title,paragraph
Notgeld,"Notgeld (German for 'emergency money' or 'necessity money') is money issued by an institution in a time of economic or political crisis. The issuing institution is usually one without official sanction from the central government. This usually occurs when not enough state-produced money is available from the central bank. In particular, notgeld generally refers to money produced in Germany and Austria during World War I and the Interwar period. Issuing institutions could be a town's savings banks, municipalities and private or state-owned firms. Nearly all issues contained an expiry date, after which time they were invalid. Issues without dates ordinarily had an expiry announced in a newspaper or at the place of issuance.
Notgeld was mainly issued in the form of (paper) banknotes. Sometimes other forms were also used: coins, leather, silk, linen, wood, postage stamps, aluminium foil, coal, and porcelain; there are also reports of elemental sulfur being used, as well as all sorts of re-used paper and carton material (e.g. playing cards). These pieces made from playing cards are extremely rare and are known as Spielkarten, the German word for 'playing cards'.
Notgeld was a mutually-accepted means of payment in a particular region or locality, but notes could travel widely. Some cases of Notgeld could better be defined as scrip, which were essentially coupons redeemable only at specific businesses. However, the immense volume of issues produced by innumerable municipalities, firms, businesses, and individuals across Germany blurred the definition. Collectors tend to categorize by region or era rather than issuing authority (see below). Notgeld is different from occupation money (e.g. Japanese invasion money) that is issued by an occupying army during a war.


== Germany ==
Dr Arnold Keller, historian and orientalist, classified German Notgeld into different periods. Keller edited a magazine called Das Notgeld during the ""collector phase"" of Notgeld issuance. He compiled a series of catalogs in the years afterward. Although incomplete in many cases, his work formed the foundations of the hobby.


=== Notgeld in World War I ===

Notgeld was released even before Germany entered World War I. On 31 July 1914 three notes were issued by the Bürgerliches Brauhaus GmbH of Bremen (a brewery). This was due to hoarding of coins by the population in the days before war was declared. The first period of Notgeld continued until the end of 1914, but mostly ceased once the German Reichsbank made up for the shortage with issues of small denomination paper notes and coins of cheaper metal.
As the war dragged on, acute monetary shortages could not be met by the German central bank, leading to a new period of Notgeld beginning in 1916. Additionally, the non-precious metals used to mint lower value coins were needed to produce war supplies. Dr Keller arranged this period into two catalogs: Kleingeldscheine for issues of less than 1 Mark face value and Grossgeldscheine for values 1 Mark and higher. This period of issue came to a close in 1919.


=== World War I prison camp money ===
Although camp money used by prisoners of war was different from Notgeld, collectors inevitably lumped this material into the hobby. The period covered the entire war, 1914–1918. This field of collecting may include World War II issues, though this covers only notes circulated in concentration camps, as the German Luftwaffe in charge of prisoners of war prepared a general issue of notes for all camps under their direction.


=== Collector series ===

Though the production of Notgeld was initially amateurish, with many set by typewriter or even handwritten, collectors soon appeared on the scene to take hold of the expired 1914 stock. With the next wave of issues in the latter half of the war, Notgeld production was handled by professional printers. These issues incorporated pleasing designs, and a new reason for hoarding came into being.
As the issuing bodies realized this demand, they began to issue notes in 1920, well after their economic necessity had ended. They may have been motivated by the success of Austrian collector Notgeld earlier in the year (see below). Notes were issued predominantly in 1921 and were usually extremely colorful. These depicted many subjects, such as local buildings, local scenery and folklore, as well as politics. Many were released in series of 6, 8, or more notes of the same denomination, and tell a short story, with often whimsical illustrations. Often, they were sold to collectors in special envelope packets printed with a description of the series.
Keller published information on releases in his magazine Das Notgeld. Often, he used his publication to criticize issuers for charging collectors more money for the series than their face value.
These collector-only sets, which were never intended to circulate, were known as Serienscheine (pieces issued as a part of a series). Quite often, the validity period of the note had already expired when the Notgeld was issued. As such, they are usually found in uncirculated condition, and are most favored by collectors all over the world.


=== 1922 and 1923: Hyperinflation ===

In 1922, due to uncontrolled printing of money, inflation started to get out of control in Germany, culminating in hyperinflation. Throughout the year, the value of the mark deteriorated faster and faster, and new money was issued in higher and higher denominations. The Reichsbank could not cope with the logistics of providing all these new notes, and Notgeld was again issued—this time in denominations of hundreds and then thousands of Marks.

By July 1923, the Reichsbank had totally lost control of the economy. Notgeld flooded the economy; it was issued by any city, town, business, or club that had access to a printing press, in order to meet the ever-increasing rise in prices. Even Serienscheine were being hand-stamped with large denominations to meet the demand. By September, Notgeld was denominated in the tens of millions; by October, in billions; by November, trillions.
On November 12, the Reichsbank declared the Mark to be valueless, and ceased all issuance. By now, Notgeld was being denominated in the form of commodities or other currencies: wheat, rye, oats, sugar, coal, wood, quantities of natural gas, and kilowatt-hours of electricity. These pieces were known as Wertbeständige, or notes of ""fixed value"". There were also Notgeld coins that were made of compressed coal dust. These became quite rare, as most of them were eventually traded with the coal merchant issuer for actual coal and some may have even been burned as fuel.


=== Goldmark Notgeld ===
In January 1924, the Reichsbank fixed the value of the new Rentenmark in gold. One U.S. dollar was now equivalent to 4.2 Rentenmark (or 4.2 trillion old Papiermark, which were permitted to be exchanged beginning 30 August 1924). Until that date, a few municipalities issued Notgeld with denominations of 4.2 Mark or multiples or fractions of that. After that date, Goldmarkscheine of regular denominations were briefly issued, until the Reichsbank forbade any further interference in the economy by local authorities.


=== Bausteine ===
During the Interwar period, local municipalities and civic groups capitalized on the public memories of Notgeld by issuing certificates aimed at collectors, to raise funds for various building projects. These ""Building Blocks"" (Bausteine) tended to be of relatively high face value and issued in very limited numbers.


=== Notgeld after World War II ===
The Reichsbank kept strict control of the economy during World War II, and forbade local authorities from independently meeting money shortages. After Germany's defeat, the Allied Military Control issued currencies for each of their respective areas of control, but did not alleviate coin scarcity. The dire situation after the war forced municipalities to once again issue Notgeld to help the population meet small change needs.  Finally, the Currency Reform of June 1948 created the Deutsche Mark and prohibited issuance of Notgeld. Apart from commemorative pieces issued sporadically, the era of Notgeld in Germany came to a close.


== Austria ==


=== Revolution of 1848 ===

Austrian municipalities experienced coin shortages during the revolution of 1848, especially in the Czech towns, and therefore many municipalities and industrial concerns issued Notgeld as a temporary measure. By 1850, the state finances were in such an order as to render them unnecessary, though certain parts of Hungary still experienced shortages as late as 1860, requiring Notgeld-type issues.


=== World War I ===
As in Germany, municipalities in Austria-Hungary issued Notgeld at the beginning of World War I. In most cases, small change scarcity was severest in the industrial Czech towns of Bohemia and Moravia. From the end of the war into 1919, German-speaking towns of the new Czechoslovakia issued Grossgeldscheine notes until the authorities forbade them to do so.


=== Prison camp money ===
As with Germany, collectors tended to lump Austro-Hungarian prison camp money in with Notgeld. Most issues date from 1916–1917, with the majority of camps situated in Austria proper, Hungary, and Czech territories.


=== Collector series ===
In 1920, hundreds of small towns across Upper and Lower Austria, but also many towns in Salzburg, Tyrol, and Styria, issued sets of collectible Notgeld, usually in three denominations with expiry dates of three months from issuance. Nearly all were printed on thin paper, often in runs (Auflage) of different colors or shades. Some of these notes actually circulated, but the vast majority entered private collections, and the scheme's success in raising funds for destitute town budgets convinced German towns to do the same thing (see above).
After the initial run of regular series, there were numerous releases of ""special issues"" (Sonderscheine) featuring different designs and denominations, fanciful overprints, or the same design as the general issues but in expensive metallic inks on different paper types. Many of these special issues were printed in very small quantities in order to charge premiums to collectors. Groups of rural villages issued Sonderscheine, even though some had populations of only a few dozen inhabitants.


=== Depression-era Schwundgeld ===
In a bid to increase economic activity, several depressed municipalities in the Alps regions of Austria experimented with demurrage currency features in their Notgeld during the period 1932–1934. As the notes lost value (Schwund) over time, the idea was to convince holders to spend them quickly, thereby spurring economic activity. Notes had dated spaces for demurrage coupons to be affixed to them, and each one lessened the total value as they were added. The effort was unsuccessful because the scale of the experiment was too small to show any benefit.


== In other countries ==


=== Ireland (1689–1691) ===

The forces of James II minted coins in base metal (copper, brass, pewter) during the Williamite War in Ireland, which were known as gun money, because some of the metal was sourced from melted-down cannon. It was intended that, in the event of James' victory, the coins could be exchanged for real silver coins. They were also stamped with the month of issue so that soldiers could claim interest on their wages. As James lost the war, that replacement never took place, but the coins were allowed to circulate at much reduced values before the copper coinage was resumed.


=== Sweden (1715–1719) ===
In Sweden, between 1715 and 1719, 42 million coins with the nominal value 1 daler silver were manufactured, but made in copper, with a much smaller metal value. All silver coins were collected by the government, which replaced them with the copper coins. They were called nödmynt ('emergency coins'). This was done to finance the Great Northern War. The government promised to exchange them into the correct value at a future time, a kind of bond made in metal. Only a small part of this value was ever paid.


=== Belgium (1914–1918) ===

Throughout the German occupation of Belgium during World War I there was a shortage of official coins and banknotes in circulation. As a result, around 600 communes, local governments and companies issued their own unofficial ""necessity money"" (French: monnaie de nécessité, Dutch: noodgeld) to enable the continued functioning of the local economies. These usually took the form of locally produced banknotes, but a few types of coins were also issued in towns and cities. In 2013, the Museum of the National Bank of Belgium digitized its collection of Belgian Notgeld, which is available online.


=== France (1914–1927) ===
Between 1914 and 1927, large amounts of monnaie de nécessité were issued in France and its North African colonies during the economic crisis caused by World War I. Among the issuing authorities were companies and local chambers of commerce.


=== Spain (1936-1939) ===
Emergency currency circulated in Spain during the Spanish Civil War.


=== Others ===
The concept of Notgeld as temporary payment certificates is nearly as old and widespread as paper money itself. Other countries using Notgeld-style temporary money include the following (date ranges are approximate):


== See also ==

Porcelain money
Scrip
Siege money
Token coin


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Notgeld at Wikimedia Commons
Info and pictures about German notgeld
Info about notgeld and collecting German notgeld
German and Austrian Notgeld Banknotes
High-resolution images of many German Notgeld Banknotes
Information and pictures to all Austrian Notgeld periods
Notgeld at notafilia.com.br
Annotated Directory of German Series Notes
Notgeld photographs on Flickr
Belgian emergency money from the First World War: an online collection (in French)
Catalog of German notgeld coins (Numista)
Catalog of German notgeld banknotes (Numista)
Catalog of French notgeld coins (Numista)
Catalog of French notgeld banknotes (Numista)"
2000 in the United States,"The following lists events that happened during 2000 in the United States.


== Incumbents ==


=== Federal government ===
President: Bill Clinton (D-Arkansas)
Vice President: Al Gore (D-Tennessee)
Chief Justice: William Rehnquist (Virginia)
Speaker of the House of Representatives: Dennis Hastert (R-Illinois)
Senate Majority Leader: Trent Lott (R-Mississippi)
Congress: 106th


== Demographics ==


== Events ==


=== January ===
January 4 – Alan Greenspan is nominated for a fourth term as U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman.
January 5–8 – The 2000 al-Qaeda Summit of several high-level al-Qaeda members (including two 9/11 American Airlines hijackers) is held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
January 10 – America Online announces an agreement to purchase Time Warner for $162 billion (the largest-ever corporate merger).
January 12 – Elián González affair: Attorney General Janet Reno rules that a child rescued by the Coast Guard must be returned to his father in Cuba.
January 14 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at 11,722.98 (at the peak of the Dot-com bubble).
January 19 – A dorm fire at Seton Hall University kills three people and injures several others. Seven years later, Sean Ryan and Joseph LePore are convicted of arson and sentenced to five years in prison.
January 26 – The rap-metal band Rage Against the Machine plays in front of Wall Street, prompting an early closing of trading due to the crowds.
January 30 – Super Bowl XXXIV: The St. Louis Rams win the NFL Championship for the first time since 1951, defeating the Tennessee Titans 23–16 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta.
January 31 – Alaska Airlines Flight 261 crashes in the Pacific Ocean, killing all 88 people on board.


=== February ===
February 11 – A blast from an improvised explosive device in front of a Barclay's Bank, across from the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street, wounds dozens but kills none.
February 13 – The final original Peanuts comic strip is published, following the death of its creator, Charles M. Schulz.
February 17 – Microsoft releases Windows 2000.


=== March ===
March 7 – Texas Governor George W. Bush and U.S. Vice President Al Gore emerge victorious in the Republican and Democratic caucuses and primaries of the United States presidential election.
March 9 – The FBI arrests art forgery suspect Ely Sakhai in New York City.
March 10 – The Nasdaq Composite Index reaches an all-time high of 5,048.
March 20 – Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin (H. Rap Brown), a former Black Panther, is captured after a gun battle in Atlanta, Georgia that leaves a sheriff's deputy dead.
March 21 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the government lacks authority to regulate tobacco as an addictive drug, throwing out the Clinton administration's main anti-smoking initiative.
March 26 – The 72nd Academy Awards, hosted by Billy Crystal, are held at Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. Sam Mendes' American Beauty wins five awards out of eight nominations, including Best Picture and Director. The telecast garners over 46.5 million viewers.
March 27 – The 2000 Phillips explosion kills one and injures 71 in Pasadena, Texas.


=== April ===
April – The unemployment rate drops to a low of 3.8%, the lowest since December 1969.
April – The labor force participation rate hits a historical peak of 67.4%.
April – The employment-population ratio reaches an all-time high of 64.8%.
April 1
The 2000 United States census determines the resident population of the United States to be 281,421,906.
Boomerang, a secondary digital Cartoon Network channel, debuts.
April 2 – The World Wrestling Federation holds WrestleMania 2000 at the Arrowhead Pond in Anaheim.
April 3 – United States v. Microsoft: Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust laws by keeping ""an oppressive thumb"" on its competitors.
April 22 – In a predawn raid, federal agents seize 6-year old Elián González from his relatives' home in Miami, Florida and fly him to his Cuban father in Washington, DC, ending one of the most publicized custody battles in U.S. history.
April 25 – The State of Vermont passes HB847, legalizing civil unions for same-sex couples.
April 28 – Richard Baumhammers begins a two-hour racially motivated shooting spree in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, leaving five dead and one paralyzed.


=== May ===
May 1 – Bill Clinton announces that accurate GPS access would no longer be restricted to the United States military.
May 3 – In San Antonio, Texas, computer pioneer Datapoint files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
May 16 – The Federal Reserve raises its benchmark interest rate by half a percentage point to 6.5 percent, the first increase of more than a quarter point since February 1995.
May 19 – Walt Disney Pictures' 39th feature film, Dinosaur, is released.
May 24 – Five people are shot and killed during a robbery at a Wendy's in Queens, New York.
May 28 – The comic strip Bringing Up Father ends its 87-year run in newspapers.
May – Northern Lights Local Exchange Point is founded.


=== June ===
June 1 – Expo 2000, the world's fair in Hanover, Germany, begins without the attendance of the United States.
June 5 – 405 The Movie, the first short film widely distributed on the Internet, is released.
June 7 – United States Microsoft antitrust case: A Court orders the breakup of the Microsoft corporation because of its monopoly in the computer software market.
June 19 – The Los Angeles Lakers defeat the Indiana Pacers in the 2000 NBA Finals in six games.
June 28 – Elián González affair: Elián González returns to Cuba with his father.


=== July ===
July 12 – A 30-year-old American mechanic named Thomas Jones is pursued by law enforcement officers from the Philadelphia Police Department in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. More than one dozen officers beat and attacked Jones while he was wounded.
July 14 – X-Men, directed by Bryan Singer, is released as the first film in the X-Men film series.
July 31–August 3 – The Republican National Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania nominates Texas Governor George W. Bush for U.S. president and Dick Cheney for vice president.


=== August ===
August 8 – The Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley is raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor.
August 14 – Dora the Explorer premieres on Nick Jr. with the episode ""The Legend of the Big Red Chicken.""
August 14–17 – The Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles nominates U.S. Vice President Al Gore for president and Senator Joe Lieberman for vice president.


=== September ===
September 3 – The 5.0 Mw Yountville earthquake shook the North Bay area of California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong), causing 41 injuries and $10–50 million in losses.
September 4 – Caillou and Clifford the Big Red Dog premiere on PBS Kids.
September 6 – In Paragould, Arkansas, Breanna Lynn Bartlett-Stewart is stillborn to Jason Stewart and Lisa Bartlett. Breanna Lynn's stillbirth is notable for being the first stillbirth to be identified by means of the Kleihauer–Betke test.
September 8 – The United Nations Millennium Declaration is made in New York City.
September 15–October 1 – The United States compete at the Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, and win 37 gold, 24 silver, and 32 bronze medals.


=== October ===

October 1 – In the final baseball game played at Three Rivers Stadium, the Pittsburgh Pirates lose to the Chicago Cubs 10–9.
October 3 – The first debate of the presidential election is held at the University of Massachusetts Boston with Jim Lehrer moderating.
October 5 – Bernard Shaw hosts the vice presidential debate between Joe Lieberman and Dick Cheney.
October 11
250 million US gallons (950,000 m3) of coal sludge spill in Martin County, Kentucky (considered a greater environmental disaster than the Exxon Valdez oil spill).
Jim Lehrer hosts the second presidential debate at Wake Forest University.
October 12 – In Aden, Yemen, the USS Cole is badly damaged by two Al-Qaeda suicide bombers, who place a small boat laden with explosives alongside the United States Navy destroyer, killing 17 crew members and wounding at least 39.
October 16 – Missouri Governor Mel Carnahan dies in a plane crash while campaigning for the U.S. Senate.
October 17 – The final debate of the presidential election takes place at Washington University in St. Louis.
October 23 – Madeleine Albright holds talks with North Korean dictator Kim Jong Il.
October 26 – The New York Yankees defeat the New York Mets in Game 5 of the 2000 World Series, 4–1, to win their 26th World Series title. This is the first Subway Series matchup between the two crosstown rivals. It is the Yankees' fourth World Series win under manager Joe Torre.


=== November ===
November 6 – Toxicologist Kristin Rossum murders her husband Gregory de Villers in San Diego by poisoning him with fentanyl. She successfully passes off the crime as a suicide for several months before being charged.
November 7
2000 United States presidential election: Republican candidate Texas Governor George W. Bush defeats Democratic Vice President Al Gore in the closest election in history, but the outcome is not known for over a month because of disputed votes in Florida.
Hillary Clinton is elected to the United States Senate, becoming the first First Lady of the United States to win public office.
Just three weeks after his death, Mel Carnahan is posthumously elected to the United States Senate defeating Republican incumbent John Ashcroft. Then-Governor Roger B. Wilson appoints his widow, Jean Carnahan, to fill the seat for him.
November 8 – U.S. presidential election, 2000: Per Florida law, an automatic recount begins in the state due to the narrow margin of the outcome.
November 12 – The United States recognizes the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
November 16 – Bill Clinton becomes the first sitting U.S. president to visit Vietnam.
November 17
U.S. presidential election, 2000: The Supreme Court of Florida prevents Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris from certifying the election results, allowing recounting to continue.
Nickelodeon's Rugrats in Paris: The Movie is released in theaters.
Dr. Seuss's live action film How the Grinch Stole Christmas, with Jim Carrey is released to theaters.


=== December ===

December 8 – U.S. presidential election, 2000: The Supreme Court of Florida orders a statewide manual recount of the votes in the presidential election. The next day the U.S. Supreme Court places a stay on this order.
December 12 – U.S. presidential election, 2000 – Bush v. Gore: The U.S. Supreme Court overturns the ruling by the Florida Supreme Court, ending the recount and effectively giving the state, and the Presidency, to Texas Governor George W. Bush. The following day, U.S. Vice President Al Gore concedes the election and suspends the activities of his recount committee.
December 13 – The Texas Seven escape from their prison unit in Kenedy, Texas, and start a crime spree.
December 15 – Walt Disney Pictures' 40th feature film, The Emperor's New Groove, is released after years of production issues. Though the box office haul is disappointing compared to Disney's Renaissance-era releases, it is later praised as one of their best films of the post-Renaissance era.
December 16
Property appraiser Jerry Michael Williams is reported missing after going duck hunting at Lake Seminole and is assumed to have accidentally drowned. His wife Denise is convicted of his murder 18 years later.
The Pittsburgh Steelers close out the final game at Three Rivers Stadium with a 24–6 victory over the Washington Redskins.
December 20 – Brothers Reginald and Jonathan Carr break into a house in Wichita, Kansas, subjecting the occupants to rape and torture, and eventual murder. Only one of the occupants survived and the brothers were caught the next day. The event became known as the Wichita massacre.
December 24 – The Texas Seven rob a sports store in Irving, Texas; police officer Aubrey Hawkins is shot dead.
December 26 – Wakefield Massacre: Michael McDermott kills seven coworkers at Edgewater Technology in Wakefield, Massachusetts.
December 28 – U.S. retail giant Montgomery Ward announces it is going out of business after 128 years.
December 31 – President Bill Clinton signs the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.


=== Ongoing ===
Iraqi no-fly zones conflict (1991–2003)
Dot-com bubble (c. 1995–c. 2002)
Y2K Scare (1998–2000)


== Births ==


=== January ===

January 1 – Ice Spice, rapper
January 4 – Rhiannon Leigh Wryn, actress
January 7
Brody Malone, artistic gymnast
Marcus Scribner, actor
January 8 – Noah Cyrus, actress
January 9
Flo Milli, rapper
Toosii, rapper
January 10 – Reneé Rapp, actress and singer
January 11 – Shareef O'Neal, basketball player
January 20 – Katie Meyer, soccer player (d. 2022)
January 26 – Piper Mackenzie Harris, actress and model
January 28 – Julia Lester, singer and actress


=== February ===

February 1 – Paris Smith, American actress and singer
February 5 – Jordan Nagai, actor
February 14 – Catie Turner, singer
February 10 – Yara Shahidi, actress
February 21 – Lauren Godwin, TikToker
February 25
Tucker Albrizzi, actor
Daniel Benoit, son of Nancy Benoit and murdered by his father Chris Benoit (d. 2007)


=== March ===

March 5 – Gabby Barrett, singer-songwriter
March 6 – Jacob Bertrand, actor
March 10 – Norah Flatley, artistic gymnast
March 14 – ChriseanRock, internet personality and rapper
March 17 – Taylor Heise, hockey player
March 21 – Jace Norman, actor
March 25
Camden Pulkinen, figure skater
Sha'Carri Richardson, sprinter
Christian Traeumer, actor
March 27 – Halle Bailey, musician and actress
March 28 – Matthew DeLisi, gamer
March 30
Colton Herta, race car driver
Regan Mizrahi, actor


=== April ===

April 6 – CJ Adams, actor
April 7 – Big Scarr, rapper (died 2022)
April 9 – Jackie Evancho, singer
April 10 – Surf Mesa, electronic musician
April 11
Alexei Krasnozhon, Russian-American figure skater
Morgan Lily, actress
April 12 – David Hogg, gun-control activist
April 21 – Riley Gaines, swimmer
April 23 – Chloe Kim, snowboarder


=== May ===
May 1 – 9lokkNine, rapper
May 7 – Maxwell Perry Cotton, actor
May 18 – Carlie Hanson, musician
May 23 – Jaxson Hayes, basketball player
May 27 – Jade Carey, artistic gymnast
May 30 – Jared S. Gilmore, actor
May 31 – Gable Steveson, wrestler


=== June ===

June 1 – Willow Shields, actress
June 2 – Andy Lopez, student (d. 2013)
June 8
Hayes Grier, Internet personality
Charlotte Lawrence, singer-songwriter
June 9 – Laurie Hernandez, artistic gymnast
June 13
Hotboii, rapper
Daniella Perkins, actress and internet personality
June 14 – Bobby Witt Jr., baseball player
June 16 – Tay-K, rapper and convicted murderer
June 17 – Odessa A'zion, actress
June 22 – Maliq Johnson, actor


=== July ===

July 7 – Chloe Csengery, actress
July 8
Sophie Nyweide, actress (d. 2025)
Benjamin Stockham, actor
July 14 – Maia Reficco, actress and singer
July 16 – Jonathan Morgan Heit, actor
July 24 – Ame Deal, murder victim (d. 2011)
July 25
Preston Bailey, actor
Mason Cook, actor
Meg Donnelly, actress
July 28
Emily Hahn, actress
Audrey Mika, singer


=== August ===

August 1 – Lil Loaded, rapper (d. 2021)
August 3
Landry Bender, actress
Ron Suno, rapper and youtuber
August 10 – Sophia Wilson, Soccer player
August 12 – Prince Achileas-Andreas of Greece and Denmark, son of Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece
August 13 – Piper Reese, journalist
August 15 – Umi Garrett, classical pianist
August 17 – Lil Pump, rapper
August 20 – Fátima Ptacek, actress and model
August 20 – Nor Sarah Adi, Malaysian pole vaulter
August 24 – Griffin Gluck, actor
August 25 – Nick Mira, record producer
August 27 – Oluwatoyin Salau, activist and murder victim (d. 2020)
August 28 – Marissa Bode, actress
August 29 – Adam Nash, notable child


=== September ===

September 3 – Ashley Boettcher, actress
September 5 – Josiah-Jordan James, basketball player
September 12 – Laine Hardy, singer
September 22 – Tallan Latz, guitar player
September 28 – Frankie Jonas, actor


=== October ===

October 2 – Quadeca, rapper and youtuber
October 6
Jazz Jennings, YouTube personality
Addison Rae, social media personality and dancer
October 9 – Harrison Burton, stock car racer
October 10 – Aedin Mincks, actor
October 11
Hayden Byerly, actor
Adin Ross, youtuber
October 13 – Lydia Night, musician
October 18 – Sophie Thatcher, actress
October 20 – Alana Smith, skateboarder
October 22 – Baby Keem, rapper
October 25 – Vincent Zhou, figure skater
October 26 – Ellery Sprayberry, actress
October 27 – Jaclyn Corin, activist
October 31 – Willow Smith, actress, singer, and the daughter of Will and Jada Pinkett Smith


=== November ===

November 7 – Dara Reneé, actress
November 8 – Jade Pettyjohn, actress
November 10 – Mackenzie Foy, model and actress
November 11 – Cameron Kasky, activist
November 13 – 24kGoldn, rapper
November 22
Auliʻi Cravalho, actress
Baby Ariel, singer-songwriter, actress, and social media personality.
November 28 – Jenna Nighswonger, soccer player


=== December ===

December 9 – Jaren Lewison, actor
December 12
JiDion, youtuber
Lucas Jade Zumann, actor
December 16 – Lance Lim, actor
December 22 – Joshua Bassett, actor and singer
December 24 – Ethan Bortnick, singer, composer, songwriter, actor, and musician
December 26 – Samuel Sevian, American-Armenian chess grandmaster
December 27 – Kyren Lacy, football player (d. 2025)


=== Full date unknown ===
Brigid Harrington, actress, singer, dancer and voice artist
Marla Olmstead, artist


== Deaths ==


== See also ==
2000 in American soccer
2000 in American television
List of American films of 2000


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to 2000 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons"
Gordon Wood (American football),"Gordon Lenear Wood (May 25, 1914 – December 17, 2003) was an American high school football coach in Texas. He was a head football coach for forty-three seasons, winning or sharing twenty-five district championships and nine state championships.
Wood mainly ran a variant of the single wing formation, called ""Warren Woodson Wing T"", named after the former Hardin–Simmons coach whom Wood admired. Though it was primarily a running offense, Wood was ahead of his time because his teams could also pass effectively from it.


