. 17 explains that the poachers are after the last Minotaurus in order to steal its rare and valuable horns . The two decide to have a sparring match . No. 17 evenly matches Super Saiyan Goku , which causes him to turn Super Saiyan Blue . Goku launches a Kamehameha at No. 17 , who easily deflects it with an energy shield . The two go toe - to - toe until No. 17 ends the match in order to avoid catching the island in the crossfire . Goku and No. 17 acknowledge that they were both holding back in the fight . Afterwards , Goku attempts to convince him to join the Tournament of Power , but No. 17 is uninterested . He remains indifferent even when Goku reveals that the losing universes will be erased . Meanwhile , alien poachers arrive on Earth and they set their sights on the Minotaurus . 87 11 `` Hunt the Poachers ! Goku and No. 17 's United Front ! ! '' / `` Mitsuryō - dan o kare ! Gokū to Jūnana - gō no kyōtō ! ! '' ( 密漁 団 を 狩れ ! 悟空 と 17 号 の 共闘 ! ! ) April 23 , 2017 TBA Goku entices No. 17 with a wish on the Super Dragon Balls . As he begins to consider Goku 's offer , the alien poachers arrive and abduct all of the island 's animals . Goku uses his Instant Transmission to teleport himself and No. 17 aboard their ship before it can escape . After defeating some of the poachers , No. 17 sets off to defeat the leader , while Goku remains behind to battle the rest of the poachers . No. 17 confronts and easily defeats the leader . Goku catches up just as the leader pulls out a switch and threatens to self - destruct if he is not released immediately . No. 17 smashes him out of a window , which vents both of them into deep space . Goku manages to use his Instant Transmission to teleport all three of them to King Kai 's world . Dende contacts Goku and informs him that the leader 's threat was a bluff . Afterwards , Goku and No. 17 return the animals to their rightful homes . Jaco arrives to arrest the alien poachers . No. 17 decides to leave his island in the hands of Goten and Trunks and accepts Goku 's offer to fight in the Tournament of Power . He hopes to use the Super Dragon Balls to wish for an expensive boat and travel the world with his family . 88 12 `` Gohan and Piccolo Teacher and Pupil Clash in Max Training ! '' / `` Gohan to Pikkoro Shitei gekitotsu no Genkai shugyō ! '' ( 悟 飯 と ピッコロ 師弟 激突 の 限界 修業 ! ) April 30 , 2017 TBA Gohan and Piccolo engage in intense training . Piccolo explains that Goku has already informed him about the potential erasure of the universe and that he is going to participate in the Tournament of Power . He points out that Gohan 's over eagerness to protect his loved ones is making him reckless . Gohan transforms into a Super Saiyan , and the two continue to spar . Meanwhile , Cabba heads to the residence of his retired captain and mentor , Renso ( レンソウ ) . Cabba asks him to join Universe 6 's team for the Tournament of Power , but Renso refuses due to an injury to his leg . Renso suggests his sister , Caulifla ( カリフラ , Karifura ) , instead , who he claims is even stronger than him . Back in Universe 7 , Piccolo removes his weighted clothes to go all out and quickly defeats Gohan . Piccolo explains that Gohan has a tendency to become arrogant when he has the advantage in battle . After being encouraged by Piccolo , Gohan manages to reach the level of power he had against Super Buu . The two fight again , and Gohan successfully severs Piccolo 's arm . However , Piccolo blasts him in the back with the severed arm and defeats Gohan , which proves Piccolo 's point about Gohan 's overconfidence . That night , Piccolo vows to push Gohan to new heights of power . They both agree to work on combination moves . 89 13 `` An Unknown Beauty Appears ! The Tenshin - Style Dojo 's Mystery ? ! '' / `` Arawareta nazo no bijo ! Tenshin - ryū Dōjō no kai ! ? '' ( 現れ た 謎 の 美女 ! 天津 流 道場 の 怪 ! ? ) May 7 , 2017 TBA Goku heads to Master Roshi 's island , where Oolong informs him that Tien and Chiaotzu have started a martial arts dojo , and that Roshi has headed there to act as a special instructor . Goku decides to make Tien the tenth member of the team , and heads off to recruit him and Roshi . At Tien 's dojo , a woman named Yurin ( ユーリン , Yūrin ) with a grudge against Tien arrives and requests to join the dojo . Although Tien denies her because her motivation of beauty was unfit for his dojo , Roshi drags Yurin off to ogle her . Goku arrives and asks Tien to join the Tournament of Power , but , even after Goku bribes him with 10 million Zeni , Tien refuses . Yurin escapes Roshi 's advances and uses witchcraft to drive Tien 's students on a rampage throughout town . Goku , Tien , Chiaotzu , and Roshi arrive at the village , where Yurin confronts them . Yurin explains that she is a former classmate of Tien 's during his time at the Crane School and that she swore revenge on him after he left the school and refused to fight her . Meanwhile , Cabba sways Caulifla into joining Universe 6 's team by promising to teach her how to become a Super Saiyan . Back on Earth , while Goku , Chiaotzu , and Tien cure the students of their brainwashing , Roshi battles Yurin . He lowers his guard after catching a glimpse of Yurin 's panties , which allows her to brainwash him . The brainwashed Roshi quickly defeats Tien , but Goku intervenes . While Chiaotzu temporarily disables Yurin , Goku subdues Roshi with a Kamehameha and cures him of the brainwashing . Tien orders Yurin to apologize to everyone she hurt and offers her a place at his dojo . Tien decides to join the Tournament of Power because he believes that the 10 million Zeni Goku promised will repair the village . After hearing about the 10 million Zeni , Master Roshi quickly agrees to join as well . 90 14 `` See The Wall That Must Be Passed ! Goku vs Gohan '' / `` Koerubeki kabe o misuete ! Gokū bāsasu Gohan '' ( 超える べき 壁 を 見据え て ! 悟空 VS 悟 飯 ) May 14 , 2017 TBA As Gohan finishes training with Piccolo , they go to meet with Goku , Master Roshi , and Tien . At Gohan 's request , Goku and Tien have a fight against Gohan and Piccolo to practice for the tournament . Although Tien views this as a practice match and wants to avoid injuring anyone , Gohan and Goku take the fight seriously . As Gohan fights both his father and Tien , Piccolo spends the time charging a strong technique , which ultimately destroys the mountain fighting stage when it is launched . Tien calls the match off on the grounds that the fighting stage is now destroyed . Although Goku agrees , Gohan requests to have a one - on - one fight against his father . Goku accepts , and Gohan powers up while Goku goes Super Saiyan 2 . Although Goku has the upper hand for much of the fight , Gohan turns the tables and begins to overpower Goku . Gohan begs Goku to use his full power . Goku responds by becoming a Super Saiyan Blue and using his Kaio - Ken technique , then defeats Gohan with a single blow . Impressed with his son 's improvement , Goku assigns Gohan as the leader of their Universe 7 team . Meanwhile , Rumsshi ( ラムーシ , Ramūshi ) recruits a powerful fighter named Murichim ( ムリチム , Murichimu ) and his companions to represent Universe 10 in the tournament . 91 15 `` Which Universe Will Survive ? ! The Strongest Warriors Are Gathering ! ! '' / `` Kachinokoru no wa dono Uchū da ! ? Zokuzoku to tsudou Saikyō no senshi - tachi ! ! '' ( 勝ち残る の は どの 宇宙 だ ! ? 続々 と 集う 最強 の 戦士 たち ! ! ) May 21 , 2017 TBA Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō are suffering from extreme boredom again . They decide to observe the universes ' progress in assembling their strongest warriors . In Universe 7 , Vegeta prepares to enter the Hyperbolic Time Chamber for some intense training . Goku spars with Whis in Vegeta 's gravity chamber . Master Roshi and Puar train to remove Roshi 's weakness to seduction techniques , which fails miserably . In Universe 9 , word has spread of the potential erasure of their universe . The populace has descended into anarchy . The three canine brothers have been unable to find any other fighters . In Universe 6 , Hit tracks down the destitute Frost and forces him to join the Tournament of Power , while he relieves him of his poison needles in the process . In Universe 11 , Toppo 's comrade Kahseral is delayed from joining when he aids a cat stuck in a tree . In Universe 2 , a magical girl named Brianne de Chateau ( ブリアン ・ デ ・ シャトー , Burian de Shatō ) transforms into her alter ego named Ribrianne ( リブリアン , Riburian ) and auditions for a spot in the tournament . In Universe 10 , Murichim and his comrades record a dance video to improve team spirit . Back in Universe 7 , Mr. Satan calls and unexpectedly reveals that Majin Buu has fallen into a deep sleep and can not join the tournament , which horrifies everyone . 92 16 `` Emergency Development ! The Incomplete Ten Members ! ! '' / `` Kinkyū jitai hassei ! Sorowanai jū nin no menbā ! ! '' ( 緊急 事態 発生 ! そろわ ない 10 人 の メンバー ! ! ) May 28 , 2017 TBA Goku races to Mr. Satan 's house , where he proves unable to wake Majin Buu from his hibernation . Meanwhile , all of Universe 7 's remaining warriors except Master Roshi and No. 17 gather at the Capsule Corporation . After Krillin brings up the 10 million Zeni prize that Goku had bribed him , Piccolo and Gohan reveal to Krillin , No. 18 , and Tien that the prize of 10 million Zeni was a lie and that the universe will be erased if they lose . When Goku returns , Krillin berates him and threatens to withdraw from the team along with No. 18 . After Goku fails to convince them otherwise , Beerus swiftly threatens Krillin into staying , while Bulma agrees to pay out the promised reward . In Universe 6 , Cabba takes Caulifla to a deserted wasteland to teach her how to become a Super Saiyan . As Caulifla 's protégée , Kale ( ケール , Kēru ) , observes them , Cabba ineffectually attempts to provoke Caulifla in order to make her transform . When that fails , he teaches her to focus her energy on an area in her back . Caulifla successfully transforms into a Super Saiyan . Caulifla tests her newfound power and agrees to join Universe 6 's team for the Tournament of Power . She beckons Kale over to attempt the transformation herself . In Universe 11 , Kahseral arrives at the Pride Trooper headquarters , where he and Toppo agree to leave the universe in their trainees ' hands so they can participate in the tournament . In Universe 3 , two cyborg warriors named Nigrisshi ( ニグリシ , Nigrisshi ) and Narirama ( ナリラマ , Narirāma ) display their upgrades for the tournament to Universe 3 's God of Destruction Mosco ( モスコ , Mosuko ) , Supreme Kai Ea ( エア ) , and Angel Campari ( カンパーリ , Kanpāri ) . Back in Universe 7 , Goku and his friends are unable to figure out who can replace Buu . When Beerus claims they have no suitable fighters because Goku destroyed the Frieza Force , Goku is inspired to recruit Frieza , which shocks everyone . 93 17 `` You 're The Tenth Warrior ! Goku Goes To See Frieza ! ! '' / `` Jū ninme no senshi wa omē da ! Gokū Furīza no moto e ! ! '' ( 10 人目 の 戦士 はお め え だ ! 悟空 フリーザ の も と へ ! ! ) June 4 , 2017 TBA Goku 's idea is met with much hesitance from his comrades . He explains that he intends to have Fortuneteller Baba resurrect Frieza for 24 hours to fight in the tournament . If Frieza betrays them then either he or Vegeta can defeat him . Goku 's friends reluctantly agree , and he sets out to the afterlife . The Universe 7 team are unaware that a spy from Universe 4 is observing them . In Universe 6 , Cabba and Caulifla attempt to teach Kale how to turn into a Super Saiyan but to no avail . Kale begins to despair over her own uselessness , and it enrages her enough to trigger her transformation into an extremely powerful Berserker Super Saiyan . Kale immediately goes berserk and attacks Cabba . Caulifla quickly deduces that Kale is jealous of her and Cabba 's perceived relationship . She denies having any sort of feelings for Cabba . Kale calms down and collapses in Caulifla 's arms . Cabba , who is impressed by Kale 's power , decides to add her to Universe 6 's team . Back in Universe 7 , Goku arrives in the afterlife and receives King Yemma 's permission to visit Frieza . He explains about the Tournament of Power and asks Frieza to join them . Frieza agrees to aid him on the condition that he be properly resurrected with Earth 's Dragon Balls . When Goku hesitates to agree , Frieza goads him by playing to his desire to see how powerful Frieza can become . Goku accepts his terms . In Universe 4 , Ganos ( ガノス , Ganosu ) reports Universe 7 's latest actions to Universe 4 's God of Destruction Quitela ( キテラ , Kitera ) and Supreme Kai Kuru ( クル ) . Quitela immediately begins making plans to counter Beerus . 94 18 `` The Emperor of Evil Returns ! A Reception of Mysterious Assassins ? ! '' / `` Aku no Teiō fukkatsu ! Demukaeru Nazo no Shikaku - tachi ! ? '' ( 悪 の 帝王 復活 ! 出迎える 謎 の 刺客 たち ! ? ) June 11 , 2017 TBA Quitela contacts Universe 9 's God of Destruction Sidra ( シドラ , Shidora ) and informs him that Universe 7 is planning to use Frieza to assassinate their rivals before the tournament begins and that the only way to counter them is to kill them first . Sidra and Roh agree to have Frieza killed . Meanwhile , Goku returns to the Capsule Corporation to update everyone on his success . As Master Roshi completes his training at Korin 's tower , Krillin and No. 18 head to No. 17 's island to pick him up and drop off Goten , Trunks , and Marron . Goku goes to Fortuneteller Baba 's home , where she completes the ritual to resurrect Frieza . As Goku and Frieza prepare to depart , an army of assassins arrives to claim their heads . Despite the time pressure , Frieza wounds the assassins ' leader , transforms into his Golden form , and prepares for battle . 95 19 `` The Worst ! The Most Evil ! Frieza 's Rampage ! ! '' / `` Saikyō ! Saiaku ! Furīza Ōabare ! ! '' ( 最 凶 ! 最悪 ! フリーザ 大 暴れ ! ! ) June 18 , 2017 TBA Frieza explains to Goku that he spent his recent incarceration in Hell undergoing intense mental training to overcome the stamina issues that plagued him during his previous battles with the Z - Fighters . He quickly slaughters most of the assassins , which horrifies Goku . The assassins ' leader , who has been directly empowered by Sidra , attacks Frieza with Sidra 's power , but Frieza manages to overcome and hijack the attack . Frieza spitefully uses the attack on Goku and traps him . Frieza tortures and kills the assassins until they reveal that Roh and Sidra hired them . Frieza contacts Universe 9 and offers his services as a defector . Roh and Sidra begin arguing about whether or not to accept him . Roh fears Frieza 's psychopathic and treasonous nature , while Sidra wants his power . Sidra is confident he could kill him if he stepped out of line . Their argument buys time for Beerus and Whis to arrive and rescue Goku . Frieza cuts the connection . He begins making plans to use the Tournament of Power to manipulate the gods to suit his own ends . Goku and Frieza have a brief sparring match , which ends in a draw . Goku , Frieza , Beerus , and Whis return to the Capsule Corporation . The Universe 7 team prepare to travel to the World of Void for the Tournament of Power . 96 20 `` The Time Is Here ! To The World Of Void For The Fate Of The Universe ! ! '' / `` Toki wa kita ! Uchū no Meiun o kake Mu no Kai e ! ! '' ( 時 は きた ! 宇宙 の 命運 を かけ 無 の 界 へ ! ! ) June 25 , 2017 TBA In the World of Void , Universes 1 , 5 , and 8 's Gods of Destruction Iwne ( イワン , Iwan ) , Arack ( アラク , Araku ) , and Liquiir ( リキュール , Rikīru ) have a brief exhibition match to test the durability of the Tournament of Power 's fighting stage . Afterwards , the Grand Minister forces them all to clean up their mess and fix the stage . In Universe 7 , Gohan and Shin 's strategy is to have the team members stick together to conserve energy and use strength of numbers to defeat anyone who attacks them . This suggestion offends Goku and Vegeta 's Saiyan pride . Whis transports the team to the World of Void . All of the other universes arrive . Frieza and Frost befriend each other and agree to work together , while Goku singles out Jiren as a potential rival due to his extreme power . As the Grand Minister introduces each team , Universe 4 seemingly has only 8 warriors on their team , which confuses most of Universe 7 , except for Tien , who tells No. 18 that he can sense a faint presence . After a speech from the Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō , the 80 warriors prepare for battle . 97 21 `` Survive ! The Tournament of Power Begins at Last ! ! '' / `` Ikinokore ! Tsui ni kaimaku Chikara no Taikai ! ! '' ( 生き残れ ! ついに 開幕 「 力 の 大会 」 ! ! ) July 2 , 2017 TBA The Grand Minister reminds everyone of the rules and officially starts the tournament . A massive free - for - all ensues . Goku targets Toppo , but he is intercepted by Ganos . Disregarding Gohan 's plan as well , No. 17 , No. 18 , Vegeta , and Frieza all jump into the fray . Universe 3 gains an early advantage when Narirama unleashes a spinning attack designed to knock its opponents off the stage , but Hit and Basil disable it . Universe 10 's Lilibeu ( リリベウ , Ririberu ) attacks Basil , but Basil successfully knocks her off the stage . Meanwhile , the five Universe 7 warriors who stayed together are confronted by a gang of warriors from varying universes , but Universe 7 uses teamwork to fend them off . Basil nearly defeats Universe 10 's Napapa , but Napapa is able to push his attacks away at the last moment . As Goku is pursuing Toppo , he comes face to face with Jiren until Universe 4 's Nink ( ニンク , Ninku ) outflanks Goku by grappling and dragging him towards the edge of the stage with the intention of jumping off with him . Goku turns Super Saiyan Blue and knocks Nink off the stage . As Goku reverts back to his normal form to conserve energy , Basil , Lavender , Bergamo , and two other Universe 9 warriors surround him with 47 minutes remaining in the tournament . 