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In 2020, an internet meme emerged utilizing deepfakes to generate videos of people singing the chorus of "Baka Mitai" (ばかみたい), a song from the game Yakuza 0 in the video game series Yakuza. In the series, the melancholic song is sung by the player in a karaoke minigame. Most iterations of this meme use a 2017 video uploaded by user Dobbsyrules, who lip syncs the song, as a template.
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Deepfakes have begun to see use in popular social media platforms, notably through Zao, a Chinese deepfake app that allows users to substitute their own faces onto those of characters in scenes from films and television shows such as Romeo + Juliet and Game of Thrones. The app originally faced scrutiny over its invasive user data and privacy policy, after which the company put out a statement claiming it would revise the policy. In January 2020 Facebook announced that it was introducing new measures to counter this on its platforms.The Congressional Research Service cited unspecified evidence as showing that foreign intelligence operatives used deepfakes to create social media accounts with the purposes of recruiting individuals with access to classified information.In 2021, realistic deepfake videos of actor Tom Cruise were released on TikTok, which went viral and garnered more than tens of millions of views. The deepfake videos featured an "artificial intelligence-generated doppelganger" of Cruise doing various activities such as teeing off at the golf course, showing off a coin trick, and biting into a lollipop. The creator of the clips, Belgian VFX Artist Chris Umé, said he first got interested in deepfakes in 2018 and saw the "creative potential" of them.
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Deepfake photographs can be used to create sockpuppets, non-existent people, who are active both online and in traditional media. A deepfake photograph appears to have been generated together with a legend for an apparently non-existent person named Oliver Taylor, whose identity was described as a university student in the United Kingdom. The Oliver Taylor persona submitted opinion pieces in several newspapers and was active in online media attacking a British legal academic and his wife, as "terrorist sympathizers." The academic had drawn international attention in 2018 when he commenced a lawsuit in Israel against NSO, a surveillance company, on behalf of people in Mexico who alleged they were victims of NSO's phone hacking technology.
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Reuters could find only scant records for Oliver Taylor and "his" university had no records for him. Many experts agreed that the profile photo is a deepfake. Several newspapers have not retracted articles attributed to him or removed them from their websites.
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It is feared that such techniques are a new battleground in disinformation.Collections of deepfake photographs of non-existent people on social networks have also been deployed as part of Israeli partisan propaganda. The Facebook page "Zionist Spring" featured photos of non-existent persons along with their "testimonies" purporting to explain why they have abandoned their left-leaning politics to embrace the right-wing, and the page also contained large numbers of posts from Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu and his son and from other Israeli right wing sources. The photographs appear to have been generated by "human image synthesis" technology, computer software that takes data from photos of real people to produce a realistic composite image of a non-existent person.
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In much of the "testimony," the reason given for embracing the political right was the shock of learning of alleged incitement to violence against the prime minister. Right wing Israeli television broadcasters then broadcast the "testimony" of these non-existent person based on the fact that they were being "shared" online. The broadcasters aired the story, even though the broadcasters could not find such people, explaining "Why does the origin matter?" Other Facebook fake profiles—profiles of fictitious individuals—contained material that allegedly contained such incitement against the right wing prime minister, in response to which the prime minister complained that there was a plot to murder him.
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Audio deepfakes have been used as part of social engineering scams, fooling people into thinking they are receiving instructions from a trusted individual. In 2019, a U.K.-based energy firm's CEO was scammed over the phone when he was ordered to transfer €220,000 into a Hungarian bank account by an individual who used audio deepfake technology to impersonate the voice of the firm's parent company's chief executive.
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Though fake photos have long been plentiful, faking motion pictures has been more difficult, and the presence of deepfakes increases the difficulty of classifying videos as genuine or not. AI researcher Alex Champandard has said people should know how fast things can be corrupted with deepfake technology, and that the problem is not a technical one, but rather one to be solved by trust in information and journalism. Deepfakes can be leveraged to defame, impersonate, and spread disinformation.A primary pitfall is that humanity could fall into an age in which it can no longer be determined whether a medium's content corresponds to the truth. Deepfakes are one of a number of tools for disinformation attack, creating doubt, and undermining trust.
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They have a potential to interfere with democratic functions in societies, such as identifying collective agendas, debating issues, informing decisions, and solving problems though the exercise of political will.Similarly, computer science associate professor Hao Li of the University of Southern California states that deepfakes created for malicious use, such as fake news, will be even more harmful if nothing is done to spread awareness of deepfake technology. Li predicted that genuine videos and deepfakes would become indistinguishable in as soon as half a year, as of October 2019, due to rapid advancement in artificial intelligence and computer graphics.Former Google fraud czar Shuman Ghosemajumder has called deepfakes an area of "societal concern" and said that they will inevitably evolve to a point at which they can be generated automatically, and an individual could use that technology to produce millions of deepfake videos.Deepfakes possess the ability to damage individual entities tremendously. This is because deepfakes are often targeted at one individual, and/or their relations to others in hopes to create a narrative powerful enough to influence public opinion or beliefs. This can be done through deepfake voice phishing, which manipulates audio to create fake phone calls or conversations. Another method of deepfake use is fabricated private remarks, which manipulate media to convey individuals voicing damaging comments.In September 2020 Microsoft made public that they are developing a Deepfake detection software tool.