== Early life ==
Wood was the fourth son and the youngest of eight children. He grew up in West Texas, mostly in and around Abilene spending most of his childhood picking cotton to help support his family. He decided not to be a cotton farmer at the age of twelve when his family's crops failed and his father moved him to other farms in West Texas and New Mexico to pick and pull cotton. Wood stayed on those farms from late summer until November and didn't start school until December. His father never appreciated education, so Wood didn't start school until he was seven years old. Because his family moved around so much, Wood attended several different schools in and around Abilene before he graduated from Wylie High School in 1934.
Wood was active in sports throughout his education and got his first taste of competition when he played basketball in the sixth grade. In seventh grade, Wood played in the first football game he had ever seen. He misinterpreted the ""fight"" chants at the pep rally, and during the game, he spent most of his time beating up the opponent he was supposed to block. In tenth grade, Wood transferred to Abilene High School because the Wylie school did not suit out a football team. He played football for eight weeks before he succumbed to pressure from his father, who didn't think his son should be wasting time on sports and school, and transferred back to Wylie High School. At Wylie, Wood continued to play basketball and run track. He was an excellent athlete and a starter in both sports.
In 1934, Wood was the third fastest runner in Taylor County and was scouted by coach Leslie ""Fats"" Cranfill from Hardin–Simmons University, who offered Wood a partial athletic scholarship to Hardin–Simmons. After some convincing, Wood's father gave him his blessing and set his son up living with a friend in Abilene. Eventually, Wood earned a full scholarship, and the University provided him with room and board. At Hardin–Simmons, Wood played football and basketball, ran track, and boxed in order to maintain his scholarship. Despite nearly flunking out his first semester, Wood did well in college. He was never a star athlete at the university, but he did learn a lot about sports and coaching. It was at Hardin–Simmons that Wood decided he wanted to be a coach.


== Spur and Rule high schools ==
After he graduated from Hardin–Simmons in 1938, Wood received his first coaching job as an assistant at Spur High School. He was the assistant coach for football and head coach for track and basketball under head coach, Blackie Wadzeck. Coach Wood coached at Spur for two years when Coach Wadzeck, was promoted to high school principal. Originally the school board offered Wood the head coaching position, but rescinded their offer when they thought a better candidate came into the picture.
Coach Wood found his first head coaching position at Rule High School in 1940. Rule was already in the midst of a nineteen-game losing streak when Wood took over, and he had a hard time improving their record. He lost the three opening games of the season extending the streak to twenty-two before he earned his first win as a head coach. Rule ended the season with only two wins and eight losses. The next year Wood won the opening game over his old coaching grounds at Spur, but finished the season with only three wins, three losses, and two ties. After two years, Coach Wood finished his first head-coaching job at Rule with a record of five wins, eleven losses, and two ties. Wood was looking forward to a better third season at Rule, but after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, he resigned from his position at Rule and enlisted in the Navy.


== Navy ==
Wood initially washed out of the Navy Officer's Candidacy School, but the Navy realized he had training skills, and Wood was made into a chief petty officer. He trained new recruits and traveled around the nation escorting men to training facilities. Wood was able to coach while in the Navy. In 1942, while he was waiting to be called up for duty, the Abilene school district hired Coach Wood on a day-to-day basis, and he was able to coach spring training for seventh and eighth graders. The following fall, while on furlough for a few weeks, Wood was asked to fill in as head football coach at Haskell High School where he is credited with one win. Wood also coached basketball in the Navy using new recruits to form teams. He would often convince men to play for him as they rolled in for training.
It was in the Navy that Wood met his wife Katharine. He was spending a night out in San Diego when the two met. Gordon and Katharine courted for two months before they married in January 1945. A few weeks later they were expecting their first child. Their daughter, Patricia Wood, was born in September 1945, just days before Gordon Wood received his discharge.


== Roscoe, Seminole, and Winters ==
Because he was a schoolteacher before the war, the Navy allowed Wood to discharge early when he found a job as the principal at Roscoe, Texas High School. At Roscoe, Wood taught three math courses, drove the school bus, and coached football, basketball, and track. While coaching at Roscoe, Coach Wood started using his legendary winged-T offensive formation for the football team. In his first year coaching at Roscoe, Wood took his team through an undefeated season and won the district championship only to lose the first game in the state playoffs. The next year, Roscoe lost the opening game of the season, but it was two ties in district play that cost them the district title and kept them out of the 1946 playoffs. Coach Wood ended his career at Roscoe with sixteen wins, two losses, and two ties.
In 1947, Coach Wood followed Roscoe's superintendent to become Seminole, Texas High School's head coach. Seminole offered better pay, a larger high school, and a less stressful job. Coach Wood was no longer a principal, had no math courses to teach, and was helped by three assistants. It was at Seminole that Coach Wood first hired Morris Southall to be his assistant coach. The two became lifelong friends and coached together for thirty-one years. In 1947, Seminole won the district championship with nine wins and one loss but lost the first game of the state playoffs. The next season the football team went 6–3–1, followed by a 4–4–2 season in 1949. After the 1949 season, Coach Wood resigned as head coach, leaving Seminole with nineteen wins, nine losses, and three ties. Coach Southall took over as head coach at Seminole, while Coach Wood moved on to Winters High School. At Winters, Coach Wood's football team went 6–4 in 1950, but the poor condition of the gym and neglect from the school board caused him to resign after only one season.


== Stamford ==
Coach Wood found his next coaching job at Stamford, Texas High School. His first season in 1951, the Stamford Bulldogs won nine games, but one loss to district rival Anson kept them out of the district championship and the state playoffs. The next year, Stamford went undefeated in the regular season followed by Coach Wood's first ever playoff win. Stamford won two playoff games before losing to Terrell in the state semifinals. Coach Wood ended the 1952 season with thirteen wins and one loss. In 1953, Coach Wood took Stamford through another undefeated season, this time losing to Phillips in the state quarterfinals, and ending the 1953 season with eleven wins and one loss. In 1954, Wood had another winning season when Stamford won nine games, but a loss to Colorado City kept them out of the district championship and the state playoffs. That loss would be the last Coach Wood or Stamford would see for the next couple of years.
In 1955, Coach Wood brought Stamford to yet another undefeated season followed by playoff victories. This time Stamford went undefeated in the playoffs ending their season with a 34 to 7 victory over Hillsboro to claim the state championship. The Stamford Bulldogs went undefeated again in 1956, earning Coach Wood back-to-back state championships and extending the team's winning streak to 32 games. The 1957 season started well when three opening victories brought the streak up to 35, but Sweetwater ended Stamford's long years of success with a 24 to 7 victory over the Bulldogs. A second loss to the Seymour Panthers shut out Stamford's hopes for another district title and another shot at the state crown. The next year Coach Wood moved on to Victoria, while Stamford claimed another set of back-to-back championships in 1958 and 1959. Wood ended his career at Stamford with eighty wins and six losses, a 93% winning record.


== Victoria ==
In 1958, a much better paying job enticed Wood to leave West Texas for the first time as a head coach. He landed in Victoria, Texas, where he reunited with Assistant Coach Morris Southall. That year, Wood also hired Kenneth West as an assistant coach. West had played for Wood at Stamford in 1951. The two grew to be longtime friends and coached together for twenty years. Their first season at Victoria, Wood, Southall, and West shocked many Victoria fans and brought the team a 6–4 winning season. Then Coach Wood brought Victoria another winning season in 1959 with six wins, three losses, and one tie. Wood was getting paid well in Victoria, making about $10,000, but a lack of fan support and homesickness for West Texas convinced him to move back west. He left Victoria with twelve wins, seven losses, and one tie.
The job he really wanted was San Angelo Central, which had just opened after Bob Harrell resigned. However, it eventually went to Emory Bellard, so Wood had to settle for Brownwood.
Before they left Victoria, the Wood family decided to add another member. In 1959, Gordon and Katharine decided to adopt a baby. They had been trying for years to have a second child, and while in Victoria, a friend convinced them to adopt. They adopted a newborn baby boy into their family in 1959 and named him Jim Wood.


== Brownwood ==
Coach Wood found his last head coaching position at Brownwood, Texas High School in 1960. Coach Southall followed Wood to Brownwood, and the two finished their careers together with the Lions. A few years later, Coach West would also reunite with Coaches Wood and Southall. West coached for Coach Wood until being promoted to an assistant principal in 1984.
The Brownwood Lions had long been on the losing side of the football field, only winning one district championship between 1920 and 1959. 1960 was Coach Wood's first year in Brownwood and he brought the team a 13–1 season. Temple was the only loss the Lions received that year and Brownwood easily claimed the district title for the first time in many years. The Lions went undefeated in the playoffs and won their first state championship, beating Port Lavaca Calhoun 26 to 6 for the state crown.
In 1961, Terry Southall, the first of Coach Southall's three sons, suited out for the Brownwood varsity squad. Coach Wood's team won eight games that season with one loss in non-district play, but a tie with Breckenridge also meant a tie for the district title. Breckenridge advanced to the state playoffs on penetrations, while the Lions turned in their gear. In 1962, Brownwood went undefeated in the regular season with Terry Southall leading the way at quarterback. The Lions scored one playoff victory before losing to Dumas 36–18 in the state quarterfinals and ending the season with eleven wins and one loss. 1963 produced a winning season for Brownwood, but two losses to Stephenville and Wichita Falls Rider kept them out of the state finals. The Lions ended the season with eight wins and two losses. 1964 was also a winning season, but seven wins wasn't enough that year. A tie with Graham and two losses to Cleburne and Wichita Falls Hirschi left Brownwood players sitting at home for another playoff series.
In 1965, Coach Wood picked up a tip from Coach Pete Elliot and converted his Lions' defense to Elliot's ""Illinois Defense"". The change paid off well, and Brownwood was six games into the season before another team scored. Coach Wood's team won fourteen games to claim the district title and their second state championship without a loss on their record. Si Southall, Coach Southall's second son, joined the Lions' varsity squad the following season in 1966. Southall led the team at quarterback to eight victories, but losses to Abilene Cooper and Vernon cost Brownwood another shot at the playoffs. 1967 proved to be a better year. Brownwood suffered their first loss to Abilene Cooper and tied Wichita Falls Hirschi 21 to 21, but with Si Southall and thirteen returning lettermen leading the way, Brownwood captured twelve more wins and their third state championship before they turned in their gear in December.
The 1968 Brownwood Lions opened the season with a loss to Abilene Cooper followed by a win over Fort Worth Trimble Tech and a second loss to Wichita Falls Washington. Brownwood went undefeated in district play and faced Washington again in the district championship game. This time Coach Wood's Lions defeated the Leopards to secure another district title, but Brownwood lost the first game of the playoffs to Lubbock Estacado 49–0, ending their season with nine wins and three losses. 1969 was Coach Wood's tenth season at Brownwood, and he brought the Lions another winning season. Early losses to Abilene Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, and Abilene nearly stopped the Lions, but Coach Wood led the team to an undefeated district season and another district title. Brownwood capped off the season with a 21 to 12 victory over Bonham for Brownwood's fourth state title in Coach Wood's ten-year tenure.
The third Southall son, Shae, joined the squad in 1970, and Coach Wood was able to bring him and the other Lions to another winning season. After losing the opening game to Abilene Cooper, Brownwood claimed victories over twelve opponents and won another district title. A tie to Monahans nearly cut Brownwood's playoff tour short, but Brownwood advanced on penetrations and defeated Cuero 14 to 0 to claim the Lions' fifth state crown. This was Coach Wood's second set of back-to-back state championships. After the season ended, the city of Brownwood decided to set aside a special day for Coach Wood. On 1971-05-14, he was honored at a ceremony where he was accompanied by former players, coaches, senators, representatives, the Lieutenant Governor of Texas, University of Texas Head Coach Darrell Royal, and even former President Lyndon Johnson, who was the key speaker at the ceremony.
The 1971 season opened with two losses to Abilene Cooper and Abilene High, but Coach Wood left no disappointment the rest of the season, and the Lions claimed their fifth straight district title. Coach Wood was able to get his team as far as the state semifinals, where they were defeated 10 to 8 by Plano. In 1972, Brownwood opened their season in the newly built Cen-Tex Stadium. Abilene Cooper upset the stadium's christening with a 27 to 13 victory over the Lions. The next week Sweetwater cost Brownwood another loss. Iowa Park and Burkburnett also defeated the Lions before the season finally ended. Even though Brownwood had a winning season with six wins, those four losses cost them their long held district title and their shot at the state playoffs. In 1973, Brownwood defeated Abilene Cooper for the first time in seven years. The Lions would go on to take nine more victories, but a loss to Wichita Falls Hirschi cost them the state playoffs. The district championship was declared a tie, but because they had defeated Brownwood, Hirschi advanced to the state playoffs.
In 1974, Brownwood lost their season opener to Abilene Cooper, but went undefeated the rest of the season to claim the district championship. They won two playoff games before tying Gainesville at 20. Gainesville advanced to the finals on first downs, and the Lions turned in their equipment. In 1975, Coach Wood suited out his son, Jim Wood, at the end position. That year, Brownwood lost their opening game to Abilene Cooper, and a loss to Perryton in district play cost the Lions the district title. The 1977 season fared better. After an undefeated season, the Lions clinched the district title and advanced through the state playoffs only to lose the state championship game to Dickinson, 40 to 28. In 1978, Brownwood lost the opening game to Abilene Cooper, but that game was later forfeited and Brownwood went undefeated the rest of the season to reclaim the district title. Coach Wood led the team to their sixth state championship with an undefeated record of fifteen wins.
Wood opened up the 1979 season with a loss to Abilene Cooper. The Lions suffered a second loss to San Angelo Lake View, but Coach Wood was able to scratch nine more wins on his record to claim the district title. The Lions won their first playoff game only to lose, 15 to 11 to Beaumont Hebert in the state quarterfinals. The next season, Coach Wood lost the opening games to Abilene Cooper and Breckenridge. The Lions would tie another non-conference game to Weatherford at 0 before going undefeated the rest of the season and claiming another district title. 1980 also played another role in Brownwood's history, as Cen-Tex Stadium was renamed Gordon Wood stadium. The Lions inaugurated the stadium's new name with a 34 to 7 victory over Stephenville on October 24. After the regular season, Wood's Lions won the opening round of the playoffs against Wichita Falls Hirschi, but lost to Lubbock Estacado 14 to 0 in the quarterfinals. The Lions turned in their gear with eight wins, three losses, and one tie.
Wood started the 1981 season with a loss to Abilene Cooper, but that would be the only loss the Lions would see that season. Brownwood went on to win thirteen victories to claim another district title and their seventh state championship. The Lions opened up the next season with their first win over Abilene Cooper since 1977. That game was also historical because it was Wood's 366th win, which tied Red Franklin's record set back in 1958. When Brownwood won their next game over Weatherford, Coach Wood became the winningest high school football coach in the United States with 367 wins. Although his team lost to San Angelo Central and another loss to Cleburne (9–3 at TCU's Amon G. Carter Stadium, est attendance of 38,000 fans) cost the Lions their district crown the UIL passed a new rule in 1982, which allowed two teams from each district to advance to the state playoffs. Brownwood took the second place spot, but lost their first game in the playoffs to Gainesville, 14 to 12. Wood's team put away their cleats with nine wins and three losses.
In 1983, Coach Wood suffered non-conference losses to Abilene Cooper and San Angelo Central, and a  30–3 home, district loss to the Cleburne Yellow Jackets cost Brownwood's Lions the district title. Wood won the rest of the regular season games that year finishing with eight wins, but Brownwood lost a nail-biter to Vernon 11 to 6 in the first playoff game. Wood took the Lions to six more wins in 1984, but losses to Cleburne, Abilene Cooper, and Everman, and a tie with the Killeen Kangaroos left Brownwood in third place in their conference. The Lions had to sit out the 1984 playoff season. Wood lost three regular season games in 1985 to Killeen, Joshua, and the Cleburne Yellow Jackets. But the Lions tied for second place in their district and made it into the state playoffs. Brownwood defeated Mineral Wells in the first playoff game, but lost to Lubbock Estacado 29 to 28 in the quarterfinals. That was Wood's last game and he ended the season with eight wins and four losses. Wood spent twenty-six seasons at Brownwood before he retired at the age of 71. Altogether at Brownwood, Coach Wood won 15 district championships, 2 co-district championships, seven state championships, and gained a record of 257 wins, 52 losses, and 7 ties, an 82% winning record.


== Legacy ==
Coach Paul ""Bear"" Bryant of Alabama was once asked why he left Texas A&M for the University of Alabama. Bryant said, ""I left Texas A&M because my school called me. Mama called, and when Mama calls, then you just have to come running."" Bryant had played at Alabama from 1931–1934. Later, Bryant was again asked why he left A&M, and he replied, ""I had to leave Texas. As long as Gordon Wood was there, I could never be the best coach in the state.""
Wood is remembered throughout the coaching realms as always being a student of football. Former Dallas Cowboys' head coach, Bill Parcells, once told the story of how Wood drove five hours each day for weeks just to watch his Texas Tech linebackers practice. Baylor's former head coach, Grant Teaff, said that Wood once spent the night in his film room just to ask how a particular play had been run. He had also been a major opponent to the ""no pass, no play"" laws of the early 1980s. Wood hardly lost any players after the laws had been passed.
After his retirement, Wood stayed very active in the coaches associations he had become involved with over the years. He gave an abundant number of speeches and is notable for being one of Grant Teaff's Master Coaches in 2002. Over the years, Wood developed several medical conditions including skin tumors, artificial hips, a stroke, and having triple bypass surgery in 1990. He attempted to keep up with his hobbies, but over the years his conditions would no longer allow him to do so. The only hobby Wood would never give up is football. Even after retirement, he would travel across the state to watch high school teams compete on the gridiron. He watched many high school games vigorously until he died in December 2003. Coach Wood suffered from a heart attack and died at the age of 89.


== Record ==
Wood set a state and national record with a total of 396 wins, 91 losses, and 15 ties in 43 seasons as a head Texas high school football coach, an 80% winning record. Over those 502 games, Wood made stops at eight schools and won eleven state championships, nine in football. His first state title came from his 1948 Seminole track team, and his second was his 1954 Stamford golf team. The first two of his nine football state championships came from his 1955 and 1956 Stamford teams. He won seven more at Brownwood in 1960, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1978, and 1981. On top of that he either won or shared 25 district titles.
Wood's original record had been believed to be 405–88–12 (81%). He was awarded for that record at the Texas Sports Hall of Fame, which had inducted him in 1983. Coach Wood was believed to be the only coach to ever achieve four hundred wins, however, the 405 wins record came under scrutiny when researchers found discrepancies in 2001. After corrections were made, the Dallas Morning News reported that his record had been modified and officially stood at 396–91–15. Since his retirement, four other high school coaches in the US, including Coach G.A. Moore from Sherman, Texas, have broken Coach Wood's 396 wins record.


== Awards and accomplishments ==
On top of setting the record for most wins in the twentieth century, Coach Wood has received numerous other awards and accomplishments. He coached four Texas All Star Teams: two in 1957 and 1958, and two at the Oil Bowl Classic in 1977 and 1985. His teams won in 1958 and 1977. Coach Wood also gained experience with professional football when he coached the summer camp for the Canadian League's Winnipeg Blue Bombers from 1972 to 1974.
The Texas Sportswriters Association named Wood Coach of the Year three times: 1956, 1970, and 1978. The Texas High School Coaches Association named him their president in 1959 and inducted him into their Hall of Honor in 1967.[1] Hardin–Simmons University presented Wood with the Distinguished Alumni Award in 1979 and inducted him into the Hall of Fame in 1996. In 1979, the National High School Athletic Coaches Association named him the National High School Football Coach of the Year and, in 1996, inducted him into their Hall of Fame [2]. The American Football Coaches Association decided to honor Wood in 1983; the same year he was inducted into the Texas High School Coaches Hall of Fame and the Texas Sports Hall of Fame. In 1984, Wood was inducted into the National High School Hall of Fame.
The Touchdown Club of Houston presented Wood with the Touchdowner of the Year Award in 1986. In 1999, the NCAA presented Wood with the Football Coaches of America Lifetime Achievement Award (Grant Teaff Award). In 1993, Martin Communications Publications named Coach Wood Co-Coach of the Century along with Coach Paul Tyson in their Tops in Texas. In 1999, the Dallas Morning News named Wood Coach of the Century. Wood liked the name so much, it became the title of his 2001 autobiography, Coach of the Century: an Autobiography by Gordon Wood. Of all the honors Coach Wood has received, his personal favorite was having Brownwood's football stadium named for him in 1980. Wood had been deeply involved in building the stadium. He was also the best coach of Texas high school football ever.


== Further reading ==

Cashion, Ty (1998). Pigskin Pulpit: A Social History of Texas High School Football Coaches. Austin: Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 0-87611-168-1.
Cohen, Rachel (August 1, 2001). ""Recount Can't Change Legacy: Coach Says Report Doesn't Diminish Solid Reputation"". Dallas Morning News. pp. 1B & 11B.
Bill Hart, ""Gordon Wood: A Teacher and a Winner"" King Football: Greatest Moments in Texas High School Football History, ed. Mike Bynum, pp. 238–247 (Birmingham: Epic Sports Classics, April 2003)
Kostya Kennedy and Mark Bechtel, ""For the Record"" Sports Illustrated, p. 36 (v. 99 i. 25 2003)
Herman L. Masin, ""A Texas Leaguer"" Coach and Athletic Director, p. 10 (v. 67 i. 4, November 1997)
Kevin Sherrington, ""Gordon Wood"" Dallas Morning News (17 November 1999)
Kevin Sherrington, Article Dallas Morning News (2004)
Teaff, Grant (2005). Grant Teaff with the Master Coaches. Waco, Texas: I Believe Press. ISBN 1-57837-409-X.
Wood, Gordon; Carver, John (2001). Coach of the Century: An Autobiography. Plano, Texas: Hard Times Cattle Company Publishing. ISBN 0-9663579-2-2.
""11-Man Football – Team – Coaching: Most All-Time Wins"" NFLHS: Home of High School Football http://www.nflhs.com/news/records/11man_coaching.asp Archived 2007-04-16 at the Wayback Machine (National Football League, 25 March 2007)
""Gordon Wood: Texas' Living Legend"" Scholastic Coach, pp. 44–46+ (v. 53, March 1984)
""Remembering a Legend"" Coach and Athletic Director, p. 6 (v. 73 i. 9, 2004)
Texas High School Football Hall of Fame, Texas Sports Hall of Fame Jay Black, Curator, (Waco, Texas)


== References =="
Sami Brady,"Sami Brady is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives, an American soap opera on the Peacock streaming service, portrayed by Alison Sweeney since 1993. The character is first seen as a newborn baby in the episode of October 16, 1984, in which mom Marlena Evans (Deidre Hall) gives birth to her and her twin brother Eric Brady. Initially played by a series of child actresses, Sweeney took over the role of Sami when the character was rapidly-aged from a pre-teen to a teenager, in January 1993, under the pen of head writers Sheri Anderson and James E. Reilly.
Sami is known for her outlandish trouble-making ways in pursuit of what she wants, her turbulent relationships with men, and fiercely fighting for her children. She has been described as vindictive and the girl ""you love to hate"", but like as she is ""so over the top."" Sami has been part of two daytime supercouples: with Lucas Horton (Bryan Dattilo), and EJ DiMera (James Scott); and is the mother of iconic LGBT character, Will Horton.
Sweeney won a Special Fan Award for ""America's Favorite Villain"" at the 2002 Daytime Emmy Awards; and in 2015 she was nominated for Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series.


