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We report the discovery of conopressin-T, a novel bioactive peptide isolated from Conus tulipa venom. Conopressin-T belongs to the vasopressin-like peptide family and displays high sequence homology to the mammalian hormone oxytocin (OT) and to vasotocin, the endogenous vasopressin analogue found in teleost fish, the c... | What is the mammalian version of arginine vasotocin? | Conopressin-T belongs to the vasopressin-like peptide family and displays high sequence homology to the mammalian hormone oxytocin (OT) and to vasotocin, the endogenous vasopressin analogue found in teleost fish, the cone snail's prey |
Unmatched masses are often observed in the experimental peptide mass spectra when database searching is performed with the ProFound program. Comparison between theoretical and experimental mass spectra of standard proteins shows that contamination accounts for most of the unmatched masses. In this retrospective analysi... | A common problem in proteomics is the contamination of samples with exogenous proteins (often from other species). These proteins can be found in specific databases. List some contaminants. | Most of the interfering masses originate from trypsin autolysis and human keratins. |
Cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis is a cosmopolitan disease caused by Dirofilaria immitis, a filaroid parasite whose adult worms live for years in the vascular system of its host. Previous studies have shown that D. immitis can use their excretory/secretory (ES) and surface antigens to enhance fibrinolysis, which could li... | Has Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) been reported to be a plasminogen receptor in pathogenic bacteria? | Moreover, several isoforms of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and galectin (GAL) were identified in both antigenic extracts as plasminogen-binding proteins. |
Mutations in the MTM1 gene cause X-linked recessive myotubular myopathy (XLMTM; MIM310400). Myotubularin, the implicated protein, is a phosphoinositide phosphatase that belongs to a large protein family conserved through evolution that also includes the antiphosphatase Sbfl and the protein hMTMR2 mutated in Charcot-Mar... | Which gene test can be used for the X-linked myotubular myopathy? | We screened 29 independant patients with XLMTM phenotype and four with centronuclear myopathy. 87% (21/24) of patients with known MTM1 mutations showed abnormal myotubularin levels, including some with missense mutations. |
Although previous studies including endurance athletes after marathon running have demonstrated biochemical evidence of cardiac injury and have correlated these findings with echocardiographic evidence of cardiac dysfunction, particularly of the right ventricle, a study of marathon athletes incorporating biomarkers, ec... | Has the presence of delayed enhancement been documented in athletes performing strenuous exercise? | No evidence of delayed enhancement of the left ventricular myocardium was found on CMR imaging, suggesting that the increase in cardiac biomarkers after the marathon may not have be due to myocardial necrosis. |
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) own unique capabilities to communicate with nucleic acids and ribonucleoproteins and are emerging as indispensable compositions of the regulatory messages encoded in the genome. Due to lack of 3' termini, circRNAs are more resistant to degradation by exonuclease RNase R and possess greater stab... | Are circRNAs susceptible to degradation by RNase R? | Circular RNAs (circRNAs) own unique capabilities to communicate with nucleic acids and ribonucleoproteins and are emerging as indispensable compositions of the regulatory messages encoded in the genome. Due to lack of 3' termini, circRNAs are more resistant to degradation by exonuclease RNase R and possess greater stab... |
Levodopa is the main pharmacologic treatment for Parkinson's disease. However, the long-term administration of levodopa is associated with the development of motor complications which can seriously compromise patient function. Increasing evidence indicates that such problems are related to abnormal pulsatile stimulatio... | Which two catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) inhibitors can be used for treatment of Parkinson disease? | Stalevo (Orion) combines levodopa, the dopa-decarboxylase inhibitor carbidopa and the catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitor entacapone in a single tablet. |
Telomerase, the ribonucleoprotein enzyme maintaining the telomeres of eukaryotic chromosomes, is up-regulated in the vast majority of human neoplasias but not in normal somatic tissues. Therefore, the telomerase complex represents a promising universal therapeutic target in cancer. Telomeric G-rich single-stranded DNA ... | Which are the most commonly reported pathological states associated with the formation of DNA G-quadruplexes? | We examined G-quadruplex interactive agent, telomestatin (SOT-095), for its ability to inhibit the proliferation of human leukemia cells, including freshly obtained leukemia cells. |
Alport syndrome is an oculo-renal syndrome characterized by a triad of clinical findings consisting of hemorrhagic nephritis, sensorineural hearing loss and characteristic ocular findings. We report a young male patient who presented with painless diminution of vision associated with hearing loss. The importance of oph... | What is the Triad of Alport Syndrome? | Alport syndrome is an oculo-renal syndrome characterized by a triad of clinical findings consisting of hemorrhagic nephritis, sensorineural hearing loss and characteristic ocular findings. |
We have previously shown that macro histone variants (macroH2A) are expressed at low levels in stem cells and are up-regulated during differentiation. Here we show that the knockdown of macro histone variants impaired the in vitro and in vivo differentiation of human pluripotent cells, likely through defects in the sil... | Do histone variant mH2A (macro-H2A) levels decrease upon differentiation? | Here we show that the knockdown of macro histone variants impaired the in vitro and in vivo differentiation of human pluripotent cells, likely through defects in the silencing of pluripotency-related genes |
The identification of promoters and their regulatory elements is one of the major challenges in bioinformatics and integrates comparative, structural, and functional genomics. Many different approaches have been developed to detect conserved motifs in a set of genes that are either coregulated or orthologous. However, ... | Do plant genomes contain CpG islands? | Preliminary analysis shows that promoter location based on the detection of potential CpG/CpNpG islands in the Arabidopsis genome is not straightforward. Nevertheless, because the landscape of CpG/CpNpG islands differs considerably between promoters and introns on the one side and exons (whether coding or not) on the o... |
Fanconi Anemia (FA) is an autosomal recessive syndrome characterized by congenital abnormalities, progressive bone marrow failure, and susceptibility to cancer. FA has eight known complementation groups and is caused by mutations in at least seven genes. Biallelic BRCA2 mutations were shown recently to cause FA-D1. Mon... | Which is the genetic cause for the development of Fanconi anemia complementation group D1? | Biallelic BRCA2 mutations were shown recently to cause FA-D1 |
