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Back to the main glossary page
Pacific Iron. A fitting consisting of a Y-shaped piece hinged to a bearing pin. The inner end of a cargo boom is secured between the prongs of the Y and the bearing pin is passed through a pad eye on the mast, an eye on a mast ring or inserted through a hole in a pedestal. The cargo boom can be raised or lowered by means of the hinge and rotated by means of the pin. Also called Gooseneck.
Packers. Men who fit lamp wicking, tarred felt or other material between parts of the structure to insure water or oil tightness.
Packet Bunkers. A ready service bunker of small dimensions.
Packing, Gland. Packing for use in a stuffing box and against which the gland is forced. Packing material varies in character according to its use.
Packing, Metallic. Metal rings fitted in cylinders, cylinder stuffing boxes, etc., also bronze or white metal segments assembled in the form of an internal and external cone, fitting into each other and held in place by springs, thus floating them on the rod, to eliminate friction.
Pad Eye. A fitting having an eye integral with a plate or base in order to distribute the strain over a greater area and to provide ample means of securing. The pad may have either a "worked" or a "shackle" eye or more than one of either or both. The principal uses of such a fitting is that it affords means for attaching rigging, stoppers, blocks, and other movable or portable objects. Pad eyes are also known as lug pads, the two terms being practically synonymous.
Paddle Beams. Athwartship supporting girder at each end of the paddle box.
Paddle Box. A semicircular structure, placed at the stern or one on each side of a vessel, for the purpose of housing the paddle wheel.
Paddle Box Annex. A continuation of the paddle box structure faired into the sides of the ship and generally used for staterooms, toilets, etc.
Paddle Box Cabin. Staterooms or other living quarters built into the prolongation of a paddle box.
Paddle Box Stays. Inclined struts running from the planking or plating of a vessel to the sponson and spur beams supporting a paddle box structure.
Paddle Wheel. A large wheel consisting of two or more sets of arms and rims with radial boards or floats attached to the outer ends of the arms and running between the rims. The floats may be fixed in position, or feathered so that they enter and leave the water at the most efficient angles.
Paddle Wheel, Feathered. A paddle wheel having floats that are controlled by a mechanism so that they enter and leave the water at the proper angle.
Paint. A viscous or plastic mixture of solids and liquid applied in thin coats for protection or decoration or both. Paint may be defined as a close union of solids or pigments and liquids or binder.
Consists of a mixture of finely divided aluminum powder and a special vehicle containing hard varnish resin, raw linseed oil and turpentine. This paint has very good heat resisting properties and when applied to iron and subjected to a dull red heat is only slightly affected.
Anti-Corrosive Ship’s Bottom Paint
This paint is generally made of metallic zinc, zinc oxide, shellac, alcohol, pine tar and turpentine and is designed to insulate the metal in the anti-fouling coat from the steel plating, preventing corrosion and pitting. Anti-corrosive and anti-fouling ship’s bottom paints differ radically from oil paints in that the vehicle portion consists of shellac, alcohol, and pine tar solution. This produces a very rapid drying paint which can be submerged a few hours after application. Anti-corrosive ship’s bottom paint is designed to prevent corrosion from electrolysis. This coat does not offer resistance to the flow of electric current but contains a metal which is electropositive to iron. Electrolysis decomposes this metal and deposits it on the steel hull. Insulation or protection from electrolysis is not obtained by paint which offers resistance to the flow of electric current since abrasion and movement of the plates will prevent the maintenance of a continuous film necessary to prevent the passage of current. A number of proprietary paints are on the market and are reported as giving satisfactory service. Anti-corrosive paint also provides a solid base for the anti-fouling paint.
Anti-Fouling Ship’s Bottom Paint
This paint is intended to prevent marine growth from adhering to the underwater surface of the hull. This is effected by the presence of a poisonous compound in the film, usually mercuric oxide, copper oxide, copper cyanide, etc. An efficient antifouling paint is so designed that it will exfoliate, thereby presenting new surfaces at regular intervals, In this class falls the so-called copper paint for wooden hulls. This paint usually contains a substantial percentage of copper oxide ground in a special vehicle.
Is a viscous asphaltic solution in mineral spirit or turpentine substitute and is applied to metal surfaces as a priming coat for the bituminous cement and enamels. The enamel is solid and is applied hot ranging in thickness from 1/l6" to 1/4". Asphaltic compounds are specially prepared to resist fairly high temperatures without running or sagging, and low temperatures without being unduly brittle. Asphalt enamels made of a properly balanced mixture of asphalts or tars having various melting points and other specific characteristics, admixed with rosin, Portland cement and mineral spirits produce compositions which have been found to give excellent service. Bituminous compositions are usually applied to places with difficult access upon completion of new construction
Boottopping paint is generally a mixture of zinc oxide, lamp black and a special varnish. This paint is applied at the waterline of steel vessels, and will last for several months, whereas an ordinary oil paint would be washed off or destroyed in a few days by the alternate action of the water and the air. The special varnish used in the preparation of boottopping paint requires careful consideration and should be tested for its suitability in the manufacture of this type of paint. Tung oil varnishes are very water resistant but have a tendency to thicken up or "liver" when mixed or ground in zinc oxide.
White and tinted – is usually a mixture of crude paraffine, paraffine oil, turpentine substitute and kerosene; if a tinted preservative is desired a quantity of zinc oxide and sufficient tinting material to produce the desired color is added. This type of preservative can be applied by painting with a brush, spraying with an air gun or by dipping the fabric.
Known also as under cork, consists of varnish, a small quantity of linseed oil and drier and a good grade of whiting. This mixture is painted on the surface to be corked and allowed to become tacky. Ground cork of fairly large grain is blown or pressed on and the paint allowed to set hard. Cork paint is usually applied to interior surfaces in living quarters, store rooms, etc., which become chilled by the conduction through the metal, and sweating occurs due to the extremes in temperature; over the cork the usual interior finishing paint is applied.
This type of paint is usually prepared with spar varnish, turpentine drier and coloring pigment, which dries rapidly forming a hard water resisting coating.
Is usually a mixture of shellac, crude rubber, whiting, alcohol and gasoline and in some respects is similar to certain brands of marine glue on the market. This cement is used to bind the linoleum to the deck or other surfaces without the use of fastening appliances. It is of such a character that it allows the linoleum to spread without buckling or injury.
Metallic Oxide of Iron Paints
Are dark in color, usually red or brown, and when properly prepared are extremely durable. Red lead or zinc chromate or both of these pigments when added to an iron oxide base produces an excellent metal preservative paint which will give service equal to red lead. In connection with the application of paints intended for use as metal preservatives, it will readily be seen that an ordinary paint giving good protective service on wood will not be satisfactory to iron and steel, since the characters of the two surfaces are entirely different, steel presenting a relatively smooth, non-porous surface which makes it necessary for the excess oil or other vehicle to harden by oxidation or evaporation, whereas wood, having many pores, absorbs the excess oil which amalgamates with the fibers of the wood forming an inseparable bond. In this connection it is recommended that skilled labor be employed for the application of paint, and especially paint intended or designed for metal surfaces. Many failures of paint can be traced to careless handling or improper application.
Red lead, free from coarse vitrified particles mixed with pure linseed oil makes the best priming coat for iron and steel. Consumers are cautioned, however, not to purchase or use red lead paste which has been ground sufficiently long enough to over oxidize the oil. When pure dry red lead (containing a substantial amount of litharge as a natural constituent) is mixed with pure raw linseed oil within l8 hours before application it can be applied to iron and steel without the addition of a thinner or drier. This practice is not recommended, however, since the drying conditions usually encountered in marine painting are not very favorable and the addition of a thinner and drier will enable the operator to apply a thin uniform coat which will dry rapidly, forming a very tenacious, hard, elastic weather resisting film. Rust resisting or preservative coatings are usually dark in color, since the white pigments (basic carbonate, basic sulphate white lead and zinc oxide) have certain physical and chemical characteristics which make them unsatisfactory for priming paints for iron and steel.
Smoke Stack Paint
Smoke Stack Paint is usually made of zinc oxide, white lead, litharge and Damar varnish thinned with kerosene and a substantial amount of dryer added. This paint is very resistant to high temperatures. Another type of smoke stack paint is made as follows: white lead, silica, litharge, boiled linseed oil and mineral spirits. This mixture is tinted to the desired shade and applied in the usual manner.
It is pale in color, very rapid drying, water resistant, elastic and durable; it is used to coat the "bright work" of ships and due to its rapid drying qualities it is frequently used on repair work. This varnish can be brushed on a surface and spread out to a very thin film which accounts for its rapid drying properties. It is somewhat deficient in durability, however, owing to the thinness of the film.
The solid portion of paint usually white lead, red lead, oxide of zinc, oxide of iron, Van Dyke brown, Venetian red, Indian red, vermilion, Prussian and Chinese blue, ultramarine blue, blacks and lakes. In addition to the above mentioned pigments, the following Extenders are used: Barytes, silica, Asbestine, aluminum silicate, calcium carbonate, etc. Extenders have specific value and are used to reduce the spreading power and increase the thickness of the paint film.
Pigments – Color
Color pigments are used for tinting the base pigment and are usually as follows:
(a) Natural Earth Colors: Ochers, siennas, umbers, metallic brown, Indian red and mineral blacks.
(b) Chemical colors: Prussian and Chinese blue, lead chromate, chrome green, ultramarine blue, vermilion, etc.
(c) Carbon blacks made by carbonizing animal and vegetable substances.
Basic Carbonate – White Lead
Corroded white lead was first commercially produced in the United States about l00 years ago. This pigment is manufactured by two principal processes, known as the Dutch process, or stack method, and the chamber process, or quick method. The Dutch process probably produces about 75 per cent. of the corroded white lead used in the United States. Briefly described, this method is as follows:
A series of clay pots surrounded with tan bark and containing dilute acetic acid (vinegar) are filled with discs of metallic lead. Carbonic acid from the fermenting tan bark acts on the lead, converting it into hydrated carbonate of lead. This process requires about 90 days. In the Chamber process the dilute acetic acid acts on the finely divided metallic lead in the presence of carbon dioxide gas, producing a white pigment similar in every respect to the Dutch process white lead.. This process requires from one to two weeks.
Basic Sulphate – White Lead
Sublimed white lead or basic sulphate white lead is obtained from Galena, a lead sulphide ore. The mined ore is roasted and the fumes given off combine with the oxygen of the air and form a white powder. Basic sulphate white lead, a product of sublimation, exceeds the basic carbonate in fineness. It is considered by some to be superior to basic carbonate white lead in that it is relatively non-poisonous and resists the darkening action of sulphur gas to a great extent.
This pigment has been commercially used as a paint pigment for a short time. It has, however, assumed a very important position in the paint industry and is a pigment of exceptional merit. Paints containing zinc oxide in appreciable quantities dry with a hard enamel-like surface, which is highly impervious to water. It is therefore very desirable in the manufacture of marine paints. In the manufacture of zinc oxide, the mineral is first mixed with powdered coal and spread on a bed of glowing coal. Air is blown through the charge volatilizing the zinc in the ore. This vapor is carried into the upper part of the furnace and converted into oxide of zinc by contact with the atmosphere. This oxide is drawn through cooling pipes, being finally deposited as an extremely fine powder in fabric bags.
This pigment is prepared by heating litharge to approximately 700 degrees Fahr. in contact with the air. It then takes up more oxygen and turns red. The composition of red lead varies from 65 per cent practically pure red lead, little or no litharge being present. The latter type is more expensive to make and is therefore sold at a higher price. Red lead is used extensively for the protection of metal and is usually applied as a priming coat.
A brick colored pigment in which the ferric oxide content varies from 20 per cent to 40 per cent, the balance being calcium sulphate, also used in the manufacture of metal paints.
An earth pigment analyzing from 75 per cent to 90 per cent, the remainder being silica. Indian red when mixed with pure raw linseed oil and drier produces an excellent paint and tinting pigment.
A precipitated dye on a lithol barium or orange mineral base used for striping and tinting purposes, being one of the so-called permanent reds.
This is a natural earth pigment, which contains as high as 70 per cent ferric oxide, the remainder being silicate of aluminum, or clay. The best grades are obtained from Italy, and are used largely for tinting purposes and in the making of stains.
This is a natural earth pigment very much darker than sienna. This pigment is obtainable in commercial quantities in the United States, but the best grade comes from the Isle of Cyprus. It is used for tinting and staining purposes.
Ultramarine blue in its natural state (lapis-lazuli) is found in Tibet, Prussia, China and in the Andes of South America. It is usually found in the form of pebbles. This natural pigment is not used in the paint industry on account of its harsh granular texture. Artificial ultramarine blue is a chemical color and has great tinting power, is soft in texture and relatively opaque.
Prussian or Chinese Blue
This is a dark blue pigment which is a ferro-cyanide of iron and is prepared by chemical precipitation. This blue cannot be used in the tinting of white lead paints successfully. When Prussian blue is used for tinting white lead paints, it is acted upon and a chemical change in its composition takes place.
This color is a mixture of Prussian blue and Chrome Yellow (lead chromate) and unless chemically pure is found mixed with an inert base such as barytes. Chrome green contains Prussian blue which under goes a chemical change when used for tinting white lead paints. Salt atmosphere attacks chrome green and bleaches it.
This is a permanent green but is seldom used in the manufacture of commercial paints. It is used in special marine and railway paints and is unaffected by salt atmosphere or the white lead pigments. It is used on vessels in repainting the receptacle on which the port light rests.
Lamp black is the condensed smoke of petroleum oils and is considered one of the most permanent blacks used.
Carbon black is similar to lamp black in that it is intensely black in color. Its staining power is very great and due to its extreme fineness fairly large amounts of pigment have a tendency to separate from the paint and rise to the top of the liquid thereby making it difficult to incorporate and produce a uniform tint.
Metallic zinc used in the paint industry is in finely divided form and is used in the manufacture of anti-corrosive ship’s bottom paint.
Shellac is the exudation deposited by a lac bug; it is soluble in alcohol and when cut in this solvent in the proportion of 2½ lbs. of gum shellac to one gallon of alcohol a good working shellac varnish is produced. Shellac varnish is applied to furniture, and to cover decks where the application of paint or varnish is not practical on account of the length of time required in drying. The use of shellac on woodwork exposed to the water is not recommended since the heat of the sun’s rays will soften shellac and form blisters.
The spreading medium or liquid portion of a paint which combines or holds in close union the solids or pigment portion. Linseed Oil is usually used as a base to which is added turpentine mineral spirits (or turpentine substitute) and a liquid drier.
Linseed Oil is obtained from the flaxseed, which grows in practically all parts of the world. It is of interest to know, however, that oil extracted from the flaxseed from the various sources varies greatly in quality. South American flaxseed produces a slow drying oil which forms a relatively soft film; North American flaxseed yields a higher percentage of oil, which dries more rapidly, forming a very tough, elastic, hard film. Oil obtained from India flaxseed varies in its drying properties, but is more desirable than South American oil and is generally preferred to North American oil for varnish making, since it resists discoloration on prolonged heating.
Turpentine is obtained from the pine tree by direct or steam distillation of the sap collected from the growing tree. Wood turpentine is produced by steam distillation of finely cut or macerated pine wood. The lower grades of wood turpentine have an objectionable, sharp odor and are not desirable in the manufacture of interior paints. Turpentine has a high oxidizing value which causes the rapid drying of paints and varnishes. Turpentine is used to reduce the consistency of the oil paint so as to allow it to be spread in thin fine coats.
In most cases the drying effect of the pigment is not sufficient and liquid dryers are added to accelerate the drying. The most commonly used dryers are composed of lead, manganese and cobalt or a mixture of these metals combined with pure linseed oil and a hydrocarbon solvent.
Painter. A length of rope secured at the bow of a small boat for use in towing or for making it fast. It is sometimes termed a bow-fast.
Painters. Inside workmen who mix paint, also those who paint, varnish and polish joiner work in the shop. Outside, workmen who apply the paint aboard ship.
Pall, Pawl. A term applied to a short piece of metal hinged to engage in a revolving mechanism for the purpose of preventing recoil. Usually fitted to capstans, winches and windlasses.
Palm. The fluke, or more exactly, the flat inner face of the fluke, of an anchor; a sailmaker’s protector for the hand used when sewing canvas. It consists of a strong canvas or leather strap to which is secured a flat metal disc thimble to drive the needle through the canvas; a flat surface at the extremity of a strut or stanchion for attachment to plating, beam or other structural member.
Panel. The part of a door or bulkhead, the edges of which are inserted in the stiles and rails.
Panel, Flush. A panel, the surface of which is flush with the surface of the stiles and rails.
Panel, Molded. A panel which is set in and the stiles and rails projecting beyond the surface.
Panel, Raised. A panel, the surface of which projects above the surface of the stiles and rails.
Panel Raiser. A wood working machine designed to dress down the edges of the work so as to leave a raised panel.
Panting. The in and out vibrations of the frames and plating. Most noticeable in the bow and stern.
Panting Beams. See Beams, Panting.
Panting Stringer. See Stringer, Panting.
Parallel Middle Body. That portion of a vessel’s body throughout the extent of which the cross sections retain the same area and shape as the midship section.
Parallel Ruler. This was used for plotting a course on a sea chart with a compass card.
Parbuckle. An improvised purchase used in hoisting and lowering casks or other cylindrical objects where a tackle or crane is not available. The middle of a rope is secured above the object to be hoisted or lowered, the two ends passed over and under it and then brought back again. Hauling on the two ends raises or lowers the object as desired. This method is extensively used in handling shells in the turrets of men-of-war. The shells being stowed upright, base downward, on the turret floor are easily parbuckled horizontally in the bight of a single rope.
Parceling. Narrow widths of canvas which when tarred are wound around ropes, following the lay and overlapping in order to shed water. The parceling is applied after worming preparatory to serving.
Parent Form. A ship’s form from which a series of forms are derived by the systematic variation of certain characteristic features.
Parrel. A rope or metal collar attached to a band on either side of a yard near its middle and encircling the mast. By this means the yard is attached to the mast though allowed a vertical movement.
Part Double Bottom. Descriptive of a vessel which is fitted with a double bottom extending throughout a portion of her length only.
Partial Bulkhead. See Bulkhead, Partial.
Parting Strip, Window Frame. The narrow strip fastened to the inside of the stiles for the purpose of dividing the paths of the outer and inner sashes or blinds.
Partner, Mast. See Mast Partner.
Partner Plate, Rudder. A term applied to plates fitted around the rudder stock where it pierces a deck.
Passers. Usually boys who receive the heated rivets from the heaters and deliver them to the holders-on.
Passing Tongs. Long handled tongs used by rivet passers to handle the heated rivets.
Pattern Makers. Workmen who fashion the wood forms or patterns for the use of the foundrymen in setting up molds. Inside pattern makers prepare those patterns which can be made from plans such as machinery parts. Outside pattern makers prepare patterns for those castings which are to be fitted to the hull such as stems, stern posts, and hawse pipes.
Paulin. See Tarpaulin.
Pawl. A small part or member of a mechanism used to prevent overhauling. Pawls engaging ratchet wheels are fitted on windlasses, capstans, etc.
Paying. A term applied to the operation of filling the seams between planks, after the calking has been inserted, with pitch, marine glue, etc. Also applied to the operation of slackening away on rope or chain.
Peak. A term applied to the outer and upper end of a gaff.
Peak, Fore or After. The space at the extreme bow or stern below the decks.
Peak, Purchase. A tackle applied to the peak halyards to haul them taut and straighten the leech of the sail.
Peak Tank. A tank or tank space built into or formed in the extreme forward or after lower portion of a vessel’s hull.
Pelican Hook. A type of quick releasing hook used at the lower ends of shrouds, boat gripes, etc.
Pelorus. A navigational instrument similar to a binnacle and mariner’s compass but without a magnetic needle. The instrument is used for taking bearings, especially when the object to be sighted is not visible from the ship’s compass. Also known as a Dumb Compass.
Pendant. A length of rope usually having a thimble or block spliced into the lower end for hooking on a tackle, and when suspended from a masthead, yard, or gaff, is known as a mast head pendant, brace pendant, etc.
Pendants, Rudder. See Rudder Pendants.
Perfect Fluid. A theoretical fluid without viscosity or surface tension and incapable of internal friction or of friction against any object.
Period of Roll. The time occupied in performing one double oscillation.
Permeability. The percentage of a given space which can be occupied by water. The value of this factor is of great importance in all considerations of the effect of damage upon floatability and stability.
Permissible Length. That length of a vessel which may be flooded without causing her to sink below the margin line.
Perpendicular, After. See After Perpendicular.
Perpendicular, Forward. See Forward Perpendicular.
Pet Cock. See Cock, Pet.
Photostat. A machine for making photographic reproductions of tracings, blueprints, etc. The reproduction may be to the same, a greater or a smaller scale. The term is also applied to the photographic reductions made on these machines.
Picklers. Men who put steel plates through an acid bath in order to remove the mill scale preparatory to laying out and working the material into the ship.
Pier. A structure of iron, wood, or concrete, resting on piles built out into the water for use as a landing place for vessels, pleasure resorts, etc.
Pieces of Eight. This Spanish silver coin (dollar) was romantically the currency of Caribbean pirates, but was more important as the bullion which financed Spanish expansionism in the Americas from the l5th century on. It was the currency of the Hispano-American colonies, and remained coin of the realm in places such as Peru and Chile, Guatemala and Mexico, Honduras and Colombia long after they had wrested independence from their decaying conquerors. Pieces of eight were even used in the early settlements of Australia from 1788 onwards and in the North American colonies, where they were current until as late as 1857. In 1792 the Americans passed legislation to introduce their own currency, which was called the dollar after the old Spanish version, but there were so many Spanish silver dollars around that they had to be used for a long time after. Other countries would use pieces of eight that had been counter-stamped with their own design. They were even used in Britain during the silver shortage of 1797; the head of George III was overstamped on these. Firms in Birmingham and elsewhere in the 19th century would sometimes overstamp old pieces of eight with their name or device and circulate them as TRADE TOKENS. A hoard of pieces of eight recovered from the wreck of the Dutch ship Hollandia contained some splendid coins that had been newly minted at Mexico City for the Spaniards before the ship sunk after striking the Gunner rock in the Scilly Isles in 1743. They bear on one side the Imperial Crown of Spain surmounting the Spanish Royal Family’s coat of arms, surrounded by the legend "Philip V of Spain and the Indies, by the Grace of God", and with a figure eight to indicate the coin’s value of eight reales. The reverse has two globes representing the Old and New Worlds, above which is the Spanish Imperial crown. On each side of the globes are pillars representing the Pillars of Hercules at the entrance to the Mediterranean, and under the globes are lines to indicate the sea that divided the Old and New Worlds with, finally, the date 1741. On some pieces of eight the Pillars of Hercules indicated that these showed the limit of the Old World: such would have the motto "Nothing Beyond". Such coins found in submerged wrecks are often badly worn if loose, but can be in almost mint condition when cemented in a conglomerate of sand and gravel, which can be carefully dissolved.
Pig Iron. Iron cast in the form of a rough oblong or bar.
Pigment. See Paint.
Pilaster. An ornamental column or false stanchion on a light bulkhead. It usually extends out from the bulkhead for a distance of about one half its diameter.
Pile. A pole or post generally of wood, though sometimes of metal or concrete, driven into the earth along the bank or in the bed of a body of water for the support or protection of bridges, piers, etc.
Pillar. A post constructed of wood or steel and used as an intermediate support for girders and deck beams. Also used as reinforcement under decks in the way of guns and heavy foundations, thus helping to distribute the load to the lower structural members.
Pillar, Built-up. A term applied to a column that is constructed by riveting plates and shapes together.
Pillar Crane. See Crane, Pillar.
Pillar, Deck. A term applied to a pillar supporting a deck. It is usually given the name of the deck that it supports, as Upper or Main Deck Pillar.
Pillar Head. A term applied to the upper end of a pillar.
Pillar Heel. A term applied to the lower end of a pillar.
Pillar, Hold. A column fitted in the hold of a ship for the purpose of supporting the lowermost deck. They are generally much longer and of greater sectional area than the pillars fitted between decks.
Pillar, Middle Line. A term applied to a column erected on the center line of the ship.
Pillar, Movable. A term applied to a portable pillar that can be easily shifted.
Pillar, Pipe. A term applied to a column constructed of piping or tubing.
Pillar, Portable. A term applied where the pillars are removable. A disadvantage of this type of pillar in a hold is, that if it is taken out while the cargo is being stowed, that is difficult to get back in the proper position.
Pillar, Quarter. A term applied to a column fitted from about one third to about one half the distance from the center line to the side of a vessel and to columns in the way of the sides of hatches.
Pillar Socket. A receptacle, usually a casting, for taking the end of a pillar. A common type consists of a hollow cylindrical piece set up on and connected to a flat base piece by triangular shaped webs.
Pillow. A block of timber used as a rest piece for the lower end of a mast or the inner end of a bowsprit.
Pilot Bridge. See Bridge, Navigating or Flying.
Pilot House. A house designed for navigational purposes. It is usually located forward of the midship section and so constructed as to command an unobstructed view in all directions except directly aft along the center line of the vessel where the smoke stack usually interferes.
Pilot Lamp. See Lamp, Pilot.
Pin, Marking. A short piece of pipe of approximately the same diameter as the rivet holes in a template. The pin is dipped in whiting and then thrust through the holes in the template to mark their location on a plate or shape.
Pintle, Heel. A term applied to the lower pintle.
Pintle, Locking. A term applied to a pintle having a head turned on the bottom end to prevent the rudder from unshipping. It is well to place this pintle at the top so that the rudder may be unshipped without dry docking, by trimming the vessel by the bow.
Pintles. A term applied to the pins or bolts which hinge the rudder to the gudgeons on the stern post. These pins are cylindrical in shape in the way of the gudgeons up to the rudder lug. Through the rudder lug they are given a conical taper and above the lug a thread is cut for a nut. The taper provides a shoulder which, by tightening on the nut, firmly fixes the pintle to the rudder lug. It is to be noted that the weight of the rudder should be carried by the rudder stock to a bearing above, and that the pintles should serve as a hinge and as a bearing only for the side pressure of the water. The pintles are often fitted with a brass sleeve in the way of the gudgeon which is provided with a white metal bearing surface. The upper pintle sometimes has a head turned on the bottom for the purpose of preventing the rudder from moving upward and unshipping itself.
Pipe, Auxiliary Steam. A steam pipe leading from the steam down to auxiliary engines.
Pipe Berths. See Berth.
Pipe Bending Machine. A machine designed for bending pipe or conduit. Pipe bending machines are similar to bending presses except that special dies are used to suit the size of pipe being bent.
Pipe, Bilge Suction. A pipe leading from the well, which collects bilge water, to the bilge pump.
Pipe Coverers. Workmen who fit the insulating material on pipes. They also fit insulating material wherever necessary, as on boilers and engines.
Pipe Cutting Machine. A machine designed for cutting pipe.
Pipe Cutting and Threading Machine. A combination machine designed for both cutting and threading pipe.
Pipe Down. The signal on board a naval ship for the crew to sling their hammocks preparatory to retiring for the night. Used as a slang phrase, meaning to stop some annoying act.
Pipe, Jacket Steam. A pipe by which steam is led from the main steam pipe to a steam jacket.
Pipe, Main Exhaust. The principal steam lead from the engine to the atmosphere or condenser.
Pipe, Main Feed. A pipe by which water supplied by the feed pump is led from the hot well to the boilers.
Pipe, Oil Lubricating. A small oil supply pipe leading from a lubricator to some working part.
Pipe, Outboard Delivery. A term applied to the pipe leading from the outboard delivery valve to the shell or sea chest.
Pipe, Sea Injection. A term applied to the pipe leading from the sea chest to the outboard valve controlling the intake of water.
Pipe, Smoke. See Smoke Stack.
Pipe, Standard. A term applied to a pipe having a thickness equal to the standard adopted by the Wrought Pipe makers.
Pipe, Steam Escape or Waste. A pipe attached to and leading nearly to the top of the smoke stack from the upper deck. The steam from the safety valve is led into this pipe and escapes through it into the atmosphere.
Pipe, Suction. A pipe connected to the suction side of a pump and led to the compartment to be pumped.
Pipes, Scupper. See Scupper Pipes.
Piping, Oil. Systems of piping for loading, discharging, supplying, transferring, etc., fuel, cargo and lubricating oil.
Piping, Steam. Piping designed to carry live steam from the boilers to the main engines and to the various steam driven auxiliaries.
Piping System. Any system of pipes such as bilge and ballast, steam and exhaust, water, sanitary, steam heating and cargo and fuel oil systems that is installed aboard a ship for conveying water, oil, steam, etc.
Piping, Water. Systems of piping installed aboard ship for supplying, draining and transferring fresh and salt water. The sanitary, bilge and ballast, fire, condenser circulating and feed water systems, etc., come under this head.
Piragua. A term applied to a large canoe-shaped boat used by the Indians. Made by hollowing out a log.
Piston. The movable part upon which the steam in the cylinder exerts its pressure to produce rectilinear motion in alternate directions. It consists in general of a central disc with a heavy circumferential portion for the reception of the piston rings and a central boss to take the shouldered end of the piston rod.
Piston or Packing Rings. Rings fitted into annular channels in the cylindrical surface of the piston and designed to secure steam tightness between piston and cylinder barrel.
Piston Rod. That member which, being at one end securely attached to the piston, transmits the motion of the piston to the other moving parts of the engine. The piston rod projects through the cylinder stuffing box and terminates at its lower end in the cross head.
Piston Valve. See Valve, Piston.
Pitch. A term applied to the distance a propeller will advance during one revolution, the distance between centers of the teeth of a gear wheel, the spacing of rivets, etc.
Pitch Chain. See Sprocket Chain.
Pitch, Coal Tar. The residue obtained from the redistillation of coal tar.
Pitch, Hard Wood. The residue obtained by the redistillation of a hard wood tar.
Pitch, Pine. The black or dark-colored viscous residue from the distillation of resin oil or the residue after distilling the oils from crude pine tar.
Pitch Pockets. A pitch pocket is an accumulation of pitch occurring between the annular growth at any place in the timber.
Pitch, Propeller. See Propeller, Pitch.
Pitch of Rivets. See Rivet Spacing.
Pitching. The alternate rising and falling motion of a vessel’s bow in a nearly vertical plane as she meets the crests and troughs of the waves.
Pitting. The rapid corrosion of iron and steel in certain spots, thereby producing small indentations.
Pitting, Boiler. See Boiler Pitting.
Pivoting Point. That point during the progress of a vessel’s launch at which the moment of buoyancy about the fore poppets becomes equal to the moment of the vessel’s weight. At this point the stern begins to lift the vessel pivoting about the fore poppet.
Plain-laid Rope. See Rope, Plain-laid.
Plan Lines. See Lines, Plan.
Plane of Flotation. The water plane at which a vessel is floating.
Planer, Wood. A machine designed to dress or plane wood. The table of the machine is divided and a rotating shaft, carrying the knives or cutters, is carried between the two halves of the table.
Planer, Wood Portable. A wood planing machine power operated, used for the dressing down wood decks.
Plank, Margin or Nibbing. The extreme out plank of wood deck generally fitted just inboard of the waterways and sometimes notched out to revive the ends of the deck planks. Also placed around the outside of coaming of hatches, and around manhole frames where wood decks are fitted.
Planking. A term applied to wood decks and to the outside planking in wood or composite ships.
Planking, Bottom. A term applied to the outside planking between the garboard plank and the side planking.
Planks, Parting. The centerline planks of the deck near the bow.
Planksheer. A term applied to the plank fitted horizontally on top of the sheerstrake in wooden vessels. It generally has a rounded edge on the outboard side projecting a little beyond the planking and giving a finished appearance to the vessel.
Plate. Steel of other metal rolled or cast into form such that it has in general a consistent thickness which is small relative to its length and breadth. In ship work mild steel plates cut to proper form are used for the shell, decks and bulkheads. Plate is generally referred to by thickness only.
Plate, Apron. A plate fitted in continuation of the shell plating above the forecastle sheerstrake as the stem. These plates are sometimes fitted, one on each side of the stem, and serve as a foundation for the bow mooring pipes.
Plate, Bolted, Portable or Detachable. A plate fitted to a deck, tank top or bulkhead with the bolts permitting its removal. These plates are used for the purpose of preserving water-tightness and at the same time providing for occasional access.
Plate, Boss. A term applied to the plate fitted around the boss of a propeller post or around the curved frames in way of stern tubes. These plates usually require furnacing and are thicker than the adjoining plating.
Plate, Bow. Any shell plate fitted in the bow of a ship.
Plate, Bracket. See Bracket, Plate.
Plate, Butt. A plate used for end connections between the ends of planking on a composite ship.
Plate, Doubling. A term applied where an extra plate is fitted over the regular plating either for extra strength or to compensate for opening in the structure.
Plate, Face. See Face Plate.
Plate Flanged. A term applied where one or more edges of a plate are bent over to more a less of an angle. It also applies where an aperture is made in a plate with its edges stiffened by bending them at right angles to the plate.
Plate Furnace. See Furnace, Plate.
Plate, Furnaced. A plate that requires heating in order to mold it into shape. The most common types are the oxter and boss plates.
Plate, Garboard. See Keel, Flat Plate.
Plate, Keel. See Keel, Flat Plate.
Plate, Margin. See Margin Plate.
Plate, Oxter. The plate that is riveted to the stern from immediately below or on the transom. On account of the shape of the ship at this it usually requires furnacing and molding into shape. The oxter plate is given extra thickness to compensate for the stretching and heating necessary in bringing it to shape.
Plate, Rider. See Rider, Plate.
Plate Scarphing Machine. A machine for scarphing or tapering the corner of a plate. Shell plates are often scarphed where a seam crosses a butt lap to reduce the thickness of metal that the rivets penetrate and make a better job for water-tightness.
Plate, Sheerstrake. A plate forming part of a sheer-strake.
Plate, Stealer. A term applied to a plate taking the end of a drop strake or a plate combining two strakes into one. Stealer plates occur at the bow and stern, where the narrowing girth compels a reduction in the number of strakes.
Plate Straightener. A workman who removes from sheet metal any kinks, bumps or bulges so they will present a smooth even surface.
Plate, Stringer. See Stringer Plate.
Plate, Swash. See Swash Plate.
Plate, Tuck. A flat plate riveted to the arch piece and stern post of a stern frame, and having its forward edge flanged out to take the stern plating. It is advantageous when the propeller aperture is low, making the sides of the ship above the arch piece approximately flat.
Plate, Web. A wide girder plate as in a web frame or hatch beam. Angle bars are usually fitted on each edge.
Plate, Wood. The horizontal timbers which are fitted above the studding and which run parallel with the sill forming a part of the framing of a deck house.
Platen. A work bench or table the upper surface of which lies in a true plane,
Plates, Intercostal. The plates in an intercostal member. Where the plates are cut and attached to each continuous structural member that lies in their path. The continuous members are usually at or nearly at right angles to the intercostal members, and in order to pass each other one or the other of the girders must be composed of a range of short plates attached by angle bars or other means to the continuous members.
Platform, Deck. See Deck, Platform.
Plating, Clinker System. Where the edges of outside plating form lap joints so that one edge of a plate is inside while the other is outside. In this case tapered frame liners are used.
Plating, Flush System. Where the edges of the outside plating form butt joints so that a flush surface is formed. The connections between plates are made by seam straps and butt straps.
Plating, In and Out System. Where the edges of the outside plating form lap joints so that both edges of the plates are alternately inside and outside. In order to do this, the frames have to be joggled in the way of the outside strakes or frame liners of the thickness of the plating have to be fitted between the frames and outside strakes.
Plating, Rounded Gunwale. Plates bent to fit a rounded gunwale and connecting the side and deck plating.
Plating, Shell. The plating forming the outer skin of a vessel. In addition to keeping the water out of the hold, it contributes largely to the strength of the vessel.
Plating, Side. See Side Plating.
Plating Stern. The shell or outside plating covering the stern frames.
Plating, Tank Top. The plating forming the top of the double bottom. It is fitted to the tops of the floor plates, longitudinals and center keelson, and makes a complete inner skin extending over the bottom and sometimes up the sides of a vessel.
Plimsoll Mark. A mark stenciled in and painted on the side of a vessel designating the depth to which the ship may be loaded. Lord Plimsoll originated the idea of so marking vessels.
Plug, Fusible. See Fusible Plug.
Plug, Watertight Electric. An electric device for connecting an extension circuit with the main circuit and so arranged that the connection is watertight.
Plugs, Drain Hole. Plugs sometimes of wood but usually of special design with screwed ends for closing drains from tanks and other compartments.
Plumber Block. See Spring Bearings.
Plumbers. Workmen who install the water closets, urinals, baths, lavatories and other sanitary fixtures and their connections to the mains installed by the pipe fitters.
Plummet, Plumet. A sounding lead or weight attached to a plumb-line, also a weight attached to a fishing line to keep the float in position. Also used by fishermen to plumb the water’s depth.
Pneumatic Hoist. A hoist actuated by compressed air. A direct hoist may consist of a cylinder in which a piston travels up and down lifting the weight by means of a piston rod. A compact and more powerful type consists of cylinders actuating the hoist through gears. Steam can be used as well as air.
Pole Mast. A term applied where the lower and top-mast is in one piece.
Pontoon. A scow-shaped boat used in connection with engineering and military operations for the transportation of men and equipment or for the construction of bridges, etc. The term is sometimes applied to cylindrical airtight floats and ordinary scows used in salvage operations.
Poop Bulkhead. See Bulkhead, Poop.
Poop Deck. See Deck, Poop.
Poop Deck Stringer. See Stringer, Poop Deck.
Poop Deck Stringer Bar. See Stringer, Bar.
Poop Gunwale. See Gunwale, Poop.
Poop Sheerstrake. The strake of outside plating adjacent to the poop deck.
Poop or Poop House Frame. See Frame, Poop or Poop House.
Pooped. A term descriptive of a vessel which has shipped a wave over the stern.
Port. An opening in the plating or planking of a vessel for the purpose of providing access for passengers, loading and discharging cargo, taking on coal, discharging ashes and water, etc.
Port, Air. An opening in the side or deck house of a vessel, usually round in shape, and fitted with a hinged frame in which a thick glass light is secured. The purpose of the air port is to provide light and ventilation to the interior.
Port, Ballast. An opening in the side of a vessel provided for the purpose of loading and unloading ballast. A watertight cover or door should be provided.
Port, Bar. A strongback fitted on the inside of a port to hold the cover or door in position.
Port, Bow. An opening cut in the bow plating or planking to provide means of loading long timbers, piles, rails, etc. This opening must have a watertight cover as it is constantly under the pressure of head seas.
Port, Bulwark, Clearing or Freeing. A rectangular or oval opening in the bulwark just above the deck. These ports are necessary when seas break over the deck so that the ship can clear itself quickly. As these openings are about the size of a manhole, rods or bars are generally fitted across them. Flap doors are sometimes fitted on the outside hinging outboard.
Port, Cargo. An opening in the side plating or planking provided with a watertight cover or door and used for loading and unloading cargo.
Port, Coaling. An opening in the side of a vessel provided with a watertight cover used for loading coal aboard a vessel.
Port Flap or Lid. A cover or door hinged over a part so that it can only open outboard.
Port Frame. A term applied to the bars fitted around the edges of a port to compensate for the aperture and to hold the opening in shape.
Port, Gangway. An opening in the side plating, planking or bulwark for the purposes of providing access through which people may board or leave the ship or through which cargo may be handled.
Port, Hawser. An opening in the bulwark through which a hawser may be passed.
Port Lid. A cover hinged on the inboard side of an air port. It can be closed when the glass in the air port is broken or in danger of being broken.
Port, Raft. See Port, Bow or Stern.
Port Side. That side of a vessel to the left hand when looking from the stern toward the bow.
Port Sills. The horizontal members of a port frame.
Port, Stern. An opening in the stern plating or planking to provide means of loading long timbers, piles, rails, etc. This opening must have a watertight cover.
Port the Helm. A term originally applied to the operation of putting the tiller over to the left or port side, causing the rudder and ship to turn to the right or starboard. The operation of turning a steering wheel to port may cause the vessel to turn to either the right or left according to whether the leads are open or crossed or otherwise mechanically arranged. Different localities and countries and also different branches of the marine in the same locality have their own rules as to whether the ship turns with or against the wheel. Thus an order to port the helm on a vessel plying the inland waters or harbors or on the ship of a foreign country might he interpreted in the opposite direction from the same orders issued on board some deep sea and naval vessels.
Portable Pillars. See Pillars, Portable.
Portable Scarphing Machine. A scarphing machine designed to permit its being moved around to suit the work instead of requiring the work to be brought to the machine.
Post Crane. See Crane, post.
Post, Propeller. See Propeller Post.
Post, Stern. See Stern Tube.
Power Factor. The ratio of the electric power in Watts to the apparent power in volt amperes in an alternating current circuit.
Precession. See Gyroscope.
Press. A machine designed to exert pressure on a given area for purposes such as drawing, embossing, trimming, punching, forging, etc.
Press, Bending. A vertical press with two supports located below and equi-distant each side of a pressing head. Used for bending or straightening bars, shafts, pipes, etc. Horizontal types of bending presses are also used.
Press, Embossing. A machine designed to produce raised figures or letters on name plates, label plates, etc.
Press, Flanging. A press for flanging plate metal. The flanging may be done hot or cold.
Press, Inclinable. A press designed to be used in a vertical or inclined position.
Pressure Gage Glass. The glass forming a cover over the face of a pressure gage.
Pressure, Hydrostatic. Pressure induced by a liquid. Usually hydrostatic pressure is due to and in direct proportion to the difference in elevation between the free surface of the liquid and the point at which the pressure is indicated, the difference in atmospheric pressure at the two points being neglected. The difference in atmospheric pressure may, however, be appreciable, especially in cases of enclosed vessels in which the pressure may be increased by mechanical means. Hydrostatic pressure may be measured in pounds per square foot, but is also often measured in "feet" or "inches of water" or "inches- of mercury," in which cases a pressure is signified equal to the pressure induced by a column of water (or mercury) at the stated height. One foot head of water is equivalent to 62.4 pounds per square foot or .43 pounds per square inch.
Preventer. A supernumerary member, such as a stay, shroud, or any rope, chain, etc., whose only function is to assist or be substituted for another when under unusual stress or when damaged or lost.
Preventer Bolts. Bolts used to secure the preventer plates.
Preventer Plates. Metal plates secured to the lower ends of the chain plates in large sailing vessels to assist in taking the stress.
Preventer Stay, or Preventer Backstay. An additional stay so secured as to be easily slacked away to allow a beam to swing around. Usually attached to the deck on or near the center line.
Pricker. A cone shaped tool used to make holes in canvas or to spread eyelet holes for working.
Prismatic Coefficient. See Coefficient, Prismatic.
Profile Plan. See Lines Plan.
Progressman. A man assigned to follow up work in a shipyard and make reports concerning the progress of the same.
Progressive Rupture. A rupture or break which starts at the point of maximum unit stress and then spreads with the recurrence of the strain. Progressive rupture may occur in such members as plates which are stressed to rupture at one point only. When failure occurs at this point the total stress is then perforce concentrated over a smaller area of cross section which naturally increases the unit stress resulting.
Progressive Speed Trials. A series of speed trials over a measured course, successive trials being run at varying speeds.
Promenade Deck. See Deck, Promenade.
Promenade Deck Stringer. See Stringer, Promenade Deck.
Promenade Deck Stringer Bar. See Stringer Bar.
Pro-Metacenter. A term used by some authors to designate a point on the metacentric involute directly above the center of buoyancy for any inclined position of the vessel.
Proof Strain. The test load applied to anchors, chain or other parts, fittings or structure to demonstrate proper design and construction and satisfactory material.
Proof Strength. The proof strength of a material, part or structure is the strength which it has been proved by tests to possess. The term is often used in referring to chain cable, wire rope and the like.
Propeller. A propulsive device consisting of a boss or hub carrying radial blades, from two to four in number, the rear or driving faces of which form portions of an approximately helical surface, the axis of which is the center-line of the propeller shaft. The propeller is ordinarily located at the after end of the propeller shaft. The rotary motion imparted to this shaft by the engine turns the propeller, thereby exerting a rearward thrust upon the water which reacts to force the ship ahead. The selection of proper characteristics, such as diameter, revolutions, pitch, etc., the accurate determination of blade thickness, shape, etc., and the great care in construction and finish are essential to the securing of the best results from the propeller in service.
Propeller Aperture. See Aperture.
Propeller Blade, Back of. The forward side of the propeller blade.
Propeller Blade, Developed Area of. The actual area of the surface of the blade.
Propeller Blade, Projected Area of. The area enclosed by the trace on an athwartship plane of the perpendiculars drawn from the edge of the propeller blade.
Propeller Blade, Rake. The sloping aft from a position at right angles on the axis of propeller shaft of the propeller blades.
Propeller Blade, Root of. That portion of the blade closest to the hub or boss.
Propeller Blade Tip. The outermost portion of the propeller blade.
Propeller Blade Tip Clearance. Generally the shortest distance between the skin of a vessel and the circle swept by the propeller tips.
Propeller Blades, Screw. The radial arms, attached to the propeller hub, the faces of which form portions of an approximately helical surface the axis of which coincides with that of the propeller shaft. Blades are either cast in one piece with the hub or cast separately and designed to be attached to the hub with bolts. In this latter case provision is usually made for a slight adjustment in pitch by means of the shape of the bolt holes.
Propeller Boss. The central portion of the screw propeller which carries the blades and forms the medium of attachment to the propeller shaft. It is taper bored for the reception of the propeller shaft and slotted for the key. When properly placed upon the shaft it is forced home and secured in its final position by means of the propeller lock nut.
Propeller Cavitation. That condition of screw performance in which increase of torque fails to produce a corresponding or reasonable increase in thrust.
Propeller Diameter. The diameter of the circle tangent to the tips of the propeller blades.
Propeller Disc Area. The area of the circle swept by the blade tips of a propeller.
Propeller Driving Face or Face. The after face of the propeller blade; that face which acts directly upon the water when driving the vessel ahead.
Propeller Efficiency. The ratio of the thrust horsepower delivered by the propeller to the shaft horsepower as delivered by the engine to the propeller.
Propeller Following Edge. The after edge of a propeller blade.
Propeller Frame. See Stern Frame.
Propeller Guard. A frame work fitted somewhat below the deck line of narrow, high speed vessels with large screws and so designed as to overhang or house the projecting propeller tips.
Propeller Leading Edge. The forward edge of a propeller blade.
Propeller Pitch, Nominal. The distance (measured parallel to the axis of rotation) between similar positions of appoint of the driving face of a propeller blade in successive revolutions. When the driving face of a propeller blade lies entirely in a true helical surface the blade is said to have uniform pitch. When the pitch at the following edge is greater than that at the leading edge, the blade is said to have axially increasing pitch. When the pitch near the tip is greater than that near the hub the blade is said to have radially increasing pitch.
Propeller Pitch, Virtual. The pitch of a theoretically perfect blade of no thickness which would act as does the actual blade. The pitch of the back of a propeller blade varies greatly from that of the face of the blade. Inasmuch as the back exercises a material influence upon propeller performance, correct conclusions are impossible unless proper allowance is made therefore. The virtual pitch as above defined meets this requirement.
Propeller Post. The forward post of a stern frame on vessels having a center line propeller. It provides a support for the stern tube and propeller shaft as well as a joining frame for the converging sides of the ship at the stern.
Propeller Racing. The sudden increase in the number of revolutions made by the engine when the propeller blades or paddle wheels are lifted clear of the water, or nearly so, due to the roll or pitch of the ship.
Propeller Shaft. That length of shafting in a screw steamship which carries the propeller. It is the after-most piece of shafting and at its outermost end is coned, slotted and threaded for the attachment and proper securing of the propeller itself. This piece of shafting is carried directly by the propeller strut or stern bearing and is made slightly larger than the line shafting as a precaution against corrosion and shock. It is generally encased in a brass sleeve to provide proper bearing surface and to protect the shaft from corrosion.
Propeller Slip Angle. The angle between plane of blade face and its direction of motion.
Propeller Slip, Apparent. The value of the fraction Propeller speed – speed of ship
Propeller Slip or Slip Ration; Apparent True Slip. The ratio of speed of slip to speed of propeller.
Propeller Speed Ratio. The speed of advance divided by the speed of propeller.
Propeller Sweeping Up. The process of preparing molds for the casting of a screw propeller in the foundry. It ordinarily consists of the generation of a helical surface by the revolution of a horizontal straight edge, called a sweep, about a central vertical column to which the sweep is so attached as to permit of vertical motion. At its outer end the sweep follows the helical edge of a guide board erected at the proper radial distance from the central column. The foregoing applies to propellers having a vertical generatrix. For those having an inclined generatrix, the straight edge is set at an angle other than 90° to the central column.
Propeller Thrust. The effort delivered by a propeller in pushing a vessel ahead. The power resulting from the propeller effort is termed thrust horsepower. It is equal to the actual thrust in pounds multiplied by the distance in feet moved by the ship per minute divided by 33,000.
Propeller Thrust, Deduction. The actual thrust of the propeller minus the tow rope resistance of the ship or the net thrust of the propeller. In driving a ship ahead the screw exerts a suction upon the afterbody of the ship, thereby virtually increasing its resistance over what it would be without the screw. The wake created by the ship’s hull in moving through the water affects the action of the screw favorably. These two factors work against and partially offset each other.
Propeller Tip Speed. The speed in feet per minute swept by the propeller tips generally used as that corresponding to the maximum designed revolutions of the machinery.
Propulsive Coefficient. See Coefficient, Propulsive.
Propulsive Efficiency. The ratio of effective to indicated (or shaft) horsepower.
Protection Plate. A term applied to the plate fitted in the way of the hawse pipe for protection against blows from the flukes of the anchor.
Protractor. An instrument with graduated scales, for measuring angles or setting them out, and for other measurements.
Prussian Blue. See Paint.
Puddening, Pudding. Pads constructed of old rope, canvas, oakum, etc., in any desired shape and used on rigging to prevent chafing or on the stem of a boat to lessen the force of a shock.
Puddling. Described under Steel and Iron.
Pulley or Sheave. See Sheave.
Pulsometer. An apparatus for pumping water consisting of chambers in pairs, wherein steam is condensed, making a vacuum in alternate chambers. The water drawn into a chamber is forced out by the admission of steam under pressure.
Pump. A machine actuated by hand or power for raising and transferring fluids or gases and for inducing a vacuum.
Pump, Admiralty. A direct acting simplex or duplex pump with the piston and plunger on a vertical rod. In this type of pump the valves for the admission and discharge of water are easily examined and removed.
Pump, Air. The main air pump is for the purpose of reducing the back pressure in the low pressure cylinders or turbines and also for removing the condensed steam and vapor from the condenser. These pumps are driven either by a connection with a cross-head (usually the low pressure) on the main engine or by an independent engine. They are also made single and double acting. The single acting, direct driven type is the most common. As the vacuum in the condenser with the above described pump is dependent on the temperature of the hot well and as water will absorb only about 1/20 of its volume of air, dry vacuum pumps, augmenters, rotary and air ejector systems are being installed where a high vacuum is desired.
Pump, Air and Circulating, Auxiliary. This pump is composed of three cylinders: a steam cylinder for power, a water cylinder for circulating water through the auxiliary condenser, and a water cylinder for extracting the condensed steam in the auxiliary condenser and delivering it to the feed tank. This pump is an extravagant user of steam.
Pump, Air, Bucket Valves. Non-return valves placed in the moving bucket of the air pump and providing communication for the air, water and vapor from the suction to the discharge end of the pump cylinder. purpose of delivering the condensate to the hot well and allowing the air and vapor to escape.
Pump, Air, Discharge Valves. See Pump, Air, Head Valves.
Pump, Air, Dry Vacuum. A pump for discharging the air and vapor from a condenser into the atmosphere. The suction from this pump is located as high as possible on the suction line to the condensate pump or to a dry suction pad on the condenser. These pumps may be operated at a high speed, and they also keep a uniform head of water to the condensate pump.
Pump, Air, Dual. A combined wet and dry pump. A wet cylinder takes care of the condensate, and a dry air cylinder, which has an independent cooling system, densifies the air and vapor. This keeps the temperature of the hot well close to the temperature of the vacuum.
Pump, Air Ejector. A steam ejector connected to the condenser dry suction for the purpose of discharging the air and vapor into the atmosphere. A condensate pump handles the condensed steam.
Pump, Air, Foot Valves. Air foot valve. Non-return valves placed at the suction end of the cylinder.
Pump, Air, Head Valves. Non-return valve placed in the discharge end of the air pump cylinder for the purpose of delivering the condensate to the hot well and allowing the air and vapor escape.
Pump, Air, Suction Valves. See Pump, Air, Foot Valves.
Pump, Auxiliary Circulating. A pump to force water through the tubes of the auxiliary condenser. It is often combined with the auxiliary air pump. These pumps deliver to the main feed line only.
Pump, Auxiliary Feed. A pump with the following suctions: From the main feed tank, the reserve feed tank, the sea, the bilge, and from the bottom of the condenser. It can deliver to the boilers, the reserve feed tank or overboard. On account of the number of leads to and from this pump great care should be taken that fresh water is not pumped overboard, salt or bilge water pumped into the boilers, unless it is an emergency and so intended, or that the pump is used at all for boiler feed after pumping the bilge unless it has been thoroughly washed by a salt water circulation.
Pump, Ballast. A pump used for filling and emptying the ballast tanks. It has by-passes so that it can work the bilges and fire system either alone or in conjunction with the other pumps.
Pump, Bilge. A pump used aboard ship to remove accumulations of water in the vessel’s bottom tanks, hold and other compartments and discharge it overboard.
Pump, Bilge and Fire. See Pump, Fire and Bilge.
Pump Booster. See Pump, Transfer.