== Casting ==
Seven child actresses portrayed Sami. Baby Ronit Arnoff initially represented Sami; and babies Lauren Ann Bundy (October 22, 1984 to April 10, 1985) and Jessica Davis (December 6, 1985 to May 20, 1986) followed. Sami was rapidly-aged about two years when Tiffany Nicole Palma (August 7 to September 9, 1986) stepped in to play Sami. Ashleigh Sterling became the first child actress to play Sami over an extended period (December 24, 1986 to June 5, 1990), followed by Christina Wagoner (August 10, 1990 to June 22, 1992). Finally the current actress Alison Sweeney took over the role of Sami as a teenager on January 22, 1993, and played her into adulthood. Sweeney has been portraying Sami for over twenty-one years. When Sweeney took maternity leave in 2005, Sami stayed on the show; Days achieved this by having Sami go under-cover, disguising herself as a man named Stan played by actor Dan Wells. Sweeney and Sami departed the show in 2014, but Sweeney has returned since for short-term appearances.
Sami was not Sweeney's first role on the show; she had previously portrayed Adrienne Johnson as a child in 1987. Sweeney has talked about starting on the show as Sami: ""I remember my first day at work. I was so excited to be a part of a show that I'd been a fan of [...] My first two weeks on the show I was sneaking around Salem, so there weren't a lot of lines to memorize. My first scene was with Wayne Northrop (then-Roman Brady), who pulled a gun on me and said something like 'Freeze or I'll shoot!'"" Sweeney has cited Northrop, Deidre Hall (Marlena), and Drake Hogestyn (John) as influences on her career playing the role, stating: ""I learned so many lessons from them"".
When her 20th anniversary as Sami was approaching, fans speculated that she might depart from the series, but Sweeney inked a new deal with the show. She said, ""I am super-excited to stay, and I am so honored that they asked me to stay. The job continues to surprise and challenge me. I have already shot my 20th anniversary episode, which airs on January 6 [2013], so I had this huge milestone and it's been such an amazing journey. I love my job, I love the people I work with and I love Sami."" In January 2014, Sweeney announced she was quitting the series after 21 years. She revealed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, ""I've been on Days of Our Lives for 21 years. I'm celebrating my 21st year and I decided that it's going to be my last year with the show,"" Sweeney announced. ""I've been on Days of Our Lives since I was 16-years-old, and I have never had more than a two-week vacation in that whole time. It's awesome. I love Sami, I love Salem, I love my job, I love daytime, I love the fans—I love everything about it."" Her departing episode aired October 30, 2014.
In 2015, Sweeney returned to Days of Our Lives to be part of the soap's 50th anniversary celebration (appearing from October 12 to November 17); and in 2017, she again returned as Sami as a key-player in the story of Sami's apparently-dead son Will Horton, being found alive (airing from October 13 to December 14). Then in March 2018 it was announced that Sweeney would again be returning as Sami. Sweeney teased the new story, saying it is: ""super exciting, definitely a roller-coaster ride and really fun."" Sami featured from August 23 to November 8, 2018. Sweeney returned in June 2019 for the passing of Caroline Brady (Peggy McCay), airing from June 18 to 24, 2019. In December 2019, Sweeney announced she would again reprise the role, which she did beginning on July 14, 2020.
In August 2020, it was announced that Sweeney had signed a one-year deal with the soap. On May 7, 2021, Wells returned to the role for one episode when Sami once again masqueraded as Stan.
On August 6, 2024, TV Insider announced Sweeney would return for limited run; Sami returned on April 10, 2025.


== Development ==


=== Characterization ===
Since Sweeney has stepped into the role, Sami has been showcased as the series' primary troublemaker and ""the girl you loved to hate"" through her lying and scheming. In recent years, Sweeney has established herself as a leading heroine, with the show centering on the popular and controversial relationships between Sami and her love interests Austin Reed (Patrick Muldoon & Austin Peck), Franco Kelly (Victor Alfieri), Brandon Walker (Matt Cedeno), Lucas Roberts (Bryan Dattilo), EJ DiMera (James Scott), and Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering). Originally characterized as the iron-willed daughter of Dr. Marlena Evans, Sami was transformed by writer James E. Reilly in the summer of 1994, converting the character from a stubborn moody teenager to a ""conniving bitch"", having her kidnap her baby sister, Belle and break up supercouple Carrie Brady and Austin Reed, including blackmailing Nicole Walker and Lexie Carver on numerous incidents. However, as ratings declined in the mid-2000s, Sami's storylines proved to be ""worn out"" and in 2006, new Days head writers Hogan Sheffer and Meg Kelly converted the character to a heroine by pairing her with EJ DiMera and later Rafe Hernandez. Recently, in 2013 head writers Christopher Whitesell and Gary Tomlin turned Sami back into a scheming vixen. With her son Will being tormented by Nick Fallon and her fiancé, EJ DiMera sleeping with Abigail Deveraux, Sami returned to her evil ways and culminated in her committing crimes such as planning revenge towards Abby and EJ for their affair and convincing Adrienne that her husband, Justin the father in law of her son, Will, was having an affair. The character has been described as ""vindictive""; a writer from the American newspaper Asbury Park Press wrote that: ""she's so bad, she's good"". According to Austin American-Statesman in 1996, Sweeney had talked about ""longing to play a conniving troublemaker"" and she got her wish and more. Sweeney stated: ""It's kind of funny that I said that  [sic] I had no idea that (the writers) would take me literally"". Sweeney has said to have given a new word to ""manipulative"" during her portrayal of Sami. In 2005, Sami manipulatively created a male alter ego, Stan. During this period of time, from February to August, Dan Wells took over the role. Sami is known for her rivalry with Nicole Walker (Arianne Zucker) and Sweeney has said that Sami has never had ""female friends"".


=== Relationships ===

Sami is known for her relationships, and many ""failed trips to the altar"". Janet Di Lauro of About.com said ""No matter, Sami's always been a character who's fun to watch and root for as she's searched for her soul mate, time and time again."" As a teenager, she developed a crush on Austin Reed (Austin Peck), but was ""devastated"" when he began dating her sister Carrie Brady (Christie Clark). She worked with Austin's brother Lucas to break up the couple. She ended up having a one night stand with Lucas in early 1995. Di Lauro said Sami's most ""diabolical plot"" was drugging Austin to have sex with her, which was ""the start of an elaborate scheme"" where she ended up pregnant and named Austin as the father, although Lucas was the actual father. The truth was eventually revealed and Austin, after nearly marrying Sami without loving her, reunited with Carrie.
A bitter custody battle ensued between Lucas and Sami, who had a ""love/hate"" relationship over the years. Of the pairing, Sweeney said ""their past is such a deep relationship and ultimately a friendship and a trust that they have with each other."" They ended up marrying, but it was ""permanently ended"" when EJ DiMera (James Scott) entered the picture. EJ, the son of longtime crime boss Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo), developed an obsession with Sami, and ended up controversially ""raping"" her. Sami became pregnant and gave birth to twins; her daughter's father is Lucas, and son's paternity belonged to EJ. EJ had asked Sami for sex to save Lucas' life, while he was trapped and nearly died. This led to a sham wedding between EJ and Sami, in exchange for the DiMeras ending the fifty-year family feud between the Brady family. Although she initially hated him, the couple ended up in a ""night of passion"" resulting in another pregnancy. Of whether EJ or Lucas was Sami's ""true love,"" Sweeney said ""I personally think Sami and Lucas truly love each other, but obviously a lot has gone on between them that has pushed them apart. Right now, they are writing Sami more focusing on EJ."" She also said that she enjoyed working with Scott, and called him ""enchanting."" Of working with Dattilo, Sweeney said ""I am definitely a long-standing Lumi fan and I miss working with Bryan every day. He is so fun! I was in a scene the other day and looking around, like he and I have such a history together, for some inside joke and he wasn't on the set. It's just strange when I don't get to work with him all the time.""

TV Guide's Nelson Branco named Lucas and Sami one of soap's greatest supercouples, and said ""For years all this couple could think of was breaking up Austin and Carrie, until one magical day, partners-in-crime and cohorts Sami and Lucas realized they were in love with each other! Now as Days’ reigning super couple, they face the evil wrath of EJ and his family, The DiMeras. Will Sami marry EJ, the man who raped her to end this family feud forever — and will Lucas be able to forgive her?"" Despite this, the couple divorced and despite minor reunions since, haven't been a couple. James Scott said ""They're not really re-visiting it. They have never done it.  I think it's about time, frankly. There is a good opportunity for story there. Alison Sweeney (Sami) and I work very well together.  It's sort of a fairy tale.  They don't play it so much now, but the Bradys and the DiMeras have a history."" Scott also noted that EJ and Sami ""love each other"" but not necessarily in a romantic way. On-Air On-Soaps said ""legions of fans are waiting for their beloved EJami duo to finally start a full-blown romance ... something that has been teased, and teased, and teased for years."" He romances with Lucas and EJ have been popular with viewers, who call the pairings 'Lumi' and 'Ejami.'
Upon Lucas' return to Days of our Lives in 2012, a poll ran by Soap Opera Digest revealed that majority of fans wanted Lucas and Sami back together. While in the Witness Protection Program while pregnant with her second child with EJ, Sami fell in love with her body guard Rafe. When asked who out of Lucas, EJ or Rafe should be with Sami, Sweeney said ""You can't ask that,"" because ""that is one topic I am now scared to talk about because you say one thing and the fans get all kinds of crazy on you."" She said that it's so interesting to see how Sami has ""grown and changed"" and feels that the ""relationship with Rafe is definitely a different one from the way she's been in the past."" Fans refer to Sami and Rafe as 'Safe'. Sweeney said that it's been fun getting ""to know Galen"" and said ""We have fun working together, and it's nice. It's a new, different storyline for Sami.""


=== Children ===
Sami is mother to Will Horton, Johnny DiMera, Allie Horton, Sydney DiMera, and Grace Brady (who Sami believed was her biological daughter). Janet Di Lauro of About.com said, ""While Sami wouldn't exactly be called lucky at love, let's face it, most of her couplings have been wildly dysfunctional, her romances have produced four beautiful children: Will, Allie, Johnny and Sydney."" Sami is known for fiercely fighting for her children. Sweeney told an interviewer: ""For almost my entire run on Days, Sami's overarching story was all about Will. She would lie for him, kill for him [figuratively speaking]. Her fights over that kid were huge! She was always Mama Bear ....""
By 2009, Will was 16 years old; Sweeney said, ""It's sort of overwhelming to me sometimes to realize my character has a sixteen-year-old,"" considering she started working on Days of our Lives at 16, but she enjoys the dynamics between Will and Sami. In 2012, Sami and Lucas' son Will came out as gay. While Lucas was accepting, Sami was initially ""responsible for the other point of view,"" according to Dattilo. Sweeney said that viewers can expect Sami to ""have a traditional Sami reaction,"" because it's ""such a vulnerable moment."" Sweeney explained that Sami thinks it's because of her, and ""she has to sort through all of those feelings and talk to lots of people in Salem about it."" She added, ""Sami loves her son so much, but she just always seems to say the wrong thing. She always puts her foot in her mouth.""


== Storylines ==
Samantha Gene Brady is born on October 16, 1984 (changed to October 16, 1977 when the character was rapidly-aged) with her twin brother Eric Brady to Marlena Evans and Roman Brady. Sami is named after her deceased aunt, Samantha Evans and Marlena's best friend, Eugene Bradford. A feud between the Brady family and the powerful DiMera family puts the infants in danger. Roman sends them to live in Colorado after their mother's disappearance. In 1993, Sami reappears in Salem as a teenager. She develops a crush on her sister's boyfriend, Austin Reed (Patrick Muldoon). She is traumatized after seeing her mother having sex with John Black (Drake Hogestyn) which leads to an affair that results in the birth of Sami's sister, Belle. At the time, Marlena was ""married"" to Roman. Sami's mental health spirals downward, and she becomes a bulimic in an attempt to lose weight. Sami later tells Marlena that she witnessed her having sex with John. Knowing that she is John's child, Sami, who volunteers at the Salem Hospital, switches Belle's blood test. She then kidnaps Belle and places her on the black market. John rescues Belle on Christmas Eve. On Belle's christening, Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo) shows Roman Sami's diary which reveals the affair and Belle's paternity. Roman leaves Marlena, devastating Sami.
Sami befriends Lucas Roberts (Bryan Dattilo) and dates his friend Alan Harris (Paul Kersey), whom her family strongly opposes. Sami's best friend Jamie overhears Alan talk about being in love with Carrie, but keeps this from Sami. Frustrated by his unrequited love for Carrie, Alan rapes Sami. Sami confides in Lucas, but without corroborating proof, the press vilifies Sami as a liar once the news gets out. Alan tries to rape her again, and she stops him by shooting him in the groin. Distraught, Lucas manages to comfort Sami; and they have sex. She still, however, has a crush on Austin and drugs him into bed so he would believe she was Carrie. After her divorce from Roman, Marlena becomes vulnerable and is possessed by the devil. While possessed, Marlena tells Sami to seduce Austin. She tries, but Austin rejects her. Sami leaves town in February 1995.
Sami returns in July of that year and crashes Austin's wedding to Carrie claiming that she is carrying his child. After a rough teen pregnancy, Sami gives birth to William Robert Reed on November 16, 1995. Sami hides the fact that Will is actually Lucas' son, and passes him off as Austin's. Austin and Sami are engaged and plan to wed. However, he leaves her at the altar after Carrie uncovers the truth about Will's paternity. Sami renames her son William Reed Roberts and leaves town. She returns and befriends Franco Kelly (Victor Alfieri). They become engaged; Franco is using her to get a greencard and stay in the country. He is murdered on their wedding day. Sami sees the body and faints near it. Lucas's mother Kate Roberts (Lauren Koslow) frames Sami for the murder so that she will go to jail and Lucas can have full custody of Will. Sami is convicted and sentenced to death for the murder. In the middle of her execution via injection, Lucas confesses to the murder in an attempt to save her life. Unbeknownst to Lucas, Roberto signed a false confession on his death bed which leads to a stay of execution from the governor. Sami is freed and falls in love with Brandon Walker (Matt Cedeno), who helps her regain full custody of Will. Brandon and Sami are married briefly. However, her lies and schemes end the marriage. Sami has an accident at the DiMera mansion and falls through the window. Lucas helps her recover and they fall in love. They become engaged, much to Kate's chagrin. Kate drugs Sami and places her in Brandon's bed the night before her marriage to Lucas in a bid to end the engagement. Lucas leaves Sami.
Sami's sorely compromised psychological state deteriorates to such a degree that Sami begins to work for Tony DiMera (Thaao Penghlis), becomes a transvestite under an assumed name, ""Stan"", and sells illicit drugs to a pain-wracked John Black, all out of a base-born, suppositious need for revenge. Attempting to redeem herself, Sami convinces Lucas that Kate had set her up; that she was never unfaithful. The two reunite and agree to marry once again.
Lucas believes that Sami has changed for the better, but Kate reveals Sami's misdeeds as ""Stan,"" and Lucas calls off the wedding. Austin Reed returns to Salem and befriends Sami. Carrie Brady also returns after ending her relationship with Mike Horton. Lucas and Austin, now business rivals, attempt to buy out Carrie's company. Lucas backs out, finding out that Carrie runs the entire company, and that once again, Sami manipulated him. Austin and Carrie fall back in love and plan their future together when Carrie learns that Austin's company has taken over Highstyle. Carrie dates Lucas on the rebound. Austin does the same with Sami, and both couples become engaged.
Sami's relationship to Austin is tested however, when EJ Wells (James Scott), an English race car driver, moves into the apartment next to theirs. When Sami and Austin's wedding ends in disaster, EJ and Sami kiss for the first time. Carrie ends her relationship with Lucas and remarries Austin before they both leave Salem. Sami turns to EJ, and the two begin dating. Sami then discovers that not only is he sleeping with Kate but that he is also Stefano's son. Sami and Lucas rekindle their love in spite of Kate, and the two decide to take a road trip. Their car breaks down in a snow storm, and they seek shelter in an abandoned cabin where they make love. Weighed down by snow, the crumbling ceiling caves in. Lucas is trapped, Sami runs to get help, meets up with EJ in a snow drift, and asks him to help her. Revealing himself as a true DiMera, EJ agrees to help Sami only if she has sex with him. In subsequent weeks, EJ continues to taunt Sami with reminders of the deal they made that night. Sami tells Lucas about her pregnancy and they get married; the night of their wedding, he learns about EJ raping her. Her pregnancy is full of speculation about who the father of her unborn twins were. She later gives birth to: John ""Johnny"" Roman Roberts (later legally changed to John Roman DiMera) and Alice ""Allie"" Caroline Horton. It was revealed after a paternity test that EJ was Johnny's father and Allie was Lucas' daughter. Sami makes the painful decision to end her marriage to Lucas and marry EJ to end the Brady-DiMera feud. At her wedding to EJ, Lucas, Marlena and Kate attempt to shoot EJ Lucas is arrested and sent to prison, and Will leaves for Switzerland. It is later revealed that Will was the actual shooter and Lucas went to prison to protect his son.
EJ tries to take custody of Johnny. But immigration wants to deport EJ, and Sami helps him by moving into the DiMera mansion with Johnny to show to immigration that they are a happily married couple. They have sex, and Lucas, released on house arrest, sees them at it. Although Sami ends her marriage to E.J., Lucas doesn't forgive her. EJ moves on to Nicole Walker (Arianne Zucker), and Sami finds out she is pregnant again. She doesn't tell E.J., and after witnessing a murder, she goes into witness protection. She befriends her guard, Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering), and gives birth to a daughter. Nicole miscarries E.J.'s child but pretends to still be pregnant and secretly illegally adopts a baby girl to pass off to EJ as their own. Nicole then finds out that Sami's baby daughter is actually EJ's and she secretly switches the two baby girls, so that EJ will be raising a child that is biologically his. Nicole's switch works and she begins raising Sami's child, Sydney DiMera, as her own. Sami is in love with Rafe, and together they raise the baby, named Grace, believing Sami gave birth to her. Grace contracts meningitis and dies, and Sami confesses to EJ that Grace was ""his"", and EJ is furious. Eventually, the baby switch is revealed and Sami is reunited with Sydney. But for revenge against Sami, E.J. kidnaps Sydney and makes everyone think she is dead. But he falls back in love with Sami and returns Sydney to her, pretending to be the hero. EJ and Sami reconnect, and after her relationship with Rafe ends, she becomes engaged to EJ However, at the wedding, Rafe presents evidence to Sami that E.J. was behind Sydney's kidnapping. She leaves EJ for Rafe, and discovers that he had a plan to kidnap both his children and take them away forever. To stop him, she shoots him in the head. Rafe proposes to her while EJ narrowly escapes death. He later wins full custody of the children and Sami marries Rafe. Johnny is diagnosed with eye cancer and she regains joint custody. After allowing Johnny and Sydney back into their mother's life, Stefano and EJ switch Rafe with an impostor whose face they surgically alter so he can pose as Rafe's double.
The DiMeras' schemes are eventually revealed, and after some months, the real Rafe is reunited with Sami. During a family get-together, Johnny goes missing and Sami rushes to the DiMera mansion insisting that EJ has him. They see in a news report that Johnny has ""died"" and in their grief, have sex. However, the news report turns out to be false and Johnny is found alive and well. Will is angry with his mom for being unfaithful to Rafe, and when Rafe finds out about it Sami's marriage to Rafe ends. Lucas returns to town and Sami and Lucas reconnect. They are taken aback when Will reveals to them that he is gay. Sami initially runs out on Will, but she soon comes round to support him. Stefano is apparently murdered, and EJ is held responsible, and Sami decides to help prove his innocence, much to Lucas's dismay. Sami's reunion with Lucas ends. Stefano is revealed to be alive, and EJ is cleared for murder.
Sami starts to feel torn between EJ and Rafe. Rafe and Sami agree to give their relationship a second chance. Sami plans Gabi Hernandez (Camila Banus) and Nick Fallon's (Blake Berris) wedding, wanting to tell EJ her decision after the wedding. However, during the wedding, it is revealed that Nick isn't the father of Gabi's unborn baby – Will is. Sami is furious with Gabi, and Rafe defends his sister, insulting Will in the process. Sami is furious and breaks up with Rafe. Sami eventually tells EJ about Rafe and her plan to leave him. EJ forgives her, and they reunite. Nick demands Will sign away his paternal rights to the baby. When Sami, Lucas, and EJ try to stop him, Nick reveals that he knows Will was responsible for shooting E.J. in 2007. Will signs away his rights to avoid being prosecuted, and Sami is devastated. She and E.J. team up to stop Nick's blackmail of Will. When Stefano returns, Sami and EJ decide to get his help to destroy evidence the police has against Will. Sami and E.J. stay together through the situation, and become engaged in April 2013.
Soon after, Rafe is attacked, and ends up in a coma. Initially, the police suspect EJ, as does Sami, but she eventually realizes his innocence. The real attacker, Jensen, is revealed to be targeting Nick. He kidnaps Nick and Gabi, and ends up shooting Will when he tries to rescue Nick. Sami comes to the hospital and finds out Gabi's baby was born; she meets her granddaughter, Arianna Grace, for the first time. Sami visits Rafe while in the hospital, and while there, sees a man come in with a knife about to kill Rafe. Sami shoots him to protect Rafe. EJ tries to calm her down, while Roman and the police search for the missing knife. Sami and EJ realize the man she shot was a police officer who was working for Stefano; the officer dies after surgery, and the knife is never recovered. Sami is arrested for murder by Roman. Once exonerated, Sami and E.J. marry, only for EJ to be arrested for tax fraud; Sami confronts both E.J. and Abigail Deveraux (Kate Mansi) for the affair the pair had behind her back, and uses her power to take DiMera Enterprises away from the DiMera family with Kate. Sami begins to forgive and re-trust EJ and they re-unite, but EJ is shot in the Salem park, and Sami finds him just before he dies. It is October 2014, and Sami, overcome with grief, accepts a movie deal with Hollywood executives to build a story about her life, with Will penning the screenplay, and she and the children relocate to Los Angeles. When Will is fired from the movie, he goes back to Salem where, in October 2015, he is apparently murdered by Abigail's new fiancé, Ben Weston. Sami comes back to Salem to mourn Will. Whilst in Salem she discovers that Ben's father Clyde was the one who had gotten EJ shot, and she also finds a letter from EJ which leads her to believe EJ might be alive. The letter contains instructions which lead Sami to a safe deposit box containing the passwords to Stefano's bank account, but she is kidnapped by Stefano's son Andre DiMera who wants the passwords from her. Sami escapes and she steals Stefano's fortune. She takes the kids around Europe as she pursues clues that EJ may still be alive. In October 2017 she learns that Ben Weston has escaped from custody, and is claiming that Will is alive, and Sami once again returns to Salem to find out the truth.


== Reception ==
Sweeney's portrayal of ""Salem's resident bad girl"" has earned her various fan awards during her run, including a Special Fan Award for ""America's Favorite Villain"" at the 2002 Daytime Emmy Award ceremony; she has won multiple Soap Opera Digest Awards: ""Best Youth Actress in a Soap Opera"" (1994), ""Best Performance in a Daytime Drama — Young Actress"" (1997), and three wins for ""Outstanding Villainess"" (1996, 1998 and 1999). In 2015, Sweeney earned a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (in the 42nd Daytime Emmy Awards) for her portrayal of Sami.
In 2020, Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed Sami fourth place on the list of the 35 most memorable characters from Days of Our Lives, commenting ""So infamous a scheme queen is Alison Sweeney's impetuous troublemaker — and, just ask half-sister Carrie, deservedly so — it's hard to fathom that a plot was ever hatched in Salem without her"".


== See also ==
Lucas and Sami
EJ and Sami
Supercouple
List of soap opera villains


== Notes and references ==


== External links ==
Sami Brady profile at SheKnows Soaps
Sami Brady profile at soapcentral.com"
Meijer G-function,"In mathematics, the G-function was introduced by Cornelis Simon Meijer (1936) as a very general function intended to include most of the known special functions as particular cases. This was not the only attempt of its kind: the generalized hypergeometric function and the MacRobert E-function had the same aim, but Meijer's G-function was able to include those as particular cases as well. The first definition was made by Meijer using a series; nowadays the accepted and more general definition is via a line integral in the complex plane, introduced in its full generality by Arthur Erdélyi in 1953.
With the modern definition, the majority of the established special functions can be represented in terms of the Meijer G-function. A notable property is the closure of the set of all G-functions not only under differentiation but also under indefinite integration. In combination with a functional equation that allows to liberate from a G-function G(z) any factor zρ that is a constant power of its argument z, the closure implies that whenever a function is expressible as a G-function of a constant multiple of some constant power of the function argument, f(x) = G(cxγ), the derivative and the antiderivative of this function are expressible so too.
The wide coverage of special functions also lends power to uses of Meijer's G-function other than the representation and manipulation of derivatives and antiderivatives. For example, the definite integral over the positive real axis of any function g(x) that can be written as a product G1(cxγ)·G2(dxδ) of two G-functions with rational γ/δ equals just another G-function, and generalizations of integral transforms like the Hankel transform and the Laplace transform and their inverses result when suitable G-function pairs are employed as transform kernels.
A still more general function, which introduces additional parameters into Meijer's G-function, is Fox's H-function.
One application of the Meijer G-function has been the particle spectrum of radiation from an inertial horizon in the moving mirror model of the dynamical Casimir effect (Good 2020).


== Definition of the Meijer G-function ==
A general definition of the Meijer G-function is given by the following line integral in the complex plane (Bateman & Erdélyi 1953, § 5.3-1):

  
    
      
        
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    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)={\frac {1}{2\pi i}}\int _{L}{\frac {\prod _{j=1}^{m}\Gamma (b_{j}-s)\prod _{j=1}^{n}\Gamma (1-a_{j}+s)}{\prod _{j=m+1}^{q}\Gamma (1-b_{j}+s)\prod _{j=n+1}^{p}\Gamma (a_{j}-s)}}\,z^{s}\,ds,}
  

where Γ denotes the gamma function. This integral is of the so-called Mellin–Barnes type, and may be viewed as an inverse Mellin transform. The definition holds under the following assumptions:

0 ≤ m ≤ q and 0 ≤ n ≤ p, where m, n, p and q are integer numbers
ak − bj ≠ 1, 2, 3, ... for any combination of {k, j} for which k = 1, 2, ..., n, and j = 1, 2, ..., m, which implies that no pole of any Γ(bj − s), j = 1, 2, ..., m, coincides with any pole of any Γ(1 − ak + s), k = 1, 2, ..., n
z ≠ 0
Note that for historical reasons the first lower and second upper index refer to the top parameter row, while the second lower and first upper index refer to the bottom parameter row. One often encounters the following more synthetic notation using vectors:

  
    
      
        
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    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right).}
  

Implementations of the G-function in computer algebra systems typically employ separate vector arguments for the four (possibly empty) parameter groups a1 ... an, an+1 ... ap, b1 ... bm, and bm+1 ... bq, and thus can omit the orders p, q, n, and m as redundant.
The L in the integral represents the path to be followed while integrating. Three choices are possible for this path:

1. L runs from −i∞ to +i∞ such that all poles of Γ(bj − s), j = 1, 2, ..., m, are on the right of the path, while all poles of Γ(1 − ak + s), k = 1, 2, ..., n, are on the left. The integral then converges for |arg z| < δ π, where

  
    
      
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    {\displaystyle \delta =m+n-{\tfrac {1}{2}}(p+q);}
  

an obvious prerequisite for this is δ > 0. The integral additionally converges for |arg z| = δ π ≥ 0 if (q − p) (σ + 1⁄2) > Re(ν) + 1, where σ represents Re(s) as the integration variable s approaches both +i∞ and −i∞, and where

  
    
      
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    {\displaystyle \nu =\sum _{j=1}^{q}b_{j}-\sum _{j=1}^{p}a_{j}.}
  

As a corollary, for |arg z| = δ π and p = q the integral converges independent of σ whenever Re(ν) < −1.
2. L is a loop beginning and ending at +∞, encircling all poles of Γ(bj − s), j = 1, 2, ..., m, exactly once in the negative direction, but not encircling any pole of Γ(1 − ak + s), k = 1, 2, ..., n. Then the integral converges for all z if q > p ≥ 0; it also converges for q = p > 0 as long as |z| < 1. In the latter case, the integral additionally converges for |z| = 1 if Re(ν) < −1, where ν is defined as for the first path.
3. L is a loop beginning and ending at −∞ and encircling all poles of Γ(1 − ak + s), k = 1, 2, ..., n, exactly once in the positive direction, but not encircling any pole of Γ(bj − s), j = 1, 2, ..., m. Now the integral converges for all z if p > q ≥ 0; it also converges for p = q > 0 as long as |z| > 1. As noted for the second path too, in the case of p = q the integral also converges for |z| = 1 when Re(ν) < −1.
The conditions for convergence are readily established by applying Stirling's asymptotic approximation to the gamma functions in the integrand. When the integral converges for more than one of these paths, the results of integration can be shown to agree; if it converges for only one path, then this is the only one to be considered. In fact, numerical path integration in the complex plane constitutes a practicable and sensible approach to the calculation of Meijer G-functions.
As a consequence of this definition, the Meijer G-function is an analytic function of z with possible exception of the origin z = 0 and of the unit circle |z| = 1.