Genes of the polycomb group function by silencing homeotic selector genes that regulate embryogenesis. In mice, downregulation of one of the polycomb genes, bmi-1, leads to neurological alterations and severe proliferative defects in lymphoid cells, whilst bmi-1 overexpression, together with upregulation of myc-1, indu... | Which cyclin- dependent kinase inhibitor is regulated by Bmi-1? | bmi-1 overexpression induces immortalization due to repression of p16/p19ARF |
The UV-radiation in our environment is part of the electromagnetic radiation, which emanates from the sun. It is designated as optical radiation and reaches from 290-4,000 nm on the earth's surface. According to international definitions UV irradiation is divided into short-wave UVC (200-280 nm), medium-wave UVB (280-3... | What are the 3 types of ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation? | short-wave UVC (200-280 nm), medium-wave UVB (280-320 nm), and long-wave UVA (320-400 nm). |
Dupilumab is a fully human IgG4 monoclonal antibody directed against the α subunit of the interleukin (IL)-4 receptor (IL-4Rα). Since the activation of IL-4Rα is utilized by both IL-4 and IL-13 to mediate their pathophysiological effects, dupilumab behaves as a dual antagonist of these two sister cytokines, which block... | Is dupilumab effective for treatment of asthma? | Expert opinion: Supported by a strategic mechanism of action, as well as by convincing preliminary clinical results, dupilumab currently appears to be a very promising biological drug for the treatment of severe uncontrolled asthma. |
Phycocyanin is a major protein produced by cyanobacteria, but very few phycocyanin-producing strains have been reported. In the present study, response surface methodology (RSM) involving a central composite design for four factors was successfully employed to optimize medium components for increased production of phyc... | Which are the major phycobiliproteins present in cyanobacteria? | Phycocyanin is a major protein produced by cyanobacteria, but very few phycocyanin-producing strains have been reported. |
Grisel's syndrome is a unilateral or bilateral subluxation of C1 on C2, associated with an infectious condition in the head or neck. Anatomic studies have demonstrated the existence of a periodontoidal vascular plexus that drains the posterior superior pharyngeal region. No lymph nodes are present in this plexus, so se... | Atlanto-axial rotary instability (Fielding type 1) is common to what diseases? | Grisel's syndrome is a unilateral or bilateral subluxation of C1 on C2, associated with an infectious condition in the head or neck. |
Twin-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS) is a severe complication of monozygotic (identical) twin fetuses sharing one single (monochorionic) placenta. TTTS is caused by a net inter-twin transfusion of blood through placental anastomoses, from one twin (the donor) to the other (the recipient), which link the two feto-place... | In twin-twin transfusion syndrome, are the twins identical? | Twin-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS) is a severe complication of monozygotic (identical) twin fetuses sharing one single (monochorionic) placenta. |
alpha-Synuclein is a presynaptic protein recently identified as a specific component of Lewy bodies (LB) and Lewy neurites. The aim of this study was to assess the morphology and distribution of alpha-synuclein immunoreactivity in cases of dementia with LB (DLB), and to compare alpha-synuclein with ubiquitin immunostai... | Against which protein is the antibody used for immonostaining of Lewy bodies raised? | alpha-Synuclein is a presynaptic protein recently identified as a specific component of Lewy bodies (LB) and Lewy neurites. |
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and C-type natriuretic peptide are the known members of the mammalian natriuretic peptide system. Like ANP, BNP is a natriuretic and diuretic hormone that also causes peripheral vasodilation and inhibition of the sympathetic and renin-angiotensin syste... | Where does Brain (or B type) Natriuretic Protein, BNP usually originate from? | tic and renin-angiotensin systems. Although originally isolated from porcine brain, the BNP gene is expressed in a specific manner in cardiac myocytes |
H2A.Z is an evolutionary conserved histone variant involved in transcriptional regulation, antisilencing, silencing, and genome stability. The mechanism(s) by which H2A.Z regulates these various biological functions remains poorly defined, in part due to the lack of knowledge regarding its physical location along chrom... | Which yeast nucleosomes are preferentially marked by H2A.Z? | We have identified 4,862 small regions--typically one or two nucleosomes wide--decorated with H2A.Z. Those "Z loci" are predominantly found within specific nucleosomes in the promoter of inactive genes all across the genome. |
Genomic enhancers are important regulators of gene expression, but their identification is a challenge, and methods depend on indirect measures of activity. We developed a method termed STARR-seq to directly and quantitatively assess enhancer activity for millions of candidates from arbitrary sources of DNA, which enab... | What is STARR-seq? | When applied to the Drosophila genome, STARR-seq identifies thousands of cell type-specific enhancers across a broad continuum of strengths, links differential gene expression to differences in enhancer activity, and creates a genome-wide quantitative enhancer map. |
In the last two years, a number of 5-HT1B/1D agonist triptans with enhanced lipophilicity (TELs) relative to the first drug of this class, sumatriptan, have been approved for marketing in most countries of the world (naratriptan, rizatriptan and zolmitriptan). In addition, at least three others are in advanced stage of... | What is the indication for zolmitriptan? | menstrual headaches) either naratriptan or zolmitriptan would be appropriate. |
Escherichia coli 6S RNA represents a non-coding RNA (ncRNA), which, based on the conserved secondary structure and previous functional studies, had been suggested to interfere with transcription. Selective inhibition of sigma-70 holoenzymes, preferentially at extended -10 promoters, but not stationary-phase-specific tr... | What is the function of 6SRNA in bacteria? | Moreover, we show for the first time that 6S RNA acts as a template for the transcription of defined RNA molecules in the absence of DNA. In conclusion, this study reveals new aspects of 6S RNA function. |
Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most lethal brain tumors with a short survival time. EGFR amplification and mutation is the most significant genetic signature in GBM. About half of the GBMs with EGFR amplification express a constitutively autophosphorylated variant of EGFR, known as EGFRvIII. Our in vitro data demonst... | Is cilengitide effective for treatment of glioblastoma? | In conclusion, we demonstrate that EGFRvIII/integrin β3 complexes promote GBM progression and metastasis in the environment of hypoxia and vitronectin-enrichment, and cilengitide may serve as a promising therapeutics for EGFRvIII-positive GBMs. |