98 22 `` Oh , Uncertainty ! A Universe Despairs ! ! '' / `` Ā mujou ! Zetsubō suru Uchū ! ! '' ( あぁ 無常 ! 絶望 する 宇宙 ! ! ) July 9 , 2017 TBA Roh orders his warriors to attack Goku to avenge their defeat at the Zen Exhibition Match . Goku is forced to avoid fighting at his fullest in order to conserve stamina for later in the tournament . He fights Team Universe 9 , where the Trio de Dangers brothers manage to overwhelm him thanks to their teamwork . Vegeta notices Goku 's plight and reinforces him . Roh sends over three more fighters . Team Universe 9 is able to push Goku and Vegeta to the brink until Vegeta tricks Lavender and Hop ( ソレル , Hoppu ) into accidentally hitting each other . Goku and Vegeta take advantage of the confusion to defeat five of the Universe 9 warriors . No. 18 and Frieza each defeat Sorrel ( ソレル , Soreru ) and Roselle . Only Basil , Lavender , and Bergamo remain in the tournament for Team Universe 9 . Goku and Vegeta push them to the edge of the stage . The brothers use a combination beam as a last ditch effort , but Goku and Vegeta power up to Super Saiyan Blue and knock them off the stage with a Final Kamehameha . With all 10 members defeated , Universe 9 is eliminated from the tournament . As a result , Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō erase Universe 9 , Roh , Sidra , and all of their fighters . This amuses Universe 9 's angel Mojito ( モヒイト , Mohi'ito ) and horrifies everyone else . 99 23 `` Show Them ! Krillin 's True Power ! ! '' / `` Misetsukero ! Kuririn no sokojikara ! ! '' ( 見せつけろ ! クリリン の 底力 ! ! ) July 16 , 2017 TBA As the other warriors recover from the shock of Universe 9 's erasure , No. 17 reminds No. 18 that they have infinite stamina due to their cyborg bodies and have no reason to hold back . Vegeta tries to fight Hit , but he is blocked by Botamo , who is immune to damage . Vegeta manages to pick Botamo up and nearly throws him off the stage , but Magetta stops him at the last moment . Meanwhile , Universe 10 's Jium ( ジウム , Jiumu ) attacks Gohan and his friends . Jium is swiftly defeated by Master Roshi . Universe 4 's Shosa ( ショイサ , Shōsa ) tricks No. 18 into lowering her guard by faking his own death and nearly knocks her off the stage with a barrage of ki blasts . Krillin rescues No. 18 , and the two defeat Shosa with a powerful combination attack . They are challenged by Universe 4 's Majora ( マジョラ ) , who is a blind fighter that uses his powerful sense of smell to locate his enemies in battle . Although Majora proves to be stronger than Krillin , Krillin disables his nose by throwing his smelly shoe at him and knocks him off the stage . Krillin boasts about his victory , which allows Frost to knock him off with a single blow . Beerus and Shin berate Krillin for his carelessness with 43 minutes remaining in the tournament . 100 24 `` Out Of Control ! The Savage Berserker Awakens ! ! '' / `` Daibōsō ! Mezame araburu Kyōsenshi ! ! '' ( 大 暴走 ! 目覚め 荒 ぶる 狂 戦士 ! ! ) July 23 , 2017 TBA As Universe 7 recovers from Krillin 's defeat , Cabba defeats Nigrisshi and Universe 10 's Murisam ( ムリサーム ) and confronts Vegeta . Hit blows off Narirama 's limbs and uses his time skip ability to dodge his ultimate attack . He flicks him off the stage . Meanwhile , Kale is disabled by Universe 10 's Napapa and Methiop ( メチオープ ) . They knock her unconscious and attempt to throw her off the stage , but Caulifla rescues her and defeats Napapa . The two confront Goku , and Caulifla knocks away Universe 2 's Jimeze ( ジーミズ , Jimizu ) and demands to know how to become a Super Saiyan Blue . Goku refuses , and Caulifla transforms into an Ultra Super Saiyan . However , her increased muscle mass cripples her speed and allows Goku to counterattack . With Goku 's aid , Caulifla manages to become a Super Saiyan 2 , and the two resume their fight . As Kale watches them , she is once again consumed by her feelings of uselessness and transforms into her Berserker Super Saiyan form . Hit uses his time skip to save Caulifla from getting caught in the crossfire . Kale flies into a jealous rage and attacks Goku for allegedly stealing Caulifla from her . Kale easily overwhelms Goku and forces him to power up to Super Saiyan Blue . He unleashes a powerful Kamehameha , but Kale powers through it unharmed . As Piccolo realizes she has lost control of her power , Kale begins firing ki blasts at everything in sight and defeats Methiop . When Universe 11 's Vuon ( ブーオン , Būon ) attempts to stop her , Kale defeats him as well . Jiren knocks her unconscious with a single ki blast . As Hit and Caulifla retreat with Kale , Goku challenges Jiren . 101 25 `` The Impending Warriors of Justice ! The Pride Troopers ! ! '' / `` Semari kuru seigi no senshi ! Puraido Torūpāsu ! ! '' ( 迫り くる 正義 の 戦士 ! プライド ・ トルーパス ! ! ) July 30 , 2017 TBA As Goku prepares to fight Jiren , Toppo suddenly ambushes him with a barrage of ki blasts . Toppo and Jiren decide to retreat and conserve their stamina . This leaves Goku to be dealt with by Kahseral and their fellow Pride Troopers Tupper ( タッパー , Tappā ) , Zoiray ( ゾイレー , Zoirē ) , Cocotte ( ココット , Kokotto ) , and Kettol . The five declare their intent to defeat Caulifla and Kale to avenge Vuon 's defeat . The two are forced to form a temporary alliance with Goku . Meanwhile , Master Roshi and Tien team up to defeat Universe 3 's The Preecho ( ザ ・ プリーチョ ) . They regroup with Gohan , Piccolo , Vegeta , and Frieza , where he has defeated Murichim . The Pride Troopers push Goku , Caulifla , and Kale to the brink , but No. 17 and No. 18 rescue them . No. 18 and Goku defeat Tupper , while No. 17 easily overpowers Kahseral . The remaining Pride Troopers regroup and focus their assault on the wounded Caulifla and Kale . Cocotte seals them in a separate dimension to ensure that Goku , No. 17 , and No. 18 do not interfere . As the four beat Caulifla , Kale 's self - hatred causes her to return to the Berserker Super Saiyan form , but she remains in control of herself this time . Caulifla and Kale use an extremely powerful combination ki blast to defeat Kahseral , Zoiray , and Kettol . Cocotte seals herself in a mini-dimension to avoid the blast , but No. 18 simply throws it off , eliminating Cocotte . Goku allows Caulifla and Kale to retreat so he can fight them at their full strength after they rest . The group is unaware that Brianne is observing them . 102 26 `` The Power of Love Explodes ? ! Universe 2 's Little Witch Warriors ! ! '' / `` Ai no chikara ga dai bakuhatsu ! ? dai ni uchu majo - kko senshi ! ! '' ( 愛 の 力 が 大 爆発 ! ? 第 2 宇宙 の 魔女 っ 子 戦士 ! ! ) August 6 , 2017 TBA Brianne and her companions Sanka Ku ( サンカ ・ クー , Sanka Kū ) and Su Roas ( スー ・ ロース , Sū Rōsu ) announce themselves to the other fighters and begin to transform into their magical girl alter - egos . No. 17 blasts them before they can transform , but Brianne , Goku , and Toppo berate him for his dishonorable tactics and browbeat him into allowing them to transform , much to Beerus ' dismay . They assume their alter - egos Ribrianne , Kakunsa ( カクンサ , Kakunsa ) , and Rozie ( ロージィ , Rōjī ) and barrage the arena with a powerful love - based attack that brainwashes some of the fighters . Universe 7 's mental discipline allows them to overcome its effects . Gohan 's group elects to split up and fight independently . Vegeta attacks Ribrianne , who counters with a rolling attack that knocks out Universe 10 's Jirasen ( ジラセン ) . Rozie attacks Goku with a flurry of blows that grows more powerful the longer she keeps it up , while Kakunsa battles No. 17 with her animalistic fighting style . No. 17 baits her into overextending herself and stuns her with a barrier . He attempts to knock her out of the stage , but her teammate Vikal ( ビカル , Bikaru ) rescues her . No. 17 decides to stop holding back and swiftly eliminates Vikal . He also eliminates Kakunsa with a powerful ki blast . Enraged by his actions , Ribrianne powers up and prepares to battle No. 17 . 103 27 `` Gohan , Show No Mercy ! Showdown With Universe 10 ! ! '' / `` Gohan yo hijōnare ! Dai ju uchu to no kessen ! ! '' ( 悟 飯 よ 非情 なれ ! 第 10 宇宙 と の 決戦 ! ! ) August 13 , 2017 TBA Ribrianne and No. 17 fiercely attack each other , while Rozie begins to overwhelm Goku 's defenses . She surrounds him with ki balls and attempts to blow him up , but No. 17 protects him with a barrier . Goku , who has studied Rozie 's techniques , hits her with a powerful ki blast . As he and No. 17 corner Rozie and Ribrianne , Jimeze arrives and rescues them with instant transmission . Elsewhere , Botamo challenges Gohan on Champa 's orders . As Piccolo and Goku observe , Gohan attacks with a flurry of blows , which apparently have no effect . However , Gohan 's attacks begin to lift Botamo off the ground and renders him unable to defend himself , allowing Gohan to knock him off the stage . Universe 10 's Obuni ( オブニ ) and Rubalt ( ルバルト , Rubaruto ) appear to challenge Gohan and Piccolo . Jimeze defeats Universe 10 's Jilcol ( ジルコル Jirukoru ) . With 8 warriors eliminated , Gowasu accepts his imminent demise , while Rumsshi remains defiant . Obuni shifts his ki away from his body to render himself impossible to detect and wounds Gohan . Rubalt initially has the upper hand against Piccolo , but Piccolo uses his Hellzone Grenade attack to knock out Rubalt , leaving Universe 10 with only Obuni . Obuni begins to overwhelm Gohan , which makes Gowasu want to cling to life again . Gohan powers up and powers through one of Obuni 's punches . He counterattacks Obuni 's moves by locating and hitting Obuni after he gets hit . Obuni pauses the fight to show his respect for Gohan , but refuses to lose for the sake of Universe 10 . Gohan battles and defeats Obuni with a Kamehameha . All of Universe 10 's fighters have been eliminated . Right before Universe 10 is annihilated , Gohan discovers a locket containing a picture of Obuni and his wife and child . Gohan and Universe 10 's angel , Cus ( クス , Kusu ) , mourn Universe 10 's erasure . 104 28 `` The Ultimate High Speed Battle Begins ! Goku and Hit Join Forces ! ! '' / `` Chōzetsu kōsoku batoru boppatsu ! Gokū to hitto no kyōdō sensen ! ! '' ( 超絶 光速 バトル 勃発 ! 悟空 と ヒット の 共同 戦線 ! ! ) August 20 , 2017 TBA Dyspo challenges Hit and uses his incredible speed to overwhelm Hit 's Time Skip . Everyone quickly deduces that Dyspo is listening for the sound of Hit 's body tensing up to determine when he is about to attempt to use Time Skip . Hit resorts to fighting him conventionally , but he is pushed to the edge of the stage . Toppo deduces that Hit has adjusted to Dyspo 's fighting style and is luring him into a trap . Toppo sends fellow pride trooper Kunshi ( クンシー , Kunshī ) to back him up . Before Dyspo can land the finishing blow , Hit suddenly turns intangible and sends Dyspo over the edge . However , Kunshi uses ropes made of his energy to pull Dyspo back onto the stage before he is eliminated . The two launch a renewed assault against Hit and drive him into a corner . Before they can finish him off , Goku interferes and rescues Hit . Goku uses his Super Saiyan God form to counter Dyspo 's speed , while Hit uses his assassination technique to injure Kunshi . The two switch places . Hit uses a fake Time Skip to throw Dyspo off and wound him , while Goku overwhelms Kunshi with his Super Saiyan Blue form . Hit attempts to eliminate Dyspo , but Kunshi rescues him again . Kunshi charges Hit , who turns intangible and knocks him off the stage . Dyspo retreats and regroups with his allies . Toppo abandons all notions of justice and decides to focus on survival . Hit decides not to battle Goku as thanks for lending a hand . Goku and Hit vow to settle their score if they both make it to the end of the tournament . 105 29 `` A Desperate Battle ! Master Roshi 's Sacrifice ! ! '' / `` Funsen ! Mutenroshi inochi o Moyasu ! ! '' ( 奮戦 ! 武 天 老師 命 を 燃やす ! ! ) August 27 , 2017 TBA Master Roshi quietly observes the battles from afar . He is challenged by an attractive warrior from Universe 4 , Caway ( キャウェイ , Kyauei ) , who attempts to seduce him . However , Caway 's attempts to attack him brings him back to his senses . Roshi destroys her energy weapon , powers up , and drives her to jump off the stage . Roshi is next challenged by Dercori ( ダーコリ , Dākori ) , who is a talisman - wielding warrior from Universe 4 . She uses her talismans to confound Roshi with illusions and trap him in a single spot . Roshi uses the Evil Containment Wave to seal her in a small bottle and throw her off the arena . Quitela and Beerus get into an argument about the legality of the move , which is defused when Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō rule in Roshi 's favor . Ganos , who is enraged at Roshi for eliminating his friends , challenges him and powers up into an avian form . Initially , Roshi is able to use his experience to predict , evade , and counter Ganos ' attacks . However , Ganos is able to grow more powerful the longer a fight drags on . He rallies and delivers a fierce series of blows to Roshi . Roshi attempts to hypnotize Ganos into falling asleep , but he attacks himself to wake himself up . Ganos demands that Roshi accept his limits and give up , but Roshi refuses . He unleashes a Max Power Kamehameha that defeats Ganos . However , the effort is too much for Roshi 's body to handle , and he collapses . Goku races over to him and successfully defibrillates him with his ki . Goku escorts Roshi to safety . 106 30 `` Find Him ! Death Match With An Invisible Attacker ! ! '' / `` Mikiwamero ! Sugata naki atakkā to no shitō ! ! '' ( 見極めろ ! 姿 なき アタッカー と の 死闘 ! ! ) September 3 , 2017 TBA Goku brings Master Roshi to an isolated part of the stage and leaves him to rest at his request . Gohan and Piccolo are confronted by Universe 6 's Dr. Rota ( Dr. ロタ , Dokutā Rota ) , but Rota is shot down by a sniper before he can reveal his ability . Gohan and Piccolo are unable to find the location of the sniper until they find a red orb on the ground . It is revealed that the sniper , Universe 2 's Prum ( プラン , Puran ) , can see through these orbs . The lasers ricochet off of the orbs so that his true location is a secret . Piccolo tries to create a smokescreen in order to blur the vision , but Prum can still see them via their heat signatures . Prum shoots Piccolo and destroys both of his arms , which forces him to painfully regenerate them . Gohan and Piccolo realize that the orbs depend on heat signatures and blast the surrounding area to create multiple heat signatures . Prum responds by coming out of his hiding spot and blasting the entire area . Gohan and Piccolo are forced into hiding . Tien analyzes Dr. Rota and deduces that he was hit by a sniper as Goku and Vegeta arrive . Vegeta berates Tien , who warns them about Prum , but Vegeta arrogantly brushes it off until he is almost incapacitated by one of Prum 's blasts . As Goku and Tien observe Prum , they deduce that there is another shooter from behind as Prum is merely reflecting the blasts . Vegeta and Goku go after Prum , while Tien goes to save Gohan and Piccolo . Goku and Vegeta try to attack Prum , but their ki blasts are reflected off of his body . Tien navigates through the field of blasts and confronts the true sniper , Prum 's teammate Hermila ( ハーミラ , Hāmira ) . Realizing that Prum can deflect ki blasts and not physical attacks , Vegeta and Goku throw giant boulders at him . Tien uses his Multi-form technique in order to buy himself time against Hermila , but three of his clones are shot down . The fourth and final Tien defeats Hermila . Just as Tien is about to eliminate him , Hermila shoots the ground underneath Tien 's feet and knocks him off the stage . However , Tien 's other three clones come back and drag Hermila down with them . Tien and Hermila are eliminated from the tournament . Although Beerus praises Tien for forcing the battle into a draw , Tien is noticeably upset about being defeated . As Prum is confronted by Vegeta , Dr. Rota comes back and attacks Prum as revenge for shooting him . Shortly after , Vegeta eliminates Prum and Dr. Rota from the tournament . 107 31 `` Revenge `` F '' The Cunning Trap ? ! '' / `` Fukushū no Efu ! Shikakerareta Kōkatsu na Wana ! ? '' ( 復讐 の 「 F 」 ! しかけ られ た 狡猾 な 罠 ! ? ) September 17 , 2017 TBA Frost recalls how Champa promised to pardon his crimes if he humiliated and defeated Universe 7 . Elsewhere , Universe 3 's Maji Kayo confronts Universe 11 's remaining warriors . He entraps Dyspo with his liquid body , but Jiren effortlessly defeats him with a single blow . As Master Roshi attempts to recover from his previous fights , Frost corners and attacks him . Goku sees this and tries to rush to his aid , but he is confronted by Ribrianne . Roshi hits Frost with a flurry of blows and attempts to use the Evil Containment Wave , but the strain proves too much for him . He flubs the attack . Frost barrages Roshi with ki blasts and sends an attack towards Vegeta , which provokes him . Vegeta interferes before Frost can finish Roshi . Magetta arrives to reinforce Frost , and the two battle Vegeta . Frost goads Roshi into using the Evil Containment Wave on Magetta despite the risk of killing himself . When Roshi falls for it , Frost reflects the attack and seals Vegeta into a bottle . With the last of his strength , Roshi uses a small ki blast to destroy the bottle and free Vegeta . Vegeta immediately turns Super Saiyan Blue , and Frost flees . Vegeta knocks Magetta off the stage and tells Roshi to drop out so he can receive medical attention . Roshi jumps off the stage , and he is given a Senzu Bean . Beerus admits that Roshi has earned his respect . 