Pump Bucket. This term is sometimes used synonymously with the plunger. More correctly it is the cylindrical piston in vertical single acting pumps where the water is lifted from the bottom to the top of the cylinder. The term bucket should be used only when both top and bottom sides of piston come into operation in the performance of the function of the pump. Where one side of the piston only comes into operation, the term plunger should be used.
Pump Bucket Valve. A non-return valve placed in the moving bucket of a pump.
Pump, Centrifugal. This pump consists of a shaft to which vanes are attached and which rotates in a circular shape casing. Water enters the casing near the center or rotating shaft and moves outward along the vanes by centrifugal force. There is a discharge pipe at the circumference of the casing through which the water escapes. The pump may require priming to start it and is more efficient with low heads.
Pump, Condensate. The function of this pump is to deliver condensate to the hot well or feed tank.
Pump, Crank. A pump that, hand-cranked with a cast-iron wheel, was used for expelling water from the ship. It would be sited near the main mast. Rotation of the wheel drove long crank-shafts that descended into the pump-well at the bottom of the hold.
Pump, Direct Acting. A pump in which the piston and plunger are on the same rod but that does not require a fly wheel to carry it over the dead points.
Pump, Direct Driven. A pump whose plunger is actuated from the main engine.
Pump Discharge Head. The distance from the pump up to the point of delivery including frictional resistance.
Pump, Distiller. A pump used for transferring the distillate to the culinary and supply tanks.
Pump, Distiller Circulating. A pump for forcing circulating water through the distiller tubes to condense the vapor into water. It should have a by-pass to the flushing system.
Pump, Donkey. This pump has the same suction and discharge leads as the bilge pump has, and in addition is usually connected to the donkey boiler. Thus is can work when the main boilers are cold.
Pump, Double Acting. A pump that delivers on each stroke and from both ends of the cylinder.
Pump, Downtown. A hand pump that is also a force pump. It is worked by cranks on each side of the pump chamber or if placed on a lowerdeck the cranks may work through shafting gears. It is arranged to draw from all compartments and from the sea and discharges overboard and to the fire main.
Pump, Dredging. A heavily built pump of the centrifugal type used on dredges and sand suckers for removing sand, gravel, etc. from the bottom of rivers and harbors when building or deepening channels.
Pump, Duplex. A pair of pumps so placed that the piston rod of one pump actuates the valve of the other. ashes and such refuse as are liable to collect in the bottom of a ship, it becomes of great value when a large quantity of water is admitted to the ship through the hatches or by accident.
Pump, Evaporator Feed. This pump supplies the evaporator with salt water for vaporization.
Pump, Fire and Bilge. A pump used for keeping the bilges free of water, washing decks and for putting out fires. It has a sea suction and an overboard delivery of its own. It is more or less constantly in operation, keeping the bilges free of water and when used for washing decks should be cleaned by pumping salt water overboard. This pump has a suction to the bilge, drains, and inner bottom.
Pump, Flushing. See Pump, Sanitary.
Pump, Force. One that in addition to lifting the water also forces it out through piping to a point of delivery.
Pump Foundation. A term applied to a foundation supporting a pump and given the name of the pump as Ballast Pump foundation, Feed Pump foundation, etc.
Pump, Fresh Water. This pump delivers fresh water that moves back and forth or up and down in the from the culinary or supply tanks to a gravity tank, which is called the daily supply tank. The gravity tank feeds the fresh water supply lines to the quarters, galleys, pantries, lavatories, etc.
Pump, Fuel Oil Service. A pump for feeding the oil burner in a boiler.
Pump, General Service. A term applied to the main fire and bilge pump.
Pump Governor. See Governor, Pump.
Pump, Hand. A pump worked by hand. They are located in the upper decks and consequently have a high suction and are difficult to operate by hand. The amount of water that they will handle is so small that these pumps are not of much use in ships of any size.
Pump, Handy Billy. A portable hand pump.
Pump, Hydraulic Pressure. A pump designed to deliver against a heavy pressure. The pump and its parts must be extra heavy and strong.
Pump, Independent. A pump with its own engine. The piston and plunger are usually on the same rod, the valve gear being actuated from the crosshead.
Pump, Lift. A pump that lifts only and does not discharge against a head.
Pump, Lubricating Oil. The function of this pump is to force lubricating oil to the shaft and engine bearings and crossheads.
Pump, Main Circulating. The function of this pump is to take water in large quantities from the sea, force it through the main condenser tubes and then overboard. On account of the low head to be overcome and the large capacity required, it is usually of the centrifugal type. In addition to a suction line, sea injection valve, it has a by-pass to the bilge which may at any time be used in pumping water overboard either directly of through the condenser. As a centrifugal pump will handle ashes and such refuse as are liable to collect in the bottom of a ship, it becomes of great value when a large quantity of water is admitted to the ship through the hatches or by accident.
Pump, Main Feed. The function of this pump is to keep the water at the proper level in the boilers. It takes fresh water either from the main or reserve feed tanks. Some types are driven from a connection to the main engine and others have independent engines. The number and location of these pumps depends on the size of the ship and the design.
Pump, Oil. Oil pumps on shipboard are used for feeding the lubricating system, feeding oil burners on boilers, transferring fuel oil from one tank to another and to the settling tanks, and for handling cargo oil.
Pump, Oil Service. A pump for the circulation of lubricating oil.
Pump, Plunger. A solid or hollow cylindrical piston that moves back and fourth or up and down in the water cylinder of a pump. The plunger retains its full diameter when it passes through a stuffing box.
Pump, Reciprocating. A pump composed of one or more cylinders in which a piston or bucket moves back and fourth or up and down. The power is obtained from steam cylinders and depends on the area of the piston and steam pressure.
Pump Rose Box. See Pump, Strainer.
Pump, Rotary. This pump discharges through the action of a rotating cam or plunger and does not rely on centrifugal force.
Pump, Rotary Air. One form of rotary pump consists of a waterwheel which throws thin films of spray into a discharge pipe in which a steam ejector is installed. It removes air and vapor only while a condensate pump handles the condensed steam.
Pump, Sanitary. The function of this pump is to supply salt water to the flushing system and for baths. It may deliver directly but commonly discharges into a gravity tank, the overflow of which is carried to the water closets and troughs. It also supplies a tank in which a steam coil is installed for the purpose of providing for hot sea water baths.
Pump, Single Acting. A pump that delivers from one end of the cylinder only and on alternate strokes.
Pump Strainer. A galvanized iron box with the sides perforated by small holes, the combined area of which equals at least twice the area of the suction pipe. The object is to prevent refuse from clogging the pumps.
Pump Strum. See Pump Strainer.
Pump Suctions. In the midship and dead flat sections of a ship and where there is not a sharp rise in the floor or bottom three suctions are required, one at the keel and one on each side to make sure of clearing the ship when she has taken a heavy list. In the ends of the ship and where there is a sharp deadrise only one suction need be installed near the keel.
Pump, Transfer. An oil pump used for transferring oil from one tank to another and from the oil tanks to the settling tanks.
Pump, Water Service. A pump for circulating cooling water through shaft bearings, crosshead, slides, etc. The delivery should also by-pass to the fire main and to the distiller.
Pump Wells. A tank formed either independently or by the structural members of the ship in which the pump strainer on the end of a suction line is installed. The hot well may be an independent tank and is used to collect the condensate water.
Punch and Shear, Combination. A double ended machine designed for punching at one end and shearing at the other. Each end is controlled independently and may be operated simultaneously on two pieces of work.
Punch, Double End. A double ended punching machine, designed for punching holes in metal plates or shapes at both ends. The punches at each end are controlled independently and may be operated simultaneously on two pieces of work.
Punch, Horizontal. A punching machine in which the punch moves in a horizontal direction. This type is generally used for punching holes in shapes such as angles, zee bars, etc.
Punch, Multiple. A punching machine designed for punching more than one hole in a single operation.
Punch, Vertical. A punching machine in which the punch moves in a vertical direction. This type of punch is generally used for punching holes in plates.
Punching Machine. A machine used for punching rivet and bolt holes in metal plates, angles, I-beams, channels, etc.
Punt. A heavily built boat of rectangular shape used by workmen employed in painting, cleaning or repairing a ship’s topsides when in sheltered water’s.
Purchase. Any mechanical advantage which increases the power applied.
Purser. A ship’s officer who has charge of provision accounts, is head of the steward’s department, handles mail, etc.
Putty, Rust. A putty made from the cast iron filings or borings and sal ammoniac, used as a luting between the flanges of iron pipe, etc.
Pyrometer. An instrument for measuring the temperatures of the hot gases and steam in a boiler.
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This glossary is copyright Bruce Beveridge and TRMA. It is not to be used or altered in any other format(public webpages, published print or for the viewing of an audience). Please be aware that if any part of this glossary is found being used else ware, the appropriate actions will be taken.
If you would like to use any part of the glossary, you must ask for permission first. Chances are, we will say yes, but we just need to know where it is on the web and we require a link back to our page if you use any part of the glossary.Back to the main glossary page
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SALT LAKE CITY University of Utah researchers have found that delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging (DE-MRI) holds promise for predicting treatment outcomes and measuring disease progression for patients with atrial fibrillation (AF), a little known heart rhythm disorder that affects more than 3.5 million Americans and causes more than 66,000 deaths a year. Their latest study on a novel application of this technology for AF appears in the April 7 issue of the journal Circulation.
AF is a misfiring of the electrical signals of the heart, which causes rapid and/or irregular heartbeats and is associated with fibrosis (scar tissue) in the left atrium. Although DE-MRI is an established method for visualizing tissue damage in cardiac disease processes, the study assessed its use in a protocol developed to detect fibrosis in AF patients before they underwent radiofrequency (RF) ablation. This procedure involves the use of catheters that emit mild, painless radiofrequency energy to destroy carefully selected heart muscle cells to stop them from conducting extra electrical impulses.
In this study, the University of Utah colleagues developed a protocol using DE-CMRI to create 3-D images of the left atrium before RF ablation, which were processed and analyzed with custom software tools and computer algorithms to calculate the extent of left atrium wall injury. Patients were then assessed at least six months after the procedure, and the researchers found that only 14 percent classified as having minimal fibrosis had suffered AF recurrence compared to 75 percent recurrence for the group that had extensive scar tissue damage.
"Our results indicate that DE-MRI provides a noninvasive means of assessing left atrial myocardial tissue in patients suffering from AF, and that those who do have tissue damage may be at greater risk of suffering AF recurrence after treatment with RF ablation," said lead author Nassir F. Marrouche, M.D., assistant professor of internal medicine in the University of Utah School of Medicine and director of the Atrial Fibrillation Program. "Our findings also present a disease progression model that supports the importance of early intervention."
In addition to its noninvasive nature, DE-MRI offers other advantages over commonly used invasive electroanatomic mapping studies to assess tissue health. For example, while other such diagnostic mapping studies have been associated with a high degree of spatial error, three-dimensional DE-MRI provides information on both the anatomy and the location of pathology without spatial distortion. Marrouche and his colleagues also have developed methods of processing the MRI images in order to visualize the entire volume of left atrium wall injury in 3-D.
"Until now, there has not been an accurate, non-invasive way to assess left atrium scar formation, which studies show is linked to AF disease severity," said Marrouche. "If substantiated, our DE-MRI visualization technique and analysis would provide guidance in determining appropriate candidates for AF catheter ablation as well as in identifying the heart muscle cells that need to be destroyed."
Last fall, the University of Utah Atrial Fibrillation program became the first in the world to be able to ablate using a catheter custom-made to be compatible with MRI. Next month, University Health Care will open a new multimillion dollar clinical and research lab, which will be the first in North America to provide real-time DE-MRI for treating patients with AF.
|Contact: Chantelle Turner|
University of Utah Health Sciences
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|Videos & Presentation for President's Day Study|
Happy Birthday, Mr. President - Talking Book
Father of Our Country - Talking Book
George Washington - Presentation for ESL Students
Abraham Lincoln - Talking Book
American Passages - Annenberg Media: Offers a biographical sketch of President Lincoln as an author. Also search the archive to find photos and portraits of President Lincoln, as well as other Lincoln-related artifacts.
Primary Sources: Workshops in American History - Annenberg Media: Answers the question, "Who freed the slaves?" In Workshop 4, "Concerning Emancipation." Much of the focus is on Lincoln, who played a major role. Click on "Before You Watch" for links to several of Lincoln’s speeches and letters.
America’s History in the Making: Annenberg Media: See the Evaluating Evidence interactive on the Web site for America’s History in the Making. The interactive features Lincoln’s first and second inaugural addresses, the Gettysburg Address, the "House Divided" speech, and Lincoln’s open letter to Horace Greely, as well as other artifacts from the era. Explore units 4 and 6 of America’s History in the Making to gain a better understanding of George Washington and his times.
Abraham Lincoln - PowerPoint
The Hunt for Lincoln’s Assassin - National Geographic
The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln - PowerPoint
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Facts and Events
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was the first President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. However, when he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a coup d'état in 1851, and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation.
During the first years of the Empire, his government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859. Thousands more, including Victor Hugo, went into voluntary exile abroad. Beginning in 1862, Napoleon loosened the reins, in what was known as the "Liberal Empire." Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly.
Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon and other French cities.
Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railroad system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal, and established modern agriculture, which ended famines in France and made France an agricultural exporter. He negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain, and similar agreements with France's other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize. Women's education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools.
In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and around the world. He was a supporter of popular sovereignty, and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War (1854–56). French troops both assisted Italian unification, and defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific and Africa. His attempt to control Mexico ended in a spectacular failure in 1867.
Beginning in 1866 Napoleon had to face the mounting power of Prussia, as Chancellor Otto von Bismarck sought German unification under Prussian leadership. In July 1870 Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies and with inferior military forces. The French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, where he died in 1873.
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This attractive tree has clusters of yellow flowers that are followed by an abundance of dark red fruit to around 2.5cm long. The rich, sweet flesh has a texture similar to peanut butter. The fruit can be eaten fresh or made into milk shakes.
This plant has peeling, light tan bark that forms as extremely thin sheets, papery, and the layers exfoliate in large sheets. As the bark ages, it turns charcoal, but most often the bark is peeled away before that occurs.
This slender tree is crowned with large velvety leaves when young. The fruit of Native Tamarind is yellow-brown and hairy. The flesh is a yellow-orange colour, is sour but pleasant, and has been used in making jams. Bird attracting.
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331 Years Later, Has the Griffon Been Found?
La Salle’s expedition and the loss of Le Griffon in September of 1679 was of great historical significance to our country’s founding and important for New France (Canada). Now, 331 years later, another expedition may prove to be just as important.
If the wreck Libert has found is Le Griffon, it will be a find of tremendous historical significance. Le Griffon was built by Rene-Robert Sieur de La Salle, one of the first French explorers of the Great Lakes Region. He would later claim the Mississippi River watershed for France, a vast expanse of land that extended from the Allegheny Mountains to the Rocky Mountains and North of the Great Lakes, a portion of which became what is presently known as the Louisiana Purchase.
Underwater Time Capsule
Exploration and study of the ship will tell us much about the history of our country and how our ancestors lived. “The ship is a time capsule that will fill the missing gaps of La Salle’s early exploration of North America,” says Libert. In particular, the wreck is a record of ship construction of that period, about which relatively little is known. La Salle constructed Le Griffon on the banks of the Niagara River, about three miles above the falls. There is strong documentation to support the view that Le Griffon was built on what is now the U.S. side of the Falls. If the wreckage is Le Griffon, however, it may be possible to use samples to establish definitively which side it was built on.
The fact that Le Griffon was built in the wilderness, as opposed to a shipyard, will reveal the circumstances La Salle and his men faced and the tools and technology they possessed. The ship was built with timber cut on site. The exact dimensions of the vessel are not know. It is however known to have been a 40 tun* vessel with three masts, a foremast, main and mizzen, and several square sails.
Le Griffon was armed with two cannons and three rail guns; it also transported soldiers. This has led some to call it a vessel of war. However, Le Griffon was clearly intended to serve as an integral part of La Salle’s supply line from Niagara to Illinois.
Voyage of Le Griffon
Le Griffon’s maiden voyage started from Niagara on August 7, 1679. La Salle and 16 men sailed across Lake Erie to present day Detroit, where it picked up Henri DeTonti, one of La Salle’s lieutenants, and five other men. From there, Le Griffon sailed to St Ignace, near the Straits of Mackinac, finally stopping at safe anchorage on the shores of Green Bay. On September 18, 1679, La Salle dispatched a crew of six to sail Le Griffon back to Niagara to pick up men and supplies needed for the construction of forts and a second vessel.
Le Griffon sailed from what is known today as Washington Harbor on Washington Island. Father Hennepin, a Franciscan Recollect friar who had accompanied La Salle on the expedition, records that the ship fired a single cannon shot as it set sail. La Salle’s agent and attorney, Claude Bernou, in summarizing La Salle’s letters, wrote, “They set sail on the 18th of September with a light and very favorable wind from the West. It has not been possible to ascertain since what course they steered.” Le Griffon was never seen again.
Legends, and Speculation
From this point on, rumors, legends and speculation have abounded, but La Salle was very clear as to what he thought happened to the ship. The three main conjectures about the fate of Le Griffon have been: 1) Indians captured the crew and burned the ship; 2) The ship went down in a sudden storm; 3) Le Griffon's crew mutinied, scuttled the ship, and kept its load of furs.
Of these alternatives, La Salle quickly dismissed the first one, believing that Jesuit missionaries at Missilimackinac had concocted the story in order to induce him to take action against the Pottawatomie Indians who had killed two of their men.
La Salle's letters provide support for either or both of the other two possibilities: Le Griffon sinking in a sudden storm and/or a crew mutiny and scuttling of the ship. It is known that there was a tremendous storm on the day after Le Griffon left Washington Harbor on September 18th. Initially, it seemed likely that the ship had sunk in that storm. Bernou, again summarizing La Salle's letters, wrote, "...the Indians saw the barque tossed about in such an extraordinary way that they could not weather the storm although they had cut down all the sails; a short time after, they lost sight of it..."
Two years later, however, La Salle learned additional information in talking with a young Pana Indian boy who was serving as a translator. The Pana Indian boy said he had seen Le Griffon's pilot (captain) and another Frenchman brought to a village by Sioux warriors. According to this witness, as recorded in La Salle's letters, the ship and crew survived the storm; later the crew scuttled the ship taking a small cargo of furs. Subsequently, the captain and another Frenchman, possibly trying to make their way west, were captured by the Sioux Indians.
However the particulars of the historical record are eventually resolved, Libert found the wreck location primarily by studying the patterns of storms in the area. Libert's experience sailing and diving in the Great Lakes convinced him that Le Griffon had left Washington Island and had anchored in the northern waters of Lake Michigan. Since no debris has ever been found, whether Le Griffon sank in a storm or was scuttled, it appears likely that the vessel went straight to the bottom of the lake intact.
The Great Lakes Expedition Group looks forward to resolving this 300+ year old mystery by relying on historical documents and visually inspecting the ship. Even if the wreck turns out not to be Le Griffon, archeologist Ken Vrana of The Center for Maritime and Underwater Resource Management (CMURM), believes the ship will still be a very noteworthy archaeological find. There are thousands of shipwrecks in the Great Lakes, few of which have ever been recovered.
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Constant Ringing in the Ears
Continuous or constant ringing in the ears can be a very aggravating symptom for which most people will want to seek treatment. Constant ringing in the ears may be caused by a number of triggers, but is most often related to loud noises, age related hearing loss, or medication side effects or withdrawal.
Although there is no cure for ringing in the ears unless there is an underlying cause that can be treated, it may be possible to reduce the severity of the symptoms using these tinnitus cures. There are prescription medications available for extreme cases, herbal supplements that may help, and auditory methods for coping with constant ringing in the ears.
Causes for Constant Ringing in the Ears
Constant ringing in the ears occurs when the cilia and neurons that handle hearing become damaged and can be a temporary problem or a permanent symptom of an injury. The ear drum can also become damaged and cause constant ringing in the ears.
The ear drum sends external sound waves into the middle ear, where it gets amplified and passes through to the inner ear where the cilia and neurons are located. The cilia are tiny hairs that act like antennas to pick up on noise vibrations. Attached to the base of each hair is a brain cell, called a neuron that sends the frequency (vibration) to the brain for interpretation. The brain’s interpretation of the sound is what we effectively “hear”.
Exposing the ears to sustained loud noises or repeatedly exposing the ears to loud noises over a period of many years can significantly damage the eardrum, cilia, or neurons housed in the inner ear.
As really loud sounds pass through the ear drum, the volume can cause the eardrum to become detached or cause a perforation (similar to a blown speaker in a car). Just like a blown speaker in the car can distort the sounds from the radio, a “blown” eardrum will distort sounds we hear. The ear drum can’t always be repaired, so this can lead to constant ringing in the ears. The cilia and neurons can be subjected to the same type of damage, but may become dislodged instead of perforated.
When the neurons become damaged, it causes them to send signals to the brain when there really is no vibration to be interpreted. Because the brain is functioning normally, the message it receives from the neurons is interpreted as sound. And since each neuron is responsible for a specific frequency, when a specific neuron becomes damaged the same signal is constantly sent to the brain and causes constant ringing.
Age related hearing loss can also cause constant ringing in the ears for the same reason. The constant ringing caused by hearing loss is a result of deteriorating cells in the inner ear. As we age, so do the cells that make up the cilia, eardrum, and neurons responsible for hearing. Although this isn’t caused directly by an external source of damage, once these parts become damaged the result is the same: intermittent or constant ringing in the ears.
Some medication can cause constant ringing in the ears as well as withdrawal from certain medications. Benzodiazepine is an addictive drug that is commonly prescribed to help people with tinnitus, but in some people actually causes this symptom. If a person is prescribed medications such as Ativan, Xanax, Valium or any other type of anti-anxiety medication considered under this umbrella for a purpose other than relief from hearing-related problems, constant ringing in the ears should be reported to a doctor. These medications can also cause severe sensitivity to sounds and vertigo.
Treatment for Constant Ringing in the Ears
Effectively treating the sounds of constant ringing, whether that means hearing beeping tones or whirring or buzzing, comes down to trial and error. For many, a white noise machine helps them to cope with the constant noise. White noise machines emit “neutral” sounds and give the ears something else to focus on. Likewise, masking devices can help constant ringing in the ears through the same method except that these devices can be worn like hearing aids to assist all throughout the day and night.
Many people who have to cope with constant ringing in the ears because of an untreatable injury or hearing loss choose to try retraining therapy. This treatment helps the brain “get used to” to specific frequency it hears as a result of tinnitus (ringing in the ears). This way, the person isn’t as aware of the sound.
To reduce the severity of constant ringing in the ears, one is well advised to make certain lifestyle changes. Reducing the amount of caffeine and salt intake can significantly reduce the severity of the symptom. Smoking, tobacco products, and NSAID’s (pain medicines) have also been linked to the severity of constant ringing in the ears and should be avoided.
Herbal supplements such as ginkgo biloba might also help with constant ringing. Avoiding loud noises and regular exercise can also help. However, be mindful of extending the neck and jostling the head during exercise routines because these actions can make constant ringing in the ears louder or make the ears more sensitive to the sound.
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|introduction - resources - faq - media|
Galah (pronounced gh'LAH)
SUBSPIECIES: Eolophus roseicapilla assimilis, a bird with paler pink feathers and a white eyering.
OTHER NAMES: Roseate Cockatoo, Rose-breasted Cockatoo
FOOD: Grasses, herbs,roots, green shoots, leaf buds,insects and their larvae, and grains
HABITAT: Open country with scattered trees, riverine woodland, farmlands. They can even be found in cities!
APPEARANCE: Galahs have a pale grey back, wings and tail and a deep rose body and head. They have a white crest which covers the top half of the head, dividing it in half above and below the eyes.The eyes themselves are used to determine sex, as the female has a reddish brown iris and the male a dark black one They have a pale pink ring around the eyes, which is fleshy, and a pale beak, unlike other Australian cockatoos.They are 15 cm or 7 1/2 inches long aprox. making them one of the smallest Austrialian cockatoos.
CALL: A delightful double 'chill chill' noise, like a high light squeaky chirp. Also screeches, especially when settling down to roost.
BREEDING: The galah mates for life at the age of 4 years old. Galahs nest in a hollow in a tree, chewing and striping the bark around the nest entrance. A clutch of 2-5 eggs is laid, which is incubated by both parents for 4 weeks. The young are fed in the nest for 5-6 weeks, then leave it to roost in a 'creche tree' with other young birds. The chicks are fed by their parents for another 2-3 weeks, as well as other young adult birds without chicks, until they are considered full grown.
MORE ON THE GALAH: Considered a pest species in many parts of Australia, the galah is the most prevelent Australian cockatoo, and in fact one of the continent's most prevalent birds. Unlike many other birds and animals in Australia, the galah has definitely benefited from European settlers moving to Australia. Originally found only in the dry inland of Australia, they now cover all but the most wet and vegetated parts of the country. The galah is now a common site in Australian cities too, where they populate parks and gardens. Galahs have found the farmlands of modern Australian very favorable for them, and sometimes flocks of up to a thousand birds may descend upon crops or pilfer livestock feed. Agile and intelligent thieves, these beautiful birds are shot, trapped and poisoned in an attempt to reduce losses.
From Galah Designs (2000)
|home - introduction - resources - faq - media|
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Body mass index (BMI; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) has been linked to depression and the risk of suicide attempts and deaths in conflicting directions.
In a prospective cohort study of 46 755 men free of cancer enrolled in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, participants reported their height, weight, diet, and physical activity on repeated occasions beginning in 1986 and were followed up until death or until February 2002. A subsample of 1829 men reported their mental health–related quality of life with the Mental Component Summary Scale of the 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey in 1998.
A total of 131 men died from suicide during follow-up. A higher BMI was related to a graded decline in the suicide mortality rate, from 52 per 100 000 person-years among men with a BMI of less than 21 to 13 per 100 000 among men with a BMI of 30 or higher; the adjusted hazard ratio per 1-U BMI increment was 0.89 (95% confidence interval, 0.84-0.95; P<.001). The relationship was consistent when baseline or updated measures of BMI were used and with adjustment for medical illness, dietary factors, antidepressant use, physical activity, or social support. Height and physical activity were not strongly associated with risk. Analyses of mental health–related quality of life showed a similar positive relationship with BMI.
Among men, risk of death from suicide is strongly inversely related to BMI, but not to height or to physical activity. Although obesity cannot be recommended on the basis of its detrimental effects, further research into the mechanisms of lower risk among overweight and obese men may provide insights into effective methods of suicide prevention.
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Details about The Neuroscience of Human Relationships:
Just as neurons communicate through mutual stimulation, brains strive to connect with one another. Louis Cozolino shows us how brains are highly social organisms. Balancing cogent explanation with instructive brain diagrams, he presents an atlas of sorts, illustrating how the architecture and development of brain systems from before birth through adulthood determine how we interact with others.
Back to top
Rent The Neuroscience of Human Relationships 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Louis Cozolino. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by W. W. Norton & Company.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our Neuropsychology tutors now.
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Gorbachev's Murmansk Initiative:
New Prospects for Arms Control in the Arctic?
The significance of the Arctic for the national security of the Soviet Union has resulted in attention being paid periodically in Soviet foreign policy to arms control for the Far North. The most recent instance was General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev's speech in Murmansk late last year. The Soviet Arctic is of great strategic importance to Moscow for a variety of reasons, not the least being the fact that 55 per cent of the total land area of the Soviet Union lies north of 60° latitude and that half of the Soviet coastline is on the Arctic Ocean. Furthermore, the Soviet northlands provide much of the country's production of strategic resources, such as oil, natural gas, and uranium. Finally, the Northern Sea Route along the Soviet arctic coast provides an east-west transportation corridor less vulnerable to possible Western and Chinese interdiction than the Suez Canal or the Siberian railways.1
Militarily, the Soviet Union has always been restricted by its lack of access to the open ocean. Its only year-round access to the Atlantic is from the ice-free ports on the Kola Peninsula through the Barents and Norwegian seas. The Soviet Northern Fleet's Kola bases host 172 submarines (39 of them capable of firing ballistic missiles) and 41 major surface warships. In addition to extensive naval facilities, the Kola also has 11 active military airfields.
The Arctic Basin and Soviet arctic territories are integral to the maintenance of Soviet nuclear forces. The Barents and Kara seas are the operating areas for the Northern Fleet's ballistic-missile submarines, protected by the ice cover and by the surface naval and air forces based on the Kola. Plesetsk, located inland on the Onega River, is a base for intercontinental ballistic missiles as well as a missile test-site and important space-launch facility. Arctic waters and territory are used for both test launchings and impacts of land-based and sea-based missiles, and underground nuclear tests take place on the island of Novaya Zemlya. In wartime, the Soviet bomber force could mount an attack on North America from northern staging and dispersal fields and, of course, use arctic airspace for its flights. Finally, the Soviet homeland is protected by a northern network of early-warning radars to detect air and missile attacks.
Soviet interest in arms control for the Far North was first articulated by Premier Nikolai Bulganin in a 1958 proposal for a zone in northern Europe "free of atomic and hydrogen weapons". Although proposals for a "Nordic nuclear-weapons-free zone" have been the most prominent and continuing feature of Soviet arms control policy for the Arctic, Gorbachev's new proposal was much broader, calling for an arctic "zone of peace". This "Murmansk initiative" has been reiterated by Soviet diplomats abroad and was emphasized by Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov on his trip through Scandinavia.
Speaking in Murmansk on 1 October 1987, Gorbachev dealt extensively with domestic issues, such as economic restructuring or perestroika, before beginning the arms control portion of his address. Appealing to the Scandinavian countries, he said that the northern European nations were the most receptive to new thinking, and he lauded Scandinavian leaders for their disarmament efforts. He went on to praise Norway and Denmark for not allowing foreign military bases and nuclear weapons on their territories in peacetime.
Gorbachev then described the "threatening character" of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) militarization of the North, noting such developments as possible compensation for the elimination of European intermediate-range missiles through the deployment of sea and air-launched cruise missiles, the modernization of the early warning radar at Thule, Greenland by the United States, and, of particular interest to Canadians, U.S. cruise-missile testing in the Canadian North and Canada's "vest program for a build-up of forces in the Arctic".
Saying, "Let the North of the globe, the Arctic, become a zone of peace", Gorbachev then proposed a six-point program for talks on limiting and reducing military activity in the region.
First, he said, Moscow would act as a guarantor of a Nordic nuclear-weapons-free zone, and would discuss "possible measures applicable to Soviet territory" as part of such a zone, including the withdrawal of ballistic-missile submarines from the Baltic Fleet. Gorbachev noted that medium-range missile launchers on the Kola Peninsula had been unilaterally dismantled, many shorter-range missiles redeployed, and military exercises in border areas restricted to demonstrate Soviet willingness to explore opportunities for "military détente" in northern Europe.
Second, Gorbachev welcomed suggestions made by Finnish President Mauno Koivisto on restricting naval activities in the seas adjacent to northern Europe, and proposed talks between NATO and the Warsaw Pact on extending confidence-building measures to the Baltic, North, Norwegian, and Greenland seas. These measures could include the limitation of anti-submarine weapons, prior notification of major naval exercises, and invitation of observers to exercises. A meeting of interested countries, he suggested, could be held in Leningrad to discuss prohibiting naval activity in "mutually agreed-upon zones of international straits and in intensive shipping lanes in general". Gorbachev also referred to the Novaya Zemlya nuclear test-site, saying that an agreement by Washington to end or restrict nuclear tests would "resolve once and for all" the problem of Soviet nuclear tests in the Arctic.
The third point of the proposal covered peaceful co-operation in resource development, including a single energy program for northern Europe and joint exploitation of resources on the Kola Peninsula. Canada and Norway were mentioned as possible partners for oil and gas development in northern waters.
Fourth, Gorbachev stated that the Soviet Union attaches a great deal of importance to scientific exploration of the Arctic. He therefore proposed a conference of circumpolar nations for 1988, possibly to be held in Murmansk, to co-ordinate scientific study and examine the creation of an international scientific council for the Arctic.
The fifth point proposed drafting a comprehensive environmental protection plan for the Arctic. As an example, Gorbachev mentioned a northern European agreement on monitoring the state of the environment and "radiation safety", a reference to the effect on Scandinavia of the Chernobyl nuclear accident.
Finally, "depending on progress in the normalization of international relations," the Soviets could open the Northern Sea Route to foreign ships escorted by Soviet ice-breakers.
Soviet officials have since furnished more details on the points of the Murmansk initiative. Alexei Makarov, minister-counsellor at the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, told Canadian journalists in October, and again in February, that Moscow would be willing to discuss cuts in its military strength on the Kola, provided NATO reduces the pace of its "build-up" in the North. He reiterated Gorbachev's closing remarks that the Soviet Union is ready to discuss any counter-proposals.
Words into Action
Speaking in Stockholm on 11 January, Premier Ryzhkov said that the Soviet leadership had considered further ideas to translate the Murmansk initiative into concrete actions. He announced that Moscow would invite observers from the Nordic countries to a Soviet naval exercise in 1988. He also proposed that the limitation and reduction of naval and air activities in the Baltic, North, Norwegian and Greenland seas be discussed by NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and subsequently be included on the agenda of the second phase of the Conference on Confidence- and Security-Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (CCSBMDE), saying that the Soviet Union is prepared to add the Barents Sea to the waters under discussion. Sweden and Finland should be invited to the talks as well, Ryzhkov added.
In Oslo on 14 January, Ryzhkov stated that the Soviets are ready to reach agreement on several points: limiting major air and naval exercises in the specified seas to one every two years; banning U.S. and Soviet anti-submarine activities in specified waters; prohibiting naval manoeuvers in major Atlantic sea lanes and fishing banks; and limiting the number and classes of ships allowed to concentrate in bays and sounds in international waters. For the first time, he mentioned the English Channel as an area to be included in any agreement.
Western reaction to the Mummansk speech and Soviet follow-up diplomacy has, on the whole, been lukewarm. Finnish President Koivisto welcomed the Gorbachev proposals, but European community foreign ministers meeting in Denmark in October and Nordic foreign ministers in Norway in March rejected them. Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, apparently not won over by Gorbachev's expressed support in Murmansk for her United Nations environmental commission, expressed interest in Ryzhkov's proposals, but said that Norway would resist any attempt to separate it from its NATO allies. Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs Joe Clark and Defence Minister Perrin Beatty both called on the Soviets to reduce their military strength on the Kola as a sign of their good intentions. U.S. Officials have taken the position that the initiative "tries to divide the alliance into regions of lesser or greater importance" and that the North cannot be considered in isolation from other NATO areas.
The Murmansk initiative is clearly an important signal of Soviet interest in circumpolar co-operation on such matters as environmental protection, resource development, and scientific exploration. The Soviet "openness" in these areas is further reflected in the Soviet draft of the proposed Canada-U.S.S.R. arctic co-operation treaty, which provides for environmental, navigation, and scientific co-operation.2
These points of the Gorbachev initiative warrant close scrutiny by Canada and its arctic neighbours, given the Mulroney government's declared willingness to promote circumpolar co-operation.
The arms control portion of the Murmansk speech, however, must be examined critically. While purporting to create an Arctic "zone of peace", it would in reality limit NATO military activity in Scandinavia and the adjacent seas to a greater degree than Warsaw Pact activity. The original address failed to include the Kola Peninsula-the largest concentration of military power in the world-in the framework of the talks, as well as the Barents and Kara seas, in which the Soviet Northern Fleet and much of the Soviet sea-based strategic nuclear force operates. The Kola and Barents have now been mentioned by Soviet officials, but no details have been provided concerning what limitations or reductions in force strength and activities would be considered for them.
The concessions mentioned by Gorbachev-the dismantling of medium-range missiles on the Kola and the willingness to withdraw ballistic-missile submarines from the Baltic-are in fact withdrawals of obsolete systems rather than real cuts in Soviet strength. The Golf-class boats deployed in the Baltic were built in the 1960s, are conventionally rather than nuclear-powered, and carry the SS-N-5 missile with a range so short (1080 km) that the weapon was not counted in the SALT II arms limitation treaty.
There is, in fact, very little that is really new in the specific arms control proposals made at Murmansk, although more detail has been given than in the past. Since 1958 the Kremlin has consistently promoted a Nordic nuclear-free zone, and the Soviet Union has periodically attempted to extend the confidence- and security-building measures to be discussed in the CCSBMDE to naval and air manoeuvres.
Any country's arms control policy is intended to complement its defence policy, and Soviet arms control policy is no exception. The Murmansk proposals are designed to support the tasks of the Soviet military in the Arctic: seizing control of the West's lines of communication through the Arctic, defence against aerial threats; protection of the Soviet sea-based strategic nuclear force; and safeguarding the forces and infrastructure supporting the nuclear arsenal.3 In particular, the proposals would restrict NATO naval operations along the northern lines of communication and in the seas closest to Soviet ballistic-missile submarine patrol areas; limit the number of weapons available to NATO for anti-submarine warfare and ban anti-submarine operations in certain areas; and remove NATO's nuclear weapons infrastructure from Norway and Denmark. The control of maritime chokepoints, which is central to Soviet strategy in the arctic theatre, is aided by limiting NATO's use of the Greenland-Iceland-U.K. Gap, the English Channel, and the Baltic approaches. Furthermore, for reasons of verifiability, it is likely that the proposed naval restrictions would exclude submarines, giving Soviet attack and ballistic-missile submarines free rein while constraining NATO's anti-submarine efforts.
The arms control portion of the Murmansk speech is, therefore, largely a repackaging and elaboration of previous Soviet proposals intended to produce a unilateral Soviet advantage. It is also another attempt to pursue a consistent Soviet foreign policy goal: the fostering of a division within NATO, in this case splitting Norway and Denmark from the other allies.
However, from an arms control point of view, Gorbachev's Murmansk speech is not completely lacking in promise. There is certainly some merit to the development of confidence-building measures for the seas; notification of manoeuvres, for instance, may be worth exploring as a means of preventing the disguise of "surges" of naval forces in preparation for war as mere exercises. NATO could make a counter-proposal to begin negotiations which attempt to prevent clashes between naval forces, arriving at a NATO-Warsaw Pact accord along the lines of the U.S.-Soviet and Anglo-Soviet Incidents at Sea agreements. The Canadian government, which stated in December 1986 that it would seek to limit excessive militarization of the Arctic, should take the lead in exploring possible NATO responses.
There is, therefore, something to applaud in the Murmansk initiative: the fostering of circumpolar co-operation and the general lessening of tensions in the region. But the "zone of peace" does not live up to Soviet hype. Only a few of the specific measures proposed deserve further exploration. The most promising approach to arctic security through arms control may be to pursue measures of global applicability which will influence arctic strategic problems, such as restrictions on sea-launched cruise missiles.
2. See John Merritt, ''Has Glasnost Come Knocking?", Northern Perspectives, Special Edition, October 1987.
3. Charles C. Petersen, "Soviet Military Objectives in the Arctic Theater", Naval War College Review, Autumn 1987, pp. 3 4.
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The first American woman to make the trip into space is dead but her legacy continues in the Bay Area.
Sally Ride died Monday from pancreatic cancer. She was 61.
She was just 32 when she traveled into space on board NASA's space shuttle Challenger. Shattering the glass ceiling and giving girls something new to dream about.
Ride made two trips into space and was part of the team of investigators who later looked into the Challenger disaster.
When she retired from NASA the astronaut and physicist went on to teach at Stanford and UC San Diego. She also started Sally Ride Science. A program aiming to get girls interested in science and math.
Camps at Stanford and UC Berkeley are scheduled for this summer.
Chabot Space and Science Center in Oakland has a similar program. Chabot's executive director Alexander Zwissler met Ride when she honored the organization for it's work.
"Ride was very smart, a physicist, and super committed to cause of getting women motivated about science," Zwissler said.
Work she started and others will now continue.
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The idea and practice of sacrifice play a profound role in religion, ethics, and politics. In this brief book, philosopher Moshe Halbertal explores the meaning and implications of sacrifice, developing a theory of sacrifice as an offering and examining the relationship between sacrifice, ritual, violence, and love. On Sacrifice also looks at the place of self-sacrifice within ethical life and at the complex role of sacrifice as both a noble and destructive political ideal.
In the religious domain, Halbertal argues, sacrifice is an offering, a gift given in the context of a hierarchical relationship. As such it is vulnerable to rejection, a trauma at the root of both ritual and violence. An offering is also an ambiguous gesture torn between a genuine expression of gratitude and love and an instrument of exchange, a tension that haunts the practice of sacrifice.
In the moral and political domains, sacrifice is tied to the idea of self-transcendence, in which an individual sacrifices his or her self-interest for the sake of higher values and commitments. While self-sacrifice has great potential moral value, it can also be used to justify the most brutal acts. Halbertal attempts to unravel the relationship between self-sacrifice and violence, arguing that misguided self-sacrifice is far more problematic than exaggerated self-love. In his exploration of the positive and negative dimensions of self-sacrifice, Halbertal also addresses the role of past sacrifice in obligating future generations and in creating a bond for political associations, and considers the function of the modern state as a sacrificial community.
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By Steve Kingstone
BBC News, Brazil
With seemingly endless sunshine and a gentle breeze coming off the sea,
Praia de Boa Viagem in the city of Recife looks like the perfect urban beach.
And it is - but for one detail. Sharks.
Before the 1990s, there were virtually no attacks reported here. But since 1992, there have been 47 shark attacks along a 20-km (12.5-mile) stretch of coast. Sixteen of them were fatal.
In 2004, there were seven reported attacks. Two of the victims died.
"I was surfing 15m from the beach when the shark appeared under me," recalls 25-year-old Mario Cesar.
"I tried to punch him, but he took my arm and pulled me into the water. Eventually, I wrenched myself free and a big wave pushed me in to shore."
Mario lost his right arm in the attack, which happened in 2002. Another survivor is 18-year-old Walmir da Silva, who was attacked while swimming in water barely up to his waist.
Today, he wears a prosthetic leg below the left knee, and is waiting for a prosthetic arm to be fitted.
"The shark pulled me under with so much power that I really thought I was going to die," says Walmir. "And I was losing blood from my leg. But I hit his dorsal fin and kicked out - and in the end he released me."
In absolute terms, there are more shark attacks in Florida and Australia than in Brazil.
But statistically, a higher proportion of attack victims have died in Recife. One in every three attacks is fatal.
The perpetrators are mostly bull sharks, an aggressive species with a preference for shallow coastal waters.
The new port handles four million tonnes of cargo a year
So why are the attacks happening?
A state-funded investigation has focused on the long-term ecological effects
of a new port, to the south of Recife.
Porto Suape opened for business in 1984, and today handles more than four million tonnes of cargo per year. To facilitate its initial construction, two freshwater estuaries - which had discharged into the Atlantic Ocean - were sealed off.
"Female bull sharks used to enter those estuaries to give birth," says Fabio Hazin, a marine biologist and head of the state-funded monitoring comittee.
"From when the port was built, we believe a number of females moved north to the next estuary - which discharges on to the stretch of beach where the attacks happened."
Based on that finding, local human rights lawyers are considering a symbolic legal challenge to the state of Pernambuco, with the aim of securing compensation for the victims of attacks.
"Until now, not one victim has received compensation," says Sergio Murilo, a lawyer and the head of the Safe Beach Project - a local campaign group.
The government is under pressure to act over the attacks
"These people have lost limbs because of attacks, and they're getting no assistance.
"They need medical care and help getting a job. Compensation is about guaranteeing their right to a normal life."
The Safe Beach Project has also proposed a solution to Recife's shark problem.
It wants the local authorities to partition off a short section of beach using heavy-duty nets out to sea. Electromagnetic buoys would also deter - but not kill - the sharks.
Similar schemes have been tried in South Africa and Australia, but the idea has met with opposition in Recife.
"The problem with nets is that they wouldn't only stop sharks," says marine biologist Fabio Hazin. "Other creatures like dolphins and turtles would also get tangled up."
At the water's edge, Mario Cesar says that he would like to surf again one day - in spite of having suffered a terrifying attack.
"I'd need a better prosthetic arm," he says, "maybe a mechanical one which allows hand movement. And of course, I would have to be somewhere that, categorically, does not have sharks."
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Adding and subtracting rational expressions is similar to adding fractions. When adding and subtracting rational expressions, we find a common denominator and then add the numerators. To find a common denominator, factor each first. This strategy is especially important when the denominators are trinomials.
Sample Problems (4)
Need help with "Multiplying Larger Degree Polynomials using Distributing" problems? Watch expert teachers solve similar problems to develop your skills.
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Consumption of a handful of almonds a day can raise levels of vitamin E (an important antioxidant for healthy skin), and moisturize dry skin as well. It also protects the skin from aging, inflammation, and even skin cancer.
2. Green tea
Three cups of green tea a day can contribute enough antioxidants for your body, so that they can fight aging and inflammation. The risk of skin cancer will also be reduced if we diligently consume green tea.
Broccoli Rich in vitamins A, C, and K. Vitamin A may reduce oil production, vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant, and vitamin K can prevent the occurrence of bruises on the skin. So, do not forget serving of broccoli in your diet daily.
Example salmon and cod are rich in omega-3. Because our bodies can not produce omega-3, then we must comply with the food that goes into our bodies. These fatty acids will nourish the skin, moisturizes and prevents irritation, can even improve the skin from chronic diseases such as atopic dermatitis and rosacea. These fish also contain vitamin D is good to protect the skin from the sun. For those who do not like fish can replace it with flaxseed, hazelnuts, and walnuts.
5. Sunflower oil
Containing fatty acids such as omega-6 linoleic acid are essential to prevent dry skin and inflamed. Also vital to the formation of prostaglandins, hormones that maintain the body’s cells function properly. To get healthy skin, try the salmon consumption plus broccoli, then flush with a little sunflower oil. Hhmmm….
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Clean water is crucial to our region's environment, economy, and quality of life. Our Clean Waters Initiative (CWI) program offers workshops that help local governments, landowners, and citizens develop effective strategies to reduce pollution in our area waterways.
Join us on May 20 for Designing for Impact: Low Impact Development (LID) Lessons Learned. The Clean Waters Initiative is pleased to be an event sponsor for this exciting half day workshop.
Learn More About LID
H-GAC Water Quality Resources
Includes workshops on in-stream water quality monitoring, website user training, region-wide water quality initiatives and the Basin Highlights Report / Basin Summary Report.
Wastewater Treatment Facilities and On-Site Sewage Facilities
Workshops on Electricity Use and Production through Wastewater, OSSFs, and Effluent Microbial Loading.
Workshops geared towards Coastal Community needs such as 319 grants, Economic Development and OSSF repair/inspection/replacement.
Capacity Management and Operations Maintenance
Information about Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs), Cease the Grease, and TCEQ small business assistance
MS4 Minimum Control Measures
H-GAC has hosted a series of workshop about the six minimum control measures for MS4s: construction site runoff, post-construction runoff, illicit discharge detection and emimination, good housekeeping, and industrial permits
Conservation, Landscaping, Land Use, and Low Impact Development
Presentations about Regional Water Conservation, Yard Wise, Flood Control Landscaping, Compost and Green Roofs, Nutrients and Sediments in our waterways, and Low Impact Development for Developers
Stormwater and Watersheds
This category includes presentations about feral hogs and water quality, watershed modeling, urban stream ecology, and instream bacteria dynamics.
Education, Outreach, and Public Participation
Local initiatives such as Back the Bay, Clean Water Clear Choice, and Texas Stream Team
Kathy JanhsenPublic Outreach & Education PlannerKathy.Janhsen@h-gac.com713-993-2423
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Separate and Unequal
If you really want to improve the education of poor children, you have to get them away from learning environments that are smothered by poverty.
One of the most powerful tools for improving the educational achievement of poor black and Hispanic public school students is, regrettably, seldom even considered. It has become a political no-no.
Educators know that it is very difficult to get consistently good results in schools characterized by high concentrations of poverty. The best teachers tend to avoid such schools. Expectations regarding student achievement are frequently much lower, and there are lower levels of parental involvement. These, of course, are the very schools in which so many black and Hispanic children are enrolled.
Breaking up these toxic concentrations of poverty would seem to be a logical and worthy goal. Long years of evidence show that poor kids of all ethnic backgrounds do better academically when they go to school with their more affluent — that is, middle class — peers. But when the poor kids are black or Hispanic, that means racial and ethnic integration in the schools. Despite all the babble about a postracial America, that has been off the table for a long time.
Sign up for our emails to stay updated on what we're doing and how you can help.
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The Bolshoi Simulation is the most accurate large-scale visualization/ simulation of the universe that exists (2011). It’s mapped everything that we know of, and a lot of what we don’t…
The Bolshoi supercomputers create this simulation of the large-scale structure of the universe by first examining the data from NASA’s WMAP explorer, which maps out the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Since this radiation is the light left over from the Big Bang, it’s the most ancient data in the universe, and from those starting conditions the supercomputer can use existing theoretical knowledge to simulate the evolution of different parts of the universe.
Because the supercomputer’s results match up almost perfectly with what we actually can observe of the history of the cosmos, astronomers are confident in its accuracy as a proxy for the actual universe.
There’s more information at io9 — really interesting stuff, and perhaps necessary to better explain the above visual fly-through to younger observers. There are also more details and simulations here on the project site.
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Resources for Parents
The Children’s Environmental Health Center (CEHC) produces a variety of fact sheets that provide simple steps to minimize toxic exposure in everyday life. To learn more about these simple solutions, please read our fact sheets.
Dr. Landrigan’s Summer Suggestions
As the weather gets warmer, learn how to protect your family from pesticide exposure and the sun’s harmful rays, as well as how to choose safe summer foods.
Dr. Landrigan’s Back to School Tips
Learn how to promote a greener environment at your child’s school. Prevent dispersion of air pollutants from idling cars and school buses, eliminate classroom germs, and avoid lead, phthalates, and BPA in everyday food containers.
Lead in Toys
Learn why it’s important to avoid all painted toys, including brightly colored plastic ones.
Plastics – BPA and Phthalates
Which plastics are the safest for your children? CEHC teaches which plastics to choose and which ones to avoid.
Plastics and Lunch Containers
Ensure that your child is using the safest containers for his or her school lunch.
Simple Steps to Protect Your Family from Toxins in Our Everyday World
Pediatrician Maida Galvez, MD, MPH of the Mount Sinai Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit (PEHSU), and Rhonda Sherwood, Vice Chairman of CEHC’s Executive Board, outline simple steps to prevent toxic exposure at home.
Solar radiation is hazardous for children. Learn what you can do to minimize harmful exposure.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Learn about volatile organic compounds (VOCs), what household products contain them, and what you can do to prevent VOC exposure.
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plural noun[treated as singular or plural] Geology
Large-scale processes affecting the structure of the earth’s crust.
- These data clearly demonstrate that parts of the Scottish basement underwent major thick-skinned tectonics during the Grenvillian orogeny.
- As the two examples confirm, the largest failures and most rapid rock-slope development rates are associated with steep, mountain environments and with active tectonics.
- The significant time gap between orogenic deformation and thermal metamorphism implies that metamorphism in many other orogens may not necessarily be due to compressive tectonics.
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of tectonics in:
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Q: Do Sikhs believe in equality of all humanity?
A: Yes, Sikhs believe that all humans are equal.
One of the major principles of Sikhism is to consider all human races equal, regardless of caste, color, class, culture, gender, wealth, and religion. In the fourteenth century, the Hindu caste system was at its peak in India. Many Hindu priests (Brahmins) believed in the caste system and perpetuated it as much as possible by segregating individuals of lower castes and labeling them as untouchables. People in India, who considered themselves of a high-class society wouldn’t even touch a person who they considered as being part of any lower caste. If touched accidentally, they would take a shower to clean themselves. They also would serve food to their servants and workers on the floor and would themselves eat while sitting higher on some sort of chair or table.
Sikh Gurus preached to "Recognize the Lord's Light (Spirit) within all, and do not consider social class or status; there are no classes or castes in the world hereafter" (Guru Granth Sahib Ji, 349). Guru Nanak Dev Ji, the first Guru established Langar, a free community kitchen. Langar is free food served in all Gurdwara Sahib, which is prepared by a Sikh congregation and then consumed by them and their guests while sitting at the same level on the floor next to each other since there is nothing lower than the floor. The purpose of the Langar is to both feed the needy and to eliminate any type of caste system. While eating Langar together, there remains no difference between rich and poor, superior or inferior, for all present are eating the same food at the same level. Langar is served in all Gurdwara Sahib around the globe twenty-four hours a day.
Furthermore, by knowing the last name one could distinguish which caste the person is from, Guru Gobind Singh Ji gave all Sikh men the last name "Singh" and all Sikh women the last name "Kaur" so that no one can distinguish anyone’s caste. Everyone is considered equal in Sikhism.
Sikhism states that "All beings and creatures are His; He belongs to all" (Guru Granth Sahib Ji, 425). God does not love based on one’s caste or color, He loves all, He belongs to all. In addition, "Sing the Praise of the Immaculate Lord; He is within all. The Almighty Lord controls everything; whatever He wills, comes to pass. He establishes and disestablishes everything in an instant;
there is no other except Him. He pervades the continents, universe, islands and all worlds. He alone understands to whom God Himself provides wisdom; He becomes a pure and unstained being" (Guru Granth Sahib Ji, 706). Bhai Gurdas Ji writes "The special feature of the Sikh of the Guru is that he goes beyond the framework of caste-classification and moves in humility. Then his labor becomes acceptable at the door of God" (The Vaars of Bhai Gurdas Ji, 1). Related Information
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Award winner 1995:
Anne Grieg was awarded the Rachel Carson Prize for her literary research and educational work on the consequences of pollution from radioactive substances, with particular reference to affected areas around the world.
Psychiatrist Anne Grieg, specialist in child and juvenile psychiatry, received the Rachel Carson Prize in 1995. Rogaland County Prefect Tora Aasland presented it to her.