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On April 17, 2018, American actor Jordan Peele, BuzzFeed, and Monkeypaw Productions posted a deepfake of Barack Obama to YouTube, which depicted Barack Obama cursing and calling Donald Trump names. In this deepfake Peele's voice and face were transformed and manipulated into those of Obama. The intent of this video was to portray the dangerous consequences and power of deepfakes, and how deepfakes can make anyone say anything.
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On May 5, 2019, Derpfakes posted a deepfake of Donald Trump to YouTube, based on a skit Jimmy Fallon performed on NBC's The Tonight Show. In the original skit (aired May 4, 2016), Jimmy Fallon dressed as Donald Trump and pretended to participate in a phone call with Barack Obama, conversing in a manner that presented him to be bragging about his primary win in Indiana. In the deepfake, Jimmy Fallon's face was transformed into Donald Trump's face, with the audio remaining the same.
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This deepfake video was produced by Derpfakes with a comedic intent. Nancy Pelosi In 2019, a clip from Nancy Pelosi's speech at the Center for American Progress (given on May 22, 2019) in which the video was slowed down, in addition to the pitch of the audio being altered, to make it seem as if she were drunk, was widely distributed on social media. Critics argue that this was not a deepfake, but a shallowfake; a less sophisticated form of video manipulation.
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On September 29, 2020, deepfakes of North Korean leader Kim Jong-un and Russian President Vladimir Putin were uploaded to YouTube, created by a nonpartisan advocacy group RepresentUs. The deepfakes of Kim and Putin were meant to air publicly as commercials to relay the notion that interference by these leaders in US elections would be detrimental to the United States' democracy. The commercials also aimed to shock Americans to realize how fragile democracy is, and how media and news can significantly influence the country's path regardless of credibility. However, while the commercials included an ending comment detailing that the footage was not real, they ultimately did not air due to fears and sensitivity regarding how Americans may react.
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On March 16, 2022, a one-minute long deepfake video depicting Ukraine's president Volodymyr Zelenskyy seemingly telling his soldiers to lay down their arms and surrender during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine was circulated on social media. Russian social media boosted it, but after it was debunked, Facebook and YouTube removed it. Twitter allowed the video in tweets where it was exposed as a fake, but said it would be taken down if posted to deceive people.
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Hackers inserted the disinformation into a live scrolling-text news crawl on TV station Ukraine 24, and the video appeared briefly on the station's website in addition to false claims that Zelenskyy had fled his country's capital, Kyiv. It was not immediately clear who created the deepfake, to which Zelenskyy responded with his own video, saying, "We don't plan to lay down any arms. Until our victory."
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In late 2022, pro-China propagandists started spreading deepfake videos purporting to be from "Wolf News" that used synthetic actors. The technology was developed by a London company called Synthesia, which markets it as a cheap alternative to live actors for training and HR videos.
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In March 2023, an anonymous construction worker from Chicago used Midjourney to create a fake image of Pope Francis in a white Balenciaga puffer jacket. The image went viral, receiving over twenty million views. Writer Ryan Broderick dubbed it "the first real mass-level AI misinformation case". Experts consulted by Slate characterized the image as unsophisticated: "you could have made it on Photoshop five years ago".
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Twitter is taking active measures to handle synthetic and manipulated media on their platform. In order to prevent disinformation from spreading, Twitter is placing a notice on tweets that contain manipulated media and/or deepfakes that signal to viewers that the media is manipulated. There will also be a warning that appears to users who plan on retweeting, liking, or engaging with the tweet. Twitter will also work to provide users a link next to the tweet containing manipulated or synthetic media that links to a Twitter Moment or credible news article on the related topic—as a debunking action. Twitter also has the ability to remove any tweets containing deepfakes or manipulated media that may pose a harm to users' safety. In order to better improve Twitter's detection of deepfakes and manipulated media, Twitter has asked users who are interested in partnering with them to work on deepfake detection solutions to fill out a form (that is due 27 November 2020).
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Facebook has taken efforts towards encouraging the creation of deepfakes in order to develop state of the art deepfake detection software. Facebook was the prominent partner in hosting the Deepfake Detection Challenge (DFDC), held December 2019, to 2114 participants who generated more than 35,000 models. The top performing models with the highest detection accuracy were analyzed for similarities and differences; these findings are areas of interest in further research to improve and refine deepfake detection models . Facebook has also detailed that the platform will be taking down media generated with artificial intelligence used to alter an individual's speech. However, media that has been edited to alter the order or context of words in one's message would remain on the site but be labeled as false, since it was not generated by artificial intelligence.
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Detecting fake audio is a highly complex task that requires careful attention to the audio signal in order to achieve good performance. Using deep learning, preprocessing of feature design and masking augmentation have been proven effective in improving performance.
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Most of the academic research surrounding deepfakes focuses on the detection deepfake videos. One approach to deepfake detection is to use algorithms to recognize patterns and pick up subtle inconsistencies that arise in deepfake videos. For example, researchers have developed automatic systems that examine videos for errors such as irregular blinking patterns of lighting. This approach has been criticized because deepfake detection is characterized by a "moving goal post" where the production of deepfakes continues to change and improve as algorithms to detect deepfakes improve.