Delivery of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) into cells is a key obstacle to their therapeutic application. We designed a protamine-antibody fusion protein to deliver siRNA to HIV-infected or envelope-transfected cells. The fusion protein (F105-P) was designed with the protamine coding sequence linked to the C terminus ... | What is F105-P? | We designed a protamine-antibody fusion protein to deliver siRNA to HIV-infected or envelope-transfected cells. The fusion protein (F105-P) was designed with the protamine coding sequence linked to the C terminus of the heavy chain Fab fragment of an HIV-1 envelope antibody. |
In the last few weeks, the FDA approved three new therapies for multiple myeloma: ixazomib, the first oral proteasome inhibitor; and daratumumab and elotuzumab, two monoclonal antibodies that target CD38 and SLAMF7, respectively. | Which enzyme is inhibited by ixazomib? | In the last few weeks, the FDA approved three new therapies for multiple myeloma: ixazomib, the first oral proteasome inhibitor; and daratumumab and elotuzumab, two monoclonal antibodies that target CD38 and SLAMF7, respectively. |
The interaction of luciferases from two types of luminous bacteria, Photobacterium leiognathi and Vibrio harveyi, with their substrates [the photorecovered FMNH2 and long-chain aldehydes--decanal (C10), dodecanal (C12) and tetradecanal (C14)] in water-organic media was analysed using kinetic graphical methods. Moderate... | List the luciferase substrates | The interaction of luciferases from two types of luminous bacteria, Photobacterium leiognathi and Vibrio harveyi, with their substrates [the photorecovered FMNH2 and long-chain aldehydes--decanal (C10), dodecanal (C12) and tetradecanal (C14)] |
Vortioxetine is an orally administered small molecule developed by Lundbeck A/S for the once-daily treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Vortioxetine received its first global approval for MDD in the USA in September 2013 and regulatory approval for its use in this indicat... | Is vortioxetine effective for treatment of depression? | Vortioxetine is an orally administered small molecule developed by Lundbeck A/S for the once-daily treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Vortioxetine received its first global approval for MDD in the USA in September 2013 and regulatory approval for its use in this indicat... |
Blepharospasm is a focal dystonia in which the extraocular muscles contract repetitively, leading to excessive blinking and forced eyelid closure. Botulinum toxin type A (BoNTA) is the primary symptomatic treatment for blepharospasm and its effects have been evaluated using numerous rating scales. The main scales in us... | What is blepharospasm? | Blepharospasm is a focal dystonia in which the extraocular muscles contract repetitively, leading to excessive blinking and forced eyelid closure. |
Patients with Bertolotti's syndrome have characteristic lumbosacral anomalies and often have severe sciatica. We describe a patient with this syndrome in whom standard decompression of the affected nerve root failed, but endoscopic lumbosacral extraforaminal decompression relieved the symptoms. We suggest that the intr... | Abnormality in which vertebral region is important in the Bertolotti's syndrome? | Patients with Bertolotti's syndrome have characteristic lumbosacral anomalies and often have severe sciatica. |
Chronic gastrointestinal symptoms are commonly reported in autistic patients. Dysphagia is often present, and it is generally related to behavioral eating disorders. The association between autism and esophageal achalasia has not been described in literature yet. We report our experience with three cases of autistic ch... | List the endoscopic diagnoses that have been reported in children with autism | In the last case, a 15-year-old male underwent barium swallow and endoscopy that confirmed achalasia. |
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a complex skin disease frequently associated with other diseases of the atopic diathesis. Recent evidence supports the concept that AD can also recognize other comorbidities, such as chronic inflammatory bowel or cardiovascular diseases. These comorbidities might result from chronic cutaneous ... | Signaling of which pathways is inhibited by Dupilumab? | Best evidence of the clinical efficacy of novel immunologic approaches using biological agents in patients with AD is available for the anti-IL-4 receptor α-chain antibody dupilumab, but a number of studies are currently ongoing with other specific antagonists to immune system players. |
5-methylcytosine (5mC) is converted to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) by the TET family of enzymes as part of a recently discovered active DNA de-methylation pathway. 5hmC plays important roles in regulation of gene expression and differentiation and has been implicated in T cell malignancies and autoimmunity. Here, we... | Is there any role of 5hmC in T-cell development and differentiation? | 5hmC plays important roles in regulation of gene expression and differentiation and has been implicated in T cell malignancies and autoimmunity. |
CpG island hypermethylation and genomic DNA hypomethylation are found not only in gastric cancers but also in associated premalignant lesions. Helicobacter pylori infection induces aberrant CpG island hypermethylation in gastric mucosae. However, little is known about the relationship between H. pylori infection and ab... | Is cancer related to global DNA hypo or hypermethylation? | our findings suggest that CpG island hypermethylation and repetitive DNA hypomethylation are enhanced with progression of the gastric lesion |
Antipsychotics may cause tardive dyskinesia in humans and orofacial dyskinesia in rodents. Although the dopaminergic system has been implicated in these movement disorders, which involve the basal ganglia, their underlying pathomechanisms remain unclear. CB1 cannabinoid receptors are highly expressed in the basal gangl... | What is the cause of Tardive dyskinesia? | Antipsychotics may cause tardive dyskinesia in humans and orofacial dyskinesia in rodents. |
Chromatin immunoprecipitation combined with massively parallel sequencing methods (ChIP-seq) is becoming the standard approach to study interactions of transcription factors (TF) with genomic sequences. At the example of public STAT1 ChIP-seq data sets, we present novel approaches for the interpretation of ChIP-seq dat... | What is known about MER41 repeat sequences? | Furthermore a surprisingly large fraction of the ChIP-seq signal (5%) is absorbed by a small family of repetitive sequences (MER41). |
Carmustine (BCNU: N,N'-bis[2-chloroethyl]-N-nitrosourea) wafers are a local chemotherapeutic agent for the treatment of malignant glioma. They avoid the problems of high toxicity and short half-life associated with systemic delivery, and can bridge the traditional 'treatment gap' between surgery and subsequent conventi... | Do carmustine wafers improve survival of glioblastoma patients? | Clinical trials have demonstrated significant improvements in survival and quality of life for patients after complete tumour resection and BCNU wafer implantation. |