=== Differential equation ===
The G-function satisfies the following linear differential equation of order max(p,q):

  
    
      
        
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                q
              
            
            
              (
              
                z
                
                  
                    d
                    
                      d
                      z
                    
                  
                
                −
                
                  b
                  
                    j
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        G
        (
        z
        )
        =
        0.
      
    
    {\displaystyle \left[(-1)^{p-m-n}\;z\prod _{j=1}^{p}\left(z{\frac {d}{dz}}-a_{j}+1\right)-\prod _{j=1}^{q}\left(z{\frac {d}{dz}}-b_{j}\right)\right]G(z)=0.}
  

For a fundamental set of solutions of this equation in the case of p ≤ q one may take:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            p
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            h
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            h
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            h
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            −
            1
            
              )
              
                p
                −
                m
                −
                n
                +
                1
              
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        h
        =
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        …
        ,
        q
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,1,p}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{h},b_{1},\dots ,b_{h-1},b_{h+1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(-1)^{p-m-n+1}\;z\right),\quad h=1,2,\dots ,q,}
  

and similarly in the case of p ≥ q:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            q
            ,
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            h
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            h
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            h
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            −
            1
            
              )
              
                q
                −
                m
                −
                n
                +
                1
              
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        h
        =
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        …
        ,
        p
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,q,1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{h},a_{1},\dots ,a_{h-1},a_{h+1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(-1)^{q-m-n+1}\;z\right),\quad h=1,2,\dots ,p.}
  

These particular solutions are analytic except for a possible singularity at z = 0 (as well as a possible singularity at z = ∞), and in the case of p = q also an inevitable singularity at z = (−1)p−m−n. As will be seen presently, they can be identified with generalized hypergeometric functions pFq−1 of argument (−1)p−m−n z that are multiplied by a power zbh, and with generalized hypergeometric functions qFp−1 of argument (−1)q−m−n z−1 that are multiplied by a power zah−1, respectively.


== Relationship between the G-function and the generalized hypergeometric function ==
If the integral converges when evaluated along the second path introduced above, and if no confluent poles appear among the Γ(bj − s), j = 1, 2, ..., m, then the Meijer G-function can be expressed as a sum of residues in terms of generalized hypergeometric functions pFq−1 (Slater's theorem):

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          ∑
          
            h
            =
            1
          
          
            m
          
        
        
          
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  m
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              −
              
                b
                
                  h
                
              
              
                )
                
                  ∗
                
              
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  n
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              +
              
                b
                
                  h
                
              
              −
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              )
              
              
                z
                
                  
                    b
                    
                      h
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  m
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  q
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              +
              
                b
                
                  h
                
              
              −
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              )
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  n
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  p
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              −
              
                b
                
                  h
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        ×
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=\sum _{h=1}^{m}{\frac {\prod _{j=1}^{m}\Gamma (b_{j}-b_{h})^{*}\prod _{j=1}^{n}\Gamma (1+b_{h}-a_{j})\;z^{b_{h}}}{\prod _{j=m+1}^{q}\Gamma (1+b_{h}-b_{j})\prod _{j=n+1}^{p}\Gamma (a_{j}-b_{h})}}\times }
  

  
    
      
        
          
          
            p
          
        
        
          F
          
            q
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        +
                        
                          b
                          
                            h
                          
                        
                        −
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        (
                        1
                        +
                        
                          b
                          
                            h
                          
                        
                        −
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          )
                          
                            ∗
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            −
            1
            
              )
              
                p
                −
                m
                −
                n
              
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle _{p}F_{q-1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1+b_{h}-\mathbf {a_{p}} \\(1+b_{h}-\mathbf {b_{q}} )^{*}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(-1)^{p-m-n}\;z\right).}
  

The star indicates that the term corresponding to j = h is omitted. 
For the integral to converge along the second path one must have either p < q, or p = q and |z| < 1, and for the poles to be distinct no pair among the bj, j = 1, 2, ..., m, may differ by an integer or zero. The asterisks in the relation remind us to ignore the contribution with index j = h as follows: In the product this amounts to replacing Γ(0) with 1, and in the argument of the hypergeometric function, if we recall the meaning of the vector notation,

  
    
      
        1
        +
        
          b
          
            h
          
        
        −
        
          
            b
            
              q
            
          
        
        =
        (
        1
        +
        
          b
          
            h
          
        
        −
        
          b
          
            1
          
        
        )
        ,
        
        …
        ,
        
        (
        1
        +
        
          b
          
            h
          
        
        −
        
          b
          
            j
          
        
        )
        ,
        
        …
        ,
        
        (
        1
        +
        
          b
          
            h
          
        
        −
        
          b
          
            q
          
        
        )
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle 1+b_{h}-\mathbf {b_{q}} =(1+b_{h}-b_{1}),\,\dots ,\,(1+b_{h}-b_{j}),\,\dots ,\,(1+b_{h}-b_{q}),}
  

this amounts to shortening the vector length from q to q−1.
Note that when m = 0, the second path does not contain any pole, and so the integral must vanish identically,

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            0
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        0
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,0,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=0,}
  

if either p < q, or p = q and |z| < 1.
Similarly, if the integral converges when evaluated along the third path above, and if no confluent poles appear among the Γ(1 − ak + s), k = 1, 2, ..., n, then the G-function can be expressed as:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          ∑
          
            h
            =
            1
          
          
            n
          
        
        
          
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  n
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                a
                
                  h
                
              
              −
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              
                )
                
                  ∗
                
              
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  m
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              
                a
                
                  h
                
              
              +
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              )
              
              
                z
                
                  
                    a
                    
                      h
                    
                  
                  −
                  1
                
              
            
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  n
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  p
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              
                a
                
                  h
                
              
              +
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              )
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  m
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  q
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                a
                
                  h
                
              
              −
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        ×
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=\sum _{h=1}^{n}{\frac {\prod _{j=1}^{n}\Gamma (a_{h}-a_{j})^{*}\prod _{j=1}^{m}\Gamma (1-a_{h}+b_{j})\;z^{a_{h}-1}}{\prod _{j=n+1}^{p}\Gamma (1-a_{h}+a_{j})\prod _{j=m+1}^{q}\Gamma (a_{h}-b_{j})}}\times }
  

  
    
      
        
          
          
            q
          
        
        
          F
          
            p
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            h
                          
                        
                        +
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        (
                        1
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            h
                          
                        
                        +
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          )
                          
                            ∗
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            −
            1
            
              )
              
                q
                −
                m
                −
                n
              
            
            
              z
              
                −
                1
              
            
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle _{q}F_{p-1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1-a_{h}+\mathbf {b_{q}} \\(1-a_{h}+\mathbf {a_{p}} )^{*}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(-1)^{q-m-n}z^{-1}\right).}
  

For this, either p > q, or p = q and |z| > 1 are required, and no pair among the ak, k = 1, 2, ..., n, may differ by an integer or zero. For n = 0 one consequently has:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        0
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=0,}
  

if either p > q, or p = q and |z| > 1.
On the other hand, any generalized hypergeometric function can readily be expressed in terms of the Meijer G-function:

  
    
      
        
          
          
            p
          
        
        
          F
          
            q
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          
            
              Γ
              (
              
                
                  b
                  
                    q
                  
                
              
              )
            
            
              Γ
              (
              
                
                  a
                  
                    p
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            
            p
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        −
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          
            
              Γ
              (
              
                
                  b
                  
                    q
                  
                
              
              )
            
            
              Γ
              (
              
                
                  a
                  
                    p
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            q
            +
            1
            ,
            
            p
          
          
            
            p
            ,
            
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            
              z
              
                −
                1
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \;_{p}F_{q}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)={\frac {\Gamma (\mathbf {b_{q}} )}{\Gamma (\mathbf {a_{p}} )}}\;G_{p,\,q+1}^{\,1,\,p}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1-\mathbf {a_{p}} \\0,1-\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-z\right)={\frac {\Gamma (\mathbf {b_{q}} )}{\Gamma (\mathbf {a_{p}} )}}\;G_{q+1,\,p}^{\,p,\,1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1,\mathbf {b_{q}} \\\mathbf {a_{p}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-z^{-1}\right),}
  

where we have made use of the vector notation:

  
    
      
        Γ
        (
        
          
            a
            
              p
            
          
        
        )
        =
        
          ∏
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            p
          
        
        Γ
        (
        
          a
          
            j
          
        
        )
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma (\mathbf {a_{p}} )=\prod _{j=1}^{p}\Gamma (a_{j}).}
  

This holds unless a nonpositive integer value of at least one of its parameters ap reduces the hypergeometric function to a finite polynomial, in which case the gamma prefactor of either G-function vanishes and the parameter sets of the G-functions violate the requirement ak − bj ≠ 1, 2, 3, ... for k = 1, 2, ..., n and j = 1, 2, ..., m from the definition above. Apart from this restriction, the relationship is valid whenever the generalized hypergeometric series pFq(z) converges, i. e. for any finite z when p ≤ q, and for |z| < 1 when p = q + 1. In the latter case, the relation with the G-function automatically provides the analytic continuation of pFq(z) to |z| ≥ 1 with a branch cut from 1 to ∞ along the real axis. Finally, the relation furnishes a natural extension of the definition of the hypergeometric function to orders p > q + 1. By means of the G-function we can thus solve the generalized hypergeometric differential equation for p > q + 1 as well.


=== Polynomial cases ===
To express polynomial cases of generalized hypergeometric functions in terms of Meijer G-functions, a linear combination of two G-functions is needed in general:

  
    
      
        
          
          
            p
            +
            1
          
        
        
          F
          
            q
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                        h
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        h
        !
        
        
          
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  n
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  p
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              )
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  m
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  q
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              )
            
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  n
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              )
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  m
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        ×
      
    
    {\displaystyle \;_{p+1}F_{q}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-h,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=h!\;{\frac {\prod _{j=n+1}^{p}\Gamma (1-a_{j})\prod _{j=m+1}^{q}\Gamma (b_{j})}{\prod _{j=1}^{n}\Gamma (a_{j})\prod _{j=1}^{m}\Gamma (1-b_{j})}}\times }
  

  
    
      
        
          [
          
            
              G
              
                p
                +
                1
                ,
                
                q
                +
                1
              
              
                
                m
                +
                1
                ,
                
                n
              
            
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            −
                            
                              
                                a
                                
                                  p
                                
                              
                            
                            ,
                            h
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            0
                            ,
                            1
                            −
                            
                              
                                b
                                
                                  q
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                  
                  |
                
                
                (
                −
                1
                
                  )
                  
                    p
                    −
                    m
                    −
                    n
                  
                
                
                z
              
              )
            
            +
            (
            −
            1
            
              )
              
                h
              
            
            
            
              G
              
                p
                +
                1
                ,
                
                q
                +
                1
              
              
                
                m
                ,
                
                n
                +
                1
              
            
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            h
                            +
                            1
                            ,
                            1
                            −
                            
                              
                                a
                                
                                  p
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            1
                            −
                            
                              
                                b
                                
                                  q
                                
                              
                            
                            ,
                            0
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                  
                  |
                
                
                (
                −
                1
                
                  )
                  
                    p
                    −
                    m
                    −
                    n
                  
                
                
                z
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \left[G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1-\mathbf {a_{p}} ,h+1\\0,1-\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(-1)^{p-m-n}\;z\right)+(-1)^{h}\;G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}h+1,1-\mathbf {a_{p}} \\1-\mathbf {b_{q}} ,0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(-1)^{p-m-n}\;z\right)\right],}
  

where h = 0, 1, 2, ... equals the degree of the polynomial p+1Fq(z). The orders m and n can be chosen freely in the ranges 0 ≤ m ≤ q and 0 ≤ n ≤ p, which allows to avoid that specific integer values or integer differences among the parameters ap and bq of the polynomial give rise to divergent gamma functions in the prefactor or to a conflict with the definition of the G-function. Note that the first G-function vanishes for n = 0 if p > q, while the second G-function vanishes for m = 0 if p < q. Again, the formula can be verified by expressing the two G-functions as sums of residues; no cases of confluent poles permitted by the definition of the G-function need be excluded here.


== Basic properties of the G-function ==
As can be seen from the definition of the G-function, if equal parameters appear among the ap and bq determining the factors in the numerator and the denominator of the integrand, the fraction can be simplified, and the order of the function thereby be reduced. Whether the order m or n will decrease depends on the particular position of the parameters in question. Thus, if one of the ak, k = 1, 2, ..., n, equals one of the bj, j = m + 1, ..., q, the G-function lowers its orders p, q and n:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            −
            1
            ,
            
            q
            −
            1
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        ,
        p
        ,
        q
        ≥
        1.
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q-1},a_{1}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p-1,\,q-1}^{\,m,\,n-1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q-1}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n,p,q\geq 1.}
  

For the same reason, if one of the ak, k = n + 1, ..., p, equals one of the bj, j = 1, 2, ..., m, then the G-function lowers its orders p, q and m:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            −
            1
            ,
            
            q
            −
            1
          
          
            
            m
            −
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        ,
        p
        ,
        q
        ≥
        1.
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p-1},b_{1}\\b_{1},b_{2},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p-1,\,q-1}^{\,m-1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p-1}\\b_{2},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m,p,q\geq 1.}
  

Starting from the definition, it is also possible to derive the following properties:

  
    
      
        
          z
          
            ρ
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        +
                        ρ
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        +
                        ρ
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle z^{\rho }\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} +\rho \\\mathbf {b_{q}} +\rho \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            2
            ,
            
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        α
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          α
                          ′
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        (
        −
        1
        
          )
          
            
              α
              ′
            
            −
            α
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            2
            ,
            
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          α
                          ′
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        α
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        ≤
        p
        ,
        
        
          α
          ′
        
        −
        α
        ∈
        
          Z
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p+2,\,q}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\alpha ,\mathbf {a_{p}} ,\alpha '\\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=(-1)^{\alpha '-\alpha }\;G_{p+2,\,q}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\alpha ',\mathbf {a_{p}} ,\alpha \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n\leq p,\;\alpha '-\alpha \in \mathbb {Z} ,}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            
            q
            +
            2
          
          
            
            m
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        β
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          β
                          ′
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        (
        −
        1
        
          )
          
            
              β
              ′
            
            −
            β
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            
            q
            +
            2
          
          
            
            m
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          β
                          ′
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        β
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        ≤
        q
        ,
        
        
          β
          ′
        
        −
        β
        ∈
        
          Z
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,\,q+2}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\beta ,\mathbf {b_{q}} ,\beta '\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=(-1)^{\beta '-\beta }\;G_{p,\,q+2}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\beta ',\mathbf {b_{q}} ,\beta \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m\leq q,\;\beta '-\beta \in \mathbb {Z} ,}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        α
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        β
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        (
        −
        1
        
          )
          
            β
            −
            α
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        α
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        β
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        ≤
        q
        ,
        
        β
        −
        α
        =
        0
        ,
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        …
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\alpha ,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} ,\beta \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=(-1)^{\beta -\alpha }\;G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} ,\alpha \\\beta ,\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m\leq q,\;\beta -\alpha =0,1,2,\dots ,}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            q
            ,
            p
          
          
            
            n
            ,
            m
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        −
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        1
                        −
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              z
              
                −
                1
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{q,p}^{\,n,m}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1-\mathbf {b_{q}} \\1-\mathbf {a_{p}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z^{-1}\right),}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          
            
              h
              
                1
                +
                ν
                +
                (
                p
                −
                q
                )
                
                  /
                
                2
              
            
            
              (
              2
              π
              
                )
                
                  (
                  h
                  −
                  1
                  )
                  δ
                
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            h
            p
            ,
            
            h
            q
          
          
            
            h
            m
            ,
            
            h
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        (
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        +
                        h
                        −
                        1
                        )
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        (
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        +
                        h
                        −
                        1
                        )
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        (
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        +
                        h
                        −
                        1
                        )
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        (
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        +
                        h
                        −
                        1
                        )
                        
                          /
                        
                        h
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  z
                  
                    h
                  
                
                
                  h
                  
                    h
                    (
                    q
                    −
                    p
                    )
                  
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        h
        ∈
        
          N
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)={\frac {h^{1+\nu +(p-q)/2}}{(2\pi )^{(h-1)\delta }}}\;G_{hp,\,hq}^{\,hm,\,hn}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1}/h,\dots ,(a_{1}+h-1)/h,\dots ,a_{p}/h,\dots ,(a_{p}+h-1)/h\\b_{1}/h,\dots ,(b_{1}+h-1)/h,\dots ,b_{q}/h,\dots ,(b_{q}+h-1)/h\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {z^{h}}{h^{h(q-p)}}}\right),\quad h\in \mathbb {N} .}
  

The abbreviations ν and δ were introduced in the definition of the G-function above.


=== Derivatives and antiderivatives ===
Concerning derivatives of the G-function, one finds these relationships:

  
    
      
        
          
            d
            
              d
              z
            
          
        
        
          [
          
            
              z
              
                1
                −
                
                  a
                  
                    1
                  
                
              
            
            
            
              G
              
                p
                ,
                q
              
              
                
                m
                ,
                n
              
            
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                a
                                
                                  p
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                b
                                
                                  q
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                  
                  |
                
                
                z
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        =
        
          z
          
            −
            
              a
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        ≥
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\left[z^{1-a_{1}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)\right]=z^{-a_{1}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1}-1,a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n\geq 1,}
  

  
    
      
        
          
            d
            
              d
              z
            
          
        
        
          [
          
            
              z
              
                1
                −
                
                  a
                  
                    p
                  
                
              
            
            
            
              G
              
                p
                ,
                q
              
              
                
                m
                ,
                n
              
            
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                a
                                
                                  p
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                b
                                
                                  q
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                  
                  |
                
                
                z
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        =
        −
        
          z
          
            −
            
              a
              
                p
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        <
        p
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\left[z^{1-a_{p}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)\right]=-z^{-a_{p}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p-1},a_{p}-1\\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n<p.}
  

  
    
      
        
          
            d
            
              d
              z
            
          
        
        
          [
          
            
              z
              
                −
                
                  b
                  
                    1
                  
                
              
            
            
            
              G
              
                p
                ,
                q
              
              
                
                m
                ,
                n
              
            
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                a
                                
                                  p
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                b
                                
                                  q
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                  
                  |
                
                
                z
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        =
        −
        
          z
          
            −
            1
            −
            
              b
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        +
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        ≥
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\left[z^{-b_{1}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)\right]=-z^{-1-b_{1}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\b_{1}+1,b_{2},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m\geq 1,}
  

  
    
      
        
          
            d
            
              d
              z
            
          
        
        
          [
          
            
              z
              
                −
                
                  b
                  
                    q
                  
                
              
            
            
            
              G
              
                p
                ,
                q
              
              
                
                m
                ,
                n
              
            
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                a
                                
                                  p
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              
                                b
                                
                                  q
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                  
                  |
                
                
                z
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        =
        
          z
          
            −
            1
            −
            
              b
              
                q
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        +
                        1
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        <
        q
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dz}}\left[z^{-b_{q}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)\right]=z^{-1-b_{q}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q-1},b_{q}+1\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m<q,}
  

From these four, equivalent relations can be deduced by simply evaluating the derivative on the left-hand side and manipulating a bit. One obtains for example:

  
    
      
        z
        
          
            d
            
              d
              z
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        +
        (
        
          a
          
            1
          
        
        −
        1
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        ≥
        1.
      
    
    {\displaystyle z{\frac {d}{dz}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1}-1,a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)+(a_{1}-1)\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n\geq 1.}
  

Moreover, for derivatives of arbitrary order h, one has

  
    
      
        
          z
          
            h
          
        
        
          
            
              d
              
                h
              
            
            
              d
              
                z
                
                  h
                
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        h
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        (
        −
        1
        
          )
          
            h
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        h
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle z^{h}{\frac {d^{h}}{dz^{h}}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}0,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} ,h\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=(-1)^{h}\;G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} ,0\\h,\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),}
  

  
    
      
        
          z
          
            h
          
        
        
          
            
              d
              
                h
              
            
            
              d
              
                z
                
                  h
                
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              z
              
                −
                1
              
            
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        h
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              z
              
                −
                1
              
            
          
          )
        
        =
        (
        −
        1
        
          )
          
            h
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        −
                        h
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        1
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              z
              
                −
                1
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle z^{h}{\frac {d^{h}}{dz^{h}}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z^{-1}\right)=G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} ,1-h\\1,\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z^{-1}\right)=(-1)^{h}\;G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1-h,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} ,1\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z^{-1}\right),}
  

which hold for h < 0 as well, thus allowing to obtain the antiderivative of any G-function as easily as the derivative. By choosing one or the other of the two results provided in either formula, one can always prevent the set of parameters in the result from violating the condition ak − bj ≠ 1, 2, 3, ... for k = 1, 2, ..., n and j = 1, 2, ..., m that is imposed by the definition of the G-function. Note that each pair of results becomes unequal in the case of h < 0.
From these relationships, corresponding properties of the Gauss hypergeometric function and of other special functions can be derived.


=== Recurrence relations ===
By equating different expressions for the first-order derivatives, one arrives at the following 3-term recurrence relations among contiguous G-functions:

  
    
      
        (
        
          a
          
            p
          
        
        −
        
          a
          
            1
          
        
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        +
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        1
        ≤
        n
        <
        p
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle (a_{p}-a_{1})\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1}-1,a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)+G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p-1},a_{p}-1\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad 1\leq n<p,}
  

  
    
      
        (
        
          b
          
            1
          
        
        −
        
          b
          
            q
          
        
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        +
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        +
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        +
                        1
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        1
        ≤
        m
        <
        q
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle (b_{1}-b_{q})\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1}+1,b_{2},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)+G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q-1},b_{q}+1\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad 1\leq m<q,}
  

  
    
      
        (
        
          b
          
            1
          
        
        −
        
          a
          
            1
          
        
        +
        1
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        +
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        +
                        1
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        ≥
        1
        ,
        
        m
        ≥
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle (b_{1}-a_{1}+1)\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1}-1,a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)+G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1}+1,b_{2},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n\geq 1,\;m\geq 1,}
  

  
    
      
        (
        
          a
          
            p
          
        
        −
        
          b
          
            q
          
        
        −
        1
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        −
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        +
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        +
                        1
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        <
        p
        ,
        
        m
        <
        q
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle (a_{p}-b_{q}-1)\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)=G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p-1},a_{p}-1\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right)+G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q-1},b_{q}+1\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n<p,\;m<q.}
  

Similar relations for the diagonal parameter pairs a1, bq and b1, ap follow by suitable combination of the above. Again, corresponding properties of hypergeometric and other special functions can be derived from these recurrence relations.


=== Multiplication theorems ===
Provided that z ≠ 0, the following relationships hold:

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            w
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          w
          
            
              b
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        
          ∑
          
            h
            =
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            
              (
              1
              −
              w
              
                )
                
                  h
                
              
            
            
              h
              !
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        +
                        h
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        ≥
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,wz\right)=w^{b_{1}}\sum _{h=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(1-w)^{h}}{h!}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\b_{1}+h,b_{2},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m\geq 1,}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            w
            z
          
          )
        
        =
        
          w
          
            
              b
              
                q
              
            
          
        
        
          ∑
          
            h
            =
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            
              (
              w
              −
              1
              
                )
                
                  h
                
              
            
            
              h
              !
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        +
                        h
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        m
        <
        q
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,wz\right)=w^{b_{q}}\sum _{h=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(w-1)^{h}}{h!}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\b_{1},\dots ,b_{q-1},b_{q}+h\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad m<q,}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                z
                w
              
            
          
          )
        
        =
        
          w
          
            1
            −
            
              a
              
                1
              
            
          
        
        
          ∑
          
            h
            =
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            
              (
              1
              −
              w
              
                )
                
                  h
                
              
            
            
              h
              !
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        −
                        h
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        ≥
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {z}{w}}\right)=w^{1-a_{1}}\sum _{h=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(1-w)^{h}}{h!}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1}-h,a_{2},\dots ,a_{p}\\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n\geq 1,}
  

  
    
      
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                z
                w
              
            
          
          )
        
        =
        
          w
          
            1
            −
            
              a
              
                p
              
            
          
        
        
          ∑
          
            h
            =
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            
              (
              w
              −
              1
              
                )
                
                  h
                
              
            
            
              h
              !
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                            −
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        −
                        h
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        n
        <
        p
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {z}{w}}\right)=w^{1-a_{p}}\sum _{h=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(w-1)^{h}}{h!}}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{p-1},a_{p}-h\\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),\quad n<p.}
  

These follow by Taylor expansion about w = 1, with the help of the basic properties discussed above. The radii of convergence will be dependent on the value of z and on the G-function that is expanded. The expansions can be regarded as generalizations of similar theorems for Bessel, hypergeometric and confluent hypergeometric functions.