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In order to assess the most effective algorithms for detecting deepfakes, a coalition of leading technology companies hosted the Deepfake Detection Challenge to accelerate the technology for identifying manipulated content. The winning model of the Deepfake Detection Challenge was 65% accurate on the holdout set of 4,000 videos. A team at Massachusetts Institute of Technology published a paper in December 2021 demonstrating that ordinary humans are 69-72% accurate at identifying a random sample of 50 of these videos.A team at the University of Buffalo published a paper in October 2020 outlining their technique of using reflections of light in the eyes of those depicted to spot deepfakes with a high rate of success, even without the use of an AI detection tool, at least for the time being.In the case of well-documented individuals such as political leaders, algorithms have been developed to distinguish identity-based features such as patterns of facial, gestural, and vocal mannerisms and detect deep-fake impersonators.Another team led by Wael AbdAlmageed with Visual Intelligence and Multimedia Analytics Laboratory (VIMAL) of the Information Sciences Institute at the University Of Southern California developed two generations of deepfake detectors based on convolutional neural networks.
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The first generation used recurrent neural networks to spot spatio-temporal inconsistencies to identify visual artifacts left by the deepfake generation process. The algorithm archived 96% accuracy on FaceForensics++; the only large-scale deepfake benchmark available at that time.
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The second generation used end-to-end deep networks to differentiate between artifacts and high-level semantic facial information using two-branch networks. The first branch propagates color information while the other branch suppresses facial content and amplifies low-level frequencies using Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG).
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Further, they included a new loss function that learns a compact representation of bona fide faces, while dispersing the representations (i.e. features) of deepfakes. VIMAL's approach showed state-of-the-art performance on FaceForensics++ and Celeb-DF benchmarks, and on March 16, 2022 (the same day of the release), was used to identify the deepfake of Volodymyr Zelensky out-of-the-box without any retraining or knowledge of the algorithm with which the deepfake was created.Other techniques suggest that blockchain could be used to verify the source of the media. For instance, a video might have to be verified through the ledger before it is shown on social media platforms. With this technology, only videos from trusted sources would be approved, decreasing the spread of possibly harmful deepfake media.Digitally signing of all video and imagery by cameras and video cameras, including smartphone cameras, was suggested to fight deepfakes. That allows tracing every photograph or video back to its original owner that can be used to pursue dissidents.One easy way to uncover deepfake video calls consists in asking the caller to turn sideways.
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Since 2017, Samantha Cole of Vice published a series of articles covering news surrounding deepfake pornography. On 31 January 2018, Gfycat began removing all deepfakes from its site. On Reddit, the r/deepfakes subreddit was banned on 7 February 2018, due to the policy violation of "involuntary pornography". In the same month, representatives from Twitter stated that they would suspend accounts suspected of posting non-consensual deepfake content.
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Chat site Discord has taken action against deepfakes in the past, and has taken a general stance against deepfakes. In September 2018, Google added "involuntary synthetic pornographic imagery" to its ban list, allowing anyone to request the block of results showing their fake nudes. In February 2018, Pornhub said that it would ban deepfake videos on its website because it is considered "non consensual content" which violates their terms of service.
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They also stated previously to Mashable that they will take down content flagged as deepfakes. Writers from Motherboard from Buzzfeed News reported that searching "deepfakes" on Pornhub still returned multiple recent deepfake videos.Facebook has previously stated that they would not remove deepfakes from their platforms. The videos will instead be flagged as fake by third-parties and then have a lessened priority in user's feeds. This response was prompted in June 2019 after a deepfake featuring a 2016 video of Mark Zuckerberg circulated on Facebook and Instagram.In May 2022, Google officially changed the terms of service for their Jupyter Notebook colabs, banning the use of their colab service for the purpose of creating deepfakes. This came a few days after a VICE article had been published, claiming that "most deepfakes are non-consensual porn" and that the main use of popular deepfake software DeepFaceLab (DFL), "the most important technology powering the vast majority of this generation of deepfakes" which often was used in combination with Google colabs, would be to create non-consensual pornography, by pointing to the fact that among many other well-known examples of third-party DFL implementations such as deepfakes commissioned by The Walt Disney Company, official music videos, and web series Sassy Justice by the creators of South Park, DFL's GitHub page also links to deepfake porn website Mr. Deepfake and participants of the DFL Discord server also participate on Mr. Deepfakes.
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In the United States, there have been some responses to the problems posed by deepfakes. In 2018, the Malicious Deep Fake Prohibition Act was introduced to the US Senate, and in 2019 the DEEPFAKES Accountability Act was introduced in the House of Representatives. Several states have also introduced legislation regarding deepfakes, including Virginia, Texas, California, and New York. On 3 October 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom signed into law Assembly Bills No. 602 and No. 730.
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Assembly Bill No. 602 provides individuals targeted by sexually explicit deepfake content made without their consent with a cause of action against the content's creator. Assembly Bill No. 730 prohibits the distribution of malicious deepfake audio or visual media targeting a candidate running for public office within 60 days of their election.In November 2019 China announced that deepfakes and other synthetically faked footage should bear a clear notice about their fakeness starting in 2020. Failure to comply could be considered a crime the Cyberspace Administration of China stated on its website. The Chinese government seems to be reserving the right to prosecute both users and online video platforms failing to abide by the rules.In the United Kingdom, producers of deepfake material can be prosecuted for harassment, but there are calls to make deepfake a specific crime; in the United States, where charges as varied as identity theft, cyberstalking, and revenge porn have been pursued, the notion of a more comprehensive statute has also been discussed.In Canada, the Communications Security Establishment released a report which said that deepfakes could be used to interfere in Canadian politics, particularly to discredit politicians and influence voters. As a result, there are multiple ways for citizens in Canada to deal with deepfakes if they are targeted by them.In India, There are no direct laws or regulation on AI or deepfakes, but there are provisions under Indian Penal Code(IPC) and Information Technology(IT) Act 2000/2008 which can be looked at for legal remedies, But the new proposed Digital India Act will have a chapter on AI and deepfakes in particular as per the MoS Rajeev Chandrasekhar.