Previously, we found that sperm-associated antigen 5 (SPAG5) was upregulated in pelvic lymph node metastasis-positive cervical cancer. The aim of this study is to examine the role of SPAG5 in the proliferation and tumorigenicity of cervical cancer and its clinical significance in tumor progression. In our study, SPAG5 ... | SPAG5 was implicated in which cancers? | Previously, we found that sperm-associated antigen 5 (SPAG5) was upregulated in pelvic lymph node metastasis-positive cervical cancer. |
Mast cells are ubiquitous in the body and multifunctional immune cells; they are known to be primary responders in allergic reactions, orchestrating strong responses to minute amounts of allergens. Mature mast cells perform important beneficial roles in host defense, both in IgE-dependent immune responses to certain pa... | What biologic process in the body is associated with Mast cells? | In IgE-associated biological responses, the crosslinking of FcεRI-bound IgE with multivalent antigens initiate the activation of mast cells by promoting aggregation of FceRI. |
PIWI-interacting small non-coding RNAs (piRNAs) are genetic and epigenetic regulatory factors in germline cells, where they maintain genome stability, are involved in RNA silencing and regulate gene expression. We found that the piRNA biogenesis and effector pathway are present in human breast cancer (BC) cells and, an... | Are piRNAs involved in gene silencing? | PIWI-interacting small non-coding RNAs (piRNAs) are genetic and epigenetic regulatory factors in germline cells, where they maintain genome stability, are involved in RNA silencing and regulate gene expression |
The authors report a female presenting with congenital heart defects, liver hemangiomas, and facial dysmorphisms admitted to hospital at 3 months of age because of feeding difficulties and poor growth. She had hypotonia and large tongue, "coarse" face, and umbilical hernia in presence of complex congenital cardiovascul... | Which hormone abnormalities are common in Williams syndrome ? | Thyrotropin level was very high (>50 microU/ml; normal value 0.2-4 microU/ml), while serum free T(3) (FT3) and free T(4) (FT4) levels were normal (FT3 3.6 pg/ml, normal value 2.8-5.6 pg/ml; FT4 11.6 pg/ml, normal value 6.6-14 pg/ml); antithyroid autoantibodies were absent. |
Phase II studies using ifosfamide both alone and combined with vindesine and cisplatin have shown the effectiveness of this drug in patients with Ewing's sarcoma (ES) who had relapsed during VAC (vincristine, actinomycin, cyclosphosphamide)/VAd (vincristine, Adriamycin) therapy. In November 1984, these results led the ... | Which drugs are included in the VAC regiment for Ewing's sarcoma? | Phase II studies using ifosfamide both alone and combined with vindesine and cisplatin have shown the effectiveness of this drug in patients with Ewing's sarcoma (ES) who had relapsed during VAC (vincristine, actinomycin, cyclosphosphamide)/VAd (vincristine, Adriamycin) therapy. |
Adipokine leptin regulates neuroendocrine circuits that control energy expenditure, thermogenesis and weight loss. However, canonic regulators of leptin secretion, such as insulin and malonyl CoA, do not support these processes. We hypothesize that epiregulin (EREG), a growth factor that is secreted from fibroblasts un... | What is the effect of epiregulin on leptin secretion? | Our data revealed a new role of EREG in induction of leptin secretion leading to the energy expenditure state. |
Tyro-3, Axl, and Mer constitute the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) characterized by a conserved sequence within the kinase domain and adhesion molecule-like extracellular domains. This small family of RTKs regulates an intriguing mix of processes, including cell proliferation/survival, cell adhesion and... | What membrane proteins constitute TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)? | Tyro-3, Axl, and Mer constitute the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) characterized by a conserved sequence within the kinase domain and adhesion molecule-like extracellular domains. |
Necrobiosis lipoidica is an inflammatory granulomatous skin disease of unknown etiology which is associated with diabetes mellitus in about 60% of the patients. In 15-35% of the affected patients painful ulcerations may occur after minimal trauma which can be extremely refractory to therapy. Because of the unknown path... | Which disease the skin condition Necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum is associated to? | Necrobiosis lipoidica is an inflammatory granulomatous skin disease of unknown etiology which is associated with diabetes mellitus in about 60% of the patients |
ABT-751 is an orally bioavailable sulfonamide with antimitotic properties. A nonrandomized phase 1 dose-escalation study of ABT-751 in combination with CAPIRI (capecitabine and irinotecan) and bevacizumab was conducted to define the maximum tolerated dose, dose-limiting toxicity (DLT), and pharmacokinetics in patients ... | Which drugs are included in the CAPIRI regimen? | A nonrandomized phase 1 dose-escalation study of ABT-751 in combination with CAPIRI (capecitabine and irinotecan) and bevacizumab was conducted to define the maximum tolerated dose, dose-limiting toxicity (DLT), and pharmacokinetics in patients with advanced colorectal cancer. |
The genetic identity of Ixodes granulatus ticks was determined for the first time in Taiwan. The phylogenetic relationships were analyzed by comparing the sequences of mitochondrial 16S ribosomal DNA gene obtained from 19 strains of ticks representing seven species of Ixodes and two outgroup species (Rhipicephalus sang... | Is Ixodes a species of tick? | The phylogenetic relationships were analyzed by comparing the sequences of mitochondrial 16S ribosomal DNA gene obtained from 19 strains of ticks representing seven species of Ixodes and two outgroup species (Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Haemaphysalis inermis). |
Three conclusions may be drawn from this study. First, the morbidity and mortality of intracranial complications of sinusitis remain high in the pediatric inner-city population despite adequate access to medical care. Second, subdural empyema appears to arise in the setting of subacute rather than acute frontal sinusit... | Is subdural empyema a complication of sinusitis? | Second, subdural empyema appears to arise in the setting of subacute rather than acute frontal sinusitis. |
The nonapeptides isotocin (IT) and arginine vasotocin (AVT), along with their mammalian homologs oxytocin and arginine vasopressin, are well known regulators of social behaviors across vertebrate taxa. However, little is known about their involvement in paternal care. Here, we measured the effect of an IT and an AVT V1... | What is the mammalian version of arginine vasotocin? | The nonapeptides isotocin (IT) and arginine vasotocin (AVT), along with their mammalian homologs oxytocin and arginine vasopressin, are well known regulators of social behaviors across vertebrate taxa. |
The objective of this study was to evaluate economically a screening programme within the Oxford Regional Health Authority for Down's syndrome, based on maternal serum alpha fetoprotein, unconjugated oestriol and human chorionic gonadotrophin as well as maternal age (the triple test) against maternal age alone. The des... | What is the triple screening test performed during pregnancy measuring? | maternal serum alpha fetoprotein, unconjugated oestriol and human chorionic gonadotrophin |