== Definite integrals involving the G-function ==
Among definite integrals involving an arbitrary G-function one has:

  
    
      
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          x
          
            s
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            η
            x
          
          )
        
        d
        x
        =
        
          
            
              
                η
                
                  −
                  s
                
              
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  m
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              +
              s
              )
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  1
                
                
                  n
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              −
              s
              )
            
            
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  m
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  q
                
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              
                b
                
                  j
                
              
              −
              s
              )
              
                ∏
                
                  j
                  =
                  n
                  +
                  1
                
                
                  p
                
              
              Γ
              (
              
                a
                
                  j
                
              
              +
              s
              )
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }x^{s-1}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,\eta x\right)dx={\frac {\eta ^{-s}\prod _{j=1}^{m}\Gamma (b_{j}+s)\prod _{j=1}^{n}\Gamma (1-a_{j}-s)}{\prod _{j=m+1}^{q}\Gamma (1-b_{j}-s)\prod _{j=n+1}^{p}\Gamma (a_{j}+s)}}.}
  

Note that the restrictions under which this integral exists have been omitted here. It is, of course, no surprise that the Mellin transform of a G-function should lead back to the integrand appearing in the definition above.
Euler-type integrals for the G-function are given by:

  
    
      
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            1
          
        
        
          x
          
            −
            α
          
        
        
        (
        1
        −
        x
        
          )
          
            α
            −
            β
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
            x
          
          )
        
        d
        x
        =
        Γ
        (
        α
        −
        β
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        α
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        β
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{1}x^{-\alpha }\;(1-x)^{\alpha -\beta -1}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,zx\right)dx=\Gamma (\alpha -\beta )\;G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\alpha ,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} ,\beta \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right),}
  

  
    
      
        
          ∫
          
            1
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          x
          
            −
            α
          
        
        
        (
        x
        −
        1
        
          )
          
            α
            −
            β
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
            x
          
          )
        
        d
        x
        =
        Γ
        (
        α
        −
        β
        )
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        α
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        β
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \int _{1}^{\infty }x^{-\alpha }\;(x-1)^{\alpha -\beta -1}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,zx\right)dx=\Gamma (\alpha -\beta )\;G_{p+1,\,q+1}^{\,m+1,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} ,\alpha \\\beta ,\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right).}
  

Extensive restrictions under which these integrals exist can be found on p. 417 of ""Tables of Integral Transforms"", vol. II(1954), Edited by A. Erdelyi. Note that, in view of their effect on the G-function, these integrals can be used to define the operation of fractional integration for a fairly large class of functions (Erdélyi–Kober operators).
A result of fundamental importance is that the product of two arbitrary G-functions integrated over the positive real axis can be represented by just another G-function (convolution theorem):

  
    
      
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            η
            x
          
          )
        
        
          G
          
            σ
            ,
            τ
          
          
            
            μ
            ,
            ν
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            c
                            
                              σ
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            d
                            
                              τ
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            ω
            x
          
          )
        
        d
        x
        =
      
    
    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,\eta x\right)G_{\sigma ,\tau }^{\,\mu ,\nu }\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {c_{\sigma }} \\\mathbf {d_{\tau }} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,\omega x\right)dx=}
  

  
    
      
        =
        
          
            1
            η
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            q
            +
            σ
            ,
            
            p
            +
            τ
          
          
            
            n
            +
            μ
            ,
            
            m
            +
            ν
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            c
                            
                              σ
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            d
                            
                              τ
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                ω
                η
              
            
          
          )
        
        =
      
    
    {\displaystyle ={\frac {1}{\eta }}\;G_{q+\sigma ,\,p+\tau }^{\,n+\mu ,\,m+\nu }\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-b_{1},\dots ,-b_{m},\mathbf {c_{\sigma }} ,-b_{m+1},\dots ,-b_{q}\\-a_{1},\dots ,-a_{n},\mathbf {d_{\tau }} ,-a_{n+1},\dots ,-a_{p}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {\omega }{\eta }}\right)=}
  

  
    
      
        =
        
          
            1
            ω
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            τ
            ,
            
            q
            +
            σ
          
          
            
            m
            +
            ν
            ,
            
            n
            +
            μ
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          
                            d
                            
                              τ
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          
                            c
                            
                              σ
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                η
                ω
              
            
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle ={\frac {1}{\omega }}\;G_{p+\tau ,\,q+\sigma }^{\,m+\nu ,\,n+\mu }\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}a_{1},\dots ,a_{n},-\mathbf {d_{\tau }} ,a_{n+1},\dots ,a_{p}\\b_{1},\dots ,b_{m},-\mathbf {c_{\sigma }} ,b_{m+1},\dots ,b_{q}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {\eta }{\omega }}\right).}
  

Restrictions under which the integral exists can be found in Meijer, C. S., 1941: Nederl. Akad. Wetensch, Proc. 44, pp. 82–92. Note how the Mellin transform of the result merely assembles the gamma factors from the Mellin transforms of the two functions in the integrand.
The convolution formula can be derived by substituting the defining Mellin–Barnes integral for one of the G-functions, reversing the order of integration, and evaluating the inner Mellin-transform integral. The preceding Euler-type integrals follow analogously.


=== Laplace transform ===
Using the above convolution integral and basic properties one can show that:

  
    
      
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          e
          
            −
            ω
            x
          
        
        
        
          x
          
            −
            α
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            η
            x
          
          )
        
        d
        x
        =
        
          ω
          
            α
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            1
            ,
            
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        α
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                η
                ω
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-\omega x}\;x^{-\alpha }\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,\eta x\right)dx=\omega ^{\alpha -1}\;G_{p+1,\,q}^{\,m,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\alpha ,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {\eta }{\omega }}\right),}
  

where Re(ω) > 0. This is the Laplace transform of a function G(ηx) multiplied by a power x−α; if we put α = 0 we get the Laplace transform of the G-function. As usual, the inverse transform is then given by:

  
    
      
        
          x
          
            −
            α
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        α
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            η
            x
          
          )
        
        =
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
              i
            
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            c
            −
            i
            ∞
          
          
            c
            +
            i
            ∞
          
        
        
          e
          
            ω
            x
          
        
        
        
          ω
          
            α
            −
            1
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                η
                ω
              
            
          
          )
        
        d
        ω
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle x^{-\alpha }\;G_{p,\,q+1}^{\,m,\,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} ,\alpha \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,\eta x\right)={\frac {1}{2\pi i}}\int _{c-i\infty }^{c+i\infty }e^{\omega x}\;\omega ^{\alpha -1}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {\eta }{\omega }}\right)d\omega ,}
  

where c is a real positive constant that places the integration path to the right of any pole in the integrand.
Another formula for the Laplace transform of a G-function is:

  
    
      
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          e
          
            −
            ω
            x
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            n
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            η
            
              x
              
                2
              
            
          
          )
        
        d
        x
        =
        
          
            1
            
              
                
                  π
                
              
              ω
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            2
            ,
            
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            2
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  4
                  η
                
                
                  ω
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-\omega x}\;G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,\eta x^{2}\right)dx={\frac {1}{{\sqrt {\pi }}\omega }}\;G_{p+2,\,q}^{\,m,\,n+2}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}0,{\frac {1}{2}},\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {4\eta }{\omega ^{2}}}\right),}
  

where again Re(ω) > 0. Details of the restrictions under which the integrals exist have been omitted in both cases.


== Integral transforms based on the G-function ==
In general, two functions k(z,y) and h(z,y) are called a pair of transform kernels if, for any suitable function f(z) or any suitable function g(z), the following two relationships hold simultaneously:

  
    
      
        g
        (
        z
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        k
        (
        z
        ,
        y
        )
        
        f
        (
        y
        )
        
        d
        y
        ,
        
        f
        (
        z
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        h
        (
        z
        ,
        y
        )
        
        g
        (
        y
        )
        
        d
        y
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle g(z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }k(z,y)\,f(y)\;dy,\quad f(z)=\int _{0}^{\infty }h(z,y)\,g(y)\;dy.}
  

The pair of kernels is said to be symmetric if k(z,y) = h(z,y).


=== Narain transform ===
Roop Narain (1962, 1963a, 1963b) showed that the functions:

  
    
      
        k
        (
        z
        ,
        y
        )
        =
        2
        γ
        
        (
        z
        y
        
          )
          
            γ
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            q
            ,
            
            m
            +
            n
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            p
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            c
                            
                              m
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            d
                            
                              n
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            z
            y
            
              )
              
                2
                γ
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle k(z,y)=2\gamma \;(zy)^{\gamma -1/2}\;G_{p+q,\,m+n}^{\,m,\,p}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} ,\mathbf {b_{q}} \\\mathbf {c_{m}} ,\mathbf {d_{n}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(zy)^{2\gamma }\right),}
  

  
    
      
        h
        (
        z
        ,
        y
        )
        =
        2
        γ
        
        (
        z
        y
        
          )
          
            γ
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            q
            ,
            
            m
            +
            n
          
          
            
            n
            ,
            
            q
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          
                            d
                            
                              n
                            
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          
                            c
                            
                              m
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            z
            y
            
              )
              
                2
                γ
              
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle h(z,y)=2\gamma \;(zy)^{\gamma -1/2}\;G_{p+q,\,m+n}^{\,n,\,q}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\mathbf {b_{q}} ,-\mathbf {a_{p}} \\-\mathbf {d_{n}} ,-\mathbf {c_{m}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(zy)^{2\gamma }\right)}
  

are an asymmetric pair of transform kernels, where γ > 0, n − p = m − q > 0, and:

  
    
      
        
          ∑
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            p
          
        
        
          a
          
            j
          
        
        +
        
          ∑
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            q
          
        
        
          b
          
            j
          
        
        =
        
          ∑
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            m
          
        
        
          c
          
            j
          
        
        +
        
          ∑
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            n
          
        
        
          d
          
            j
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sum _{j=1}^{p}a_{j}+\sum _{j=1}^{q}b_{j}=\sum _{j=1}^{m}c_{j}+\sum _{j=1}^{n}d_{j},}
  

along with further convergence conditions. In particular, if p = q, m = n, aj + bj = 0 for j = 1, 2, ..., p and cj + dj = 0 for j = 1, 2, ..., m, then the pair of kernels becomes symmetric. The well-known Hankel transform is a symmetric special case of the Narain transform (γ = 1, p = q = 0, m = n = 1, c1 = −d1 = ν⁄2).


=== Wimp transform ===
Jet Wimp (1964) showed that these functions are an asymmetric pair of transform kernels:

  
    
      
        k
        (
        z
        ,
        y
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            2
            ,
            
            q
          
          
            
            m
            ,
            
            n
            +
            2
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        −
                        ν
                        +
                        i
                        z
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        ν
                        −
                        i
                        z
                        ,
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            y
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle k(z,y)=G_{p+2,\,q}^{\,m,\,n+2}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1-\nu +iz,1-\nu -iz,\mathbf {a_{p}} \\\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\;y\right),}
  

  
    
      
        h
        (
        z
        ,
        y
        )
        =
        
          
            i
            π
          
        
        y
        
          e
          
            −
            ν
            π
            i
          
        
        
          [
          
            
              e
              
                π
                y
              
            
            A
            (
            ν
            +
            i
            y
            ,
            ν
            −
            i
            y
            
            
              |
            
            
            z
            
              e
              
                i
                π
              
            
            )
            −
            
              e
              
                −
                π
                y
              
            
            A
            (
            ν
            −
            i
            y
            ,
            ν
            +
            i
            y
            
            
              |
            
            
            z
            
              e
              
                i
                π
              
            
            )
          
          ]
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle h(z,y)={\frac {i}{\pi }}ye^{-\nu \pi i}\left[e^{\pi y}A(\nu +iy,\nu -iy\,|\,ze^{i\pi })-e^{-\pi y}A(\nu -iy,\nu +iy\,|\,ze^{i\pi })\right],}
  

where the function A(·) is defined as:

  
    
      
        A
        (
        α
        ,
        β
        
        
          |
        
        
        z
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            p
            +
            2
            ,
            
            q
          
          
            
            q
            −
            m
            ,
            
            p
            −
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                            +
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            p
                          
                        
                        ,
                        α
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          a
                          
                            n
                          
                        
                        ,
                        β
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                            +
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                            +
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            q
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            1
                          
                        
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          b
                          
                            m
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            z
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle A(\alpha ,\beta \,|\,z)=G_{p+2,\,q}^{\,q-m,\,p-n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-a_{n+1},-a_{n+2},\dots ,-a_{p},\alpha ,-a_{1},-a_{2},\dots ,-a_{n},\beta \\-b_{m+1},-b_{m+2},\dots ,-b_{q},-b_{1},-b_{2},\dots ,-b_{m}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,z\right).}
  


=== Generalized Laplace transform ===
The Laplace transform can be generalized in close analogy with Narain's generalization of the Hankel transform:

  
    
      
        g
        (
        s
        )
        =
        2
        γ
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        (
        s
        t
        
          )
          
            γ
            +
            ρ
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            q
            +
            1
            ,
            
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            (
            s
            t
            
              )
              
                2
                γ
              
            
          
          )
        
        f
        (
        t
        )
        
        d
        t
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle g(s)=2\gamma \int _{0}^{\infty }(st)^{\gamma +\rho -1/2}\;G_{p,\,q+1}^{\,q+1,\,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}\mathbf {a_{p}} \\0,\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,(st)^{2\gamma }\right)f(t)\;dt,}
  

  
    
      
        f
        (
        t
        )
        =
        
          
            γ
            
              π
              i
            
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            c
            −
            i
            ∞
          
          
            c
            +
            i
            ∞
          
        
        (
        t
        s
        
          )
          
            γ
            −
            ρ
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            p
            ,
            
            q
            +
            1
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            
            p
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                        
                          
                            a
                            
                              p
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        −
                        
                          
                            b
                            
                              q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            (
            t
            s
            
              )
              
                2
                γ
              
            
          
          )
        
        g
        (
        s
        )
        
        d
        s
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle f(t)={\frac {\gamma }{\pi i}}\int _{c-i\infty }^{c+i\infty }(ts)^{\gamma -\rho -1/2}\;G_{p,\,q+1}^{\,1,\,p}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\mathbf {a_{p}} \\0,-\mathbf {b_{q}} \end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-(ts)^{2\gamma }\right)g(s)\;ds,}
  

where γ > 0, p ≤ q, and:

  
    
      
        (
        q
        +
        1
        −
        p
        )
        
        
          
            ρ
            
              2
              γ
            
          
        
        =
        
          ∑
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            p
          
        
        
          a
          
            j
          
        
        −
        
          ∑
          
            j
            =
            1
          
          
            q
          
        
        
          b
          
            j
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle (q+1-p)\,{\rho  \over 2\gamma }=\sum _{j=1}^{p}a_{j}-\sum _{j=1}^{q}b_{j},}
  

and where the constant c > 0 places the second integration path to the right of any pole in the integrand. For γ = 1⁄2, ρ = 0 and p = q = 0, this corresponds to the familiar Laplace transform.


=== Meijer transform ===
Two particular cases of this generalization were given by C.S. Meijer in 1940 and 1941. The case resulting for γ = 1, ρ = −ν, p = 0, q = 1 and b1 = ν may be written  (Meijer 1940):

  
    
      
        g
        (
        s
        )
        =
        
          
            2
            
              /
            
            π
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        (
        s
        t
        
          )
          
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          K
          
            ν
          
        
        (
        s
        t
        )
        
        f
        (
        t
        )
        
        d
        t
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle g(s)={\sqrt {2/\pi }}\int _{0}^{\infty }(st)^{1/2}\,K_{\nu }(st)\,f(t)\;dt,}
  

  
    
      
        f
        (
        t
        )
        =
        
          
            1
            
              
                
                  2
                  π
                
              
              
              i
            
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            c
            −
            i
            ∞
          
          
            c
            +
            i
            ∞
          
        
        (
        t
        s
        
          )
          
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          I
          
            ν
          
        
        (
        t
        s
        )
        
        g
        (
        s
        )
        
        d
        s
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle f(t)={\frac {1}{{\sqrt {2\pi }}\,i}}\int _{c-i\infty }^{c+i\infty }(ts)^{1/2}\,I_{\nu }(ts)\,g(s)\;ds,}
  

and the case obtained for γ = 1⁄2, ρ = −m − k, p = q = 1, a1 = m − k and b1 = 2m may be written (Meijer 1941a):

  
    
      
        g
        (
        s
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        (
        s
        t
        
          )
          
            −
            k
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          e
          
            −
            s
            t
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          W
          
            k
            +
            1
            
              /
            
            2
            ,
            
            m
          
        
        (
        s
        t
        )
        
        f
        (
        t
        )
        
        d
        t
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle g(s)=\int _{0}^{\infty }(st)^{-k-1/2}\,e^{-st/2}\,W_{k+1/2,\,m}(st)\,f(t)\;dt,}
  

  
    
      
        f
        (
        t
        )
        =
        
          
            
              Γ
              (
              1
              −
              k
              +
              m
              )
            
            
              2
              π
              i
              
              Γ
              (
              1
              +
              2
              m
              )
            
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            c
            −
            i
            ∞
          
          
            c
            +
            i
            ∞
          
        
        (
        t
        s
        
          )
          
            k
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          e
          
            t
            s
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
        
          M
          
            k
            −
            1
            
              /
            
            2
            ,
            
            m
          
        
        (
        t
        s
        )
        
        g
        (
        s
        )
        
        d
        s
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle f(t)={\frac {\Gamma (1-k+m)}{2\pi i\,\Gamma (1+2m)}}\int _{c-i\infty }^{c+i\infty }(ts)^{k-1/2}\,e^{ts/2}\,M_{k-1/2,\,m}(ts)\,g(s)\;ds.}
  

Here Iν and Kν are the modified Bessel functions of the first and second kind, respectively, Mk,m and Wk,m are the Whittaker functions, and constant scale factors have been applied to the functions f and g and their arguments s and t in the first case.


== Representation of other functions in terms of the G-function ==
The following list shows how the familiar elementary functions result as special cases of the Meijer G-function:

  
    
      
        
          e
          
            x
          
        
        =
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            1
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle e^{x}=G_{0,1}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-x\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        cos
        ⁡
        x
        =
        
          
            π
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cos x={\sqrt {\pi }}\;G_{0,2}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\0,{\frac {1}{2}}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        sin
        ⁡
        x
        =
        
          
            π
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        
          
            
              −
              π
            
            2
          
        
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        
          
            π
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sin x={\sqrt {\pi }}\;G_{0,2}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\{\frac {1}{2}},0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad {\frac {-\pi }{2}}<\arg x\leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}}
  

  
    
      
        cosh
        ⁡
        x
        =
        
          
            π
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cosh x={\sqrt {\pi }}\;G_{0,2}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\0,{\frac {1}{2}}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        sinh
        ⁡
        x
        =
        −
        
          
            π
          
        
        i
        
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        −
        π
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle \sinh x=-{\sqrt {\pi }}i\;G_{0,2}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\{\frac {1}{2}},0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad -\pi <\arg x\leq 0}
  

  
    
      
        arcsin
        ⁡
        x
        =
        
          
            
              −
              i
            
            
              2
              
                
                  π
                
              
            
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            2
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            2
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        ,
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            
              x
              
                2
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        −
        π
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle \arcsin x={\frac {-i}{2{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\;G_{2,2}^{\,1,2}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1,1\\{\frac {1}{2}},0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-x^{2}\right),\qquad -\pi <\arg x\leq 0}
  

  
    
      
        arctan
        ⁡
        x
        =
        
          
            1
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            2
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            2
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              x
              
                2
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        
          
            
              −
              π
            
            2
          
        
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        
          
            π
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \arctan x={\frac {1}{2}}\;G_{2,2}^{\,1,2}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}{\frac {1}{2}},1\\{\frac {1}{2}},0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x^{2}\right),\qquad {\frac {-\pi }{2}}<\arg x\leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}}
  

  
    
      
        arccot
        ⁡
        x
        =
        
          
            1
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            2
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            2
            ,
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            1
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              x
              
                2
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        
          
            
              −
              π
            
            2
          
        
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        
          
            π
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \operatorname {arccot} x={\frac {1}{2}}\;G_{2,2}^{\,2,1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}{\frac {1}{2}},1\\{\frac {1}{2}},0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x^{2}\right),\qquad {\frac {-\pi }{2}}<\arg x\leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}}
  

  
    
      
        ln
        ⁡
        (
        1
        +
        x
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            2
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            2
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                        ,
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        1
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \ln(1+x)=G_{2,2}^{\,1,2}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1,1\\1,0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        H
        (
        1
        −
        
          |
        
        x
        
          |
        
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            1
            ,
            1
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle H(1-|x|)=G_{1,1}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1\\0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        H
        (
        
          |
        
        x
        
          |
        
        −
        1
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            1
            ,
            1
          
          
            
            0
            ,
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle H(|x|-1)=G_{1,1}^{\,0,1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1\\0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

Here, H denotes the Heaviside step function.
The subsequent list shows how some higher functions can be expressed in terms of the G-function:

  
    
      
        γ
        (
        α
        ,
        x
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            1
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        α
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \gamma (\alpha ,x)=G_{1,2}^{\,1,1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1\\\alpha ,0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        Γ
        (
        α
        ,
        x
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            1
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            2
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        α
                        ,
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma (\alpha ,x)=G_{1,2}^{\,2,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}1\\\alpha ,0\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,x\right),\qquad \forall x}
  

  
    
      
        
          J
          
            ν
          
        
        (
        x
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            ν
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            
                              −
                              ν
                            
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        
          
            
              −
              π
            
            2
          
        
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        
          
            π
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle J_{\nu }(x)=G_{0,2}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\{\frac {\nu }{2}},{\frac {-\nu }{2}}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad {\frac {-\pi }{2}}<\arg x\leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}}
  

  
    
      
        
          Y
          
            ν
          
        
        (
        x
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            1
            ,
            3
          
          
            
            2
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              −
                              ν
                              −
                              1
                            
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            ν
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            
                              −
                              ν
                            
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            
                              −
                              ν
                              −
                              1
                            
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        
          
            
              −
              π
            
            2
          
        
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        
          
            π
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Y_{\nu }(x)=G_{1,3}^{\,2,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}{\frac {-\nu -1}{2}}\\{\frac {\nu }{2}},{\frac {-\nu }{2}},{\frac {-\nu -1}{2}}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad {\frac {-\pi }{2}}<\arg x\leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}}
  

  
    
      
        
          I
          
            ν
          
        
        (
        x
        )
        =
        
          i
          
            −
            ν
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            ν
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            
                              −
                              ν
                            
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        −
        π
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle I_{\nu }(x)=i^{-\nu }\;G_{0,2}^{\,1,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\{\frac {\nu }{2}},{\frac {-\nu }{2}}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad -\pi <\arg x\leq 0}
  

  
    
      
        
          K
          
            ν
          
        
        (
        x
        )
        =
        
          
            1
            2
          
        
        
        
          G
          
            0
            ,
            2
          
          
            
            2
            ,
            0
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        −
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            ν
                            2
                          
                        
                        ,
                        
                          
                            
                              −
                              ν
                            
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            
              
                
                  x
                  
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
            
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        
          
            
              −
              π
            
            2
          
        
        <
        arg
        ⁡
        x
        ≤
        
          
            π
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle K_{\nu }(x)={\frac {1}{2}}\;G_{0,2}^{\,2,0}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}-\\{\frac {\nu }{2}},{\frac {-\nu }{2}}\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,{\frac {x^{2}}{4}}\right),\qquad {\frac {-\pi }{2}}<\arg x\leq {\frac {\pi }{2}}}
  

  
    
      
        Φ
        (
        x
        ,
        n
        ,
        a
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            n
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        a
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        a
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        −
                        a
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        a
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
        ,
        
        n
        =
        0
        ,
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        …
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi (x,n,a)=G_{n+1,\,n+1}^{\,1,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}0,1-a,\dots ,1-a\\0,-a,\dots ,-a\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-x\right),\qquad \forall x,\;n=0,1,2,\dots }
  

  
    
      
        Φ
        (
        x
        ,
        −
        n
        ,
        a
        )
        =
        
          G
          
            n
            +
            1
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
          
            
            1
            ,
            
            n
            +
            1
          
        
        
        
          (
          
            
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        −
                        a
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        −
                        a
                      
                    
                    
                      
                        0
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        a
                        ,
                        …
                        ,
                        1
                        −
                        a
                      
                    
                  
                
                
              
              |
            
            
            −
            x
          
          )
        
        ,
        
        ∀
        x
        ,
        
        n
        =
        0
        ,
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        …
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi (x,-n,a)=G_{n+1,\,n+1}^{\,1,\,n+1}\!\left(\left.{\begin{matrix}0,-a,\dots ,-a\\0,1-a,\dots ,1-a\end{matrix}}\;\right|\,-x\right),\qquad \forall x,\;n=0,1,2,\dots }
  

Even the derivatives of γ(α,x) and Γ(α,x) with respect to α can be expressed in terms of the Meijer G-function. Here, γ and Γ are the lower and upper incomplete gamma functions, Jν and Yν are the Bessel functions of the first and second kind, respectively, Iν and Kν are the corresponding modified Bessel functions, and Φ is the Lerch transcendent.