Grieg has written articles, given papers and lectured in various fora on health hazards caused by nuclear testing and the effects of low radiation dosages on children's health. She built up an archive of documentation on health and environmental risks associated with nuclear technology.
She has worked in many fields and led numerous campaigns.
Selected works: "A World in Fear. From Despair to Solidarity. On the Threat of the A-bomb and Its Physiology" (1984), "Prescription For A Sick World" (1985), "Children of the Nuclear Age" (1987), "Health Hazards Caused By Radioactive Pollution To The Environment" (1990) and "Hiroshima - Never Again?" (1992).
Anne Grieg was an active campaigner for Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War. She died in 2006.
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More hurricanes than usual seen blowing in
Conditions are ripe for a rough season.
Updated 11:17 pm, Wednesday, June 1, 2011
Crunching obscure meteorological data from around the globe, a pair of forecasters 932 miles from the nearest beach predict nine hurricanes — five of them major — and seven more “named” tropical storms — some likely hitting Texas — this season.
That's an increase from the annual average of six hurricanes and 10 named storms.
The Gulf Coast and the Eastern Seaboard can expect an “above average” summer of cyclonic weather, according to the latest report from Colorado State University's Tropical Meteorology Project.
The team issues periodic forecasts, and the newest one coincides with Wednesday's unofficial start of hurricane season in the Atlantic basin.
“Above average” means a 47 percent chance that at least one major hurricane will make landfall between the Florida Panhandle and Brownsville. The average for the past century, the forecasters say, has been 30 percent.
“The conditions in the Atlantic are about right,” Phil Klotzbach, one of the lead researchers, said Wednesday. “The air pressure is low, the water is warm and the wind shear is low. Those factors usually combine to create an active season.”
The project, headed by Klotzbach and William Gray, predicts the lower Rio Grande Valley as the most likely location for named storm landfall in Texas, with chances as high as 14 percent in some locations. The upper coast, around Corpus Christi and Houston, have single-digit chances of a named storm making landfall.
The Tropical Meteorology Project has a reputation for accuracy. Beyond the fluke year of 2005, when they predicted eight hurricanes but 15 formed, Gray and Klotzbach usually are accurate within one or two storms.
Forget television images of Weather Channel meteorologists strapped to palm trees while they report live from the eye of a storm. Nor are Gray and Klotzbach flying into the eyes of storms.
Hurricane prediction is a low-key affair, operating on a meager budget, which is more about statistics than anything else.
Gray, who has been doing this for 28 years, and Klotzbach, who joined him as a grad student in 2000, compare numbers, gathered for decades and far from hurricane waters, to detect patterns and deviations.
These obscure indicators include, but aren't limited to: water temperatures in the Eastern Equatorial Pacific and off northwestern European coast; sea level pressure in the Atlantic between the northeast South American coast and the western African coast; and high winds in the far North Atlantic.
“We're always monitoring conditions,” Klotzbach said. “We're also working on fine-tuning the models and making them more skillful. New historical data sets come on line all of the time. We'll play around with them and see what information they can give.”
The team releases four reports annually, beginning in December. It and the April report hint at things to come, but there still are factors in play that make those reports less certain. The June report is much more definitive, with the only variable being the part El Niño will play.
The next report is slated in August. By then, Klotzbach says, it will be the peak of hurricane season, with only 3 percent to 5 percent of the season's activity taking place in June or July.
That means the August report will be solid and the worst weather will be yet to come.
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This story was originally published January 25, 2016.
People born with albinism — a rare congenital condition that leads to a lack of pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes
— can face a life frought with complications. Risks of blindness and skin cancer are high; children with albinism are often bullied or teased over their looks.
But in places like Tanzania, the challenges are unimaginable: discrimination, segregation, and even death. Local superstitions and traditions provoke attacks on people with albinism, whose limbs are used in witchcraft practices.
The public health and safety crisis for people with albinism in Tanzania has worsened in recent years, officials say. At least eight attacks were reported there between August 2014 and March 2015, according to the United Nations
, with victims including a 1-year-old who was brutally killed and a 6-year-old whose hand was chopped off with a machete.
“These attacks are often stunningly vicious, with children, in particular, being targeted,” Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, the then-United Nations high commissioner for human rights, said last year.Photographer Patrick Gries
first learned of this sad situation in 2010, after his family moved to Tanzania for his wife's post-doctoral research. A newspaper ran a story about a farmer who was attacked by a mob of people who cut off both of his arms and ran away as he bled. "The farmer's body parts were meant to be sold for witchcraft with this belief that albino body parts and limbs would bring luck," Gries said.
"I had never heard about such a thing," he said. "It was constantly in my mind. I tried to understand, but there is nothing to understand. It goes way beyond what we can imagine."
Gries began photographing the lives of the people with albinism he met and pored over research about the condition. The things he learned painted a dire picture. In addition to the threat of violence, people with albinism in Tanzania face a life of segregation and poverty. Many are denied basic rights — in life and death.
"These persons, for the most part, do not have any official civil status or legitimacy," he said. "They have not been registered at birth. Similarly, they do not die, rather, they 'vanish.' There are no graves of albinos in cemeteries — people would come and steal the bones."
A lack of education and resources can lead to an increased risk of death from skin cancer and other conditions. Gries experienced that firsthand, when his friend and assistant Mathew Mlolwa, a Tanzanian man with albinism, died of cancer early this year. He has dedicated his photo series, In/Visibility,
Ahead, his powerful photos and stories. For more on how you can help, visit Under The Same Sun,
an advocacy organization that helped connect Gries with some of his photo subjects.Editor's note: This story has been updated to reflect Refinery29's style guide on describing people with albinism.
More from Refinery29 News:Meet The Millennial Women Shaping PoliticsThe Real Stories Of China's "Leftover Women"
Intimate Photos Of What Giving Birth Really Looks Like Around The World
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If you search the Final Payment Vouchers Index for Military Pensions, 1818-1864 and discover Revolutionary War pensioners living in Delaware or Georgia, you now have a way to quickly access their final pension papers—on Fold3. The files may fill in some missing gaps in your family history.
In the index, Francis Freeman’s slip indicates that he received his pension under the Pension Act of 1818, payments were made in Delaware, the last payment was in March (1st quarter) 1832, and he died on December 24, 1831. That information is also reflected on the jacket of Freeman’s final payment record.
Within Freeman’s file, we learn that he had been receiving a pension of $8 per month beginning July 1, 1818, he left no widow, and his only child Mary Johnson was “of full age.” Widows and dependant children typically continued to receive payments after a veteran’s death.
In Georgia, Margery Pinson received pension payments after her husband Joseph died in 1838. His signature can be found on several pages within his file. On Margery’s records we learn that three of their children, Elizabeth Visage, Milla Burch, and Jane Carter, received payments for three years after their father’s death, and that Margery died on June 9, 1852. Although he received his pension in Georgia, Joseph served in North Carolina. His full 97-page pension file reveals a great deal more about his service and his family.
Final pension payment records not only reveal signatures, relationships, and death dates, they also tell us if and where a family moved after the war, and into the 19th century. With the Fold3 Revolutionary War Collection, you can create an enlightening family history through military documents. The Final Pension Payment records from Georgia and Delaware add previously unpublished, possibly unknown details to that story.
If the pensioners you seek are not from Delaware or Georgia, you can order their files from NARA or locate pension abstracts for several states in books listed within the Final Pension Payment Vouchers description.
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Hunting Rabbits In Australia
Australia thought to control the spread of the wild rabbits by allowing individuals to hunt them for sport, but the climate in the country is so suitable to the rabbits that all that are taken are quickly replaced through natural reproduction. It is estimated that all of the hunters in Australia take a mere 1-2% of the rabbit population each year. The hunters would need to take more than 150 million rabbits annually to place any sort of dent in the wild rabbit population of Australia.
| In Australia, rabbits are not a native species but were brought to the country by settlers that wanted to make their new land feel more like home. Absent of the many natural predators that rabbits faced in many other parts of the world, the rabbit population flourished to the point where they are now considered to be an invasive pest and can be found in many areas of Australia. Hunting rabbits in Australia is a fun and entertaining sport and each year there seems like there are many more rabbits to hunt.
For many years, rabbits have been the main source of recreational hunting in many areas of Australia. Hunters have always been able to depend on taking a few rabbits with each hunt using various methods and many of these hunters decide to eat the rabbits or skin them for the hide. Rabbits to hunt can be found in various habitats around Australia, including everything from deserts to the coastal plains.
Hunting in Australia can include the use of firearms, bows, traps, ferrets, dogs, or other items such as spot lights, although not much more than a rifle and some bullets are needed for a successful rabbit hunt. A hunting permit is required for all individuals that would like to hunt in Australia and each hunting permit covers multiple feral, non-native species of animals as well as a few native species that are not protected by current hunting laws. If the hunter is using a firearm, then they must also possess the appropriate firearms license and any individual under the age of 18 must be hunting with and supervised by an individual that is over the age of 18.
Most hunters decide to hunt rabbits in Australia using a rifle, generally a .22 rimfire (magnum or long rifle), but some prefer to use a shotgun or a bow instead. The most common way of hunting rabbits is to flush them out of their burrows and out of bushes into an area where the hunter can get a clear shot at them. It is important for the hunter to always be aware of their surroundings when hunting rabbits because there is no telling which way the rabbit will run and the hunter will only have a few seconds to take the shot before the rabbit reaches cover again.
Some hunters use dogs or ferrets to flush the rabbits out into the open where the hunter can get a shot at them. This is a tricky hunting method because the hunter never knows from which direction the rabbit will be coming from or in what direction it will be heading. Hunting rabbits in Australia can be a fun and exciting pastime for both the national and the international hunters that decide to take part in the sport.
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From Parameters, Summer 1996, pp. 67-78.
The presence of American military officers in the recent peace negotiations for Bosnia-Herzegovina, and their participation in the shuttle diplomacy preceding the Dayton meetings, demonstrate the important roles the military can play in any peace process. It may seem paradoxical to some that the military--generally associated with brute force resolution of conflict--can add much to peace negotiations. Contributions by military participants in recent peace talks, including those in Mozambique and Angola, suggest the contrary.
Regional specialists and other military officers often have acquired deep insights into the cultures of the nations they have studied and among whose people they have lived. When experience has combined knowledge and insight with an understanding of the negotiating process, military officers can sometimes be the means to solving seemingly intractable problems originating from cultural differences.
Officers and others involved in peace discussions will need a concept of how negotiations evolve. All members of the negotiating team must have a common understanding of our national political and military interests in the conflict and its resolution, as well as their absolute and relative importance. From that information the negotiator develops a general sense of how he or she can protect those interests, based on positions taken by the various parties to the negotiations. Those positions must be analyzed in relation to the issues and the personalities with which they are identified.
Members of the US team will seek to develop prospective solutions that satisfy the interests of as many of the parties as possible. This process should identify which positions could become show-stoppers, positions that unless modified will become nonnegotiable. The military negotiator usually can make a significant contribution at this point in the process, since some of the potentially intractable issues will be military issues. A well-coordinated team will seek advice on underlying interests that can either facilitate or prevent reaching mutually acceptable positions during the negotiations.
To suggest how the foregoing process can appear to participants, this article first examines aspects of a typical peace settlement that require direct and significant involvement by the military members of the team. Thereafter, important features of the negotiating process are illustrated by specific examples from peace negotiations, including those in which the author participated. The desired outcome is to heighten the awareness of all participants in the interagency process to the value added by the military members of a negotiating team.
Military Negotiating Issues
Cease-fire and Disengagement of Forces
Details concerning the cessation of hostilities and disengagement of forces need to be defined and carefully coordinated to avoid accidents and incidents that can jeopardize the peace process. These include the timing and sequenced steps of the cease-fire; the deployment of cease-fire monitors; the enumeration of permissible and proscribed activities; the determination of how alleged cease-fire violations will be handled; and the establishment of a peacekeeping force.
To be fully effective, the accord should anticipate and provide the means for handling the inevitable incidents that will jeopardize the cease-fire. The agreement should include a method for dealing with such problems, either through a reaffirmation of normal procedures, or by providing a mechanism to address each violation on an exceptional basis.
A comparative study of six United Nations peacekeeping operations identified the following limiting factors that increase the probability of failure in a cease-fire operation:
The military negotiator should keep these limiting factors in mind when the cease-fire and disengagement process is discussed during negotiations. It should be possible to ensure that a clear mandate is provided for the cease-fire monitors or a peacekeeping force. It may be possible to adjust the cease-fire line to make use of advantageous terrain while avoiding deployment of the monitoring force in cities. While the negotiators cannot affect the education level of the populace or the proliferation of weapons in the region, both factors should be taken into account when devising the terms of the disarmament program. Additionally, if there is to be a public information campaign by the peacekeepers to explain their mission to the local population and seek its cooperation, the education level of the populace should be considered when determining the publicity medium and style of presentation.
Encampment and Disarmament
A number of complex issues must be addressed concerning the encampment and disarmament of combatants. These include such details as the number and location of camps for each faction; identification of personnel and organizations that must be encamped and disarmed; timelines for the opening, closing, and possible consolidation of camps; determination of how security for the camps will be provided; establishment of logistics procedures to support the encampment process; and disposition of weapons turned in during the disarmament campaign.
The negotiators should also identify as early as possible the functions that can best be filled by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or private voluntary organizations (PVOs). Once these are identified, these groups should be brought into the planning process as early as possible. If a need normally filled by an NGO or PVO cannot be met by those participating in the process, the negotiators need to determine how the gap will be filled. Examples of services the NGOs and PVOs can provide include getting rations and medical supplies to the encampment sites as part of their effort to provide such services to the population as a whole. In late 1991 in Angola, delays in providing food supplies to the camps, caused by initial reluctance of international assistance organizations to participate, threatened the continuation of the encampment process and the implementation of the national peace process itself.
Integration of Forces
When seeking to bring peace to a civil war, the military negotiator must address numerous issues concerning the integration of the warring factions into a single national military force. Integration of standing forces and demobilization of the excess are among the most complex and problematic of the military issues. They directly affect the ability of the factions to return to the battlefield if they fail to secure their objectives through the peace process.
There are a number of political issues affecting the military as an institution, and the individuals within it, that need to be discussed during the course of negotiations. The US military participant is often looked upon as a neutral resource during such discussions. He or she not only needs to know current US law or policy on the issues on the table, but should be aware as well of American military traditions pertaining to the issues (if they differ from current practice) and be cognizant of traditions on the issues in other professional militaries around the world. The negotiator also should understand the traditions concerning such issues both in the country of conflict and in the neighboring states in the region.
Political-military issues that should be addressed include how the office of the Minister of Defense will be organized and staffed, and what political rights military personnel will be permitted to exercise. Issues such as whether the integrated force can (or must) vote, whether its members can become open advocates for a political party, or whether they can publicly support a candidate in an election may well have to be settled during the negotiations. The question of whether the military will have the right to unionize may also arise.
One of the central issues in creating a strong civilian defense ministry is developing a ministry staff that is competent in defense issues. In Mozambique there was a great deal of confusion concerning the degree of authority the civilian defense ministry staff would have over the armed forces, and what issues properly remained the responsibility of the military headquarters staff. In South Africa, the staff of the new Ministry of Defense is initially composed almost entirely of retired military officers, until civilian staff members can be recruited and trained in their areas of responsibility. The hope there is to create a permanent civilian staff that will, when augmented by assigned active-duty personnel, constitute the majority of Defense Ministry personnel, as is the case with the British Ministry of Defense and the US Office of the Secretary of Defense.
Multiple issues concerning force structure and missions need to be addressed during the course of negotiations. Some range from the seemingly unimportant, such as what the force will be called, to the always important issues of the mission, size, composition, and organization of the armed forces. One of the most volatile issues to be negotiated is the percentages of the force that will be provided by each of the warring factions. Conflicts in Angola and Mozambique involved two factions; in such situations, each of the insurgent groups normally seeks to provide 50 percent of the new, integrated national military.
The negotiations will nearly always identify the selection criteria that will be used for the acceptance of new personnel (those joining in the future, rather than those currently in one of the warring factions) into the postwar national army. Quotas may be imposed based on regional and ethnic representation in an effort to stress the national character of the new defense forces. Selection criteria could include citizenship, age, health, education or literacy level, and criminal record.
The negotiations may also identify the criteria that govern the military personnel system, including promotion, training (especially eligibility for attendance at foreign schools), and retirement, as well as a code of conduct. If the negotiations do not go into such detail, they generally identify the process or mechanism by which the criteria eventually will be determined.
One of the confidence-building measures that can be included in a peace agreement is a series of safeguards giving each faction, to the degree possible, visibility over the activities of strategic military units. Minimizing the element of surprise decreases the likelihood that a key unit could be deployed in a preemptive strike against one of the factions.
Another key issue is the start date and duration of the force integration period. Force integration could begin prior to the arrival of the international peacekeeping force, if one is scheduled to participate, but frequently will be delayed until after the peacekeepers are in place. The negotiations should determine how personnel will be trained during the integration process in a manner that facilitates the restoration of peace and security.
The negotiations should determine whether the police forces and other paramilitary organizations will be integrated as part of the peace process. The factions also should decide whether ex-soldiers will be allowed to join the police force.
The demobilization of military forces in the Third World has been studied and reported on extensively in recent years. A military participant in peace negotiations should become familiar with the literature and be prepared to serve as a resource to the negotiating process by providing copies of the key works to the mediator and the warring factions.
Much of the detailed work concerning implementation of the demobilization program, especially those aspects related to reintegration of ex-combatants into the civilian society, will be handled by governmental and nongovernmental assistance organizations, to include the World Bank. The broad lines of the demobilization program, however, such as the numbers of personnel to be discharged, will be determined during the military phase of the peace talks.
Unrealistic expectations can pose a threat to the demobilization and reintegration processes. The leadership of the warring factions normally will use the promise of discharge benefits to help sell the agreement to its military personnel in the field. The risk is that the military and political leadership may, in good faith, promise demobilization benefits that cannot be delivered from either the donor community or national resources.
A military participant in the negotiations also should understand that there is a reluctance on the part of assistance organizations to treat ex-combatants significantly better than returning refugees are treated. In some cases there have been attempts to assimilate the two groups into a single reintegration program. While the assistance organizations understand that one of the reasons for the demobilization benefits is to "buy" the cooperation of those carrying weapons, they are morally disinclined to treat what they see as the villains who provoked refugee flows better than the victims who fled the fighting. The risk is that such issues may cause a significant delay in the start of the demobilization program, straining the political will of the factions and their confidence in the peace process. Additionally, in cases such as Mozambique and Liberia, most refugees are reluctant to return to their homes until they see that disarmament and demobilization are, in fact, working, and that there has been a verifiable improvement in the level of security within the country.
Land mines--the hidden killers--have become a scourge of wars in the Third World. Recent attempts by the international community to develop a consensus related to the production, sale, and use of land mines suggest that they will be with us for a long time. Hence, a military negotiator can expect to deal with a number of mine-related issues during peace negotiations. Their existence, and associated eradication efforts, have a significant effect on the building of confidence between the parties, on the safety and operations of an international peacekeeping force, on the return of refugees, and on the reconstruction and rehabilitation of the country during the postwar period.
One of the key issues that needs to be addressed is the disclosure and identification of minefields by the warring factions. In many Third World conflicts, detailed minefield information has never been available even to the side that deployed the mines. In such cases information can be exchanged concerning the general location of the minefields and the types of mines contained therein.
Another important matter is the determination of who will conduct de-mining operations. The warring factions themselves may carry out de-mining of their country. If so, they might work jointly, or each might remove its own minefields. Other possibilities are that the peacekeeping force might carry out de-mining, or that civilian contractors might be employed.
Experience in various peace negotiations has identified a number of key features of such processes that any military participant should be aware of. Some are obvious but worth repeating, while others are less evident but still very important. Some bear primarily on the negotiations phase, while others will more directly affect implementation of an agreement.
The military member of a negotiating team must understand what the United States is expected to contribute to the peace negotiations. Possible roles include advising the mediator, acting as a neutral broker, serving the mediator and the factions as a technical resource, and assisting with program planning. In the Bosnia talks, for example, the United States served as the mediator.
In the Angola talks, the United States was expected to provide advice to the negotiations, assist with planning, and pressure the insurgent group UNITA (whom we had previously supported in the war). In Rwanda, where the United States had little political or economic involvement, the United States provided advice to the mediators (the Organization of African Unity and the government of Tanzania) and served as a technical resource for both the mediators and the warring factions.
The negotiator also must understand what the US stake is in the negotiations. He or she needs to know if there are desired outcomes for the negotiations beyond the end of the conflict. In many areas in which the United States has never had a significant national interest, our primary concerns are to end human suffering stemming from the conflict and to reduce the levels of humanitarian assistance that we are providing for war refugees and displaced persons. In other conflicts we may have been a longtime supporter of the government, or we may be concerned about protecting against greater regional destabilization that could be caused were the war to intensify.
In both Mozambique and Rwanda, a major US objective was to encourage hundreds of thousands of refugees to return to their homes from neighboring countries. The continued presence of enormous refugee populations was placing severe economic and political strains on the neighboring countries' governments.
Participants and Roles
In addition to the official mediator, frequently there are other participants who serve either as observers to verify the fairness of the process, or as "friends of the mediator" to assist the process by providing advice and information. During the Mozambique peace talks, for example, the Catholic lay order of Sant Egidio served as the official mediator, with assistance from the Italian government. The United States, France, Portugal, and the United Kingdom served as "friends of the mediator" throughout the negotiations. This role was especially important during the military portion of the talks, because none of the three official members of the Sant Egidio mediation team had any military skills or experience.
The military negotiator needs to know which other governments or organizations will participate in the negotiations, what their official status will be, and what their probable agenda for the talks may be. Former colonial powers may well have a different political agenda than does a less-interested United States. Likewise, neighboring states will probably see the situation differently than does the more distant United States. They may try to slow or manipulate the negotiating process to achieve their own interests.
The Italians' colonial experience in Somalia, which lasted from the late 19th century until 1960, gave them a dramatically different perspective on the situation there from that of the United States, whose firsthand experience in dealing with Somalia dated only from the mid-1970s. Similarly, the French association with Rwanda, including a defense pact signed in 1975, colored their views of both the conflict and the US role in the peace process during the negotiations seeking to end that war. Likewise, the Russians have had close associations with the Serbians for more than 150 years. They cannot help but view the situation there, and the peacekeeping operation, in a different light than does the United States.
The military negotiator needs to have an understanding of what resources the United States is willing to commit to the peace process. Possible resources might include funding to support the demobilization program, humanitarian assistance to aid the civilian populace, or materiel or training support (sometimes both) to facilitate establishing the integrated armed forces.
Availability of US resources may be determined through an interagency working group. If so, the information probably will be provided to the military negotiator in the form of written terms of reference. Information about resources frequently resembles the chicken-and-egg proposition: An interagency position is rarely established until the full scope of the final agreement has been set. That process, however, does nothing to help the negotiator. Should the interagency group play the waiting game, the military negotiator should ask for guidance on the matter from the Department of State regional office in charge of the negotiations.
The US military negotiator should attempt to ensure that the factions understand the probable delays before a peacekeeping force can be approved, deployed, and complete its mission. The peace agreement should include realistic timelines for each of the phases, based on local realities ("ground truth").
For example, it took six months to deploy the international peacekeeping force to Mozambique following its approval by the United Nations Security Council. Although they were frequently reminded of this fact throughout their peace negotiations, the Rwandan factions specified in their agreement that the international peacekeeping force must be deployed within 39 days of the signing of the agreement. In the event, it took two months following the signing of the agreement before the UN Security Council approved the establishment of a peacekeeping operation in Rwanda, and six more weeks before the initial elements of the peacekeeping force were in place.
The US negotiating team should not permit the negotiations to bog down over the issue of what organization will provide the peacekeeping or monitoring force. Instead, the team should identify the responsibilities and functions of the peacekeeping force and see who can carry out the mission. The military representative on the team can help to keep the horse before the cart in this phase of the negotiations.
During the Rwanda negotiations the government of Rwanda was demanding that the United Nations conduct the postwar peacekeeping operation, while the insurgent Rwandan Patriotic Front preferred that the Organization of African Unity, which already had a small observer force in the field, maintain responsibility for the peacekeeping operation. After several days during which neither side seemed able to discuss the issue, US negotiators were able to convince the two parties to refer to the hypothetical postwar peacekeepers as the "Neutral International Force" for the purposes of discussion. Once they started talking about the roles and responsibilities for the "NIF," they quickly agreed to the mission and mandate for the postwar peacekeeping force. Once the size, cost, and mandate of the peacekeeping force were identified, the Organization of African Unity's participants stated that the operation would be beyond the OAU's capabilities. The Rwandan Patriotic Front then agreed to the presence of a United Nations force.
The peacekeeping mandate needs to be defined carefully. The mandate must clearly identify the authority and responsibilities of the peacekeeping force and define the relations between the peacekeepers and the warring factions. As stated by the US Ambassador to Mozambique, "The military terms of any peace agreement need to be subject to aggressive, intrusive, outside oversight, and an effective mechanism for resolving disputes and investigating alleged violations must be established." The leadership of the peacekeeping force must have the authority and responsibility to apply the mandate in a flexible and dynamic manner in order to adjust to changing realities. The warring factions must not be allowed to claim national sovereignty as a reason for delaying or failing to implement the terms of the peace agreement.
The desired end states, objectives, and success criteria outlined in the mandate should be event-driven and clearly defined. There should, however, be time-driven "sunset clause" review points in the peacekeeping mandate at which the peacekeepers compare developments on the ground with the implementation schedule and determine whether the peacekeeping operation should be continued. These review points maintain pressure on the factions to fully implement the terms of the peace accord rather than permitting a status quo ad infinitum as occurred in the peacekeeping operation in Cyprus.
The negotiator needs to know how the conflict in question, and the peace accord, fit the peacekeeping guidelines contained in US Presidential Decision Directive 25, which identifies the criteria that must be met before the United States will support the creation of an international peacekeeping operation. The military negotiator may be able to influence the negotiations to ensure that a peacekeeping force would have clear mission objectives, that there is a mandate appropriate to the mission, and that an endpoint to the operation, based on time, events, or a combination of the two, can be identified clearly.
There Are Always Losers
The military negotiator needs to be aware that there are always losers in any negotiated settlement. This harsh reality runs counter to the popular idea that every peace agreement represents a "win-win" situation. Rogue soldiers and semi-autonomous warlords profit economically from the continuation of the war through their control of territory and resources, often at little personal risk. Such individuals and groups will be reluctant to see the end of the conflict if it leads to increased risk or economic loss to them. At a minimum, those who have enjoyed unchecked power until the settlement will lose, in relative terms, as their authority and perquisites are reduced or shared with others.
In Somalia, the various sub-clan militias are able to "tax" humanitarian organizations for the movement of relief supplies through their territory. They would lose that source of income in a stable, unified Somalia. In Liberia, numerous insurgent military leaders would suffer economically if they were to lose their control of the gold and diamond diggings through the implementation of a national peace agreement. Additionally, many of the semi-literate 19- and 20-year-old "generals" in Liberia would not even be commissioned officers in a postwar, professional national military force. In Rwanda, ethnic extremists attempted to prevent the political participation of the Rwandan Patriotic Front, as had been agreed to in the peace accord, out of fear that they themselves would be marginalized and criminalized by the postwar government. Their fears led to the genocide that claimed the lives of more than 500,000 Rwandans.
Another group that believes itself to have lost in a peace accord is the Serbian populace of Sarajevo, who fear persecution should the Bosnian government reestablish its authority over their enclave. CNN footage of Serbs evacuating parts of Sarajevo underscores this perception. The negotiator should attempt to ensure either that such groups' interests are looked after in the peace process in some manner, or that the groups can be effectively marginalized by the peace accord (and peacekeeping force) so that they will not pose a threat to the peace process.
Negotiation versus Implementation
The experienced negotiator soon discovers how great is the distance between successful negotiation of a peace accord and successful implementation of its provisions. The outcome in each case is related to the degree of detail in the accord itself. The greater the level of detail included in the negotiated document, the harder it is to get the parties to agree to it. Some of the issues to be negotiated may appear to be intractable throughout the formal negotiations. Rather than permit those issues to block agreement on the general provisions of a peace accord, the parties may agree to defer discussion of specific matters until later. By doing so, they hope that following the signing of a peace accord and after the peace process is underway, the dynamics of the ongoing process will make it easier to reach agreement on the issues in question.
Conversely, the greater the level of detail included in the negotiated document, the easier it is for the warring factions and any peacekeeping force to implement and verify the peace process. This is similar to the difference between grading a multiple-choice examination and grading an essay. Vague or poorly worded protocols leave room, at the very least, for misinterpretation or for different interpretations by all concerned. They also leave loopholes which one or all of the parties may attempt to exploit in an effort to gain a perceived economic, social, political, or military advantage in the implementation phase. Decisions to defer difficult issues in the quest for a quick political settlement will invariably complicate the work of carrying out the terms of the basic agreement.
Equitable Treatment of All Sides
A key principle in peace negotiations is that personnel in the warring factions, whether participants in the negotiations or soldiers in the bush, should perceive that all sides are being treated equitably. Without that perception the entire peace process can be placed at risk.
During the Rwanda negotiations, for example, whenever one party requested a document, such as a copy of a peace agreement from another conflict or an analysis of a third country's demobilization program in light of the situation in Rwanda, a copy of the document was automatically provided to the other faction as well.
It should be carefully explained to all the warring factions that during the implementation phase the peacekeepers will be prepared to take action against any offender, not just against insurgents. Government officials should not be able to hide behind "national sovereignty" to avoid full implementation of the agreement.
The transition from war to peace, a complex and expensive process, is neither automatic nor easy. A skilled military professional who is aware of the political-military and political-economic variables affecting the conflict in question can increase significantly the chances of a successful transition to peace. He or she can do this by helping the warring factions recognize and address--or agree to address--the myriad issues involved in ending their conflict.
The peace accord needs to establish a holistic process with realistic timelines that proceeds smoothly from cease-fire through the encampment of forces, integration of a new military, and disarmament and demobilization of excess military personnel. A skilled military participant can help the mediator and the warring factions to craft such an agreement. By drawing on the strengths of past peace accords, while avoiding their flaws, the military negotiator can help the warring factions craft an accord that is right for them in their situation. In this process the military member of the team can use past experience to identify and call attention to loopholes that plagued other peace settlements.
Experience demonstrates that the devil is in the details of a peace agreement. The military negotiator can facilitate the transition from war to peace by helping to translate the political desire for peace into mission statements that the opposing militaries can understand and carry out. By becoming aware of the factions' security concerns, the military negotiator can help design safeguards and confidence-building measures that can be incorporated into the peace accord.
While a well-crafted peace accord can enhance the chances of ending a war, it is important to recognize that the most important requirement for a successful peace process is the political will of the parties concerned. History shows that delays in the schedule will occur, accidents will happen, and tempers will rise. If political will exists, and if the parties truly want to end the war and work for peace, they can solve whatever problems may arise. If the goodwill is lacking, however, even the best-designed peace accord will end in failure.
1. I. William Zartman, Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1985), p. 244.
2. Frederick Fleitz, "Comparison of Peacekeeping Operations By Success and Limiting Factors," Unclassified Central Intelligence Agency study, 29 July 1992. The six operations are Namibia, Cyprus, Western Sahara, Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia, and Somalia.
3. The most important study on military demobilization to date is Demobilization and Reintegration of Military Personnel in Africa: The Evidence from Seven Country Case Studies, a Discussion Paper published by The World Bank, Washington, D.C., October 1993.
4. The major work on the subject is Hidden Killers: The Global Landmine Crisis, the "1994 Report to the U.S. Congress on the Problem of Uncleared Landmines and the United States Strategy for Demining and Landmine Control," published by the US Department of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, December 1994.
5. Interview with US Ambassador to Mozambique Dennis Jett, 11 January 1995, at the Department of State, Washington, D.C.
Lieutenant Colonel Anthony D. Marley (USA, Ret.) is a private consultant on African political-military matters and teaches a graduate course at Webster University in St. Louis. Before his retirement, Lieutenant Colonel Marley had been assigned as the Political-Military Advisor in the Bureau of African Affairs in the US Department of State. He also was assigned as a Political-Military Officer in the Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for African Affairs in the Pentagon. In these two assignments, he participated in peace negotiations pertaining to conflicts in Mozambique, Ethiopia, and Rwanda, and worked with UN officials attempting to create a demobilization program in Liberia. He was a Foreign Area Officer and is a graduate of the Cameroon Command and Staff College and the Naval Postgraduate School.
Reviewed 28 May 1996. Please send comments or corrections to firstname.lastname@example.org.
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Recently, a group of parishioners from the town of Villapando
(Zamora), Spain, wrote to the Marian Library stating that their
ancestors in the parish of San Nicolas had vowed themselves in
the year 1466 to honor and defend the Immaculate Conception.
The parish priest, Fr. A. Tomas Osorio sent a photocopy of the
declaration of the text of the vow of 1466 together with the renewals of the vow in 1498 and
In 1466, thirteen representatives from Villapando and the surrounding villages, during a time of war and pestilence, pledged themselves to honor the Virgin Mary "without stain, without sin conceived in the womb of her mother St. Anne," asking Mary to protect the town and its surroundings. In return the feast of the Conception of Mary would be celebrated as a feast day preceded by a day of fasting and abstinence, celebrated with Mass, sermon, Vespers, and a dinner for twenty of the town's poor. This vow anticipated thirty-one years later a similar pledge made by the theological faculty of the Sorbonne (1497).
This page, maintained by The Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute, Dayton, Ohio 45469-1390, and created by J.C. Tierney , was last modified Monday, 10/06/2008 15:27:12 EDT by Kelly Bodner . Please send any comments to firstname.lastname@example.org.
URL for this page is http://campus.udayton.edu
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Europe, 25 February 2015 – European policymakers, healthcare workers, and parents must step up their efforts to vaccinate children against measles amid an ongoing outbreak across the continent, the United Nations World Health Organization (WHO) said today, warning that a recent resurgence in the disease threatened Europe’s goal of eliminating measles by the end of 2015.
According to UN data, over 22,000 cases of the virus have surfaced across Europe during the 2014 to 2015 biennium with the outbreak spreading to seven countries. This comes despite a 50 per cent drop from 2013 to 2014.
“When we consider that over the past two decades we have seen a reduction of 96 per cent in the number of measles cases in the European region, and that we are just a step away from eliminating the disease, we are taken aback by these numbers,” Dr. Zsuzsanna Jakab, WHO Regional Director for Europe, affirmed in a press release.
“We must collectively respond, without further delay, to close immunization gaps. It is unacceptable that, after the last 50 years’ efforts to make safe and effective vaccines available, measles continues to cost lives, money and time,” she added.
The WHO announcement comes amid a continuing measles outbreak in the United States and stalled progress in eradicating the virus in the Eastern Mediterranean region, where weak health systems, conflict and population displacement have hampered vaccination efforts.
According to WHO’s fact sheet on measles, the disease’s outbreaks can be particularly deadly in countries experiencing or recovering from a natural disaster or conflict. Damage to health infrastructure and health services interrupts routine immunization, and overcrowding in residential camps greatly increases the risk of infection.
WHO said that impressive gains had been made towards measles elimination in recent years and an estimated 15.6 million deaths were prevented through vaccination during 2000-2013 but the huge reductions in mortality are tapering off.
As for the 2014-2015 outbreaks, who lists the affected countries and number of cases as: Kyrgyzstan (7,477); Bosnia and Herzegovina (5,340); Russia (3,247); Georgia (3,291); Italy (1,674); Germany (583); and Kazakhstan (537).
Europe’s outbreaks, including the current one, are continuing to occur due to pockets of susceptible un- or under-immunized people, particularly as growing numbers of parents either refuse to vaccinate their children or face barriers in accessing vaccination.
In their press release, the WHO urged an improvement in surveillance to detect and investigate all suspected cases; the rapid testing of cases and the identification of chains of transmission; and making “high-quality evidence” readily available.
“The priority is now to control current outbreaks in all affected countries through immunization activities targeting people at risk,” concluded Dr. Nedret Emiroglu, Deputy Director of the Division of Communicable Diseases, Health Security and Environment at the WHO Regional Office for Europe.
“At the same time, all countries, with no exception, need to keep a very high coverage of regular measles vaccination, so that similar outbreaks won’t happen again in our Region, and measles can be eliminated once and for all.”
The fourth Millennium Development Goal (MDG 4) aims to reduce the under-five mortality rate by two-thirds between 1990 and 2015. Recognizing the potential of measles vaccination to reduce child mortality, and given that measles vaccination coverage can be considered a marker of access to child health services, routine measles vaccination coverage has been selected as an indicator of progress towards achieving that target.
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It's all to do with the training: You can do a lot if you're properly trained.
-- Queen Elizabeth II
Commonwealth Module - Unit 8: The Role of MPs and Parliamentary Staff
How Parliament Gets the Job Done!
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Understand the differing roles which an MP is called upon to play in parliament;
Compare the MP’s responsibilities in these different roles;
Describe how the responsibilities can vary according to the expectations of the electorate that chooses an MP;
Discuss the ways in which parliamentary staff may be called upon to support MPs in their work in parliament.
In democracies, all Members of Parliament are elected by groups of citizens of the country irrespective of the kind of electoral system under which they are chosen. They come to parliament with expectations of their own to fulfil. The holders of important offices such as the Speaker and Ministers find that their responsibilities are primarily dictated and conditioned by their office. All other Members will remain ‘private Members’, that is, not office holders in parliament. They are nonetheless immediately confronted by a variety of responsibilities related to the roles they have to play in the institution.
The roles that most parliamentarians fulfill are often summarized as representative, legislator and scrutinizer of the government. The first refers to the fact that MPs have been elected to parliament as representatives of their electorates. The second reflects what most people see as the central responsibility of an MP, to pass legislation, whether original or changes to existing acts. The third covers the scrutiny or oversight that parliamentarians are expected to exercise over the workings of the executive including the implementation of laws passed by parliament. This function also extends to the support or criticism of proposals placed before parliament by the government.
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|Home | About | Journals | Submit | Contact Us | Français|
A biologically detailed model of the binaural avian nucleus laminaris is constructed, as a two-dimensional array of multicompartment, conductance-based neurons, along tonotopic and interaural time delay (ITD) axes. The model is based primarily on data from chick nucleus laminaris. Typical chick-like parameters perform ITD discrimination up to 2 kHz, and enhancements for barn owl perform ITD discrimination up to 6 kHz. The dendritic length gradient of NL is explained concisely. The response to binaural out-of-phase input is suppressed well below the response to monaural input (without any spontaneous activity on the opposite side), implicating active potassium channels as crucial to good ITD discrimination.
Computational neuroscience is a discipline that aims to understand how information is processed in the nervous system by developing formal models at many different structural scales. Using a multidisciplinary approach, the biological systems are modeled incorporating the constraints imposed by psychophysical, neurobiological, and formal computational analyses. To fully comprehend the very diverse and highly specialized tasks of the nervous systems, multiple levels of analysis have to be addressed ranging from detailing the biophysical mechanisms responsible for these computations to evaluating the overall system performance (see Hawkins and McMullen 1996). The end product of a computational analysis should be a sufficiently specified model, internally consistent and complete enough to enable formal mathematical characterization or computer simulation. Such properties ensure that the computed outcome accurately reproduces the functions of the modeled system. It is often the case that specific features of the real world are not fully understood by the modeler, who therefore must guess about them when designing and testing the model. Conjectures are to be made, nonetheless, following psychophysical and neurobiological constraints, as the theoretical outcomes of the model would otherwise fail to capture the nature of biological computation. A certain degree of ignorance about the real phenomenon is implicit in the modeling process because it is indeed the aim of such a process to gain a deeper insight into the mechanisms governing the object of study.
Characterized by processing information up to two orders of magnitude faster than the rest of the brain, the auditory system is responsible for providing a representation of the pattern of incoming sound signals and for specifying the locations of the corresponding sound sources relative to the listener. Specifically, sound localization can be computed from interaural temporal and level differences over the entire spectrum of the signal from the sound coming to both ears. The picture of what is accomplished in the brain stem auditory nuclei as acoustic information ascends the auditory pathway is still fragmentary, but there is no doubt that auditory neurons are specialized for precisely timed signaling.
The present study focuses on avian sound localization. There are strong similarities in the organization of the brain stem auditory nuclei among diverse animal classes, but the avian system is believed to have a simpler structure, and the function of each nucleus involved is better understood, than the mammalian analog medial superior olive (Rubel and Parks 1988; Oertel 1999). Timing information in sound is captured in the auditory sensory epithelium and conveyed to the auditory nerve, which projects to the cochlear nuclei. One branch of the auditory nerve enervates nucleus angularis (NA) and another enervates nucleus magnocellularis (NM), whose afferents project to nucleus laminaris (NL). NL is dominated by cells that extend their dendrites dorsally and ventrally in a bipolar fashion. Each cluster of dendrites receives inputs from one ear: the ipsilateral NM projects onto the dorsal side, whereas the contralateral NM innervates the ventral side. Additionally, neurons within both nuclei are arranged tonotopically: their neuronal location depends on the frequency band to which they are tuned (Rubel and Parks 1975). Evidence is strong that NM and NL are adapted for analysis of interaural time differences (ITDs) (Rubel and Parks 1988), whereas all other information is processed through NA. Detection and computation of ITDs is crucial to azimuthal sound localization by the brain.
The most prominent model of binaural interaction was put forth by Jeffress (1948) as a mechanism for sensitivity to interaural time delays. The model postulates the existence of neuronal fibers that contain temporal information about the waveform of the acoustic stimulus in their discharge pattern. These fibers project with ladder-like branching patterns to cells in a binaural nucleus that only discharge when receiving coincident spikes from their monaural afferents. The varying lengths or thicknesses of these fibers introduce internal delays that compensate for the relative acoustic delay of incoming signals between both ears. The model therefore computes ITDs by means of delay lines and coincidence detectors and transforms a time code into a space code. Anatomical and physiological evidence shows that the cochlear nucleus is the likely site of Jeffress’ model: NM axons are hypothesized to work as delay lines, and NL cells are thought to play the role of coincidence detectors (Carr and Konishi 1990; Overholt et al. 1992; Joseph and Hyson 1993).
In NL, strong functional hypotheses can be formulated and biological data can be feasibly obtained from experiments in vitro and in vivo. As a result, NL, primarily in chick and barn owl, has already been the objective of many anatomical (Rubel and Parks 1975; Smith and Rubel 1979; Smith 1981; Deitch and Rubel 1984, 1989a, b) and electrophysiological experiments (Carr and Konishi 1990; Warchol and Dallos 1990; Overholt et al. 1992; Pena et al. 1996; Reyes et al. 1996; Viete et al. 1997; Bruckner and Hyson 1998; Funabiki et al. 1998; Yang et al. 1999; Monsivais et al. 2000; Pena et al. 2001; Kuba et al. 2002; Cook et al. 2003). This wealth of information has also made it the target of several modeling efforts (Grün et al. 1990; Agmon-Snir et al. 1998; Dasika et al. 1999; Simon et al. 1999a, b; Dasika et al. 2001; Simon et al. 2001a, b; Cook et al. 2003; Carr et al. in press). Models have yielded significant results in explaining some particular features of NL: the role of dendrites in auditory coincidence detection (Agmon-Snir et al. 1998), phase-locking capabilities and synaptic location (Simon et al. 1999a, b), and short-term synaptic plasticity as an adaptive mechanism for preserving ITD information (Cook et al. 2003).
The present model incorporates the varied biological data available, and the dendritic length gradient in particular, to construct a biophysically realistic model of neuronal coincidence detection that is valid across all NL. This neuron-level approach aims to faithfully characterize the morphology, electrical properties, and channel dynamics that underlie the characteristic behavior of NL cells throughout the nucleus.
In addition to those models of NL referred to above, there are related models of coincidence detection in mammalian medial superior olive (MSO), or models general enough to apply equally well to both MSO and NL (Colburn et al. 1990; Han and Colburn 1993; Brughera et al. 1995; Brand et al. 2002; Colburn and Zhou 2002; Svirskis et al. 2002; Svirskis and Rinzel 2003; Zhou and Colburn 2003). For a dated but valuable review, see Colburn (1996). Additionally, the model discussed here has also been generalized to other animals: crocodilians (Soares et al. 1999), and emu (Soares et al. 2001, 2002).
The model presented here presumes the two-part model of Jeffress (1948) with delay lines and coincidence detectors. In the model, NL neurons are studied as coincidence detectors, and it is assumed that delays are external to the NL neurons (e.g., adjusted by fine-tuning axonal delays in the incoming NM neurons). An entire two-dimensional lamina is modeled, with one dimension corresponding to varying ITDs (the ITD axis) and the other corresponding to varying best frequency (BF) (the tonotopic axis). The model's computer code is written in the neuronal modeling language NEURON (Hines and Carnevale 1997, 2000, 2001).
The model is primarily of NL in chick since the biological data used to parameterize the model are taken primarily from chick studies. The large quantity of data from chick NL is not enough, however, to describe all crucial parameters, and data must be taken from other sources as well. The greater part of the remaining parameters come from studies of chick NM (which is similar in some electrophysiological properties to NL) and from barn owl NL (which is similar in some electrophysiological and anatomical properties to chick), but some from further afield. It is hoped, of course, that those parameters are not absolutely crucial to the model's gross behavior. Additionally, to the extent that barn owl NL and chick NL are sufficiently similar, generalizing the model to owl NL from chick is straightforward.
Each individual neuron in the two-dimensional array is modeled with multiple sections: a soma; an axon with an axon hillock, a myelinated segment, and a node of Ranvier; and an adjustable number of dendrites. Each section has an adjustable number of equipotential compartments. Each dendrite has an adjustable distribution and number of excitatory synapses.
The excitatory synapses are modeled as time-varying conductances, with adjustable time constant, peak conductance, reversal potential, and refractory period. The excitatory synapses are driven by simulated NM neurons whose firing is modeled as a constant frequency (periodic) inhomogeneous Poisson process with adjustable average firing rate, vector strength (Goldberg and Brown 1968), frequency, and phase. Typically the ipsilateral and contralateral dendrites receive inputs with the same average firing rate, vector strength, and frequency but different phases; it is straightforward, though, to modify the simulated stimuli, e.g., for ipsilateral monaural stimulation with adjustable contralateral spontaneous activity, or stimulation with nonzero interaural level difference.
The soma also has inhibitory synapses, parameterized similarly to the excitatory synapses. Unlike the fast, phase-locked inhibitory input in mammalian MSO (Brand et al. 2002), inhibitory input to NL is slow and not phase-locked (Funabiki et al. 1998; Yang et al. 1999; Monsivais et al. 2000). The input to the inhibitory synapses is from a modeled superior olivary nucleus (SON) (Takahashi and Konishi 1988; Carr et al. 1989; Lachica et al. 1994). The modeled SON can be either a simple integrate-and-fire neuron whose inputs come from a constant BF array of NL neurons (i.e., of varying ITD) or as a group of multicompartment neurons receiving input from neurons of constant BF in NL, NM, and a simulated nucleus angularis (Rodriguez-Esteban 2002). The inhibitory inputs project back equally to all neurons of the same BF in NL.
Channel types include active potassium channels in both high- and low-voltage-activated forms (and Hodgkin-Huxley delayed rectifier), active sodium channels, and passive leak channels. Voltage-dependent channels are specified by Hodgkin-Huxley-like parameters (Hodgkin and Huxley 1952).
The soma is modeled as a truncated ellipsoid of length and diameter 15 μm (Smith and Rubel 1979; Smith 1981; Parks et al. 1983; Deitch and Rubel 1989b). Dendritic diameter is 4 μm, and dendritic length is a function of position along the tonotopic axis (Rubel and Parks 1975; Smith and Rubel 1979),
which is simply a linear function of logarithmic frequency whose smallest length (20 μm) occurs at and above ~ 2500 Hz, and whose longest length (400 μm) occurs at and below ~ 300 Hz. The axon begins with a 30-μm-long, 8-μm-diameter initial segment (Carr and Boudreau 1993). It has a myelinated section with an attenuation of conductance and capacitance by a factor of 80 over those used throughout the rest of the model (standard values of Ri = 200 Ω-cm and Cm = 1 μF=cm2 (Koch 1999)).
Simulated NM neurons driving the NL excitatory synapses spike at an average firing rate independent of tonotopy (Carr and Konishi 1990;Warchol and Dallos 1990). The vector strength (phase-locking index) of the firing, modeled after Warchol and Dallos (1990) for chick and Köppl (1997) for barn owl, is a function of stimulus frequency
which is simply the linear function of logarithmic frequency whose weakest vector strength VSH occurs for frequencies at and above fVSH and whose strongest vector strength VSL occurs for frequencies at and below fVSL. Specific values are given in Tables 14 and and15.15. The firing pattern is modeled as an inhomogeneous Poisson process with an instantaneous firing probability proportional to an exponentiated sinusoid, also known as the von Mises distribution (Fisher 1993), but with a refractory period. The probability of firing at any time step after the refractory period is given by the product of the time-step interval and
where N is a normalization constant and γ is a monotonic function of vector strength.
The NM firing pattern is computed on the fly (Hill 1976, 1977a, 1977b,1981a, 1981b) so that the simulated run time does not need to be specified in advance. The NM spike probability rate gives the average NM firing rate approximately but reduced because of the minimum reexcitation time. The values used here produce a typical average NM firing rate of 350 spikes/s.
The conductance of all synapses has the time profile of an alpha function
but the time constants and strengths differ substantially between the excitatory and inhibitory cases (cf. Tables 2 and and8).8). The inhibitory parameters for these simulations use a reversal potential hyperpolarized with respect to the resting potential (–80 mV), but a depolarized reversal potential of –60 mV (accompanied by a doubling of the conductance to give the same effective driving force) produced almost identical behavior (see Bruckner and Hyson 1998; Funabiki et al. 1998; Yang et al. 1999; Monsivais et al. 2000).
The passive channel properties were taken from the voltage-current relation measured by Reyes et al. (1996) (note that time constants change substantially for developing chick embryos (Kuba et al. 2002), so the age of the modeled chick can be important).
The active potassium channels fall into two main types, KLVA and KHVA, activated, respectively, at low voltage (hyperpolarized) and high voltage (depolarized) thresholds. KLVA is believed to be of the Kv1 subfamily (Carr et al. 2001). It shows strong outward rectification near rest and is dendrotoxin-I (DTX) and 4-amino-pyridine (4-AP) sensitive (Kuba et al. 2002). It presents rapid activation near rest (low threshold), and its deactivation is slow or partial. Conductances and kinetic parameters for KLVA are taken from studies in NM (Rathouz and Trussell 1998), modified to conform to measured behavior in NL (Reyes et al. 1996), e.g., activation threshold and voltage change to small current injections. KHVA is believed to be Kv3.1 (Parameshwaran et al. 2001) and is characterized by positively shifted voltage dependencies and very fast deactivation rates (Parameshwaran et al. 2001; Rudy and McBain 2001). These properties allow this channel to enable fast repolarization of action potentials without compromising spike initiation or height; this leads to quick recovery after an action potential. It is tetraethylammonium (TEA) sensitive. Conductances and kinetic parameters for KLVA are also taken from studies in NM (Rathouz and Trussell 1998), fit to a linear gating model (see Tables 10 and and1111 for parameter values).
Axonal sodium and potassium channels use simple Hodgkin-Huxley models with conductances adjusted to give NL firing rates consistent with Reyes et al. (1996) (see Tables 12 and and1313 for parameter values). Kinetic dependencies on temperature, sorely needed since physiological experiments are conducted at a variety of temperatures, are essentially unknown and are set to the plausible values for all channels.
The time-step interval of 12.5 μs was selected by examining spike rates and timing for a limited number of cases and was chosen as the largest interval below which firing properties did not change. In particular, even at high stimulus frequencies, smaller intervals do not change firing rates, presumably because the low vector strength jitter dominates any artifacts due to time-step artifacts.
Model runs are typically done on the entire two-dimensional array in parallel, with frequencies varying from 350 Hz to 2 kHz in half-octave steps and interaural phase difference varying from 0° to 180° in 22.5° steps (Fig. 1). NL spike times are noted and average firing rates and vector strength calculated. To analyze more properties more quickly, the phase is often limited to the two values of 0° and 180°. Then the “ITD discrimination index” is defined as: one minus the ratio of the inputs-out-of-phase NL firing rate to the inputs-in-phase NL firing rate. This index is near one when the in-phase firing rate is high and the out-of-phase firing rate is low, but drops to zero when the in-phase and out-of-phase firing rates are indistinguishable. Figures 2 and and33 show plots of ITD discrimination index as a function of frequency.
As shown in Fig. 1, the NL neurons fire well when their ipsilateral and contralateral inputs are in phase. At low frequencies the dendritically extensive NL neurons fire poorly as the interaural phase difference (IPD) increases – the hallmark of a good ITD-sensitive coincidence detector. At high frequencies the dendritically compact NL neurons still fire at large IPDs, meaning that their ability to discriminate between ITDs worsens. There is also a significant enhancement of the vector strength of the output over the vector strength of the input, even at nonzero IPD, a potential flaw in the model.
As shown in Fig. 2, ITD discrimination is good until ~2 kHz. The sharp phase tuning at low frequencies, and specifically the firing rate dropping to zero, appears as ceiling effect on the ITD discrimination index at those low frequencies. The lower panel shows the same neurons, but receiving inputs from NM with vector strength enhanced to match that of barn owl. In this case, ITD discrimination is significantly stronger, up to ~4 kHz. By fine-tuning parameters of the model (particularly by adding more dendrites), this can be pushed up to ~6 kHz (not shown), but this is still not as effective as the barn owl, which can discriminate up to ~ 10 kHz (Carr and Konishi 1990).