Avascular necrosis of a vertebral body, a relatively uncommon entity, is caused by malignancy, infection, radiation, systemic steroid treatment, trauma, and the like.1 Vertebral osteonecrosis induced by trauma is called Kvmell's disease, because it was initially described by Hermann Kvmell of Germany in 1891.2 This pap... | Is Kummell’s disease an avascular necrosis of the vertebral body? | Avascular necrosis of a vertebral body, a relatively uncommon entity, is caused by malignancy, infection, radiation, systemic steroid treatment, trauma, and the like.1 Vertebral osteonecrosis induced by trauma is called Kvmell's disease |
In order to understand how biological systems function it is necessary to determine the interactions and associations between proteins. Some proteins, involved in a common biological process and encoded by separate genes in one organism, can be found fused within a single protein chain in other organisms. By detecting ... | How could we infer functional associations from gene fusion events? | We observed that gene fusion events are more related to physical interaction between proteins than to other weaker functional relationships such as participation in a common biological pathway. |
The pathogenesis of chronic joint inflammation remains unclear, although the involvement of pathogen recognition receptors has been suggested recently. In the present article, we describe the role of two members of the NACHT-LRR (NLR) family, Nod1 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain) and Nod2 in a model of acute... | Is NOD1 activated in inflammation? | In contrast, Nod1 gene-deficient mice developed enhanced joint inflammation with concomitant elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and cartilage damage, consistent with a model in which Nod1 controls the inflammatory reaction. |
Modifications to the core histones are thought to contribute to ESC pluripotency by priming tissue-specific promoters and enhancers for later activation. However, it is unclear how these marks are targeted in ESCs and maintained during differentiation. Here, we show that the ESC factor Sox2 targets H3K4 methylation to ... | Which are the main histone modifications associated with enhancers? | H3K4 methylation to monovalent and bivalent domains |
Lithium is widely used in the treatment of bipolar affective disorders, and teratogenic effects include cardiovascular abnormalities, notably Ebstein anomaly. The most common side effect in the patient taking lithium is polyuria, a form of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. We report the case of a manic-depressive gravida... | What is the link between lithium use during pregnancy and Ebstein anomaly? | Lithium is widely used in the treatment of bipolar affective disorders, and teratogenic effects include cardiovascular abnormalities, notably Ebstein anomaly. |
Polyneuropathy is a rare manifestation of pSS occurring in 1.8% of patients. In the majority of patients, it is a late event and frequently associated with systemic disease or risk factors for lymphoma development. | Are patients with Sjogren syndrome at increased risk for lymphoma? | In the majority of patients, it is a late event and frequently associated with systemic disease or risk factors for lymphoma development. |
The heterogeneous breast cancers can be classified into different subtypes according to their histopathological characteristics and molecular signatures. Foxa1 expression is linked with luminal breast cancer (LBC) with good prognosis, whereas Twist1 expression is associated with basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) with poo... | Which cancer types are associated with mutations in the TWIST1 gene? | Foxa1 expression is linked with luminal breast cancer (LBC) with good prognosis, whereas Twist1 expression is associated with basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) with poor prognosis owing to its role in promoting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasiveness and metastasis. |
Plasmepsins are aspartic proteases involved in the initial steps of the hemoglobin degradation pathway, a critical stage in the Plasmodium falciparum life cycle during human infection. Thus, they are attractive targets for novel therapeutic compounds to treat malaria, which remains one of the world's biggest health pro... | Could plasmepsins be used as targets for developing anti-malaria drugs? | These results shed light on the role of V105 and T108 residues in plasmepsin specificities, and they should be useful in structure-based design of novel, selective inhibitors that may serve as antimalarial drugs. |
TNF blockers have been available to treat various inflammatory disorders since more than a decade. T cells and macrophages mainly express TNF and activate many cells through two types of receptors. Pharmaceutical companies developed two types of TNF blockers: soluble receptors and monoclonal antibodies. Understanding o... | What is the chemical structure of Etanercept (ETN)? | Etanercept has the best retention rate in rheumatic diseases, but is less or not effective in granulomatous diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases or uveitis. |
Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized at the cellular level by a high frequency of spontaneous chromosomal aberrations; crosslinking agents cause an abnormal increase in the frequency of chromosomal damage, and semiconservative DNA synthesis is severely inhibited. Deoxyribonucleotides are needed in both semiconservative... | What is the disease in which patients are sensitive to DNA crosslinking agents, presenting with a high frequency of chromosomal aberrations? | Fanconi anemia (FA) is characterized at the cellular level by a high frequency of spontaneous chromosomal aberrations; crosslinking agents cause an abnormal increase in the frequency of chromosomal damage, and semiconservative DNA synthesis is severely inhibited. |
Two rare cases of intractable epilepsy caused by Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumours (DNET) are reported and their different management discussed. The first case required vagal nerve stimulation and radiosurgery while the later was operated with the help of neuronavigation. Both had good outcome according to Engel... | Can radiosurgery be used for the DNET tumors? | Two rare cases of intractable epilepsy caused by Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumours (DNET) are reported and their different management discussed. The first case required vagal nerve stimulation and radiosurgery while the later was operated with the help of neuronavigation. |
Cri-du-chat syndrome is associated with a deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. Through the phenotypic and molecular analyses of individuals with a subset of the features associated with the syndrome, the genes involved in the syndrome have been mapped to two distinct critical regions. Deletion of a critical regio... | Is Cri Du Chat associated with an expansion of a repeat with in the gene found on chromosome 5? | Cri-du-chat syndrome is associated with a deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. |