== See also ==
Gradshteyn and Ryzhik


== References ==

Andrews, L. C. (1985). Special Functions for Engineers and Applied Mathematicians. New York: MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-02-948650-4.
Askey, R. A.; Daalhuis, Adri B. Olde (2010), ""Meijer G-function"", in Olver, Frank W. J.; Lozier, Daniel M.; Boisvert, Ronald F.; Clark, Charles W. (eds.), NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-19225-5, MR 2723248.
Bateman, H.; Erdélyi, A. (1953). Higher Transcendental Functions, Vol. I (PDF). New York: McGraw–Hill. (see § 5.3, ""Definition of the G-Function"", p. 206)
Beals, Richard; Szmigielski, Jacek (2013). ""Meijer G-Functions: A Gentle Introduction"" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 60 (7): 866. doi:10.1090/noti1016.
Brychkov, Yu. A.; Prudnikov, A. P. (2001) [1994], ""Meijer transform"", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press
Gradshteyn, Izrail Solomonovich; Ryzhik, Iosif Moiseevich; Geronimus, Yuri Veniaminovich; Tseytlin, Michail Yulyevich; Jeffrey, Alan (2015) [October 2014]. ""9.3."". In Zwillinger, Daniel; Moll, Victor Hugo (eds.). Table of Integrals, Series, and Products. Translated by Scripta Technica, Inc. (8 ed.). Academic Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-384933-5. LCCN 2014010276.
Klimyk, A. U. (2001) [1994], ""Meijer G-functions"", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press
Luke, Yudell L. (1969). The Special Functions and Their Approximations, Vol. I. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-459901-7. (see Chapter V, ""The Generalized Hypergeometric Function and the G-Function"", p. 136)
Meijer, C. S. (1936). ""Über Whittakersche bzw. Besselsche Funktionen und deren Produkte"". Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde (2) (in German). 18 (4): 10–39. JFM 62.0421.02.
Meijer, C. S. (1940). ""Über eine Erweiterung der Laplace-Transformation – I, II"". Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam) (in German). 43: 599–608 and 702–711. JFM 66.0523.01.
Meijer, C. S. (1941a). ""Eine neue Erweiterung der Laplace-Transformation – I, II"". Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam) (in German). 44: 727–737 and 831–839. JFM 67.0396.01.
Meijer, C. S. (1941b). ""Multiplikationstheoreme für die Funktion 
  
    
      
        
          
            G
            
              p
              ,
              q
            
            
              
              m
              ,
              n
            
          
          (
          z
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle G_{p,q}^{\,m,n}(z)}
  
"". Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (Amsterdam) (in German). 44: 1062–1070. JFM 67.1016.01.
Narain, Roop (1962). ""The G-functions as unsymmetrical Fourier kernels – I"" (PDF). Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 13 (6): 950–959. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1962-0144157-5. MR 0144157.
Narain, Roop (1963a). ""The G-functions as unsymmetrical Fourier kernels – II"" (PDF). Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 14 (1): 18–28. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1963-0145263-2. MR 0145263.
Narain, Roop (1963b). ""The G-functions as unsymmetrical Fourier kernels – III"" (PDF). Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 14 (2): 271–277. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1963-0149210-9. MR 0149210.
Prudnikov, A. P.; Marichev, O. I.; Brychkov, Yu. A. (1990). Integrals and Series, Vol. 3: More Special Functions. Newark, NJ: Gordon and Breach. ISBN 978-2-88124-682-1. (see § 8.2, ""The Meijer G-function"", p. 617)
Slater, Lucy Joan (1966). Generalized hypergeometric functions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06483-5. (there is a 2008 paperback with ISBN 978-0-521-09061-2)
Wimp, Jet (1964). ""A Class of Integral Transforms"". Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. Series 2. 14: 33–40. doi:10.1017/S0013091500011202. MR 0164204. Zbl 0127.05701.
Mathai, Saxena, A.M and R.K (1973). Generalized Hypergeometric Functions with Applications in Statistics and Physical Sciences. Springer. ISBN 9780387064826.
Good, Michael (2020). ""Radiation from an inertial mirror horizon"". Universe. 6(9) (131): 131. arXiv:2008.08776. Bibcode:2020Univ....6..131G. doi:10.3390/universe6090131.


== External links ==
Weisstein, Eric W. ""Meijer G-Function"". MathWorld.
hypergeom on GitLab"
Haplogroup D (mtDNA),"In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup D is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
It is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup M, thought to have arisen somewhere in East Asia, between roughly 60,000 and 35,000 years ago (in the Late Pleistocene, before the Last Glacial Maximum and the settlement of the Americas).
In contemporary populations, it is found especially in Central and Northeast Asia. 
Haplogroup D (more specifically, subclade D4) is one of five main haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the others being A, B, C, and X. Among the Nepalese population, haplogroup D is the most dominant maternal lineage in Tamang (26.1%) and Magar (24.3%).


== Subclades ==
There are two principal branches, D4 and D5'6. 
D1,  D2 and D3 are subclades of D4.


=== D4 ===
D1 is a basal branch of D4 that is widespread and diverse in the Americas. 
Subclades D4b1, D4e1, and D4h are found both in Asia and in the Americas and are thus of special interest for the settlement of the Americas.
D2, which occurs with high frequency in some arctic and subarctic populations (especially Aleuts), is a subclade of D4e1 parallel to D4e1a and D4e1c, so it properly should be termed D4e1b. 
D3, which has been found mainly in some Siberian populations and in Inuit of Canada and Greenland, is a branch of D4b1c.
D4 (3010, 8414, 14668): The subclade D4 is the most frequently occurring mtDNA haplogroup among modern populations of northern East Asia, such as Japanese, Okinawans, Koreans, northern Han Chinese (e.g. from Lanzhou), and some Mongolic- or Tungusic-speaking populations of the Hulunbuir region, such as Barghuts in Hulun Buir Aimak, Mongols and Evenks in New Barag Left Banner, and Oroqens in Oroqen Autonomous Banner. D4 is also the most common haplogroup among the Oroks of Sakhalin, the Buryats and Khamnigans of the Buryat Republic, the Kalmyks of the Kalmyk Republic, the Telenghits and Kazakhs of the Altai Republic, and the Kyrgyz of Kyzylsu Kyrgyz Autonomous Prefecture. It also predominates among published samples of Paleo-Indians and individuals whose remains have been recovered from Chertovy Vorota Cave. Spread also all over China, the Himalayas, Central Asia, Siberia, and indigenous peoples of the Americas, with some cases observed in Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, and Europe. Khattak and Kheshgi in Peshawar Valley, Pakistan

D4* - China, Mongol from Heilongjiang and Hebei, Korea, Japan, Thailand (Lisu from Mae Hong Son Province), USA, Russia, Georgia, Iraq, Turkey, Greece

D1 – America
D1a – Colombia
D1a1 – Brazil (Surui, Gavião)
D1a2 – Guaraní
D1b – United States (Hispanic), Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico
D1c – United States (Hispanic), Mexican
D1d
D1d1 – United States (Hispanic), Mexican
D1d2 – Mexican
D1e – Brazil (Karitiana, Zoró)
D1f – Colombia (incl. Coreguaje), Ecuador (Amerindian Kichwas from the Amazonian provinces of Pastaza, Orellana, and Napo), Peru, Mexican, USA
D1f1 – Venezuela, Brazil (Karitiana), Tiriyó, Waiwai, Katuena
D1f2 – Colombia
D1f3 – Mexico, USA (Native American)
D1g – Southern Cone of South America
D1g1
D1g1a
D1g1b
D1g2
D1g2a
D1g3
D1g4
D1g5
D1g6
D1h
D1h1 – Mexican
D1h2 – Mexican
D1i – Peru, Mexican, United States (Hispanic)
D1i1 – Mexican
D1i2 – Mexican
D1j – Southern Cone of South America (incl. the Gran Chaco in Argentina)
D1j1
D1j1a
D1j1a1 – Argentina
D1j1a2
D1k – Peru, Mexican, United States (Hispanic)
D1m – Mexican
D1n – United States (Hispanic), Mexico
D1r – Peru
D1u
D1u1 – Peru

D4a – China, Mongol from Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang, Northern Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province and Lamphun Province, Phuan from Phrae Province), Laos (Lao from Luang Prabang), Japan, Korea, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan (Tajik from Ferghana), Pakistan (Saraiki), Mongolia
D4a1 – Japan, Korea, Negidal, Ulchi
D4a1a – Japan
D4a1a1 – Japan, Korea
D4a1a1a – Japan
D4a1b – Japan, Korea
D4a1b1 – Japan
D4a1c – Japan, Korea
D4a1d – Japan
D4a1e – China, Taiwan, Dirang Monpa, Mongol from Shandong, Yakut
D4a1e1 – Japan, Uyghurs
D4a1f – Japan
D4a1f1 – Japan
D4a1g – China, Bargut
D4a1h – Japan
D4a2 – Japan, Korea
D4a2a – Japan, Korea
D4a2b – Japan
D4a3 Mongol from Tongliao
D4a3a
D4a3a* – China (Henan), Korea
D4a3a1 – China (Taihang area in Henan province, Hunan Han, Korean from Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture)
D4a3a2 – Japan
D4a3b
D4a3b* – China, Mongol from Shenyang
D4a3b1 – Japan, Korea, China（Korean from Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, China）, Pakistan (Kalash)
D4a3b2 – China, Taiwan
D4a4 – Japan
D4a5 - Myanmar (Shan from Kachin State), China (Zhejiang, Chamdo, Korean from Antu County, Mongol from Tongliao)
D4a6 - China (Eastern China, Korean from Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture), Mauritius
D4a-b
D4a-b* – China (Han Chinese from Taizhou, Zhejiang)
D4a7
D4a7* – China
D4a7a
D4a7a* – Taiwan
D4a7a1 – Taiwan (Hakka Han from Neipu, Pingtung)
D4a7b
D4a7b* – Vietnam (Kinh from Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam)
D4a7b1 – China (Souther Han Chinese from Hunan), Taiwan (Minnan Han from Kaohsiung and Tsou from Alishan, Chiayi), Vietnam (Kinh from Gia Lâm District, Hanoi)  Singapore (Malaysian)
D4a8 – China
D4b – Thailand (Thai from Central Thailand)
D4b1
D4b1* – Russia (Tuvan from Tuva Republic, Tatarstan), Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz), China (Uyghur, Mongol from Beijing, etc.)
D4b1a
D4b1a* – China (Bargut from Inner Mongolia, Mongol from Heilongjiang), South Korea, Thailand (Iu Mien from Nan Province)
D4b1a1 – South Korea, Japan
D4b1a1a – South Korea, Japan, Kyrgyzstan
D4b1a2 – Yukaghir, Neolithic Agin-Buryat Autonomous Okrug
D4b1a2a
D4b1a2a* – Hungary, Khamnigan, Han (Beijing)
D4b1a2a1 – China (Bargut, Uyghur), Mongol, Kazakhstan, Karakalpak, Azeri, Turkey, Poland, Russia (Buryats in Buryat Republic and Irkutsk Oblast, Tubalars, Ayon, Yanranay, Karaginsky District), Inuit (Canada, Greenland), Canada, Native American (USA)
D4b1a2a2 – Buryat, Todzhins, Tuvan
D4b1b'd
D4b1b - China, Taiwan
D4b1b1 – Japan
D4b1b1a – Japan
D4b1b1a1 – Japan
D4b1b2 – Japan, China (Han from Zhanjiang)
D4b1d – China (Gelao from Daozhen)
D4b1c
D3 – Oroqen, Buryat, Barghut, Yukaghir, Even, Evenk, Yakut, Dolgan, Nganasan, Inuit
D3* – Buryat, Yakut, Yukaghir (Lower Indigirka River, Chukotka, etc.), Nganasan (Vadei from the Taimyr Peninsula), Even (Severo-Evensk district, Sebjan, Sakkyryyr, Berezovka), Evenk (Taimyr Peninsula), Oroqen, Mansi
D3a – Bargut, Buryat, Evenk (Stony Tunguska)
D3b – Oroqen
D3c
D3c* – Buryat
D3c1
D3c1* – Nganasan (Avam from the Taimyr Peninsula)
D3c1a
D3c1a1
D3c1a1a – Agin-Buryat Autonomous Okrug (Neolithic Transbaikal), Bargut (modern Inner Mongolia)
D3c1a1b – Italy (Roman Empire)
D3c1a2 – Ust'-Dolgoe site of Glazkovo culture (Bronze Age Cis-Baikal), Onnyos burial near Amga River (Middle Neolithic central Yakutia)
D3d – Even (Tompo District of Yakutia, Lower Indigirka River)
D3e – Even (Tompo District of Yakutia)
D4b2 – Japan, specimen from 4256–4071 cal YBP (Middle Jōmon period) Yokohama, China (Mongol from Hebei), Thailand (Hmong from Chiang Rai Province), India (Gallong)
D4b2a – Japan
D4b2a1 – Japan, China (Korean from Antu County)
D4b2a2 – Japan, Korea
D4b2a2a – Japan, Kyrgyzstan
D4b2a2a1 – Japan, South Korea, China (Han from Dandong)
D4b2a2a2 – Japan
D4b2a2b – Japan
D4b2b – China (Mongols from Northeast China and Inner Mongolia, Uyghurs, Tu, Tibet, etc.), South Korea, Japan, Thailand (Khmu from Nan Province), Saudi Arabia
D4b2b1 – Japan, Korea, Buryat, Mongol from Tongliao, Uyghur, Persian
D4b2b1a – Japan
D4b2b1b – Japan
D4b2b1c – Japan
D4b2b1d – Japan
D4b2b2 – China (Mongol from Chifeng and Heilongjiang, Tujia, Han from Lanzhou, etc.), Taiwan (Hakka)
D4b2b2a – China, Taiwan, Vietnam (Lachi)
D4b2b2a1 – Japan, Russia
D4b2b2b – Russia, China, South Korea
D4b2b2c – China, Buryat
D4b2b3 – Japan
D4b2b4 – Northeast India (Sherdukpen), China, Russia (Tuvan)
D4b2b5 – Barguts, Buryat, Tibet, Taiwan
D4b2b6 – Chinese (Shandong, Beijing, Lanzhou, Denver), Korea, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Armenian
D4b2b7 – China, Taiwan (Hakka)
D4b2b8 – Uyghur
D4b2b9
D4b2b9* – China, Xibo
D4b2b9a
D4b2b9a* – Buryat
D4b2b9a1 – China
D4b2c
D4b2d – Inner Mongolia (Bargut, Buryat)
D4c
D4c1 – Uyghur
D4c1a – Japan, Korea
D4c1a1 – Japan, Tashkurgan (Kyrgyz)
D4c1b – Japan, Inner Mongolia
D4c1b1 – Japan, Tibet
D4c1b2 – Japan
D4c2 – Turkmenistan, Mongol from Chifeng
D4c2a – Uyghur (Artux), Russian Federation
D4c2a1 – Uyghur, Buryat, Bargut, Khamnigan, Ulchi
D4c2b – Yakut, Buryat, Bargut, Daur, Even, Uyghur, Kyrgyz, Kazakhstan, Turk, Russian, Ukraine
D4c2c – Japan
D4d – Japan, Korea

D4e
D4e1 – Taiwan, Czech Republic (West Bohemia), Austrian, Finland, USA
D4e1a – Thailand (Mon from Nakhon Ratchasima Province), Moken, Urak Lawoi, China (Han from Lanzhou, Mongol from Inner Mongolia, etc.), Tibet, Uyghur, Korea, Japan
D4e1a1 – Japan, Chinese
D4e1a2 – Thailand, Sonowal Kachari
D4e1a2a – Japan, Korea
D4e1a3 – China (Yao from Bama, Mongol from Alxa, etc.), Thailand (Hmong, Iu Mien), Vietnam (Cờ Lao, Phù Lá)
D2 – Uyghur, Mongol from Jilin and Chaoyang
D2a'b
D2a – Aleut, Tlingit
D2a1 – Saqqaq, ancient Canada
D2a1a – Aleut
D2a1b – Siberian Eskimo
D2a2 – Chukchi, Eskimo
D2b – Yukaghir, Even (Maya River, Okhotsk Region), Mongol from Hulunbuir
D2b1 – China, Tibet, Kazakhstan, Kalmyk, Belarus (Tatar)
D2b1a – Buryat, Yakut, Khamnigan, Evenk
D2b2 – Evenk, Bargut
D2c – Buryat
D4e1c – Mexican
D4e2 – Japan, Korea, USA (African American)
D4e2a – Japan, Korea
D4e2b – Japan
D4e2c – Japan
D4e2d – Japan
D4e3 – Northeast Thailand (Black Tai, Saek), China, Mongol from Shenyang and Tongliao, Lachungpa
D4e4 – Yakut, Ulchi, Bulgaria, Poland, Russian Federation
D4e4a – Evenk, Even, Uyghur
D4e4a1 – Yukaghir, Evenk, Even, Mongol from Shenyang
D4e4b – Russian, Volga Tatar
D4e5
D4e5a - Xinjiang (Uyghur, Kyrgyz), Russia (Altai Kizhi, Buryat), Inner Mongolia (Bargut), Iran (Qashqai), Japan (Aichi)
D4e5b - Orok (Sakhalin), Even (Nelkan on the Maya River in the Okhotsk Region), Kyrgyz (Artux), Bashkortostan, Han Chinese (Lanzhou, Denver), Mongol from Fuxin and Heilongjiang
D4f – Shor
D4f1 – Japan, Korea, Mongol (Bargut, Chifeng, Chaoyang, Hebei)

D4g
D4g* – Japan, Korea
D4g1 – Japan, Korea, Uyghur, Uzbekistan
D4g1a – Japan
D4g1b – Japan, Taiwan, Mongol from Xinjiang, Belarus
D4g1c – Japan
D4g2 – China, Mongols in China (Fuxin, Hinggan, Tongliao, Xilingol)
D4g2a – Japan
D4g2a1 – China, Thailand (Mon from Lopburi Province), Mongols in China (Bargut, Beijing, Fuxin), Buryat, Khamnigan
D4g2a1a – Japan
D4g2a1b – China, Thailand (Black Tai from Kanchanaburi Province, Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province)
D4g2a1c – Thailand (Mon from Kanchanaburi Province and Ratchaburi Province), China, Wancho, Jammu and Kashmir
D4g2b – China, Buryat
D4g2b1 – Han Chinese, Ulchi
D4g2b1a – Japan

D4h
D4h* – Thailand (Khmu from Nan Province, Htin from Phayao Province, Khon Mueang from Lampang Province), Philippines
D4h1
D4h1* – China
D4h1a - Korea, China (Liaoning Han)
D4h1a1 – Japan, Korea, China (Beijing)
D4h1a2 – Japan, Korea, China (Liaoning, Jilin, Tianjin, Shandong)
D4h1b
D4h1b-G10398A - China (Hunan Han, Zhejiang), Kyrgyzstan
D4h1b-A16241G - Japan (Tokyo, Aichi)
D4h1c – China (incl. Tu), Tibet
D4h1c1 – Japan, Korea, Mongol from Shenyang
D4h1d – Bargut
D4h2 – Ulchi
D4h3 – Thailand (Tai Yuan from Ratchaburi Province)
D4h3a – South America (Peru, Ecuador, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil), Mexico, USA, and Colombia.
D4h3a1 – Chile
D4h3a1a – Chile
D4h3a1a1 – Chile
D4h3a1a2 – Chile
D4h3a2 – Chile, Argentina
D4h3a3 – Chile
D4h3a3a – Mexico, USA
D4h3a4 – Peru
D4h3a5 – Chile, Peru, Argentina
D4h3a6 – Peru, Ecuador
D4h3a7 – ancient Canada
D4h3a8 – Mexico
D4h3a9 – Peru
D4h3b – China
D4h4 – Uyghur, Tibet, Japan, Mongol (Bayannur, Hinggan)
D4h4a – Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan), Buryat, Bargut
D4i
D4i* – Japan, Uyghur, Israel (Palestinian)
D4i1 – Japan
D4i2 – Uyghur, Yakut, Dolgan, Kazakh, Volga Tatar, Buryat, Bargut, Evenk (Iengra), Even, Nanai, Yukaghir, Russia, Germany, England
D4i3
D4i3* – Nepal (Kathmandu)
D4i3a – China, Taiwan (Atayal)
D4i4 – Uyghur, Tibet (Sherpa), China (Miao), Vietnam (H'Mông)
D4i5 – Japan

D4j – Tibet, Uyghur, Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan, Tashkurgan, Artux), Altai, Teleut, Tuvan, Buryat, Mongols in China (Bargut, Chifeng, Hohhot, Tianjin, Tongliao), China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Turkey, Italy, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Belarus
D4j1 – Thailand (Palaung from Chiang Mai Province), Uyghur
D4j1a – Bargut, Buryat, Khamnigan
D4j1a1 – Lepcha, Gallong, Lachungpa, Sherpa, Tibet, Lahu, Thailand (Lahu from Mae Hong Son Province, Mon from Ratchaburi Province, Lawa from Mae Hong Son Province, Tai Yuan from Uttaradit Province), Kyrgyz, Uyghur, Buryat, Bargut, Khamnigan
D4j1a1a – Gallong, Tibet
D4j1a1b – Toto
D4j1a2 – Tibet, Ladakh
D4j1b – Tibet, Wancho, Nepal, Thailand (Mon from Ratchaburi Province, Palaung and Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province), Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan)
D4j1b2 – Gallong
D4j2 – Lithuania, ancient Scythian (Chylenski), Yakut, Dolgan
D4j2a – Mansi, Ket, Yakut (Vilyuy River basin)
D4j-T16311C! – Italy, Ukraine, Lithuania
D4j3 – Russian Federation, Uyghur, Tibet, Mongol (Hulunbuir), Japan, Thailand (Mon from Ratchaburi Province)
D4j3a – China, Inner Mongolia (Mongol from Tongliao), Ulchi
D4j3a1 – Japan
D4j3b - Thailand (Lisu from Mae Hong Son Province), Tibet (Lhoba), Uyghur
D4j11 – Japan, Inner Mongolia (Mongol from Chifeng), Buryat, Hungary, Italy
D4j4 – Nganasan, Even (Maya River basin, NE Sakha Republic), Evenk (Nyukzha river basin, Iengra River basin)
D4j4a – Evenk (Okhotsk region, Sakha Republic, Iengra River basin), Even (Okhotsk region), Ulchi, Buryat, Yakut (Vilyuy River basin)
D4j5 – Italy, Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Iran (Khorasan), Uyghur, Kyrgyz, Inner Mongolia, Buryat, Yakut, Yukaghir, Even (Sakha Republic), Evenk (Sakha Republic)
D4j-T146C!
D4j6 – China, Buryat, Dirang Monpa
D4j13 – Volga Tatar, Kyrgyz (Artux), Uyghur, Sherpa (Shigatse)
D4j7 – Tubalar, Mongol (Hinggan League)
D4j7a – Buryat, Bargut
D4j8 – China, Bargut, Buryat, Evenk (Sakha Republic), Yakut, Kazakh, Kyrgyz (Artux), Uyghur, Poland, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia, Austria, Scotland, Argentina
D4j9 – Bargut, Buryat, Khamnigan, Tuvan
D4j10 – Tubalar, Buryat, Bargut, Khamnigan, Kazakhstan, Turk
D4j12 – Bargut, Buryat, Uyghur, Tatarstan, Belarus, Poland, Italy
D4j14 – Japan
D4j15 – China, Tibet, Mongols in China (Chifeng), Kazakhstan
D4j16 – China
D4k'o'p
D4k – Japan, Korea, China (Qinghai, Kinh, etc.), Uyghur, Kyrgyzstan
D4o – Teleut, Uyghur, Buryat
D4o1
D4o1* – Uyghur, Tubalar (Northeast Altai)
D4o1a – Japan, Buryat
D4o1b – Kyrgyz (Artux), Chelkan, Teleut, Khamnigan, Buryat (Buryat Republic), Han Chinese (N. China)
D4o2 – Bargut, Yakut, Evenk (Sakha Republic), Even (Kamchatka, Sakha Republic), Koryak, Ulchi, China (Han from Lanzhou)
D4o2* – Mongols in China (Bargut from Inner Mongolia, Mongol from Hinggan League, Mongol from Hohhot)
D4o2a – Manchu
D4o2a* – Uyghur, Yakut, Nganasan, Evenk (New Barag Left Banner), Even (Kamchatka), Koryak
D4o2a1 – Negidal, Hezhen, Uyghur, China
D4o2a2 – Yakut, Uyghur, ancient Yana River basin
D4o2a3 – Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Buryat (Zabaykalsky Krai)
D4p
D4p* – Altaian, Buryat
D4p1 – Japan
D4p2 – Buryat
D4l
D4l1
D4l1a – Japan
D4l1a1 – Japan
D4l1b – Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Uyghur
D4l2 – Evenk (Nyukzha, Iengra, Taimyr), Yakut (Central, Vilyuy), Uyghur, Kazakh
D4l2a – Even (Tompo, Sebjan), Yukaghir, Mongol (Xilingol League)
D4l2a1 – Even (Sebjan, Sakkyryyr), Evenk (Taimyr), Yakut, Yukaghir
D4l2a2 – Evenk, Negidal, Yukaghir
D4l2b – China, Tibet (Lhasa)
D4m
D4m* – Tubalar (Northeast Altai)
D4m1 – Japan
D4m2 – Mongolia, Mongols in China (Hohhot, Tongliao), South Korea
D4m2a – Nivkh, Ulchi, Yakut, Buryat, Evenk, Even, Yukaghir, South Korea
D4m2a* – Nivkh, Buryat
D4m2a1
D4m2a1* – Evenk (Central Siberia)
D4m2a1a – Evens (two from Sakkyryyr and one from Tompo), Yukaghir
D4m2a2 – Nivkh
D4m2a3 – Yakut
D4m2a4 – Nivkh
D4m2b – Tuvinian, Daur Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Mongolia, Uyghur
D4m3 – Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan,Artux), Uyghur
D4n
D4n* – Japan, Korea
D4n1
D4n1* – Japan
D4n1a – Japan
D4n2
D4n2a – China
D4n2b – Kyrgyz (Tashkurgan), Tibet, Bargut (Inner Mongolia), Buryat (Irkutsk Oblast)
D4q – Taiwan, China, Mongols in China (Fuxin), Kyrgyz, Tajiks, India (Jammu and Kashmir), Germany, Poland, Netherlands, United States
D4q1 – Toto
D4q1a – Toto
D4q2 - Kyrgyz, India (Uttar Pradesh Upper Caste Brahmin)
D4q2a - Sherdukpen
D4q3 - Uyghur
D4q4 - Lhoba
D4r – Thailand, Myanmar
D4s
D4s1
D4s1* – Vietnam (Si La, Hà Nhì)
D4s1a – Vietnam (Hà Nhì)
D4s2 – Tashkurgan (Sarikoli, Kyrgyz)
D4s3 – Tibet (Lhasa), Uyghur, Tuvinian
D4t – China, Korea, Japan
D4u
D4u*
D4u1
D4u1* – Iran (Qashqai)
D4u1a – Tashkurgan (Sarikoli)
D4v – Thailand
D4w – Japan (Tokyo), Tu
D4x – Peru (pre-Columbian Lima)
D4y – Vietnam (La Chí)
D4z – China


=== D5'6 ===
D5'6 (16189) is mainly found in East Asia and Southeast Asia, especially in China, Korea, and Japan. 
It does not appear to have participated in the migration to the Americas, and frequencies in Central, North, and South Asia are generally lower, although the D5a2a2 subclade is prevalent (57/423 = 13.48%) among the Yakuts, a Turkic-speaking group that migrated to Siberia in historical times under the pressure of the Mongol expansion.