108 32 `` Frieza and Frost ! Conjoined Malice ? ! '' / `` Furīza to Furosuto ! Majiwaru Akui ! ? '' ( フリーザ と フロスト ! 交わる 悪意 ! ? ) September 24 , 2017 TBA As Goku battles Ribrianne , the gods of the top four universes speculate on who will win the tournament . Meanwhile , Gohan is confronted by Jimeze . Jimeze makes use of his Instant Transmission technique to confound and damage Gohan . As he prepares to finish him , Frieza intervenes . When Frieza does not immediately attack Jimeze , Universe 7 's spectators speculate he may intend to betray and defeat Gohan so he can seize the wish on the Super Dragon Balls for himself . Frieza steps aside and allows Jimeze to continue his fight with Gohan . Jimeze corners Gohan again and attempts to finish him , but Frieza destroys his attack with a ki blast . Enraged , Jimeze attacks Frieza , who swiftly tortures and eliminates him . Frost appears and declares his intention to defeat Gohan , and Frieza admits that the two intend to work together in order to exact revenge on the Saiyans . Frieza battles Gohan , who counterattacks . Frieza uses his Golden form to knock out Gohan . However , instead of eliminating him , he double - crosses and eliminates Frost . Gohan admits that he immediately figured out Frieza 's plan and played along with him . An enraged Frost attempts to attack Frieza from the spectator stands , but Grand Zenō erases him , explaining that this is forbidden and Universe 6 would be erased upon a second offence . Meanwhile , Goku continues to battle Ribrianne . 109 33 `` The Ultimate Enemy Approaches Goku ! Now , Let Loose ! The Killer Spirit Bomb ! ! '' / `` Goku ni Semaru Saikyo no Teki ! Ima Koso Hanate ! Hisassu no Genki - Dama ! ! '' ( 悟空 に 迫る 最強 の 敵 ! 今 こそ 放 て ! 必殺 の 元気 玉 ! ! ) October 8 , 2017 TBA Ribrianne declares her intention to use the wish to become a love goddess adored by all beings using the Super Dragon Balls . Goku considers using the wish to benefit his family or meet a strong opponent . Ribrianne absorbs the love of her teammates and becomes Super Ribrianne . She attacks Goku with several ki blasts , and he counters by turning Super Saiyan Blue and knocking her away . Ribrianne lands near Jiren , and Goku sees him and prepares to finally battle him . Universe 11 's God of Destruction , Belmod , telepathically orders Jiren to defeat Goku . Belmod hopes to demoralize the other universes by defeating the strongest fighter besides Jiren himself . Goku powers up to Super Saiyan Blue Kaioken x20 , but that proves to be no match for Jiren 's overwhelming power . Goku begins powering up a Spirit Bomb , and all of his teammates except Vegeta lend him their energy . Despite the time it takes to charge the attack , Jiren agrees to wait for him to complete it . Ribrianne attempts to attack Goku from behind , but she is stopped by Vegeta . Goku completes the Spirit Bomb and throws it , but Jiren deflects it . The two engage in a struggle to take control of the Spirit Bomb . This forces Goku to use Super Saiyan Blue Kaioken x20 to keep up . However , Jiren prevails and begins to overwhelm Goku with his own attack . 110 34 `` Son Goku Wakes ! New Level of the Awakened ! ! '' / `` Son Gokū kakusei ! Mezameshi mono no aratanaru gokui ! ! '' ( 孫悟空 覚醒 ! 目覚め し 者 の 新た なる 極意 ! ! ) October 8 , 2017 TBA Goku powers up himself and pushes the Spirit Bomb back towards Jiren , which locks him in a stalemate . Whis realizes that Jiren is at least as powerful as a God of Destruction . As the two struggle to overpower each other , the Spirit Bomb suddenly condenses into a small black hole , which absorbs Goku and causes him to vanish . The Grand Minister rules that since Goku 's own attack apparently vaporized him , Jiren will not be disqualified for destroying him . As Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō prepare to eliminate Goku , he suddenly reappears and reaches a new level of power . Goku resumes the fight , and he is able to go toe - to - toe with Jiren . Whis theorizes that the clash between the Spirit Bomb and Goku 's powers enabled him to break through his limits and trigered an ability called Ultra Instinct ( 身勝手 の 極意 '' 兆 '' , Migatte no Gokui ) . Goku uses another powerful attack in an attempt to eliminate Jiren , but he fails , and exhausts his newfound power . Jiren knocks him away , and Hit attempts to take advantage of the opportunity and attacks Jiren . Vegeta demands to know what happened to Goku before preparing to fight Ribrianne , while Frieza appears to corner Goku and aims an attack at him . 111 35 `` The Surreal Supreme Battle ! Hit vs Jiren ! ! '' / `` I jigen no kyokuchi batoru ! Hitto basasu Jiren ! ! '' ( 異 次元 の 極致 バトル ! ヒット VS ジレン ! ! ) October 15 , 2017 TBA Instead of killing the defenseless Goku , Frieza shares with him some of his energy and repays his act of mercy during their fight on Planet Namek . Meanwhile , Hit uses his time - skip powers against Jiren , but his attacks fail to connect . Goku spectates the battle , but he is ambushed by Saonel ( サオネル , Saoneru ) and Pirina ( ピリナ , Pirina ) , Namekians from Universe 6 , who are confronted by Gohan and Piccolo . Elsewhere , Vegeta fights Ribrianne , and he is easily overpowering her in his base form until Rozie interferes and retreats with Ribrianne . Ribrianne loses hope due to the gap in power , but Rozie motivates her . Meanwhile , Hit keeps attacking Jiren to no avail , but he is able to react and block most of Jiren 's punches . After being knocked back , Hit sneaks up behind Jiren and lands a strong punch on his heart . He knocks Jiren to the edge of the ring after a brief struggle . Hit uses his own time - skip powers continually on Jiren to stop his movement . Realizing that he can not hold Jiren for long , Hit urges Cabba , Caulifla , and Kale to keep fighting for Universe 6 . Hit pools all his energy in a final attack to defeat him , but Jiren stops Hit 's attack only with his glare . Jiren breaks free and eliminates Hit . As the Tournament of Power reaches its midway point , Jiren begins to meditate . He is certain that there are no other warriors strong enough to fight him . Jiren leaves the fight to Toppo and Dyspo . Viara ( ビアラ , Biara ) and Katopesla ( カトペスラ , Katopesura ) of Universe 3 attempt to attack him while meditating , but Jiren 's energy alone is enough to push them back . 112 36 `` A Saiyan 's Vow ! Vegeta 's Resolution ! ! '' / `` Saiya - jin no chikai ! Bejīta no kakugo ! ! '' ( サイヤ 人 の 誓い ! ベジータ の 覚悟 ! ! ) October 22 , 2017 TBA Despite his exhaustion and low energy , Goku is determined to keep fighting . However , he is suddenly targeted by Koitsukai ( コイツカイ , Koitukai ) , Panchia ( パンチア , Panchia ) , and Bollarator ( ボラレータ , Borarēta ) of Universe 3 . Gohan and Piccolo want to help him , but they are distracted by their own battle with Saonel and Pilina . Caulifla and Kale are discussing the battle between Goku and Jiren , when they are confronted by Monna ( モンナ , Monna ) , a female warrior from Universe 4 . Caulifla faces off against Monna , but Cabba appears and takes her place . He instructs Caulifla and Kale to retreat for now . Cabba turns Super Saiyan and battles Monna , but he is initially overpowered . Monna almost knocks Cabba off the stage , but Vegeta intervenes and catches him before he can fall . Vegeta and Cabba both promise that , if either of them wins the tournament , the winner will use the Super Dragon Balls to restore the other 's erased universe and its inhabitants . Newly inspired , Cabba fights Monna again , but he is losing until he taps into his anger and unlocks Super Saiyan 2 . With his new power , Cabba easily defeats and eliminates Monna . However , Frieza appears , fights Cabba , and easily eliminates him as well . Frieza reveals that he plans to win the tournament in order to use the Super Dragon Balls to control the gods . Meanwhile , Vegeta decides to challenge Jiren , but he is intercepted by Toppo . The two battle each other . Vegeta ends up meeting up with Goku , who is still having difficulty with his three opponents . However , Caulifla intervenes and knocks Koitsukai , Borareta , and Pancea away before powering up to Super Saiyan 2 and challenging Goku herself . 113 37 `` With Great Joy ! The Repeat Battle - Crazy Saiyan Fight ! ! '' / `` Kiki to Shite ! Sentō - kyō Saiya - jin Batoru Futatabi ! ! '' ( 嬉々 として ! 戦闘 狂 サイヤ 人 バトル 再び ! ! ) October 29 , 2017 TBA Caulifla demands that Goku fight her and teach her how to unlock Super Saiyan 3 so that she can become strong enough to win the tournament . She begins fighting Goku , who does not initially power up beyond his base form . However , Goku 's superior martial arts skills allow him to keep up with her even in her Super Saiyan 2 form . Eventually , she is able to adapt to his moves , which forces Goku to power up to Super Saiyan 2 himself . The two of them fight evenly for some time . Goku later calls in Kale to join the battle . His superior power and skill enables him to fight them both at once , but they are able to match him by working together . They land a massive combined attack on him , but Goku powers up to Super Saiyan 3 and easily deflects their attacks . However , Goku lacks the stamina to maintain that form and reverts to Super Saiyan 2 . Kale 's desire to become stronger inadvertently causes her to transform into her Berserker Super Saiyan form again . 114 38 `` Intimidating Passion ! The Birth of a New Super Warrior ! ! '' / `` Kiki semaru ! Aratana chō sen - shi no bakutan ! ! '' ( 鬼気 せまる ! 新た な 超 戦士 の 爆誕 ! ! ) November 5 , 2017 TBA Vegeta continues his battle with Toppo , while Caulifla is able to help Kale regain control of her Berserker form . Caulifla and Kale battle Goku together and are able to hold him off . Meanwhile , Frieza is confronted by Katopesla , but they are interrupted by Goku 's battle with Caulifla and Kale . Frieza wants to fight Caulifla and Kale , but Goku insists that he will fight them himself . Frieza backs down and watches the fight . The three Saiyans resume their battle . After unsuccessfully attempting to use Instant Transmission as a strategy , Goku powers up to his Super Saiyan God form and easily overpowers the two of them . As Goku prepares to eliminate Caulifla and Kale with a powerful Kamehameha , it is revealed that the girls were given a pair of Potara earrings by Fuwa , Universe 6 's Supreme Kai . They use the earrings and fuse to become a single being with immense power , who takes the name Kefla ( ケフラ , Kefura ) . 115 39 `` Goku VS Kefla ! Super Saiyan Blue Defeated ? ! '' / `` Gokū vāsasu Kefura ! Sūpāsaiya - jin Burū Yabureru ! ? '' ( 悟空 VS ケフラ ! 超 サイヤ 人 ブルー 敗れる ! ? ) November 12 , 2017 TBA As Vegeta continues to fight Toppo , Gohan and Piccolo are engaged with Saonel and Pirina . No. 18 is attacked by Katopesla , but she is saved by No. 17 . Meanwhile , Goku continues his fight with Kefla . The Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō approve Kefla 's use of the Potara earrings . The other universes consider giving the Potara to their warriors as well . Pell ( ペル , Peru ) , the Supreme Kai of Universe 2 , gives his Potara to Rabanra ( ラバンラ , Rabanra ) and Zarbuto ( ザーブト , Zābuto ) , but the earrings are destroyed by Kefla charging through them to continue fighting Goku . The battle becomes intense with Kefla gaining the upper hand . Goku powers up to Super Saiyan Blue , but Kefla counters by powering up to Super Saiyan . However , Goku uses the Kaioken and regains the advantage . He appears to be winning , but Kefla lands a sneak attack that knocks him out of Super Saiyan Blue . She prepares to eliminate him , but Goku unexpectedly reawakens Ultra Instinct again and easily dodges her attacks . 116 40 `` The Sign of a Comeback ! Ultra Instinct 's Huge Explosion ! ! '' / `` Gyakuten no kizashi ! Migatte no gokui ga dai bakuhatsu ! ! '' ( 逆転 の 兆し ! 身勝手 の 極意 が 大 爆発 ! ! ) November 19 , 2017 TBA To counter Goku 's increase in power , Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2 , and the two of them face off . Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks , but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down . Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks , it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential . Jiren senses the energy from the battle , which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo . Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain , and decides that he must reach it too . Goku begins running low on stamina , so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack . Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams . Her ultimate attack devastates the ring , but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha . Goku jumps into the air , so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him , taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge . However , he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack , and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range , blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her . Her Potara earrings shatter , and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla . With both of them eliminated , Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6 . NOTE : This episode was dedicated in memory of Hiromi Tsuru , who passed away on November 16 , 2017 . 117 41 `` Showdown of Love ! Androids VS Universe 2 ! ! '' / `` Ai no daikessen ! Jinzōningen VS Dai ni uchū ! ! '' ( 愛 の 大 決戦 ! 人造 人間 VS 第 2 宇宙 ! ! ) November 26 , 2017 TBA Goku is left exhausted from his battle with Kefla . He is confronted by all five remaining warriors from Universe 2 . Gohan and Piccolo try to help him , but they are intercepted by Saonel and Pirina . Elsewhere , Vegeta faces off against Katopesla and tries to unlock Ultra Instinct against him . However , he is unsuccessful , and resorts to his normal fighting style . Vegeta easily overpowers Katopesla . Rozie and Ribrianne launch a combined attack at Goku , but No. 17 and No. 18 arrive in time to deflect it . The androids battle Rozie and Ribrianne . No. 17 defeats and eliminates Rozie , while No. 18 knocks Ribrianne out of her powered - up transformation . This causes her to revert into Brianne . Brianne is able to catch No. 18 in an energy trap , while her comrades from Universe 2 send their love to her . This allows Brianne to transform into a giant manifestation of her Super Ribrianne form . No. 18 almost gives up until her love for Krillin and Marron gives her the determination to break free of Ribrianne 's trap . With No. 17 's help , No. 18 blasts through Ribrianne 's giant form and eliminates her . Brianne realizes that she lost because of No. 18 's strong love for Krillin , while Goku faces off against Zirloin ( ザーロイン , Zāroin ) , Zarbuto , and Rabanra of Universe 2 . 118 42 `` Accelerated Tragedy Vanishing Universes ... '' / `` Kasokusuru Higeki Kieyuku Uchū ... '' ( 加速 する 悲劇 消え ゆく 宇宙 ... ) December 3 , 2017 TBA Goku battles against Zirloin , Zarbuto , and Rabanra from Universe 2 , while Gohan and Piccolo are fighting against Saonel and Pirina . Saonel and Pirina 's power suddenly increases , and it is revealed that they had each fused with many Namekians from their universe before coming to the tournament , which greatly increased their own powers . No. 17 and No. 18 join Goku to help in the battle against the remaining Universe 2 warriors . It is revealed that Universe 2 's angel , Sour ( サワア , Sawaa ) , has been broadcasting the tournament to the populace of their universe . Universe 2 's inhabitants channel their love to Zirloin , Zarbuto , and Rabanra , who are able to transform into forms similar to Ribrianne , Rozie , and Kakunsa 's transformed states . Goku , No. 17 , and No. 18 battle Zirloin , Zarbuto , and Rabanra , while Gohan and Piccolo continue fighting Saonel and Pirina . The Universe 2 trio unleash a legendary Universe 2 technique , the Pretty Black Hole , which traps and threatens to sink Goku , No. 17 , and No. 18 through the fighting stage . Goku powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and breaks through the Pretty Black Hole with a Kamehameha that eliminates Zirloin , Zarbuto , and Rabanra , while Gohan and Piccolo blast Saonel and Pirina off the ring with a powerful combined attack that eliminates them as well . With all of their fighters eliminated , both Universe 2 and Universe 6 are erased . Brianne leads the Universe 2 team in a final happy moment before their erasure , while Cabba wishes Vegeta good luck . Champa taunts Beerus before being erased . Beerus remains impassive in the face of his brother 's erasure . Vegeta faces off against Katopesla and warns him that he is in a bad mood . 