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In 2018, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a project where individuals will compete to create AI-generated videos, audio, and images as well as automated tools to detect these deepfakes. In 2019, DARPA hosted a "proposers day" for a project affiliated with the Semantic Forensics Program where researchers were driven to prevent viral spread of AI-manipulated media. DARPA and the Semantic Forensics Program were also working together to detect AI-manipulated media through efforts in training computers to utilize common sense, logical reasoning. In 2020 DARPA created a Media Forensics (MediFor) program, to detect and mitigate the increasing harm that deepfakes and AI-generated media posed, to provide information regarding how the media was created and to address and emphasize the consequential role of deepfakes and their influence upon decision making.
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The 1986 Mid-December issue of Analog magazine published the novelette "Picaper" by Jack Wodhams. Its plot revolves around digitally enhanced or digitally generated videos produced by skilled hackers serving unscrupulous lawyers and political figures. The 1987 film The Running Man starring Arnold Schwarzenegger depicts an autocratic government using computers to digitally replace the faces of actors with those of wanted fugitives to make it appear the fugitives had been neutralized. In the 1992 techno-thriller A Philosophical Investigation by Philip Kerr, "Wittgenstein", the main character and a serial killer, makes use of both a software similar to deepfake and a virtual reality suit for having sex with an avatar of Isadora "Jake" Jakowicz, the female police lieutenant assigned to catch him.
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The 1993 film Rising Sun starring Sean Connery and Wesley Snipes depicts another character, Jingo Asakuma, who reveals that a computer disc has digitally altered personal identities to implicate a competitor. Deepfake technology is part of the plot of the 2019 BBC One TV series The Capture. The first series follows former British Army sergeant Shaun Emery, who is accused of assaulting and abducting his barrister.
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Expertly doctored CCTV footage is revealed to have framed him and mislead the police investigating the case. The second series follows politician Isaac Turner who discovers that another deepfake is tarnishing his reputation until the "correction" is eventually exposed to the public. Al Davis vs. the NFL: The narrative structure of this 2021 documentary, part of ESPN's 30 for 30 documentary series, uses deepfake versions of the film's two central characters, both deceased—Al Davis, who owned the Las Vegas Raiders during the team's tenure in Oakland and Los Angeles, and Pete Rozelle, the NFL commissioner who frequently clashed with Davis.
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Deepfake technology is featured in "Impawster Syndrome", the 57th episode of the Canadian police series Hudson & Rex, first broadcast on 6 January 2022, in which a member of the St. John's police team is investigated on suspicion of robbery and assault due to doctored CCTV footage using his likeness. Using deepfake technology in his music video for his 2022 single, "The Heart Part 5", musician Kendrick Lamar transformed into figures resembling Nipsey Hussle, O.J.
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Simpson, and Kanye West, among others. The deepfake technology in the video was created by Deep Voodoo, a studio led by Trey Parker and Matt Stone, who created South Park. Aloe Blacc honored his long-time collaborator Avicii four years after his death by performing their song "Wake Me Up" in English, Spanish, and Mandarin, using deepfake technologies. In January 2023, ITVX released the series Deep Fake Neighbour Wars, in which various celebrities were played by actors experiencing inane conflicts, the celebrity's face deepfaked onto them.
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Islamic World Science Citation Database (ISC) is a citation index established by the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research and Technology after it was approved by the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. It only indexes journals from the Islamic world. It was announced in Baku, Azerbaijan during the Fourth Islamic Conference of the Ministers of Higher Education and Scientific Research held in October 2008. It is managed by the Islamic World Science Citation Center, located in Shiraz. In 2009, ISC partnered with Scopus that allows ISC's publications to be indexed in Scopus.
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In topological and vector psychology, field theory is a psychological theory that examines patterns of interaction between the individual and the total field, or environment. The concept first made its appearance in psychology with roots in the holistic perspective of Gestalt theories. It was developed by Kurt Lewin, a Gestalt psychologist, in the 1940s. Lewin's field theory can be expressed by a formula: B = f(p,e), meaning that behavior (B) is a function of the person (p) and their cultural environment (e).
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Early philosophers believed the body to have a rational, inner nature that helped guide our thoughts and bodies. This intuitive force, our soul, was viewed as having supreme control over our entire being. However, this view changed during the intellectual revolution of the 17th century.
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The mind versus the body was a forever evolving concept that received great attention from the likes of Descartes, Locke and Kant. From once believing that the mind and body interact, to thinking the mind is completely separate from the body, rationalist and empirical views were deeply rooted in the understanding of this phenomenon. Field Theory emerged when Lewin considered a person's behavior to consist of many different interactions. He believed people to have dynamic thoughts, forces, and emotions that shifted their behavior to reflect their present state.
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Kurt Lewin was born in Germany in 1890. He originally wanted to pursue behaviorism, but later found an interest in Gestalt psychology while volunteering in the German army in 1914. He went on to work at the Psychological Institute in the University of Berlin after World War 1. There he worked with two of the founders of gestalt psychology, Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler.
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When Lewin moved to the USA, he had become more involved with real world issues and the need to understand and change human behavior. His desire and personal involvement with gestalt psychology led to the development of his field theory. Lewin's field theory emphasized interpersonal conflict, individual personalities, and situational variables.