Synaptic sublinearity occurs due to finite synaptic reversal potential, as predicted by cable theory (Rall 1959; Agmon-Snir et al. 1998), and it also appears functionally as a drop in ITD discrimination when the excitatory reversal potential is depolarized (not shown). The most interesting effect of synaptic sublinearity can be seen when the dendritic length gradient is turned off or, equivalently, neurons are allowed to receive stimuli at frequencies (unphysiologically) far from their BF. As shown in Fig. 3, for every stimulus frequency there is a dendritic length longer than that at which performance no longer increases. The effect is most pronounced at lower frequencies. The optimal length of the dendrite increases with decreasing frequency. Thus, the dendritic length gradient is predicted under the assumption that dendritic length is minimized while optimizing for ITD discrimination. This is in agreement with Agmon-Snir et al. (1998).
The model also demonstrates a subtraction nonlinearity, due to the presence of KLVA channels acting as a current sink, and it also appears functionally as a drop in ITD discrimination when the KLVA conductance is reduced (not shown). This has an interesting additional manifestation: the out-of-phase rate is suppressed relative to monaural rate, even in the absence of spontaneous activity from the contralateral side (Fig. 4). This is because the high input activity from the out-of-phase case activates KLVA and suppresses depolarization sufficiently to reach spike threshold. This result is in agreement with experimental findings (Goldberg and Brown 1968; Yin and Chan 1990) but without the spontaneous activity needed by more linear models (e.g., Colburn et al. 1990). Note that for the monaural case the average current injected via excitatory synapses is roughly half that of the binaural out-of-phase case, even though the spike rate of the former is greater than that of the latter. Furthermore, by comparing the firing rates for monaural inputs among different neurons (with enhanced KLVA or missing the opposite dendrite), it can be seen that KLVA plays an important role in reducing the firing rate, and, in particular, the opposite dendrite can act as a current sink.
A finely detailed, yet still highly functional, model of chick NL has been constructed. Typical parameters allow ITD discrimination up to 2 kHz, and enhancements for barn owl allow ITD discrimination up to 6 kHz. There are two nonlinearities that aid ITD discrimination: intradendritic inputs sum sublinearly, and interaction with KLVA subtractively suppresses outof-phase inputs. The response to monaural input does not require any spontaneous activity from the contralateral side. The dendritic length gradient of NL is predicted from optimization of ITD discrimination.
Thanks to Raul Rodriguez Esteban, Kate MacLeod, Daphne Soares, and Suchitra Parameshwaran. Support was given to JZS by National Institutes of Health Grant No. R03DC04382 and NSF Grant No. 972033 and to CEC by National Institutes of Health Grant No. DCD00426.
The values tabulated here are the values used unless explicitly countermanded by the text.
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Tuesday, April 12, 2011
How can we bridge the language gap?
The average 18-month-old child has been exposed to 4,380 hours of oral language at a rate of 8 hours/day from birth. A child who has a communication board/device and receives speech/language therapy twice a week for 20-30 minute sessions will reach this same amount of language exposure in 84 years. -Jane Korsten
How can we bridge this gap?
Aided language stimulation. Aided language stimulation refers to the act of an adult pointing to icons on a language device/board while speaking the word OR activating icons on a device. This allows both communication partners to be giving and receiving language input. This stimulation will aid your child's ability to understand and generate language.
My 5-year-old Brady used a communication device from age 3 until shortly before his fifth birthday when he became verbal enough that he no longer used his device. My 3-year-old Ty is preverbal, and currently uses the Vantage Lite since his brother was kind enough to pass it down to him. So when our speech therapists at Helping Hands shared this information with me and challenged us to use Ty's device to give augmented input, I was blown away at the language exposure statistic. So many of our kids are late talkers or go through their entire lives nonverbal...we should all learn from this statement and begin to expose these amazing children to the language they so desperately need!!!
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An Analysis of 1300 Effigies
Dated Between 1300 and 1450
Douglas W. Strong
- This project was started to answer a couple of simple
questions about when particular pieces of armour came into and went
out of fashion. In particular I was interested in the date range of
the centrally hinged visor on bascinets and when uncovered
globose body defenses came into popularity.
- While searching for the answers to these questions I
thought it might be interesting to examine all the parts of armour in
the age of the transition from mail to plate. What follows is the
result of that search.
- I have done my best to be as methodical and complete
as possible. However some errors are certainly going to be present.
For those errors I take full responsibility.
- The dates used for this analysis were based on the date of the creation
of the effigy (where available) rather than the date of death of the person
- The data is inclusive of both flat monumental brasses
and three dimensional monumental effigies.
600 English Effigies
300 German Effigies
300 French Effigies
1300 Effigies From All Countries
Effigies and Brasses: Database & Image Collection.
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Constructed wetlands are a “green” and cost effective treatment technology that nurseries can use to cleanse runoff water.
The average American consumer is fascinated with all things green. The nursery industry is the original “green” industry and needs to market its products as such. But how green are you? Consumers are savvier than ever and truly care about the answer.
Responsible use of resources is critical to maintain your company over the coming years. It is likely that nutrient and pesticide release in nursery runoff will be regulated at local, state, and federal levels in the coming years. At the same time, increased competition for water resources will require more conservative water use practices by the nursery industry. These practices will include more efficient irrigation methods and recycling of irrigation water.
Researchers at Clemson University are actively investigating and refining critical components in constructed wetlands to meet remediation needs within the nursery and green industries. A constructed wetlands is a cost effective treatment option to help meet runoff water quality criteria and enhance water reuse efficiency.
This site will help you determine if constructed wetlands are a good treatment option for your nursery or business.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.clemson.edu/extension/horticulture/nursery/remediation_technology/constructed_wetlands/
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February is Burn Awareness Week
Burn Awareness Week in Alberta is January 31 - February 6, 2016. Each year an estimated 9,000 children in Canada visit hospital emergency rooms for burn treatments, and almost half of these have suffered scalds from hot liquids. Babies and young children have thin, sensitive skin that burns easily and deeply. A child’s skin burns four times more quickly and deeply than an adults’ skin at the same temperature. Most parents don’t know that the most common cause of burn injuries to children is not from fire but from hot liquid scalds, such as spilled hot drinks and tap water.
The Office of the Fire Commissioner is proud to participate in this year’s Burn Awareness Week by providing safety tips and information about burn prevention and treatment.
Tips for preventing scalds and burns in the kitchen:
- Never leave your cooking unattended, even for a brief moment.
- Teach children that hot things burn.
- Place objects so they cannot be pulled down or knocked over.
- Turn pot handles away from the stove’s edge.
- Keep appliance cords coiled and away from counter edges.
- Keep hot foods and liquids away from table and counter edge.
- Use dry oven mitts or potholders. Hot cookware or tableware can heat moisture in a pot holder or hot pad, resulting in a scald burn.
- If you have young children in the home, cook on the stove’s back burners.
- When children are old enough, teach them to cook safely.
Tips for preventing hot tap water and scald burns:
- If children are in the home, do not leave the bathroom while the tub is filling.
- Before placing a child in the bath or getting into the tub yourself, test the water.
- Fill the tub or sink by running cool water first and then adding hot water. Turn the hot water off first. Mix the water thoroughly and check the temperature by moving your hand, wrist, and forearm through the water. The water should feel warm, not hot, to the touch.When bathing a young child, seat the child facing away from the faucets so the child cannot reach the faucet. Turn the faucet to the “COLD” position.
Tips for treating a burn:
- Treat a burn right away by putting it in cool water. Cool the burn for 3 to 5 minutes. Cover with a clean, dry cloth. Do not apply creams, ointments, sprays, or other home remedies.
- Remove all clothing, diapers, jewelry, and metal from the burned area. These can hide underlying burns and retain heat, thereby increasing skin damage.
- Go to your local emergency room, call 9-1-1, or see your doctor if the burn is:
- on the face, hands, feet, major joints, or genital area and/or bigger than the injured person’s palm;
- white, tight, dry (leathery), or painless;
- caused by chemicals or electricity; or
- causing difficulty breathing.
- See your doctor as soon as possible if the burn:
- does not heal in 2 to 3 days;
- becomes foul smelling;
- develops thick drainage, redness, or swelling;
- causes a fever; or
- results in a large blister, wet weepy wound and/ or severe pain.
Burn Awareness Week Information
- 3-Minute Drill – a unique Alberta-made interactive website, where you can learn fire prevention.
- Alberta Centre for Injury Control and Research
- Alberta Health Services
- American Burn Association
- Parachute Canada – dedicated to preventing injuries and saving lives. Parachute officially formed in July 2012, when the former Safe Communities Canada, Safe Kids Canada, SMARTRISK and ThinkFirst Canada joined together to become one leader in injury prevention.
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William James was born in New York City on January 11, 1842, to an affluent, cosmopolitan, and deeply religious family. His father Henry dabbled in theology, doted on his five children, was well connected to literary and philosophical luminaries of the day, and often took the family for extended stays in Europe. His journeys to the continent were primarily theological and philosophical odysseys intended to resolve his conflicting spiritual bouts. His right leg had been amputated after burns suffered in a boyhood accident failed to heal. His spirit never quite recovered. A devoted father, he sought to provide his children with the sort of education that might enable them some day to outdistance their countrymen both in erudition and in breadth of knowledge. To this end, he enrolled them in fine schools, obtained for them gifted tutors, and saw to it that they frequented museums and attended lectures and the theater with regularity. William and two of his siblings would give fruit to their father's liberal educational efforts. Brother Henry became one of America's most famed novelists, and sister Alice acquired a literary reputation of her own after her diaries were posthumously published.
This site includes a broad array of William James' works in digitized full text as well as full text reviews, lesson plans, biographies and images of William James. Researchers in the history of psychology, or of William James in particular, will find this site to be very useful as it includes full text editions of most of James' work in addition to essays about James' impact on the field of psychology and comparisons between James and other psychologists. Some of the links here are dead, but otherwise researchers will find the navigation and layout of the site friendly and the information comprehensive.
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| 0.9847
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We must not forget the lessons of history. Two economists, beginning in the 1920s Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek and the great Austrian scholar, Ludwig von Mises explained the inefficiency of central planning. Its failure in practice led to the Iron Curtains fall, and its failure is the reason China, India and other undeveloped economies have recently turned to market capitalism and are experiencing a growing middle class.
In an economy based upon central planning, the planners decide what is to be produced, where its produced, how much is produced, and how it is allocated. Consumers get whatever they receive from the planner. But the problem, aside from trampling on individual freedom, is that the central planner cannot possibly gather all the information necessary to figure out the correct amount of resources. He cant know exactly how much of different items will be used in the production of different goods and services and how much of each good and service consumers will want.
In contrast, in a market economy consumers decide what is produced and how resources are allocated through a system of voluntary exchange. Producers must use their resources to produce something that consumers find valuable, or else they will go out of business.
Unfortunately, this lesson seems to have been lost on those who would have the government of New Orleans, helped by the leaders of select special interest groups, decide how the city will be rebuilt. How can a planning agency know whether a particular piece of property is more valuable as a residence or a health food store? How can the members of this agency decide how many lots consumers would want to have made into condominiums and how many into single family homes?
While the government may have a role in determining street layouts, the size and location of levees, and other infrastructure, the best way to plan for individual parcels of property is to allow the market process to work. Property owners will best make decisions about their property. If you had a home that was swept away, you should be the one to decide what you want to do. If you wish to take your insurance money and rebuild what you had, you should be able to make that decision. If you did not have insurance and wish to sell the property to a developer, you should be the one to decide that.
Private developers and property owners will each make a decision about what they think is the most valuable use of the property. In every case, they will be taking a risk. The risk is that the cost of redeveloping the property may be greater than consumers will be willing to pay for that development. A developer might pay $10,000 for a lot, put $100,000 of resources into building a house, and find consumers are only willing to pay $90,000 for it. Such developers would go out of business. On the other hand, consumers might be willing to pay $180,000 for the house. In that case, the developer would remain in business. In either case, it will be the consumers who decide how the property is used, determining which developers are efficient and which ones are inefficient.
Contrast this with a planning agency making such decisions. The members of the planning agency arent taking a personal risk in deciding how they think properties should be used. Since the development will be made through the political process, different developers will attempt to influence the plan. New Orleans will be made in the image of a few individuals. In the end, those developers who can get themselves connected most closely to those few decision-makers will get the development plans that favor them. The planners take no individual risk, yet they assess what consumers are going to want. Indeed, they may ignore what consumers want except as reflected through the political process. It is unlikely that planners decisions will match what consumers would have wanted.
While certainly there is a role for government in the rebuilding of New Orleans and the many communities destroyed by the hurricanes, the property owners are best situated to decide the most valued use of their property. Developers who have their own money at risk are best situated to determine what consumers are willing to pay for. It would be a shame if the lessons of the Soviet Union and failures of central planning are lost in the enthusiasm for rebuilding one of America's great cities.
Dr. Gary L. Wolfram is the George Munson Professor of political economy at Hillsdale College in Hillsdale, Mich. He also serves as an adviser to the Business & Media Institute.
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Hindu Festivals - Pongal
The Harvest Festival This three-day Hindu harvest festival falls in the month of Magha, corresponding with the solar equinox.
Celebrated in the south, it is marked by the cooking of the rice from the first harvest after the long and arduous winter. The place for cooking the Pongal is sanctified, this three-day harvest festival is celebrated every year in Magha, from the 13th to the 15th of January. The word 'pongal' refers to the dish of sweet rice prepared on this occasion. The festival is celebrated widely in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The time of the festival is of great importance to all Hindus, as it corresponds to the solar equinox when the days begin to lengthen and the nights begin to wane.
According to Hindu mythology, this is when the day of the gods begins, after a six-month long night. The festival is spread over three days and is the most important and most fervently celebrated harvest festival of South India. A special puja is performed on the first day of Pongal before the cutting of the paddy. Farmers worship the sun and the earth by anointing their ploughs and sickles with sandalwood paste. It is with these consecrated tools that the newly harvested rice is cut. The first day is called Pongal Podigai or Bhogi Pongal and is a day of family feasting and enjoyment. Since the festival celebrates the harvest of the paddy crop, the newly harvested rice is first cooked on this day.
The rice grains, along with sesame seeds, jaggery, chickpeas, groundnuts and dried coconut, are put into an earthen pot filled with milk. This is boiled until some of the milk spills over, and the preparation is called 'Pongal'. It is generally cooked at an auspicious hour, recommended by the priest, in the courtyard of the house. A portion of the cooked rice is offered to Ganesha, and the family, neighbors and friends share the rest as consecrated food. As people greet each other, they ask paal pongita or 'has the milk boiled over?'. Another ritual observed on this day is called Bhogi Mantalu, when useless household articles are thrown into a fire made of wood and cow dung cakes. Girls dance around the bonfire, singing songs in praise of the gods, the spring and the harvest.
In Andhra Pradesh, in the morning the girls burn their old clothes and wear new ones after an oil massage and bath. Then follows Pongal Panai, a ritual in which the new earthenware pots are painted and decorated with turmeric, flowers and mango leaves. The second day is known as Surya Pongal, the day for the worship of Surya, and the rice cooked in milk and jaggery is offered him. When the food is being cooked and when it boils over, people shout pongalo pongal loudly and many times to rejoice. On this festive day, a newly married couple, symbolizing freshness and joy, is presented with new clothes by the bride's parents.
The servants of the house are also given new clothes to wear. Bathing in the sacred rivers during Pongal is believed to be extremely beneficial. Hence, devotees flock to Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu to bath in the waters of the Kaveri, and to Tirunelveli, also in Tamil Nadu to bathe in the river Tamirapani. Bathing in the sea at Vedaranyam in Tamil Nadu is also considered auspicious.
The third day is known as Mattu Pongal or Gopuja, the day of Pongal Shiva cursed Basava to live on earth forever for cows. It is marked by cattle worship. In earlier times, cattle formed the chief asset of an agriculturalist and it was only proper that their services were recognized and celebrated on this day. The cattle are given a ceremonial bath in the morning, their horns are cleaned, polished and painted, and then decorated with flowers. They are then given Pongal to eat. Arati is performed on them, so as to ward off the evil eye.
According to a legend, once Shiva asked his bull, Basava, to go to the earth and ask the mortals to have an oil massage and bath every day and to eat once a month. Inadvertently, Basava announced that everyone should eat daily and have an oil bath once a month. This mistake enraged Shiva who then cursed Basava, banishing him to live on the earth forever. He would have to plough the fields and help people produce more food. Thus the association of this day with cattle.
A festival called Jallikattu is held in Madurai, Tiruchirapalli and Tanjavur, all in Tamil Nadu, on this day. Bundles of money are tied to the horns of ferocious bulls, which the villagers try to retrieve. Everyone joins in the community meal, at which the food is made of the freshly harvested grain. This day is named and celebrated as Tamilian Thirunal in a fitting manner throughout Tamil Nadu. Sisters for the welfare of their brothers also celebrate Mattu Pongal, also called Kanu Pongal. This festival is reminiscent of Raksha Bandhan and Bhai Duja of north India. A large banana (Musaparadisiaca) leaf is washed. It is then placed on the ground, next to the basil altar in the courtyard.
On it is placed a branch of the Amla (Phylalnthusembelica) tree. On this leaf are placed at four corners, the leftovers of sweet pongal and the salty pongal called Vand Pongal, ordinary rice as well as colored red and yellow, five betel leaves, two betel nuts, two pieces of sugarcane, turmeric leaves, and two or three ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) fruit. On this also reposes an oil lamp. In Tamil Nadu women perform this ritual before bathing in the morning. In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the festival starts after everyone has bathed. All the women, young and old, of the house assemble in the courtyard.
The eldest married woman distributes a handful of rice to all the others. The rice is placed in the center of the banana leaf, while the women ask that the house and family of their brothers should prosper. Arati is performed for the brothers with turmeric water, limestone and rice, and this water is sprinkled on the rangoli in front of the house. Sisters apply a tilak on the foreheads of their brothers, and give them fruit, sweets, sesame seed and jaggery. The brothers thank their sisters for their good wishes and give them money and gifts. The celebration of this festival probably originated very early on. From the very beginning, the first agriculturalists realized the importance of a good crop, which sustained the entire clan. And since, to him, it depended on some supernatural element, he thought it fit to thank the gods after a good harvest. Further, it was believed that all that is new, a new crop, the first catch of a season, and the first born of a domestic animal, was sacred and hence not to be touched by man until certain sacramental ceremonies were performed.
A part of the new was sacrificed to the gods or spirits, and one's ancestors, and only then could it be consumed. In addition, it was realized that the fruit of the earth and animals for food should not be garnered until they were ready. The community emphasized this, and until a ritual was performed, nothing could be gathered, slain, or eaten. The harvest festival of Pongal symbolizes the veneration of the first fruit. The crop is harvested only after a certain time of the year, and cutting the crop before that time is strictly prohibited.
Even though Pongal was originally a festival for the farming community, today all celebrates it. In the south, all three days of Pongal are considered important. However, those south Indians who have settled in the north usually celebrate only the second day. Coinciding with Makara Sankranti and Lohri of the north, it is also called Pongal Sankranti. Though traditionally 'Pongal' is cooked using the newly harvested grain, nowadays it is not easily available. Therefore families not directly involved in agriculture cook 'pongal' using old rice, to give thanks in the traditional way.
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Suburbanites: Please buy electric vehicles and put solar on your rooftops — the cities of the future need you!
According to new research out of the University of Lincoln in the U.K., a solar-powered suburb filled with EV drivers has the greatest potential for not only powering its own needs with clean energy, but also to bring its surplus solar power into smart cities.
Although the conventional wisdom has it that densely populated cities are the most sustainable form of development — and there is certainly research to back up the low carbon footprint of big cities — research from Professor Hugh Byrd at the University of Lincoln offers a contrary theory.
Byrd and his research team found that detached suburban houses are capable of generating 10 times the energy of skyscrapers and commercial buildings — far more electricity than the homes themselves need — and that this significant surplus of energy can be used to lighten the load during cities’ peak demand times.
When suburban EV drivers take their fully charged cars into the city during work hours, those vehicles can feed energy into the city’s grid, bringing another source of clean energy into the mix.
There are, of course, a few major assumptions in this theory:
- Drivers will buy EVs en masse
- EVs and solar systems will continue to drop in price
- EV battery life and range capabilities will continue to steadily improve
- Cities will embrace distributed energy and smart grid technologies
Thankfully, there are examples aplenty to back up pretty much all of these assumptions (especially the low cost of solar power) — it’s really only a matter of how quickly each of these will come to pass. And the research findings will really come into play in the coming years, as Professor Byrd explained.
“It is more a case of building for the future — when the climate will be warmer, harvesting solar energy will be cheaper than the grid and emerging technologies will replace the internal combustion engine,” Byrd said in a statement. “Particularly for city center travel where longevity isn’t an issue, electric vehicles will become increasingly more attractive as their price drops with mass production and the cost of fuel continues to rise.”
The other big assumption here is just how sustainable a suburban development can be. We’re working on an article about what is likely the most sustainable planned community in the U.S. (more on that soon), but most suburbs are car-centric, pedestrian-unfriendly zones that could easily more than offset the benefits of the adoption of rooftop solar and electric vehicles by a critical mass of the population.
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Here’s a new way to combine technology and gardening — researchers at Cornell University’s Lab of Ornithology want you to sign up for YardMap.
The YardMap Network is supposed to be a citizen science project for learning more about bird habitats for both professional scientists and people concerned with their local environments.
Researchers collect data by asking individuals across the country to literally draw maps of their backyards, parks, farms, favorite birding locations, schools, and gardens. You get to interact with that map and the researchers provide tools for you to make better decisions about how to manage landscapes sustainably.
If you sign up to participate, you can see yards from across the country.
According to their website, “YardMap is the world’s first interactive citizen scientist social network. When you join you are instantly connected to the work of like-minded individuals in your neighborhood, and across the country. Together you can become a conservation community focused on sharing strategies, maps, and successes to build more bird habitat.”
The website seems to have a bunch of information on it pertaining to developing your property to attract and foster birds of your area.
In exchange for the information, researchers seem to be looking for input that will help them determine what impact urban/suburban wildlife havens have on birds; what we need to do to increase the amount of wildlife in our landscapes; what practices work best; and how much area in urban/suburban settings needs to be dedicated to wildlife support to be beneficial to that wildlife.
Might be fun to try.
* * *
If you haven’t had enough of plant sales, here another one a short drive away. The Village Home & Garden Club will host their annual plant sale at Welcome Elementary School, 5701 Old N.C. 52, Saturday, May 12, 8-11 a.m. A large selection of perennials, annuals, shrubs and house plants will be available at very reasonable prices. For more information, call Beth Leonard (731-7317) or Reida Snyder (731-6937)
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Every two years we turn on our t.v.’s to some surprisingly obscure Olympic sports. Here’s what you need to know to keep you entertained from curling to trampoline.
- Luge, Bobsleigh, Skeleton
- Curling, “Chess on Ice”
- Modern Pentathlon
- Dressage, “Horse Ballet”
- 3000 Meter Steeplechase
Combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting.
How it works:
Cross-country ski trial broken up into
2 or 4 shooting positions
and half standing
5 targets per shooting position
Every missed target = penalty
Extra 150 meter ski loop
Add 1 minute to the skiers time
Or, use one of three “extra” cartridges.
Countries most popular in:
Austria, Belarus, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, United States.
Originated in Norway in 1861
This sport was originally an exercise for Norwegian military.
Three steering mechanisms for the same sport
tracks= concrete covered in ice;
one straight section
one “labyrinth” or three turns in quick succession
1200-1300 meters long and 15 curves
“Peterson turns” including a 180 degree turn, and a 270 degree bank angle.
120 km/h and up to 5 g’s.
How it works:
Crews of two or four:
Feet forward head up
Steering mechanism at the front.
Sled dimensions of up to 12.5 ft. (4 person crew)
Or 8.9 ft. (2 people)
Weight limits of 1388.9 lbs (4-man crew)
859.8 lbs (2-man crew)
Or 749.6 lbs (2-woman crew)
Crew pushes the sled 50 meters then jumps in.
Going for the fastest time.
The fastest and most dangerous of the sliding sports.
Record: 95.69 mph by Manuel Pfister of Austria
1 or two person sleds
Feet first, head up.
Steering: Flexing one sides calf and exerting pressure with the other shoulder.
One person, face down and forward.
Steering: Torque provided by head and shoulders.
Year of first competitions–1882 (Skeleton), 1883 (Luge), 1884 (Bobsleigh)
Location originated: Switzerland
One large granite “stone” is cast across the ice.
Teams of 4 take turns guiding the stone towards a target.
Players “sweep” in front of the stone at the direction of the skip
(1) reduces friction that slows down the stone
(2) reduces the curl (spin) of the stone
Year originated: Late Middle Ages
Location originated: Scotland
200m freestyle swimming
pistol shooting combined with 3200 meter cross-country run
Designed by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympics.
meant to simulate the experience of a 19th century cavalry soldier behind enemy lines.
How it works:
Competitors ranked for performance in first three disciplines
And given start times for the final combined event.
For shooting and running:
(50 seconds to hit 5 targets) 4 times throughout the run.
Winner is whoever crosses the finish line first.
Goal: Allow the horse to perform under saddle with the degree of athleticism and grace it would naturally show in the wild.
Pyramid of horse training:
Rhythm and regularity–Keep rhythm with pure walk, pure gait, or pure canter.
Relaxation–relaxed blowing of nose, relaxed chewing on bit, legs swinging like pendulums
Contact–the pushing power of the horse
Impulsion–flow of pushing power from back to front is even, relaxed.
Straightness–The body and legs follow a straight line, keeping the horse in perfect balance.
Collection–shorter strides of greater energy and activity.
Performance ranked from 1-10
Based on presentation of a variety of gaits, transitions between gaits, and even pirouettes.
1.) Piagge, a calm, composed, elevated trot in place.
2.) Collected gaits, the horse rests on its hind quarters more, elevating itself as it continues the routine.
3.) Pirouettes, 180’s, 360’s, or 720’s turn in place.
Origin year: Ancient Europe–>Renaissance (classical dressage)–>Competitive dressage
Xenophon, Greek General (427-355) wrote On Horsmanship
William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle (1592-1676) –Master of Horse for Charles II of England.
FranÁois Robichon de La GuÈriniËre (1688-1751)–Taught the classical position still used today.
Egon von Neindorff (1923-2004)–author of The Art of Classical Horsemanship
How it works:
3000 meter track
(they don’t fall over when hit like track hurdles)
(36 inches for men)
(30 inches for women)
Each circuit has 4 obstacles
and 1 water barrier.
Each race is 7 circuits.
Can jump over obstacles by any means
(ex:foot, hand, tripping, climbing.)
The fastest time wins!
Gymnasts coordinate 10 contacts with the 14 by 7 foot trampoline.
with Feet, seat, front, and back.
Beginning and ending with feet.
Variety of twists
(lateral and longitudinal movement)
Three basic shapes of moves:
1.) Tucked: with knees clasped to chest by hands
2.) Piked: with hands touching close to feet and both arms and legs straight
3.) Straddle: legs creating a triangle with hands on ankles.
Ranked from 1-10 based on:
1.) Incomplete moves
2.) moving too far from the center
3.) Degree of difficulty
Let the Games Begin!
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EMT Exam: Injuries That Affect the Airway and Breathing
You will need to be familiar with all types of injuries for the EMT exam. The injuries you will find here require rapid identification and, in some cases, immediate action on your part. These are conditions that either block (obstruct) the airway or somehow impair the patient’s ability to breathe adequately. Without the ability to move air well, the patient’s ability to survive any injury is severely compromised.
Injuries that block the airway
No airway, no life; that’s pretty much the message you hear all along in your EMT training. Here’s a list of key trauma reasons why an airway becomes blocked and what action you should perform to relieve the blockage.
|Problem||Signs and Symptoms||Action Steps|
|Obstructions in the mouth||Blood, other secretions; broken/missing teeth; bleeding from nose||Suction mouth; if possible, position patient lateral recumbent|
|Tongue obstruction as a result of altered mental status or unconsciousness||Snoring respirations; no breathing sounds; head and neck flexed||Manual spine precautions; modified jaw thrust; oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway; head-tilt, chin-lift if modified jaw thrust is unsuccessful|
|Soft tissue swelling as a result of heat or chemical burns||Hoarse, muffled, or whisper voice; stridor during breathing; reddened tissues in mouth; excessive saliva/secretions||Maintain an optimal head/neck position that minimizes stridor; sit patient up if no cervical-spine precautions; suction carefully, if at all, to avoid irritating tissue (allow patient to drool)|
|Impaled object in cheek||Um, something stuck in cheek||Suction as necessary; if airway is blocked, cut object as short as possible and pull it forward through the opening; apply pressure to opening to control bleeding|
A 35-year-old female strikes a tree while skiing downhill. She is unconscious, with slow, irregular respirations. You can hear snoring. She has a large laceration along the left parietal skull that is oozing blood. You should first
(A)suction her airway for no more than 10 seconds.
(B)apply a head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver.
(C)establish manual spine precautions.
(D)control the bleeding with mild, direct pressure.
The best answer is Choice (C). There is evidence of a significant mechanism of injury, and the patient is unconscious and unable to provide you any information. Therefore, minimizing movement to the spine is important in this scenario.
There is no evidence of blood in the airway, making Choice (A) irrelevant. Choice (B) may be required, but only if you are unable to open the airway with a jaw thrust. The bleeding from the laceration is not significant enough to override airway control as the priority, as Choice (D) suggests.
Injuries that make breathing difficult
In order to survive, you have to maintain levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide no matter what. When a patient begins to fail at maintaining ventilation, you need to step in to supplement oxygen or take over ventilation; Check out the action steps.
|Problem||Signs and Symptoms||Action Steps|
|Open chest wound, causing air to leak into the chest cavity||Incision or opening on chest wall (don’t forget the back!); sounds of air at site (though not always); uneven chest rise and fall; decreased lung sounds on affected side; dyspnea; tachycardia||Seal wound immediately with gloved hand; replace with occlusive chest seal; closely monitor for developing tension under seal and relieve it as patient exhales; if patient is unable to breathe adequately, provide oxygen and ventilate carefully to avoid worsening the problem|
|Pneumothorax, open or simple, causing a portion of the lung to collapse||Possible diminished lung sounds over affected side; decreased oxygen saturation; dyspnea; tachycardia; possible chest pain||Provide oxygen to maintain saturation; ventilate carefully if patient is unable to maintain|
|Tension pneumothorax, causing excess air pressure inside chest wall and squeezing the lungs, heart, and great vessels||Diminished lung sounds over affected side; jugular venous distension; unequal chest rise and fall; rapidly falling blood pressure; severe dyspnea and tachycardia||If tension develops after occlusive seal is applied to an open chest wound, lift one side of seal to burp the wound and relieve tension. Call advanced life support (ALS) if possible; a paramedic can insert a long needle into the chest to relieve the tension|
|Hemothorax, causing blood to pool into the chest cavity and squeezing the lung||Diminished lung sounds over affected side; flat neck veins; hypotension (from blood loss); dyspnea and tachycardia||Provide oxygen to maintain saturation; ventilate carefully if patient is unable to maintain|
|Rib fractures, causing pain||Pain and point tenderness over affected region; pain on inspiration; dyspnea||If possible, place patient in best position of comfort; provide oxygen to maintain saturation|
|Flail chest, causing loss of chest wall integrity||Pain over affected region; in later stages, paradoxical chest movement, dyspnea||Provide oxygen to maintain saturation; ventilate carefully if patient is unable to maintain adequate tidal volume; some regions suggest splinting with a pillow or bulky dressing to reduce pain|
Notice that many of the following trauma conditions have similar signs and symptoms; that’s why diagnosis may be difficult. However, also notice that the treatment is very similar for many conditions.
A pedestrian was struck by a motor vehicle that was moving at a high rate of speed. He is anxious and confused, with cool, pale, and diaphoretic skin. You note crepitus on palpation across the right lateral chest wall, from the region of T4 through T10.
Breath sounds are diminished over the right side of the chest. His neck veins are flat. His pulse rate is 130, and his blood pressure is 80/60 mm Hg. Which of the following injuries is most likely?
The best answer is Choice (B). Bleeding inside the chest cavity can be significant and cause shock. The mechanism of injury, physical findings, and his poor skin and vital signs support this answer. You would expect to see jugular venous distension in Choice (A). Neither Choice (C) nor (D), by itself, would cause such poor vital signs.
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Logic puzzles require you to think. You will have to be logical in your reasoning.
There are three boxes of tennis balls in a warehouse. They have all been mislabeled. One box is labeled yellow tennis balls, one is labeled white and yellow tennis balls and one is labeled white tennis balls. Take one can of tennis balls out of one box without looking into the box or into any other box. By just looking at the color of this one can of balls, can you correctly label each of the boxes?
HintEvery box is mislabeled.
Take a can of tennis balls from the box labeled `White and Yellow Tennis Balls`. Say that the ball is yellow. Take the `Yellow Tennis Balls` label and put it on that box. Remove the `White and Yellow Tennis Balls` label and put it on the box marked `White Tennis Balls`. It couldn't go on the box that had previously had the `Yellow Tennis Balls` label, because that would mean that the `White Tennis Balls` label couldn't be changed, and we have been told that all the boxes are mislabeled. Move the `White Tennis Balls` label to the unlabeled box. (The same logic would prevail if you started with any of the boxes.)
Jan 31, 2005
|I got all confused because I thought that "White & Yellow" meant some were white and some were yellow but I figured it out. The only bi-coloured tennis balls I have ever seen were hot pink and bright green (they were fuzzy and came with velcro stickpads to catch them with). |
Feb 10, 2005
|No Atropus, the balls are not multicolored. One of the boxes has both solid white and solid yellow balls inside. If for example you pull a can of white balls out of the box labeled "white and yellow" that has to be the "white" box. Remember, the labels ARE IN FACT NECESSARILY wrong in every case. This is the key info. The "Yellow and White" label than has to go on the box originally labeled "yellow" because that label cannot stay on that box. Again, none of the boxes can have correct labels to begin with. The "yellow" label goes to the only remaining box.|
However, I don't understand how this logic could work starting with any box other that the one labeled "white and yellow". If you pull a white can out of the "yellow" labeled box, how could you tell if the box was actually the all white box or if it was the white and yellow box?
May 18, 2005
Nov 24, 2005
Dec 18, 2005
|MindTrap riddle. anyhow bbz, that was just his example. if white was pulled out of the white and yellow box, it would get the white label.|
Jan 27, 2006
|i didn't get it - i like to use objects|
to stephiesd - i love that game!!
Mar 14, 2006
|To answer the question some posed....if I took a white and yellow can out....I would move the label from the one originally marked white and yellow, we'll call it box A....to the one I opened, which is in fact white and yellow....Box B...which was labeled Yellow......that means to move the label from Box C...it would HAVE to go on Box A...Box A would be white, Box B white and yellow, box C yellow.......|
I've seen this done with household items....but it all turns out the same. I love this teaser.
Mar 20, 2006
| WHAT !!!! |
Mar 20, 2006
| my logic was to just go ahead and give up and look at the answer . |
to my disappointment the answer was also in CHINESE !!!!
Mar 24, 2006
Apr 04, 2006
|see the problem with this teaser is that you are able to look at all of the tennis balls and the only reason that you would look at one to determine where all of the labels go is if you were trying to show off for your friends or something|
Apr 12, 2006
|Was almost too easy-but I've heard a similar one before so that's probably why....good teaser though |
Apr 16, 2006
|wow i totally got that one wrong|
i didnt think u could and the answer was sorta strange... anyways great teaser!
Aug 20, 2006
|i got it |
May 05, 2007
|I actually got that one!! |
Jan 08, 2011
|Great teaser. I though of the possibility of a empty box, but in that way it could never be solved.|
Back to Top
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The fire-damaged whaling factory ship, the Nisshin Maru enters Tokyo's bay.Greenpeace's ship, Esperanza, was in the Antarctic to stop the hunt in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, but instead stayed with the Nisshin Maru, assisting with safety for the crew and the whole fleet.Greenpeace is calling for the Nisshin Maru to be retired from the whaling fleet and for the government to give a full public account of the cause of the fire that left one man dead and the ship crippled in the icy Southern Ocean for ten days.
The JARPA whaling research programme review workshop report (2) states that the program cannot even establish reliable mortality rates for Minke whales, despite this being a prime objective of the program, and the statistical analysis cannot rule out a zero mortality rate - which would make Minke whales immortal!
None of the four objectives of the JARPA program, which involved harpooning 6,778 whales, was reached. Attempts to determine if populations were increasing or decreasing also failed. The workshop “noted that the current confidence intervals for the estimates of trend are relatively wide. These results are, therefore, consistent with a substantial decline, a substantial increase, or approximate stability in minke whale abundance in these geographic areas over the period of JARPA." (2)
"It is not only the Japanese government's factory whaling ship that has been seriously damaged this hunting season, so has the credibility of the whaling programme with this review,"said Junichi Sato, Greenpeace Japan Whale Campaign Coordinator. "The Japanese people have spent 18 years and millions of yen funding a so-called research programme that has produced nothing of substance."
Greenpeace is calling for the Nisshin Maru to be retired from the whaling fleet and for the government to give a full public account of the cause of the fire that left one man dead and the ship crippled in the icy Southern Ocean for ten days.
Greenpeace's ship, Esperanza, was in the Antarctic to stop the hunt in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, but instead stayed with the Nisshin Maru, assisting with safety for the crew and the whole fleet by maintain regular ice surveys with the Greenpeace helicopter and offering additional emergency aid. Once the ship was operational again the Esperanza escorted the entire fleet out of Antarctic waters.
The Esperanza, which is an ice-class vessel and files environmental impact assessments with Antarctic Treaty nations - unlike the Japanese whaling fleet- is now en route to Tokyo and is scheduled to be in Tokyo Bay on March 28th. Greenpeace has invited representatives from the Fisheries Agency of Japan and the Institute of Cetacean Research on board the Esperanza to discuss high seas whaling.
VVPR info: In Tokyo, please contact Keiko Shirokawa, Greenpeace Japan Communications: +81 90 3470 7884Junichi Sato, Greenpeace Japan Whales Campaign Coordinator: +81 80 5088 2990On Board the Esperanza: Sara Holden, Greenpeace International Communications: + 872 324 469 014 (satellite phone)For Images please contact: Michelle Thomas, in Sydney, Australia: +61 404 096 556
Notes: 1. Japanese special permit research in the Antarctic (JARPA) was an 18 year program carried out from 1987/88 to 2004/05 and took 6,778 minke whales over that period. The IWC repeatedly asked Japan to call off the program, as the data was not needed and recommended that scientific research involving the killing of cetaceans should only be permitted where critically important research needs are addressed. 2. The JARPA review workshop was convened under the auspices of the International Whaling Commission's Scientific Committee and was held in Tokyo, 4-8 December, 2006 at the Institute of Cetacean Research. It was attended by 56 scientists including 29 from Japan and the Chair of the IWC's Scientific Committee. The main objective of the Workshop was to evaluate how well the objectives of JARPA had been met.
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The Colby Environmental Assessment Team (CEAT) investigated the water quality and factors affecting water quality in the surrounding watershed of Togus Pond in Augusta, Maine from June through September 2004. CEAT analyzed several physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters, land use patterns in the watershed, and the impact of residential and commercial development on water quality. Data collected were used to produce models of the watershed that enabled CEAT to identify possible sources of degradation to the current and future water quality of Togus Pond. To obtain a historical perspective, all data collected this summer were compared to data collected in previous years by the Maine Department of Environmental Protection. Lake water quality is most affected by the accumulation of external nutrients, particularly phosphorus, resulting from surface runoff and land erosion. Internal nutrient loading is an important factor to consider since a large amount of the phosphorus in the lake comes from internal sediment loading. When concentrations of phosphorus approach threshold levels (15 ppb), a lake may experience algal blooms that decrease the aesthetic, recreational, ecological, and economic value of the lake and land areas surrounding the lake.
Colby Environmental Assessment Team, Colby College and Problems in Environmental Science course (Biology 493), Colby College, "A Watershed Analysis of Togus Pond: Implications for Water Quality and Land Use Management" (2004). Colby College Watershed Study: Togus Pond (2004). Paper 1.
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Light and Matter: Electromagnetism, Optics, Spectroscopy and Lasers
* covers both fundamentals and applications
* features numerous examples
* dynamic structure allows sections to be studied independently of one another
* in depth coverage of modern topics.
This is an essential text for students of electromagnetism and optics, optoelectronics and lasers, quantum electronics spectroscopy, as well as being an invaluable reference for researches.
1 Electromagnetic radiation.
1.1 Brief history of the interaction of light and matter.
1.2 Light in vacuum.
1.3 Matter–source of light.
2 Phenomenology of light propagation in matter.
2.1 Absorption of light.
2.2 Nonlinear absorption.
2.3 Index of refraction.
2.4 Optical phenomena in nonisotropic media.
2.5 Electric field effects.
2.6 Acousto-optic effects.
2.7 Magnetic field effects.
3 The interaction of light and matter.
3.1 Lorentz force law.
3.2 Motion of a charged particle in static electric and magnetic fields.
3.3 Motion of a bound electron in an electromagnetic field.
3.4 Radiation due to acceleration of charges.
3.5 Multipole radiation.
3.6 Scattering of a light wavepacket.
3.7 Cooling and trapping of atoms.
4 Magnetic phenomena, constitutive relations and plasmas.
4.1 Magnetic moments.
4.3 Magnetic resonance.
4.4 Polarization and magnetization as source terms.
4.5 Atomistic derivation of macroscopic electromagnetism and the constitutive relations.
4.6 Microscopic polarizability and macroscopic polarization.
4.7 Dielectric relaxation.
4.8 Plasmas 275
5 Quantum description of absorption, emission and light scattering.
5.1 Charged particle in an electromagnetic field.
5.2 Absorption and emission.
5.3 Rayleigh and Raman scattering.
5.4 Thomson scattering.
6.3 Diatomic molecules.
6.4 Polyatomic molecules.
6.5 Condensed-phase materials.
7.1 Laser dynamics.
7.3 Steady state.
7.4 Pulsed laser operation.
7.5 Cavity modes.
7.6 Amplified spontaneous emission.
7.7 Laser linewidth.
7.8 Laser coherence.
7.9 Specific laser systems.
8 Nonlinear optics.
8.1 Expansion of the polarization in the electric field.
8.3 Second harmonic generation.
8.4 Three-wave mixing.
8.5 Third harmonic generation.
8.6 Self-focusing and self-phase modulation.
8.7 Four-wave mixing.
8.8 Stimulated Raman processes.
8.9 Stimulated Brillouin processes.
8.10 Nonlinear matter-wave optics.
9 Quantum-optical processes.
9.1 Interaction of a two-level system with an electromagnetic field.
9.2 Liouville–von Neumann equation for the density matrix.
9.3 Three-level system.
9.4 Coherent states and squeezed states.
9.5 The Jaynes–Cummings model.
9.6 Interaction between modes of a quantum field.
10 Light propagation in optical fibers and introduction to optical communication systems.
10.1 Fiber characteristics.
10.2 Transverse modes of an optical fiber.
10.3 Nonlinear processes in fibers.
10.4 Fiber-optic communication systems.
Appendix A: vector analysis.
Appendix B: Electromagnetism and Maxwell’s equations.
Appendix C: Quantum mechanics and the Schr¨odinger equation.
Appendix D: perturbation theory.
Appendix E: Fundamental constants.
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Castor or Croton Caterpillar
(one synonym : Ophiusa ekeikei Bethune-Baker, 1906)
CATOCALINAE , NOCTUIDAE , NOCTUOIDEA
(Photo: courtesy of Carol Lockyer, Brisbane)
These caterpillars hatch from blue spherical eggs, each about half a millimetre across, laid singly on the food plant.
The Caterpillars are initially brown with a black and white head, a red knob on the tail, and a black mark on the back of the second abdominal segment. The spiracles on each side of the abdominal segments are black. In the last instars, the brown turns to bluish-grey, and the point on tail turns black. The underside and legs become orange.
The first pair of prolegs of the caterpillars is degenerate, and so the caterpillars move in a looper fashion.
The caterpillars are a pest on:
and a pest at times on
Specimens have also been found feeding on many other plants, including :
The caterpillars grow to a length of about 5 cms. They pupate in a white cocoon between leaves and stems of the foodplant.
The adult moth has forewings that have a pattern of light and dark brown.
The hind wings are black with three white spots along the margin, and an inner unbroken white band. The moth has a wingspan of about 6 cms. The pheromones of the species have been studied. A number of control measures have been proposed.
The adult moth is known to feed on fruit juice, and is suspected of piercing fruit to obtain it.
The species occurs in :
as well as most of Australia including:
Further reading :
Butterflies and Moths,
Collins Eyewitness Handbooks, Sydney 1992, fig. 46.10, p. 259.
Ian F.B. Common,
Moths of Australia,
Melbourne University Press, 1990, fig. 46.10, p. 453.
Moths photographed at Obum Obum,
Issue 73 (June 2014), p. 31,
Butterflies and Other Invertebrates Club.
Volume 1, Edition 10 (1760), Class 5, Part 3, p. 527, No. 184.
Paul Zborowski and Ted Edwards,
A Guide to Australian Moths,
CSIRO Publishing, 2007, p. 195.
(updated 30 May 2013, 30 December 2013)
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| 0.879188
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rt historians maintain that, on the whole, there has never been a coherent, continuous tradition of Irish visual art. The "visual arts need leisure, stability, and above all money to survive" (Sheehy 8) and centuries of invasions, foreign occupation, and economic difficulties robbed the Irish people of these requisites. Their great traditions of aesthetic achievement have been in music and literature, which "can be passed on orally even in times of change and instability" (Sheehy 8). Within the realm of visual art, their greater accomplishments are in the popular and applied arts. However, part of the aim of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries' Celtic Revival was to help change this; purveyors of the fine arts in Ireland sought to follow the accomplishments of writers and craftsmen with parallel achievements in painting and sculpture.
The entire Celtic Revival movement grew out of the increasing Irish nationalism of the nineteenth century, a nationalism that stemmed from centuries of resentment at subjugation by foreigners in both political and cultural spheres; the artistic movement went hand in hand with a desire for political freedom. Focusing on the cultural accomplishments of the past would be the best way to restore Ireland's self-worth, leaders of the movement believed, and even before the nineteenth century artists such as James Barry and Vincent Waldré used scenes from Irish history as the subjects of some of their paintings with this purpose partly in mind. In the 1830s, the Irish antiquarian movement began, which was marked by scholarly and artistic interest in Irish antiquities. One of the foremost individuals in the movement was George Petrie whose interests spanned not only scholarship and art, but journalism and music as well. He earned his money primarily as a topical artist, working mostly in watercolors. Of his painting, The Last Round of the Pilgrims at Clonmacnoise, he wrote,
It was my wish to produce an Irish picture somewhat historical in its object and poetical in its sentiment - a landscape composed of several of the monuments characteristic of the past history of our country, and which will soon cease to exist, and to connect with them the expression of human feelings equally belonging to our history, and which are destined to a similar extinction.
In short, I desire to produce a picture which might have an interest and value, not pmerely pictorial, beyond the present time, and thus connect my name with the Art Union Association, and with the history of art in Ireland. [Sheehy 22]
A friend of Petrie's was Frederic Burton, the other major painter of the antiquarian period. One of his most famous works is entitled Paddy Coneely, the blind piper, which depicts a Galway musician.
The Young Ireland movement that came on the heels of the antiquarian movement was more political in its focus, though it too attempted to use contemporary Irish art to achieve its ends. One of the leaders of this new campaign was Thomas Osborne Davis, who founded The Nation, the newspaper "which was the voice of the movement" (Sheehy 29). He was especially interested in the fine arts, and in The Nation published a list of historical Irish subjects for artists to use as the topics of their paintings. Pictures showing items from Davis's list show up in the works of painters such as Joseph Peacock, Richard Rothwell, Joseph Patrick Haverty, Henry McManus, and Bernard Mulrenin. However, though the movement was important in its own time, and for those involved in Young Ireland "the cards may have seemed to 'blossom', but to the modern eye they are rather dry" (Sheehy 37). The Young Ireland's achievements had no great lasting effect. Throughout the rest of the mid-nineteenth century, "national feeling manifested itself in various degrees among artists working at home" (Sheehy 41). The most important of these painters were the previously mentioned Frederic Burton, William Mulready, and Daniel Maclise. Maclise is the most acclaimed Irish painter of the nineteenth century; he painted and sketched many scenes from Irish history and mythology, and his talent as a draughtsman was particularly great. In sculpture, the most important names are John Henry Foley, whose most famous work is perhaps the O'Connell monument in Dublin, Christopher Moore, whose best work is in portrait busts, and John Hogan, who "specialized in figures accompanied by Erin" (Sheehy 56) (a personified Ireland).
The Celtic Revival proper (sometimes called the Irish Renaissance) began in the 1880s. Like the antiquarian and Young Ireland revivals, this new movement also had its greatest achievements in literature. This is not to say though that art was completely neglected, and of the many different Irish cultural organizations that were founded in this time period, had members who were painters, sculptors, or craftsmen and drew upon traditionally Celtic subject matter for their art. In the fine arts specifically, "the most conspicuous, and lasting, manifestation of the Celtic Revival was not a single work of painting or sculpture, but an art gallery" (Sheehy 107). Founded by Hugh Lane, the Gallery of Modern Art displayed not only Irish art but also works by the best contemporary European artists from all over the continent. It holds an important place in the Revival as a whole in that the Gaelic League praised it highly, important Irish literary figures (including W.B. Yeats and John Millington Synge) wrote about it, and Lady Gregory "connected the gallery specifically with the movement" (Sheehy 107). Lane himself said that such an art gallery was essential in creating a well-defined school of Irish painting. It opened in 1908 on Harcourt Street and subsequently, after a significant amount of controversy, moved to Charlemont House, Parnell Square, in 1933.
Painting and sculpture after 1900 became less nationalistic, and the artists "became more preoccupied with the medium than with the message" (Sheehy 177), and this is not surprising, given that this was the trend in art all throughout Europe at the time. Even so, a significant number of artists did choose to depict Irish subject matter. Of the early twentieth century painters, the brother of W.B. Yeats, Jack B. Yeats, is most closely connected with the Celtic Revival. Yeats, Sheehy points out,
was one of the few painters of his time, perhaps even the only one, who managed to show a real and essential Ireland without sentiment or condescension or a striving for outlandish effect. Apart from these evocations of Irish life and atmosphere some of his pictures are directly political in content. . . For his family connections, his evocations of Irish life, and his political sympathies, Jack Yeats was clearly the most important painter of the Revival. [Sheehy 182]
The subjects of sculpture were more nationalistic than painting in that there was a trend towards creating monuments for national heroes. One of the best sculptors of the period was Oliver Sheppard, who did a bronze of the mythological hero Cuchulainn and a bust of the Irish poet James Clarence Mangan. Another and perhaps better contemporary sculptor was John Hughes, whose most famous works are the on Loughrea Cathedral and outside Leinster House in Dublin.
Yet for all the Irish subject matter in painting in sculpture during the Revival, historians have not been able to identify a clearly Irish style in the fine arts. The paintings and sculptures that Irish artists produced "were the result of external influences rather than a spontaneous expression of nationality on the part of the artists...That Maclise was among the artists chosen to decorate the Houses of Parliament at Westminster, or that Hogan was highly respected in Rome, was much more important to Irish opinion than their work itself" (Sheehy 189). Artistic style in Ireland was primarily an extension of the styles in the rest of Europe. Try as one might, a national style, explains Sheehy, cannot be forced.
1. What similarities and differences are there in the fine arts portion of the Celtic Revival and the popular and applied arts portion?
2. What similarities and differences are there between the Celtic Revival and the other cultural revivals of the time, such as the Moorish or the Medieval Revivals?
3. Are there elements of the Pre-Raphaelite movement evident in the Celtic Revival? If so, what are they and why do you think they manifested themselves in the way that they did?
4. What specific artistic characteristics do you think that the Celtic Revival was trying to produce in developing a national style? What would Irish art have needed to do in order to separate itself from the rest of European art?
5. If Ireland had developed a national style, do you think that this would have been threatening to the English, who ruled Ireland at the time? To what extent would art have influenced politics?
Sheehy, Jeanne. The Rediscovery of Ireland's Past: The Celtic Revival 1830-1930. Thames and Hudson, London: 1980.
Last modified 21 November 2004
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Refining the renewable fuel standard
- In an Ideas piece, Bingaman warns the Renewable Fuel Standard program needs further fine-tuning. AP Photo
Crafting an appropriate definition is complex, because forests provide a wide range of critical values and services that must be maintained, including clean water and air, fish and wildlife habitat, wood products, and carbon sequestration. There appears to be broad support for using forest biomass to produce renewable fuel if the biomass is harvested sustainably and in a manner that protects or restores our natural forests and the multiple values and services they provide. I think we can do better than the existing RFS definition to achieve that, and the definition in the Renewable Electricity Standard recently adopted by the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee is a good start.
The second issue that should be addressed is the requirement to calculate the indirect effects of biofuels production. These calculations penalize U.S. biofuels for greenhouse gas emissions that result as a secondary effect of the increased demand for arable land for crops — demand for either the land for the bioenergy crops themselves or the land for other crops that have been crowded out by increased acreage of bioenergy crops. Many scientists have argued that there is insufficient modeling capability to accurately assign a numeric value to international indirect land-use change at this time. With the science still evolving, it seems that the legislative requirement to assess indirect effects might have gotten ahead of our ability to understand those indirect effects.
The House has proposed giving scientists more time to ensure that our calculations are based on sound science. While I do not expect the Senate to take up the House language verbatim, I think something like the approach that has been taken in the House makes good sense.
Finally, I believe that the RFS needs to be more technology- and feedstock-neutral. I have argued against the mandates-within-the-mandate in the RFS since 2007. I believe that Congress generally creates problems for the industry it aims to support — not to mention for itself — when it picks winners.