To assess neurological impairments quantitatively in an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), we have used a targeted model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which leads to the formation of anatomically defined lesions in the spinal cord. Deficits in the hindlimb locomotion are therefore well defin... | Which is the most widely used model for the study of multiple sclerosis (MS)? | To assess neurological impairments quantitatively in an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), we have used a targeted model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) |
Significant interest in the pharmacogenetics of warfarin therapy has been triggered with the recent package insert update that highlights the potential role of pharmacogenetics in improving the safety and effectiveness of warfarin. We review the evidence of the influence of the two key genes of interest, the cytochrome... | Which genes are involved in patient response to warfarin? | The influence of CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes on warfarin dose requirements has been consistently demonstrated in diverse racial and ethnic patient groups in observational studies and randomized clinical trials. |
We report a novel method for the chromatographic separation and measurement of stable carbon isotope ratios (delta(13)C) of individual amino acids in hair proteins and bone collagen using the LC-IsoLink system, which interfaces liquid chromatography (LC) with isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). This paper provides ... | Which bone protein is used in archaelogy for dating and species identification? | We report a novel method for the chromatographic separation and measurement of stable carbon isotope ratios (delta(13)C) of individual amino acids in hair proteins and bone collagen using the LC-IsoLink system, which interfaces liquid chromatography (LC) with isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). |
Soon after qualification, Fortescue Fox (1858-1940) began practice in a Scottish spa where he acquired a lifelong interest in chronic disorders, especially arthritis. He worked to improve the status of spa medicine, recasting it as medical hydrology. At the start of the First World War, his interests turned to the hand... | Is medical hydrology the same as Spa therapy? | He worked to improve the status of spa medicine, recasting it as medical hydrology. |
Barth syndrome is an X-linked cardiac and skeletal mitochondrial myopathy. Barth syndrome may be due to lipid alterations because the product of the mutated gene is homologous to phospholipid acyltransferases. Here we document that a single mitochondrial phospholipid species, tetralinoleoyl-cardiolipin, was lacking in ... | What is the inheritance of Barth syndrome? | Barth syndrome is an X-linked cardiac and skeletal mitochondrial myopathy. |
G-Quadruplex (G4) DNA (G4 DNA) and RNA (G4 RNA) are secondary nucleic acid structures that have multiple roles in vital cellular processes. G4 DNA- and RNA-binding proteins and unwinding helicases associate with and regulate G4s during virtually all processes that involve DNA and RNA. DEAH-Box helicase 36 (DHX36), a me... | Summarize the function of DEAH helicase DHX36 and its role in G-quadruplex-dependent processes. | DEAH-Box helicase 36 (DHX36), a member of the large DExD/H box helicase family, enzymatically unwinds both G4 DNA and G4 RNA. |
Viltolarsen is a phosphorodiamidate morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (PMO) designed to skip exon 53 of the DMD gene for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), one of the most common lethal genetic disorders characterized by progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles and cardiomyopathy. It was develop... | Is viltolarsen effective for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy? | Viltolarsen restores the reading frame of the DMD gene by skipping exon 53 and produces a truncated but functional form of dystrophin. |
The genome of metazoan cells is organized into topologically associating domains (TADs) that have similar histone modifications, transcription level, and DNA replication timing. Although similar structures appear to be conserved in fission yeast, computational modeling and analysis of high-throughput chromosome conform... | Is the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) genome organized into topologically associated domains (TADs)? | In contrast, herein we analyze Hi-C data for budding yeast and identify 200-kb scale TADs, whose boundaries are enriched for transcriptional activity. |
Agrin signals through the muscle-specific receptor tyrosine kinase (MuSK) to cluster acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) on the postsynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). This stands as the prevailing model of synapse induction by a presynaptic factor, yet the agrin-dependent MuSK signaling cascade is large... | What kind of enzyme is encoded by the proto-oncogene ABL1? | Abl1 (previously known as Abl) and the Abl1-related gene product Abl2 (previously known as Arg) define a family of tyrosine kinases that regulate actin structure and presynaptic axon guidance. Here we show that the Abl kinases are critical mediators of postsynaptic assembly downstream of agrin and MuSK. |
Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is an autosomal dominant incurable skeletal muscle disease. FSHD1 constitutes 95% of cases and is linked to truncation of the D4Z4 macrosatellite at 4q35. In most cases the condition initially presents with facial and proximal weakness of the upper limbs, but over the cours... | Which are some symptoms of FSHD? | Here we performed an analysis of 643 FSHD1 patients in the UK FSHD patient registry, investigating factors affecting rate of onset of 5 major FSHD symptoms: facial, periscapular, foot dorsiflexor, hip girdle weakness, and hearing loss. |
DNA methylation mostly occurs within the context of CpG dinucleotides and is essential for embryonic development and gene repression. It is generally accepted that DNA methyltransferases carry out specific and non-overlapping functions, Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b being responsible for the establishment of methylation around the... | Which enzyme is involved in the maintenance of DNA (cytosine-5-)-methylation? | We propose here observations in support of the hypothesis that the maintenance of methylation and subsequent silencing of a handful of germ line genes requires Dnmt3b but not Dnmt1. |
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2D is a hereditary axonal and glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GARS)-associated neuropathy that is caused by a mutation in GARS. Here, we report a novel GARS-associated mouse neuropathy model using an adenoviral vector system that contains a neuronal-specific promoter. In this model, we found th... | Is glycyl-tRNA synthetase gene involved in the development of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease? | Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2D is a hereditary axonal and glycyl-tRNA synthetase (GARS)-associated neuropathy that is caused by a mutation in GARS. |