D5 - Taiwan (Paiwan)
D5a'b (D5-A9180G) - Korean, Tai Yuan in Northern Thailand
D5a - China, Korea, Japan, Buryat, Poland
D5a1 - Japan (TMRCA 7,300 [95% CI 3,300 <-> 14,200] ybp)
D5a1a - Japan
D5a1a1 - Japan
D5a1a2 - Japan
D5a2 - Gallong, Mongols in China (Baotou), Korea (TMRCA 12,500 [95% CI 8,900 <-> 17,100] ybp)
D5a2a - Russia (Tula Oblast, Buryat), Mongols in China (Heilongjiang, Hohhot), China, Japan (TMRCA 10,400 [95% CI 7,400 <-> 14,200] ybp)
D5a2a-T16092C - China, Korea
D5a2a1 - Mongols in China (Tongliao, Beijing, Chifeng, Fuxin, Hohhot, Shandong), China (Han from Lanzhou, etc.), Tibet (Monpa, Deng), Vietnam (Hà Nhì), Korea, Japan (Gifu), Buryat, Tuvan, Kazakh
D5-C16172T! - Burusho, Tubalar, Kumandin (Turochak), Todzhi (Adir-Kezhig), Buryat (South Siberia, Inner Mongolia), Wancho, Gallong, Monpa, Myanmar (Burmese from Pakokku), Thailand (Lawa from Mae Hong Son Province), China (Han from Fujian, Miao, etc.), Taiwan
D5a2a1a - Japan (Aichi, Chiba, etc.), China
D5a2a1a1 - Japan (Aichi, etc.)
D5a2a1a1a - Japan (Chiba, etc.)
D5a2a1a1b - China (Uyghurs), Poland
D5a2a1a2 - Japan (Gifu, Tokyo, etc.)
D5a2a1b - Sonowal Kachari, Gallong, China (Han from Zhanjiang, etc.), Tibet (Lhoba, Tingri, Deng), Kyrgyz (Artux), Mongols in China (Hohhot, Tongliao)
D5a2a1b1 - China, Taiwan (Minnan)
D5a2a2 - Japan (Aichi), Bargut, Buryat, Kyrgyz (Artux), Tibet (Shannan), Yakut, Dolgan, Yukaghir, Evenk (Iengra, Nyukzha, Taimyr, Sakha Republic), Even (Sakha Republic) (TMRCA 3,500 [95% CI 2,300 <-> 5,000] ybp)
D5a2b - Thailand (Iu Mien from Nan Province), Vietnam (Si La, Hà Nhì), Tibet (Deng, Sherpa), China (TMRCA 10,400 [95% CI 7,200 <-> 14,500] ybp)
D5a3 - Tibet, Mongol (Dalian), Korea, Japan (TMRCA 11,100 [95% CI 6,300 <-> 18,100] ybp)
D5a3a - Mongol (Hinggan League), China, Tibet, Finland
D5a3a1 - China, Uyghur, Ukraine
D5a3a1a - Finland, Norway (Saami), Russia (Veliky Novgorod, etc.), Mansi
D5a3b - China, Korea (Seoul)
D5b - Uyghur, China, Mongol (Chifeng)
D5b1
D5b1* - China, Uyghur, Mongol (Hulunbuir, Jilin, Tongliao)
D5b1a
D5b1a1 - Japan, Korea, China (Hubei, etc.)
D5b1a2 - Japan
D5b1b
D5b1b* - Japan, Korea, Mongol (Baotou, Chaoyang, Heilongjiang, Nanyang, Shanxi, Tongliao)
D5b1b1 - Japan, Korea, Uzbekistan
D5b1b2
D5b1b2* - Japan, Korea, Taiwan (Minnan), Uyghur
D5b1b2a - Uyghur
D5b1b2b - Uyghur
D5b1b2c - Kyrgyz (Kyrgyzstan)
D5b1b3 - Japan
D5b1b4 - China
D5b1c
D5b1c* - China (Han from Kunming)
D5b1c1 - China, Mongol (Chifeng), Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam (Kinh)
D5b1c1* - Taiwan (Minnan, etc.)
D5b1c1a
D5b1c1a* - Taiwan (Amis, Puyuma, etc.), Indonesia (Manado), Chinese (Singapore)
D5b1c1a1 - Philippines (Kankanaey, Ifugao, etc.)
D5b1c1a2 - Philippines (Ibaloi)
D5b1c1b - China
D5b1c2 - Uyghur
D5b1d - Han Chinese (Beijing), Mongol (Ordos), Yakut
D5b1e - China
D5b1f - China
D5b2 - Japan
D5b3
D5b3* - Vietnam (Kinh, Tay), Thailand (Phuan), Laos (Lao), Taiwan (Minnan, etc.)
D5b3a - Taiwan (Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma)
D5b3a1 - Taiwan (Rukai, Bunun, Paiwan, etc.)
D5b3b - Thailand (Shan from Mae Hong Son Province, Black Tai from Kanchanaburi Province, Tai Yuan from Ratchaburi Province), Vietnam (Kinh)
D5b4 - Thailand (Siamese, Hmong from Chiang Rai Province), Vietnam (Tay Nung, Cờ Lao, Tay, Kinh), Taiwan (Minnan, Makatao, etc.), China (Han)
D5b5 - Uyghur
D5c
D5c1 - Japan, Han Chinese (Beijing)
D5c1a - Japan, Taiwan (Minnan, etc.), China, Mongol (Tongliao), Uyghur, Tubalar, Kumandin (Turochak, Soltonsky District), Shor (Biyka, etc.), Kyrgyzstan (TMRCA 4,500 [95% CI 3,300 <-> 6,100] ybp)
D5c-T16311C! - Vietnam (Kinh), Mongolian, China
D5c2 - China, Japan
D6
D6a - Philippines, East Timor
D6a1
D6a1* - Tibet, China, Korea, Japan
D6a1a - China, Japan
D6a2 - Taiwan (Atayal), Philippines
D6c - China (She people, Han from Zhanjiang), Taiwan (Minnan), Thailand (Phutai from Kalasin Province)
D6c1 - Philippines
D6c1a - Philippines (Maranao)


== Table of frequencies by ethnic group ==


== Famous members ==
Ruth Simmons is a member of haplogroup D1.
Comedian and actress Margaret Cho is in haplogroup D5a2a1b.


== See also ==

Genealogical DNA test
Genetic genealogy
Human mitochondrial genetics
Population genetics
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas


== References ==


== External links ==
General
Ian Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site
Haplogroup D
Mannis van Oven's PhyloTree.org - mtDNA subtree D
YFull MTree's Haplogroup D
MITOMAP's Haplogroup D
FamilyTreeDNA's mtDNA Haplotree: Haplogroup D
FamilyTreeDNA's D mtDNA Haplogroup project
Spread of Haplogroup D, from National Geographic
Chatters, J. C.; Kennett, D. J.; Asmerom, Y.; Kemp, B. M.; Polyak, V.; Blank, A. N.; Beddows, P. A.; Reinhardt, E.; Arroyo-Cabrales, J.; Bolnick, D. A.; Malhi, R. S.; Culleton, B. J.; Erreguerena, P. L.; Rissolo, D.; Morell-Hart, S.; Stafford, T. W. (16 May 2014). ""Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans"". Science. 344 (6185): 750–754. Bibcode:2014Sci...344..750C. doi:10.1126/science.1252619. PMID 24833392. S2CID 206556297."
Peter V. Zima,"Peter Václav Zima is a literary critic and a social scientist born in Prague 1946. He is of Czech-German origin and has dual nationality such as Austrian and Dutch. He is emeritus professor of the Alpen-Adria-Universität in Klagenfurt (Austria) where he held the chair of General and Comparative Literature from 1983 to 2012.
He studied sociology and politics at the University of Edinburgh from 1965 to 1969 and gained two doctorates in the Sociology of Literature at the universities of Paris IV (Doctorat du 3e cycle: 1971.) and Paris I (Doctorat d'Etat: 1979). He taught Sociology of Literature at the University of Bielefeld (Germany: 1972-1975) and Theory of Literature at the University of Groningen (Netherlands: 1976-1983). In 1983 he was appointed full professor of General and Comparative Literature at the Alpen-Adria-University in Klagenfurt (Austria). He worked as visiting professor at the Istituto Orientale in Naples (1985) and at the Universities of Leuven (1988), Graz (1991/92), Vienna (1994/95) and Santiago de Compostela (2004).
In 1998 he was elected corresponding Member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences; in Vienna, in 2010 he became a member of the Academia Europaea in London. In 2014 he was appointed honorary professor at the East China Normal University in Shanghai


== Research ==
His fields of research include: theory of literature and aesthetics, sociology and social philosophy

Sociology of texts: Zima has developed a sociology of texts which draws partly on the works of the Russian philosopher and literary critic, Mikhail M. Bakhtin, and Algirdas J. Greimas, the Lithuanian semiotician. He attempts to explain all types of texts or discourses within the framework of a social and linguistic situation and in relation to group languages or sociolects.
Ideology and theory: In the context of this sociology, Zima has proposed a distinction between ideology and theory as discourses. Unlike ideology which is a discourse structured by dualism, monologue and the claim to be identical with reality, theory is a discourse structured by ambivalence and a constructivist approach to the real which cannot be represented as such but only as a contingent construction to be assessed and tested in an open dialogue with competing theories.
Dialogical Theory: Zima has proposed Dialogical Theory as a new version of Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School (in the sense of Adorno and Horkheimer). The aim is to confront competing and contradictory sociological theories systematically in order to show that none of the sociological theories at stake can claim to be an adequate representation of society and that social reality with its trends and counter-trends can best be observed in a theoretical dialogue in which theories are made to collide in a kind of crash-test. To test theories in the social sciences, he proposes Otto Neurath's ""Erschütterung"" (""shaking"") of theories or hypotheses as an alternative to Karl R. Popper's model of ""falsification"" or ""refutation"". In contrast to the natural sciences, the notion of ""falsification"" does not seem practicable in the cultural and social sciences. ""Dialogical Theory"" has been the subject of a lively and polemical discussion in Ethik und Sozialwissenschaften. Streitforum für Erwägungskultur, (EuS 10, 4)
Dialogical Subjectivity: Drawing on Bakhtin's dialogism, Zima develops a dialogical theory of the individual subject, arguing that subjectivity is an open-ended process which is best understood as a permanent dialogue with others and with alterity in general
Theory of Literature: In his work, The Philosophy of Modern Literary Theory (1999), Zima has reconstructed the philosophical and aesthetic foundations of literary theories from Anglo-American New Criticism and Russian Formalism to Deconstruction. The key argument is that literary theories can only be adequately understood in relation to the philosophies and aesthetics of Kant, Hegel and Nietzsche in which they originated.
Sociology of the novel: Zima has developed a sociological theory of the novel based on the thesis that increasing agnosticism due to the growing indeterminacy of social values affects the semantic and narrative structures of the (experimental) novel. While novels of the 19th century (e.g. Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, 1813) came about in a relatively well-defined value system and hence could resolve ambiguities of situations, characters and actions, modernist novels of the 20th century are marked by an unsurmountable ambivalence which narrators can no longer resolve: truth and lie, good and evil become inseparable, and this ambivalence of characters and their actions weakens the narrative structure of novels such as Joyce's Ulysses, Kafka's The Trial or Musil's The Man without Qualities. As in Nietzsche's work, this ambivalence tends to turn into indifference  (as interchangeable values) which is heralded by Camus' The Outsider and underlies Claude Simon's, Butor's or Robbe-Grillet's Nouveaux Romans. (Cf. Joseph Jurt ""Von der Ambiguität zur Indifferenz. Zu Peter V. Zimas Versuch einer Sozialgeschichte des modernen Romans"" Neue Züricher Zeitung, 09.03.1990.)
Modern / Postmodern: As a development of these ideas, Zima defines late modernity or modernism as a problematic structured by ambivalence and postmodernity as a problematic structured by indifference as interchangeability of cultural values.
Zima has published books and articles in four languages: English, German, French and Dutch; articles in Italian, Spanish and Czech. His books have been translated into nine languages: Arabic, Chinese, Czech, English, Italian, Korean, Persian, Spanish and Turkish.


== Publications ==


=== Books as author ===


==== English books ====
The Philosophy of Modern Literary Theory, Athlone-Continuum, London, 1999 ( ISBN 978-0-8264-7893-1);
Deconstruction and Critical Theory, Continuum, London-New York, 2002 ( ISBN 978-1-84790-008-1) (English translation of Die Dekonstruktion: cf. below);
What is Theory? Cultural Theory as Discourse and Dialogue, Continuum, London-New York, 2007 ( ISBN 0-8264-9050-6) (augmented English version of Was ist Theorie?: cf. below);
Modern / Postmodern. Society, Philosophy, Literature, Continuum, London-New York, 2010 ( ISBN 978-1-4411-9901-0) (augmented English version of Moderne / Postmoderne: cf. below);
Subjectivity and Identity. Between Modernity and Postmodernity, Bloomsbury, London-New York, 2015 (ISBN 978-1-78093-780-9) (augmented English version of Theorie des Subjekts: cf. below).
Discourse and Power. An Introduction to Critical Narratology: Who Narrates Whom? Routledge, London-New York, 2023.


==== French books ====
Le Désir du mythe. Une lecture sociologique de Marcel Proust, Nizet, Paris, 1973;
Goldmann. Dialectique de l'immanence, Ed. Universitaires, Paris, 1973;
L'Ecole de Francfort. Dialectique de la particularité, Ed. Universitaires, Paris, 1974, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2005 ( ISBN 2-7475-7719-8);
Pour une sociologie du texte littéraire, UGE : 10/18, Paris, 1978, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2000 ( ISBN 2-7384-9081-6) (French version of Kritik der Literatursoziologie : cf. below) ;
L'Ambivalence romanesque. Proust – Kafka – Musil, Le Sycomore, Paris (1980), L'Harmattan, Paris, 2002 (2nd ed.) ( ISBN 2-7475-3117-1);
L'Indifférence romanesque. Sartre – Moravia – Camus, Le Sycomore, Paris (1982), L'Harmattan, Paris, 2005 (2nd ed.) ( ISBN 2-7475-8001-6);
Manuel de sociocritique, Picard, Paris, 1985, Paris, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2000 (2nd ed.) ( ISBN 2-7384-9087-5);
(an enlarged version of the Dutch book Literatuur en maatschappij. Inleiding in de literatuur- en tekstsociologie, Van Gorcum, Assen, 1981, ISBN 90-232-1831-0) ;
La Déconstruction. Une critique, PUF, Paris, 1994 ( ISBN 9-782-130-4599-72);
La Négation esthétique. Le sujet, le beau et le sublime de Mallarmé et Valéry à Adorno et Lyotard, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2002 ( ISBN 2-7475-3116-3);
Critique littéraire et esthétique. Les fondements esthétiques des théories de la littérature, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003 ( ISBN 2-7475-5810-X) (French version of The Philosophy of Modern Literary Theory: cf. supra);
Théorie critique du discours. La discursivité entre Adorno et le postmodernisme, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003 ( ISBN 9782747552479);
Texte et société. Perspectives sociocritiques, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2011 ( ISBN 978-2-296-55926-4);
Essai et essayisme. Le potentiel théorique de l'essai: De Montaigne jusqu'à la postmodernité, Classiques Garnier, Paris, 2018 ( ISBN 9782406068358) (augmented version of Essay / Essayismus: cf. below).


==== German books ====
Kritik der Literatursoziologie, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, 1978 ( ISBN 3-518-10857-3);
Textsoziologie. Eine kritische Einführung, Metzler, Stuttgart, 1980 ( ISBN 978-3-476-10190-7);
Der gleichgültige Held. Textsoziologische Untersuchungen zu Sartre, Moravia und Camus, Metzler, Stuttgart, 1983, WVT, Trier, 2004 ( ISBN 3-88476-600-7) (revised and augmented German version of L'indifférence romanesque: cf. above);
Roman und Ideologie. Zur Sozialgeschichte des modernen Romans, Fink, Munich, 1986 ( ISBN 3-7705-2365-2);
Ideologie und Theorie. Eine Diskurskritik, Francke, Tübingen, 1989 ( ISBN 3-7720-1823-8);
Literarische Ästhetik. Methoden und Modelle der Literaturwissenschaft, Francke, Tübingen, 1991, 3rd enlarged ed. 2020 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-1590-3, 978-3-8252-5481-0);
Komparatistik. Einführung in die Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft, Francke, Tübingen, 1992, 2nd enlarged ed. 2011 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-1705-1);
Die Dekonstruktion. Einführung und Kritik, Francke-UTB, Tübingen, 1994, 2nd ed. 2016 (enlarged German version of La Déconstruction: cf. above) ( ISBN 978-3-8252-4689-1);
Moderne / Postmoderne. Gesellschaft – Philosophie – Literatur, Francke-UTB, Tübingen, 1997, 4th augmented ed. 2016 ( ISBN 9-783825-246907);
Theorie des Subjekts. Subjektivität und Identität zwischen Moderne und Postmoderne, Francke-UTB, Tübingen, 2000, 4th revised ed. 2017 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-4796-6);
Das literarische Subjekt. Zwischen Spätmoderne und Postmoderne, Francke, Tübingen, 2001, 2024 2nd ed. (ISBN 978-3-381-12711-5);
Was ist Theorie? Theoriebegriff und Dialogische Theorie in den Kultur- und Sozialwissenschaften, Francke-UTB, Tübingen, 2004, 2nd revised ed. 2017 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-4797-3);
Ästhetische Negation. Das Subjekt, das Schöne und das Erhabene von Mallarmé und Valéry zu Adorno und Lyotard, Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg, 2005 (augmented version of La Négation esthétique: cf. supra), 2nd enlarged edition 2018 ( ISBN 978-3-8260-6178-3);
Der europäische Künstlerroman. Von der romantischen Utopie zur postmodernen Parodie, Tübingen, Francke, Tübingen, 2008 ( ISBN 978-3-7720-8263-4);
Narzissmus und Ichideal, Psyche – Gesellschaft – Kultur, Francke, Tübingen, 2009 ( ISBN 9783772083372);
Komparatistische Perspektiven. Zur Theorie der Vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft, Francke, Tübingen, 2011 ( ISBN 978-3-7720-8407-2);
Essay / Essayismus. Zum theoretischen Potenzial des Essays von Adorno bis zur Postmoderne, Königshausen und Neumann, Würzburg, 2012, 2024, 2nd ed. ( ISBN 978-3-8260-4727-5);
Entfremdung. Pathologien der postmodernen Gesellschaft, Francke-UTB, Tübingen, 2014 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-4305-0);
Soziologische Theoriebildung. Ein Handbuch auf dialogischer Basis, Francke-UTB, Tübingen, 2020 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-5370-7);
Diskurs und Macht. Einführung in die herrschaftskritische Erzähltheorie, Verlag Barbara Budrich, Opladen & Toronto, 2022 ( ISBN 978-3-8252-5830-6);
Die Kritische Theorie zwischen Spätmoderne und Postmoderne: Nostalgie als Kritik, Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, 2024 (ISBN 978-3-381-12701-6).
Italian book:
Breve introduzione alla sociologia del testo, Edizioni Libreria Sapere, Naples, 1985.


==== Books as editor and co-editor ====
Textsemiotik als Ideologiekritik, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, 1977 ( ISBN 3-518-10796-8);
Texte et idéologie. Degrés. Revue de synthèse à orientation sémiologique, No. 24-25, hivers 1980-1981;
Semiotics and Dialectics. Ideology and the Text, Benjamins, Amsterdam 1981 ( ISBN 90-272-1505-7);
Europäische Avantgarde (ed. with J. Strutz), Peter Lang, Frankfurt-New York, 1987 ( ISBN 3-8204-0057-5);
Komparatistik als Dialog. Literatur und interkulturelle Beziehungen in der Alpen-Adria-Region und in der Schweiz (ed. with J. Strutz), Peter Lang, Frankfurt-New York, 1991 ( ISBN 3-631-42279-2);
Literatur intermedial. Musik, Malerei, Photographie, Film, Wiss. Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1995 ( ISBN 3-534-12315-8);
Literarische Polyphonie. Übersetzung und Mehrsprachigkeit in der Literatur (ed. with J. Strutz), Narr, Tübingen, 1996 ( ISBN 3-8233-5163-X);
Vergleichende Wissenschaften. Interdisziplinarität und Interkulturalität in den Komparatistiken, Narr, Tübingen, 2000 (ISBN 3-8233-5212-1);
Strategien der Verdummung. Infantilisierung in der Fun-Gesellschaft (ed. with J. Wertheimer), Beck, Munich, 2001, 6th ed. 2006 ( ISBN 978-3-406-45963-4);
Krise und Kritik der Sprache. Literatur zwischen Spätmoderne und Postmoderne (ed. with R. Kacianka), Francke, Tübingen, 2004 ( ISBN 3-77-20-8055-3);
Kritische Theorie heute (ed. with R. Winter), Transcript, Bielefeld, 2007 ( ISBN 3-89942-530-8).
Fiction:
Grenzgang. Prosa, Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg, 1979 ( ISBN 3-455-08741-8).


== Prizes and distinctions ==
Heatly Prize in Politics (Department of Politics University of Edinburgh, 1969)
Woitschach-Forschungspreis im Stifterverband für die Deutsche Wissenschaft (Bonn, 1993)
Corresponding Member of The Austrian Academy of Sciences (Vienna, 1998)
Member of the Academia Europaea (London, 2010)
Honorary Professor of East China Normal University (2014)


== Further reading ==
Das Subjekt in Literatur und Kunst. Festschrift für Peter V. Zima, eds. S. Bartoli Kucher, D. Böhme, T. Floreancig, Francke, Tübingen, 2011 ( ISBN 978-3-7720-8408-9);
""Die Romanistik eines Außenseiters"" (Autobiography), in: K.-D. Ertler (ed.), Romanistik als Passion. Sternstunden der neueren Fachgeschichte, LIT-Verlag, Vienna, 2018 ( ISBN 978-3-643-50882-9).
Rozhovor s Petrem Zimou (Interview with Jan Schneider, University of Olomouc), in: Aluze. Casopis pro Literaturu, Filosofii a jiné, UP Olomouc 2/99, pp. 86–91.


== See also ==
Sociological criticism
Comparative literature
Postmodernism


== References ==


== External links ==
Literary works about and by Peter V. Zima
https://dgavl.de Deutsche Gesellschaft für Allgemeinen und Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft
Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender Online. Personen, Publikationen, Kontakte."
History of molecular biology,"The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological and physical disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, virology and physics.  With the hope of understanding life at its most fundamental level, numerous physicists and chemists also took an interest in what would become molecular biology.
In its modern sense, molecular biology attempts to explain the phenomena of life starting from the macromolecular properties that generate them.  Two categories of macromolecules in particular are the focus of the molecular biologist: 1) nucleic acids, among which the most famous is deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA), the constituent of genes, and 2) proteins, which are the active agents of living organisms. One definition of the scope of molecular biology therefore is to characterize the structure, function and relationships between these two types of macromolecules. This relatively limited definition allows for the estimation of a date for the so-called ""molecular revolution"", or at least to establish a chronology of its most fundamental developments.


== General overview ==
In its earliest manifestations, molecular biology—the name was coined by Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1938—was an idea of physical and chemical explanations of life, rather than a coherent discipline.  Following the advent of the Mendelian-chromosome theory of heredity in the 1910s and the maturation of atomic theory and quantum mechanics in the 1920s, such explanations seemed within reach.  Weaver and others encouraged (and funded) research at the intersection of biology, chemistry and physics, while prominent physicists such as Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger turned their attention to biological speculation.  However, in the 1930s and 1940s it was by no means clear which—if any—cross-disciplinary research would bear fruit; work in colloid chemistry, biophysics and radiation biology, crystallography, and other emerging fields all seemed promising.
In 1940, George Beadle and Edward Tatum demonstrated the existence of a precise relationship between genes and proteins. In the course of their experiments connecting genetics with biochemistry, they switched from the genetics mainstay Drosophila to a more appropriate model organism, the fungus Neurospora; the construction and exploitation of new model organisms would become a recurring theme in the development of molecular biology.  In 1944, Oswald Avery, working at the Rockefeller Institute of New York, demonstrated that genes are made up of DNA (see Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment). In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase confirmed that the genetic material of the bacteriophage, the virus which infects bacteria, is made up of DNA (see Hershey–Chase experiment). In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helical structure of the DNA molecule based on the discoveries made by Rosalind Franklin. In 1961, François Jacob and Jacques Monod demonstrated that the products of certain genes regulated the expression of other genes by acting upon specific sites at the edge of those genes.  They also hypothesized the existence of an intermediary between DNA and its protein products, which they called messenger RNA. Between 1961 and 1965, the relationship between the information contained in DNA and the structure of proteins was determined: there is a code, the genetic code, which creates a correspondence between the succession of nucleotides in the DNA sequence and a series of amino acids in proteins.
In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and ""equal player"" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery.
The chief discoveries of molecular biology took place in a period of only about twenty-five years. Another fifteen years were required before new and more sophisticated technologies, united today under the name of genetic engineering, would permit the isolation and characterization of genes, in particular those of highly complex organisms.


== The exploration of the molecular dominion ==
If we evaluate the molecular revolution within the context of biological history, it is easy to note that it is the culmination of a long process which began with the first observations through a microscope. The aim of these early researchers was to understand the functioning of living organisms by describing their organization at the microscopic level. From the end of the 18th century, the characterization of the chemical molecules which make up living beings gained increasingly greater attention, along with the birth of physiological chemistry in the 19th century, developed by the German chemist Justus von Liebig and following the birth of biochemistry at the beginning of the 20th, thanks to another German chemist Eduard Buchner. Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, ""the world of the ignored dimensions,"" as it was called by the chemical-physicist Wolfgang Ostwald. This world is populated by colloids, chemical compounds whose structure and properties were not well defined.
The successes of molecular biology derived from the exploration of that unknown world by means of the new technologies developed by chemists and physicists: X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, ultracentrifugation, and electrophoresis. These studies revealed the structure and function of the macromolecules.
A milestone in that process was the work of Linus Pauling in 1949, which for the first time linked the specific genetic mutation in patients with sickle cell disease to a demonstrated change in an individual protein, the hemoglobin in the erythrocytes of heterozygous or homozygous individuals.