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He proposed that behavior is the result of the individual and their environment. In viewing a person's social environment and its effect on their dynamic field, Lewin also found that a person's psychological state influences their social field.Wanting to shift the focus of psychology away from Aristotelian views and more towards Galileo's approach, he believed psychology needed to follow physics. Drawing from both mathematics and physics, Lewin took the concept of the field, the focus of one's experiences, personal needs, and topography to map spatial relationships.
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Lewin created a field theory rule that says analysis can only start with the situation represented as a whole, so in order for change to take place, the entire situation must be considered. There seems to be a repetition of people having the same unsuccessful attempts to grow and develop themselves and field theory draws the conclusion that this repetition comes from forces within our fields. To display this psychological field, Lewin constructed "topological maps" that showed inter-related areas and indicated the directions of people's goals.
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The idea that an individual's behavior, at any time, is manifested only within the coexisting factors of the current "life space" or "psychological field." So a life space is the combination of all the factors that influences a person's behavior at any time. Therefore, behavior can be expressed as a function of the life space B=ƒ(LS). Furthermore, the interaction of the person (P), and the environment (E) produces this life space.
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In symbolic expression, B=ƒ(LS)=F(P,E). An example of a more complex life-space concept is the idea that two people's experience of a situation can become one when they converse together. This does not happen if the two people do not interact with each other, such as being in the same room but not talking to each other. This combined space can be "built" up as the two people share more ideas and create a more complex life-space together.
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The environment as demonstrated in the life space, refers to the objective situation in which the person perceives and acts. The life space environment (E) is completely subjective within each context as it depends not only on the objective situation, but also on the characteristics of the person (P). It is necessary to consider all aspects of a person's conscious and unconscious environment in order to map out the person's life space. The combined state, influenced by the environment as well as the person's perspective, conscious, and unconscious, must be viewed as a whole. While each part can be viewed as a separate entity, to observe the totality of the situation one must take all inputs into consideration.
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Lewin applied the term person in three different ways. Properties/characteristics of the individual. (needs, beliefs, values, abilities) A way of representing essentially the same psychological facts of "life space" itself. "The behaving self".
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"The behaving self may be seen as the individual's perception of his relations to the environment he perceives. "The development of the person inevitably affects the life space. As a person undergoes changes with their body or their image of themselves changes, this can cause an instability in the region of life space. Additionally, an instability in the psychological environment or life space can lead to the instability of the person.
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Any change within the life space subject to psychological laws. Accordingly, an action of the person (P) or a change in the environment (E) resulting from said action, can be considered behavior (B). These behaviors can make large or small influences on the totality of the life space. Regardless, they must be taken into consideration.
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Field theory holds that behavior must be derived from a totality of coexisting facts. These coexisting facts make up a "dynamic field", which means that the state of any part of the field depends on every other part of it. This not only includes both mental and physical fields, but also unseen forces such as magnetism and gravity.
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This can be elaborated by imagining the difference that a force can make by acting from a distance. When considering something such as the Moon's influence on the Earth, it is clear that there is an effect even though it acts from a large distance away. Behavior depends on the present field rather than on the past or the future.
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Development also plays a major role in life space behavior. From the beginning of one's life behavior is molded in all respects to his or her social situation. This of course brings up the sociological discussion of nature versus nurture.
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Experimental psychology studies have shown the formation of aspiration, the driving factor of actions and expressions (behavior), is directly influenced by the presence or absence of certain individuals within one's life space. A child's development naturally leads to an opening up of new unknown life space regions. Transitional periods such as adolescence are characterized by a greater effect of these new regions.
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Therefore, an adolescent entering a new social group or life space can be seen psychologically as entering a cognitively unstructured field. This new field makes it difficult for the individual to know what behavior is appropriate within the field. This is believed to be a possibility for changes in child and adolescent behavior.
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According to field theory, a person's life is made up of multiple distinct spaces. Image 1 is an example of the total field, or environment. Image 2 is showing a person, and a goal they have. This image shows that there are forces pushing a person toward their goal.
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The dotted line is everything one must go through to reach their goal, and how one must go through many different spaces. Individuals may have the same goal, but the field to get there may be different. One's field may be adjusted in order to gain the most in life.
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Some fields may be deleted, and some added, all depending on certain events that occur in a person's lifetime.Field theory also includes the idea that every person holds a different experience for a situation. This is not to say that two people's experience of an event will not be similar, but that there will be some difference. This leads to the idea that no two experiences are the same for a person either, as the dynamic field is constantly changing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_theory_(psychology)
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This is to say that the dynamic field is like a stream, constantly flowing while changing slightly. Another piece of field theory is the idea that no part of a person's field can be viewed as being pointless. Every part of a total field must be viewed as having possible meaning and importance.
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This must be done regardless of how pointless or non-important the part of the field may seem, it should still be accounted for. The totality of an individual's field seems to have no bounds, as research has shown that even an infant's experience of World War II could possibly affect life later on, due to the change in field. This is a good example of how broad field theory can span, as a person's preconsciousness may be altered due to field changes that occurred before any major development.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_theory_(psychology)
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Field theory is important aspect of Gestalt theory, a doctrine that includes many important methods and discoveries. It is a crucial building block to the foundation of Gestalt psychologists' concepts and applications. The field theory is also a cornerstone of Gestalt therapy together with phenomenology and existentialist dialog.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_theory_(psychology)
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Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology.