119 43 `` Unavoidable ? ! The Fierce Stealth Attack ! ! '' / `` Kaihi funō ! ? Suterusu kōgeki no mōi ! ! '' ( 回避 不能 ! ? ステルス 攻撃 の 猛威 ! ! ) December 10 , 2017 TBA Vegeta overpowers Katopesla and drives him to the edge of the ring . Katopesla is able to catch himself , but he is pushed over the edge and eliminated by an unseen force . Vegeta and Gohan are attacked by the same force , but Vegeta is able to stop himself from going over the edge , while Piccolo catches Gohan . No. 18 is attacked by the invisible fighter , who is revealed to be one of the missing Universe 4 fighters , Gamisaras ( ガミサラス , Gamisarasu ) . Gohan creates a cloud of dust that coats Gamisaras , which allows Piccolo to see him . Piccolo easily eliminates Gamisaras . Undaunted , Quitela orders the remaining Universe 4 fighters to step up their game . Shantza ( シャンツァ , Shantsa ) generates a dome that envelops the Universe 7 team and manifests illusions of the defeated fighters from the erased universes . However , Piccolo spots Shantza and blasts him off the ring , which eliminates him and destroys the illusions . Universe 4 's last fighter , Damon ( ダモン , Damon ) , is also assumed to be invisible since no one can see him . Piccolo is able to sense Damon 's attacks , but he proves unable to hit Damon , who knocks him out of the ring and eliminates him . No. 17 discovers the truth and exposes Damon as a tiny bug - like creature rather than an invisible person , which explains why none of the fighters were able to hit him . To solve this problem , Goku repeatedly punches the ring and creates shock waves that launch Damon into the air , which cancels out his agility and allows No. 17 to hit him with energy blasts . No. 17 traps Damon in a miniature force field and kicks him out of the ring to eliminate him . With all of their fighters eliminated , Universe 4 is promptly erased . 120 44 `` The Perfect Survival Tactic ! Universe 3 's Menacing Assassin ! ! '' / `` Kanpeki na Seizon Senryaku ! Dai san Uchū Kyōi no Shikaku ! ! '' ( 完璧 なる 生存 戦略 ! 第 3 宇宙 脅威 の 刺客 ! ! ) December 17 , 2017 TBA Following the elimination of Universe 4 , the remaining fighters from Universe 3 take the offensive against Universe 7 . While Viara is defeated and eliminated by No. 17 and No. 18 's combined efforts , Paparoni ( パパロニ , Paparoni ) sends Panchia , Koitsukai , and Bollarator to attack Goku , Gohan , and Vegeta . To help Goku and Vegeta save their energy to confront Universe 11 , Gohan decides to face the three robots alone . He gains the upper hand until Paparoni has them combine together into a much stronger robot called Koichiarator ( コイチアレータ , Koichiarēta ) . Koichiarator overpowers Gohan until Goku and Vegeta step in . The two distract the enemy , while Gohan charges and strikes with an attack powerful enough to defeat it . With his robots defeated , Paparoni refuses to surrender and declares that he will unleash his trump card on Universe 7 . 121 45 `` All - Out War ! The Ultimate Quadruple Merge vs Universe 7 's Full - Scale Attack ! ! '' / `` Sōryokusen ! Kyūkoku no Yontai Gattai VS Dai nana Uchū Sōkōgeki ! ! '' ( 総力 戦 ! 究極 の 4 体 合体 VS 第 7 宇宙 総 攻撃 ! ! ) December 24 , 2017 TBA Paparoni and Koichiarator merge to form Anilaza ( アニラーザ , Anirāza ) , the most powerful warrior from Universe 3 . Anilaza begins to overwhelm the Saiyans , which forces No. 17 and No. 18 to reinforce them . The five attempt to coordinate their attacks to catch Anilaza off - guard , but he deflects them all . It is revealed that Anilaza can use echolocation to detect his opponents ' movements . Anilaza begins teleporting his punches , and he nearly knocks Goku off the stage until Frieza steps in and knocks him back onto the fighting stage . Realizing that the Universe 7 warriors will rescue each other from defeat , Anilaza attempts to eat No. 18 , who is rescued by Goku . Anilaza corners No. 17 and overwhelms him . He knocks him off the fighting stage , but No. 18 sacrifices herself to kick No. 17 back onto the fighting stage . She is eliminated from the tournament . With no other options , the Universe 7 warriors power up to their maximum levels and engage in a ki clash with Anilaza . They buy time for No. 17 to pierce through Anilaza 's attack and damage his energy reactor . This enables the others to overwhelm and eliminate Anilaza . With all of their warriors eliminated , Universe 3 is erased . As the Universe 7 warriors begin to celebrate , the remaining Universe 11 warriors step forward to challenge them . 122 46 `` For One 's Own Pride ! Vegeta 's Challenge to Be The Strongest ! ! '' / `` Onore no Hokori wo Kakete ! Bejīta Saikyō he no Chōsen ! ! '' ( 己 の 誇り を かけ て ! ベジータ 最強 へ の 挑戦 ! ! ) January 7 , 2018 TBA With only two universes remaining , the Grand Minister compresses the bleachers so that the remaining spectators are all close together . The final warriors begin their battle : Gohan and No. 17 battle Toppo , Frieza fights Dyspo , and Goku and Vegeta battle Jiren . Jiren overwhelms Goku with a flurry of punches , but Vegeta is able to analyze Jiren 's attack patterns and dodges his attacks . He lands a solid blow to Jiren 's midsection , but Jiren counters with a powerful blast that nearly rings Vegeta out . Meanwhile , Frieza blocks one of Dyspo 's attacks with his tail , but Dyspo uses it as leverage to injure him . Jiren disparages Vegeta for his self - righteousness , but Vegeta declares that it is the source of his strength . He powers up a Final Flash and goads Jiren into taking it head - on . However , the attack fails to damage Jiren , who acknowledges the power of Vegeta 's attack before incapacitating him . 123 47 `` Body and Soul , Full Power Release ! Goku and Vegeta ! ! '' / `` Zenshin Zenrei Zenryoku Kaihō ! Gokū to Bejīta ! ! '' ( 全身 全霊 全力 解放 ! 悟空 と ベジータ ! ! ) January 14 , 2018 TBA With Vegeta down , Goku faces off against Jiren . Meanwhile , the other battles continue . Frieza decides to start fighting Dyspo seriously , while Gohan and No. 17 are outmatched against Toppo . Outmatched in power , Goku instead uses ki blasts to create a minefield around Jiren , but it has no effect . Goku then lures Jiren onto a large rock that extends out over the edge of the fighting stage and cuts through the rock with a Destructo Disc . This causes Jiren to fall , but Jiren is able to push off the falling debris and jumps back onto the fighting stage . Angered by his near - elimination , Jiren finally shows his real power and easily overwhelms Goku with a volley of punches . Goku and Vegeta both get back up and power up to Super Saiyan Blue . Goku uses his maximum Kaioken beyond his previous limitations , while Vegeta is able to surpass his limits by tapping into more ki in his body , and attains a transformation similar to the Ascended Super Saiyan form , the Super Saiyan Blue Evolution form . Fully powered up , Goku and Vegeta attack Jiren as a team , and they are able to catch him off guard with their un-coordinated attacks . 124 48 `` The Fiercely Overwhelming Assault ! Gohan 's Last Stand ! ! '' / `` Shippū - Dotō no Mōshū ! Gohan Haisui no Jin ! ! '' ( 疾風 怒涛 の 猛襲 ! 悟 飯 背水 の 陣 ! ! ) January 21 , 2018 TBA As Goku and Vegeta continue their battle with Jiren , the battle between Dyspo and Frieza intensifies . The two seem evenly matched , until Frieza breaks off the fight and offers to help Universe 11 win the tournament if they promise to resurrect him with the Super Dragon Balls . Dyspo refuses the offer , so Frieza powers up to his Golden form and gains the advantage in the fight . Dyspo reveals his own ultimate technique , the Super Maximum Light Speed Mode , which increases his power and speed even further , and overwhelms Frieza . Gohan and No. 17 realize that Frieza is in danger of being knocked off the fighting stage , so No. 17 distracts Toppo , while Gohan goes to Frieza 's aid . Gohan and Frieza take on Dyspo as a team , but they have little success . Gohan develops a strategy that has Frieza use his energy to form a cage around Dyspo , which prevents him from using his high - speed attacks and allows Gohan to gain the upper hand . Unfortunately , Frieza runs out of energy , and the cage dissolves before Gohan can land the finishing blow . However , Gohan is able to grab Dyspo and hold him in place , while Frieza launches a blast that knocks them off the fighting stage and eliminates them both from the tournament . 125 49 `` With Imposing Presence ! God of Destruction Toppo Descends ! ! '' / `` Ifu - Dōdō ! Hakaishin Toppo Kōrin ! '' ( 威風 堂々 ! 破壊 神 トッポ 降臨 ! ! ) January 28 , 2018 TBA Goku and Vegeta continue their battle with Jiren , while No. 17 and Toppo fight . No. 17 and Toppo engage in a beam clash , which Toppo is winning . Frieza intervenes and strikes Toppo repeatedly from behind , which allows No. 17 to overpower Toppo 's blast . In the wake of the explosion , Toppo appears to have been defeated . However , he gets back up and powers up , using the same type of energy as a God of Destruction . Belmod explains that Toppo is a candidate to be Universe 11 's next God of Destruction , which is why he can wield the same kind of power . Toppo unleashes his new power , which damages the fighting stage and breaks a large portion of it . No. 17 and Frieza attack Toppo repeatedly , but his power is now far superior to theirs . Toppo easily defeats them both . Fortunately , they are able to stay on the fighting stage , but Toppo knocks Frieza unconscious and engages in another beam clash with No. 17 . 126 50 `` Surpass Even a God ! Vegeta 's Desperate Blow ! ! '' / `` Kami wo mo Koero ! Bejīta Sutemi no Ichigeki ! ! '' ( 神 を も 超えろ ! ベジータ 捨て身 の 一撃 ! ! ) February 4 , 2018 TBA Toppo easily overpowers No. 17 's blast . No. 17 is able to evade him for a while by using the broken fighting stage to his advantage , but Toppo effortlessly withstands No. 17 's attacks . Toppo prepares to eliminate No. 17 with a giant energy blast . Frieza rejoins the battle and deflects Toppo 's attack . Frieza uses his own energy attack to immobilize Toppo , which allows him and No. 17 to land numerous attacks , but none of them have any effect . Toppo is about to eliminate them both , when he is interrupted by Goku and Vegeta , who are still fighting Jiren . Frieza and No. 17 are hit by one of Jiren 's attacks , which gives Toppo the opportunity to attack Vegeta instead . Toppo overwhelms Vegeta with his new power and states that he has cast aside everything else in order to become strong enough to win the tournament . However , Vegeta is inspired by his family , his promise to Cabba , and his Saiyan pride . He refuses to cast anything aside . Vegeta unleashes his full power and overwhelms Toppo . Vegeta and Toppo both use their ultimate attacks : Toppo unleashes his Energy of Destruction , while Vegeta uses the Final Explosion technique that he used against Majin Buu . Vegeta 's attack overwhelms Toppo 's attack , blasts Toppo out of the fighting stage , and eliminates him from the tournament . This also causes even more damage to the fighting stage . Due to Vegeta being much stronger than the last time he used the Final Explosion technique , he survives the blast , but his energy is almost completely drained . No. 17 also reappears , but he has been injured by Jiren 's attack . Goku , Vegeta , and No. 17 all face off against Jiren , who begins to unleash his full power . 127 51 `` The Approaching Wall ! The Final Barrier of Hope ! ! '' / `` Semari - kuru Shōheki ! Kibō wo Takushita Saigo no Baria ! ! '' ( 迫り くる 障壁 ! 希望 を 託 した 最後 の バリア ! ! ) February 11 , 2018 TBA Jiren powers up to his maximum . Goku , Vegeta , and No. 17 all attack him simultaneously , but he easily overpowers them . However , No. 17 manages to land a sneak attack and injures Jiren . Jiren defeats Goku and Vegeta , while Frieza rejoins the fight and tries to kill Jiren in his golden form . However , Frieza is easily defeated as well . No. 17 asks Jiren what his wish on the Super Dragon Balls would be , and Belmod explains that Jiren 's endless pursuit of strength was inspired when his parents , most of his comrades , and mentor were killed by a powerful villain . However , his abandonment by his surviving friends turned Jiren into a loner who distrusted friendship , and he now focuses solely on increasing his own strength . No. 17 admires Jiren 's human qualities , but he accuses Jiren of using the rest of his universe 's team for his own ends . Jiren rebuffs him and fires a powerful energy blast down at No. 17 , Goku , and Vegeta . No. 17 uses a barrier to hold back Jiren 's blast and forms force fields around Goku and Vegeta to protect them , before self - destructing to destroy Jiren 's blast . Despite his exhausted state , Vegeta faces off against Jiren and declares that he will defeat him . 128 52 `` Noble Pride to the End ! Vegeta Falls ! ! '' / `` Kedakai Hokori Saigo Made ! Bejīta Chiru ! ! '' ( 気高い 誇り 最後 まで ! ベジータ 散る ! ! ) February 18 , 2018 TBA Vegeta prepares for a final stand against Jiren . Although Vegeta is too exhausted to turn into even a Super Saiyan , he still decides to take on Jiren . Jiren easily dodges his attacks and continues to pummel Vegeta . Jiren injures Vegeta 's left eye in the process . Vegeta is knocked to the brink of elimination , and he begins to think about the people in his life he cares about the most . He gets back up and continues to fight Jiren , who is impressed by Vegeta 's pride . Vegeta nearly rings out again . His boot catches onto a floating piece of rubble , which narrowly allows him to stay in the fight because the pieces of rubble still count as part of the fighting stage . Vegeta hears Bulma 's voice urging him to fight on , and he returns to fight Jiren once again . Jiren is unable to understand why Vegeta continues to fight him . Vegeta fires off a Final Flash , but Jiren is unfazed . Jiren knocks Vegeta out of the fighting stage and eliminates him from the tournament . Although Vegeta is upset at being unable to last until the end , he gives Goku his remaining energy at the last second before falling out of bounds . Goku turns Super Saiyan Blue and begins to fight Jiren with his remaining power . Even with Vegeta 's energy , Goku is still overwhelmed by Jiren . He is knocked back into his base form . When Goku is pushed back to the edge of the fighting stage and only one punch away from defeat , Vegeta shouts at Goku . Goku thinks about how the others have all put their faith in him . As Jiren delivers the final blow , Goku suddenly reactivates Ultra Instinct and dodges the attack . With his new power , Goku is able to effortlessly dodge Jiren 's attacks and lands a heavy blow on him . Both fighters face off and prepare for their final battle . 129 53 `` Limits Super Surpassed ! Ultra Instinct Mastered ! ! '' / `` Genkai Chōzetsu Toppa ! Migatte no Gokui Kiwamaru ! ! '' ( 限界 超絶 突破 ! 身勝手 の 極意 極まる ! ! ) March 4 , 2018 TBA Whis points out that , since Goku has no allies to help him and no time to recover from the strain caused by Ultra Instinct , this will be his last chance to end the battle . Goku and Jiren resume their battle , but Goku has the same problem he experienced with Kefla , and is unable to attack at his full potential . Goku tries the same trick he used on Kefla by powering up a Kamehameha and firing it at Jiren , but Jiren is able to punch through the blast . Belmod is confident that Goku 's incomplete Ultra Instinct will not be enough to win , but Vegeta points out that , throughout the tournament , all of the Saiyans have been able to surpass their limits and achieve higher levels of power . Jiren is able to trap Goku on a single floating rock and fires a barrage of attacks down at him in an attempt to knock him out , but Goku begins blocking Jiren 's attacks with his own punches . Jiren launches a final blast down at Goku , but Goku suddenly powers up immensely . He easily blocks Jiren 's blast and jumps back up to the fighting stage . Jiren attacks again , but this time Goku easily overpowers him with a flurry of punches . Whis reveals that Goku has completed his ascension . Goku 's hair and eyes have turned silver , and he now has full mastery over Ultra Instinct . 130 54 `` The Greatest Showdown of All Time ! The Ultimate Survival Battle ! ! '' / `` Kūzenzetsugo no Chō Kessen ! Kyūkyoku no Sabaibaru Batoru ! ! '' ( 空前 絶後 の 超 決戦 ! 究極 の サバイバル バトル ! ! ) March 18 , 2018 TBA Having mastered Ultra Instinct , Goku overpowers and corners Jiren , which forces Jiren to break through his own limits and power up even further . The two exchange attacks continuously . Despite almost being defeated twice , Goku stands up and recovers . When Jiren asks why Goku refuses to surrender , his friends claim that the source of Goku 's strength comes from the trust between him and his companions . Refusing to accept it , an enraged Jiren launches an attack on the bleachers that is repelled by a furious Goku , who finally defeats him . However , just as Goku is about to knock Jiren out , his body collapses from the strain of using Ultra Instinct for too long . Jiren takes the opportunity to knock Goku off the fighting stage , but Goku is saved by Frieza . No. 17 is also revealed to have survived Jiren 's blast . As Frieza and No. 17 prepare themselves to face Jiren , Goku writhes in pain . 