Some exciting new technologies and feedstocks that could ultimately be better solutions for land use, climate change and our transportation sector are not included in any of the carve-out mandates. Algae-based fuels are the most obvious example, which, despite having characteristics superior to any renewable fuels in commercial production today, have no home in the RFS. We also have to wonder what other feedstocks and fuels we have de facto selected against, simply because we don’t know about them yet.
A growing number of my colleagues, I believe, are beginning to agree with this point of view. It is my hope that these issues with the RFS can be addressed as the Senate further develops its energy bill.
Sen. Jeff Bingaman (D-N.M.) is chairman of the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee.
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The Protestant Church Commission for Japanese Service was set-up in response to Executive Order 9066 ordering all Japanese-American
citizens and aliens evacuated from the U.S. West Coast and relocated to centers in the interior. The Commission acted as
a conduit of information among the camp churches, various denominational headquarters, and the wider American culture. Toward
the end of the War, the Commission's main activity was to aid returning evacuees, clergy in resuming their interrupted ministries,
and lay people with their lives. Gordon K. Chapman, a Presbyterian minister with extensive Japanese missionary experience,
was the Executive Director from start to finish.
The Protestant Church Commission for Japanese Service was set up in response to Executive Order 9066 ordering all Japanese-American
citizens and aliens evacuated from the U.S. West Coast and relocated to centers in the interior. It was first named the Western
Area Protestant Church Commission for Wartime Japanese Service. The majority of the members were Protestant ministers who
had served as missionaries in Japan for considerable amounts of time, several from about 1900 on.
1 record box and 4 half boxes
3 linear ft.
Copyright has not been assigned to The Graduate Theological Union. All requests for permission to publish or quote from manuscripts
must be submitted in writing to the Archivist. Permission for publication is given on behalf of The Graduate Theological Union
as the owner of the physical items and is not intended to include or imply permission of the copyright holder, which must
also be obtained by the reader.
Collection is open for research.
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What exactly is ActiveX? I did a search in Google for ActiveX and found 250,000 pages for ActiveX. With that many pages it must be important! Microsoft has pages for ActiveX, but what exactly is it? Well, a search in Google for definition of ActiveX found 74,500 pages!
Basically, it is something like a program, but not a program, something like a Java applet, but not Java. Is it like a script? I still don't know what ActiveX is! But I do know you need to be very careful with ActiveX in your browser.
Wikipedia.org has a very comprehensive page on ActiveX.
Another site about ActiveX is on Webopedia. ( Not to be confused with Wikipedia.)
A couple of sites with how to set your ActiveX Controls:
- Internet Explorer Security Settings - ActiveX Controls
- For some older versions of Internet Explorer Please note, if you are using an older version of IE, you should upgrade to the latest version as soon as possible for security reasons.
A lot of the bad stuff that can get onto your computer is the result of ActiveX.
I just Wish ActiveX would go away!
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ALBANY >> An exhibition featuring the art of Civil War soldier and that of renowned Hudson River School painter Sanford Robinson Gifford opened at the New York State Museum Nov. 9.
“Sanford Gifford’s Civil War” is presented in conjunction with “An Irrepressible Conflict: The Empire State in the Civil War,” a 7,000-square foot exhibition commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War. Both exhibits are open through March 23.
“Sanford Gifford’s Civil War” features three of Gifford’s paintings from the New York State Military Museum’s collection in Saratoga Springs, as well as artifacts and images from the New York State Museum and New York State Library. The Board of Regents and the state museum are committed to partnering with cultural institutions throughout the state to bring cultural treasures to Albany.
“We are pleased to host a selection of Gifford’s paintings from the New York State Military Museum here at the state museum,” said state museum Director Mark Schaming. “The Civil War impacted all New Yorkers and Sanford Gifford, a New York native, soldier, and important American artist associated with the Hudson River School, provides a distinctive look at the impact of the war through these important paintings.”
New York played a pivotal role in the Civil War. Its citizens included abolitionist leaders, such as Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, John Brown and Sojourner Truth; prominent politicians such as William Seward and Horace Greeley; and prominent generals who helped with the war on the battlefield, such as Philip Sheridan and Gouverneur K. Warren. One of the lesser-known wartime contributions made by the people of New York include the masterful works of art created at the time by important artists who lived in New York and fought in the war, such as Sanford Gifford.
“Sanford Gifford’s Civil War” is part of continued programming by the New York State Museum, state library, and state archives to complement “An Irrepressible Conflict”, including lectures, guided tours for students and educational activities for children and families. Additional support for the Civil War exhibition is provided by RBC Wealth Management.
The state museum is a program of the state Education Department’s Office of Cultural Education. Located on Madison Avenue in Albany, the museum is open Tuesday through Sunday from 9:30 a.m. to 5 p.m. It is closed on Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Year’s Day. Admission is free. Further information about programs and events can be obtained by calling (518) 474-5877 or going to the www.nysm.nysed.gov.
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Health Data: Let's Go Exploring
Think about it for a moment. When you consider what you "know" about health, where does that knowledge come from? While we all have our sources—doctors, friends, news articles—our knowledge at its core is derived from research. And that research is built on a foundation of data.
Data about health typically come from several types of sources: clinical data, gleaned from electronic health records or chart pulls, and billing and claims data, which are byproducts of the health care process; and public health surveillance data, which are specialized collections about particular topics or populations. All of these sources can then be supplemented, at a considerable cost, by original data collection efforts specific to a particular study.
These different types of data are like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle; when assembled, they create a more complete picture of health.
But a piece of the puzzle is missing. Or it has been up till now.
More and more of us are generating data about our day-to-day lives—either intentionally (we're talking about you, FitBit®, UP™ and Nike+ FuelBand® users!) or somewhat unwittingly, through the data-generating magic of our smartphones. These data could tell us a lot about our health.
In addition, there is an increasing recognition that health is not so much a factor of our engagement with the health care system (though that helps), but something we both experience and influence 24/7. We eat, we drink, we move around, we sleep. We experience pain and discomfort, elation and sadness.
These data — collected by and about people — could give researchers a new window into how people experience health in everyday life. They could help to fill out a new and potentially very important piece of the puzzle.
Tracking Everyday Health
Day-to-day variation in the experiences of daily living is important—as health parameters that may be important to people as they manage a chronic illness or as indicators to a healthy person about their wellbeing. But because tracking day-to-day variation requires day-to-day data collection, these experiences have typically been difficult to study.
Now, the barriers are starting to fall, and we find ourselves with a new opportunity. We have activity-tracking devices. We have smartphones—now used by half the U.S. population—that generate potentially valuable data on movement, location, social behavior, and even tone of voice. We have apps on those smartphones, prompting us to record data about our moods, pain scales, menstrual cycles, diet, sleep, exercise, and more. Add-on devices such as blood glucometers and asthma inhalers may soon be as common as the accessories that allow us to use our iPhones to process credit card purchases.
And it’s not just our phones and phone accessories that are tracking our data. Internet-connected scales and blood pressure cuffs, online patient communities, and provider affinity groups also generate data related to trends in health and health care. This is of course just a partial list -- please comment below with any sources we've left out.
We’re excited about the insights that are starting to emerge from analyzing these health data:
- Based on photographs of 500,000 meals, Massive Health posted a series of findings about how people eat, including the discovery that the healthiness of our food decreases with every passing hour of the day.
- CureTogether has shared results of user-reported treatments for arthritis and other conditions, showing which treatments are more common and which seem to more effective.
- PatientsLikeMe has published studies highlighting day-to-day experiences of those living with illness of which many providers were not aware.
- A team of researchers found unreported drug side effects in web search data before the FDA.
- Researchers have used Google search data to discover novel population-level seasonal trends in searching for mental health information.
These findings are a start, but what more is waiting to be discovered? We’d like to find out.
We’re not announcing a new research program—but we are starting an exploration. We’d love to bring companies that have these data together with researchers who can analyze them for new insights. And we’d love to have the people who create these data with their daily routines and observations engaged in generating new hypotheses about what could be found.
We're delighted to be working with Kevin Patrick and Jerry Sheehan at Calit2, who will be leading the Health Data Exploration project, and we've lined up some great advisors: Linda Avey, Hugo Campos, Sendhil Mullainathan, Tim O'Reilly, Larry Smarr, Martha Wofford and Gary Wolf.
We’d love for you to help us think it through as well. If you're interested in taking part in this exploration, let us know.
Learn more about the Health Data Exploration project.
This commentary originally appeared on the RWJF Pioneering Ideas blog.
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Nectarines and peaches are the same fruit, but peaches grow fuzz while nectarines remain smooth-skinned. Most of America's peaches and nectarines grow in sates like California and Georgia, although the trees thrive anywhere in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 5 through 8. Inside each juicy fruit is a rough, 1- to 2-inch-long pit that's sometimes referred to as a seed. Instead of buying a tree at a nursery, you can plant this pit straight in the ground to start your very own peach or nectarine tree.
Select a garden site that receives six to eight hours of direct sun every day, and start preparing it in the fall. Peach and nectarine pits need to be exposed to cooler winter temperatures for several months to "activate" them and start the germination process.
Break up the soil to a depth of 12 to 18 inches, removing any rocks or debris. Then, mix in 3 to 4 inches of compost. This improves soil aeration, which helps peaches and nectarines thrive.
Bury the peach or nectarine pit in the fall, sinking it 2 to 3 inches below the soil surface.
Cover the planting site with an inch of mulch, such as shredded leaves or weed-free straw. Maintain this mulch layer throughout the winter, replenishing the mulch as needed whenever it decomposes or gets disturbed.
Water the planting site immediately after planting, using enough irrigation to moisten the dirt to a depth of a foot. Repeat watering once per week whenever temperatures are above freezing, there is no snow cover and when there has been no rain.
Things You Will Need
- Peach or nectarine pit
- Garden spade
- It takes all winter — 98 to 105 days, to be exact — before you will notice any signs of germination and plant growth from your peach or nectarine pit.
- Unlike some fruit species, never fertilizer the site when planting your peaches or nectarines.
- University of Connecticut Extension: Growing Peaches and Nectarines in Connecticut
- Colorado State University Extension: Starting Peaches from Pits
- Arizona State University Extension: Nectarines
- Iowa State University Extension: Germination of Tree Seed
- University of Wisconsin Extension: Apricots, Cherries, Peaches & Plums
- Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images
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Teaching new tricks; Tech specialists play vital role in integrating iPads into Perham High School classrooms
Editor's note: This is the first story in a six-week series on the use of iPads at Perham High School.
When Perham High School began its new one-to-one iPad initiative this year, teachers and students dove into a whole new world of education.
From the very beginning, school officials knew iPads would be useless if they weren't immediately and effectively integrated into the day-to-day world of school. That's why the Perham-Dent School Board approved a plan to hire tech integration specialists - staff that stays at the school every day to help teachers and students solve issues.
Jeff Morris and Sandra Wieser-Matthews spend part of each day in their regular classrooms, teaching, and the other part of the day working throughout the school as tech integration specialists.
In an interview, Wieser-Matthews said of their tech expertise, "We are self-taught."
Using Google Educator, You Tube videos and other online research tools, the technology specialists have quickly become mini-experts on apps, iPads, websites and 549 Online.
When they wear their tech integration specialist hats, the duo zips around the school, addressing iPad issues directly in the classrooms. For example, Morris recently explained to students how to take notes on the iPad using an app called Notability.
The first months of school were a little crazy for them as they tried to answer everyone's questions, but now, 10 weeks into school, the iPads at the high school are being used daily in all subjects, as a strong educational tool.
"The teachers are starting to get the hang of it," Morris said, which leaves the duo with more time to spend on developing tools to educate the public.
Wieser-Matthews said some parents feel the iPads have become a barrier between them and their children.
"We don't want this technology to be a barrier, we want it to be as transparent as we thought it would be," she said.
While at the beginning of the year the tech integration specialists focused on teachers and students, the next couple of months they will focus on parents and the community.
To kick this off, Morris and Wieser-Matthews went live with the website, projectiengage.com.
There, parents can find tutorial videos called, "Points for Parents," which address issues parents might run across. For example, there is a video explaining how to check a child's assignments on 549 Online. Another video addresses what to do if a child spends too much time playing games on the iPad. New videos will be added on a weekly basis.
The website also has a blog, which will be updated often by Wieser-Matthews and Morris, that gives examples of actual iPad use at the school.
High School Principal Ehren Zimmerman said that within the next couple of months, some community education classes will be set up to teach iPad basics to parents and the community.
Wieser-Matthews and Morris continue to research more ways to integrate iPads into the classrooms. A lot of this research is done on their own time.
"We are constantly training ourselves," Wieser-Matthews said.
The duo will head to the TIES technology conference in Minneapolis in a couple of weeks. While there, they will not only learn as much as they can, but will also give a presentation on what Perham High School has discovered so far.
The tech integration specialists lead the way not only for Perham, but other area schools, too. Schools that requested updates on Perham's experience with the iPad initiative will have an opportunity to attend a workshop in Perham in the near future.
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The modern physicist is a quantum theorist on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday and a student of gravitational relativity theory on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. On Sunday he is neither, but is praying to his God that someone, preferably himself, will find the reconciliation between the two views.
Progress imposes not only new possibilities for the future but new restrictions.
The Human Use of Human Beings.
The Advantage is that mathematics is a field in which one's blunders tend to show very clearly and can be corrected or erased with a stroke of the pencil. It is a field which has often been compared with chess, but differs from the latter in that it is only one's best moments that count and not one's worst. A single inattention may lose a chess game, whereas a single successful approach to a problem, among many which have been relegated to the wastebasket, will make a mathematician's reputation.
Ex-Prodigy: My Childhood and Youth.
[with A Rosenblueth]
The best material model of a cat is another, or preferably the same, cat.
Philosophy of Science 1945.
Scientific discovery consists in the interpretation for our own convenience of a system of existence which has been made with no eye to our convenience at all.
One of the chief duties of a mathematician in acting as an advisor to scientists is to discourage them from expecting too much of mathematicians.
Quoted in D MacHale, Comic Sections (Dublin 1993)
We mathematicians who operate with nothing more expensive than paper and possibly printers' ink are quite reconciled to the fact that, if we are working in an active field, our discoveries will commence to be obsolete at the moment that they are written down or even at the moment they are conceived. We know that for a long time everything we do will be nothing more than the jumping off point for those who have the advantage of already being aware of our ultimate results. This is the meaning of the famous apothegm of Newton, when he said, "If I have seen further than other men, it is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants".
I am a Mathematician
Mathematics is too arduous and uninviting a field to appeal to those to whom it does not give great rewards. These rewards are of exactly the same character as those of the artist. To see a difficult uncompromising material take living shape and meaning is to be Pygmalion, whether the material is stone or hard, stonelike logic. To see meaning and understanding come where there has been no meaning and no understanding is to share the work of a demiurge. No amount of technical correctness and no amount of labour can reolace this creative moment, whether in the life of a mathematician or of a painter or musician. Bound up with it is a judgement of values, quite parallel to the judgement of values that belongs to the painter or the musician. Neither the artist nor the mathematician may be able to tell you what constitutes the difference between a significant piece of work and an inflated trifle; but if he is not able to recognise this in his own heart, he is no artist and no matheamtician.
What most experimenters take for granted before they begin their experiments is infinitely more interesting than any results to which their experiments lead.
The URL of this page is:
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After the colossal failure of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act, something had to be done. Eight million undocumented immigrants later, President Bush has proposed a radical change to the federal government’s immigration policy. His plan is not perfect, but it is a positive step toward helping people find jobs and fill employment gaps in our economy.
The president’s proposals potentially provide legal status to millions of undocumented workers in the United States. He would offer renewable three-year visas to illegal immigrants already working in the United States. Additionally, foreign applicants who are newly hired for jobs in the U.S. could also apply for legal status. The proposed measures essentially grant amnesty to millions of undocumented workers, allowing them—at least for the three-year period the visa is in effect—to travel freely between their homes countries and the United States. Moreover, as a legal immigrant, the worker would enjoy rights to minimum wages and due process.
Among the drawbacks in the plan is the requirement that employers demonstrate that no Americans want the jobs available before they bring in temporary workers from abroad. Second, immigrants might be put in a weak position, because their visas would be connected to their employers. If illegal immigrants apply for visas, the government is able to keep tabs on them. After three years, if the government doesn't renew the temporary visa, the immigrant could be deported. Finally, the policy is unclear about whether or not such immigrants could ever apply for permanent citizenship.
The United States is the most prosperous nation in the world with a long history of both legal and illegal immigration. For centuries, immigrants have risked their lives to find ways to use their gifts and provide for their families, often taking jobs that others do not want. In fact, massive group immigration is an ongoing fact of human history. Thomas Sowell’s grand study, Migration and Cultures: A World View , reminds us of the scope of that movement. In the past three centuries, 70 million people emigrated from Europe, with nearly 50 million coming to the United States (35 million between 1830 and 1930). With migrants often come resentment and suspicion, another phenomenon of long standing.
Nearly 4 million people emigrated from Ireland to the U.S. during the nineteenth century. The Irish were stereotyped as a lazy band of drunken brawlers and they worked primarily in the low-skilled labor market. During the massive Irish immigration of the 1840s and 1850s immigrants were greeted with signs that read “Irish Need Not Apply.”
In the same century, five million Germans migrated to the United States. Large numbers became farmers and day laborers. These Germans were often criticized for isolating themselves from the American mainstream with church services conducted, business transacted, and newspapers printed exclusively in their native tongue.
Almost 26 million people emigrated from Italy between 1876 and 1976. The early Italian immigrants took jobs that others despised at the bottom of the occupational ladder, such as sewer and sanitation workers. Italians also cordoned themselves into enclaves, their neighborhoods of 1880 to 1910 often more segregated than those of blacks.
The story is much the same for the Jewish, African, Chinese, Japanese, Mexican, and Puerto Rican immigrants over the past century. In every case, immigrants fill economic needs in their new society.
Some Americans have an artificially inflated expectation of wages for jobs requiring few skills. So-called menial jobs like landscaping, food service, unskilled construction jobs, sanitation, housekeeping, retail, and farming rejected by many in our unskilled labor force. Many immigrants, on the other hand, are willing to work these jobs in an attempt to begin to build capital for a better life.
We forget that “menial labor” often produces the start-up capital necessary for successive generations to achieve economic upward mobility. For example, the first Kennedy arrived in 1848 as a laborer and died a laborer. His grandsons, however, went to college and his great-grandsons became prominent in American politics.
A study by the Urban Institute shows that immigrants comprise 11 percent of the U.S. population, but 14 percent of all workers and 20 percent of low-wage workers. Without them our economy suffers. Moreover, unless developing international economies grow dramatically, these numbers are only likely to expand. The president is taking decisive action to benefit a U.S. economy dependent on immigrants.
When comparing per-capita income between the U.S. and developing countries, the arrival of a wave of immigrants should come as no surprise. When 40 percent of Mexicans live below the poverty line, migrating for better opportunities makes sense, as it did for the Irish, Germans, and Italians before them.
A compassionate approach to immigration requires that we recognize the inherent dignity of all people regardless of their country of origin. The human person created for work finds life within the context of labor and family. If people desire work to provide for family and contribute to community life, then we should welcome and embrace them.
President Bush’s proposal is not without problems. A major concern surrounding the plan is its seeming exoneration of illegal immigration. Granting amnesty to illegal aliens is unfair to those who have abided by the law. Changing the rules mid-game is a dangerous threat to the rule of law itself, on which American prosperity is founded.
But the president is not faced with an ideal situation; he is faced with millions of illegal immigrants already resident in the United States, many holding down jobs. The plan seeks to manage the absorption of immigrants in a way consistent with economic realities and with this nation’s history as a haven for those seeking to improve their condition.
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Grandparents Teach, Too
Dr. Katharine Kersey’s lists of “The 101 Guidance Principles of Discipline” are excellent stressreducing practical ways to help children see the sense in acting a certain way (Hymes). With Dr. Kersey’s permission, here is the second of three columns dedicated to her wisdom.
Encouragement Principle: Give encouragement as often as possible, six times for every correction. Help children see the progress made. (“You got three spelling words correct. That is better than last week!” “Doesn’t it feel good to be able to zip your own zipper, make your own bed, clean up your own spills?”)
Eye Level Principle: When talking with children, get down on eye level, kneel or sit, and look them in the eye while talking softly.
Availability Principle: Make sure that children always know where to turn for help. If you aren’t available, be sure someone is. Set aside 15-30 minutes a day to focus on them with the phone off. Children love to know they bring us joy and pleasure. Lighten up and have fun.
Blame it on the Rules Principle: “Our family rule is to wash your hands before eating.”
Change Environment Principle: If the child’s misbehavior cannot be stopped, you or child can move to another room or location. Come back together when you and the child are ready to make good choices and discussions.
Brainstorming Principle: Brainstorm with children possible solutions to the dilemma, problem, or predicament. Print them out.
Deep Breathing Principle: Teach children and everyone to take three slow, deep belly- stickout breaths and count slowing to five starting with zero when upset. Everyone will think more clearly.
Collect Data Principle: Keep a written record of the frequency of inappropriate behaviors. Record the antecedents (possible causes) as well as the consequences. Look for patterns that may give clues as to possible reasons, situations and/or solutions. Tired? Hungry? New situation?
Cueing Principle: Give children a cue such as a hand gesture to remind them ahead of time of the behavior you want them to exhibit. For example, teach children that instead of interrupting when you are talking with somebody else gently squeeze your hand. This will let you know they want to talk to you (as you return the squeeze) and as soon as you can, you will stop the conversation and find out what they want.
No Cat with the Pigeons Principle: Don’t place temptation in front of children. (Don’t leave the candy dish out if you don’t want children to have any candy.)
Establish Routines and Traditions Principle: Children behave better when they know what they can count on. Establish traditions, which they can anticipate and which provide them with fond memories and feelings of belonging and security.
Love Principle: When in doubt, hold children, hug them, and tell them how much you love them.
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Social Research Methods/Quantitative Research
- 1 Quantitative Research and Data Analysis
- 2 Quantification of Data
- 3 Univariate Analysis
- 4 Bivariate Analysis
- 5 Introduction to Multivariate Analysis
- 6 Dissemination of Information & Other Issues
- 7 Research Tips
Quantitative Research and Data Analysis
After a researcher had conducted experiments and/or surveys, the information he/she is left with is known as quantitative data. This type of information is measurable and focuses on numerical values, unlike qualitative data which is more descriptive. Once the quantitative data is collected, the researcher performs an analysis of the findings.
- Quantitative analysis
- The numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect
Quantification of Data
Researchers use the process of coding to analyze their findings. When conducting a survey some of the data is numerical while other data must be converted from qualitative to quantitative.
Developing Code Categories
- the process in which raw data is transformed into a standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis
Coding is the act of assigning numerical values to a set of data in order to make analysis simpler and can be used to quantify both manifest and latent content. The difference between manifest content and latent content is very important when it comes to survey research.
Manifest content is the tangible or concrete surface content (data), as distinguished from latent content, the underlying meaning behind this information.
Advantages with manifest content are ease of testing and reliability and a disadvantage is its validity. Latent content is the underlying meaning of communications, as distinguished from manifest content. An advantage with latent content is that it is designed perfect for tapping the underlying meaning of communication and its disadvantages are its reliability and specificity.
To make the coded data understandable and manageable a codebook is created. This books explains the coding process and acts as a guide for locating variables in the data set. Codebooks also describe the meanings for each code used. There are two purposes for these codebooks, first they are a guide in the coding process. Secondly, codebooks act as guides in locating variables within a study.
Examples of quantitative coding:
- a survey that ranks responses on a 1-9 scale and has the respondent choose one of the nine listed.
- Other variables, such as gender or political affiliation, must be assigned a numerical value in order to conduct quantitative analysis
- i.e.: male= 1; female=2 OR Democrat=1; Republican=2; Independent=3
- Since ages are already represented numerically, the researcher may choose not to develop a coding system for this data.
Coding is necessary in analyzing data because one must be able to transform raw data into meaningful information.
Once data is properly coded it is then ready to be analyzed. One type of analysis is univariate data analysis, in which one variable (such as gender, race, or socioeconomic status) is singled out for analysis to allow for better description.
There are many different ways this data can be analyzed including:
- Frequency Distribution: Counting the number of times data was collected for the sample.
- Average: A term expressing a general trend of data.
- Mean: The sum of total data divided by the number of data points.
- Median: The "middle number" in the data if it is arranged numerically in descending or ascending order.
- Mode : The most frequently occurring data point.
- Mean: The sum of total data divided by the number of data points.
- Dispersion or variance: measures the range of data around a central value, such as the mean
- Standard deviation: measures the dispersion around the mean as well; however in a way that 68% of the sample will lie within plus or minus one standard deviation of the mean.
Technologically advanced programs, such as Microsoft Excel, have the ability to calculate the mean, median, mode, variance, and standard deviation from a set of data. This is a very convenient and easy way to analyze a set of data.
Understanding Distributions and Dispersion
- A normal distribution graph is usually used as diagram to display standard deviation and variance.
If a high proportion of values are tightly clustered around the mean, this represents a low standard deviation; whereas if values are widely spread out among the range of possibilities, this corresponds to a high standard deviation. In simple terms, a low dispersion and standard deviation indicate that the values are rather close to each other with a relatively small amount of variation.
Continuous and Discrete Variables
- Continuous variable a variable whose attributes form a steady progression.
- Discrete variable a variable whose attributes are separate from one another.
Therefore, a continuous variable (such as height) can have an infinite number of possible values, while a discrete variable (such as year) can only have certain values (2010 or 2011 but not 2010.5). Microsoft Excel can also compute these two values easily.
Univariate analysis can be described pictorially with a chart or graph. It is best to maintain simplicity when constructing a chart of graph for better comprehension.
- Bivariate Analysis
- the analysis of two variables simultaneously, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them.
Bivariate analysis focuses on relationships between variables rather than on comparisons of groups. Bivariate analysis explores the statistical association between the independent variable and dependent variable. Its purpose is usually explanatory rather than merely descriptive.
Constructing Contingency Tables
The results of bivariate analyses often are presented in the form of contingency tables, which are constructed to reveal the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
- Contingency Table
- a format for presenting the relationships among variables as percentage distributions
How to construct and read a bivariate table:
- Divide cases into groups according to attributes of the independent variable
- Describe subgroups in terms of attributes of the dependent variable
- Read the table by comparing the independent variable subgroups with another in terms of a given attribute of the dependent variable
Introduction to Multivariate Analysis
- Multivariate Analysis
- the analysis of the simultaneous relationships among several variables. It examines and explains variance in the dependent variable using independent, intervening, and antecedent variables.
- Intervening variables come between the independent variables and the dependent variable in a time order or as a causal mechanism.
- Antecedent variables precede the independent variable.
Multivariate tables can be be created on the basis of a the more sophisticated subgroup descriptions following a similar outline to bivariate tables. This is due to the usage of more than one independent variable and having the dependent variable rely on these independent variables to show the any relationship.
- An example would be attendance at a bingo competition. Assuming prior that older people usually attend this game, we could divide up the participants according to age. Age differences would be our independent variables when broken into various subgroups and will show a relationship to the dependable variable, attendance at bingo.
Dissemination of Information & Other Issues
To display the data, it is usually beneficial to use tables opposed to bar graphs and such due to the complications of portraying more than one independent variable. These tables are also very useful to rule out opinions and find true facts and data.
An issue with quantitative data analysis is the possibility of bias. It is common for researchers to favor one finding over another. To help eliminate this, a detailed hypothesis prior to the research is useful. By recording conclusions that may not prove your hypothesis correct, it is beneficial to other researches (who are working on similar topics) to know your results so it can aid them in their studies. Data can be collected and displayed without any bias when researching controversial topics if the research is conducted correctly and portrayed appropriately in the table.
Some useful research tips to keep in mind when carrying out quantitative analysis:
- It is a good idea to use percentages to make comparisons, and to create these percentages for each category of your dependent variable
- Variables should be recoded in order to make the comparisons you want to make, and this recoding can be done in different ways.
- Choose an independent variable that has enough explanatory power to make sense.
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There were just two things you wanted to know about the Sol to make life happier: Build the fully expanded system right at the outset. Opening up the heart of the system to expand it later was a major PITA. The other? Use someone else's disk subsystem. Though with the information available today a Helios disk subsystem could probably be made to work.
Image by cellanr
I still have the sales brochures for the Sol 20. I pull them out every now and then to drool over them again. Part of it is nostalgia, but part of it is the great design itself. Actual Sol 20s sell for more than I can afford, but perhaps I'll build myself a look-alike system from sheet metal and walnut wood sometime, anyway, and print up a nice black name badge.
Lee Felsenstein Today
In our conversation last Monday, Lee showed me a project he's working on today as an educational tool. It's a programmable logic simulator, targeted at middle school students. What Lee showed me was a pair of printed circuit boards that have captive fasteners to clamp them together around a plastic matrix. The matrix holds surface mount diodes, which the students can place into the matrix to program it. In essence, it's a 16 by 8 programmable logic array that is programmed through physically locating the diodes.
OK, I know that sounds totally abstruse to many of you, so let me tell you what makes this a great idea, and why your middle schooler ought to know about this stuff even if you've gotten through life without having to so far (assuming you don't know already).
The core of computers are built out of logic circuits. The memories feed the logic circuits with data (in current designs--it doesn't have to be that way though it's presently the assumption), in essence, the programmable logic is the complement to the memory. This analogy of the logic and memories being complementary components of a computer holds on many levels. It's possible to build logic out of memories--I've done it--but it's not efficient.
Initial education in logic circuits can be accomplished with a simple breadboard and some logic chips. A few AND chips, OR chips, NAND chips, inverters, and so on. Add some resistors and LEDs and the kids are off and running. For a little while. Once they master this, and understand what's going on, they immediately start expanding their ideas.
Then a problem hits. More chips and more wiring between them mean more complexity, and more difficulty in realizing their ideas.
At this point, it's possible to introduce them to programmable logic devices. Teach them that the logic functions they had in the ICs live inside the PLDs, and that they can program the devices rather than run wires. The problem is that this is a big, big jump up in abstraction level, especially for a kid in the middle school age bracket (which is the perfect age to introduce this stuff, which I'll go into later.)
Whereas Lee's invention maintains a physical element. The programming is accomplished by manually placing diodes into a matrix, rather than typing characters on a screen then punching the 'program' button to dump it to a Flash PLD. This keeps it from getting too abstract, encourages experimentation, and maintains the hand-on element that's necessary for students in the 9-13 years age range.
Building Blocks of Electronics
Electronic logic is building blocks. Your kids play with building blocks, right? They start with simple structures to learn how to build more complex structures. Before long, they can use every single piece they've got building large, complex structures. Once the individual blocks and a few simple ways of interconnecting them are understood, they can take off and make great big projects that reach to the ceiling.
It's the same with electronic logic. It's a collection of simple building blocks. The problem is, the complexity of assembly is a little greater. Enough that once you get past a certain level (I'd say 20-30 ICs), it gets progressively more difficult to implement your ideas. The ideas out-race the ability to construct.
This shouldn't be an obstacle. The ideas should be allowed to continue to grow, without removing the physical aspects that make the activity interesting.
The Lee Felsenstein Magic
Lee has hit a sweet spot here. With all the excitement about the Raspberry Pi (which I will save my criticisms of as an educational tool for a future article), Lee's project should have that sort of excitement going for it. This is about students building their own processor. This knowledge is important. This is what the people who caused the microprocessor revolution used to cause the revolution in our lives. This is the knowledge that put a CPU in your telephone, your oven, and your iron. This is what tunes your radio.
Assembling a processor from random logic is a huge project. Yes, people still do that (I've even build a very, very simple one from racks of relays, myself, under cover of testing those relay racks and their support wiring after installation.) Building your own processor with a PLD is a lot easier, once you understand the building blocks.
Lee explains himself well on his project page. Have a look. I will be following the progress of the project.
And I'm really glad I got a chance to meet up with Lee again after all these years. He was one of my mentors and inspirations in my youth, just as he describes those who mentored him. It seems to be a common thread that those of us getting older want to assist the younger generation just as we were assisted when getting started in technical pursuits (as hobbies--the jobs came later.)
And if you're raising a kid--don't just foist off software on them as something to play and "learn" with. Software isn't reality. I've designed any number of computers on paper and in software, and then go on to build far fewer of them. Because software and paper aren't the real thing. The real thing has all sorts of little niggles and oddities that you'll never learn about in any way other than doing the real thing. Teach your kids to solder, use solderless breadboards, and use real components at all levels of complexity. Don't try to do too much at once, start with kits then move your way toward recreating circuits on breadboards then to soldering them on prototyping boards.
But do the real thing. Right alongside your other crafts projects. Because electronics is just as much a craft with some useful products as is crochet or embroidery (both of which I do) or quilt-making or sewing (which some of those close to me do). And most of all, have fun!
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Kings & Queens
House of Windsor
Line of Succession
Frequently asked Questions
Coat of Arms
King Edward II (1307 - 1327)
Family tree poster & books House of Plantagenet Family Tree Detailed Tree Scottish King or Queen FAQs|
Name: King Edward II
Born: April 25, 1284 at Caernarvon, Wales
Parents: Edward I and Eleanor of Castile
Relation to Elizabeth II: 18th great-grandfather
House of: Plantagenet
Ascended to the throne: July 8, 1307 aged 23 years
Crowned: February 25, 1308 at Westminster Abbey
Married: Isabella, Daughter of Philip IV of France
Children: Two sons and two daughters
Died: September 21, 1327 at Berkeley Castle (murdered), aged 43 years, 4 months, and 25 days
Buried at: Gloucester
Reigned for: 20 years, 2 months, and 14 days
Succeeded by: his son Edward III
King of England from 1307, son of Edward I. Born at Caernarfon Castle, he was created the first Prince of Wales in 1301. Incompetent and frivolous, and unduly influenced by his favourite, Piers Gaveston, Edward struggled throughout his reign with discontented barons, who attempted to restrict his power through the Ordinances of 1311. His invasion of Scotland in 1314 to suppress revolt resulted in defeat at Bannockburn. When he fell under the influence of a new favourite, Hugh le Depenser, he was deposed in 1327 by his wife Isabella (1292–1358), daughter of Philip IV of France, and her lover Roger de Mortimer, and murdered in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire. He was succeeded by his son, Edward III.
Edward II accedes to the throne on the death of his father, Edward I.
Edward’s favourite, Piers Gaveston, is exiled for misgovernment.
Gaveston returns from exile in France.
Parliament sets up a committee of Lords Ordainers to control the King and improve administration. The King’s cousin, Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, takes control
Piers Gaveston is kidnapped by the King’s opponents and is put to death.
Edward and the English army are defeated at the Battle of Bannockburn by Robert Bruce. Scottish independence is assured
Welsh border barons, father and son, both named Hugh Despenser, gain the King’s favour,
The Scots assert their independence by signing the Declaration of Arbroath
Barons’ rebellion, led by Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, is crushed at the Battle of Boroughbridge in Yorkshire.
Edward’s wife, Isabella, abandons him and with her lover, Mortimer, seizes power and deposes Edward. The Despensers are both put to death.
Edward is formally deposed by Parliament in favour of Edward III, his son, and is murdered in Berkeley Castle on the orders of his wife, Isabella.
Britroyals Books and Kings & Queens Family Tree Poster
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Rural Transportation Management
Improving Transportation Efficiency and Diversity in Rural Areas
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Updated 23 March 2016
This chapter describes transportation management strategies suitable for implementation in lower-density rural and suburban areas. These can help achieve a variety of objectives, including improved transportation options, increased transportation affordability, reduced congestion and parking problems associated with tourism and special events, and flexibility to help preserve special cultural and environmental features.
Rural communities are areas with relatively low development densities, typically less than 1 resident per acre. Many TDM strategies are suitable for implementation in such areas (Weir and McCabe 2012). Rural community TDM can help achieve the following objectives:
· Increase Transportation Options.
· Provide Basic Access.
· Improve Transportation Affordability.
· Increase opportunities for enjoyable and Healthy exercise.
· Create attractive Bus and Rail Stations where residents can wait in comfort and security.
· Improve Community Livability.
· Help preserve special community and environmental features (Context Sensitive Design).
· Improve transportation Safety.
Many rural areas have significant levels of poverty, and non-drivers often experience significant isolation. As a result, strategies that improve affordable transportation options for non-drivers can provide significant benefits.
Geographic areas are often categories in the following ways:
· Urban – relatively high density (10+ residents and 5+ housing units per acre), mixed-use development, multi-modal transportation system.
· Suburban – medium density (2-10 residents, 1-5 housing units per acre), segregated land use (e.g., residential in one area, commercial in another, industrial in another), Automobile Dependent transportation system.
· Town – Smaller urban centers (generally less than 20,000 residents).
· Village – Small urban center (generally less than 1,000 residents).
· Exurban – low density (less than 2 residents or 1 housing unit per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, located near enough to an urban area that residents often commute, shop and use services there.
· Rural – low density (less than 2 residents or 1 housing unit per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, with a relatively independent identify and economy (i.e., residents do not usually commute, shop and use services in an urban area).
Because of their lower densities, rural areas tend to be Automobile Dependent. Most trips made by personal automobile and there is often relatively little demand for alternative modes, such as ridesharing, transit and cycling. Most alternative modes experience economies of scale: increased demand can lead to improved services. TDM strategies that give automobile owners an incentive to use alternative modes for some of their trips can result in a positive cycle of improved service and further increases in demand for alternatives.
For example, there may be dozens of residents who commute on the same highway in their single occupant vehicle. Under current circumstances there may be little incentive to share rides, so non-drivers have poor travel options. A TDM strategy that gives these commuters an incentive to rideshare (HOV Priority, Road Pricing, Commuter Financial Incentives, etc.) can lead motorists to form carpools, vanpools, or justify transit service.
Land use Accessibility refers to the distance that people must travel to reach obtain goods, services and participate in activities. In recent years many rural communities have lost public services, such as schools, stores, medical centers, banks, garages and taverns, causing rural residents to travel further, and significantly reducing accessibility for non-drivers. Rural service reductions are often justified on efficiency grounds, but the cost effectiveness analysis often overlooks increased travel costs. For example, it may seem cost effective to consolidate several small schools into one larger school when only direct facility costs are considered, but not when the additional transportation costs to students and their families are considered.
Rural TDM can therefore include Smart Growth land use management to improve Accessibility by Clustering development into settlements, rather than dispersed throughout a rural area (Twaddell and Emerine, 2007). For example, public schools, shops, medical clinics and other public services can be located close together in villages, which also contain housing suitable for people who are transportation disadvantaged (Location Efficient Development). This can increase transportation and housing affordability.
Many rural communities do not accommodate nonmotorized travel well, due to inadequate facilities and increasing motor vehicle traffic volumes and speeds. A variety of Pedestrian and Cycling improvements can be implemented in rural communities. This improves transportation options, and allows residents and visitors to enjoy healthy physical exercise.
Benefits of Wider Road Shoulders (Ronkin 2008)
Safety ‐ highways with paved shoulders have lower accident rates, as paved shoulders:
• Provide space to make evasive maneuvers.
• Accommodate driver error.
• Add a recovery area to regain control of a vehicle, as well as lateral clearance to roadside objects such as guardrail, signs and poles (highways require a “clear zone,” and paved shoulders give the best recoverable surface).
• Provide space for disabled vehicles to stop or drive slowly.
• Provide increased sight distance for through vehicles and for vehicles entering the roadway (rural: in cut sections or brushy areas; urban: in areas with many sight obstructions).
• Contribute to driving ease and reduced driver strain.
• Reduce passing conflicts between motor vehicles and bicyclists and pedestrians.
• Make the crossing pedestrian more visible to motorists.
• Provide for storm water discharge farther from the travel lanes, reducing hydroplaning, splash and spray to following vehicles, pedestrians and bicyclists.
Capacity ‐ highways with paved shoulders can carry more traffic, as paved shoulders:
• Provide more intersection and safe stopping sight distance.
• Allow for easier exiting from travel lanes to side streets and roads (also a safety benefit).
• Provide greater effective turning radius for trucks.
• Provide space for off‐tracking of truck's rear wheels in curved sections.
• Provide space for disabled vehicles, mail delivery and bus stops.
• Provide space for bicyclists to ride at their own pace.
Maintenance ‐ highways with paved shoulders are easier to maintain, as paved shoulders:
• Provide structural support to the pavement.
• Discharge water further from the travel lanes, reducing the undermining of the base and subgrade.
• Provide space for maintenance operations and snow storage.
• Provide space for portable maintenance signs.
• Facilitate painting of fog lines.
Many highway agencies and local governments now specify that all highways and arterials without curbs have a smooth shoulder of 1-3 metres wherever possible, in part to more safely accommodate cyclists (ODOT, 1995). Shoulder pavements also make roads more convenient and safer for motorists, increase highway capacity, facilitate maintenance, snow removal, and help extend roadway life by reducing edge deterioration (see box). Gravel roads and driveways connecting to a highway should be paved at least 4.5 metres (15 feet) back to minimize loose gravel from spilling onto the shoulder.
Table 1 Highway Bikeway Width By Traffic Volume (Metres) (ODOT 1995)
ADT < 250
ADT 400-DHV 100
Rural Local Routes
ADT = Average Daily Traffic DHV = Design Hour Volume (0.6 = 2 ft; 1.2 = 4 ft.; 1.8 = 6 ft; 2.4 = 8 ft.)
Table 1 summarizes recommended shoulder bikelane widths. Extra width is required on steep grades and where there is a curb. A bikeway of 1.5-1.8 meter width is needed under such conditions. On shoulder widening projects there may be opportunities to save money by reducing the thickness of aggregate (50-75 mm) and asphalt (100 mm) if:
· There are no planned roadway widening projects for the road section in the foreseeable future.
· The existing road shoulder area and roadbed are stable and there is adequate drainage.
· Existing travel lanes have adequate width and are in stable condition.
· The horizontal curvature is not excessive, so wheels of large trucks do not track onto the shoulder.
· The existing and projected vehicle traffic volumes and truck traffic are not excessive.
If rumble strips (raised or grooved markings at the edge of the road to alert motorists running off the roadway) are installed along highways, it is important to provide adequate smooth, paved shoulder beyond the rumble strips to accommodate cyclists. A good design is to have 400 mm grooves cut into the shoulder 150 mm to the right of the fog line (the white line at the edge of the road), leaving at least 1.8 m of smooth shoulder for cyclists.
Informal ridesharing is common in rural communities, and is a particularly important option for non-drivers and lower-income residents. Ridesharing programs can match carpools and organize vanpools. Vanpooling can be particularly effective in rural communities.
Rural communities can benefit from improved public transit service, including interregional bus and rail service, and local demand-response Shuttle Services. A basic level of transit service is defied as at least four round-trip stops a day, with weekend service, which allows residents to use transit for travel to an urban center and return in one day (Stead 2002; BTS 2011). Incentives for discretionary users (people who have the option of driving) to use rural transit services when possible (such as Market Reforms and HOV Priority) will increase demand, leading to further service improvements.
Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS 2011) research measured the portion of rural residents with access to scheduled intercity transportation between 2005 and 2010. The analysis indicated that in 2010 89% of rural residents had access to intercity air, bus, ferry, or rail transportation, as compared to 93% five years earlier.
This can help improve transportation options for students and parents. It can provide a variety of services, including transit, ridesharing and nonmotorized transportation improvements.
Telecommunications can often substitute for physical travel, which is particularly helpful in rural communities. Rural communities can encourage employers to accommodate telecommuting, provide public services by Internet, and help residents obtain Internet connections and skills.
Taxi service is an important transportation option in many situations. Establishing formal taxi service can improve transportation options in many rural communities.
This strategy is particularly suitable in rural areas, since many destinations are too far to easily walk to from a bus stop.
Universal Design refers to facility designs that accommodate the widest range of potential users, including people with mobility and visual impairments.
In some cases I is possible to improve freight transport services, including intermodal terminals that allow more freight to be carried by rail rather than truck (Fuller, et a. 2011)
The following strategies can help address occasional traffic congestion and parking problems.
Many rural communities experience seasonal
This encourages the use of alternative travel modes to occasional events that draw large crowds, such as festivals, games and fairs, or when construction projects or disasters create temporary transportation problems.
Transportation Management Associations (TMAs) are private, non-profit, member-controlled organizations that provide transportation services in a particular area, such as a commercial center. TMAs can help provide a variety of transportation services, and are particularly important for coordinating transportation during special events or busy seasons.
This strategy can include efforts to prioritize travel in order to insure Basic Access, particularly for emergencies.
The following strategies can help improve community livability and help protect special cultural and environmental features in rural communities.
Context Sensitive Design (CSD) refers to roadway standards and development practices that are flexible and sensitive to community values. CSD can allow roads to preserve special features and accommodate special needs.
Speed management can help create safer roads that are more suitable for nonmotorized transportation.
Vehicles can be restricted to reduce traffic on certain roads or a certain times. For example, certain roads may be restricted to local access trips only, and heavy truck traffic may be restricted on highways that pass through villages.
This strategy can control vehicle traffic and create more Accessible land use patterns.
These strategies can encourage motorists to use alternative modes for some trips, leading to improved service.
Employee CTR programs can help give individual commuters more incentive to use alternative modes such as Ridesharing, Transit and Telework. Since these modes tend to experience economies of scale, increased demand tends to improve overall Transportation Options.
Some rural highways and ferry crossings are suitable for giving carpools, vanpools and transit vehicles priority.
Some rural highways are suitable for road tolls. Distance-based vehicle fees (such as weight-distance fees and Pay-As-You-Drive vehicle insurance) can encourage vehicle travel reductions on all roadways.
Developing Region TDM provides additional information on rural transportation improvement strategies. Smart Growth, Land Use Evaluation and Community Livability describe various strategies that can help achieve rural community development objectives.
I hear they plan to install a clock on the Leaning Tower of Pisa because someone asked, “What good is the inclination if you don't have the time?”
Hosen and Powell (2014) provide summaries of innovative rural transit services.
The Olympic Peninsula in northwest Washington state consists of several towns and villages, many small and isolated, located in six counties that each has its own public transit system. By developing transportation terminals in each town, integrating schedules, and providing convenient information on transport options they have made it possible to travel between most communities, and around the entire Peninsula, by public transit. This benefits the many tourists and hikers who visit the region, and therefore tourism-related industries, and lower-income residents, many of which rely on public transit for basic mobility. For more information see:
· Intercity Transit (Lacey, Olympia)
· Jefferson Transit (Port Townsend)
· Kitsap Transit (Bremerton, Port Orchard)
· Mason County Transportation Authority (Shelton)
Regulations enabling the issue of draft maps of open country and registered common land were laid in Parliament today keeping the Government on track to meet its target of opening up access to the countryside by 2005.
Part 1 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 provides for a statutory right of access to open country and registered common land. The laying of the new regulations 'The Access to the Countryside (Maps in Draft Form) (England) Regulations 2001' today will allow the Countryside Agency to issue and consult on draft maps. The regulations will ensure that, when they are issued, draft maps will be widely available for inspection, including at many local libraries, local council offices, and on the internet.
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs consulted on the proposed regulations earlier this year and the report summarising the responses to the consultation is also published today and can be viewed on the internet at www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/cl/index.htm.
Many communities have major highways or arterials that also serve as main streets (major commercial streets). This requires streetscaping that balances the needs of local users (pedestrians, shoppers, employees, business owners, and residents) with the needs of through traffic (both auto and freight) to move safely and efficiently over longer distances.
The report, Main Street, California: A Guide for Improving Community and Transportation Vitality the by California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS 2014) provides specific planning and design guidance so that main streets function efficiently as multimodal transport facilities and as important civic spaces that support vibrant community life and ecological health. It explains, “Arriving at a shared vision for main streets requires a commitment to collaborative negotiation and shared responsibility. This document will assist transportation officials, designers, planners and stakeholders in making transportation decisions that are appropriate for the local context and that serve the greater traveling public.”
Similarly, the State of Oregon produced a handbook titled Main Street…When a Highway Runs Through It (DEA & Associates 1999), which offers guidance for communities to address these issues. It describes the many tools available to identify the problems and develop effective solutions for main streets that also serve as highways. As a complement to the Oregon Highway Design Manual, this handbook seeks to bring peaceful coexistence to the dual personas of downtown and highway. It proposes ways to design our main streets that make use of our natural inclination to drive as quickly or slowly as the roadway itself suggests. Its goal is to make main street a place that is attractive and that works from many points of view: pedestrian safety and activity, smooth traffic flow,economic vigor, and high quality of life.
The Community Transportation Action Program (CTAP) was launched in August 1996 as a joint venture of five Ontario ministries: Transportation, Education and Training, Citizenship, Culture and Recreation, Community and Social Services, and Health.
CTAP's mandate was to provide transitional support to communities interested in restructuring and coordinating their local transportation services. CTAP supported the development of innovative, local transportation services.
In the past, exclusive relationships existed between users and providers of transportation. For example, school boards would typically contract school bus operators to provide transportation; municipalities would provide or contract public transit services; social service agencies would use volunteers and/or agency vans; and health facilities would primarily use ambulances. Improved coordination of transportation resources can result in less duplication, less inefficiency and fewer gaps in service. It also breaks down barriers between client groups, thus providing a wider range of vehicles to meet users' needs in a more flexible and cost-effective manner.
For example, in some communities, rather than sitting idle, school buses are being used between morning and afternoon student runs to transport seniors and persons with disabilities. In a remote northern Ontario community, the Board of Education has contracted with the local Meals on Wheels to transport disabled students to school in its van. This provides an economical solution for the school board and helps to offset the cost of the van for Meals on Wheels.
The Sedona/Red Rock region in northern Arizona is a popular destination for tourists who are attracted by its spectacular Red Rock cliffs, expanses of forest and grasslands, rushing rivers and striking canyons. The area has approximately 14,000 residents and 4-5 million annual visitors driving 2.5 million cars through Oak Creek Canyon each year, with a doubling of visitors projected in the next two decades. Currently, the only viable way for most people to get to or around Sedona is by car.
The City of Sedona, Yavapai and Coconino Counties, the Coconino National Forest, the Northern Arizona Council of Governments (NACOG) and the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), with technical assistance from the Community Transportation Association of America, are exploring innovative and cost effective ways to manage transportation to enhance the region’s livability and preserve its cultural and environmental assets. These efforts will control automobile access to scenic sights and areas within the Coconino National Forest, promoting a balanced choice of transportation options for residents and visitors, including limited highway and parking facilities, establishing a convenient public shuttle system, and pedestrian improvements.
The transportation plan is designed to increase travel choices and enhance visitors’ experience. Most in town restaurants and businesses will be accessible by shuttle. Hotels and resorts would serve as staging areas for trips to scenic sights or up the Canyon. A network of gateway centers coupled with a downtown transit hub will serve as collection points for people heading for recreation spots, state parks, trailheads, shopping excursions and other outings. Visitors who arrive by air or shuttle bus would be able to get around without the need of rental cars. Many visitors to Red Rock country pass through Sedona on chartered tours. While these "package" visitors currently depend upon tour operators or jeep companies to get around locally, the availability of a low-cost public shuttle, with proper marketing and promotion, is expected to entice many independent travelers to remain a day or two in the area. The scenic shuttle system will provide the transportation link between many major visitor destinations in the area. The following actions are being planned or implemented to support this plan:
· Public Shuttle System: The City will take the lead role in jointly developing a community shuttle system—the centerpiece of the strategy for increasing mobility and access to the region’s most important attractions while reducing reliance on the automobile. The shuttle system will be designed to provide frequent, convenient and accessible service within Sedona, between the Village of Oak Creek and the Uptown area, including key attractions within the Red Rock area, and throughout Oak Creek Canyon.
· Shuttle Stops: In-town shuttle stops will be designated adjacent to core commercial areas, major motels and resorts, municipal offices, medical offices and parks. Passenger shelters, benches and other "street furniture" would be constructed, adding to the transit system’s convenience and attractiveness to both passengers and non-passengers.
· Street Configuration: The City will enhance auto, bicycle and pedestrian access to the shuttle system. The street system needs to be interconnected and provide alternate routes between core business areas and surrounding neighborhoods without requiring use of major highways.
· Bicycle/Pedestrian Connections: Travel by foot or bicycle will need to be facilitated for shuttle passengers at either end of their trip. A key element of a successful transit system will be a convenient network of sidewalks, jogging paths and bike pathways serving shuttle stops.
· Transit-Oriented Development: Transit-oriented development and transit-friendly land use would be promoted through a mix of housing densities and higher intensity development in locations easily served by transit.
· Parking: City officials will need to manage parking to reduce congestion and promote transit ridership, including limiting right-of-way parking, create a central parking district, and encourage visitors’ to leave their cars at park-and-ride lots and resorts. Forest officials are prepared to limit parking in a number of scenic areas within the national forest. Limits would be placed on roadside parking along two highways that run through Oak Creek Canyon and the Red Rocks scenic area. These limits will serve as an incentive for the shuttle system and will help address safety, water quality and other resource issues. A coordinated plan for shuttle and controlled parking will be developed to ensure sufficient access to trailheads, residences, businesses, and developed recreation areas, with the intent of providing strong incentives for forest visitors to leave their private vehicles behind and use a shuttle service.
· Permit System: The Forest Service is considering implementing a “parking pass” or “passport” for drivers accessing the public lands. Studies indicate that this system could provide significant revenue to support the infrastructure of a shuttle system. At the same time, these methods can be used to encourage visitors to use a shuttle system rather than paying for parking. Subsidized seasonal or annual passes would be available for Sedona area residents.
· Enhancements: Shuttle stops will be designated at one mile or less intervals within the Canyon and at vista points elsewhere. Appropriate vehicle turnouts, parking and loading areas, passenger shelters and information kiosks at each stop will also have to be constructed.
· Pathways: It is also contemplated that shuttle stops would be connected by pathways, allowing people the convenience of taking the shuttle, bicycling or walking to various destinations along the way within the recreation areas.