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New York: McGraw-Hill. Lewin, K. (1938).
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The conceptual representation and measurement of psychological forces. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Lewin, K.
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(1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper.
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The healthcare error proliferation model is an adaptation of James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model designed to illustrate the complexity inherent in the contemporary healthcare delivery system and the attribution of human error within these systems. The healthcare error proliferation model explains the etiology of error and the sequence of events typically leading to adverse outcomes. This model emphasizes the role organizational and external cultures contribute to error identification, prevention, mitigation, and defense construction.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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Healthcare systems are complex in that they are diverse in both structure (e.g. nursing units, pharmacies, emergency departments, operating rooms) and professional mix (e.g. nurses, physicians, pharmacists, administrators, therapists) and made up of multiple interconnected elements with adaptive tendencies in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. The term complex adaptive systems (CAS) was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute (SFI), by John H. Holland, and Murray Gell-Mann. Subsequently, scholars such as Ruth A. Anderson, Rubin McDaniels, and Paul Cilliers have extended CAS theory and research to the social sciences such as education and healthcare.
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The healthcare error proliferation model (HEPM) adapts the Swiss Cheese Model to the complexity of healthcare delivery systems and integrated organizations. The Swiss Cheese Model, likens the complex adaptive system to multiple hole infested slices of Swiss cheese positioned side-by-side. The cheese slices are dubbed defensive layers to describe their role and function as the system location outfitted with features capable of intercepting and deflecting hazards. The layers represent discrete locations or organizational levels potentially populated with errors permitting error progression.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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The four layers include: 1) organizational leadership, 2) risky supervision, 3) situations for unsafe practices, and 4) unsafe performance. The HEPM portrays hospitals as having multiple operational defensive layers outfitted with essential elements necessary to maintain key defensive barricades (Cook & O'Connor, 2005; Reason, 2000).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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By examining the defensive layers attributes, prospective locales of failure, the etiology of accidents might be revealed (Leape et al., 1995). Experts have discussed the importance of examining these layers within the context of the complex adaptive healthcare system (Kohn et al., 2000; Wiegmann & Shappell, 2003) and considering the psychological safety of clinicians. Hence, this model expands Reason’s seminal work.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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The model incorporates the complex adaptive healthcare system as a key characteristic. Complex adaptive systems characteristically demonstrate self-organization as diverse agents interact spontaneously in nonlinear relationships where professionals act as information processors (Cilliers, 1998; McDaniel & Driebe, 2001) and co-evolve with the environment (Casti, 1997). Healthcare professionals function in the system as diverse actors within the complex environment utilizing different methods to process information (Coleman, 1999) and solve systemic problems within and across organizational layers (McDaniel & Driebe, 2001).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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A complex adaptive healthcare system (CAHS) is a care delivery enterprise with diverse clinical and administrative agents acting spontaneously, interacting in nonlinear networks where agents and patients are information processors, and actively co-evolve with their environment with the purposed to produce safe and reliable patient-centered outcomes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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=== Complexity theory ===
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
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The College of Librarianship Wales (Welsh: Coleg Llyfrgellwyr Cymru) (known as CLW) was a monotechnic college specializing in library and information science in Aberystwyth, Wales, between its foundation in 1964 and August 1989, when it was merged with University College of Wales (later Aberystwyth University) to become the Department of Information & Library Studies of that institution. During its twenty-five years of independent existence the college grew to be the largest library school in the UK and one of the largest in Europe. It also gained an international reputation for library education,
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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The need for a 'school for library training' in Wales was first suggested by the Royal Commission on University Education in Wales in 1917 and in July of that year a successful summer school was organised by the extramural department of the University College of Wales and the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth. However, no further progress was made until after the 1950s. In 1957 the Minister of Education appointed a Committee chaired by Sir Sydney Castle Roberts to review the Structure of the Public Library Service in England and Wales.
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The Report, published in 1959, included a chapter on Wales which identified the need of bi-lingual communities to have staff 'acquainted with the Welsh language and well versed in the history and literature of Wales.' These recommendations were repeated in 1962 in the Bourdillon Report on Standards of public library service in EnglandDespite opposition from the UK Library Association, and some members of the profession in Wales, but with the support of members of Cardiganshire County Council including Alun R. Edwards, the County Librarian, other Welsh-speaking librarians, and Philip Sewell (a former Head of the School of Librarianship at the Polytechnic of North London), who was then the Senior Library Adviser in the UK government's Department of Education and Science, the Welsh Joint Education Committee decided to proceed with the new college in 1963. Alun Edwards gave a detailed account of the campaign to establish the college in his Welsh-language autobiography, 'Yr Hedyn Mwstard' (The Mustard Seed).The college was sited at 'Plas Bronpadarn', a Victorian mansion formerly used as a school of nursing at Llanbadarn Fawr, on the outskirts of Aberystwyth. The Principal of the new college was appointed in February 1964 followed by three teaching staff who prepared for the first intake of twelve postgraduate students in the following September.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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At his interview, the new Principal, Frank Hogg, had convinced the interviewing panel that a small specialist college serving only the needs of libraries in Wales, would not be viable in such a remote location as Aberystwyth. The demand for qualified librarians was growing rapidly and, to be a success, the new college would need to attract students from throughout the British Isles and also overseas. He set out his vision for the future in a paper presented to the General Council of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) in 1969. A further fifty students, taking courses leading to the UK Library Association's professional qualification, enrolled in January 1965, together with one more member of staff.