Growth plate chondrocytes undergo a tightly regulated process of differentiation, allowing for the longitudinal growth of bones. Although it is known that parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP) and Indian hedgehog regulate the differentiation of growth plate chondrocytes, how these pathways interact to regulate ch... | What is the function of the Indian hedgehog protein in chondrocytes? | Although it is known that parathyroid hormone related protein (PTHrP) and Indian hedgehog regulate the differentiation of growth plate chondrocytes, how these pathways interact to regulate chondrocyte development is not fully elucidated |
Although considered a specific marker for Ewing's sarcoma/peripheral neuroectodermal tumour, the MIC2 gene product (CD99) has been immunolocalised in a variety of human tumours. The present study evaluated immunohistochemically the prevalence of CD99 expression in a series of 68 neuroendocrine tumours of different gast... | Is CD99 encoded by MIC2 gene? | Although considered a specific marker for Ewing's sarcoma/peripheral neuroectodermal tumour, the MIC2 gene product (CD99) has been immunolocalised in a variety of human tumours. |
Craniosynostosis can be gene-linked, or caused by metabolic diseases, such as rickets, which results from a deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D, magnesium, phosphorus or calcium leading to hypomineralization of the bone. X-linked dominant hypophosphatemic rickets (XLHR) is the most prevalent genetic type of ... | Could hypophosphatemic rickets cause craniosynostosis? | Craniosynostosis can be gene-linked, or caused by metabolic diseases, such as rickets, which results from a deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D, magnesium, phosphorus or calcium leading to hypomineralization of the bone. |
Historically, before the advent of modern imaging and genetic testing, Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) was more of a diagnostic challenge and less of a treatment challenge. This is because the natural history of TSC was poorly understood and TSC-specific treatments were non-existent. In the current era, diagnosis is m... | Which are the clinical characteristics of TSC? | Periodic imaging surveillance for development of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (SEGA), preferably by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) every 1-3 years, is now standard of care |
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex heterogeneous disease, posing challenges to clinical trials. As in other autoimmune diseases, B-lymphocytes play a central role in lupus pathogenesis. The finding that selection and survival of B cells are controlled by a variety of signals, including those provided by th... | Which is the target of belimumab in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus treatment? | Belimumab is a fully human monoclonal antibody directed against BAFF. |
Visual snow is a symptom described as the continuous perception of tiny flickering dots in the entire field of vision, similar to static of an analog television. Visual snow syndrome is a cluster of symptoms found highly prevalent in patients that present with visual snow. While most of these symptoms appear to be visu... | Describe symptoms of the Visual snow syndrome. | Visual snow is a symptom described as the continuous perception of tiny flickering dots in the entire field of vision, similar to static of an analog television. |
Methylation of cytosine residues in DNA plays an important role in regulating gene expression during vertebrate embryonic development. Conversely, disruption of normal patterns of methylation is common in tumors and occurs early in progression of some human cancers. In vertebrates, it appears that the same DNA methyltr... | Which enzyme is involved in the maintenance of DNA (cytosine-5-)-methylation? | We obtained evidence that some 5-methylcytosine residues in these single-stranded DNAs can stimulate de novo methylation of adjacent sites by murine DNA 5-cytosine methyltransferase as effectively as 5-methylcytosine residues in double-stranded DNA stimulate maintenance methylation. |
The NIH FACEBASE consortium was established in part to create a central resource for craniofacial researchers. One purpose is to provide a molecular anatomy of craniofacial development. To this end we have used a combination of laser capture microdissection and RNA-Seq to define the gene expression programs driving dev... | What is the purpose of the FaceBase consortium? | This FACEBASE resource is designed to promote discovery by the craniofacial research community. |
Epigenetic events play a prominent role during cancer development. This is evident from the fact that almost all cancer types show aberrant DNA methylation. These abnormal DNA methylation levels are not restricted to just a few genes but affect the whole genome. Previous studies have shown genome-wide DNA hypomethylati... | Could DNA (cytosine-5-)-methyltransferases serve as tumour markers? | A regulator of de novo DNA methyltransferases DNMT3A and DNMT3B, DNMT3L promoter was found to have lost DNA methylation to varying levels in 14 out of 15 cancer cervix samples analysed. The present study highlights the importance of DNA methylation profile at DNMT3L promoter not only as a promising biomarker for cervic... |
Protein synthesis is a key regulated cellular process that links nutrient availability and organismal growth. It has long been known that some cellular proteins continue to be synthesized under conditions where global translation is severely compromised. One prominent example is the selective translation of heat shock ... | How is mTORC1 involved in the regulation of heat stress? | stress-induced preferential translation of Hsp70 mRNA is negatively regulated by PI3K-mTORC1 signaling |
A scanning electron microscope study has enabled an explanation as to why the brown-tail moth provokes Lepidopterism. The brown-tail moth only provokes Lepidopterism via a transmission of the urticating hairs of its caterpillar. Urticating moths (genus Hylesia and Anaphae) protect their eggs and young caterpillars with... | What causes erucism? | thus it is very ambiguous to label erucism as the contact dermatitis produced by caterpillar production or Lepidopterism as the contact dermatitis caused by moth urticating hairs. |
Cytotoxic agents may cause interstitial or eosinophilic pneumonitis, alveolar proteinosis, pulmonary venous occlusive disease, pulmonary fibrosis, pneumothorax, or pulmonary oedema. These agents may also potentiate lung injury caused by radiotherapy or high oxygen fractions in inspired air. Clinical and roentgenologica... | What class of drugs is commonly associated with Drug-induced interstitial lung disease (DIILD)? | Cytotoxic agents may cause interstitial or eosinophilic pneumonitis, alveolar proteinosis, pulmonary venous occlusive disease, pulmonary fibrosis, pneumothorax, or pulmonary oedema |
External-beam radiotherapy plays a critical role in the treatment of most pediatric solid tumors. Particularly in children, achieving an optimal therapeutic index to avoid damage to normal tissue is extremely important. Consequently, in metastatic disease, the utility of external-beam radiotherapy is limited. Molecular... | What is molecular radiotherapy? | Molecular radiotherapy with tumor-targeted radionuclides may overcome some of these challenges |