131 55 `` The Miraculous Conclusion ! Farewell , Goku ! Until We Meet Again ! '' / `` Kiseki no ketchaku ! Saraba Goku ! Mataauhimade ! ! '' ( 奇跡 の 決着 ! さらば 悟空 ! また 会う 日 まで ! ! ) March 25 , 2018 TBA With Goku down , Frieza and No. 17 face off against Jiren . No. 17 manages to injure Jiren , who collapses from exhaustion . Frieza is about to eliminate Jiren , who accepts his impending defeat , but Toppo calls out to Jiren and inspires him to keep fighting despite his injuries . Jiren powers up and fires a massive blast at Frieza and No. 17 . They form a barrier to shield themselves , but Frieza is running low on energy and loses his Golden form . Before Jiren can overpower them , Goku manages to get back up and rejoins the others . Goku adds his strength to the barrier and enables them to block Jiren 's blast . Goku and Frieza take on Jiren together , while No. 17 provides cover fire . Working together , Goku and Frieza overpower Jiren and tackle him out of the ring . All three of them are eliminated from the tournament . With all of their fighters gone , Universe 11 is erased . As the only fighter remaining on the fighting stage , No. 17 is declared the winner of the Tournament of Power , and he is given the privilege of getting his wish granted from the Super Dragon Balls . After some consideration , No. 17 wishes to restore all of the universes that had been erased , which brings all their inhabitants back to life . As the erased universes are restored , the Grand Minister reveals that Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō had foresaw the outcome of a virtuous being winning the Tournament of Power who would make a selfless wish on the Super Dragon Balls . He also stated that they would have otherwise erased the entire multiverse if the winner had wished for selfish reasons , as this would have shown that the winning universe was no better than the erased universes and that the universes excluded from the tournament were not equally worthy of existing . As a reward for doing well in the tournament , Whis restores Frieza to life . In Universe 11 , Jiren establishes a real friendship with Toppo and looks forward to having a rematch with Goku someday . The group from Universe 7 return home . Frieza leaves Earth and resumes leadership of his empire . Goku vows to defeat him if he starts causing trouble again . Goku and Vegeta meet for a sparring match in the place where they first fought . Goku reveals that he can not use Ultra Instinct anymore and believes that he obtained it by accident during the tournament . Goku and Vegeta declare that they will keep finding new levels of strength . They race towards each other to fight . ) Blu - ray and DVD release ( edit ) Region 1 ( North America ) ( edit ) 132 TBA `` TBA '' / `` TBA '' ( TBA ) December 14 , 2018 TBA TBA Name Date Discs Episodes Part One July 25 , 2017 1 -- 13 Part Two October 3 , 2017 14 -- 26 Part Three February 20 , 2018 27 -- 39 Part Four June 19 , 2018 40 -- 52 Region 2 ( Japan ) ( edit ) Name Date Discs Episodes Box 1 December 2 , 2015 1 -- 12 Box 2 March 2 , 2016 13 -- 24 Box 3 July 2 , 2016 25 -- 36 Box 4 October 4 , 2016 37 -- 48 Box 5 January 6 , 2017 49 -- 60 Box 6 April 4 , 2017 61 -- 72 Box 7 August 2 , 2017 73 -- 84 Box 8 October 3 , 2017 85 -- 96 Box 9 January 6 , 2018 97 -- 108 Box 10 April 3 , 2018 109 -- 120 Box 11 July 3 , 2018 121 -- 131 Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Episodes 109 and 110 aired together as a 1 - hour television special . ^ Jump up to : English titles per Crunchyroll . ^ Jump up to : English dub titles per Funimation . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super TV Anime Debuts on July 5 '' . Anime News Network . June 4 , 2015 . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2016 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kazuya Yoshii , Good Morning America to Perform Theme Songs For Dragon Ball Super '' . Anime News Network . May 19 , 2015 . Archived from the original on January 2 , 2016 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Gods And Heroes Of `` Dragon Ball Super -- Universal Survival Arc '' Gathered For New Opening Preview Shots `` . Crunchyroll . February 4 , 2017 . Archived from the original on February 4 , 2017 . Retrieved February 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super 's New Opening Sequence Previewed in Screenshots '' . Anime News Network . February 4 , 2017 . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2017 . Retrieved February 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` VIDEO : KEYTALK Performs New ED Song for `` Dragon Ball Super '' `` . Crunchyroll . October 1 , 2015 . Archived from the original on August 29 , 2016 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super To Introduce A New Theme This April '' . attackofthefanboy . March 17 , 2016 . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2016 . Retrieved March 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Batten Showjo Tai Performs New Dragon Ball Super Ending Theme '' . Anime News Network . June 19 , 2016 . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2016 . Retrieved June 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rock Band Arukara Performs New Dragon Ball Super Ending Theme '' . Anime News Network . September 21 , 2016 . Archived from the original on September 28 , 2016 . Retrieved October 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` THE COLLECTORS Perform New `` Dragon Ball Super '' Ending Theme `` . Crunchyroll . December 6 , 2016 . Archived from the original on January 9 , 2017 . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Spring 's `` Dragon Ball Super '' End Theme Revealed `` . Crunchyroll . March 5 , 2017 . Archived from the original on April 4 , 2017 . Retrieved April 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Miyu Inoue Sings New Dragon Ball Super Ending Theme Song '' . Anime News Network . March 5 , 2017 . Archived from the original on April 10 , 2017 . Retrieved April 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Lacco Tower Returns For New `` Dragon Ball Super '' Ending `` . Crunchyroll . June 5 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 14 , 2017 . Retrieved July 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' Dragon Ball Super ' To Get New Ending '' . Comicbook . September 13 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 14 , 2017 . Retrieved September 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` RottenGraffty To Perform New `` Dragon Ball Super '' Ending `` . Crunchyroll . September 7 , 2017 . Archived from the original on October 10 , 2017 . Retrieved October 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Announces New Ending Theme '' . Comicbook . December 18 , 2017 . Archived from the original on December 22 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blu - ray ・ DVD 情報 ドラゴンボール 超 東映 アニメーション ( in Japanese ) . Toei Animation . Archived from the original on July 20 , 2015 . Retrieved January 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Toonami Snaps up ' Dragon Ball Super ' '' . Animation World Network . November 10 , 2015 . Archived from the original on November 16 , 2015 . Retrieved November 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` DRAGON BALL SUPER , READY FOR EMEA TAKEOVER WITH TURNER '' . www.toei-animation.com . Toei Animation Europe . October 10 , 2016 . Archived from the original on October 13 , 2016 . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Barder , Ollie ( October 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' Dragon Ball Super ' Will Start Airing In Europe This Fall , Still No Word On A US Release '' . Forbes . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2016 . Retrieved October 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Dornbush , Jonathon ( October 19 , 2016 ) . `` Dragon Ball Super English Sub Announced '' . IGN . Ziff Davis , LLC . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2016 . Retrieved October 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super to Simulcast on Crunchyroll , Daisuki , AnimeLab ( Updated ) '' . Anime News Network . Anime News Network . October 19 , 2016 . Archived from the original on October 25 , 2016 . Retrieved October 27 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` '' DRAGON BALL SUPER '' SUBTITLED EPISODES BEGIN STREAMING TODAY ON FUNIMATIONNOW WITH NEW SIMULCAST EPISODES STARTING NOVEMBER 5 , 2016 . Funimation to Produce English Dub of New Series `` . Funimation . Funimation . November 4 , 2016 . Archived from the original on November 7 , 2016 . Retrieved November 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Funimation Licenses Dragon Ball Super , Plans English Dub '' . Anime News Network . Anime News Network . November 4 , 2016 . Archived from the original on November 7 , 2016 . Retrieved November 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Toonami : Hope you 're sitting down for this ... '' Facebook . December 7 , 2016 . Archived from the original on April 4 , 2017 . Retrieved December 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super -- Universe Survival Saga -- Official PV 1 ( SUB ) '' . Funimation . Archived from the original on 4 February 2017 . Retrieved 3 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dragon Ball Super Universe Survival arc jump festa 17 promo video '' . kanzenshuu . December 20 , 2016 . Archived from the original on August 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : あらすじ ドラゴンボール 超 ( in Japanese ) . Toei Animation . Archived from the original on August 10 , 2016 . Retrieved July 16 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` TV Listings Grid , TV Guide and TV Schedule , Where to Watch TV Shows -- Screener '' . Archived from the original on 22 October 2017 . Retrieved 1 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Julia Alexander ( April 3 , 2017 ) , Samurai Jack gets left behind for Rick and Morty , and no one 's happy about it , archived from the original on April 3 , 2017 , retrieved April 3 , 2017 Jump up ^ Rick and Morty Twitter account ( April 1 , 2017 ) , New Episode of RICK AND MORTY airing NOW thru MIDNIGHT ( ET / PT ) and ONLINE at http://www.adultswim.com/streams , archived from the original on May 7 , 2017 , retrieved May 7 , 2017 Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Episode Guide '' . Zap2it . January 15 , 2018 . Archived from the original on March 22 , 2018 . Retrieved January 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Blu - ray Part 1 '' . FUNimation . Archived from the original on April 19 , 2017 . Retrieved April 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Blu - ray Part 2 '' . FUNimation . Archived from the original on August 24 , 2017 . Retrieved July 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Blu - ray Part 3 '' . FUNimation . Archived from the original on November 17 , 2017 . Retrieved November 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dragon Ball Super Blu - ray Part 4 '' . FUNimation . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2018 . Retrieved March 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 1 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 2 '' ( in Urdu ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 3 '' ( in e ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . CS1 maint : Unrecognized language ( link ) Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 4 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 5 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 6 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 7 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 8 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . July 28 , 2017 . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 9 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . September 30 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 10 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . September 30 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ドラゴンボール 超 Blu - ray BOX 11 '' ( in Japanese ) . Neowing . September 30 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2017 . ( hide ) Dragon Ball by Akira Toriyama Media Manga chapters Dragon Ball Z Dragon Ball episodes Z episodes season 1 5 6 7 8 9 GT episodes Z Kai episodes Super episodes Films and TV specials Video games Soundtracks Characters Goku Bulma Master Roshi Yamcha Krillin Tien Shinhan Piccolo Gohan Vegeta Frieza Trunks Android 17 Android 18 Cell Majin Buu Beerus Zamasu Related Dr. Slump Arale Norimaki List of Dr. Slump characters Neko Majin Episode of Bardock Jaco the Galactic Patrolman Puff Puff Portal Anime and manga portal Dragon Ball portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dragon_Ball_Super_episodes&oldid=843631685 '' Categories : Dragon Ball episode lists Hidden categories : CS1 uses Japanese - language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) CS1 Urdu - language sources ( ur ) CS1 maint : Unrecognized language Articles containing Japanese - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Galego Italiano Magyar Norsk Português ไทย Tiếng Việt 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 30 May 2018 , at 12 : 04 . 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96 | document: List of United States Rapid Transit systems by Ridership - wikipedia List of United States Rapid Transit systems by Ridership Jump to : navigation , search See also : List of North American rapid transit systems by ridership and List of United States light rail systems by ridership The following is a list of all heavy rail rapid transit systems in the United States . It does not include statistics for bus or light rail systems ( see : List of United States light rail systems by ridership for the latter ) . All ridership figures represent `` unlinked '' passenger trips ( i.e. line transfers on multi-line systems register as separate trips ) . The data are provided by the American Public Transportation Association 's Ridership Reports . System Transit agency City / Area served Annual ridership ( 2016 ) Avg . weekday ridership ( Q4 2016 ) System length Rider . per mile Opened Stations Lines 1 . New York City Subway New York City Transit Authority New York City 2,750,527,400 8,918,400 7005394289280000000 ♠ 245 miles ( 394 km ) 38,276 1904 472 24 2 . Chicago `` L '' Chicago Transit Authority Chicago 238,645,800 749,700 7005165440563200000 ♠ 102.8 miles ( 165.4 km ) 7,292 1892 146 8 3 . Washington Metro Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority Washington , D.C. 234,232,100 748,800 7005188293248000000 ♠ 117 miles ( 188 km ) 6,400 1976 91 6 4 . MBTA Subway ( `` The T '' ) ( Blue , Orange , and Red Lines ) Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Boston 172,105,800 552,500 7004611550720000000 ♠ 38 miles ( 61 km ) 14,539 1901 53 5 . Bay Area Rapid Transit ( BART ) Bay Area Rapid Transit District San Francisco Bay Area 135,310,700 446,200 7005180246528000000 ♠ 112 miles ( 180 km ) 4,290 1972 46 6 . SEPTA ( Broad Street , Market -- Frankford , and Norristown High Speed Lines ) Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority Philadelphia 94,209,100 311,800 7004590629248000000 ♠ 36.7 miles ( 59.1 km ) 8,496 1907 75 7 . Port Authority Trans - Hudson ( PATH ) Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Manhattan ; Hudson County , and Newark 78,553,600 270,900 7004222089472000000 ♠ 13.8 miles ( 22.2 km ) 19,630 1908 13 8 . MARTA rail system Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority Atlanta 68,678,700 213,800 7004766047744000000 ♠ 47.6 miles ( 76.6 km ) 4,492 1979 38 9 . Metro Rail ( Purple and Red Lines ) Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority Los Angeles 45,863,900 143,000 7004280025856000000 ♠ 17.4 miles ( 28.0 km ) 8,218 16 10 . Metrorail Miami - Dade Transit Miami 21,095,500 70,300 7004392679936000000 ♠ 24.4 miles ( 39.3 km ) 2,881 1984 23 11 . Baltimore Metro Subway Maryland Transit Administration Baltimore 11,241,200 36,800 7004249448320000000 ♠ 15.5 miles ( 24.9 km ) 2,374 14 12 . PATCO Speedline Port Authority Transit Corporation Philadelphia , southern New Jersey 10,653,500 36,500 7004228526848000000 ♠ 14.2 miles ( 22.9 km ) 2,570 1936 13 13 . Staten Island Railway Staten Island Railway Staten Island ( New York City ) 8,630,900 32,200 7004225308160000000 ♠ 14 miles ( 23 km ) 2,300 1860 22 14 . Tren Urbano Autoridad de Transporte Integrado San Juan 7,896,800 30,400 7004172199808000000 ♠ 10.7 miles ( 17.2 km ) 2,841 16 15 . RTA Rapid Transit ( Red Line ) Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority Cleveland 6,419,400 17,587 7004305775360000000 ♠ 19 miles ( 31 km ) 926 1955 18 See also ( edit ) List of metro systems List of North American rapid transit systems by ridership List of tram and light rail transit systems List of suburban and commuter rail systems List of United States light rail systems by ridership List of North American light rail systems by ridership List of United States commuter rail systems by ridership List of United States local bus agencies by ridership Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Agency is a subsidiary of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority . Jump up ^ System also includes the Green Line and Ashmont -- Mattapan High Speed Line light rail lines ; ridership data for these light rail lines is not included in statistics shown here . Jump up ^ Figures only include BART 's five rapid transit lines , and not the system 's AGT line to Oakland Airport . ^ Jump up to : System also includes light rail lines . Ridership data for such lines is not included in statistics given . Jump up ^ This figure is the Average Daily Ridership figure , not an `` Average Weekday Ridership '' figure -- it is averaged from the Q4 2016 Total Ridership figure for this system . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Transit Ridership Report Fourth Quarter 2016 '' ( pdf ) . American Public Transportation Association . March 3 , 2017 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 02 -- via http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/Pages/ridershipreport.aspx . ^ Jump up to : `` Comprehensive Annual Financial Report for the Years Ended December 31 , 2016 and 2015 '' ( pdf ) . Metropolitan Transportation Authority ( MTA ) . July 26 , 2017 . p. 168 . Retrieved August 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The MTA Network - New York City Transit at a Glance '' . Metropolitan Transportation Authority ( MTA ) . Retrieved August 29 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Facts at a Glance '' . Chicago Transit Authority . Retrieved May 17 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` About Metro '' . Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority . 2014 . Retrieved August 28 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ridership and Service Statistics , Fourteenth Edition 2014 '' ( PDF ) . Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority . July 2014 . pp. 3 -- 4 , 6 . Archived from the original ( pdf ) on September 12 , 2014 . Retrieved August 31 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` System Facts '' . Bay Area Rapid Transit . Retrieved May 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Rider recalls first day of BART passenger service on Sept. 11 , 1972 '' . Bay Area Rapid Transit . September 11 , 2009 . Retrieved June 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` BART - Schedules By Line '' . Bay Area Rapid Transit . 2014 . Retrieved August 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` SEPTA Route Statistics 2014 '' ( PDF ) . Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority ( SEPTA ) Service Planning Department . Spring 2014 . pp. 9 , 13 , 221 . Archived from the original ( pdf ) on May 24 , 2013 . Retrieved August 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Media Guide '' ( pdf ) . SEPTA. 2013 . pp. 7 , 11 . Retrieved August 31 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` SEPTA ' Elebrates ' End Of Project '' . SEPTA . September 11 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` SEPTA Operating Facts Fiscal Year 2013 '' ( pdf ) . SEPTA . June 30 , 2013 . pp. 4 -- 6 . Retrieved August 31 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Greenhouse Gas ( GHG ) and Criteria Air Pollutant ( CAP ) Emission Inventory ( EI ) for the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey : 2008 Summary and 2006 - 2008 Trends '' ( pdf ) . PATH . June 2010 . p. 4 . Retrieved September 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Facts & Info - PATH - The Port Authority of NY & NJ '' . PATH. 2013 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` History '' . PATH . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Maps & Schedule '' . PATH . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` About MARTA : MARTA 's Past & Future '' . Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority . Retrieved June 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bombardier Partners with Atlanta to Improve Track Worker Protection with TrackSafe Technology '' ( Press release ) . Bombardier. April 17 , 2012 . Retrieved June 24 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chapter 1.0 - Purpose and Need '' , Westside Transit Corridor Extension Study : Final Alternatives Analysis Study ( pdf ) , Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority , January 2009 , pp. 1 -- 18 , retrieved September 28 , 2012 ^ Jump up to : `` Metrorail '' . Miami - Dade County . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Miami - Dade Transit History '' . Miami - Dade County . Retrieved June 26 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Metro Subway '' . Maryland Transportation Authority . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` 2010 - 2011 MTA Media Guide '' ( pdf ) . Maryland Transportation Authority . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` A History of Commitment '' . Port Authority Transit Corporation . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Chan , Sewell ; Schweber , Nate ( December 26 , 2008 ) . `` Staten Island Rail Car Derails in Tottenville '' . The New York Times . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Project Profiles : Tren Urbano '' . Federal Highway Administration . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2013 Annual Report - RTA Facts '' . Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority . October 31 , 2013 . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` RTA History '' . Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority . Retrieved September 28 , 2012 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_United_States_rapid_transit_systems_by_ridership&oldid=809570107 '' Categories : Rapid transit in the United States United States railway - related lists Talk About Wikipedia ไทย Edit links This page was last edited on 9 November 2017 , at 23 : 43 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_210|> <|d1_108|> <|d2_225|> |
97 | document: Seven churches of Asia - wikipedia Seven churches of Asia Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the seven churches mentioned in the Book of Revelation . For other uses , see Seven Churches ( disambiguation ) . Map of western Anatolia showing the island Patmos and the locations of the cities housing the seven churches The Seven Churches of Revelation , also known as the Seven Churches of the Apocalypse and the Seven Churches of Asia , are seven major churches of Early Christianity , as mentioned in the New Testament Book of Revelation . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 The Churches 3 Seven messages 4 Angels of the churches 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Description ( edit ) The `` churches '' in this context refers to the community or local congregations of Christians living in each city , and not merely to the building or buildings in which they gathered for worship . In an early part of the Revelation , on the Greek island of Patmos , Jesus Christ instructs John of Patmos to : `` Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches : to Ephesus , and to Smyrna , and to Pergamum , and to Thyatira , and to Sardis , and to Philadelphia , and to Laodicea . '' The churches ( edit ) The seven churches of Asia in stained glass in York Minster by John Thornton The seven Churches are named for their locations . The Revelation provides descriptions of each Church . Ephesus ( Revelation 2 : 1 - 7 ) - the church known for having laboured hard and not fainted , and separating themselves from the wicked ; admonished for having forsaken its first love ( 2 : 4 ) Smyrna ( Revelation 2 : 8 - 11 ) - the church admired for its tribulation and poverty ; forecast to suffer persecution ( 2 : 10 ) Pergamum ( Revelation 2 : 12 - 17 ) - the church located at ' Satan 's seat ' ; needed to repent of allowing false teachers ( 2 : 16 ) Thyatira ( Revelation 2 : 18 - 29 ) - the church known for its charity , whose `` latter works are greater than the former '' ; held the teachings of a false prophetess ( 2 : 20 ) Sardis ( Revelation 3 : 1 - 6 ) - the church that has a good name ; cautioned to fortify itself and return to God through repentance ( 3 : 2 - 3 ) Philadelphia ( Revelation 3 : 7 - 13 ) - the church steadfast in faith , that had kept God 's word and endured patiently ( 3 : 10 ) Laodicea , near Denizli ( see Laodicean Church ) ( Revelation 3 : 14 - 22 ) - the church that was lukewarm and insipid ( to God ) ( 3 : 16 ) Seven messages ( edit ) The letters follow a common pattern . For example : the Lord first addresses each church and identifies himself , then defines things that he knows about the church in question . After this , a challenge or reproach is given , followed by a promise . In all seven cases the admonition is included , `` He who has an ear , let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches '' , although sometimes this comes before the promise and sometimes after . Although the letters differ in length in accord with the needs of each community , all conclude with an appeal to hold fast and to listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches . Each church is promised that everyone who conquers will be rewarded by Christ . Some historicists typically interpret the seven churches as representing seven different periods in the history of the Western Church from the time of Paul until the return of Jesus Christ . Scofield states that `` these messages by their very terms go beyond the local assemblies mentioned . '' He is of the opinion that the letters have a prophetic purpose disclosing the seven phases of the spiritual history of the Church . Other writers , such as Clarence Larkin , Henry Hampton Halley , Merrill Unger , and William M. Branham also have posited the view that the seven churches preview the history of the global Church . Mosaic in St Mark 's Basilica of the seven angels Historicism has been criticized by the Eastern Orthodox Fr . Dimitri Cozby , who writes that historicists take a greatly oversimplified view of church history : `` Since dispensationalism is Protestant in origin its ' Church history ' is strictly Western . The dispensations take into account almost nothing of Orthodox history after the period of the early councils which we share with the West . '' Angels of the churches ( edit ) Chapters 2 - 3 of the Revelation have specific messages for each of the seven churches . The message of each of the seven letters is directed to the angel of the particular church that is mentioned . Origen explains that these `` angels '' are the guardian angels of the churches , a view upheld by Henry Alford . But Epiphanius explicitly rejects this view , and , in accordance with the imagery of the passage , explains it as the bishops . John sees a vision of the Son of man , who walks among seven lampstands and has seven stars in his right hand . Revelation 1 : 20 states that `` The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches , and the seven lampstands are the seven churches . '' The comparison of a teacher to a star is scriptural . Augustine of Hippo 's reason for interpreting angels of the churches as the prelates of the church is that St. John speaks of them as falling from their first charity , which is not true of the angels . Others would say that the falling away relates to the churches , not to the messengers , as each of the seven letters conclude with the words `` He who has an ear , let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches . '' the Amplified Bible states that Revelation 2 : 2 through to 3 : 18 , `` your '' and `` you '' are in the singular , referring to the angel of each church . Much of what is said is rebuke and admonishment , so if the angels are heavenly beings , they may serve in some way as representatives of the sinful people in their churches . Jewish tradition maintained that every nation and individual has a guardian angel , and that when God is about to punish a nation , He first punishes its angel . There is even a story of Michael , the guardian angel of Israel , being rebuked by God for the sins committed in the time of Ezekiel . So the original readers of Revelation might have assumed that the angels here are the guardian angels of the individual churches , sharing responsibility for the actions of the members . In the New Testament , the Greek word for angels ( άγγελος ) is not only used for heavenly angels , but also used for human messengers , such as John the Baptist ( Matthew 11 : 10 , Mark 1 : 2 , Luke 7 : 27 ) and God 's prophets ( Revelation 22 : 8 - 9 ) C.I. Scofield has noted that `` The natural explanation of the ' messengers ' is that they were men sent by the seven churches to ascertain the state of the aged apostle ... but they figure any who bear God 's messages to a church . '' See also ( edit ) Christianity portal Biblical numerology Book of Revelation : chapter 1 , 2 , and 3 Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times Early centers of Christianity Eastern Christianity Events of Revelation ( Chapter 1 ) Seven Spirits of God Summary of Christian eschatological differences Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome References ( edit ) Jump up ^ John ( 1994 ) . Barbara Aland ; Kurt Aland ; Johannes Karavidopoulos ; Carlo M. Martini ; Bruce M. Metzger , eds . The Greek New Testament . Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft . Jump up ^ Walter Bauer ( 1979 ) . William F. Arndt ; F. Wilbur Gingrich ; Frederick W. Danker , eds . A Greek - English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature . University of Chicago Press . Jump up ^ Revelation 1 : 11 Jump up ^ 2 : 1 , 8 , 12 , 18 ; 3 : 1 , 7 , 14 Jump up ^ 2 : 2 - 3 , 9 , 13 , 19 ; 3 : 1 , 8 , 15 - 17 Jump up ^ 2 : 4 - 5 , 10 , 14 - 16 , 20 - 25 ; 3 : 2 - 3 , 9 - 11 , 18 - 20 Jump up ^ 2 : 7 , 10 - 11 , 17 , 26 - 28 ; 3 : 4 - 5 , 12 , 20 - 21 . Jump up ^ 2 : 7 , 11 , 17 , 29 ; 3 : 6 , 13 , 22 Jump up ^ Unger 's Bible Dictionary ( Chicago : Moody Press , 1975 ) , p924 Jump up ^ Scofield , W.I. , The Scofield Study Bible ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1996 ) p1331 Jump up ^ `` Chapter XXII '' . www.preservedwords.com . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ Halley , H.H. , Halley 's Bible Handbook ( Grand Rapids , MI : Zondervan , 1978 ) , p688 Jump up ^ Unger , M.F. , Unger 's Bible Dictionary ( Chicago : Moody Press , 1975 ) , p924 Jump up ^ Branham , W.M. , An Exposition of the Seven Church Ages ( Jeffersonville , Indiana : Voice of God Recordings ) 2005 Jump up ^ `` WHAT IS ' THE RAPTURE ' ? ( PART 1 OF 2 ) '' . Jump up ^ Hom. , xiii in Luc. , and Hom. , xx in Num . Jump up ^ Hær. , xxv . Jump up ^ Dan. , xii , 3 . Jump up ^ Ep. , xliii ( al. clxii ) , n . 22 . Jump up ^ Angels of the Churches , Catholic Encyclopedia Jump up ^ Merrill Unger , Unger 's Bible Dictionary , ( Chicago : Moody Press , 1975 ) p52 Jump up ^ Scofield , W.I. , The Scofield Study Bible ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1996 ) p1331 Further reading ( edit ) Halley , H.H. , Halley 's Bible Handbook ( Grand Rapids , MI : Zondervan , 1978 ) , p684 Scofield , C.I. , The Scofield Reference Bible ( Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1967 ) , p1332 Ramsay , W.M. ( 1904 ) . The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia . Hodder & Stoughton . Hemer , Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting ( JSOT Press , 1989 ) , p283 External links ( edit ) Catholic Encyclopedia : Angels of the Churches Catholic Encyclopedia : Asia Minor , see section titled `` Spread of Christianity in Asia Minor '' Branham , W.M. , An Exposition of the Seven Church Ages , Voice of God Recordings , Jeffersonville , Indiana , 1965 . The True Trend Of the Church As Viewed Through Revelation Chapters 2 & 3 by Pastor Rocky Veach This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Herbermann , Charles , ed. ( 1913 ) . `` article name needed '' . Catholic Encyclopedia . New York : Robert Appleton . ( hide ) Seven churches of Asia Ephesus Smyrna Pergamon Thyatira Sardis Philadelphia ( modern Alaşehir ) Laodicea Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seven_churches_of_Asia&oldid=835198450 '' Categories : 1st - century Christianity Book of Revelation Christian terminology New Testament words and phrases Prophets in Christianity Seven in the Book of Revelation Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2017 Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with no article parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Latina Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Türkçe 中文 14 more Edit links This page was last edited on 7 April 2018 , at 05 : 12 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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98 | document: Galadriel - wikipedia Galadriel Jump to : navigation , search Galadriel Tolkien 's legendarium character Aliases Alatáriel Altáriel Artanis Nerwen Race Elves Book ( s ) The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King The Silmarillion Unfinished Tales Galadriel ( IPA : ( ɡaˈladri. ɛl ) ) is a fictional character created by J.R.R. Tolkien , appearing in his Middle - earth legendarium . She appears in The Lord of the Rings , The Silmarillion , and Unfinished Tales . She was a royal Elf of both the Noldor and the Teleri , being a grandchild of both King Finwë and King Olwë , and was also close kin of King Ingwë of the Vanyar through her grandmother Indis . She was one of the leaders in the rebellion of the Noldor and their flight from Valinor during the First Age , and she was the only prominent Noldo to survive and eventually return , at the end of the Third Age . Towards the end of her stay in Middle - earth she was co-ruler of Lothlórien with her husband , Lord Celeborn , and was referred to variously as the Lady of Lórien , the Lady of the Galadhrim , the Lady of Light , or the Lady of the Golden Wood . Her daughter Celebrían was the wife of Elrond and mother of Arwen , Elladan and Elrohir . Tolkien describes Galadriel as `` the mightiest and fairest of all the Elves that remained in Middle - earth '' ( after the death of Gil - galad ) and the `` greatest of elven women '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Literature 1.1 Internal biography 1.1. 1 Second Age 1.1. 2 Third Age 1.1. 3 Names and titles 1.1. 