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Thereafter numbers of staff and students grew steadily until 1968 when there were over 400 students and thirty teaching staff, plus visiting lecturers from Australia and North America. Most of the teaching staff had previously held senior professional posts, and many had experience of working in libraries and/or teaching librarianship overseas.
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Several went on to become notable experts in specialist fields and/or Heads of other Schools of Librarianship in Britain and overseas. In 1968, the college introduced a joint-honours undergraduate programme taught in conjunction with the University College of Wales. This was first undergraduate 'honours' (as opposed to a 'general' degree course) in librarianship to be offered by a UK institution.
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In 1969 CLW offered a University of Wales Postgraduate diploma and, later, a Master of Librarianship degree with a number of specialisms. In due course, the University of Wales approved the college for the registration of candidates for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). The original teaching and student accommodation soon became inadequate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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Three temporary wooden classroom buildings were erected to supplement the original Victorian mansion and various other rooms were borrowed for teaching including a chapel vestry, pending the planning and building of a new campus. By 1972 CLW had grown to become the largest school of librarianship in Europe. Students were then housed at the former Grand Hotel in Borth (renamed Pantyfedwen) and a former Regency Mansion/Isolation Hospital, Plas Tanybwlch near Aberystwyth, and students were brought in by bus. The early years of the college were described in detail by David Gerard who joined in 1968 when there were thirty faculty and two hundred students.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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In 1970 a large new library (later known as the Thomas Parry Library) was erected on open country adjacent to Llanbadarn Fawr, intended to be both the college library and a teaching resource. The library aimed 'to collect comprehensively from English-language material, and to select important foreign language materials, especially those in European languages. It was intended to be both an information resource and a teaching laboratory.The library was followed, in 1973, by the construction of new academic buildings for CLW, Aberystwyth Technical College (later Aberystwyth College of Further Education, now Coleg Ceredigion) and the Welsh Agricultural College with their own library but sharing onsite student accommodation and refectory. Both the library and the teaching facilities at CLW were equipped with the latest audio visual facilities including a television studio. The purpose-built teaching facilities were later also adapted to include 2 computer laboratories.
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A major objective of the college was to provide for the needs of the Welsh-speaking communities, appointing staff who spoke Welsh, teaching courses and setting exams in Welsh for those students who requested it. Likewise it sought to maintain the closest possible contact with the library profession in the UK and worldwide. It maintained a staff of Liaison and Training Officers who visited libraries in the UK and overseas to gather information on recent developments to inform teaching, identified suitable and willing hosts for students' fieldwork, arranged periods of fieldwork, managed support for the continuing education programmes, and organised study tours both in the UK and abroad. The library staff included a multi-lingual Translator, who produced regular summaries of key items in the foreign language journals that were received, and also provided full translations when requested by lecturers. All these activities contributed to the development of innovative courses to meet the changing needs of the profession.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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CLW sought to develop an international reputation from the outset. In 1964 the Principal gave a talk on the BBC World Service where he welcomed students from overseas. Academic staff were seconded to work in libraries or library schools in Brazil, Indonesia, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Palestine, Peru and Venezuela. Links with Africa included the Seriatim scheme (eight members of staff to the universities of Ibadan and Ahmadu Bello in Nigeria); short courses on school librarianship in Zambia and Sierra Leone; consultancies in planning national library and documentation schemes in Libya and the Sudan; and the setting up of a library assistants' training programme in Kenya for Unesco. Such international activity was possible at that time as by 1980 there were 45 full-time teaching staff employed at CLW. In 1984/5 the college also began taking on PhD candidates, particularly from overseas.
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The International Graduate Summer School in librarianship (IGSS) at Aberystwyth was held annually between 1973 and 2001, a collaboration between CLW and the Graduate School of Library and Information Sciences at the University of Pittsburgh in the USA. Students studied two courses (from a menu of between five and twelve) during the eight-week summer school, which included a study tour of selected British libraries. Teachers were drawn from CLW staff and visiting lecturers, including colleagues from Pittsburgh, which accredited the courses. During the early 1980s there were between 40 and 55 students participating with 20 to 30 countries represented, Altogether, over 1,000 students from 70 countries participated in IGSS,The college was also noted for offering a regular programme of short courses during the year, presenting new topics, which attracted librarians from Britain and overseas.
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Several longer courses were arranged for groups of overseas specialists, from Egypt, Iraq, the US, and for groups of the British Council's locally engaged library staff.In addition, the excellent facilities on campus welcomed the delegates attending the conferences of many national and international professional bodies. Students also benefitted from the college's extensive international contacts. Undergraduates taking Joint Honours degrees in Librarianship and a foreign language fulfilled the requirement to spend a year developing their language skills living in a country where the relevant language is spoken were successfully placed as interns in selected libraries in France, Germany, Italy, and Mexico while one student of Russian was placed in a library for Russian émigrés in Paris!
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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In 1985 CLW introduced the first substantial venture into distance learning at a Masters level, with the introduction of a three-year course leading to a master's degree in the Management of library and information services. The continued success of this course led to other master's degree course in Health Information shortly before the college merged to become the Department of Information and Library Studies of University College, Wales in 1989. A range of undergraduate distance and open learning courses were also planned which were introduced shortly after the merger.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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Archives education and training at Aberystwyth began in the mid-1950s with a 'University of Wales Diploma in Palaeography and Archive Administration, which included Palaeography, Diplomatic and the development of Historical Scholarship and Record keeping. This was offered by the History Department. On its formation CLW also offered basic courses in palaeography and diplomatic for librarians but it was not until after the merger that the different offerings were co-ordinated within the new department.