· Gateways: The partnership between jurisdictions will also allow the development of a network of “gateway” centers and “orientation” sites to serve visitors entering the area. At least four gateways are contemplated. Each would serve as possible "orientation sites", and serve as visitor information centers, day and long-term parking facilities, and transfer points to access the shuttle.
The Northern Echo, May 16, 2002
A British initiative will bring new public transport schemes to rural areas of County Durham. The County Durham Response Project secured the funding through a Durham County Council bid to the Government’s Rural Bus Challenge programme.
Now the council is busy developing the different elements of the scheme, which will improve transport services in North-West Durham and Teesdale. Proposals include a new bus service between Teesdale and Darlington and a second service in Upper Teesdale, which would run at peak times and would also be available for community use.
There would also be a county-wide travel response centre, where journeys could be booked and operators could co-ordinate their services. Councillor Bob Pendlebury, Durham County Council cabinet member for the environment, said: “This money will enable the council to work with various partners to develop flexible demand responsive services which will operate in conjunction with existing services. This means we will be able to meet the needs of a wider cross section of rural communities.”
“The travel demands of a modern society are varied and often complicated. Groups who will particularly benefit are young people, the elderly, parents with young children, people with disabilities and people who work shifts.”
The council has also been awarded money from the Countryside Agency to carry out a feasibility study for a rural car club in North West Durham.
Research sponsored by the New Zealand Transport Agency gathered data to identify the scope for shared transport in non-metropolitan areas. It investigated the potential of demand response public transport to increase transport options for non-metropolitan residents, and help overcome transport disadvantage for non-drivers. It analyzed rural community demographics to estimate demand for public transit travel, particularly latent demand by mobility disadvantaged people (e.g., the elderly, women, youth and the disabled). This research highlighted opportunities for increased use of shared transport between small towns and provincial cities by creating appropriate demand response services. It concludes that there is significant potential for shared transport to expand the transport choices for people throughout non-metropolitan New Zealand, and for this new mode to enhance land use transport integration.
Manalapan Township in New Jersey uses smart growth principles in various rural conditions, including an undeveloped rural corridor that is rapidly facing development, a congested commuter route lined by commercial development serving as a significant transit node, and a community center that is currently undeveloped that could link several significant community resources and facilities including a train station. Paramount to each of the focus areas is the need to provide a network system to manage the burden otherwise imposed on the state highway system (Duguid, 2006).
Key smart growth principles include:
The report, Putting Smart Growth to Work in Rural Communities, by the International City/County Management Association (ICMA 2010) identifies smart growth strategies suitable for rural areas. These strategies are based around three central goals: 1) support the rural landscape by creating an economic climate that enhances the viability of working lands and conserves natural lands; 2) help existing places to thrive by taking care of assets and investments such as downtowns, Main Streets, existing infrastructure, and places that the community values; and 3) create great new places by building vibrant, enduring neighborhoods and communities that people, especially young people, don’t want to leave.
The report, Close to Home: A Handbook for Transportation-Efficient Growth in Small Communities and Rural Areas (Morton, Huegy, and Poros 2014), analyzes how rural community residential and employment development patterns affects residents’ motor vehicle travel. The results indicate that per capita vehicle travel is minimized if new jobs and households are concentrated in areas that already have existing development, good access to the region’s commercial developments, and a mix of jobs and households, and that siting new jobs and new households together in a small area that is relatively undeveloped and isolated can lead to a large increase in daily driving per person. The document includes visualizations of small community streetscapes showing ways in which noticeable levels of growth can be accommodated without losing small town character and feel.
The Montana Intercity Bus Service Study developed a framework for evaluating the quality of rural intercity bus service and the degree that current services satisfy demands. Intercity bus riders and the general public were surveyed concerning their use of intercity bus services and the attitudes toward the services. The study also examined the connectivity of current intercity bus services with local public transport providers and with other transportation modes. The results were used to help evaluate intercity bus services in Montana and to provide a methodology that can be used to determine whether intercity bus service needs are being adequately met. The methodology consists of an annual process to support existing intercity bus services and a triennial process to determine if new services are needed.
The report, Traffic in Villages – Safety and Civility for Rural Roads: A Toolkit for Communities, describes ways to implement the Rural Roads Protocol, a set of principles for the management and maintenance of rural highways. These include:
The report includes checklists of design strategies, and case studies of various British villages that have implemented streetscaping and traffic management programs. It is one of a series of documents which provide guidance for better addressing urban and rural traffic problems.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Sustainable Communities developed a smart growth self-assessment tool to help rural local governments evaluate how well their policies and regulations support the type of development they want, and identify strategies for improvement. It focuses on rural areas’ unique needs and abilities. It considers the following issues:
• Revitalize village and town centers.
• Strengthen the local economy.
• Engage and connect community members.
• Improve health and promote active living.
• Protect natural habitats and ecosystems.
• Support productive agriculture for a variety of markets.
• Meet housing needs for different ages and incomes.
• Preserve historic and cultural resources.
• Provide transportation choices.
• Invest in efficient public infrastructure systems and operations.
• Use energy efficiently and provide renewable energy.
Each section includes a series of questions about the community’s policies, codes, and strategies that might help the community achieve its long-term objectives. Following the questions are strategies, grouped according to whether they apply to larger towns or more rural areas, which support the overall goal. The tool also helps users prioritize strategies to pursue. It includes links to case studies, sample code language, and other resources.
Transit systems in rural and small urban areas are often viewed as valuable community assets due to the increased mobility they provide to those without other means of travel. The value of those services, however, has been largely unmeasured, and there are often impacts that go unidentified. Benefits to the public transit user include lower-cost trips, new trips that are made, and relocation avoidance. The alternative means of travel for transit users, which may involve purchasing an automobile or paying for a taxi ride, are often more expensive. Many studies have documented the benefits of urban transit systems by benefit-cost analysis. However, there are fewer studies examining the benefits of transit in small urban and rural transit systems where there is a great need for transit among the public and especially among transportation-disadvantaged individuals.
This study focuses on the qualitative and quantitative benefits of small urban and rural public transit systems in the United States. First, a thorough review of previous literature is presented. Then, a framework is developed which focuses on three main areas of transit benefits most relevant to rural and small urban areas: transportation cost savings, low-cost mobility benefits, and economic development impacts. Data for small urban and rural transits systems from the National Transit Database (NTD) and Rural NTD were used for calibrating the transit benefits and costs. The benefits, costs, and benefit-cost analysis results of small urban and rural transit for this study are presented nationally, regionally (FTA regions), and locally (statewide). Sensitivity analysis was also conducted to illustrate how the national transit benefits and benefit-cost ratios vary with changes in key variables. With estimated benefit-cost ratios greater than 1, the results show that the benefits provided by transit services in rural and small urban areas are greater than the costs of providing those services.
The study, Planning Transportation to Meet the Needs of an Aging Illinois: An Assessment, analyzed demographic trends in the state of Illinois. Between 2010 to 2030 Illinois is projected to have a 76% gain in 65 to 74 year old residents, with the greatest increases in rural areas. The analysis indicates that older adults in rural communities are likely to be more isolated than those in populated areas and may face greater challenges getting medical care and other services. The project team concluded that heightened coordination of Human Services Transportation Planning (HSTP) initiatives within Illinois and on the federal level would be required to meet the demands of the state’s aging population. The study developed specific recommendations for accomplishing this.
Travel Washington connects rural communities to major transportation hubs and urban centers through an intercity bus service operated by local private carriers under contract to Washington State Department of Transportation. Grape Line service between Pasco and Walla Walla began in 2007. By 2010, three additional feeder bus lines were operating. A fifth line has been planned and could begin service if funding is identified. In total, the bus companies operating those current four lines provided more than 50,000 passenger trips in 2012. More than two dozen towns in the state have seen their intercity bus service restored along 400 route miles. The bus companies provide one, two, or three daily roundtrips.
This and other rural bus services are supported by a US Federal Transit Administration program which allows transit funding to help finance intercity coach bus services. This results in rural intercity bus routes that private operators would otherwise discontinue.
The narrow, curvy and sometimes congested roads that wind through rural northern Baltimore County should be kept the way they are, according to a study to be released today by a Towson-based land preservation group.
Though creating wider, straighter roads might seem a logical response to increasing traffic volume, the transportation consultants hired by the Valleys Planning Council concluded that bigger roads only bring more cars traveling faster. The Valleys Planning Council plans to lobby county officials to adopt the recommendations as formal rural roads design standards. “We want the road standards to match the land-use standards,” said Teresa Moore, executive director of the land preservation group, which commissioned the $50,000 study.
Baltimore County limits development in the rural parts of the county through zoning classifications, with programs to buy property owners' development rights and by its decision not to extend public water and sewer lines to outlying areas, Moore said.
But when it comes time to repair a bridge or improve a road, she said, the county uses traditional highway design standards that often are not in sync with the county's land-use policies. “Because road and bridge construction projects are expensive and traffic is expected to increase, even in areas where future development has been restricted, the natural tendency of transportation planners is to maximize capacity for future, increased volumes,” according to the study conducted by Transportation Resource Group Inc., a York, Pa.-based company, and Bridgescape, a Columbia-based firm. “This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy - the familiar 'build it and they will come' scenario.”
By keeping the roads and bridges narrow, the country feel of the area will be preserved, the consultants and Valleys Planning Council officials said. “We don't need the straightest, fastest roads,” said Jon Seitz, a partner at Transportation Resource Group. “We want roads that meander through the countryside. There's a natural instinct for drivers to slow down on those roads,” said Seitz, adding that less pavement also has advantages for storm water management.
But Bill Korpman, deputy director of the county's Department of Public Works, said the county rarely widens or straightens roads. “We're not going around widening or straightening roads just on principle, only if there's a safety issue,” said Korpman, adding that even when there is a safety concern, engineers first would look at whether the problem could be addressed by installing a guard rail or making another improvement to the road. The Valleys Planning Council study also recommends:
· Property owners should not be required to give the county such wide rights of way when they preserve land in conservation easements.
· The community should have input about roadway improvement projects that will change the dimensions or geometry of an existing road.
· When widening the shoulders along roads, the county should use grass when possible, rather than pavement.
· County officials should make sure that paving contractors do not widen roads by adding a few inches each time they resurface the road.
Baltimore County Councilman T. Bryan McIntire, a North County Republican, said he strongly supports the viewpoint expressed in the council study. “Part of the charm of Baltimore County, especially the more rural parts, is its country atmosphere,” McIntire said.
Trudel (1999) describes how shared and subsidized taxi services provide affordable mobility in rural areas. Freund (2000) describes a demand-response service that provides mobility for elderly residents.
Several federal and state programs provide special Shuttle Services between lower-income neighborhoods and employment centers. The U.S. federal government offers grants to help establish and support such services.
Laura Barnhardt (2005), “Consultants Advise Letting Rural Roads Meander: Study Finds Straight Streets Would Bring More Cars To Baltimore County,” Baltimore Sun (www.baltimoresun.com), 21 November 2005
BTS (2011), The U.S. Rural Population and Scheduled Intercity Transportation in 2010: A Five-Year Decline in Transportation Access, Bureau of Transportation Statistics (www.bts.gov); at https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/scheduled_intercity_transportation_and_the_us_rural_population/2010/pdf/entire.pdf.
Jon E. Burkhardt, Charles A. Nelson, Gail Murray And David Koffman (2004), Toolkit for Rural Community Coordinated Transportation Services, TCRP Report 101, TRB (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_101.pdf.
CALTRANS (2014), Main Street, California: A Guide for Improving Community and Transportation Vitality, California Department of Transportation (www.dot.ca.gov); at
C. Cheyne and M. Imran (2010), Attitudes And Behaviour In Relation To Public Transport In New Zealand’s Non-Metropolitan Regions, Research Report 419, New Zealand Transport Agency (www.nzta.govt.nz); at www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/research/reports/419/docs/419.pdf.
DEA & Associates (1999), Main Street…When a Highway Runs Through It, Transportation and Growth Management Program, Oregon DOT and Dept. of Environmental Quality (http://egov.oregon.gov/LCD/TGM/publications.shtml); at http://egov.oregon.gov/LCD/TGM/publications.shtml.
William Dieber, et al. (2014), Planning Transportation To Meet The Needs Of An Aging Illinois: An Assessment, Voorhees Center for Neighborhood and Community Improvement, University of Illinois at Chicago; at http://bit.ly/1QgAako.
Dorset Rural Roads Protocol (www.dorsetaonb.org.uk/our-work/rural-roads.html) is a set of principles and practices to support safer and more livable rural transport planning.
Lori J. Duguid (2006), Implementing Smart Growth Principles in Manalapan Township, New Jersey, to Address Transportation Deficiencies, ITE Annual Meeting (www.ite.org); at http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=793134.
David W. Eby, et al. (2012), Recommendations For Meeting The Mobility Needs Of Older Adults In Rural Michigan, University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (www.umtri.umich.edu); at www.michigan.gov/documents/mdot/MDOT_Research_Report_RC1592_408044_7.pdf.
P. Elsenaar and S. Abouraad (2005), Road Safety Best Practices - Examples and Recommendations, Global Road Safety Partnership (www.grsproadsafety.org); at www.grsproadsafety.org/themes/default/pdfs/Road%20Safety%20Best%20Practices.pdf. This manual describes specific measures for reducing roadway risk, particularly in developing counties. It covers: Campaign and Enforcement, Awareness and Partnership, Crash Databases, Treatment of Black Spots, Road Design and Speed Management, Heath and Road Safety, and Prehospital Care.
Suzie Edrington, Jonathan Paul Brooks and L. Cherrington (2013), Rural Transit Livability Performance Measures, Federal Transit Administration; summary at http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=1242514.
Elizabeth Ellis and Brian McCollom (2014), Guidebook for Rural Demand-Response Transportation: Measuring, Assessing, and Improving Performance, TCRP Report 136, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_136.pdf.
Gerard Fitzgerald (2012), The Social Impacts Of Poor Access To Transport In Rural New Zealand, Research Report 484, NZ Transport Agency (www.nzta.govt.nz); at www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/research/reports/484/docs/484.pdf.
Flexi-link (www.sunshinecoast.qld.gov.au/sitePage.cfm?code=flexilink) is a Shuttle Bus service that provides reliable and accessible public transport for a low flat fee to semi-rural communities on the Australian Sunshine Coast.
Katherine Freund (2000), “Independent Transportation Network; Alternative Transportation for the Elderly,” TR News, 206, pp. 3-12.
Stephen Fuller, John Robinson, Francisco Fraire, and Sharada Vadali (2011), Improving Intermodal Connectivity in Rural Areas to Enhance Transportation Efficiency: A Case Study, University Transportation Center for Mobility (http://utcm.tamu.edu); at http://utcm.tamu.edu/publications/final_reports/Fuller_07-07.pdf.
Ranjit Godavarthy, Jeremy Mattson and Elvis Ndembe (2014), Cost-Benefit Analysis of Rural and Small Urban Transit, Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute, North Dakota State University, for the U.S. Department of Transportation (www.nctr.usf.edu); at www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/77060-NCTR-NDSU03.pdf.
Shauna L. Hallmark, Skylar Knickerbocker, and Neal Hawkins (2013), Evaluation Of Low Cost Traffic Calming For Rural Communities, Institute for Transportation, Iowa State University (www.intrans.iastate.edu); at www.intrans.iastate.edu/research/documents/research-reports/updated_rural_traffic_calming_w_cvr2.pdf.
Kenneth I. Hosen and S. Bennett Powell (2014), Innovative Rural Transit Services: A Synthesis of Transit Practice, TCRP Synthesis 94, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_syn_94.pdf.
ICMA (2010), Putting Smart Growth to Work in Rural Communities, International City/County Management Association (www.icma.org); at http://icma.org/Documents/Document/Document/301483.
International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a global network of organizations and individuals working to improve accessibility and mobility in rural communities.
IPCS (2011), Supporting Sustainable Rural Communities, Interagency Partnership for Sustainable Communities, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (www.epa.gov/smartgrowth); at www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/2011_11_supporting-sustainable-rural-communities.pdf.
JPT (2012), “Rural and Intercity Bus Special Issue” Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 15, No. 3; at www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/jpt_15.3.pdf.
KFH Group (2014), Effective Approaches to Meeting Rural Intercity Bus Transportation Needs, TCRP Report 79, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_79.pdf.
Todd Litman (2009), Rethinking Malahat Solutions: Or, Why Spend A Billion Dollars If A Five-Million Dollar Solution Is Better Overall? Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/malahat.pdf.
J. Liddle, Gerard McElwee and John Disney (2012), “Rural Transport and Social Inclusion: The DalesBus Initiative,” Local Economy, March, 27/2, pp. 3-18; at http://nottinghamtrent.academia.edu/GerardMcElwee/Papers/1300933/Rural_transport_and_social_inclusion.
Jana Lynott (2014), Reconnecting Small-Town America by Bus: New Federal Transit Rules Spur Investment, AARP Public Policy Institute, American Association of Retired Persons (www.aarp.org); at http://tinyurl.com/pgtct9q.
Jeremy Mattson (2013), Rural Transit Fact Book 2013, Small Urban and Rural Transit Center (www.surtc.org), Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute; at www.surtc.org/transitfactbook/downloads/2013_rural_transit_fact_book.pdf.
Measuring Up The North (www.measureupthenorth.com) works to create livable, age-friendly, disability-friendly, universally designed, inclusive communities in Northern British Columbia.
Sue Mitchell and Ben Hamilton-Baillie (2011), Traffic in Villages – Safety and Civility for Rural Roads: A Toolkit for Communities, Dorset AONB Partnership (www.dorsetaonb.org.uk); at www.dorsetaonb.org.uk/assets/downloads/Rural_Roads_Protocol/trafficinvillages-web.pdf.
Brian J. Morton, Joseph Huegy, and John Poros (2014), Close to Home: A Handbook for Transportation-Efficient Growth in Small Communities and Rural Areas, Web-Only Document 211, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/NCHRP_W211.pdf.
ODOT (1995), Oregon DOT Highway Design Manual, ODOT ().
Kathleen Painter, Eric Jessup, Marcia Gossard, Ken Casavant (2007), “Demand Forecasting for Rural Transit: Models Applied to Washington State,” Transportation Research Record 1997, pp. 35-40; at www.trforum.org/forum/downloads/2007_4B_DemandEst_paper.pdf.
PATH (Planning for Active Transportation and Health) (www.nrsrcaa.org/path/Documents.htm), describes practical measures to increase transportation efficiency, equity and health in rural regions, sponsored by the Natural Resources Services of the Redwood Community Action Agency.
PATH (2006), The PATH Guide: Planning Ideas, Tools And Examples To Achieve Transportation Access And Equity In Rural California, Prepared by Natural Resources Services, A Division of Redwood Community Action Agency, Eureka, California, (www.nrsrcaa.org/path), with funding from The Caltrans Environmental Justice Program; at www.nrsrcaa.org/path/pdfs/PATHGuide5_06.pdf.
Reconnecting America (2012), Putting Transit to Work in Main Street America: How Smaller Cities and Rural Places Are Using Transit and Mobility Investments to Strengthen Their Economies and Communities, Reconnecting America (www.reconnectingamerica.org) and Community Transportation Association (www.ctaa.org); at http://reconnectingamerica.org/assets/PDFs/201205ruralfinal.pdf.
Active Transportation Beyond Urban Centers: Walking and Bicycling in Small
Towns and Rural America” Rails-to-Trails Conservancy (www.railstotrails.org); at www.railstotrails.org/resources/documents/ourWork/reports/BeyondUrbanCentersReport.pdf.
Michael Ronkin (2008), Twenty-Two Reasons for Paved Highway Shoulders, Oregon DOT Bicycle and Pedestrian Program (www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/BIKEPED); at www.bicyclinglife.com/EffectiveAdvocacy/22reasons.htm.
Rural Assistance Center Transportation Topic Page (www.raconline.org/topics/transportation) provides practical information on ways to improve transport options in rural communities.
Rural Transport Knowledge Base (www.transport-links.org/rtkb/English\Intro.htm) is a set of reference and training material of the latest thinking and practice in the field of rural transport.
Rural Transportation Planning Clearinghouse (www.ruraltransportation.org) serves as the national professional association for rural transportation planning professionals, practitioners, policymakers and other stakeholders. It is sponsored by the National Association of Development Organizations (NADO) and the NADO Research Foundation.
Small Urban & Rural Transit Center (www.surtc.org) at North Dakota State University’s Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute works to increase the mobility of small urban and rural residents through improved public transportation.
SAIA (2001), Rural ITS Toolbox, Rural Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Program, USDOT (www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov/jpodocs/repts_te/13477.html).
Dominic Stead (2002), “Why Rural Areas in Britain Will Not Benefit From Lower Transport Fuel Duty,” World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 8, No. 1 (http://ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), Jan. 2002, pp. 42-47.
Josh Stephens (2013), “Ahead of the Curb: Comfortable, Creatively Branded and Competitively Priced, New Wave of Curbside Carriers Reinvigorate Intercity Bus Travel,” InTransition, Fall, at www.intransitionmag.org/Fall_2013/curbside_bus_lines.aspx.
SustraMM (2012), Guidelines and Recommendations On Mobility Management In Rural Areas And Small Cities: Experiences From The SustraMM EU Project, SustraMM (http://enercitee.eu/Sub-Projects/SustraMM---Sustainable-transports-for-managing-mobility,54).
TGM (2013), Transit in Small Cities: A Primer for Planning, Siting and Designing Transit Facilities in Oregon, Oregon Department of Transportation and Growth Management (www.oregon.gov/LCD/TGM); at www.oregon.gov/LCD/TGM/docs/fulltransitprimer4-4-13.pdf.
Transport and Rural Infrastructure Learning and Sharing Partnership (www.transport-links.org/trsp-kda), sponsored by the World Bank and UK Department for International Development, seeks to improve access to relevant knowledge for stakeholders in the transport and rural infrastructure sector in developing countries.
TRB (2012), Rural Public Transportation Strategies for Responding to the Livable and Sustainable Communities, Digest 375 National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), TRB (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rrd_375.pdf.
TRB (2013), Methods for Forecasting Demand and Quantifying Need for Rural Passenger Transportation: Final Workbook, Report 161, Transportation Research Cooperative Program, TRB (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_161.pdf.
TRIPTAC (www.triptac.org), the Transit in Parks Technical Assistance Center, offers specialized resources and assistance for alternative transportation planning, including walking, cycling and various forms of public transportation. TRIPTAC serves U.S. Federal Land Management Agencies (FLMAs) and their partners.
TRISP (2005), “Treatment of Low Volume Rural Roads,” Economic Evaluation Notes, UK Department for International Development and the World Bank (www.worldbank.org); at http://go.worldbank.org/ME49C4XOH0.
Michel Trudel (1999), “The Taxi as a Transit Mode,” Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 4, Fall, pp. 121-130; at http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=651039.
Hannah Twaddell and Dan Emerine (2007), Best Practices to Enhance the Transportation-Land Use Connection in the Rural United States, NCHRP 582, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org); at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_582.pdf.
USEPA (2015), Smart Growth Self-Assessment for Rural Communities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (www.epa.gov); at www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/madison_county_sgia_071015.pdf.
Nagendra R. Velaga, John D. Nelson, Steve D. Wright, John H. Farrington (2012), “The Potential Role of Flexible Transport Services in Enhancing Rural Public Transport Provision,” Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 111-131; at www.nctr.usf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/JPT15.1.pdf.
Louise J. Weir and Fintan McCabe (2012), Towards A Sustainable Rural Transport Policy: Review, Irish Rural Link (www.irishrurallink.ie); at www.comharsdc.ie/_files/Final%20Rural%20Transport%20Report_Website%20Version.pdf.
This Encyclopedia is produced by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute to help improve understanding of Transportation Demand Management. It is an ongoing project. Please send us your comments and suggestions for improvement.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
1250 Rudlin Street, Victoria, BC, V8V 3R7, CANADA
Phone & Fax 250-360-1560
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Construction of a new museum to house a copy of the Magna Carta at Lincoln Castle in England has halted after the discovery of the remains of a church, human skeletons and other artifacts. Among the finds was a sarcophagus, believed to contains the bones of "somebody terribly important." (photos)
Yet to be opened, the stone sarcophagus is thought to contain the remains of a Saxon king or bishop. Also found were more mundane artifacts including "pottery, cooking pots, animal bones, ice skates, and dice made from animal bone and antler."
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please contact the webmaster. This converter will find the weight of water only!
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Convert Gallons of Water to Pounds. w = 8.33 q (1). where. w = weight of water (
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Convert density units. Easily convert pounds per gallon (U.S.) to pounds per
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Amount of gas multiplied by the conversion factor. LIQUIDS – To convert from
gallons to pounds, multiply by: Hazardous Material lbs/gal. Ammonium Hydroxide
pound/gallon (US) to gram/liter (lb/gal (US)—g/L measurement units conversion.
LIQUEFIED GAS CONVERSION CHART. Product Name. Cubic Feet I Pound.
Pounds I Gallon. Cubic Feet I Gallon. Acetylene. UNINA: 1001. 14.70. 4.90. 72.03
LIQUEFIED GAS CONVERSION CHART. Product Name. Cubic Feet / Pound.
Pounds / Gallon Cubic Feet / Gallon. Acetylene. UN/NA: 1001. CAS: 514-86-2.
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to hip dysplasia
Hip dysplasia occurs less frequently in medium-sized dogs and rarely in small dogs. Though the disease typically affects purebred animals, if a mixed breed inherits the trait from both parents, the dog has a chance of suffering from the condition. Realizing that certain dogs have an increased risk toward dysplasia, reputable breeders ensure disease free lineage by having their animals evaluated by a veterinarian. Eventual disease eradication may only occur if breeders continue practicing stringent selective breeding.
Genetics remains the predominant reason that dogs develop dysplasia. An animal may inherit the genes from one or both parents, the dog may or may not develop the problem, however, they carry the genetic information. By practicing selective breeding, responsible owners do not breed hip dysplasia carriers.
What nutrition plays in development of symptoms of hip dysplasia
Nutrition also plays a part in the development of symptoms of hip dysplasia. The joints of overweight dogs endure greater stress. If a dog carries dysplasia, and becomes overweight, they have an increased risk of exhibiting symptoms. Likewise, puppies provided with liberal meals often undergo rapid growth during the first year of life, which also adds stress to the hip joint and encourages malformation. Homemade diets lacking in calcium or other minerals might also have an effect on growth and development.
Physical activity and its role in hip dysplasia
While physical activity maintains a dog’s overall health from infancy through adulthood, the wrong type of exercise poses a threat to dogs carrying the dysplasia gene. Running or swimming builds strong muscles, connective tissues and bones, but any activities involving jumping create possible trauma.
Diagnosing Hip Dysplasia
Dogs as young as four months may undergo evaluation. However, owners often bring pets to a veterinarian when the animal shows signs of a problem. Upon physical examination, the veterinarian determines if the hip joints display subluxation or the animal expresses discomfort with range of motion. The veterinarian also usually uses X-rays during the diagnostic process, as the condition may exist before outward symptoms appear.
The veterinarian then sends the images to the Orthopedic Foundation of America, referred to as the OAF, for assessment and rating. The OFA established three categories of ratings. Normal means the animal displays no symptoms of the disorder and may further indicate a rating of excellent, good or fair. Borderline may signify unclear images along with a recommendation to reassess the animal within a year. The dyplastic rating includes grades of mild, moderate and severe.
Medical Intervention for hip dysplasia
The type of treatment recommended by the veterinarian often depends on the severity of the condition. Oral supplementation with chondroitin and glucosamine products help maintain healthy connective tissue. Oral or injectable anti-inflammatory, pain and disease modifying medications may slow the degenerative process. Affected dogs also require proper diet, comfortable, warm sleeping areas and a strict exercise regimen as recommended by the physician. Modified exercise helps maintain joint flexibility and cardiovascular fitness without causing further injury or discomfort. Swimming remains the best option because the activity encourages non-impact range of motion.
Options for hip dysplasia treatment
Depending on the dog’s age, size and the severity of the condition, veterinarians may suggest corrective surgery. Younger dogs might undergo pelvic realignment procedures that encourage proper positioning of the femoral head and the acetabulum. Older dogs usually qualify for total hip replacement surgery. Similar to the procedure performed on humans, the process entails replacing the defective joint with synthetic materials. Under certain circumstances, the dog may only require femoral head replacement. But, this option may limit range of motion.
Determining whether a dog qualifies for expensive corrective surgery also depends on the owner’s willingness to comply with the necessary post-operative care. Following surgery, dogs require a period of rehabilitation designed to return range of motion and strength. Physical therapy in the form of passive range of motion, ambulation or swimming all aid in the healing process of hip dysplasia.
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First, the NEIC determines, as rapidly and as accurately as possible, the location and size of all significant earthquakes that occur worldwide. The NEIC disseminates this information immediately to concerned national and international agencies, scientists, critical facilities, and the general public.
Second, the NEIC collects and provides to scientists and to the public an that serves as a solid foundation for scientific research, principally through the operation of modern digital national and global seismograph networks and through cooperative international agreements. The NEIC is the U.S. national data center and archive for earthquake information.
Third, the NEIC pursues an active research program to improve its ability to locate earthquakes and to understand the earthquake mechanism. These efforts are all aimed at mitigating the risks of earthquakes to mankind; and they are made possible by the fine international cooperation that has long characterized the science of seismology.()
Using a combination of automated tools and human review, NEIC issues moment magnitude and location information as soon as possible after a quake. As earthquake waves take time to travel around the globe, the estimated moment magnitude may change as more information... Read More
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- Capisette Supplement Facts
- Remedies for Swollen Feet and Ankles
- Water and Fluid Retention in Legs
- Nutritional Advice to Reduce Swelling
- Get Rid of Water Retention - 7 Treatments!
- 5 Edema Products - Natural & Over the Counter
- Capisette: Frequently Asked Questions
- Capisette Interactions
- (OTC) Over the Counter Diuretics for Edema
- Swollen Ankle with No Pain?
- More Articles ...
Magnesium for Fluid Retention
Can magnesium reduce water retention? Let's find out.
by Brad Chase
Fluid retention, also known as swelling, bloating, or edema, occurs when the body accumulates excessive fluids.
Fluid retention means that the cells in the body are hydrated more than they need to be. It may be caused by hormonal changes, medications, illness, or changes in diet.
There are several methods to reduce the excess water retention in the body. This can be achieved through some easy dietary changes.
Supplementing the body with vital minerals such as magnesium, calcium and potassium may also help get rid of water retention.
Magnesium is a vital mineral responsible for several body functions. But, can it treat edema? Let’s find out.
Magnesium is important in the body because of its affinity for phosphates in biological systems. For this reason, it is needed for any biochemical reaction involving ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), the chief energy molecule in the cell.
Magnesium is also required for synthesizing DNA and RNA. In humans, the mineral can be found mostly in the skeleton and inside the cells.
Magnesium levels in cells are strongly linked to the cellular levels of potassium. In addition, magnesium promotes the absorption of calcium.
The level of magnesium in the body requires a delicate balance. Therefore, different classes of cells maintain different magnesium concentrations. Magnesium is also regulated by being transported across cellular membranes and being bound by certain proteins.
Magnesium is needed for nerve conduction and to provide muscular strength. Because it can close some calcium channels on the membranes of neurons, high levels of magnesium can reduce the activity of nerves in the nervous system.
Hypomagnesemia and hypermagnesemia refer to two electrolyte imbalances of magnesium. In the hypomagnesemia, magnesium levels are abnormally low. This is not exactly equivalent to magnesium deficiency since hypomagnesemia is a measure of magnesium levels in the blood rather than in the body.
Hypomagnesemia can be caused by a number of factors including diuretics, stress, malabsorption of magnesium, diarrhea and chronic alcohol intake.
Hypomagnesemia is often diagnosed with hypokalemia. This is because magnesium inhibits the release of potassium from cells and improves its reabsorption in the kidney tubules. Therefore, when magnesium levels are low, potassium is increasingly lost.
The link between magnesium and potassium is one reason why some diuretics cause severe hypokalemia.
Magnesium and potassium are also interlinked in the development of arrhythmia. Magnesium is required for the proper functioning of the Na+/K+/ATPase pump in heart cells. During hypomagnesemia and magnesium deficiency, the depolarization of the heart is improperly done and so the heart beat goes out of rhythm.
Hypermagnesemia is a rare condition because the kidney regularly excretes excess magnesium from the body. However, this condition is common in people with kidney failure who are receiving drugs containing magnesium.
Hypermagnesemia usually involves hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia. Therefore, its symptoms include weakness, respiratory depression, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, arrhythmia and cardiac arrest.
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral present in the body. It is essential for good health, and regulates more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body. It is also known to reduce edema.
Animal research supports the idea that perinatal magnesium deficiency can cause edema in infants. A study published in "Biology of the Neonate" in 1999 found that when pregnant rats were given a low-magnesium diet, the mortality rate of their babies increased. They also had considerably higher levels of edema and hemorrhages.
Diuretics are usually given to get rid of fluid retention in the body. They do this by increasing urine production in the kidneys when they block the reabsorption of sodium.
There are three classes of diuretics used in treating edema. These are loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics and potassium-sparing diuretics.
Loop diuretics and thiazide diuretics can promote magnesium loss in the kidneys. This is an unfortunate side effect involving another unwanted side effect of diuretics: potassium loss.
Diuretics belonging to these two classes inhibit sodium reabsorption by binding to transporters responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and potassium.
Loop diuretics, for example, block the Na+/K+/2Cl- symporter (a co-transporter of multiple ions) found in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the kidney nephrons.
Since the reabsorption of magnesium (and calcium) depends on the concentrations of potassium, sodium and chloride ions, the diuretic action preventing the reabsorption of these latter ions guarantee that magnesium will also be lost in urine.
Potassium-sparing diuretics, on the other hand, do not inhibit the reabsorption of magnesium. This is because diuretics in this class increase urine production by other means.
Spironolactone, a prime example of potassium-sparing diuretics, exerts its effect by inhibiting aldosterone which is a corticosteroid hormone produced by the renin-angiotensin system and responsible for promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys.
Amiloride, another potassium-sparing diuretic, blocks sodium pumps in the kidneys. In this way, it spares potassium ions and, by extension, magnesium ions too.
Diuretics are not the only drugs that can reduce magnesium levels and cause fluid retention.
Other drugs that can cause magnesium deficiency and hypomagnesemia are digitalis, cisplatin, ciclosporin, proton-pump inhibitors such as omeprazole and certain antibiotics including aminoglycosides, amphotericin and gentamycin.
Green vegetables, such as spinach, are excellent sources of magnesium, as the chlorophyll molecule contains magnesium.
Some legumes (beans and peas), whole unrefined grains, nuts and seeds, are also good sources of magnesium.
Bread made from whole grain wheat flour contains more magnesium than bread made from white refined flour.
Tap water can also be a good source of magnesium, but the amount varies according to the water supply.
If you have edema, follow a diet that includes a variety of nuts, seeds, whole grains and green leafy vegetables.
Swiss chard and boiled spinach, among other green vegetables, are the excellent sources of the mineral.
Fishes (such as halibut and cod) are good sources of magnesium. Some ready-to-eat breakfast cereals also contain magnesium.
While magnesium oxide is the most common magnesium supplement, the bioavailability of magnesium from this source is low even though among magnesium salts, it has the highest magnesium content per weight.
Magnesium citrate provides the highest bioavailability of the mineral among its supplements.
Since the kidneys effectively remove magnesium from the body, hypermagnesemia is impossible from dietary sources. However, magnesium supplements can cause this accumulation of high levels of magnesium especially in patients with impaired renal functions.
A study published in the Journal of Women's Health in 1998 reported 200 milligrams of magnesium oxide administered daily for two menstrual cycles notably reduced premenstrual water retention in the second month of taking supplementation.
The Mayo Clinic recommends taking 200 mg of magnesium supplements two to three times a day to get relief from water retention. Women suffering from kidney or heart disease should avoid taking magnesium supplementation.
Dietary magnesium does not pose any health risk; but taking magnesium supplements might cause some side effects such as abdominal cramping and diarrhea.
Risk of magnesium toxicity increases with kidney failure, when the kidney fails to remove excess magnesium.
High doses of magnesium-containing antacids and laxatives have also been related with magnesium toxicity.
You should consult with your health care practitioner before taking magnesium supplements to determine the right dosage for you.
For more information on Edema treatment, read these articles: Potassium & Fluid Retention, and Reduce Edema by Avoiding These Foods.
|Next Article: Low Potassium and Water Retention|
Capisette helps with reducing swelling and reducing edema by providing your body with the electrolytes needed to restore proper fluid tranfer in your cells. It then gets rid of excess fluid with natural diuretics.
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A new report from the European Commission, the European Union's executive branch, calls for dramatic changes to the European patent system. Under the proposal, a new type of patent would be created that would apply across the continent, and a new system of patent courts would be given jurisdiction over patent disputes.
The European Union has struggled for decades to create a unified patent system. Most EU countries participate in the European Patent Convention, first signed in 1973, which allows inventors to file a single application for patent rights in dozens of European countries. However, under the Convention, patent litigation still occurs on a country-by-country basis, with each country's rules governing the validity and enforcement of patents in that country. That has greatly inflated the costs of patent litigation. According to the report, obtaining a patent that's valid in 13 European countries costs 11 times as much as obtaining an American patent.
In the last three decades, there have been several efforts to overcome these limitations by creating a unified "community patent" regime, in which a single set of patent rules would apply in all participating countries. So far, those efforts have always gotten bogged down by disputes over implementation details. The most recent effort fell apart four years ago due to squabbling over which languages the patents would be translated into.
The new report is the European Commission's attempt to resurrect the community patent. It advocates the creation of a new system of European patent courts that would have jurisdiction over both existing European patents and the new community patent.
The report argues that European competitiveness is hampered by its limited use of patents compared with Japan and the United States. It notes that Americans and Japanese both file more patents per capita than do Europeans, and speculates that Europe's unwieldy patent system is holding back innovation.
However, the report pays little attention to the possibility that too much patenting could be an even bigger impediment to economic growth. The report devotes only one short paragraph to patent thickets, patent trolls, and other problems created by low-quality patents. It doesn't offer any concrete recommendations for ensuring that the European patent system avoids the problems now being encountered in the United States.
Nor does the report address the risk that creating a separate patent court will lead to a judicial system that is too sympathetic to expanding the scope of patents. Some observers argue that's precisely what happened in the United States. They note that since Congress created the Federal Circuit in 1982 to hear patent appeals, the scope of patents has been greatly expanded. Software and business method patents have been legalized, and the bar for obviousness has been dramatically lowered. Some speculate that the large number of former patent lawyers among the judges of the Federal Circuit are one reason for this shift—lawyers who have devoted their lives to patent law will naturally be sympathetic to arguments for expanding the scope of the patent system.
There is particular reason for concern given the Commission's own stormy history on software patents. The EC defied a vote of the European Parliament and pledged to continue granting software patents in 2005, only to reverse course last year and promise to stop granting software patents.
Indeed, software patent critics in Europe are blasting the proposal. The Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure, a key software patent opponent, argues that it will make it easier for large American companies to get patents in Europe, but will do little to help European companies.
"The Commission insults the many small and medium enterprises who participated in its Patent Consultation by claiming that they are uninformed when they say the patent system does not fit in their business model," said FFII president Pieter Hintjens. "Reducing financial burdens on venture capitalists, like in the US, would be much more fruitful than proposing to throw even more money at 'reeducating' companies to agree with the Commission's patent obsession."
There is undoubtedly room for improvement in Europe's cumbersome and fragmented patent system. But policymakers should be careful that in their zeal to fix existing problems, they don't introduce new, more serious ones. The Commission's report gives the impression that the overriding objective of the patent system is to increase the number of patents being granted. But it's just as important to ensure that bad patents are not granted.
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From the Editor's Desk...
Welcome to the fifth issue of WILLA! For five years now we have been publishing this journal for informational, pedagogical, and literary reasons. One of our chief aims is to improve English education as it affects the lives of girls and women, knowing full well that in advancing knowledge by and about females we also do the same for boys and men, for we are all in the classroom and the real world together. Yet much work remains to be done as this July 24 letter to the New York Times by Ellen S. Silber, director of the Marymount College Institute for the Education of Women and Girls, illustrates: "In a series of conferences that I administer ... I have found that not one of more than 80 participating institutions offers a course devoted to gender bias in the classroom. Clearly, many deserving girls will slip through the cracks before the necessary reforms are put in place" (A24).
WILLA, along with many others, is doing its best to keep girls from slipping through the cracks by offering sessions on gender bias at NCTE's fall, spring, and summer conferences; by presenting appropriate speakers and performers; by publishing brochures on reading lists and other significant issues, by publishing the journal and newsletter. Success, in equal education, opportunity, and recognition, will take a long time. For encouragement, let us keep Susan B. Anthony's words before us: "Failure is impossible." Still, we have the patience and the know-how where the education of our daughters, our sisters, our mothers is concerned. Remember that education, like democracy, is ever in the making, for we must always spin and weave new knowledge in with the old. Women know (Who better?) that knowledge is power and that knowledge knows no limits; and we will never limit our willingness to know and to convey our knowing, whether it be the usefulness of the eight parts of speech, the syntactical structure of an English sentence, or the literature reflective of all of our citizens, especially the female half.
I encourage you to consider the columns, the essays, and the poetry in this issue as they forward WILLA's aims, trusting that you will be informed and delighted as you read. Robin Milanovich's review of Peggy Orenstein's SchoolGirls: Young Women, Self-Esteem, and the Confidence Gap will fill you in on the inspiration for my editorial. Angeline Dvorak calls our attention to the role quilts played in our mothers' lives while Nancy Thompson addresses the significance of literary narratives. Janice Battiste focuses on the influence that Mary Moody Emerson had on her nephew Ralph Waldo Emerson, causing us to wonder, as does Dvorak, what these women could have and would have done had they been allowed to receive and use an education. "Revisiting Shakespeare and
Gender" by Gerlach, Almasy, and Daniel, shows how Shakespeare sometimes resisted the English Renaissance gender stereotypes. Dreher recounts how a student successfully strove to raise the pitch of his voice while Sharon Shelton-Colangelo relates the delights and difficulties of trying to create a student-centered classroom when feminist issues challenge that centeredness. Read Julianne White's analysis of mothers and daughters in Wilkie Collins's The Woman in White and rush out and read the novel. Day's re-imagining of the Gaia myth breaks new ground. The poetry by Sita Kapadia and Lee Ann Hughes demonstrates anew what words at their best can do. Leonore Hoffinann Walters' review of Marlene Schiwy's A Voice of Her Own: Women and the Journal-Writing Journey and Michelle Lee's Journals Spanning Time: Virginia Woolf, the Indigo Girls, Me indicate the value of the personal narrative in developing self-esteem.
Lastly, I want to thank Fran Holman for all that she did to summon WILLA, the organization, and WILLA, the journal, into being. A true founding mother, she obtained funding from her institution for the first issue of WILLA. Her work as co-editor and as managing editor has kept the journal fullspeed ahead.
© 1996, The Women in Literature and Life Assembly of the National Council of Teachers of English (ISSN #1065-9080). Permission is given to copy any article provided credit is given and the copies are not intended for resale.
Reference Citation: Gillikin, Jo. (1996). "From the Editor's Desk... ." WILLA, Volume V, p. 3.
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on November 8, 2003
This is a nifty little reference book.
I'm just starting the trek to fluency, however, this book is already on my shelf. I tried reading straight through this, but it was futile a cause because I had (and still have) insufficient vocabulary to make sentences that use many of these particles.
However, I still thumb through it and pick up particles here and there. For some reason, they stick better that way. Also, while reading sentences in Japanese, you'll start to recognize the particles you've seen while looking through this book. Randomly pick a page and learn the particle on that one.
The book also brings our attention to subtleties between similar particles. This helps when trying to generate a tone and attitude.
My only quibble is that it uses romaji instead of Furigana over the Kanji since i'm already familiar with the Kana. This doesn't depreciate the value of the book, though. You'll refer to it often when you're disecting or constructing sentences.
on August 30, 2004
Wrapping my mind around most of the particles I've learned thus far was difficult, but this book helped me understand those tricky particles so that I could use them with more confidence. It probably helps to have a little bit of background on Japanese sentence structures and vocabulary to comprehend the examples following the definition for each particle, but it is a very much recommended book for any student studying the Japanese language.
on September 18, 2002
Every Japanese learner struggles with particles. Organizing particles is one of the most difficult part of the language, and there are few good resources to help you out. "All About Particles: A Handbook of Japanese Function Words" is the single most useful book I have found on the topic.
This is a true reference book. Although it can be read straight through (and I recommend this at least once), it is most useful for looking up difficult particles as you discover them. Placing them in context will help the learning process. Read all in one sitting it is a little overwhelming, but good for an overview of all 70 plus particles.
One of the advantages of "All About Particles" is that the examples use various forms of politeness. It also demonstrates interchangeable particles, and which expressions are more daily-use. The text itself is very compact, and travels well.
I would recommend this book to any Japanese learner looking to bridge the gap from Advanced Beginner to Intermediate.
on June 20, 2003
The Japanese particle was confusing before I owned this book. Other texts panned the information, or wrote particles off as 'not really meaning anything'. Don't fool youself, or let yourself be fooled- the particle determines specifics of information and direct the intent of a sentance. They quanitify many nouns into object, subject, direct object. The also describe ownership, adjective and adverb use. This book describes it all (well, I assume this is ALL) in order of most common usage. Each particle is shown in each way it might be used corresponding to English, with a sentence (or several) in English and japanese to explain usage.
Naoko Chino's pocket text is one of the most important Japanese instructional texts in print today.
on April 27, 2002
This book discusses the use of about 70 particles, listed in order from most to least common. For each particle, Chino lists the different ways you can use it, grouping similar uses together, and provides at least two example sentences for each use. The examples are shown in kanji, roomaji, and English.
I think this book covers most particles a beginning or intermediate student would need to know. Finding the particle you want is fairly easy, either by using the table of contents, checking out the index, or glancing at the page headers. Chino did not include exercises, so the book is slim and to the point. However, the use of roomaji may bother some people.
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The Boy Artist from Red River
By George Siamandas
Peter Rindisbacher was an artist born in 1806 in the Valley of the Emme River in the canton of Berne, Switzerland. His family immigrated to the Red River Valley in 1821 when Peter was 15. He and his family came to Manitoba after Captain Rudolph von May enticed his father into coming to settle in the growing Red River Valley with good prospects for agriculture. The voyage that was destined for York Factory took 79 days. During the voyage, 15-year-old Peter drew sketches of icebergs and other ships the Lord Wellington passed on it's way as well as Hudson's Bay Company posts and Inuit hunters.
The Lord Wellington arrived at York Factory the 17 of August 1821. Once arrived at Red River, he found employment as a clerk at the HBC store in Fort Garry and actually supported his family with this small salary and the sale of paintings. Peter started to become successful in the sale of paintings as one clerk reported to him, the fur traders and officials delighted with his colourful and accurate depiction of life in the Northwest.
His original drawings were done in pen and ink, and from there, he copied and traced and finished his work in watercolour. H.Bulger bought a series of 6 water-coloured paintings depicting (to change later) Bulger travelling by various conveyances and meeting with Indian delegations. "Pelly's picture books" sold well. Eventually artists such as Risdinbacher started to flow south because of the difficulty to live in a place like the Red River with natural disasters looming. Surprisingly, few paintings show the predicament Risdinbacher's people were in. Artists were unfit to face the privations of the farming life at Red River. In 1826 his family moved to Wisconsin. When Peter was 23 years old he moved to St. Louis, Missouri to continue his painting career.
Peter Rindisbacher's greatest accomplishment was creating pictures that portray life in the early 1800's. His images depicted the life of the Inuit and immigration to another country by boat. Rindisbacher's sketches of the Canadian fur route are the only known drawings today that show what it was like to travel that much-used route at the time. His illustrations included views of the York Boats on the Hayes and Hill rivers and on Lake Winnipeg and sketches of the Hudson's Bay Company's inland fur trade posts, including Rock Fort, Fort Logan and Oxford House on the rivers and at the head of Lake Winnipeg, Norway House. In 1823 a man named John West took 6 of Rindisbacher's paintings with him back to England. When West had them published as lithographed back in England in 1826, the lithographs credited West as the artist and not Risdinbacher. In 1954, over 100 years later, the church in North Luffenham, England donated the same 6 paintings to St. John's Cathedral in Winnipeg.
Peter Rindisbacher is more alive today then he was when he drew his paintings. His paintings have become important documents that provide some understanding for researchers studying the early settlement in the western regions of North America. Rindisbacher has come to occupy an important place in the history of Canadian art. Today 140 of Peter Rindisbacher's images survive. Peter Risdinbacher died August 13, 1834, at the age 28. The circumstances of his death are curious. The two theories are that either his wife poisoned him because of her jealousy of his devotion to painting or that he poisoned himself through his habit of licking his paintbrush.
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In a song dedicated to martin Luther King Jr., James Taylor sings:
We are bound together
By our desire to see the world become
A place where our children can grow
up free and strong.
For more than three decades, the world movement for sustainable development has been driven by that aspiration. The vision of a plant-based economy is a new way of offering a more concrete vision of sustainable development to create a world safe for children and all life.
For many groups that now work separately, the vision of a plant-based green economy also provides opportunities to work together. In the United States, nonprofit networks operate principally in separate silos on green economy issues such as environmental health, climate change, sustainable agriculture, sustainable consumption, forest preservation, smart growth, environmental justice, and the like. Each of these networks is, in itself, far too small to drive transformative economic change. The green economy, by contrast, is a comprehensive social agenda that can achieve many of the goals of all of these diverse groups.
The green economy can attract allies in the government and for-profit sectors. It makes deep sense from a geopolitical and strategic perspective for the United States to take this decisive step toward energy independence. The green economy makes political sense in many “red” as well as “blue” states, and suggests a new bipartisanship. It is in the interest of the farm states to grow our energy, fuel, and materials feedstocks.
A bio-based economy is the only scalable alternative to a global economy addicted to oil and petrochemicals. At current rates of growth, China and India alone will outstrip the entire global demand for oil and other key raw materials within 30 years.
In the United States, with vast acreage available to plant crops, a bio-based economy, in which we “grow” green energy, green materials, and green chemistry feedstocks, is also the best hope for a new industrial production base for good jobs. Bio-based production represents the marriage of the goals of sustainable agriculture, green energy, and the broader environmental health movement.
One central question is: who will own and control this technological revolution? The petrochemical industry has controlled the heights of the global economy and global geopolitical strategies for the last century. This has led to global climate destabilization, the poisoning of the entire web of life with toxic chemicals, and a foreign policy that requires sustained hostilities in the Middle East and support for undemocratic regimes wherever there are remaining gas and oil reserves.
The bio-based economy can and should be based on larger democratic and “open source” values and strategies. Opportunities exist for local and regional interests to take substantial ownership of these new technologies, to help promote an economy that supports health, environment, and community interests.
Above all, the green economy is self-evidently linked to a sustainable world that will support human health. Human health is fundamentally dependent on a stable climate and crops that can be grown in a stable climate. Human health is equally dependent on the reversal of a century of buildup of toxic chemicals in the body of all life. In humans, more than 100 diseases, disorders, and conditions are linked in leading toxicology texts to manmade chemical contaminants. The revolution in environmental health sciences described by Pete Myers [see “Good Genes Gone Bad,” page A13] is generating a large body of evidence that many of the epidemic conditions of our time are related to these contaminants.
Clean air, clean water, and safe foods are historically issues that have animated voters. Now voters show a growing concern about visible evidence of climate change and of the pervasive, pernicious impact of chemicals on health.
Patient and health professional groups concerned with cancer, birth defects, asthma, heart disease, learning and developmental disabilities, infertility and pregnancy, Parkinson's disease, and endometriosis have already begun to engage to fight for a healthy environment and a phaseout of toxic chemicals. As the concerns of these health groups converge, a set of issues that were once considered “environmental” are being reframed as fundamental to the health and safety of families. This is a profound transformation.
A parallel development is the growing involvement of faith communities. Faith groups have become critical leaders in the struggle for climate-friendly energy policies. Increasingly, these same faith groups are engaging the issue of toxic chemicals. Just as patients' groups bring human health to the table, faith groups bring an indispensable moral voice to the dialogue.
The specifics of how we frame the green economy debate, and the strategies and tactics we pursue, deserve careful attention. The goal would be to substantively unite the key health, environment, faith, labor, justice, and nongovernmental organization communities who share these concerns, in conjunction with the many enlightened corporate interests who embrace a green economic future.
The environmental health movement, which over the past decade has brought together a formidable range of interests concerned with chemicals and health, is a good example of the extent to which such alliances are achievable when a constructive new frame, such as environmental health, is widely adopted.
The green economy is not the ultimate frame, since there are important issues it does not address. But it is a practical and achievable next step that could bring together progressives and conservatives in an alliance to build a healthy and sustainable world.
Michael Lerner is president of Commonweal, a health and environmental research institute in Bolinas, California. He acknowledges the contributions of Gary Cohen and Pete Myers to this article.
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The National Museum of American Jewish History, located on Independence Mall in Philadelphia, is an American history museum that tells the story of the United States through the American Jewish experience. This show, the second of a two-part episode, focuses on the Museum's educational activities, its exhibits, its architecture, and artifacts. The first part focused on the Museum's mission and founding. Ivy L. Barsky, Gwen Goodman Director and CEO of the National Museum of American Jewish History, returns to the show to comment on the importance of the Museum's location just steps from Independence Hall and the Liberty Bell. Barsky discusses the Museum's lively interactive exhibits, some of which invite visitors to contribute their stories and opinions. James Stewart Polshek, FAIA, architect of the National Museum of American Jewish History, talks about the challenges involved in transferring the museum from its prior location in Philadelphia to its new current street-corner site. Polshek explains why he chose a combination of opaque, transparent, translucent, and glowing building materials, and how the translucent materials function as a welcoming lens to visitors. Historian team member Pamela Nadell describes the chronological arrangement of the exhibits, the balance of major Jewish figures with ordinary people, and the importance of several items in the collection. This episode features dramatic footage of the Museum's interior and exterior, spotlights artifacts described by Nadell, and includes shots of the two sculptures outside the building, Religious Liberty, a work dating from the Centennial, and Beacon, a contemporary abstract work. Sweeping views of the Museum in the context of its historical surroundings add to this episode's impressive visuals.