4 Characteristics 2 House of Finarfin 3 Adaptations 4 Legacy in music 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Literature ( edit ) Internal biography ( edit ) Stories of Galadriel 's life prior to The Lord of the Rings appear in both The Silmarillion and Unfinished Tales . Galadriel was the only daughter and youngest child of Finarfin , prince of the Noldor , and of Eärwen , who was cousin to Lúthien . Her elder brothers were Finrod Felagund , Angrod , and Aegnor . She was born in Valinor during the Years of the Trees . Galadriel is described as having been `` blessed with the ability to peer into the minds of others and she judged them so fairly . But in Fëanor , she only sees darkness '' . As one of the members of the royal house of Finwë and having the blood of the Vanyar from her paternal grandmother , Indis , she was often called the fairest of all Elves , either in Aman or Middle - earth . According to the older account of her story , sketched by Tolkien in The Road Goes Ever On and used in The Silmarillion , Galadriel was an eager participant and leader in the rebellion of the Noldor and their flight from Valinor ; in fact , she was the `` only female to stand tall in those days '' . She had , however , long since parted ways with Fëanor and his sons , and did not participate in the Kinslaying at Alqualondë . In Beleriand she lived with her brother Finrod Felagund at Nargothrond and at the court of Thingol and Melian in Doriath . In this account she met Celeborn , a kinsman of Thingol , in Doriath . After the War of Wrath , the Valar prohibited the leaders of the Exiles from returning to the Undying Lands , so as one of those leaders Galadriel remained an Exile in Middle - earth . At the end of the Third Age , when she refused the One Ring , she was finally allowed to return to Valinor . Unfinished Tales gathers many other accounts of Galadriel and Celeborn . One of these highlights a second version of how Galadriel came to Middle - earth . She lived with her mother 's kindred in the Telerin port of Alqualondë and there met Celeborn , who would become her husband and co-ruler . Celeborn , by this account , was Olwë 's grandson . Galadriel and Celeborn sailed from the West and came to Beleriand separately from the two main hosts of the Noldor ( one that Fëanor led in the ships of the Teleri , the other led by Fingolfin and Finrod that crossed the Helcaraxë ) . Galadriel was thus not directly involved in the revolt of the Noldorin princes in this version , and indeed fought against them at Alqualondë during the kinslaying ; but she fell under the Ban of the Valar because she left the Undying Lands without permission . In Beleriand she and Celeborn were welcomed by Thingol and lived in Doriath . When the Noldor arrived in Beleriand , Galadriel re-established contact with her brothers . In this version of the story , she is offered a pardon by the Valar , but refused it out of pride and therefore remained under the Ban . In even later accounts from Unfinished Tales , written not long before Tolkien died , Galadriel was not even subject to the Ban , and remained in Middle - earth of her own volition . In both versions Celeborn and Galadriel play no important role in the Battles of Beleriand , as they judge the War of the Jewels to be hopeless against Morgoth 's strength . Little is told of their subsequent activities in the First Age , and they leave Beleriand before the War of Wrath . Second Age ( edit ) They travelled first to Lindon , where they ruled over a group of Elves , probably as a fiefdom under Gil - galad who was the last High King of the Noldor . According to Concerning Galadriel and Celeborn , they then removed to the shores of Lake Nenuial ( Evendim ) , and were accounted the Lord and Lady of all the Elves of Eriador . Later , around SA 700 , they moved eastward and established ( or were welcomed into ) the realm of Eregion or Hollin . At this time they made contact with a Nandorin settlement in the valley of the Anduin , which later became Lothlórien . At some point Celeborn and Galadriel left Eregion ( where Celebrimbor either had been or now became the ruler ) and settled in Lothlórien . According to some accounts , they became rulers of Lothlórien for a time during the Second Age ; but in all accounts they would return to Lórien to take up its rule after Amroth was lost in the middle of the Third Age . Early in the Second Age , the Númenórean King Tar - Aldarion presented some Mallorn seeds to Gil - galad , High - King of the Noldor in Middle - earth , ruler of the Kingdom of Lindon , the westernmost realm in Middle - earth ; but these did not take root in his kingdom , so Gil - galad gave them instead to Galadriel . `` Under her power '' the mellyrn had sprouted in the land of Lothlórien , but `` they did not reach the height or girth of the groves of Númenor . '' Celeborn and Galadriel had a daughter , Celebrían , who later married Elrond Half - elven of Rivendell , thus making Galadriel and her husband Celeborn the grandparents of the twins Elladan and Elrohir and their younger sister Arwen Undómiel , future Queen of the Reunited Kingdom of Gondor and Arnor . During the Second Age , when the Rings of Power were forged , Galadriel distrusted Annatar , the loremaster who taught the craft of the Rings to Celebrimbor and the other Noldor of Eregion . According to some accounts , Celebrimbor rebelled against her view and seized power in Eregion , so Galadriel departed to Lórien via the gates of Moria , though Celeborn stayed behind as he refused to enter the dwarves ' stronghold . Her distrust was justified , for Annatar was revealed as Sauron pretending to be an emissary from the Vala Aulë . When Sauron attacked Eregion , Celebrimbor entrusted Galadriel with one of the Three Rings of the Elves , Nenya , the Ring of Water or the Ring of Adamant . Celeborn joined up with Elrond , whose force was unable to relieve Eregion but managed to escape back to Imladris . Celeborn was reunited with Galadriel after the war ended ; according to one text , after some years in Imladris ( during which Elrond first saw and fell in love with Celebrían ) Galadriel 's sea - longing became so strong that the couple removed to Belfalas and lived at the place later called Dol Amroth . With the fall of Gil - galad in the War of the Last Alliance , Galadriel , Elrond , and Círdan became the most prominent of the rulers among the elves in Middle - earth , and Galadriel the foremost of the remaining Exiles . Third Age ( edit ) Conscious of Sauron 's power and wishing to thwart it , she did not use her Ring so long as the One Ring was in Sauron 's hands . However , during the Third Age , when the One Ring was lost , she put hers to use in making Lothlórien a fair refuge for the Nandor . In the years after the departure and loss of Amroth and Nimrodel , Galadriel maintained constant vigilance against Sauron and often strove with him in thought . Sauron was said to have great desire to see into her mind , but could not so long as he did not have the One Ring . During the latter part of the Third Age , when Lothlórien was closed to outsiders , the Lord and Lady of the Galadhrim maintained communication with Imladris , but less so with the Silvan Elves of Mirkwood . She was the original convenor of the White Council . In The Fellowship of the Ring , Galadriel welcomed the Fellowship to Lothlórien after their escape from Moria . When she met the Fellowship in her tree - dwelling in Caras Galadhon , she gave each member a searching look , testing their resolve -- though Boromir interpreted this test as a temptation . She was in turn tested when Frodo Baggins offered to place the Ring in her keeping . Knowing that its corrupting influence would make her `` great and terrible '' , and recalling the ambitions that had once brought her to Middle - earth , she refused the Ring . She accepted that her own ring 's power would fail and that her people would diminish and fade with the One Ring 's destruction , and that her only escape from the fading of the Elves and the dominion of Men was to return at last to Valinor . There is the suggestion in the novel , backed up by other writings , that in acknowledgement of this renunciation of power her personal ban from Valinor was lifted and she was finally given leave to return over the sea . When the Fellowship left Lothlórien , she gave each member a gift and an Elven cloak , and outfitted the party with boats and supplies , both as practical support and as a symbol of faith , hope and goodwill . On the day that the Fellowship left Lórien , Gandalf arrived , carried by the eagle Gwaihir . Galadriel healed his wounds and reclothed him in white , signaling his new status as head of the Istari . During the last battles of the War of the Ring , Lórien was reportedly besieged three times by the armies of Dol Guldur . It was stated that Lórien resisted the attacks due to the bravery of its inhabitants ; but also that `` the power that dwelt there was too great for any to overcome , unless Sauron had come there himself . '' After Sauron perished , Celeborn led the host of Lórien across the Anduin and captured Dol Guldur . Galadriel came forth and `` threw down its walls and laid bare its pits '' , recalling the deeds of Lúthien Tinúviel , who did the same at Tol Sirion in the First Age . Galadriel passed over the Great Sea with Elrond , Gandalf , and the Ring - bearers Bilbo and Frodo Baggins , marking the end of the Third Age . Celeborn remained behind , and Tolkien writes that `` there is no record of the day when at last he sought the Grey Havens '' . She is the only one of the leaders of the Noldorin exiles to return . She was well over 7,000 years old at that time . Names and titles ( edit ) Galadriel was originally named Artanis ( Q. ' ar ' = noble , ' nis ' = woman , a name common to royal women of the Elves , most prominently as in the form Arwen , Galadriel 's granddaughter ) , and Nerwen ( Q. ' ner ' = man , ' wen ' = maiden , hence manly maiden ) , referring to her height and strength ; Galadriel is the Sindarinized version of Telerin Quenya Alatáriel ( Q. ' alatá ' = radiance , ' riel ' = maiden crowned with a garland ) , a name given her by Celeborn , referring to her silver - golden hair . The name Galadhriel ( S. ' galadh ' = tree , ' riel ' = crowned maiden ) was used outside Lórien by the people who did not know the ancient days and Galadriel 's history , confusing galad with the Sindarin word galadh and the name of the Galadhrim , the people of Lórien . As the ruler of Lothlórien , she was referred to by a variety of titles , including `` Lady of Lórien '' , `` Lady of the Wood '' , and ( by Gimli ) `` Queen Galadriel '' -- although , according to Tolkien 's account in Unfinished Tales , neither she nor Celeborn took royal titles themselves , as they considered they were but guardians of Lórien . She was also referred to as `` Lady of Light '' ( the translation of Galadriel ) or as the `` White Lady '' , as her fair skin and white cloaks made her seem to shine . Characteristics ( edit ) It was said ( by the Dúnedain ) that her height was two rangar ( Quenya : ' strides ' ) , or `` man - high '' -- about 6 ft. 4 in. , or 193 cm . However , Galadriel 's most striking feature is her beautiful long silver - golden hair . The Elves of Tirion said it captured the radiance of the Two Trees Laurelin and Telperion themselves . Even among the Eldar she was accounted beautiful , and her hair is held a marvel unmatched . It is golden like the hair of her father and of her foremother Indis , but richer and more radiant , for its gold is touched by some memory of the starlike silver of her mother ; and the Eldar say that the light of the Two Trees , Laurelin and Telperion , has been snared in her tresses . It was greatly admired by Fëanor and may have inspired him to create the Silmarilli . Many thought that this saying first gave to Fëanor the thought of imprisoning and blending the light of the Trees that later took shape in his hands as the Silmarils . For Fëanor beheld the hair of Galadriel with wonder and delight . Nevertheless , she never repaid Fëanor 's admiration with the generosity she showed to Gimli the Dwarf in The Fellowship of the Ring . Fëanor `` had begged her thrice for a tress and thrice she refused to give him even one hair . It is said that these two kinsfolk , being considered the greatest of the Eldar of Valinor , remain unfriends forever . '' Her character was similarly a blend of characteristics of the kindreds of the Eldar from whom she was descended . She had the pride and ambition of the Noldor , but in her they were tempered by the gentleness and insight of the Vanyar . She shared the latter virtues of character with her father Finarfin and her brother Finrod . She was proud , strong , and self - willed , as were all the descendants of Finwë save Finarfin ; and like her brother Finrod , of all her kin the nearest to her heart , she had dreams of far lands and dominions that might be her own to order as she would without tutelage . Yet deeper still there dwelt in her the noble and generous spirit of the Vanyar , and a reverence for the Valar that she could not forget . From her earliest years she had a marvellous gift of insight into the minds of others , but judged them with mercy and understanding , and she withheld her goodwill from none save only Fëanor . In him she perceived a darkness that she hated and feared , though she did not perceive that the shadow of the same evil had fallen upon the minds of all the Noldor , and upon her own . Her sympathy for Gimli the Dwarf in Lothlórien , when she rebuked her husband Celeborn for being tempted to regret his decision to admit the Dwarf to that land , won Gimli 's heart forever . She was said to be a match for both the loremasters and athletes of the Eldar . She was the mightiest of the women of the Eldar . House of Finarfin ( edit ) The House of Finarfin This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Finwë Indis Olwë Fingolfin Finarfin Eärwen Finrod Angrod Eldalótë Aegnor Galadriel Celeborn Orodreth Elrond Celebrían Gil - galad Finduilas Notes : Orodreth is sometimes described as a son of Finarfin . Adaptations ( edit ) Galadriel in Ralph Bakshi 's animated version of The Lord of the Rings . Galadriel was voiced by Annette Crosbie in Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated film of The Lord of the Rings , and by Marian Diamond in BBC Radio 's 1981 serialisation . While she did not appear in the 1980 animated The Return of the King , she was mentioned by name when Frodo refers to Galadriel 's phial . Cate Blanchett as Galadriel in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring . In Peter Jackson 's Lord of the Rings trilogy and The Hobbit prequel trilogy , Galadriel is played by Cate Blanchett . In the movies , other than possessing the Ring Nenya , Galadriel displays an ability to communicate with others telepathically and to assume a radiant and terrifying appearance . In The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , as she was present at time , Galadriel narrates the events of prologue that explains the creation of the Rings of Power and the War of the Last Alliance . When the Fellowship enters the woods of Lórien , contacting Frodo via telepathy , Galadriel welcomes them to Lothlórien while using her power to tell Boromir that there is still hope despite Gondor 's danger . When offered the Ring by Frodo after revealing it would eventually destroy his friends should he remain with them , Galadriel briefly assumed her horrific form before turning down the offer . Galadriel later gives Eärendil 's Light to Frodo for his use . The gifts she gives to the rest of the Fellowship differ from the book 's account , as is her absence from the coronation of King Elessar at the end of Return of the King . At the end of The Lord of the Rings trilogy , Galadriel departs with Celeborn accompanying her , Elrond , Gandalf , Frodo , and Bilbo . In The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , taking place sixty years before the events of the Lord of the Rings trilogy , Galadriel attends the White Council meeting at Rivendell with Elrond , Gandalf , and Saruman , to discuss the rising threat of the Necromancer of Dol Guldur . While Galadriel identifies the Morgul - blade that Radagast retrieved from Dol Guldur to belong to the Witch - King of Angmar , she also communicates telepathically with Gandalf during the meeting . After the meeting ends , Galadriel agrees with Gandalf 's opinion that Smaug and the Necromancer must be dealt with , sympathetic to the wizard 's reason for the presence of Bilbo Baggins . She offers her assistance , promising that if he should ever need her help , she will come . In the second film , The Desolation of Smaug , Galadriel telepathically convinces Gandalf leave the Company to investigate the tomb of the Nazgûl . Gandalf later sends Radagast to Lothlórien to report their findings of Sauron being the Necromancer before he enters Dol Guldur on his own . In the final film , The Battle of the Five Armies , Galadriel rescues Gandalf from captivity in Dol Guldur as he is about to be executed . She is weakened by the sudden appearance of the Nazgûl , but her hidden companions , Elrond and Saruman , engage them in combat . She seemingly uses the last of her strength to secure Gandalf 's escape with Radagast . After the Nazgûl are defeated , Sauron himself appears , reviving his servants . Galadriel assumes a terrifying image ( similar to her changed appearance when offered the One Ring by Frodo Baggins in Lothlórien ) to confront him . Using Eärendil 's Light , she banishes Sauron and the Nazgûl to Mordor , though at a great expenditure of power . Afterward , she is taken back to Lothlórien by Elrond to recover . On stage , Galadriel was