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During the early 1980s British government higher education policy moved away from supporting small single-subject mono-technic colleges encouraging those with graduate courses to merge with neighbouring institutions to form new universities. Thus many colleges of agriculture, education and nursing ceased to have an independent existence. The same applied to CLW. Negotiations to effect the merger with the neighbouring University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, began in 1987, facilitated by their long history of joint undergraduate programmes, the approval of CLW's higher degrees by the University of Wales, and the earlier award of the title, University of Wales School of Librarianship and Information Studies, which recognised the close association. The merger took place on 1 August 1989, the college then becoming the Department of Information and Library Studies within a newly established Faculty of Information Studies. 'The merger was not achieved without some soul searching: the college would lose its independence; but it was already becoming obvious that, in the competitive world of higher education, its days as a monotechnic were numbered.'
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Zawiyah Baba, National Librarian in Malaysia. Nancy Bond, author Dr. Peter Enser, CLW head of department, later Professor and Head, School of Librarianship and Information Science, University of Brighton Andrew Green, Librarian, The National Library of Wales Dr. Ian M. Johnson, Director of Liaison and Training Services at CLW; later Professor and Head of the School of Information and Media, The Robert Gordon University; and chairman, IFLA Professional Board Isaac Kigongo-Bukenya, Director of the East African School of Library and Information Science, Makerere University Dr. J. Andrew Large, CLW Lecturer and later Professor and Head, School of Information Studies, McGill University, Montreal Roderick Samson Mabomba, National Librarian of Malawi Kevin McGarry, CLW lecturer, later Head of the School of Librarianship, Polytechnic of North London Dr. Lionel Madden, CLW lecturer, later Keeper of printed books at The National Library of Wales and then the Librarian 1994–1998. Stanley Kamang Nganga, Director, Kenya National Library Service Gray Nyali, National Librarian of Malawi. Dr. Ekbal Al Othaimeen, Head of Department for Library and Information Science, Public Authority for Applied Education and Training in Kuwait.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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Dr. Paul W.T. Poon, University Librarian, University of Macau Michael Ramsden, CLW lecturer, later Professor and Head of Department of Librarianship and Information Services, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology Dr. Najeeb M. al Shorbaji, Director, Department of Knowledge Management, World Health Organisation Lucy Tedd, Pioneer in the use of computers in librarianship. Dasharath Thapa, National Librarian of Nepal. Linda Thomas, Librarian, The National Library of Wales Peter G. Underwood, CLW lecturer, later Professor and Head, Centre for Information Literacy, University of Cape Town Dr. Wu Jianzhong, Director of Shanghai Library, later University Librarian, University of Macau
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Librarianship_Wales
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The Drachenfels Club is a society for the preservation and care of monuments in the vicinity of the German town of Bad Dürkheim. It owns numerous natural monuments and listed buildings, some of which it has been given and others which it has established itself.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drachenfels_Club
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The Drachenfels Club was founded in 1873 under the chairmanship of Wilhelm Schepp. Its name came from the first project that the society undertook: to make the Dragon Cave (Drachenhöhle) accessible. The cave lies under the Drachenfels, a hill in the borough of Bad Dürkheim, which is linked to the legend of the Nibelung. Other renovations and the enclosure of spaces and natural monuments took place the following year.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drachenfels_Club
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A short time later, probably around 1875, the new club was given the Laura Hut (Laurahütte) in Leistadt, which it had not built itself, but was able to use the legacy of the Retzer family from Freinsheim. From 1896 the club built its most expensive structure: the Bismarck Tower on the Peterskopf.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drachenfels_Club
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Innumerable new refuge huts were built and countless renovations of buildings and natural sites followed. The club's activities were put on hold during the Second World War. In 1947 it was re-founded in its present form.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drachenfels_Club
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Laura Hut (Leistadt) Bismarck Tower Kriemhildenstuhl Flaggenturm Kaiser-Wilhelm-Höhe Schaeferwarte Vigilienturm
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Drachenfels Drei Eichen Heidefelsen
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In sociolinguistics, a variety, also called an isolect or lect, is a specific form of a language or language cluster. This may include languages, dialects, registers, styles, or other forms of language, as well as a standard variety. The use of the word "variety" to refer to the different forms avoids the use of the term language, which many people associate only with the standard language, and the term dialect, which is often associated with non-standard varieties thought of as less prestigious or "correct" than the standard. Linguists speak of both standard and non-standard (vernacular) varieties. "Lect" avoids the problem in ambiguous cases of deciding whether two varieties are distinct languages or dialects of a single language. Variation at the level of the lexicon, such as slang and argot, is often considered in relation to particular styles or levels of formality (also called registers), but such uses are sometimes discussed as varieties as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)
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O'Grady et al. define dialect: "A regional or social variety of a language characterized by its own phonological, syntactic, and lexical properties." A variety spoken in a particular region is called a regional dialect (regiolect, geolect); some regional varieties are called regionalects or topolects, especially to discuss varieties of Chinese. In addition, there are varieties associated with particular ethnic groups (sometimes called ethnolects), socioeconomic classes (sometimes called sociolects), or other social or cultural groups. Dialectology is the study of dialects and their geographic or social distribution.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)
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