The current understanding of epigenetic signaling assigns a central role to post-translational modifications that occur in the histone tails. In this context, it has been proposed that methylation of K9 and phosphorylation of S10 in the tail of histone H3 represent a binary switch that controls its reversible associati... | In which proteins is the chromodomain present? | To test this hypothesis, we performed a comprehensive molecular dynamics study in which we analyzed a crystallographically defined complex that involves the HP1 chromodomain and an H3 tail peptide. |
Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is a treatment administered with the aim of removing a pathogenic material or compound causing morbidity in a variety of neurologic, hematologic, renal, and autoimmune diseases. In this study, we aimed to assess the indications, efficacy, reliability, complications, and treatment respo... | Treatment with plasma exchange (TPE) is used for what diseases | Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is a treatment administered with the aim of removing a pathogenic material or compound causing morbidity in a variety of neurologic, hematologic, renal, and autoimmune diseases. |
Thyroid hormone is a major determinant of energy expenditure and a key regulator of mitochondrial activity. We have previously identified a mitochondrial triiodothyronine receptor (p43) that acts as a mitochondrial transcription factor of the organelle genome, which leads, in vitro and in vivo, to a stimulation of mito... | Does triiodothyronine play a regulatory role in insulin secretion from pancreas? | Our findings establish that p43 is an important regulator of glucose homeostasis and pancreatic β-cell function and provide evidence for the first time of a physiological role for a mitochondrial endocrine receptor. |
CD44, a cell adhesion molecule, has been implicated in tumor invasion and metastasis in certain malignancies. We studied the expression of CD44 standard (CD44s) and variant isoforms (CD44v) in 98 non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLCs) by immunohistochemistry and correlated the observations with clinical outcome. Forma... | Are CD44 variants (CD44v) associated with poor prognosis of metastasis? | Expression of CD44v6 may suggest an increased risk for local lymph node metastasis in NSCLCs |
alpha-helical transmembrane (TM) proteins play important and diverse functional roles in cells. The ability to predict the topology of these proteins is important for identifying functional sites and inferring function of membrane proteins. This paper presents a Hidden Markov Model (referred to as HMM_RA) that can pred... | List available methods for transmembrane protein topology prediction. | This paper presents a Hidden Markov Model (referred to as HMM_RA) that can predict the topology of alpha-helical transmembrane proteins with improved performance. HMM_RA adopts the same structure as the HMMTOP method, which has five modules: inside loop, inside helix tail, membrane helix, outside helix tail and outside... |
Erabutoxins a and b are neurotoxins isolated from venom of a sea snake Laticauda semifasciata (erabu-umihebi). Amino acid sequences of the toxins indicated that the toxins are members of a superfamily consisting of short and long neurotoxins and cytotoxins found in sea snakes and terrestrial snakes. The short neurotoxi... | Does Curare function by stimulating the acetylcholine receptor? | The short neurotoxins to which erabutoxins belong act by blocking the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor |
The discovery that the Human PapillomaVirus (HPV) is the necessary cause of cervical cancer has led to the development of prophylactic vaccines. Cervical cancer is the second most common cause of death from cancer among young women in Europe: mortality is still high, despite its important reduction due to screening pro... | To what extent does HPV vaccination reduce the risk for cervical cancer? | Organized vaccination programs against HPV have the potential to prevent about 70% of cervical cancers and the vast majority of the other HPV-related conditions. |
Severe hyperhomocysteinemia in its most frequent form, is caused by a homozygous enzymatic deficiency of cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS). A major complication in CBS deficiency is deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. A recent report by Mandel et al (N Engl J Med 334:763, 1996) postulated factor V Leiden (FVL... | Can methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene mutations cause homocystinuria? | We studied 24 patients with homocystinuria caused by homozygous CBS deficiency from 18 unrelated kindreds for FVL and for the 677C-->T mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene and investigated their possible interaction in the risk of venous thrombosis |
Certain malignant B cells rely on B-cell receptor (BCR)-mediated survival signals. Spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) initiates and amplifies the BCR signal. In in vivo analyses of B-cell lymphoma cell lines and primary tumors, Syk inhibition induces apoptosis. These data prompted a phase 1/2 clinical trial of fostamatinib d... | Which enzyme is inhibited by a drug fostamatinib? | These data prompted a phase 1/2 clinical trial of fostamatinib disodium, the first clinically available oral Syk inhibitor, in patients with recurrent B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL). |
Hepcidin is the key regulator of iron metabolism. Iron supplementation is often introduced in dialyzed patients to replete or to maintain iron stores, particularly in patients treated with erythropoietic-stimulating agents. The present study was aimed to assess possible relation between hepcidin and erythropoietin ther... | Hepcidin is a key regulator of what processes? | Hepcidin is the key regulator of iron metabolism. |
Regulatory T (T(reg)) cells are essential for maintenance of immune homeostasis. Foxp3 is the key transcription factor for T(reg)-cell differentiation and function; however, molecular mechanisms for its negative regulation are poorly understood. Here we show that YY1 expression is lower in T(reg) cells than T(conv) cel... | What is the function of the YY1 transcriptional regulator? | YY1 inhibits Smad3/4 binding to and chromatin remodelling of the Foxp3 locus. |
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors collectively comprise a presently unique form of disease management for persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The aim of this review is to compare the clinical pharmacokinetics of available DPP-4 inhibitors (alogliptin, linagliptin, saxagliptin, sitagliptin and vildagliptin) f... | What are 'vildagliptin', 'sitagliptin', 'saxagliptin', 'alogliptin', 'linagliptin', and 'dutogliptin'? | When considered in total, data reviewed in this report suggest that the best overall balance between potency and the clinical pharmacokinetic characteristics of distribution, metabolism and elimination may be observed with linagliptin followed closely by vildagliptin, saxagliptin, sitagliptin and alogliptin. |
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