Visit the Website: http://www.drexel.edu/thedrexelinterview
Episode #209 / Length: 26 minutes
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According do a Wall Street Journal editorial (December 7, 2010), “Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee Dianne Feinstein called for the prosecution of WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange because he ‘continues to violate … the Espionage Act of 1917.’” Assange’s sin? He leaked thousands of diplomatic cables that embarrassed the American government, especially in the realm of foreign policy. Many politicians and media figures have joined Feinstein’s cry for “spy charges,” with Sen. Joe Lieberman calling additionally for an investigation into prosecuting the New York Times under the Espionage Act for having published some of the leaked documents.
From Britain, Assange’s lawyer recently informed the media that he expected “spying charges in the U.S. related to the Espionage Act” to be soon brought against his client.
Such charges would raise many legal questions, one of which might involve treason, which is the crime of betraying one’s own nation, as the United States Code, Title 18, Part I clearly states: “Whoever, owing allegiance to the United States, levies war against them or adheres to their enemies….” Since Assange is Australian, however, he owes no such legal allegiance to the United States.
In this, Assange differs from PFC Bradley E. Manning, the American soldier who is accused of providing classified material to WikiLeaks. Since May 2010, Manning has been held in solitary confinement at Quantico pending a court-martial; it is not known whether he will be charged under the Espionage Act.
If Manning is charged, it will be for unauthorized use and disclosure of classified information; such “leaking” is clearly a criminal offense. Assange would be charged with publishing information; it is far from clear that such publication is a crime. Historically, even American publishers have been able to appeal to the concept of “freedom of the press.”
With potential prosecutions resting on the Espionage Act, it is useful to review the Act’s contents and consequences, especially with reference to freedom of speech.
Background of the Espionage Act of 1917
On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war on Germany, and America officially entered World War I. On June 15, a federal loyalty law called the Espionage Act became one of America’s first pieces of wartime legislation. Along with an 1918 amendment called the Sedition Act, the Espionage Act immediately became one of the most controversial measures in American history, not because of how it dealt with foreign espionage but because of how it affected the freedom of speech of publishers, journalists, anti-war activists, labor reformers, socialists, and the average American.
In his essay “Not Just Japanese Americans: The Untold Story of U.S. Repression during ‘The Good War,’” the historian Jeffrey Rogers Hummel described the three key features of the 1917 Act:
(1) a true espionage law, which punished spying and wartime sabotage, (2) a neutrality law, which restricted the non-neutral acts of private citizens in foreign conflicts, and (3) a sedition law, providing up to twenty years in jail and a $10,000 fine for aiding the enemy with “false reports or false statements,” for obstructing recruiting, or for causing insubordination, disloyalty, or mutiny in the U.S. armed forces. The act also empowered the Postmaster General to exclude from the mail issues of newspapers and periodicals that he felt were subversive.
Under the Sedition Act it became illegal to:
- make false reports, or false statements … with the intent to obstruct the sale by the United States of bonds
- utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States, or the Constitution … or the military or naval forces … or the flag … or the uniform of the Army or Navy … or any language intended to bring the form of government … or the Constitution … or the military or naval forces … or the flag … into contempt, scorn, contumely, or disrepute
- willfully display the flag of a foreign enemy
- urge, incite, or advocate any curtailment of production in this country of any thing or things … necessary or essential to the prosecution of the war. The original 1917 Act amended existing espionage law; the Sedition Act established new law that, nevertheless, had precedent within American history.
The Alien and Sedition Acts
From 1798 to 1800, the United States and France were involved in an undeclared war now known as the Quasi-War. The conflict grew out of America’s increasingly close ties with Britain — the enemy of both France and Ireland. Americans began to view with suspicion the many French and Irish immigrants in their midst; politicians began to worry about civil unrest and dissent. And so, “loyalty legislation” was pushed through Congress in 1798. The Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four laws. The most explosive one was officially entitled “An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes against the United States,” or, unofficially, the Sedition Act. It provided fines and jail terms for anyone who “shall write, print, utter or publish … false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress … or the President … with intent to defame … or to bring them … into contempt or disrepute; or to excite against them … the hatred of the good people of the United States….”
The Acts had been championed by the Federalists who dominated Congress. That faction favored a strong federal government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. Their key political rivals were the Republicans, including Vice President Thomas Jefferson. The Republicans denounced the Acts as unconstitutional and the new powers granted to President John Adams as monarchical. In Kentucky and Virginia, the legislatures passed resolutions rejecting the measures.
For openly resisting what Federalists called “genuine liberty,” several Republicans were arrested under the Sedition Act. Publishers and editors were targeted especially. For example, Congressman Matthew Lyon of Vermont, who edited a Republican newspaper, was fined $1,000 and sentenced to four months for the crime of stating that President Adams was “swallowed up in a continual grasp for power.” When Benjamin Franklin’s grandson, who edited the Philadelphia Aurora, was charged with libeling Adams, his arrest caused a public backlash that helped Jefferson win the presidency in 1800. Once installed, Jefferson pardoned those who had been convicted under the Sedition Act, and Congress repaid the collected fines with interest.More than a century later, therefore, Woodrow Wilson had historical precedent both for the law and for the political costs that he might expect.
Casualties of the Espionage Act of 1917
Wilson was determined to “protect” America against itself; that is, against “wrong’” ideas and from those who would spread them. He referred to the dissemination of wrong ideas as “the insidious methods of internal hostile activities.” Attorney General Thomas Gregory called it “warfare by propaganda.”
What constituted propaganda varied but it shared a common theme: namely, opposition to the wartime government. Virtually every form of resistance to or criticism of the government became a potential felony. In a 1988 analysis, the conservative sociologist Robert Nisbet commented, [when] “America was introduced to the War State in 1917, it was introduced also to what would later be known as the total, or totalitarian, state.”
An officially sanctioned patriotic hysteria swept America. Legislatures outlawed teaching German or publicly playing “German music,” such as Wagner or Beethoven. German books were removed from public libraries. German-sounding streets were renamed, and sauerkraut became “liberty cabbage.” The Red Cross barred those with German last names from joining it. German immigrants or their descendants were viciously attacked and their attackers suffered no consequences. In Minnesota, a minister was tarred and feathered for praying in German with a dying woman.After the Bolshevik (Red) Revolution shook global politics to its roots, socialists became special targets, with men being beaten in the streets for no more than wearing a red tie or refusing to buy a war bond.
The law imposed an official censorship as well. The government seized a film entitled The Spirit of ’76 because it depicted cruelty committed against the colonists by the British, America’s wartime ally; the producer received a 10-year prison sentence. A federal court upheld the seizure; the sentence was commuted to three years upon appeal. The poet E.E. Cummings, who spoke openly of refusing to hate the Germans, spent three and half months in military detention. Also arrested was novelist William Slater Brown, who had served with Cummings in an Ambulance Corps in France, who explained, “C. and I knew all about the violent mutinies in the French Army a few months before Cummings and I reached the front…. The French did everything, naturally, to suppress the news.”
The sheer number and scope of imprisonments make the telling difficult. One segment of society epitomizes the repression, however: the anti-war movement. Anti-war voices were particularly vulnerable because so many came from socialist or labor-reform ranks. Perhaps the most prominent imprisonment was the 10-year sentence of the socialist leader and former presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs for the crime of criticizing the Espionage Act as unconstitutional.
Notoriously, six members of a New York Jewish anarchist group were also arrested for criticizing the government; for example, a pamphlet denounced the invasion of Russia in the wake of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty. One member died of a police beating. Three others received 20-year sentences. The one woman arrested, Mollie Steimer, was sentenced to 15 years. (The sixth member had been arrested by mistake and, so, was released.)
A backlash began to coalesce, including prominent voices such as pacifist Norman Thomas, birth-control activist Margaret Sanger, feminist Alice Stone Blackwell, muckraking journalist Lincoln Steffens, and Roger Baldwin, a founder of the American Civil Liberties Union. Indeed, the ACLU itself sprang from the National Civil Liberties Bureau, formed in 1917 to provide legal assistance to those prosecuted under the Espionage Acts.
The League for Amnesty of Political Prisoners issued a leaflet entitled “Is Opinion a Crime?” The question was a response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s 7-2 decision in Abrams v. United States (1919). Abrams rested on whether political speech was protected by the First Amendment or whether it was a crime under the Espionage Act. The Supreme Court answered, “It is a crime.” In a famous dissenting opinion, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes clarified his “clear and present danger test” for free speech, “Only the emergency that makes it immediately dangerous to leave the correction of evil counsels … warrants making any exception to the sweeping command, ‘Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech.’” (Several other important U.S. Supreme Court decisions affirmed aspects of the Espionage Act.)
Meanwhile, the arrest of hundreds of conscientious objectors occurred, including women. For example, Rose Pastor Stokes was sentenced to 10 years for stating in a letter to the Kansas City Star that “no government which is for the profiteers can also be for the people, and I am for the people while the government is for the profiteers.”
The labor-reform movement was heavily targeted for at least four reasons: it was largely socialist; it contained many foreigners; it engaged in the disruption of production through strikes; it was anti-war because it viewed the German people as “fellow-workers” of the world, not enemy combatants.
Across America, the meeting halls of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) were raided simultaneously. In 1917, 165 prominent IWW members were arrested. In April 1918, 101 defendants went on trial, including IWW head Big Bill Haywood. After five months, all were found guilty, with Haywood and 14 others each receiving 20-year sentences. Collectively, the defendants were fined $2,500,000. From a membership of more than 100,000 in early 1917, the IWW was effectively destroyed.
The destruction of social movements, such as labor reform, was also accomplished through less official means, as an incident known as the Bisbee Deportation illustrates. In the mining town of Bisbee, Arizona, the IWW had recruited members among Mexican and European workers who routinely labored at lower-paying jobs than native-born Americans. In June of 1917, the IWW presented a list of demands to Bisbee’s mining companies, which were flatly turned down. A strike ensued. Hundreds of armed vigilantes rounded up nearly 1,200 men suspected of striking and forced them into cattle cars. The “deportees” were shipped to New Mexico and abandoned without shelter for weeks until U.S. troops escorted them to detention facilities. Thus, with government sanction, zealous citizens were free to kidnap, beat, and otherwise intimidate those who were considered un-American.
Even after World War I ended, ultra-patriotism led to the persecution of un-Americanism. This period became known as the Red Scare (1919–1920) and reached its zenith with the Palmer Raids. Under the supervision of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and his special assistant J. Edgar Hoover, a vicious campaign was launched against radicals and included the deportation of dissident immigrants; even American citizenship did not protect against deportation, as Emma Goldman discovered.
The fever of war eventually faded, however. A change of Department of Labor personnel indicated the flagging enthusiasm. The new acting secretary of Labor, Louis Freeland Post, was also responsible for the Bureau of Immigration and canceled more than 2,000 of Palmer’s arrest warrants as illegal, an act that President Wilson defended.
In 1920, most of those sentenced during the Red Scare were freed. Debs himself was released in 1921 by Warren Harding. In 1921 the Sedition Act was also repealed, although other provisions of the Espionage Act remained intact.
The Espionage Act today
Through World War II to the present day, the Espionage Act has been both amended and consistently invoked to quash political dissent and discussion.
In June 1971, at the peak of the Vietnam War, military analyst Daniel Ellsberg and his colleague Anthony Russo were charged under the Espionage Act for publishing the classified documents that came to be known as the Pentagon Papers. The New York Times was threatened under the Act for having published the documents. In the end, Ellsberg and Russo were freed owing to irregularity in the government’s case, which led to the declaration of a mistrial.
Almost 40 years later, the Espionage Act once again hangs over the New York Times and another whistle-blower, Julian Assange.
It is difficult to predict who, if anyone, will be charged under the Espionage Act of 1917 … or when. A political hysteria and repression akin to the one that produced the Act seems to be currently gripping America. Prominent political voices have gone so far as to argue for extra-judicial execution of Assange. For example, the former governor of Alaska, Sarah Palin, accused Assange of a “treasonous” act, saying America should “use all necessary means” to hunt him down like an al-Qaeda terrorist.
The Espionage Act is notoriously broad. Moreover, an executive order is currently being drafted to establish indefinite detention without charges or trial for those the White House designates; the White House alone would control any review process. The political atmosphere may well allow for an expansion of the Espionage Act sufficient to cover Assange by stretching it to explicitly include anyone who publishes, circulates, or discusses already leaked information.
Indeed, stretching the Espionage Act seems to be the purpose of the Shield Act, recently introduced into Congress to facilitate prosecution of those who publish “cryptographic systems and communications intelligence.” It amends the Espionage Act with wording that reads,
Whoever knowingly and willfully communicates, furnishes, transmits, or otherwise makes available to an unauthorized person, or publishes, or uses in any manner prejudicial to the safety or interest of the United States or for the benefit of any foreign government or trans- national threat to the detriment of the United States any classified information … concerning the human intelligence activities of the United States or any foreign government [or] concerning the identity of a classified source or informant of an element of the intelligence community of the United States … [s]hall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both. [Emphasis added.]
Since leaking classified information is already a crime, the amendment appears to specifically target those who publish or report on such information.
Benjamin Wittes, a senior fellow at The Brookings Institution, explains, “A lot of good journalism would be a crime under this provision; after all, knowingly and willfully publishing material ‘concerning the human intelligence activities of the United States or any foreign government’ is no small part of what a good newspaper does.”
Why should the average American care about an expansion of the Espionage Act? The liberal feminist Naomi Wolf clarifies: “Let me explain clearly why activating — rather than abolishing — the Espionage Act is an act of profound aggression against the American people. We are all Julian Assange.”
If publishers and journalists can be punished for unpatriotic discussion, then no one’s speech is protected by the First Amendment or other legal “niceties,” such as due process. The history of the Espionage Act (and the Alien and Sedition Acts before it) indicates how quickly political opponents, dissidents, or even those with the “wrong” ethnic background become targets for repression. Any person who so much as discusses a leak of classified information could be arrested under the Shield Act on the ground that he is endangering national security.
When the original Act was introduced in 1917, Sen. Kenneth McKellar of Tennessee declared, “If we cannot reason with men to be loyal, it is high time we forced them to be loyal.”
The Espionage and Shield acts amount to the American government’s renunciation of reason and an official declaration of hostility toward its own citizenry.
This article originally appeared in the April 2011 edition of Freedom Daily. Subscribe to the print or email version of Freedom Daily.
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Organization of American States
(OAS, or, as it is known in the three other
official languages, OEA) is an international organization,
headquartered in Washington,
Its members are the thirty-five independent
states of the Americas
with two countries
suspended. Honduras recently
withdrew from the organization; Cuba was suspended until
The notion of closer hemispheric union in the Americas was first
put forward by Simón Bolívar
who, at the 1826 Congress of
, proposed creating a league of American republics, with
a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational
parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives
of Gran Colombia (comprising the
modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and
Venezuela), Peru, the
United Provinces of
Central America, and Mexico, but the
grandly titled "Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual
Confederation" was ultimately only ratified by Gran
Bolívar's dream soon floundered with civil war in
Gran Colombia, the disintegration of Central America, and the
emergence of national
continental outlooks in the newly independent American republics.
Bolívar's dream of American unity was meant to unify Latin American
nations against imperial domination by external power.
The pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to
the forefront in 1889–90, at the First International
Conference of American States
. Gathered together in Washington,
D.C., 18 nations resolved to found the International Union of
American Republics, served by a permanent secretariat called the
Commercial Bureau of the American Republics (renamed the
"International Commercial Bureau" at the Second International
Conference in 1901–02). These two bodies, in existence as of 14
April 1890, represent the point of inception to which today's OAS
and its General Secretariat trace their origins.
Conference of American States (Buenos Aires, 1910), the name of the organization was changed to
the "Union of American Republics" and the Bureau became the "Pan
Pan American Union headquarters
building in Washington, D.C., 1943
The experience of World War II
convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not
ensure the territorial integrity of the American nations in the
event of extra-continental aggression. To meet the challenges
of global conflict in the postwar world and to contain conflicts
within the hemisphere, they adopted a system of collective security, the Inter-American
Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed in 1947 in
Conference of American States was held in Bogotá between March and May 1948 and led by United States Secretary of
State George Marshall, a meeting
which led to a pledge by members to fight communism in
This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as
it stands today, with the signature by 21 American countries of the
of the Organization of American States
on 30 April 1948 (in
effect since December 1951). The meeting also adopted the American
Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
, the world's first
general human rights instrument.
The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS was smooth. The
Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo
, became the
Organization's first Secretary
. The current Secretary General is former Chilean
foreign minister José Miguel
Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing
of the Charter have included the following:
Goals and purpose
In the words of Article 1 of the Charter, the goal of the member
nations in creating the OAS was "to achieve an order of peace and
justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their
collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial
integrity, and their independence." Article 2 then defines eight
- To strengthen the peace and security of the continent.
- To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due
respect for the principle of nonintervention.
- To prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the
pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member
- To provide for common action on the part of those states in the
event of aggression.
- To seek the solution of political, judicial, and economic
problems that may arise among them
- To promote, by cooperative action, their economic, social, and
- To eradicate extreme poverty, which constitutes an obstacle to
the full democratic development of the peoples of the
- To achieve an effective limitation of conventional weapons that
will make it possible to devote the largest amount of resources to
the economic and social development of the member states.
Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War
, the return to democracy in Latin America
, and the thrust toward globalization
, the OAS made major efforts to
reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now
include the following:
- Strengthening democracy: Between 1962 and 2002, the
Organization sent multinational observation missions to oversee
free and fair elections in the member states on more than 100
occasions. The OAS also works to strengthen national and local
government and electoral agencies, to promote democratic practices
and values, and to help countries detect and defuse official
- Working for peace: Special OAS missions have
supported peace processes in Nicaragua, Suriname, Haiti, and
Guatemala. The Organization has played a leading part
in the removal of landmines deployed in the Americas and it has led
negotiations to resolve the continent's remaining border disputes
(Guatemala/Belize; Peru/Ecuador). Work is also underway on the
construction of a common inter-American counter-terrorism
- Defending human rights: The agencies of the inter-American
human rights system provide a venue for the denunciation and
resolution of human rights violations in individual cases. They
also monitor and report on the general human rights situation in
the member states.
- Fostering free trade: The OAS is one of the
three agencies currently engaged in drafting a treaty that will
establish a hemispheric
free trade area from Alaska to Tierra del
- Fighting the drugs trade: The Inter-American Drug
Abuse Control Commission was established in 1986 to coordinate
efforts and crossborder cooperation in this area.
- Promoting sustainable development: The goal of the OAS's
Council for Integral Development is to promote economic
development and combating poverty. OAS technical cooperation
programs address such areas as river basin management, the
conservation of biodiversity, preservation of cultural diversity,
planning for global climate change, sustainable tourism, and
natural disaster mitigation.
Article 19 of the OAS Charter prohibits any State from interfering
with the internal or external affairs of a member state. Article 21
prohibits any State from the military occupation—even
temporarily—of a Member State's territory. The Charter subscribes
to international law but goes further, saying that Charter rights
depend not on power but follow from the existence of the state. The
United States is signatory to the OAS Charter, meaning that the
U.S. (like other Members) is legally bound by Article 19, 21, and
other Charter provisions. [See Membership].
The OAS is composed of a Permanent Council, and a number of
committees, including: General Secretariat; Secretariat on
Juridical and Political Affairs; Executive
Secretariat for Integral Development
; Secretariat on
Administrative and Budgetary Affairs; Secretariat on Hemispheric
Security; Secretariat on Inter-American Summits Management; as well
as Civil Society Participation in OAS Activities.
Assembly of the Organization of American States OAS will be
held the week following a 7.3 Mw 2009
- Thirty-ninth regular session: San Pedro Sula, Honduras, June
- Thirty-eight regular session: Medellín, Colombia, June
- Thirty-seventh regular session: Panama City, Republic of
Panama, June 2007.
- Thirty-sixth regular session: Santo Domingo, Dominican
Republic, June 2006.
- Thirty-fifth regular session: Fort Lauderdale, United States,
- Thirty-fourth regular session: Quito, Ecuador, June 2004.
- Thirty-third regular session: Santiago, Chile, June 2003.
- Thirty-second regular session: Bridgetown, Barbados, June
- Thirty-first regular session: San José, Costa Rica, June
- Thirtieth regular session: Windsor, Canada, June 2000.
- Twenty-ninth regular session: Guatemala City, Guatemala, June
- Twenty-eight regular session: Caracas, Venezuela, June
- Twenty-seventh regular session: Lima, Peru, June 1997.
- Twenty-sixth regular session: Panama City, Republic of Panama,
- Twenty-fifth regular session: Montrouis, Haiti, June 1995.
- Twenty-fourth regular session: Belém do Pará, Brazil, June
- Twenty-third regular session: Managua, Nicaragua, June
- Twenty-second regular session: Nassau, The Bahamas, May
- Twenty-first regular session: Santiago, Chile, June 1991.
- Twentieth regular session: Asunción, Paraguay, June 1990.
- Nineteenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States,
- Eighteenth regular session: San Salvador, El Salvador, November
- Seventeenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States,
- Sixteenth regular session: Guatemala City, Guatemala, November
- Fifteenth regular session: Cartagena de Indias, Colombia,
- Fourteenth regular session: Brasília, Brazil, November
- Thirteenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States,
- Twelfth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States,
- Eleventh regular session: Castries, Saint Lucia, December
- Tenth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States,
- Ninth regular session: La Paz, Bolivia, October 1979.
- Eighth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States,
- Seventh regular session: St. George's, Grenada, June 1977.
- Sixth regular session: Santiago, Chile, June 1976.
- Fifth regular session: Washington, D.C., United States, May
- Fourth regular session: Atlanta, United States, April/May
- Third regular session: Washington, D.C., United States, April
- Second regular session: Washington, D.C., United States, April
- First regular session: San José, Costa Rica, April 1971.
Membership and adhesions
All 35 independent nations of the Americas are members of the OAS.
Upon foundation on 5 May 1948 there were 21 members:
expansion of the OAS included the newly independent nations of the
Caribbean (most of whom gained independence only after World War II) and Canada.
Members with later admission dates (sorted chronologically):
- (member since 1967)
Canada and the OAS
independence in its foreign policy from the United
Kingdom in 1931, it chose not to join the OAS when it was
first formed, despite its close relations with the United
Canada became a Permanent Observer in the OAS on
February 2nd 1972. Canada signed the Charter of the Organization of
American States on 13 November 1989, and this decision was ratifed
on 8 January 1990.
In 2004–2005, Canada was the second largest contributor to the OAS,
with an annual assessed contribution representing 12.36% of the OAS
Regular Budget (US$9.2 million) and an additional C$9 million in
voluntary contributions to specific projects. Shortly after joining
as a full member, Canada was instrumental in the creation of the
Unit for the Promotion of Democracy, which provides support for the
strengthening and consolidation of democratic processes and
institutions in OAS member states.
Status of Cuba
current government of Cuba was excluded from participation in the
Organization under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of
Consultation in Punta del
Este, Uruguay, on 31 January 1962.
The vote was passed by
14 in favor, with one against (Cuba) and six abstentions
(Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico). The
operative part of the resolution reads as follows:
This meant that the Cuban nation was still technically a member
state, but that the current government was denied the right of
representation and attendance at meetings and of participation in
activities. The OAS's position was that although Cuba's
participation was suspended, its obligations under the Charter, the
Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
, etc. still hold:
for instance, the Inter-American
Commission on Human Rights
continued to publish reports on
Cuba's human rights situation and to hear individual cases
involving Cuban nationals. However, this stance was occasionally
questioned by other individual member states.
Cuba's position was stated in an official note sent to the
Organization "merely as a courtesy" by Minister of Foreign Affairs
Dr. Raúl Roa
on 4 November 1964: "Cuba
was arbitrarily excluded... The Organization of American States has
no juridical, factual, or moral jurisdiction, nor competence, over
a state which it has illegally deprived of its rights."
The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member regularly arose as
a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by
the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) but most observers did
not see it as a serious possibility while the present government
remained in power. Since 1960, the Cuban administration had
repeatedly characterized the OAS as the "Ministry of Colonies" of
the United States of America. On 6 May 2005, president Fidel Castro
reiterated that the island nation would not "be part of a
disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin
American nations". After Fidel Castro's recent retirement and the
ascent of his brother Raúl
power, this official position was reasserted. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez
promised to veto any final
declaration of the 2009 Summit of
due to Cuba's exclusion.
On 17 April 2009, after a trading of warm words between the
administrations of US President Barack Obama and Cuban leader Raúl
Castro, OAS Secretary General José Miguel Insulza
said he would
ask the 2009 General Assembly to annul the 1962 resolution
On 3 June
2009, foreign ministers assembled in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, for the OAS's 39th General
Assembly, passed a vote to lift Cuba's suspension from the
The United States had been pressuring the OAS for weeks
to condition Cuba's readmission to the hemispheric group on
democratic principles and commitment to human rights. Ecuador's
Foreign Minister Fander Falconí
said there will be no such conditions. "This is a new proposal, it
has no conditions – of any kind," Falconí said. "That suspension
was made in the Cold War
, in the language
of the Cold War. What we have done here is fix a historic error."
At the end of the General Assembly the suspension was lifted but in
order to readmit Cuba to the Organization, this state has to comply
with all the treaties signed by the Member States including the
Inter-American Democratic Charter of 2001.
Suspension of Honduras
Those attending the Extraordinary
Assembly of the OAS voted to suspend Honduras.
Honduras was suspended unanimously in the midnight of 4–5 July
2009, following the 28 June expulsion
President Manuel Zelaya
. The de
government had already announced it was leaving the OAS
hours earlier; however, this was not taken into account by the OAS,
which does not recognize that government as legitimate.
extraordinary meeting had been conducted by the OAS in Washington,
D.C., with Zelaya in attendance.
of Honduras was approved unanimously with 33 votes—Honduras did not
vote. This was the first suspension carried out by the OAS since
Cuba's in 1962.
As of 2009, there are 63 permanent observer countries, including
the European Union
The Organization's official
, and French
, the national languages of the
majority of its member nations. The Charter, the basic instrument
governing OAS, makes no reference to the use of official languages.
These references are to be found in the Rules of Procedure
governing the various OAS bodies. Article 51 of the Rules of
Procedure of the General Assembly, the supreme body of the OAS,
which meets once a year, states that English, French, Portuguese
and Spanish are the four official languages. Article 28 stipulates
that a Style Committee shall be set up with representatives of the
four official languages to review the General Assembly resolutions
and declarations. Article 53 states that proposals shall be
presented in the four official languages. The Rules of Procedure
and Statutes of other bodies, such as the Inter-American
Council for Integral Development
(CIDI), the Permanent
Executive Committee of the Inter-American
Council for Integral Development
(CEPCIDI), the Inter-American Commission of
(CIM), the Inter-American Drug
Abuse Control Commission
(CICAD), the Inter-American
Commission on Human Rights
(IACHR) and the Inter-American Juridical
(CJI), technical bodies of the OAS, also mention the
four official languages in which their meetings are to be
conducted. Policy is therefore dictated through these instruments
that require use of the four official languages at meetings.
Although a number of other languages have official status in one or
more member states of OAS (Dutch
Suriname; Haitian Creole
in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia;
in Paraguay), they are
not official languages of the Organization.
- Coordinates of OAS headquarters:
- Suspended between 1962–2009. Has chosen not to reapply for
- Suspended in 2009.
- Canada and the Organization of American States,
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada (DFAIT), 2005.
- Canada and the Organization of American States
by Dr. Ludwil J. Kos-Rabcewicz-Zubkowski, Air University Review,
- Canada and the OAS: A Vigorous Partnership,
Canada World View, Issue 8, Summer 2000.
- Organization of American States.
- Department of International Affairs
- General Assembly of the OAS, Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General
Assembly, 5 June 2000
- Marguerite Groves (Coordinator, Division of Language Services,
OAS), Information on the use of language at the OAS:
multilingualism, Inter-American Languages Management
supérieur de la langue française (Quebec), Quebec City, 20 to 22 August 2002
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Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) networks contain computers and software that perform critical tasks and provide essential services within critical infrastructure. They’re considered by cyber strategists to be the backbone of any country. Critical infrastructure, and in particular control systems, require protection from a variety of cyber threats that could compromise their ordinary operation.
These systems are used to monitor the key parameters of production processes and to operate their control to ensure the proper provisioning of critical services.
Originally, these systems were designed in an environment with the sole intent to monitor processes without considering the security requirements and the needs to protect them from external threats. These systems have a life cycle of decades. Many of those critical components that operate today do so in a context that’s completely different from the one they have been designed for. They’re exposed on Internet with obvious security risks.
As a result, almost every SCADA performs well. They’re reliable and flexible, but often lack security. The impairment of SCADA networks could cause interruption of critical services, process redirection, or manipulation of operational data that could have serious consequences for the population.
What are the best practices to implement to improve the security of SCADAs? What actions need to be taken to secure legacy systems? This article will provide a few suggestions to improve the security of SCADAs.
After recent events, many security firms have started designing solutions to address security problems of SCADA systems. But the major challenge for governments is the inclusion of protection for these critical components in their cyber strategies. Several audits executed by governments on their critical infrastructures have illustrated a dangerous scenario. They demonstrate the lack of security mechanisms for the many systems located all over the world. But what is really concerning is the absence of a precise census of SCADA systems for many industrialized countries.
Events such as the Stuxnet virus and last year’s alleged incident of the water facility in Illinois have shown to the world that it’s possible to conduct terrorist attacks on foreign states remotely. This has increased awareness of cyber threats, and the need to implement proper countermeasures to mitigate risk.
With defense mechanisms virtually absent, SCADA system components are often under the government of local authorities who don’t deal with adequately trained personnel who operate with limited budgets. This means that these kinds of control devices are installed everywhere without being qualified in the installation phase. There are many systems deployed with factory settings, pre-set standard configurations, and they’re common to entire classes of devices. Even those who maintain that they shouldn’t exceed security, thus making it accessible for remote diagnostics without necessary attention.
Fortunately, something changed. Precise guidelines identify the best practices to follow in the management of SCADA systems, and operations groups monitor the operation of facilities around the country.
The last “INTERNET SECURITY THREAT REPORT” published by Symantec reports that in 2012, there were eighty-five public SCADA vulnerabilities, a massive decrease over the 129 vulnerabilities in 2011. Since the emergence of the Stuxnet worm in 2010, SCADA systems have attracted more attention from security researchers.
In a SCADA system, the programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are directly connected to infield sensors that provide data to control critical components (e.g. Centrifugal or turbines). Often the default passwords are hard-coded into Ethernet cards the systems use. Those cards funnel commands into devices, allowing administrators to remotely log into the machinery.
Hard-coded passwords are a common weakness built into many industrial control systems, including some S7 series of PLCs from Siemens. Because the systems control the machinery connected to dams, gasoline refineries, and water treatment plants, unauthorized access is considered a national security threat. They could be used to sabotage operation.
Doing a search on the Shodan server search engine, you can find what appear to be working links to several vulnerable Schneider models. It’s very worrying, and reveals the need for radical change. Fortunately, the emergency has been noticed by most countries. The ENISA (European Network Information Security Agency), has produced recommendations for Europe and member states on how to protect Industrial Control Systems. The document describes the current state of Industrial Control System security and proposes seven recommendations for improvement. The recommendations call for the creation of national and pan-European ICS security strategies, the development of a Good Practices Guide on the ICS security. They would foster awareness and education, as well as research activities or the establishment of a common test bed and ICS-computer emergency response capabilities.
Immediately after the Stuxnet virus, governments and intelligence agencies all over the world requested assessment of security for critical infrastructure of their countries. Much of the focus was on evaluating efficiency offered by defensive measures adopted to protect SCADAs and ICSes from cyber attacks.
After Stuxnet, debate on the use of software and malicious applications of information warfare have increased. Governments are investing to improve cyber capabilities working on both the defensive and the offensive side. Despite greater awareness of cyber threats, critical infrastructures of countries are still too vulnerable. Many security experts are convinced that an imminent incident caused by a cyber attack is likely soon.
Just a few days ago, Eugene Kaspersky, CEO of Kasperky Security, revealed that a staffer at the unnamed nuclear Russian plant informed him of an infection.
“The staffer said their nuclear plant network which was disconnected from the internet … was badly infected by Stuxnet. So unfortunately these people who were responsible for offensive technologies, they recognize cyber weapons as an opportunity.”
Stuxnet had infected the internal network of a Russian nuclear plant, exactly in the same way it compromised the control system in Iranian nuclear facilities in Natanz. That’s happening despite cyber threats being well known, and various security solutions are able to neutralize it.
Stuxnet infected the network within a Russian nuclear plant isolated from the Internet. Attackers probably used as USB or mobile devices to spread the malware. Russian Intelligence agencies in the past have already observed this infection mode to cross a physically separated ‘air-gapped’ network. For example, Russian astronauts had carried a virus on removable media to the International Space Station infecting machines there, according to Kaspersky.
“NASA has confirmed that laptops carried to the ISS in July were infected with a virus known as Gammima.AG. The worm was first detected on Earth in August 2007 and lurks on infected machines waiting to steal login names for popular online games. Nasa said it was not the first time computer viruses had travelled into space and it was investigating how the machines were infected. ”
I mentioned the Stuxnet malware because it’s considered a case study. The malicious agent is so notorious, it’s still able to compromise networks and control systems within critical infrastructure. Let’s try to figure out the effect of unknown cyber threats, developed by governments as cyber weapons, for example. In this article, I’ll analyze major security issues related to SCADA systems, and best practices to follow to protect them.
Figure – Russian Nuclear Plant
According to the last “SANS SCADA and Process Control Security Survey” conducted by the SANS Institute, the awareness of cyber threats and the perception of the risks related to a cyber attacks are high. Nearly 70% of respondents believe the threat to be high (53%) to severe (16%). Recent reports from Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERT), government offices, and private companies confirm an escalating risk of cybersecurity events, specifically for the energy sector.
The survey indicates that the top threats for control systems are advanced zero-day malware such as Stuxnet, cyber operations conducted by groups of hacktivists, and hacking campaigns of cyber terrorists and state-sponsored hackers.
Recently, US CERT alerted to the continuous spear-phishing campaign that targeted the energy sector to gain remote access to control systems. SCADA system protection must be approached at different levels, defending control systems and educating operational and maintenance personnel.
“Training should include specific operational topics on spear-phishing, zero-day activities and managing internal threats.”
Figure – Top Threat Vectors SANS Institute Survey
SCADA network security
SCADAs are composed of the following subsystems:
- The supervisory system, responsible for data acquisition and for control activities in the process.
- Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), the final actuators used to as field devices.
- A human–machine interface or HMI is the component responsible for data presentation to a human operator, typically it composed of a console that make possible the monitor and the control of the process.
- Remote terminal units (RTUs) are microprocessor-controlled electronic devices that interface the sensors to the SCADA by transmitting telemetry data.
- Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the remote terminal units.
- Various process and analytical instrumentation
Figure – Overview of a Generic ICS
Attackers could target each of the above components to compromise a controlled process. For example, any supervisory system is usually a computer based on a commercial OS for which it’s possible to exploit known vulnerabilities or zero-day vulnerabilities. SCADA systems could be infected exploiting attack vectors via mobile support (e.g. USB sticks) or the network connections.
Establishing and following a risk management framework is the most cost-effective approach to securing critical cyber assets. The NERC Cyber Security Standards sequentially leads each Responsible Entity through the following process:
- Identifying risks
- Implementing controls, mitigating risks
- Maintaining acceptable risk levels through evaluation and monitoring
Figure – Cyber Security Lifecycle
Identification and Monitoring of connection to SCADA networks
To protect SCADAs, it’s essential to identify each connection to the SCADA network, evaluating the risk of exposure to attacks and implementing all necessary countermeasures to mitigate them.
It could be useful to enumerate the overall connections, the end points of communication (e.g. system management, business partners, vendors), authentication mechanisms implemented, protocols adopted, the function served with the connection (e.g. Telemetry), adoption of encryption mechanisms, the type of communications ( e.g. Ethernet, Wireless network) and the defense systems deployed to defend them.
Any connection to another network introduces security risks, especially for Internet connections. To improve security, it’s necessary in many cases to isolate the SCADA network from other network connections.
Use of “demilitarized zones” (DMZs) and data warehousing can facilitate the secure transfer of data from the SCADA network to business networks.
VA Network Connectivity Assessment must be conducted starting by mapping of all networked assets and the digital communication links that connect them. Detailed network maps are essential to identify mission critical assets, and the electronic links that may threaten their reliable operation.
Network connectivity audit results are a collection of written documentation that uniquely, clearly and accurately records all information about every networked asset. They contain the following components.
- Unique identifier (serial number or assigned tag number)
- Description of functionality
- Physical location
- Physical security mechanisms protecting the device (fences, locked cabinets, etc.)
- Network connections to/from the device
- Network addresses (MAC, IP, SCADA, etc.) assigned to the device
- All other available physical interfaces
Another important thing to consider is to carefully configure network appliances by avoiding the use of default configurations easily exploitable by attackers. Commissioning penetration testing and vulnerability assessments to third parties could provide an objective analysis of the level of security of a SCADA network.
It’s important to adopt firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDSs), and all the necessary defense systems at each point of entry. Organization management must understand and accept responsibility for the risks associated with any connection to the SCADA network.
Real-time threat protection
Recent attacks conducted against critical infrastructure are characterized by increased sophistication. A growing number of offensives could not be rejected simply with a proper patch management of the internal systems or maintaining access and service control. The trend is to implement a real-time threat protection, including network intrusion-prevention.
Real time protection could be implemented through a layered approach. Each layer of defense represents categories of system components that must be hardened.
- Perimeter Control
a. Internet or Corporate Perimeter Defense
- Employees, Policies, Procedures
a. Business contingency, Disaster Recovery
- Network Architecture
a. Firewalls, Routers, Switches, VPNs
- Network Operating Systems
a. Active Directory, Domain Security, etc.
- Host Security
a. Server and Workstation Operating Systems
Figure – SCADA Security Services Overview
Hardening of the SCADA environment – Protocol and services
Every SCADA system is based on commercial or open-source operating systems that can be attacked exactly in the same way as any other platform. It’s crucial to assess all the services exposed, and the protocol adopted by removing and disabling unused services, and network daemons to reduce the surface of attack.
Every interconnection with other networks must be carefully analyzed, a risk assessment must include the analysis of possible impairment for exposed services. The system must be properly patched with updates provided by application providers to avoid the exploitation by hackers of known vulnerabilities.
In a service assessment the following services have to be carefully evaluated:
- Internet access
- Remote Assistance
- Email services
- Meter reading
- Remote billing systems
- FTP access
Numerous secure configuration guidelines for both commercial and open source operating systems are freely available online. They include documentation produced by the National Security Agency.
Another common approach to secure SCADA systems is the design and adoption of proprietary protocols for communications between control servers and field devices (e.g. Sensors, actuators). Unfortunately, secret communication protocols don’t provide a great improvement in overall security. According to security experts, open protocols are more reliable and efficient, thanks to the support provided by numerous research environments that operate in the sector.
Security features and controls
An important aspect to manage during the life cycle of a SCADA system is the implementation of all security features proposed by SCADA vendors, in the form of updates or product patches.
Personnel in charge of SCADA maintenance and installation must be aware of the features enabled for their systems, and must be able to properly configure them. In many cases, it has been observed that newer SCADAs are deployed with basic security features, disabling security settings to ensure ease of installation, and to to provide maximum usability.
SCADA providers must be aware of the necessity of security features are mandatory to provide the maximum level of security and robustness of systems. Also, in these cases it’s suggested that careful risk assessment of the consequences of reducing all the security features is needed.
Authentication and medium control
Investigation of past SCADA incidents demonstrated that mobile storage mediums are the main vectors used to infect control systems, despite that host networks are isolated from the Internet. Establishing strong controls on every medium used could prevent serious incidents and help to identify cyber threats in time.
Strong authentication must be implemented to ensure secure communication, and to allow personnel to access main functionalities provided by systems. The administration console for any network appliance must be protected. Wireless and wired connections to the SCADA network and remote sites must be properly defended. For example, in the effect of a successful “war dialing” or “war driving” attack, all radio and microwave links that are potentially exploitable must be secure.
It’s necessary to identify and assess any source of information, including remote computer networks, phone lines, and fiber optic cables that could be tapped. For critical functions and the access to essential services, it’s necessary to introduce outbound access mechanisms to commit requested operation.
To integrate the security of SCADAs, it’s necessary to implement internal and external intrusion detection systems. The measure is necessary to mitigate cyber threats. It’s desirable that malicious activities are quickly identified, and the proper response is applied to mitigate them. Incident response procedures must be in place, with knowledge shared with all personnel.
Another fundamental function is the auditing of system logs that must run on a daily basis to identify suspicious activities. The analysis could be supported by automated systems that are able to recognize patterns related to anomalous activities. The technical auditing of SCADA networks and devices are essential and it’s possible to find numerous commercial open-source security frameworks to conduct audits of SCADA architectures.
Last year, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), a federal contractor to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), in collaboration with McAfee have published an interesting report entitled “Technology Security Assessment for Capabilities and Applicability in Energy Sector Industrial Control Systems: McAfee Application Control, Change Control, Integrity Control.”
The report provides an excellent picture of the current status of critical infrastructures, and the effort spent to identify and fix vulnerabilities. In particular, it analyzes the value and effectiveness of carefully integrated security solutions. They’re necessary to support the national security mission to secure industrial control system environments.
This statement by Philip A. Craig Jr, Senior Cyber Security Research Scientist, a researcher within the National Security Directorate at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is very meaningful:
“When early critical infrastructure systems were created, neither security nor misuse of the interconnected network was considered”
“Today, we are still focused on enhancing the security of control systems. Outdated security methods that use a maze of disparate, multi-vendor, and stacked security tools will only delay a cyber attack, providing numerous opportunities for a more advanced and modern cyber adversary to attack cyber security postures throughout critical infrastructure.”
The document proposes a list of principal vulnerabilities that have been identified for control systems environments:
- Increased Exposure: Communication networks linking smart grid devices and systems will create many more access points to these devices, resulting in an increased exposure to potential attacks.
- Interconnectivity: Communication networks will be more interconnected, further exposing the system to possible failures and attacks.
- Complexity: The electric system will become significantly more complex as more subsystems are linked together.
- Common Computing Technologies: Smart grid systems will increase use common, commercially available computing technologies and will be subject to their weaknesses.
- Increased Automation: Communication networks will generate, gather, and use data in new and innovative ways as smart grid technologies will automate many functions. Improper use of this data presents new risks to national security and our economy.
We’ve spoken of the possible vulnerabilities of control systems without considering the principal reason of concern for critical infrastructures, cyber warfare. Today, cyber attacks have evolved into sophisticated and carefully designed cyber weapons created with specific offensive intents. Stuxnet, Duqu and Flame are good examples.
Dr. Phyllis Scheck, Vice President and Chief Technology Officer, Global Public Sector, McAfee said:
“Infrastructures that control systems affecting our everyday lives, such as smart grids, are rising in adoption yet still lack the proper security needed to prevent sophisticated cyber attacks, “
“Achieving security by design is essential in securing critical infrastructure. Cybersecurity must be embedded in the systems and networks at the very beginning of the design process so that it becomes an integral part of the systems functioning.”
What are the main solutions for preventing vulnerability exploitation?
After the discovery of government programs for the design of cyber weapons that are able to exploit vulnerabilities present in the control systems, many security firms and government experts have invested in projects for the defense of critical infrastructures. Today, there aren’t cyber strategies that consider the strategic importance of cyber defense. To give an idea of the possible solutions implemented for defensive and preventive purposes, the PNNL report cites:
- Dynamic Whitelisting –Provides the ability to deny unauthorized applications and code on servers, corporate desktops, and fixed-function devices.
- Memory Protection – Unauthorized execution is denied and vulnerabilities are blocked and reported.
- File Integrity Monitoring – Any file change, addition, deletion, renaming, attribute changes, ACL modification, and owner modification is reported. This includes network shares.
- Write Protection – Writing to hard disks are only authorized to the operating system, application configuration, and log files. All others are denied.
- Read Protection – Read are only authorized for specified files, directories, volumes and scripts. All others are denied.
The identification of SCADA vulnerabilities is part of system management. It’s important to implement proper countermeasures and take corrective actions as appropriate.
Security teams must be constantly updated on the bugs found for the specific model SCADAs, and must be aware of the availability of all necessary resources to exploit the flaws publicly available. I wrote about how easy it is for attackers to retrieve information on target SCADAs (e. g. Using Shodan search engine) and the malicious software to use for the attack.
Governments and private companies must be able to run simulations of attacks during exercises that have the intent of identifying potential attack scenarios and evaluating potential system vulnerabilities. The exercises must also consider the impact of accidental errors, and the effect of malicious insiders.
Physical security is another aspect that must be properly managed. All plants that host SCADA systems and networks must be assessed. SCADA systems are usually distributed over large distances in multiple locations with different physical security measures. Their protection must be carefully evaluated. It’s important to evaluate the overall infrastructure to identify weaknesses, evaluate defense measures to implement, and the expected benefits.
Best practices include the assessment of the physical security of remote environments that are directly connected to a SCADA.
“Any location that has a connection to the SCADA network is a target, especially unmanned or unguarded remote sites. Conduct a physical security survey and inventory access points at each facility that has a connection to the SCADA system.”
Establish proper physical security through the adoption of defensive measures like guards and gates to protect equipment from unauthorized access and sabotage. Every external connection to the perimeter of the facility has to be assessed. It’s suggested to use security products for perimeter protection that meet NIST FIPS standards.
Physical restrictions that could be applied to improve security to prevent incidents are:
- Restricted access to the site
- Restricted number of technicians responsible for maintenance
- No use of mobile support
- Segregated control network, no connection to other networks
- Each computer is locked in a restricted room or cabinet
Roles and responsibility – management
Management has a crucial role in security. Its primary task is to provide a strong commitment for the implementation of an efficient cyber strategy. That includes the assignment of cyber security roles, responsibilities, and authorities for personnel. Each employee needs to know their responsibilities to protect information and assets of SCADAs. Key personnel need to be given sufficient authority to carry out their assigned responsibilities. A detailed security policy must be in place that describes how management defines roles and responsibilities. Each employee must be informed of all procedures adopted to keep architecture secure.
The first goal of management is to define a structured security program with mandated requirements to reach expectations and provide personnel with formalized policies and procedures. Senior management must establish expectations for cyber security performance and hold individuals accountable for their performance.
Compliance with current security standards is necessary to provide a harmonious approach to cyber security. Policies and procedures need to be assigned to employees regarding specific security responsibilities. Guidance regarding actions to be taken in response to incidents and security policy must identify the critical systems within the SCADA network, their functions and classify the information they manage.
The security requirements must be identified within security policy to minimize cyber threats, including menaces from insiders. Personnel training is one of the most important responsibilities for management. Managers have to provide a strong commitment to organizing of training courses.
Training also helps to minimize the likelihood that organizational personnel will inadvertently disclose sensitive information regarding SCADA system design, operations, or security controls deployed.
Only the people involved explicitly need to have access to the above information. Personnel must be trained to recognize social engineering attacks made by hackers to gather sensitive information about a computer or computer network. Typically these attacks prelude more invasive and dangerous offensives. The more information revealed about internal configuration, the more vulnerable the network is. Keep secret data related to a SCADA network, including manufacturers, key people, computer operating systems and physical distributions of SCADA.
The responsibility of management is the definition of proper protection strategies, highlighting the risks related to cyber attackers and the necessary defense systems, for each component. The rapid and continuous evolution of cyber threats needs frequent revision of protection strategy to ensure it remains effective. Each risk must be evaluated, analyzing the probability of occurrence for the incident and the related severity. It’s crucial that the identification of residual risk is accepted by management.
Configuration management processes and assessment
Configuration management is a critical component for the security of the infrastructure, for both hardware and software configurations. Each modification to the overall infrastructure could have a serious impact on its security. Changes could introduce vulnerabilities that undermine security.
“Configuration management begins with well-tested and documented security baselines for your various systems. Robust performance evaluation processes are needed to provide organizations with feedback on the effectiveness of cyber security policy and technical implementation. “
The impact of any modification of the infrastructure must be correctly evaluated with assessment processes conducted by both internal and external professionals. Routine vulnerability assessment and automated auditing of the network and systems must be part of the configuration management process.
The NSA document titled “Securing Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and Control Systems (CS)” introduces the following suggestions for configuration management:
- Map out and document the entire CS network, including CS and infrastructure device configurations
- Prepare and configure new equipment off-line
- Sanitize old equipment before disposal
- Keep CS infrastructure security features current with device moves, additions, and decommissions
- Enable auditing features and periodically examine the resulting logs for signs of unusual activity
- Synchronize to a common time reference, so audit logs become more useful during incident response
- Develop a Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) for the CS, and if possible test it!
System backups and disaster recovery plans
Recovery is the ability to restore a compromised system to its operational status. Establishing a disaster recovery plan is fundamental for rapid recovery from any incidents, such as cyber attacks.
System backups are an essential part of any plan and they allow rapid reconstruction of and network. Routinely exercise disaster recovery plans to ensure that the work and that all employees know the procedure to follow. Every change to the overall architecture has to trigger a review of the plan to apply the appropriate changes to disaster recovery plans.
Recovery plans usually include:
- Adoption of redundant hardware and fault tolerant systems
- Fallback mechanisms
- System backup procedure
The disaster recovery plan allows corporate to prepare for, respond to and recover from a disruptive event, including a cyber attack. The following criteria should be considered in case of a hardware failure:
- Determine and document the procedures for responding to a disaster that involves the SCADA center and its services.
- Acquire additional hardware for disaster recovery plan or locate current backup hardware to a different location.
- Periodically test the disaster recovery plan.
Related to software components, it’s possible to follow the criteria below in case of malfunction:
- Determine ways to recover from any type of loss including historical data, installation media, application files, configuration files, documents, and software licenses.
- Establish a strategy to keep the system up-to-date.
- Evaluate the set of data and application to restore to its previous state in the event of a disaster.
- Create a centralized inventory of all software titles and licenses, evaluate the possibility to replicate it in different locations.
- Perform regular system backups and send copies of backup files to storage array networks off-site.
- Periodically test backup copied and restoring procedures operated by the personnel.
SCADA systems are increasing in complexity, due to the integration of different components, in many cases produced by different manufacturers. It’s necessary to address the security level of each device and the overall environment. The design of SCADAs must totally change and have to take care of all the security requirements. That’s done by considering their surface of attack and exposure to cyber threats that could arm the systems.
There must be a collective effort by all governments to produce continuous report on the security status of critical infrastructures and related SCADA systems. The overall security will pass through a global collaboration and information sharing on the possible cyber threats and the vulnerabilities of every device that is qualified in the market.
The security component must become part of the project of an industrial system. It must be considered a specific requirement. The overall security of critical infrastructures must be audited during the entire lifecycle of its components.
Recently the heads of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Department of Homeland Security, and National Counterterrorism Center have declared cyber attacks are the most likely form of terrorism against the United States in the coming years.
“That’s where the bad guys will go. There are no safe neighborhoods. All of us are neighbors [online].” FBI director James Comey said about cyberterrorism.
These words should make us think about the real importance of security for critical systems of our infrastructure, including SCADAs.
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Philadelphia’s Central High School focuses on making its technology initiatives student-centered, with an emphasis on boosting achievement—and this focus has paid off in a big way.
Administrators, teachers, students, and parents are able to able to access grades, news, and pertinent communications instantly, and students have access to a wide range of applications to advance their learning. By strengthening the home-school connection, Central High is enhancing students’ chances of success.
For these reasons, Central High was chosen as our “eSchool of the Month” for October. Here, Brian Howland, a teacher and technology committee member, describes some of the school’s accomplishments and its keys to success.
(Editor’s note: To nominate your school or district for our “eSchool of the Month” feature, and to read about past winners, go to: http://www.eschoolnews.com/eschool-of-the-month.)
How does your school use technology to advance student learning?
Central High School uses in-school wired and wireless networks on iMacs and PCs. Our website, Centralhigh.net, based on the Edline platform, is used by administrators, faculty, students, parents, and alumni. Teachers have individual class pages; all sports teams and clubs have pages.
Integrated throughout are Grades (an application from EasyGradePro Web), interim reporting, calendars, school communications, and more.
We have five servers, five computer labs, and several smaller clustered labs, all using iMacs. We use TurnItIn plagiarism detection software, subscription-based research databases, and Follett Software’s Destiny online card catalog.
The purpose of technology at Central High is to serve the school community, to break down communication barriers between home and school, and to get as much information to the right people in the right format at the right time.
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Thousands of communities throughout east Asia are under threat from disease as floods continue to ravage many countries in the region. Damage to crops and property is reportedly high and many families have been forced to evacuate. UNICEF, the United Nations Children's Fund, is rushing in supplies including medical kits and water filters.
In Vietnam, thousands of families already are facing serious difficulties due to the floods. In Dong Thap province, plans are underway to relocate 11,000 families to 52 newly established flood-safe areas with 1,600 families resettled already.
In other areas, hundreds of households are living along dyke roads, relying on floodwater for their drinking, cooking, bathing and washing. Reports indicate that these resettled flood victims are already facing health threats from poor hygiene conditions and a lack of clean water.
UNICEF has placed 400 emergency medical kits containing essential medical supplies along the Mekong Delta ready for distribution. In addition, the organization is pre-positioning 7,500 household water filters in flood-prone areas.