portrayed by Rebecca Jackson Mendoza in the three - hour - long Toronto stage musical production of The Lord of the Rings , which opened in 2006 and ran several months . The musical was revised and moved to London 's Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , opening on 21 June 2007 . Matthew Warchus directed Laura Michelle Kelly in the role . Abbie Osmon took over from Kelly on 4 February 2008 , and played the role through the show 's closing on 19 July 2008 . Galadriel appears in the video game The Lord of the Rings : The Battle for Middle - earth II and others . Legacy in music ( edit ) Tolkien wrote a poem `` Namárië '' that Galadriel sings in farewell to the departing Fellowship , and to Frodo in particular . The song is in Quenya , and `` spoke of things little - known in Middle - earth , '' but Frodo is said to have remembered the words and translated them long afterward . It is a lament in which Galadriel describes her separation from the Blessed Realm and the Valar , her longing to return there , and at the end a wish or hope that even though she herself is forbidden ( by the Ban ) to return , that Frodo might somehow come in the end to Valinor ( the song specifically refers to Valimar , the city of the Valar in Valinor ) . The poem was set to music by Donald Swann with the help of Tolkien . The sheet music and an audio recording are part of the book The Road Goes Ever On . In a recording Tolkien sings it in a Gregorian manner . On their album Once Again , the band Barclay James Harvest featured a song called `` Galadriel '' . It gained notability because guitarist John Lees played John Lennon 's Epiphone Casino guitar on this track , an event later recounted in a song on the band 's 1990 album Welcome To The Show titled `` John Lennon 's Guitar '' . Songwriter Terry Britten also wrote a song `` Galadriel '' which was recorded by Cliff Richard . Sally Oldfield 's suite `` Songs of the Quendi '' on her album Water Bearer ( 1978 ) describes the return of Galadriel to the Blessed Realm after seven millennia of exile . Sydney - based progressive rock band Galadriel achieved minor success in the early 1970s , and continue to have a cult following around the world due to a revived interest in 1960s and 1970s Australian rock . Rare copies of their first album are much sought - after , particularly in Germany where they were signed to the local Polydor label in 1971 . Singer John ' Spider ' Sholten later joined the touring company of singer - songwriter Ross Ryan as stage manager and general comic relief for Ross during his performances . In 2003 , Fran Walsh , Howard Shore , and Annie Lennox co-wrote the Oscar - winning song `` Into the West '' for the closing credits of The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King . Originally sung by Annie Lennox , the song was conceived as Galadriel 's bittersweet lament for those who have sailed across the Sundering Seas . The lyrics include phrases from the final chapter of the original novel . The song has since been covered by Yulia Townsend and Will Martin . See also ( edit ) Middle - earth portal Fictional characters portal House of Finarfin Magic ( Middle - earth ) White Council Galadriel House of Finarfin Born : 1362 YT Died : ? -- New creation Realm Established Lady of Eregion ( with Lord Celeborn ) Succeeded by Celebrimbor Preceded by Amroth Lady of Lórien ( with Lord Celeborn ) Realm Abandoned References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '' in The Silmarillion ( 1977 , Houghton Mifflin ) , p. 298 . Jump up ^ `` Appendix B : The Tale of Years '' of The Return of the King , volume 3 of The Lord of the Rings . Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales , `` The History of Galadriel and Celeborn '' , p. 230 . Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales , `` A Description of Númenor '' , p. 168 . Jump up ^ Unfinished Talles p. 240 Jump up ^ `` Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '' in The Silmarillion and `` The History of Galadriel and Celeborn in Unfinished Tales . Jump up ^ Appendix A of The Return of the King . Jump up ^ Tolkien , The Fellowship of the Ring , `` Prologue '' , Houghton Mifflin , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales : `` The History of Galadriel and Celeborn - Appendix E : The Names of Celeborn and Galadriel , '' p. 267 . Jump up ^ Tolkien , The Two Towers , `` The Road to Isengard '' , Houghton - Mifflin , p. 152 . Jump up ^ The Complete Guide to Middle - earth from The Hobbit to The Silmarillion by Robert Foster , revised and enlarged edition 1978 ( ISBN 0 - 345 - 27975 - 1 ) , p. 202 . Jump up ^ Tolkien , Unfinished Tales , `` The History of Galadriel and Celeborn '' , p. 245 . Jump up ^ Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle - earth , `` The Disaster of the Gladden Fields : Appendix - Númenórean Linear Measures '' ^ Jump up to : Unfinished Tales , `` The History of Galadriel and Celeborn '' . Jump up ^ The Fellowship of the Ring , Book II Chapter 7 `` The Mirror of Galadriel '' Jump up ^ `` Torn Exclusive : Cate Blanchett , Ken Stott , Sylvester McCoy , Mikael Persbrandt join cast of Peter Jackson 's `` The Hobbit '' `` . 7 December 2010 . Retrieved 7 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Hargrove , Gene ( January 1995 ) . `` Music in Middle - Earth '' . University of North Texas . Retrieved 8 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Galadriel '' . Barclay James Harvest . External links ( edit ) Galadriel on IMDb Galadriel at Tolkien gateway Galadriel at The Thain 's Book J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings The Fellowship of the Ring film soundtrack game The Two Towers film soundtrack game The Return of the King film soundtrack game Production and reception Composition Themes Influences Translations Reception Fandom Study Related works The Hobbit The Adventures of Tom Bombadil The Road Goes Ever On The Silmarillion Unfinished Tales The History of Middle - earth The History of The Lord of the Rings Bilbo 's Last Song The Children of Húrin The History of The Hobbit The Tale of Beren and Lúthien Characters Aragorn Arwen Bilbo Boromir Butterbur Celeborn Ceorl Denethor Elladan and Elrohir Elrond Éomer Éowyn Faramir Frodo Galadriel Gandalf Gildor Gimli Glorfindel Gollum Legolas Merry Mouth of Sauron Old Man Willow Pippin Radagast Sam Saruman Sauron Shelob Théoden Tom Bombadil Treebeard Witch - king Wormtongue Adaptations and other derivative works Books Bored of the Rings ( 1969 ) The Last Ringbearer ( 1999 ) Muddle Earth ( 2003 ) Theatre Fellowship ! ( 2005 ) Lord of the Rings ( 2006 ) Radio The Lord of the Rings ( 1955 ) The Lord of the Rings ( 1979 ) Hordes of the Things ( 1980 ) The Lord of the Rings ( 1981 ) Der Herr der Ringe ( 1992 ) Film Animated The Lord of the Rings ( 1978 ) The Return of the King ( 1980 ) Peter Jackson trilogy The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring ( 2001 ) The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers ( 2002 ) The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King ( 2003 ) Fan - made The Hunt for Gollum ( 2009 ) Born of Hope ( 2009 ) Video games Journey to Rivendell Game One Game Two : Shadows of Mordor War in Middle Earth Vol . I ( 1990 ) Vol . I ( SNES ) Riders of Rohan Elendor Volume II Kingdom O ' Magic The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King War of the Ring The Third Age The Battle for Middle - earth Tactics The Battle for Middle - earth II The Rise of the Witch - king The Lord of the Rings Online Mines of Moria Siege of Mirkwood Rise of Isengard Riders of Rohan Helm 's Deep Conquest Aragorn 's Quest War in the North Lego The Lord of the Rings Guardians of Middle - earth Middle - earth : Shadow of Mordor Middle - earth : Shadow of War Tabletop role - playing games The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game Middle - earth Role Playing The One Ring Roleplaying Game Board games Middle Earth Lord of the Rings Risk : The Lord of the Rings Trilogy Edition War of the Ring Other games The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game The Lord of the Rings : The Card Game The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game Middle - earth Collectible Card Game Toys Middle - earth Lego sets Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galadriel&oldid=790533173 '' Categories : High Elves Fictional nobility The Lord of the Rings characters Characters in The Silmarillion Middle - earth rulers Noldor Teleri Fictional telepaths Fictional lords and ladies Fictional princesses Fictional characters introduced in 1954 Hidden categories : Articles using Infobox character with multiple unlabeled fields All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 Articles needing additional references from April 2015 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 14 July 2017 , at 10 : 39 . 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99 | document: Unit of account - wikipedia Unit of account Jump to : navigation , search It has been suggested that this article be split into articles titled Unit of account ( economics ) and Unit of account ( financial accounting ) . ( Discuss ) ( August 2017 ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A unit of account in economics is a nominal monetary unit of measure or currency used to represent the real value ( or cost ) of any economic item ; i.e. goods , services , assets , liabilities , income , expenses . It is one of three well - known functions of money . It lends meaning to profits , losses , liability , or assets . A unit of account in financial accounting refers to the words that are used to describe the specific assets and liabilities that are reported in financial statements rather than the units used to measure them . Unit of account and unit of measure are sometimes treated as synonyms in financial accounting and economics . Historically , prices were often given in a dominant currency used as a unit of account , but transactions actually settled by using a variety of coins that were available , and often goods , all converted into their value in the unit of account . Many international transactions continue to be settled in this way , using a national value ( most often expressed in the US dollar or euro ) but with the actual settlement in something else . The unit of account in economics ( unit of measure in accounting ) suffers from the pitfall of not being stable in real value over time because money is generally not perfectly stable in real value during inflation and deflation . Inflation destroys the assumption that the real value of the unit of account is stable which is the basis of classic accountancy . In such circumstances , historical values registered in accountancy books become heterogeneous amounts measured in different units . The use of such data under traditional accounting methods without previous correction often leads to invalid results . All monetary units of measure , e.g. , US dollar , euro , yen , yuan , ruble , peso , PKR , INR etc. ( all fiat currency units ) are assumed to be perfectly stable in real value during non-hyperinflationary conditions under traditional Historical Cost Accounting in terms of which the stable measuring unit assumption is applied . The Daily Consumer Price Index ( Daily CPI ) -- or a monetized daily indexed unit of account -- is generally used to index monetary values on a daily basis when it is required to maintain the purchasing power or real value of monetary values constant during inflation and deflation . Contents ( hide ) 1 Uses 1.1 Economics 1.2 Modern finance 2 In accounting 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Uses ( edit ) Economics ( edit ) A monetary unit of account ( unit of measurement ) in economics allows meaningful interpretation of prices , costs , and profits , so that an entity can monitor its own performance and its shareholders can make sense of its past performance and have an idea of its future profitability . In modern economies , money in the form of currency usually serves the role of the unit of account ( unit of measurement ) . The use of money , as a relatively stable unit of measure , improves the efficiency of market economies . However , money is generally never perfectly stable in real value which is the fundamental problem with traditional Historical Cost Accounting which is based on the stable measuring unit assumption . Historic examples of units of measure include the livre tournois , used in France from 1302 to 1794 whether or not livre coins were minted . In the 14th century Naples used the grossi gigliati , and Bohemia used the Prague groschen . At any one time there might be two or three units of account in one region based on the local base , silver and sometimes gold coins , and each often expressed in L.S.D units in ratio 240 : 12 : 1 . The Florentine gold florin , the French franc and the electoral rheingulden all became pounds ( 240 denari ) of account . Units of account would often survive over 100 years despite the original coins changing composition and availability ( e.g. the Castilian maravedi ) . A modern unit of account is the European Currency Unit , used in the European Union from 1979 to 1998 ; its replacement in 1999 , the euro , was also just a unit of account until the introduction of notes and coins in 2002 . Unit of account is the main way of calculating a carrier or ship owner 's liability in relation to carriage of goods contracts in which the Hague - Visby Rules apply . In economics , a standard unit of account is used for statistical purposes to describe economic activity . Indexes such as GDP and the CPI are so broad in their scope that compiling them would be impossible without a standard unit of account . After being compiled , these figures are often used to guide governmental policy ; especially monetary and fiscal policy . In calculating the opportunity cost of a policy , a standard unit of account allows for the creation of a composite good . A composite good is a theoretical abstraction that represents an aggregation of all other opportunities that are not realized by the first good . It allows an economic decision 's benefits to be weighed against the costs of all other possible goods in that society , without having to refer to any directly . Often , this is most easily accomplished with money . Modern finance ( edit ) The use of a unit of account in financial accounting , according to the American business model , allows investors to invest capital into those companies that provide the highest rate of return . The use of a unit of account in managerial accounting enables firms to choose between activities that yield the highest profit . In accounting ( edit ) The unit of account in financial accounting refers to the words that are used to describe the specific assets and liabilities that are reported in financial statements rather than the units used to measure them . That is , unit of account refers to the object of recognition or display whereas unit of measure refers to the tool for measuring it . Unit of measure and unit of account are sometimes treated as synonyms in financial accounting and economics . Unit of measure in financial accounting refers to the monetary unit to be used ; that is , whether it should be nominal units of money as opposed to units that are adjusted for changes in purchasing power over time . See also ( edit ) Equivalization Inflation accounting Medium of exchange Store of value System of measurement Units of measurement References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mankiw , N. Gregory . Principles of Macroeconomics . Mason , OH : Southwestern Cengage Learning , 2008 . 338 - 39 . Print . ^ Jump up to : Financial Accounting Standards Research Initiative : The Unit of Account Issue Jump up ^ ( 1 ) The Taxation of Income from Business and Capital in Colombia : Fiscal Reform in the Developing World By Charles E. McLure , John Mutti , Victor Thuronyi , George R. Zodrow , Contributor Charles E. McLure , Published by Duke University Press , 1990 , ISBN 0 - 8223 - 0925 - 4 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8223 - 0925 - 3 , Page 259 : Inflation destroys the assumption that money is stable which is the basis of classic accountancy . In such circumstances , historical values registered in accountancy books become heterogeneous amounts measured in different units . The use of such data under traditional accounting methods without previous correction , makes no sense and leads to results that are void of meaning. ( Massone , 1981a . p. 6 ) Jump up ^ Peter Spuffords ( 1986 ) . `` Handbook of medieval exchange ; Introduction '' . Missing or empty url = ( help ) External links ( edit ) Linguistic and Commodity Exchanges by Elmer G. Wiens . Examines the structural differences between barter and monetary commodity exchanges and oral and written linguistic exchanges . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_of_account&oldid=825005948 '' Categories : Currency Hidden categories : Pages using web citations with no URL Articles to be split from August 2017 All articles to be split Articles needing additional references from August 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Español Euskara Français Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Nederlands Русский اردو 3 more Edit links This page was last edited on 10 February 2018 , at 22 : 39 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | <|d0_89|> <|d1_234|> <|d2_235|> |
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