UNICEF also has prepared 400 emergency education kits to allow children at evacuee sites to continue their primary education and has stocked 212 child day-care recreation kits in the region with another 202 kits on the way. Supporting these day-care centers is especially important during floods as they provide safe havens for young children who comprise up to 80 percent of annual flood casualties.
In total, UNICEF expects to help an estimated 860,000 flood victims.
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Marginal tax rates are the percentage of an additional dollar of income that is paid in taxes or given up in government benefits; those rates affect taxpayers’ choices about many things, including how much to work and save. In 2013, 37 percent of low- and moderate-income taxpayers who have earnings face total marginal tax rates—including federal and state individual income taxes, federal payroll taxes, and the phasing out of benefits from the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program—between 30 percent and 39 percent, and over 20 percent of that group face marginal rates of 40 percent or more. CBO estimates that 56 percent of such taxpayers face marginal rates of 10 percent to 19 percent from the federal individual income tax system alone.
For more information on marginal tax rates, see Effective Marginal Tax Rates for Low- and Moderate-Income Workers (November 2012). The chart above incorporates the effects of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, which had not been enacted when that report was published, and the expiration of a temporary reduction in payroll tax rates. The analysis is based on a 2006 sample of nondisabled, working-age people who filed tax returns and whose income was less than 450 percent of the federal poverty guidelines.
Shannon Mok is an analyst in CBO’s Tax Analysis Division.
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Religious Studies 111
Introduction to Religion
1. Catalog Entry
Introduction to Religion
Credit hours (3)
Presents recurrent forms and issues in religious life, e.g. myths, rituals, the nature of the divine, good and evil, and introduces students to the academic study of religion. Traditions are covered thematically, with emphasis upon cross-cultural features of religion and pertinent theories.
Note(s): This course has been approved for Core Curriculum credit in Humanities.
2. Detailed Description of Course
This course introduces students to the academic study of religion. While this course is taught by several different instructors who may use a variety of approaches to achieve this goal, it will be developed thematically and emphasize the cross-cultural study of religion. Students will learn about recurrent forms, such as, myth, ritual and symbol that are part of a variety of religions. They will explore significant issues, such as the nature of the divine, good and evil, and the problem of suffering. Students will also learn about significant theories, such as those of Freud, Eliade, Geertz, and Turner. They will learn to distinguish the academic study of religion, a scholarly investigation of a universal type of human behavior, from personal belief and theology.
3. Detailed Description of Conduct of Course
Though primarily a lecture course, this course will also involve students in small group and open class discussion and in a variety of formal and informal writing activities. Because this course is taught by several instructors, the specific format may vary, but in every case the course will involve a plurality of instructional strategies designed to engage students in doing philosophy not just learning about philosophers. Whether or not a formal research paper is assigned in the class, students will be expected to employ basic research skills, including the use of computer technology, to investigate and gather information on various topics and figures discussed in class. Among the teaching activities students can expect in this course are the following:
1) Lecture and discussion led by instructor
2) Small-group discussion
3) In-class formal and informal debates
4) Individual and group oral presentations
5) Informal in-class and out-of-class writing assignments
7) Individual and collaborative research activities involving library and Internet searches
8) Written and oral analysis of texts
9) Written summaries/evaluations of out-of-class events
10)Videos, slides, and multimedia presentations
4. Goals and Objectives of the Course
Students should be able to:
1) Define the term "religion"
2) Discuss "religion" as an aspect of human life and culture
3) Recognize recurrent forms such as myths, rituals, and symbols which are aspects of diverse religions
4) Recognize some of the important theories about the function of religion in the lives of individuals and communities
5) Appreciate the importance of Religious Studies as a means to understanding humans as individuals and members of communities
6) Appreciate the importance of Religious Studies as a means to understanding diverse cultures
CORE Curriculum Learning Goals
Students who complete RELN 111: Introduction to Religion in the University CORE Curriculum will also demonstrate competency in the following CORE Curriculum Goals:
Radford University students will understand that human experience has given rise to significant questions and be aware of the nature and methods of inquiry in the humanities.
Radford University students will:
1) Identify principles, concepts, or developments crucial to inquiry in a humanities discipline;
2) Recognize how a method of inquiry in the humanities can be applied to a disciplinary question.
5. Assessment Measures
Student progress in achieving the course-specific objectives and the General Education goals established for this course will be measured in a variety of ways. Because this course is taught by several instructors, the specific assessment instruments employed may vary, but in every case the instructor will employ a number of the following methods to evaluate aspects of student learning:
1) Graded and ungraded homework assignments may be used to measure the student's ability to read texts carefully, to identify
underlying values and assumptions, to articulate central concepts, to analyze and construct logical arguments, and to employ
basic research methods.
2) Journals may be used to measure the development of self-reflection and progress in critical and creative thinking about the ideas,
issues, and texts of the course.
3) Class discussions, debates, and small group discussion may be used to measure the student's logical reasoning and oral
communication skills as well as the student's ability to work with others in a shared process of inquiry.
4) Individual and group oral presentations may be used to measure the student's understanding of particular philosophical positions or
issues as well as the student's ability to present logical and persuasive arguments.
5) Quizzes and objective tests may be used to measure the student's basic knowledge of the course material and the student's ability to
read carefully and think with clarity.
6) Essay exams may be used to measure the student's understanding of the nature and methods of philosophy, knowledge of the
course material, ability to analyze and construct arguments, and ability to think and to write with clarity.
7) Research reports may be used to measure the student's ability to employ appropriate research methods and technologies.
8) Term papers may be used to measure the student's understanding of the nature of philosophical inquiry and knowledge of specific
figures or issues addressed in the course, as well as to measure the student's ability to develop a sustained and persuasive
argument, to think and write with clarity, and to demonstrate an appreciation of the significance of philosophy to his or her own
life and concerns.
6. Other Course Information
Review and Approval
January 27, 1997
April 17, 1998
March 31, 1999
September 18, 2001
June 20, 2015
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HEALTH; PERSONAL HEALTH
Published: March 1, 1990
(Page 2 of 2)
But running can be a challenge for a person with asthma, particularly during cold weather or in dry climates. The ideal sport is the one Ms. Hogshead happened to choose: swimming. Swimmers, at least those who swim in pools, breathe warm, moist air, which is least likely to trigger asthma symptoms.
Exercising With Asthma
Modern medical treatment and sensible precautions make it possible for people with asthma to exercise safely and enjoyably. Ms. Hogshead acknowledges that many athletes are reluctant to use medications and would rather ''tough it out.'' But this can be a short-sighted and possibly dangerous approach.
She herself makes certain that before any bout of vigorous exercise she uses an inhaler containing medication that opens the bronchial tubes. Others may need to take daily preventive medication as well. For example, cromolyn sodium (marketed as Intal) lessens the likelihood of an allergy-induced asthma episode by blocking the effects of allergens.
To counter an asthma episode, a cautious person with asthma always keeps an inhaler handy, especially during exercise. Dr. Nieder always runs with an inhaler clenched in his hand just in case. Unfortunately, many children with exercise-induced asthma are reluctant to use their inhalers at school. A recent study of 20 such children in California revealed that only four used their inhalers regularly before exercise at school.
When exercising in air that is cool or cold or dry, a person with asthma would be wise to wear a scarf or mask over the nose and mouth to help warm and moisten incoming air.
Other helpful practices include a slow warm-up, then up to five minutes of maximum exertion followed by a rest. Or try two to three minutes of warm-up, then a brief rest, then more vigorous exercise. After a workout, breathe deeply and slowly and, if necessary, exhale air into a paper bag. Then inhale the same air to increase the level of carbon dioxide, which reduces the risk of bronchial spasm.
Regular deep-breathing exercises in which the diaphragm does much of the work can significantly increase the amount of air a person with asthma can inhale and exhale. Sit, stand or lie on your back and place the palm of one hand against your stomach between the navel and rib cage. Breathe in deeply, allowing your diaphragm to push your stomach out against your hand. As you exhale, you should feel your stomach go down. Start the exercise by inhaling to a count of four and exhaling to a count of eight. Then gradually increase the count on the exhale.
photos: Jackie Joyner Kersee; Karin Smith (Associated Press); Bill Koch (UPI)
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Sinclair ZX Spectrum FAILS latest radio noise rules SHOCK
1980s tech for 1980s rules
A pal of mine suggested a short while back that it might be fun to obtain the blueprints for Sinclair Research’s ZX Spectrum and have a batch built up to sell to fans of retro computing. It’s a good job this plan never made it out of the pub: the dear old Speccy would have immediately fallen foul of modern electromagnetic radiation interference regulations.
How do we know? Register reader and blogger Ben Supper recently put one of these early 1980s 8-bit micros into an EM test chamber to find out.
Ben writes that, to give the Spectrum a fighting chance of making it past the rigorous EN55022 standard test, he simply powered up the computer, not the associated TV, cassette recorder and the cables that connect them all together. He also disabled the test Spectrum’s TV modulator.
Says Ben: “Six complete frequency sweeps were taken, at three angles around the equipment in horizontal and vertical polarisations, with the antenna at a height of 1.5 metres.” That, he admits, was only the first part of the EN55022 test - the recent bad weather reduced the amount of time he had available in the test chamber which prevented him from running a full set of tests.
EN55022 output: a modern 'tricky' product (top) a not-so-modern product, the ZX Spectrum (bottom)
The thick black line is the test noise limit
Source: Ben Supper
Not that it would have made much difference.
Alas the leaky machine - from a radio standpoint - ensured the Spectrum did not pass the test. “It’s not just a failure; it’s an abject one,” admitted Ben.
The Spectrum radiated enough energy at two frequencies - 42MHz and 48.8MHz - to fail the test, but noise above 100MHz, while below the failure emission levels, could easily bust the limit if the Spectrum had been fully connected up, Ben reckons.
The 42MHz peak arises as a harmonic of the machine’s 3.5MHz clock frequency, while the 48.8MHz peak almost certainly arises from radiation emitted by the Spectrum’s “rather fishy power supply and cable”. It’s also an upper harmonic of the PAL colour clock.
Of course, the Spectrum would have been designed completely differently had it been created in modern times, quite apart from being built not to exceed EN55022 noise levels. Back in the early 1980s, the Spectrum's electronics man, Richard Altwasser - who went on to design the Jupiter Ace - didn't have quite so many regulations to worry about. More to the point, now he might not have Sir Clive being quite so insistent that the kit be as cheap as possible.
You can read Ben's write-up of the test, and the background to it, here. ®
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template< class ForwardIt >
string_type transform( ForwardIt first, ForwardIt last) const;
Obtains the sort key for the character sequence
[first, last), such that if a sort key compares less than another sort key with operator<, then the character sequence that produced the first sort key comes before the character sequence that produced the second sort key, in the currently imbued locale's collation order.
For example when the regex flag std::regex_constants::collate is set, then the sequence
[a-b] would match some character
c1 if traits.transform("a") <= traits.transform(c1) <= traits.transform("b"). Note that this function takes a character sequence as the argument to accomodate to the ranges defined like [[.ae.]-d].
Standard library specializations of std::regex_traits return std::use_facet<std::collate<CharT>>(getloc()).transform(&*str.begin(), &*str.begin() + str.length()) for some temporary string
str constructed as string_type str(first, last).
|first, last||-|| a pair of |
Return value
The collation key for the character sequence
[first, last) in the currently imbued locale.
|This section is incomplete|
Reason: no example
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| 0.721961
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Early Settlement History
- Before European settlement, the area was inhabited by nomadic aboriginals, descendants of the Ojibway nation
- Settlement began as part of British military plan to divert emigration to Canada rather than the United States
- The Morphy and Moore families were the first to arrive
- The area was originally dubbed Morphy's Falls on September 19, 1819
- Edmond Morphy saw the potential in a 30-foot drop on the Mississippi River, and established a grist mill
Other industries followed - William Moore's blacksmith shop and Robert Barnett's barrel shop
In 1824, fighting erupted between Protestant settlers and Irish Catholic immigrants, and it was known as the Ballygiblin Riots
In 1829, the area became known as 'Carleton Place', named after a famous square in Glasgow, Scotland
- The Brockville and Ottawa railway reached Carleton Place in 1870
- After both railways were bought by the Canadian Pacific Railway, locomotive repair shops continued to operate
- Numerous lumber mills opened and competition was so fierce that one dispute over river rights in 1884 ended in the Supreme Court and the Privy Council in London, England!
- The Mississippi was the major artery for the lumber industry
- Log drives down the Mississippi ended at the turn of the century old mills have since been converted to condos and high-tech firms
From the 1860s to 1920s, the River was used by steamboat operations for industrial towing and pleasure cruising, these activities spawned more festivities such as regattas, picnics and entertainment by the town band
Throughout its history, the Mississippi River has made Carleton Place an attractive place to settle, and it continues to draw people here today for its beauty, commerce and way of life.
- Carleton Place made its international mark with iron foundries in the 1840s, Samuel Fuller established the first foundry, then David Findlay began the Findlay Stove Company in 1862
- Robert Bell, a prominent Carleton Place citizen, was elected to Parliament in 1854 and played a major role in local and district community improvement initiatives
- Prolific writer Leslie McFarlane was born in Carleton Place in 1902 he authored many original Hardy Boys books under the pen name of Franklin W. Dixon
- Carleton Place was the home of Captain Arthur Roy Brown, World War One flying ace
- Carleton Place became a village in 1870 and a town in 1890
- Carleton Place is home to remarkable heritage architecture such as the Richardson Romanesque structure, now the Town Hall
- The Town is home to the country's oldest, continually operating canoe club, conceived in 1893 as the Ottawa Valley Canoe Association. Carleton Place Canoe Club is the only surviving charter member of the association, and the oldest existing sprint racing club in Canada!
Carleton Place Today
- Today, the town of Carleton Place has a population of nearly 10,000!
- It continues to grow and prosper with a strong community, commerce and history, it is a true gem of the Ottawa Valley!
Come explore the town where the Canadian Mississippi still mixes old-time splendour with modern style.
Heritage Carleton Place
Visit the Heritage Carleton Place website for more information on heritage buildings, heritage homes, the Roy Brown Society, vintage photos and more! www.heritagecarletonplace.com
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A collection of 13th Century letters, found among the belongings of a US World War II veteran, has been returned to Poland.
The letters are of great value
Some of the letters were written by popes and date as far back as 1256.
They were discovered by Philip Gavin from Wisconsin after the death of his father, George Gavin, who brought them home as a souvenir of the war.
They are from the archives of Wroclaw, south-western Poland, which was the German city of Breslau before WWII.
They were handed over in a box by Neal Pease, history professor at the University of Wisconsin, to Wladyslaw Stepniak, deputy director of the Polish national archives, at Warsaw airport on Monday.
"We are very, very grateful. These letters are of great value to us," Mr Stepniak told Associated Press news agency.
Dariusz Ganczar, an official from the archives, told the BBC News website: "There are in all 17 letters, all from the 13th Century. Some were written by the Popes Alexander IV and Gregory X, or by high-ranking Roman Catholic Church officials. Others are correspondence between landlords.
Wroclaw is a historic city on the Oder river
"The documents are of great archival and historical value but their content will be disclosed after they have been fully studied, which could take a long time."
The letters are said to be remarkably preserved, with Latin words still legible on the vellum (animal skin).
The Roman Catholic archdiocese of Milwaukee had the documents authenticated in 2003.
After his father's death, Philip Gavin entrusted the letters to the Milwaukee archdiocese, but then he decided to return them to Poland.
Mr Gavin said his father had found the documents in the mud by a burned-out train in Austria.
One possibility is that they were lost during transportation after the Germans fled before the advancing Red Army.
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For those who believe, it’s easy to understand President Barack Obama’s desire to go it alone on an international climate change agreement.
The planet is threatened by the warming effects of human fossil fuel use, and doing nothing will only worsen conditions for life on Earth. But the Obama administration needs to hold off on forging a pact in 2015 at a United Nations summit in Paris to reduce carbon pollution among the world’s largest economies.
The president shouldn’t try to do the deal without buy-in from the legislative branch. A vote of two-thirds of the Senate is needed for a treaty to commit the United States to try to get global warming in check.
Businesses also need to be involved and individuals to reduce their energy use and turn to renewable sources. None of it will be easy or cheap.
Because of the enormous commitment that’s required, Obama should not try to go this deal without that legally binding endorsement of the Senate. The problem is so massive and has gone on for so long that everyone needs to be on board to try to reverse the horrific conditions that global warming continues to create.
A U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported Monday that global warming is an undeniable reality, it is human caused, dangerous and may likely be irreversible. Global warming has caused the melting of glaciers and other ice formations; raised ocean levels; swamped coastal areas; caused more flooding; creating massive, long-term droughts; and produced more dangerous and costly storms.
The 127-page report said global warming already is affecting all continents. More pollution from heat-trapping gases will raise the likelihood of “severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems,” the report said.
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|
Which Toys Are Best?
There are so many toys on the market nowadays that it's not always easy to choose the right toy for your child's stage of development.
Leading child psychologist Dr Amanda Gummer explains what each child should play with at their development level
In recent years, the number and variety of toys available for babies in the shops has exploded. With such a vast choice on offer, it is helpful to look at what babies gain from playing with toys and
'Babies develop rapidly, so it is important to look closely at the skills required to use certain toys and the toys that will encourage them. The age ranges provided with toys are standardised and it is important to understand that, within certain limits, children develop different skills at different times and whilst some development is linear, many children are ahead of the game in some areas and a little behind their peers in others - and this is perfectly 'normal'.
'When choosing toys for babies it is crucial to look at a child's abilities before buying, so that you avoid trying to make them develop too quickly by getting toys that are too advanced for them. Buying toys that are not suitable for a babies stage of development will only result in the child becoming bored with a toy and rejecting it.'
Newborn Toys'Newborn babies do not 'play' with toys as such, as they have insufficient hand-eye coordination to move their hands to deliberately pick up objects, but they will grasp things which are put in their hands.
Toys like rattles, mobiles, mirrors, and soft toys are most appropriate for very newborn babies, as they learn to move their head to sounds and focus their eyes on moving objects.
Toys for 3 to 6 month olds'At three to six months, babies are
Toys such as rattles and other noisy toys, toys with lights and music, pram toys, teethers and activity centres are appropriate for this age group.
Toys for 9 months to one year old'At nine to 12 months children start to move around their environment, so toys with wheels that push along will give them an opportunity to practice walking. It also allows them to model adult behaviour, which is very valuable for social development.
Toys such as shape sorters, stacking toys/bricks, musical instruments, picture books, wheeled toys and bath toys are all appropriate for this age group.
Dr. Amanda Gummer
ALL THE CHILDREN FEATURED HERE ARE 'FRIENDS' ON OUR FACEBOOK PAGE. POST A PIC ON OUR WALL IF YOU'D LIKE YOUR LITTLE ONE TO FEATURE ON AN ARTICLE!
Dr Amanda Gummer is a leading authority on child development, play and parenting with over 20 years working with families and toy manufacturers. She has recently launched a brand new online play and advice service www.my2frontteeth.co.uk that offers parents and present buyers access to independent, unbiased information about play and child development. www.my2frontteeth.co.uk explains what sort of play children engage with in different situations and at different ages. It features examples of the very best products and
More..... Family | Dads | Health and Illness | Community | Toddlers | Food Glorious Food | Travel | Parenting | Money, Money, Money | Twins and Multiples | Fun Stuff | At Home | Safety | News | Summer
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Franklin Regional plans to expand BYOD procedures
Pencils and notebooks aren't the only tools children will bring to their classrooms this school year.
An increasing number of districts across the region have begun “Bring Your Own Device” programs, encouraging students to bring laptops, tablets and, yes, even their once-banned smartphones into the classroom. Most recently, the Gateway School Board approved a policy slated to be implemented this fall, while Franklin Regional School District officials plan to expand last year's pilot at the high school.
“It's a great avenue to get students actively and meaningfully engaged in the learning process,” Franklin Regional Superintendent Jamie Piraino said. “Learning becomes more relevant for the students, in some ways.”
Today's students never have known a world without the Internet, said Sean McDonough, interim assistant technology director for the Allegheny Intermediate Unit. A Pew Research Center survey released in March shows that 78 percent of children age 12 to 17 have a cellphone – and 47 percent of those teens own smartphones. About 23 percent of teens use a tablet, and 93 percent have a personal computer.
For them, using a computer or smartphone to learn isn't anything special; it's just how they learn, he said.
“It's native to their lifestyle,” McDonough said. “Teachers and other adults, we think of it as ‘Go get your iPad or computer now.' It's so inherent in kids' lifestyles.”
In the Plum School District, between 20 and 25 percent of the district's nearly 4,000 students brought their own device each day during the last school year, technology director Chris Davis said. Most of those students were at the high school, Davis said, but children in all buildings are permitted to bring their electronic devices to school.
Each teacher uses that technology differently, he said. Some require students to complete Internet-based scavenger hunts, while others administer quizzes online. For the students, having their own technology at their fingertips can help with comprehension.
In the Norwin School District, where a “BYOD” policy was put in place for all grades last school year, high school students have used their personal devices to send text-message responses to questions posed in class, while others have used Evernote, an online application that enables students to take notes electronically. Elementary students read novels on their iPad tablets and other devices, said Jonathan Szish, district coordinator of school and community relations.
“Students get real-world experiences in a media format with which they are highly familiar,” Szish said. “Students have told us they are excited to have the privilege.”
While the program works well in the district, it's not always seamless, Szish said. Every student brings a different device — and not all devices are created equally. It takes class time to make sure each device can be used in the way the teacher intends.
At Franklin Regional, officials might have found a solution to that problem. Piraino said the district plans to upgrade its technological infrastructure to enable students to log into a virtual desktop housed on an online storage space. Then, regardless of device, students would have access to same interface and programs.
But, like all technology upgrades required for “BYOD” to work properly, that costs money. That's one of the largest hurdles for districts to overcome when implementing these policies, the intermediate unit's McDonough said.
The investment is worth it, Piraino said. Last year, eight Franklin Regional high school classrooms piloted the district's new policy and, this year, officials plan to see it expand greatly.
“We envision ‘BYOD' at the high school becoming pretty ingrained in the everyday education experience of the students,” Piraino said. “These children have had a computer since they were 2, 3, 4 years old. They think this way, they work this way — they multitask, and have that stimulation.
“They're going into a world that collaborates using technology. If we don't provide students those skills when they're developing, we're putting them at a competitive disadvantage.”
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The Ring Of Fire Is Roaring To Life And There Will Be Earthquakes Of Historic Importance On The West Coast Of The United States
Does it seem to you like there has been an unusual amount of seismic activity around the world lately? Well, it isn’t just your imagination. The Ring of Fire is roaring to life and that is really bad news for the west coast of the United States. Approximately 90 percent of all earthquakes and approximately 75 percent of all volcanic eruptions occur along the Ring of Fire. Considering the fact that the entire west coast of the United States lies along the Ring of Fire, we should be very concerned that the Ring of Fire is becoming more active. On Wednesday, the most powerful strike-slip earthquake ever recorded happened along the Ring of Fire. If that earthquake had happened in a major U.S. city along the west coast, the city would have been entirely destroyed. Scientists tell us that there is nearly a 100% certainty that the “Big One” will hit California at some point. In recent years we have seen Japan, Chile, Indonesia and New Zealand all get hit by historic earthquakes. It is inevitable that there will be earthquakes of historic importance on the west coast of the United States as well. So far we have been very fortunate, but that good fortune will not last indefinitely.
In a previous article, I showed that earthquakes are becoming more frequent around the globe. In 2001, there were 137 earthquakes of magnitude 6.0 or greater and in 2011 there were 205. The charts and data that I presented in that previous article show a clear upward trend in large global earthquakes over the past decade, and that is why what happened this week is so alarming.
On Wednesday, a magnitude 8.6 earthquake struck off the coast of Indonesia and that was rapidly followed by a magnitude 8.2 earthquake off the coast of Indonesia. Fortunately those gigantic earthquakes did not produce a devastating tsunami, but that doesn’t mean that those earthquakes were not immensely powerful.
Normally we only see about one earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or greater per year. The magnitude 8.6 earthquake was the most powerful strike-slip earthquake in recorded history. If that earthquake had happened in the United States, it would have probably been the worst natural disaster in U.S. history. The following is from an article posted on The Extinction Protocol….
I’ve never heard of a strike-slip lateral earthquake of this great a magnitude; especially under water. Preliminary assessment of the Indonesian quakes by U.S. geologists suggests one plate lurched past each other as much as 70 feet. San Andreas is a strike-slip, lateral- can we even imagine two sections of ground moving 70 feet near San Francisco? Had the force of the Sumatra quakes been unleashed upon San Andreas, the city would have been completely destroyed.
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By David J. Unger
20 June 2013
(Christian Science Monitor) – No country emits more carbon dioxide than China, but at least some of that heat-trapping gas gets its start in Appalachian mines.
With cleaner-burning natural gas cutting into the their market in the United States, coal companies have found eager customers in the East, fueling urbanizing economies in Asia with cheap steelmaking coal. Coal's future in the US may have dimmed over recent years, but exports are hitting record highs.
It's why coal export terminals are emerging as a flash point in the fight against climate change. Don't be surprised if instead of reading about the Keystone XL pipeline, you are soon inundated with polarizing reports on Millennium Bulk Terminals-Longview, the Gateway Pacific Terminal, and the Morrow Pacific Project.
Those are three proposals for export terminals in Washington and Oregon that would export millions of tons of coal each year to Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and elsewhere.
Backers of the proposal point to the economic benefits of creating thousands of jobs in areas suffering from unemployment rates above the national average. For environmentalists, the terminals mean literally adding fuel to the fire when it comes to the issue of rising greenhouse gas emissions.
"Unless we can stop these coal terminals from being built and keep our coal in the ground where it belongs, Washington state coal exports will be responsible for hastening the advance of climate change here at home and around the world," Seattle Mayor Mike McGinn said in testimony before a House subcommittee Tuesday on fossil fuel exports.
Backers of the terminals scored a victory during Tuesday's hearing when Army Corps of Engineers acting regulatory chief Jennifer Moyer told the subcommittee that the climate change impacts of burning coal abroad would not factor into the Corps' environmental review of the proposals.
"[T]he possible future shipment of coal by oceangoing vessels across the Pacific Ocean beyond the limits of US navigable waters, and the possible future off-loading, distribution, and burning of coal in Asia are attenuated and far removed from the activities regulated by the Corps at any of the three shipping facilities," Ms. Moyer said in prepared testimony. "Commercial markets drive the need for and destination of coal which could change regardless of the Corps decision regarding the proposed activities in waters within our jurisdiction."
The US exported 13.6 million tons of coal in March 2013, according to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA). That's a new monthly record. China was the No. 1 destination for that coal, followed by the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, South Korea, and Brazil. [more]
- 60 Minutes: The Age of Mega-Fires
- Altered Oceans
- Apocadocs: Humoring the Horror of Environmental Collapse
- Calculated Risk
- Carbon Based Climate Change Adaptation
- Census of Marine life
- Climate Change: The Next Generation
- Club Orlov: Dmitry Orlov and the Collapsnik Party
- Converging Emergencies, 2010-2020
- Crisis Forums
- Dead Trees ... Dying Forests
- Deep Into Artlife West
- Discover Environmentally-Friendly Degrees and Job Options
- Ea O Ka Aina: For a self-sustaining Kauai
- Economic Undertow
- Faster Than Expected
- Fire Earth
- Hypoxia in the Northern Gulf of Mexico
- IUCN Red List of Endangered Species
- Information Is Beautiful
- International Programme on the State of the Oceans
- Jeremy Jackson: Brave New Ocean
- Jim Galasyn: State of the Oceans 2011 pdf
- Lend Me a Looking Glass
- Love Salem
- Marine Climate Change
- Mongabay.com: Tropical Rainforest Conservation
- NASA Earth Observatory: Image of the Day
- NASA Visible Earth
- National Weather Service Climate Prediction Center
- Nature Bats Last
- Only In It For The Gold
- Ornery Bastard
- Other Voices, Other Choices
- Planet3.0 | Beyond Sustainability
- RealClimate: Climate Science from Climate Scientists
- Wit's End
- World Catastrophe Map
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- The definition of initiative is the nature to take the first step in something.
An example of initiative is someone who is always first to start a new project.
- Initiative is defined as the act of taking the first step.
An example of initiative is going to the city council with a new idea.
Origin of initiativeMedieval Latin initiativus
- the action of taking the first step or making the first move; responsibility for beginning or originating
- the characteristic of originating new ideas or methods; ability to think and act without being urged; enterprise
- the right of a legislature to introduce new legislation on some specified matter
- the right of a group of citizens to introduce a matter for legislation either to the legislature or directly to the voters
- the procedure by which such matters are introduced, usually by a petition signed by a specified percentage of the voters
- The power or ability to begin or to follow through energetically with a plan or task; enterprise and determination.
- A beginning or introductory step; an opening move: took the initiative in trying to solve the problem.
- a. The power or right to introduce a new legislative measure.b. The right and procedure by which citizens can propose a law by petition and ensure its submission to the electorate.
- Of or relating to initiation.
- Used to initiate; initiatory.
- Serving to initiate; inceptive; initiatory; introductory; preliminary.
- In which voter initiatives can be brought to the ballot.
From French initiative, from Medieval Latin *initiativus (“serving to initiate”), from Late Latin initiare (“to begin, Latin initiate”), from Latin initium (“beginning”), from ineo (“enter, begin”).
initiative - Legal Definition
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Definition of Grade Points
The quality of achievement in a course is measured as follows:
For undergraduate students:
"A" indicates outstanding achievement; "B," good; "C," average; "D," below average; and "F," failure.
For graduate students:
"A" indicates superior work; "B," average or satisfactory; "C," the lowest passing grade.
Grade Point System
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For those who like figures, the statistics provided in the national tiger estimation report, which was released on Monday, will bring some comfort. The exercise of counting the number of tigers in India — carried out over the last two years — reveals an increase in the number of adult tigers: in 2007, the last tiger census, the number was 1,411; in 2011, the reported number is 1,706. This is not only an improvement but is also suggestive of a reversal of the declining trend. Both the 2007 and 2011 censuses are more reliable than the ones that preceded the 2007 one. All the pre-2007 censuses were prepared on the basis of pug marks, which most experts consider to be unreliable and bogus. From 2007, the more scientific method of setting up camera traps in the forest paths that tigers follow has been adopted. In spite of the improved method used in the 2007 and 2011 censuses, the full details as to how the numbers in the 2011 count were arrived at are still not available to experts. Also, the report must go through a peer group review to make the claim that the decline noticed in 2007 has been reversed.
In fact, various objective factors that threaten the survival of tigers continue to exist and, therefore, the threat is unabated. This induces scepticism about any exaggerated claim made on the basis of the 2011 figures. The habitat of the panthera tigris is disappearing because of human encroachment; where it still exists, it is badly fragmented. There is no evidence that poaching has been eradicated even though this is an easy thing to do. What is alarming is the view of experts that India’s reproducing tiger populations are now concentrated in 10 per cent of all tiger habitats, which hold 90 per cent of the country’s tigers. These “source populations’’ need close annual monitoring. The present practice of providing all-India tiger counts every four years needs to be reviewed. The situation warrants more close and focused monitoring. The fate of individual tigers needs to be tracked. At a different level is the battle against official and societal ignorance and indifference regarding tigers and their link to the overall environmental health. The tiger is an indicator species and is also an apex species at the top of the food chain. Its survival is critical for the survival of human beings in more ways than the latter care to recognize. It is necessary to keep the tiger burning bright in the forests.
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By Anatoly Liberman
Last week I answered only the questions that needed relatively detailed answers. Today’s “issue” will be devoted to shorter queries.
Riparian. Some letters we receive are so brief that I am not sure whether my explanations satisfy the writers. For example, a recent query contained only one word, namely RIPARIAN. It will be remembered that the protagonist of one of H. K. Andersen’s tales, a merchant’s son who played ducks and drakes with his inheritance (in the direct sense of the word: he loved to toss golden coins into water, to watch the rings), one day, when his prospects had become truly grim, received a gift from an old friend, a coffer to which the shortest note possible was pinned: “Pack up.” This was easy, for the only thing the man still possessed was his old dressing gown. He put it on, got into the coffer, and the coffer flew up into the air. What happened to the merchant’s son after he landed in Turkey is irrelevant to my story, but I wish to ask our correspondents to give more details when they ask questions. However, since the email had the subject ETYMOLOGY REQUEST, I assume that I am expected to discuss the origin of the word riparian. This adjective usually means “pertaining to or situated on the banks of a river,” for it goes back to Latin ripuarius, from ripa “bank.” The medical term riparian “pertaining to a ripa of the brain; marginal, as a part of the brain” (it is used in anatomy) is an extension of the same sense. I may add that ripa is not related to Engl. rib and that river, a Romance cognate of ripa, is not related to rivulet.
Tell, its senses, tally, and the noun till. Both senses of the verb tell—“count” and “narrate”—were already present in Old English. Since tell was derived from a noun and this noun (Old Engl. talu, cognate with Old High German zala and Old Icelandic tala “tale”) also meant “reckoning” and “talk,” it is hard to disentangle the meanings, but, most probably, the semantic kernel was “ordered, or numerical, sequence,” from which “things told in order, a connected narrative” developed. Therefore, from a historical point of view, “number” (as in German Zahl) seems to have preceded “speech” (as in Dutch taal). In English, the sense “count” has been almost ousted by “narrate, recount” (compare count and recount!) But the biblical usage, retained in he telleth the number of the stars and so forth, the phrases tell one’s beads, all told, and untold riches (wealth), as well as in the noun teller, remind us of tell “count.” Talk has the root tal-, followed by the suffix -k, but tally traces to a Latin etymon (talea “cutting, rod, stick”; tailor, from French, literally “cutter,” as is still seen in Italian tagliatore, is its cognate). Keeping count by notches on a stick was a universal procedure in the past. Since Latin t does not correspond to Germanic t (either Germanic th- or non-Germanic d- is needed), tally cannot be a cognate of talea, but it is not absolutely improbable that the Latin word was very early borrowed into Germanic (in such cases one expects identities rather than correspondences). The origin of talu ~ tala remains, to a certain extent, unknown. Although its Latin provenance is possible, tale may be a native Germanic word related to Latin dolo (dolare) “to chop,” and, if so, we return to the idea of notches. Be that as it may, in the history of tale and tell, the idea of counting mustAdd a Comment
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Question: We have a number of beautiful and healthy quaking aspens in our yard. Of course, we get suckers or sprouts growing everywhere, which I simply prune at ground level.
However, we have a couple that have appeared in places ideal for new trees. If I leave these alone, will they grow into mature trees or will they just become a bigger problem?
Answer: Yes, they will grow into trees just like the mother tree. This is the natural way for aspens propagate.
When you see a grove of 100 or so aspens in the mountains, chances are they all started from a single tree. Aspens have a system of underground horizontal stems called rhizomes. It is not unusual to see an aspen sprout from a rhizome 20 feet from the mother tree. I was told by a forester that aspens have more stems under the ground than above ground. That is why they produce so many sprouts.
Aspens are a relatively short-lived tree. A life span of 10 to 20 years is normal. The sprouts are compensation to continually keep new plants coming. Sprouts will come from these underground stems ever after all trees have been removed.
I had a group of about 10 aspen trees in my yard and was diligent in removing all the suckers or sprouts. When trees reached about 13 years in age, they started dying. I wished I had started five years earlier to let one sprout grow beside each tree so they would have been a decent size when the mother tree died.
Aspens also grow from seeds. Plants sold in nurseries are all from seed. So each tree is unique.
Besides the continual sprouting, aspens have disease called aspen leaf spot (Marssonina brunnea). Black spots appear on the leaves in the spring. If spots are numerous enough or grow large enough, leaves turn yellow and fall off. Trees usually develop new leaves to replace the ones which have dropped.
Spring infection of new leaves comes from spores left behind on last year’s old leaves. The best way to prevent aspen leaf spot is to clean up all fallen leaves and dispose of them. A fungicide, such as Daconil, can be applied as the new leaves emerge in the spring for extra protection.
I’ll have more information about aspen trees in next week’s column.
Allen Wilson can be contacted at firstname.lastname@example.org.
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Rodent Control In Horse Stables
Table of Contents
Mice and rats consume and contaminate food destined for livestock and other animals as well as humans. A mature rat can eat up to 30 g (1 oz) of feed (almost 10% of its body weight) in a day. A colony of 100 rats can consume over a ton of feed in 1 year. This exceeds the amount of grain required to feed a 454-kg (1,000-lb) horse for a year. This amount does not include feed that has been spoiled by rodent urine, droppings and hair, which can be as much as 10 times the amount consumed if they have free access to the feed storage area. In the U.S., the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that the equivalent of more than $2 billion in feed is destroyed by rodents each year. (1)
Rodents can cause damage to building structures and may cause irreparable losses due to fires that result from the animals gnawing through wire insulation and exposing the live wires. Rodents are also responsible for aiding in the transmission of diseases such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, trichinosis and rabies. They can harbour and spread mites, ticks, lice, fleas and internal parasites. Mice and rats can carry disease-causing organisms on their fur and their feet, contributing to the spread of disease and thwarting even the best-planned biosecurity measures.
Rodent control is essential particularly due to the short pregnancy cycle of a rodent, which is a mere 19-21 days. One female mouse can produce five to 10 litters per year, each litter yielding five to six young that will be sexually mature in 6-10 weeks. In 1 year, a female rat is capable of producing 22 female offspring that may begin reproducing as soon as 3 months after birth.
Rodents always leave behind their "calling cards" in the form of droppings, freshly gnawed wires or wood, or shredded material such as fibreglass insulation, expensive winter horse blankets or saddle pads. They are generally more active at night and can often be heard scurrying overhead in the ceilings and walls. It is a generally accepted rule of thumb that there are approximately 25 mice or rats for every one that you see.
The adaptability and agility of these animals make getting rid of them particularly difficult. Mice are capable of running up a vertical surface, negotiating a wire like the finest circus performer and can easily jump to a height of 30 cm (12 in.) from a flat surface. Holes in walls as small as 0.6 cm (¼ in.) in diameter can allow a mouse entry. A rat only needs a hole 1 cm (½ in.) in diameter to gain entry. Their keen sense of smell, hearing, taste and touch help them in their constant struggle for survival. (2)
Given a choice, most mice and rats would choose to feed on cereal grains. However, rodents can be considered to be omnivores, as rats will eat meat when it is available. When food supplies are scarce, they will eat almost anything, including plaster and even soap or animal carcasses. Mice have been known to nest over winter inside the carcass of a deer stricken with rabies, consume the meat and become infected. They then become vectors of this disease.
Basically, there are two important steps that must be taken to ensure that any rodent-eradication program will be effective.
Sanitation: Remove their food source. Store all grain and livestock feedstuffs in metal bins (with securely fitting lids) in a closed room. Sweep up any spilled feed and dispose of it in a similar container (a metal garbage can with a lid). A limited food supply will create an environment that is less hospitable. Store hay and straw away from the horse barn when possible. Straw often contains some grain and provides an ideal home for mice.
"Rodent-proof" the buildings: Eliminate any shelter for rodents and discourage them from living under your roof. They will not survive in large numbers if they do not have a suitable place to hide, rest, build nests and have litters. The term "build them out" refers to constructing buildings that eliminate any openings greater than 0.6 cm (¼ in.). Caulk or seal cracks in foundations, gaps around water pipes or conduits through walls with concrete or metal. Steel wool makes a good temporary plug. Windows and doors should fit snugly and have metal frames, to discourage gnawing. Many horse-stable doors are left open for most of the day, inviting rodent entry. It would be better to have Dutch doors with the top door left open.
Once steps have been taken to stop rodents from entering the barns, steps can be taken to deal with those living in stables.
Predators, including the numerous cats and Jack Russell terriers that inhabit stables in the countryside, probably make up the most popular method of rodent control used. While many may think this is an effective method of controlling rodents, the reality is that mice or rats may be on the premises because they were attracted by the food and water set out for a dog or cat. The presence of predators may teach the rodents to be more skilled in hiding, leading us to believe their numbers are fewer. The cat may catch a few mice, but it won't catch them as quickly as they can multiply.
Trapping is probably the most commonly practised method of effective eradication. It is preferred because it does not involve the use of poisons that can be fatal to pets or children. Progress can be monitored with the removal of every rodent caught and disposed of in a sanitary manner, unlike with poisoning. Uncollected poisoned carcasses may pose a health threat to pets and other non-target animals.
There is a variety of trap designs available, starting with the simple, wooden-base "snap trap." A new type is the multiple-capture live trap, which uses the already-trapped mice to attract other mice. Set an adequate number of traps approximately 3 m (10 ft) apart along the baseboards of the walls in active rodent territory.
Poisons (Rodenticides): Many types of rodent poisons are available over the counter at farm supply and hardware stores. Their use must be closely supervised and monitored to prevent accidental contact or ingestion by children or pets.
In physiological terms, "multiple-dose" toxic baits, such as warfarin, generally act as an anticoagulant. These are usually less potent than single-dose preparations and rely on an accumulation in the body, as a result of several feedings, to ultimately kill the animal. Single-dose preparations, including bromadiolone, are incorporated into wax blocks or sticks. Unfortunately, these rodenticides are attractive to the family pet as well as to rodents.
The single-dose baits incorporated into wax blocks are appetizing to dogs. A dog, given the opportunity, will readily swallow them. If this occurs, contact your veterinarian immediately. Take a sample of the bait and the package insert to the veterinarian. Induction of vomiting to eliminate the wax block is often required. These blocks cannot be removed by use of a stomach tube. If induction of vomiting is unsuccessful, surgical removal may be required. Vitamin K treatment may be necessary for up to a month after ingesting a single dose of these rodent baits.
"Pre-baiting" is a method of laying out bait traps that do not contain poison for 2 or 3 days to enhance bait acceptance. The addition of the poison at this point has proven to be successful. Remember to remove all baits when the signs of rodent presence disappear. Remove single-dose baits after 3 or 4 days.
If bait boxes or stations are used, clearly label them "CAUTION - MOUSE BAIT" as a safety precaution. Use tongs or rubber gloves to pick up and remove dead rodents. These carcasses can either be incinerated or buried under a minimum of 30 cm (12 in.) of earth.
Tips for controlling and preventing rodent damage on the farm
Enclosed areas can be fumigated. Have this done by pest control professionals, as these chemicals are highly toxic to humans. (4)
Preventing these creatures from coming into stables and homes is much easier than eradicating them once they have become established. If an infestation is suspected, contact a professional pest control company.
A sound prevention plan, complemented with the measures mentioned above, should eliminate unwelcome stable guests.
For more information:
Toll Free: 1-877-424-1300
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St Paul's Cathedral
St Paul's Cathedral is a London landmark and a British icon.
A cathedral dedicated to St Paul has overlooked the City of London since 604 A.D. In 2004, the Diocese of London celebrated its 1,400th anniversary.
The current cathedral, the fourth to occupy the Ludgate Hill site, was designed by court architect Sir Christopher Wren. It was built between 1675 and 1710 after its predecessor was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666.
St Paul's is built of Portland stone in a late Renaissance to baroque style. Its impressive dome, inspired by St Peter's Basilica in Rome, is the third largest in the world. It rises 108 metres (365 feet) to the cross at its summit.
People and events of the utmost importance to the country have been celebrated, mourned and commemorated at St Paul's since the first service took place in 1697. Significant events and services in St Paul's 20th century history include:
1901: A memorial service for Queen Victoria, held at the same time as her burial took place at Windsor.
1935: King George V's Silver Jubilee service.
1939: The St Paul's Fire Watch is re-formed to help City firemen fight the first incendiary bombs of the Second World War.
1940: The cathedral is a target during the Blitz.
1944: The cathedral bells, silent earlier in the war, ring out to celebrate the liberation of Paris.
1945: Ten simple services are held to mark V.E. Day, the end of the war in Europe. An estimated 35,000 people attend.
1951: King George VI opens the Festival of Britain from St Paul's.
1964: United States human rights campaigner Martin Luther King preaches at St Paul's on his way to Oslo to collect the Nobel Peace Prize.
1965: The funeral of former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill.
1968: St Paul's reflects the mood of the 'swinging sixties' by holding a Festival of Youth, featuring pop singer Mary Hopkin.
1977: A service is held to mark Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee.
1981: The marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales, to Lady Diana Spencer.
1992: The Queen Mother attends the 40th anniversary celebrations of the Friends of St Paul's.
1995: A 50th anniversary service for V.E. Day, the end of the Second World War in Europe.
1997: The 300th anniversary of St Paul's Cathedral.
2000: Service celebrating the 100th birthday of Her Majesty the Queen Mother.
St Paul's symbolised the strength of London and Britain during the Second World War. Photographs of the cathedral amid the destruction of the Blitz are among the most defining images of the 20th century.
The cathedral's prominent and recognisable form on the skyline is protected from many vantage points. The height of new buildings within or close to the sightline between St Paul's and selected places is limited specifically to retain the impressive view. Unobstructed views of the cathedral can be seen from King Henry VIII's Mound in Richmond Park, from Parliament Hill by Hampstead Heath and from the central London bridges of Waterloo and Hungerford.In 2000, a major restoration and facility upgrade programme began at the cathedral. It is scheduled for completion in 2008.
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Exercise For Your Life Stage Chapter 4
- Exercise for Your Life Stage (VIDEO)
- Exercise for Everyone
- Exercise & Kids (VIDEO)
- Kids on the Move
- Keep Teens Active
- Top of Their Game
- Staying Strong
- Exercise & Pregnancy (VIDEO)
- Exercising for Two
- Families That Play Together
- Exercise & Seniors (VIDEO)
- Fit After 50
- Step It Up, Seniors!
- Overcoming Obstacles
- Get Going!
Kids on the Move
Children should build strength, endurance, flexibility, balance and coordination early on. Not only does it improve their physical condition, research shows that exercise has a measurable impact on kids' school performance and cognitive skills. Make exercise a standard--and fun!--part of daily life now to prepare kids for long-term fitness and health.
Play to Win, or Just Play?READ MORE
For some kids, the competitive and social aspects of team sports are a big draw. Those who can handle the pressure to win and navigate the team dynamic may gain great benefits from youth league soccer, baseball, basketball and more. But other kids were not cut out for that kind of competition. Parents should respect their children's individuality and help them explore other activities. In recent decades, school P.E. programs (those that haven't fallen under the budget axe, that is) have grown to include yoga, rock-climbing, rollerblading, even sailing.
Kids who are playing tag or flying disc games in the park are doing important work. So long as they get the heart pumping and work their major muscle groups for at least 60 minutes a day, they are getting adequate exercise. In fact, some team sports end up being less of a workout than one might think. Kids wait for their turn at bat, or wait to start a new drill at practice and might have much less than an hour of active playing time. “My son and I are big baseball fans. We love it,” says Charles Hillman, Ph.D, of the department of Kinesiology & Community Health at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. “But we know it's not a good cardio sport. So we supplement it with ice hockey, running and other activities.” LESS
A Workout for Young BrainsAn undeniable and growing body of research shows that physical activity helps build and maintain your brain, especially areas specific to memory and reasoning. Charles Hillman, Ph.D, of the department of Kinesiology & Community Health at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, has been a key investigator in this field. Many of his lab's studies of children's brains use performance data from memory and spatial reasoning tests and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of their brains. Consistently, children at top levels of fitness outperform more sedentary kids on cognitive tests and tasks in these studies. They also have greater density in the brain's basal ganglia and hippocampus—more brain tissue! The basal ganglia aid in executive control, our ability to select an action based on collected information. The hippocampus is vital to memory function. These two regions of the brain work together to enable many complex cognitive tasks. READ MORE
Exercise physiologists are learning more about the factors that help build and maintain neurons, including brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) whose production exercise stimulates. Besides the benefits "of exercise" that accrue over time, even a single session of exercise has been shown to improve a student's performance on a test. Just 20 minutes of walking, even among children who were unfit, was associated with higher test scores. “In fact, not a single published result shows that physical activity detracts from academic achievement,” says Hillman. And yet, to meet budget shortfalls, schools continue to cut back on physical activity instruction.
In communities where the schools and lifestyle result in too little organized activity for kids, it's up to parents to make up the shortfall. “If your child falls behind in math, you seek out extra opportunities to improve those skills,” says Hillman. “Fitness should be no different.” LESS
Protect Growing Muscles, Bones and JointsLifting light weights is fine for most kids. But those who haven’t finished growing risk injuring ligaments, tendons and growth plates in their bones if they lift weights that are too heavy. Most exercise related injuries in young people happen in the soft tissues, and can result from overuse or a sudden impact: sprains, strains and pulled muscles.
Building strength has many health benefits for young athletes. Lifting light weights or working out with resistance bands trains neurons to fire together with each movement, which helps muscle cells “learn” to contract simultaneously. This phenomenon builds strength without considerably increasing muscle mass. There is some evidence that building up certain muscle groups can help prevent injuries by building strength in areas supporting the knees or the rotator cuffs, which are susceptible to overuse injuries. READ MORE
The long bones in a child's limbs have specialized growth zones called the epiphyseal plates, sometimes referred to as growth plates. The plate appears as a thin line near the wide end (epiphysis) of the bone. This flexible region of cartilage is a factory for creating and distributing bone cells that increase the bone's length throughout childhood and adolescence. When a teen reaches full height, the plate's cartilage is reinforced with calcium and other minerals that make bone harden, or ossify. Because the growth plates have such an important job, and are softer than other bone regions, parents and coaches must take special precautions to protect them. Fractures and other compromises of the growth plates can affect how they function. However, most supervised, moderate strength-building activities will not put the growth plates at risk.
The American Academy of Pediatrics makes these recommendations for safe, effective strength training for kids:
- Kids older than 7 or 8 can build strength with resistance training if they are closely supervised and have professional instruction.
- A child's pediatrician should be involved in the decision to start strength training. Kids with seizure disorders, cardiac irregularities and other health issues must be closely monitored, and may be advised against some strength-building activities.
- Building muscles and bones for health and strength are the main objectives. Bodybuilding and other extreme strength activities should be off-limits for kids.
- Most gym equipment and weight machines are built for adults and can be unsafe for kids. Small free weights, resistance bands or weighted balls are better for preadolescents.
- Beginners should start learning movements from an instructor using no weights, then move up to very light weights, 1 or 2 pounds. When they can complete 8 to 15 repetitions of a certain move or lift, they may increase weight in 10% increments.
- Trainers should lead kids in an appropriate warm-up and cool-down period with every workout. And, of course, kids should get plenty of aerobic exercise as well.
theVisualMD Wishes to Thank our Scientific Collaborators:
- Thomas Adair, Ph.D.
Professor of physiology and biophysics The University of Mississippi Medical Center
- Keith Thomas Ayoob, EdD, RD
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
- Rebecca Cipriano, MD -OB/GYN
Centra State Medical Center
- Audrey Chun, MD - Geriatrician
Medical Director, Martha Stewart Center for Living Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York
- Charles Hillman, Ph.D
Department of Kinesiology & Community Health The University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
- Elliott B. Hershman, MD
Manhattan Orthopaedics/Lenox Hill Hospital
- William J. Kraemer, PhD, FACSM, CSCS, FNSCA
Exercise Physiologist/Neurobiologist University of Connecticut, Neag School of Education
- Elaine Rosen, PT, DHSc
Queens Physical Therapy Associates/Hunter College
- Lonnie Walton, NASM
Personal Trainer, Owner Fitness Together
The material on this site is for informational purposes only and is not intended as medical advice. It should not be used to diagnose or treat any medical condition. Consult a licensed medical professional for the diagnosis and treatment of all medical conditions and before starting a new diet or exercise program. If you have a medical emergency, call 911 immediately.
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Child sexual abuse is a terrifying idea to contemplate for any parent, but not knowing the child sexual abuse signs can be a big mistake. Missing symptoms of child sexual abuse can mean allowing a child who needs help to go without it and possibly even allowing an abusive relationship to continue.
It is a myth that children report sexual abuse directly after it occurs. More often, people ignore, repress and deny child sexual abuse, often until adulthood. It is only through subtle signs of child sexual abuse that many cases of sexual abuse are even uncovered.
Symptoms of Child Sexual Abuse
Symptoms of child sexual abuse vary depending on the age of the child, the type of abuse and on the child himself (or herself). Different people will react differently to abuse. It's also important to realize that even if seen, the signs and symptoms of sexual abuse may be related to another circumstance altogether and so one should never jump to the conclusion that sexual abuse is occurring.
Symptoms of child sexual abuse are similar to those of other emotional problems such as depression, severe anxiety or nervousness. Symptoms of child sexual abuse include:1
- Eating disorders such as anorexia or bulimia
- Vague complaints of stomach pain or headaches
- Sleep problems
- Bowel disorders, such as soiling oneself (encopresis)
- Genital or rectal symptoms, such as pain during a bowel movement or urination, or vaginal itch or discharge
Child Sexual Abuse Signs
In addition to the physical symptoms of sexual abuse, there are additional child sexual abuse signs. The specific signs are often related to the age of the child with younger children being less able to process and express the sexual abuse.
Particularly in children age 12 and younger, the following are signs of child sexual abuse:2
- Lack of self-esteem / self-destructiveness – the child may make statements that they are worthless, harm themselves or even exhibit suicidal ideation
- Advanced sexual knowledge – the child may possess knowledge beyond his level of development, specifically detailed sexual information.
- Being depressed, withdrawn or excessively fearful
- Drop in school performance
- Sexualized behavior – such as dressing seductively or acting sexually through dolls, around peers or adults. The child may also masturbate excessively.
- Distress around a particular person – the child may not want to spend time with a particular adult
- Seeking excessive time with an adult – he may also be given extra attention, gifts, privileges, etc.
- High-risk behaviors or drug use
A child may also shown signs of sexual abuse in play or through art. Older children may drop hints of sexual abuse before actual disclosure to "test the waters" and see how adults will react to the news. In this case, it's important not to lead the child's disclosure and to be as open, caring and non-judgmental as possible.
More information on: Sexual Abuse Help
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