== The encounter between biochemistry and genetics ==
The development of molecular biology is also the encounter of two disciplines which made considerable progress in the course of the first thirty years of the twentieth century: biochemistry and genetics. The first studies the structure and function of the molecules which make up living things. Between 1900 and 1940, the central processes of metabolism were described: the process of digestion and the absorption of the nutritive elements derived from alimentation, such as the sugars. Every one of these processes is catalyzed by a particular enzyme. Enzymes are proteins, like the antibodies present in blood or the proteins responsible for muscular contraction. As a consequence, the study of proteins, of their structure and synthesis, became one of the principal objectives of biochemists.
The second discipline of biology which developed at the beginning of the 20th century is genetics. After the rediscovery of the laws of Mendel through the studies of Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak in 1900, this science began to take shape thanks to the adoption by Thomas Hunt Morgan, in 1910, of a model organism for genetic studies, the famous fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). Shortly after, Morgan showed that the genes are localized on chromosomes. Following this discovery, he continued working with Drosophila and, along with numerous other research groups, confirmed the importance of the gene in the life and development of organisms. Nevertheless, the chemical nature of genes and their mechanisms of action remained a mystery. Molecular biologists committed themselves to the determination of the structure, and the description of the complex relations between, genes and proteins.
The development of molecular biology was not just the fruit of some sort of intrinsic ""necessity"" in the history of ideas, but was a characteristically historical phenomenon, with all of its unknowns, imponderables and contingencies: the remarkable developments in physics at the beginning of the 20th century highlighted the relative lateness in development in biology, which became the ""new frontier"" in the search for knowledge about the empirical world. Moreover, the developments of the theory of information and cybernetics in the 1940s, in response to military exigencies, brought to the new biology a significant number of fertile ideas and, especially, metaphors.
The choice of bacteria and of its virus, the bacteriophage, as models for the study of the fundamental mechanisms of life was almost natural—they are the smallest living organisms known to exist—and at the same time the fruit of individual choices. This model owes its success, above all, to the fame and the sense of organization of Max Delbrück, a German physicist, who was able to create a dynamic research group, based in the United States, whose exclusive scope was the study of the bacteriophage: the phage group.
The phage group was an informal network of biologists that carried out basic research mainly on bacteriophage T4 and made numerous seminal contributions to microbial genetics and the origins of molecular biology in the mid-20th century. In 1961, Sydney Brenner, an early member of the phage group, collaborated with Francis Crick, Leslie Barnett and Richard Watts-Tobin at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to perform genetic experiments that demonstrated the basic nature of the genetic code for proteins. These experiments, carried out with mutants of the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4, showed, that for a gene that encodes a protein, three sequential bases of the gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. They also found that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that such a sequence is read from a fixed starting point. 
During 1962–1964 phage T4 researchers provided an opportunity to study the function of virtually all of the genes that are essential for growth of the bacteriophage under laboratory conditions. These studies were facilitated by the discovery of two classes of conditional lethal mutants. One class of such mutants is known as amber mutants. Another class of conditional lethal mutants is referred to as temperature-sensitive mutants. Studies of these two classes of mutants led to considerable insight into numerous fundamental biologic problems. Thus understanding was gained on the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, DNA repair and DNA recombination.  Furthermore, understanding was gained on the processes by which viruses are assembled from protein and nucleic acid components (molecular morphogenesis). Also, the role of chain terminating codons was elucidated. One noteworthy study used amber mutants defective in the gene encoding the major head protein of bacteriophage T4. This experiment provided strong evidence for the widely held, but prior to 1964 still unproven, ""sequence hypothesis"" that the amino acid  sequence of a protein is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene determining the protein. Thus, this study demonstrated the co-linearity of the gene with its encoded protein.
The geographic panorama of the developments of the new biology was conditioned above all by preceding work. The US, where genetics had developed the most rapidly, and the UK, where there was a coexistence of both genetics and biochemical research of highly advanced levels, were in the avant-garde. Germany, the cradle of the revolutions in physics, with the best minds and the most advanced laboratories of genetics in the world, should have had a primary role in the development of molecular biology. But history decided differently: the arrival of the Nazis in 1933—and, to a less extreme degree, the rigidification of totalitarian measures in fascist Italy—caused the emigration of a large number of Jewish and non-Jewish scientists. The majority of them fled to the US or the UK, providing an extra impulse to the scientific dynamism of those nations. These movements ultimately made molecular biology a truly international science from the very beginnings.


== History of DNA biochemistry ==

The study of DNA is a central part of molecular biology.


=== First isolation of DNA ===
Working in the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They were relatively quick to appreciate the polymeric nature of their ""nucleic acid"" isolates, but realized only later that nucleotides were of two types—one containing ribose and the other deoxyribose. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA.
Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) discovered a substance he called ""nuclein"" in 1869. Somewhat later, he isolated a pure sample of the material now known as DNA from the sperm of salmon, and in 1889 his pupil, Richard Altmann, named it ""nucleic acid"". This substance was found to exist only in the chromosomes.
In 1919 Phoebus Levene at the Rockefeller Institute identified the components (the four bases, the sugar and the phosphate chain) and he showed that the components of DNA were linked in the order phosphate-sugar-base. He called each of these units a nucleotide and suggested the DNA molecule consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups, which are the 'backbone' of the molecule. However Levene thought the chain was short and that the bases repeated in the same fixed order. Torbjörn Caspersson and Einar Hammersten showed that DNA was a polymer.


=== Chromosomes and inherited traits ===
In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov  proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a ""giant hereditary molecule"" which would be made up of ""two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template"". Max Delbrück, Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky, and Karl G. Zimmer published results in 1935 suggesting that chromosomes are very large molecules the structure of which can be changed by treatment with X-rays, and that by so changing their structure it was possible to change the heritable characteristics governed by those chromosomes. In 1937 William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns from DNA. He was not able to propose the correct structure but the patterns showed that DNA had a regular structure and therefore it might be possible to deduce what this structure was.
In 1943, Oswald Theodore Avery and a team of scientists discovered that traits proper to the ""smooth"" form of the Pneumococcus could be transferred to the ""rough"" form of the same bacteria merely by making the killed ""smooth"" (S) form available to the live ""rough"" (R) form. Quite unexpectedly, the living R Pneumococcus bacteria were transformed into a new strain of the S form, and the transferred S characteristics turned out to be heritable. Avery called the medium of transfer of traits the transforming principle; he identified DNA as the transforming principle, and not protein as previously thought. He essentially redid Frederick Griffith's experiment. In 1953, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did an experiment (Hershey–Chase experiment) that showed, in T2 phage, that DNA is the genetic material (Hershey shared the Nobel prize with Luria).


=== Discovery of the structure of DNA ===
In the 1950s, three groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. The first group to start was at King's College London and was led by Maurice Wilkins and was later joined by Rosalind Franklin. Another group consisting of Francis Crick and James Watson was at Cambridge. A third group was at Caltech and was led by Linus Pauling. Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA fibers. Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure.


=== Helix structure ===
In 1948, Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see alpha helix) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray patterns and from attempts to physically model the structures. (Pauling was also later to suggest an incorrect three chain helical DNA structure based on Astbury's data.) Even in the initial diffraction data from DNA by Maurice Wilkins, it was evident that the structure involved helices. But this insight was only a beginning. There remained the questions of how many strands came together, whether this number was the same for every helix, whether the bases pointed toward the helical axis or away, and ultimately what were the explicit angles and coordinates of all the bonds and atoms. Such questions motivated the modeling efforts of Watson and Crick.


=== Complementary nucleotides ===
In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when Erwin Chargaff visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides—adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine—the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions.

Using X-ray diffraction, as well as other data from Rosalind Franklin and her information that the bases were paired, James Watson and Francis Crick arrived at the first accurate model of DNA's molecular structure in 1953, which was accepted through inspection by Rosalind Franklin. The discovery was announced on February 28, 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on April 25, 1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday, May 15, 1953, entitled ""Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life."" The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, ""Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution"", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated May 16, 1953, with the headline ""Form of 'Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned."" The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on June 12, 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953. Bragg's original announcement at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on April 8, 1953, went unreported by the press. In 1962 Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their determination of the structure of DNA.


=== ""Central Dogma"" ===
Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on February 21, 1953, Watson and Crick made their first announcement on February 28. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the ""central dogma of molecular biology"", which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the ""sequence hypothesis."" A critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 in the form of the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Messenger RNA (mRNA) was identified as an intermediate between DNA sequences and protein synthesis by Brenner, Meselson, and Jacob in 1961. Then, work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, and Har Gobind Khorana and others deciphered the genetic code not long afterward (1966). These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.


== History of RNA tertiary structure ==


=== Pre-history: the helical structure of RNA ===
The earliest work in RNA structural biology coincided, more or less, with the work being done on DNA in the early 1950s.  In their seminal 1953 paper, Watson and Crick suggested that van der Waals crowding by the 2`OH group of ribose would preclude RNA from adopting a double helical structure identical to the model they proposed—what we now know as B-form DNA. This provoked questions about the three-dimensional structure of RNA: could this molecule form some type of helical structure, and if so, how?  As with DNA, early structural work on RNA centered around isolation of native RNA polymers for fiber diffraction analysis.  In part because of heterogeneity of the samples tested, early fiber diffraction patterns were usually ambiguous and not readily interpretable.  In 1955, Marianne Grunberg-Manago and colleagues published a paper describing the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which cleaved a phosphate group from nucleotide diphosphates to catalyze their polymerization. This discovery allowed researchers to synthesize homogenous nucleotide polymers, which they then combined to produce double stranded molecules.  These samples yielded the most readily interpretable fiber diffraction patterns yet obtained, suggesting an ordered, helical structure for cognate, double stranded RNA that differed from that observed in DNA.  These results paved the way for a series of investigations into the various properties and propensities of RNA.  Through the late 1950s and early 1960s, numerous papers were published on various topics in RNA structure, including RNA-DNA hybridization, triple stranded RNA, and even small-scale crystallography of RNA di-nucleotides—G-C, and A-U—in primitive helix-like arrangements. For a more in-depth review of the early work in RNA structural biology, see the article The Era of RNA Awakening: Structural biology of RNA in the early years by Alexander Rich.


=== The beginning: crystal structure of tRNAPHE ===
In the mid-1960s, the role of tRNA in protein synthesis was being intensively studied.  At this point, ribosomes had been implicated in protein synthesis, and it had been shown that an mRNA strand was necessary for the formation of these structures.  In a 1964 publication, Warner and Rich showed that ribosomes active in protein synthesis contained tRNA molecules bound at the A and P sites, and discussed the notion that these molecules aided in the peptidyl transferase reaction. However, despite considerable biochemical characterization, the structural basis of tRNA function remained a mystery.  In 1965, Holley et al. purified and sequenced the first tRNA molecule, initially proposing that it adopted a cloverleaf structure, based largely on the ability of certain regions of the molecule to form stem loop structures. The isolation of tRNA proved to be the first major windfall in RNA structural biology.  Following Robert W. Holley's publication, numerous investigators began work on isolation tRNA for crystallographic study, developing improved methods for isolating the molecule as they worked.  By 1968 several groups had produced tRNA crystals, but these proved to be of limited quality and did not yield data at the resolutions necessary to determine structure. In 1971, Kim et al. achieved another breakthrough, producing crystals of yeast tRNAPHE that diffracted to 2–3 Ångström resolutions by using spermine, a naturally occurring polyamine, which bound to and stabilized the tRNA.  Despite having suitable crystals, however, the structure of tRNAPHE was not immediately solved at high resolution; rather it took pioneering work in the use of heavy metal derivatives and a good deal more time to produce a high-quality density map of the entire molecule.  In 1973, Kim et al. produced a 4 Ångström map of the tRNA molecule in which they could unambiguously trace the entire backbone.  This solution would be followed by many more, as various investigators worked to refine the structure and thereby more thoroughly elucidate the details of base pairing and stacking interactions, and validate the published architecture of the molecule.
The tRNAPHE structure is notable in the field of nucleic acid structure in general, as it represented the first solution of a long-chain nucleic acid structure of any kind—RNA or DNA—preceding Richard E. Dickerson's solution of a B-form dodecamer by nearly a decade. Also, tRNAPHE demonstrated many of the tertiary interactions observed in RNA architecture which would not be categorized and more thoroughly understood for years to come, providing a foundation for all future RNA structural research.


=== The renaissance: the hammerhead ribozyme and the group I intron: P4-6 ===
For a considerable time following the first tRNA structures, the field of RNA structure did not dramatically advance.  The ability to study an RNA structure depended upon the potential to isolate the RNA target.  This proved limiting to the field for many years, in part because other known targets—i.e., the ribosome—were significantly more difficult to isolate and crystallize.  Further, because other interesting RNA targets had simply not been identified, or were not sufficiently understood to be deemed interesting, there was simply a lack of things to study structurally.  As such, for some twenty years following the original publication of the tRNAPHE structure, the structures of only a handful of other RNA targets were solved, with almost all of these belonging to the transfer RNA family.  This unfortunate lack of scope would eventually be overcome largely because of two major advancements in nucleic acid research: the identification of ribozymes, and the ability to produce them via in vitro transcription.
Subsequent to Tom Cech's publication implicating the Tetrahymena group I intron as an autocatalytic ribozyme, and Sidney Altman's report of catalysis by ribonuclease P RNA, several other catalytic RNAs were identified in the late 1980s, including the hammerhead ribozyme.  In 1994, McKay et al. published the structure of a 'hammerhead RNA-DNA ribozyme-inhibitor complex' at 2.6 Ångström resolution, in which the autocatalytic activity of the ribozyme was disrupted via binding to a DNA substrate. The conformation of the ribozyme published in this paper was eventually shown to be one of several possible states, and although this particular sample was catalytically inactive, subsequent structures have revealed its active-state architecture.  This structure was followed by Jennifer Doudna's publication of the structure of the P4-P6 domains of the Tetrahymena group I intron, a fragment of the ribozyme originally made famous by Cech. The second clause in the title of this publication—Principles of RNA Packing—concisely evinces the value of these two structures: for the first time, comparisons could be made between well described tRNA structures and those of globular RNAs outside the transfer family.  This allowed the framework of categorization to be built for RNA tertiary structure.  It was now possible to propose the conservation of motifs, folds, and various local stabilizing interactions.  For an early review of these structures and their implications, see RNA FOLDS: Insights from recent crystal structures, by Doudna and Ferre-D'Amare.
In addition to the advances being made in global structure determination via crystallography, the early 1990s also saw the implementation of NMR as a powerful technique in RNA structural biology.  Coincident with the large-scale ribozyme structures being solved crystallographically, a number of structures of small RNAs and RNAs complexed with drugs and peptides were solved using NMR. In addition, NMR was now being used to investigate and supplement crystal structures, as exemplified by the determination of an isolated tetraloop-receptor motif structure published in 1997. Investigations such as this enabled a more precise characterization of the base pairing and base stacking interactions which stabilized the global folds of large RNA molecules.  The importance of understanding RNA tertiary structural motifs was prophetically well described by Michel and Costa in their publication identifying the tetraloop motif: ""...it should not come as a surprise if self-folding RNA molecules were to make intensive use of only a relatively small set of tertiary motifs.  Identifying these motifs would greatly aid modeling enterprises, which will remain essential as long as the crystallization of large RNAs remains a difficult task"".


=== The modern era: the age of RNA structural biology ===
The resurgence of RNA structural biology in the mid-1990s has caused a veritable explosion in the field of nucleic acid structural research.  Since the publication of the hammerhead and P4-6 structures, numerous major contributions to the field have been made.  Some of the most noteworthy examples include the structures of the Group I and Group II introns, and the Ribosome solved by Nenad Ban and colleagues in the laboratory of Thomas Steitz. The first three structures were produced using in vitro transcription, and that NMR has played a role in investigating partial components of all four structures—testaments to the indispensability of both techniques for RNA research.  Most recently, the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Ada Yonath, Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas Steitz for their structural work on the ribosome, demonstrating the prominent role RNA structural biology has taken in modern molecular biology.


== History of protein biochemistry ==


=== First isolation and classification ===
Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others.  Members of this class (called the ""albuminoids"", Eiweisskörper, or matières albuminoides) were recognized by their ability to coagulate or flocculate under various treatments such as heat or acid; well-known examples at the start of the nineteenth century included albumen from egg whites, blood serum albumin, fibrin, and wheat gluten. The similarity between the cooking of egg whites and the curdling of milk was recognized even in ancient times; for example, the name albumen for the egg-white protein was coined by Pliny the Elder from the Latin albus ovi (egg white).
With the advice of Jöns Jakob Berzelius, the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder carried out elemental analyses of common animal and plant proteins.  To everyone's surprise, all proteins had nearly the same empirical formula, roughly C400H620N100O120 with individual sulfur and phosphorus atoms.  Mulder published his findings in two papers (1837,1838) and hypothesized that there was one basic substance (Grundstoff) of proteins, and that it was synthesized by plants and absorbed from them by animals in digestion.  Berzelius was an early proponent of this theory and proposed the name ""protein"" for this substance in a letter dated 10 July 1838

The name protein that he propose for the organic oxide of fibrin and albumin, I wanted to derive from [the Greek word] πρωτειος, because it appears to be the primitive or principal substance of animal nutrition.
Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the  amino acid, leucine, for which he found a (nearly correct) molecular weight of 131 Da.


=== Purifications and measurements of mass ===
The minimum molecular weight suggested by Mulder's analyses was roughly 9 kDa, hundreds of times larger than other molecules being studied.  Hence, the chemical structure of proteins (their primary structure) was an active area of research until 1949, when Fred Sanger sequenced insulin.  The (correct) theory that proteins were linear polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds was proposed independently and simultaneously by Franz Hofmeister and Emil Fischer at the same conference in 1902.  However, some scientists were sceptical that such long macromolecules could be stable in solution.  Consequently, numerous alternative theories of the protein primary structure were proposed, e.g., the colloidal hypothesis that proteins were assemblies of small molecules, the cyclol hypothesis of Dorothy Wrinch, the diketopiperazine hypothesis of Emil Abderhalden and the pyrrol/piperidine hypothesis of Troensgard (1942).  Most of these theories had difficulties in accounting for the fact that the  digestion of proteins yielded peptides and amino acids.  
Proteins were finally shown to be macromolecules of well-defined composition (and not colloidal mixtures) by Theodor Svedberg using analytical ultracentrifugation.  The possibility that some proteins are non-covalent associations of such macromolecules was shown by Gilbert Smithson Adair (by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin) and, later, by Frederic M. Richards in his studies of ribonuclease S.  The mass spectrometry of proteins has long been a useful technique for identifying posttranslational modifications and, more recently, for probing protein structure.
Most proteins are difficult to purify in more than milligram quantities, even using the most modern methods.  Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g., those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive/metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses.  Many techniques of protein purification were developed during World War II in a project led by Edwin Joseph Cohn to purify blood proteins to help keep soldiers alive.  In the late 1950s, the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg (= one million milligrams) of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it available at low cost to scientists around the world.  This generous act made RNase A the main protein for basic research for the next few decades, resulting in several Nobel Prizes.


=== Protein folding and first structural models ===
The study of protein folding began in 1910 with a famous paper by Harriette Chick and C. J. Martin, in which they showed that the flocculation of a protein was composed of two distinct processes: the precipitation of a protein from solution was preceded by another process called denaturation, in which the protein became much less soluble, lost its enzymatic activity and became more chemically reactive.  In the mid-1920s, Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky proposed that denaturation was a reversible process, a correct hypothesis that was initially lampooned by some scientists as ""unboiling the egg"".  Anson also suggested that denaturation was a two-state (""all-or-none"") process, in which one fundamental molecular transition resulted in the drastic changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity; he further noted that the free energy changes upon denaturation were much smaller than those typically involved in chemical reactions.  In 1929, Hsien Wu hypothesized that denaturation was protein unfolding, a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino acid side chains to the solvent.  According to this (correct) hypothesis, exposure of aliphatic and reactive side chains to solvent rendered the protein less soluble and more reactive, whereas the loss of a specific conformation caused the loss of enzymatic activity.  Although considered plausible, Wu's hypothesis was not immediately accepted, since so little was known of protein structure and enzymology and other factors could account for the changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity.  In the early 1960s, Chris Anfinsen showed that the folding of ribonuclease A was fully reversible with no external cofactors needed, verifying the ""thermodynamic hypothesis"" of protein folding that the folded state represents the global minimum of free energy for the protein.
The hypothesis of protein folding was followed by research into the physical interactions that stabilize folded protein structures.  The crucial role of hydrophobic interactions was hypothesized by Dorothy Wrinch and Irving Langmuir, as a mechanism that might stabilize her cyclol structures.  Although supported by J. D. Bernal and others, this (correct) hypothesis was rejected along with the cyclol hypothesis, which was disproven in the 1930s by Linus Pauling (among others). Instead, Pauling championed the idea that protein structure was stabilized mainly by hydrogen bonds, an idea advanced initially by William Astbury (1933).  Remarkably, Pauling's incorrect theory about H-bonds resulted in his correct models for the secondary structure elements of proteins, the alpha helix and the beta sheet.  The hydrophobic interaction was restored to its correct prominence by a famous article in 1959 by Walter Kauzmann on denaturation, based partly on work by Kaj Linderstrøm-Lang.  The ionic nature of proteins was demonstrated by Bjerrum, Weber and Arne Tiselius, but Linderstrom-Lang showed that the charges were generally accessible to solvent and not bound to each other (1949).
The secondary and low-resolution tertiary structure of globular proteins was investigated initially by hydrodynamic methods, such as analytical ultracentrifugation and flow birefringence. Spectroscopic methods to probe protein structure (such as circular dichroism, fluorescence, near-ultraviolet and infrared absorbance) were developed in the 1950s.  The first atomic-resolution structures of proteins were solved by X-ray crystallography in the 1960s and by NMR in the 1980s. As of 2019, the Protein Data Bank has over 150,000 atomic-resolution structures of proteins.  In more recent times, cryo-electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies has achieved atomic resolution, and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains is approaching atomic resolution.  


== See also ==
History of biology
History of biotechnology
History of genetics


== References =="
Freyja,"In Norse mythology, Freyja (Old Norse ""(the) Lady"") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future). Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chariot pulled by two cats, is accompanied by the boar Hildisvíni, and possesses a cloak of falcon feathers. By her husband Óðr, she is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi. Along with her twin brother Freyr, her father Njörðr, and her mother (Njörðr's sister, unnamed in sources), she is a member of the Vanir. Stemming from Old Norse Freyja, modern forms of the name include Freya, Freyia, and Freja.
Freyja rules over her heavenly field, Fólkvangr, where she receives half of those who die in battle. The other half go to the god Odin's hall, Valhalla. Within Fólkvangr lies her hall, Sessrúmnir. Freyja assists other deities by allowing them to use her feathered cloak, is invoked in matters of fertility and love, and is frequently sought after by powerful jötnar who wish to make her their wife. Freyja's husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent. She cries tears of red gold for him, and searches for him under assumed names. Freyja has numerous names, including Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, Vanadís, and Valfreyja.
Freyja is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; in the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, composed by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century; in several Sagas of Icelanders; in the short story ""Sörla þáttr""; in the poetry of skalds; and into the modern age in Scandinavian folklore.
Scholars have debated whether Freyja and the goddess Frigg ultimately stem from a single goddess common among the Germanic peoples. They have connected her to the valkyries, female battlefield choosers of the slain, and analyzed her relation to other goddesses and figures in Germanic mythology, including the thrice-burnt and thrice-reborn Gullveig/Heiðr, the goddesses Gefjon, Skaði, Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa, Menglöð, and the 1st century CE ""Isis"" of the Suebi. In Scandinavia, Freyja's name frequently appears in the names of plants, especially in southern Sweden. Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, but it was replaced with the name of the Virgin Mary during the process of Christianization. Rural Scandinavians continued to acknowledge Freyja as a supernatural figure into the 19th century, and Freyja has inspired various works of art.


== Name ==


=== Etymology ===
The name Freyja transparently means 'lady, mistress' in Old Norse. Stemming from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun *frawjōn ('lady, mistress'), it is cognate with Old Saxon frūa ('lady, mistress') or Old High German frouwa ('lady'; cf. modern German Frau). Freyja is also etymologically close to the name of the god Freyr, meaning 'lord' in Old Norse. The theonym Freyja is thus considered to have been an epithet in origin, replacing a personal name that is now unattested.


=== Alternative names ===
In addition to Freyja, Old Norse sources refer to the goddess by the following names:


== Attestations ==


=== Poetic Edda ===
In the Poetic Edda, Freyja is mentioned or appears in the poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Oddrúnargrátr, and Hyndluljóð.
Völuspá contains a stanza that mentions Freyja, referring to her as ""Óð's girl""; Freyja being the wife of her husband, Óðr. The stanza recounts that Freyja was once promised to an unnamed builder, later revealed to be a jötunn and subsequently killed by Thor (recounted in detail in Gylfaginning chapter 42; see Prose Edda section below). In the poem Grímnismál, Odin (disguised as Grímnir) tells the young Agnar that every day Freyja allots seats to half of those that are slain in her hall Fólkvangr, while Odin owns the other half.

In the poem Lokasenna, where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between Loki and Freyja. The introduction to the poem notes that among other gods and goddesses, Freyja attends a celebration held by Ægir. In verse, after Loki has flyted with the goddess Frigg, Freyja interjects, telling Loki that he is insane for dredging up his terrible deeds, and that Frigg knows the fate of everyone, though she does not tell it. Loki tells her to be silent, and says that he knows all about her—that Freyja is not lacking in blame, for each of the gods and elves in the hall have been her lover. Freyja objects. She says that Loki is lying, that he is just looking to blather about misdeeds, and since the gods and goddesses are furious at him, he can expect to go home defeated. Loki tells Freyja to be silent, calls her a malicious witch, and conjures a scenario where Freyja was once astride her brother when all of the gods, laughing, surprised the two. Njörðr interjects—he says that a woman having a lover other than her husband is harmless, and he points out that Loki has borne children, and calls Loki a pervert. The poem continues in turn.
The poem Þrymskviða features Loki borrowing Freyja's cloak of feathers and Thor dressing up as Freyja to fool the lusty jötunn Þrymr. In the poem, Thor wakes up to find that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir, is missing. Thor tells Loki of his missing hammer, and the two go to the beautiful court of Freyja. Thor asks Freyja if she will lend him her cloak of feathers, so that he may try to find his hammer. Freyja agrees:

Loki flies away in the whirring feather cloak, arriving in the land of Jötunheimr. He spies Þrymr sitting on top of a mound. Þrymr reveals that he has hidden Thor's hammer deep within the earth and that no one will ever know where the hammer is unless Freyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies back, the cloak whistling, and returns to the courts of the gods. Loki tells Thor of Þrymr's conditions.
The two go to see the beautiful Freyja. The first thing that Thor says to Freyja is that she should dress herself and put on a bride's head-dress, for they shall drive to Jötunheimr. At that, Freyja is furious—the halls of the gods shake, she snorts in anger, and from the goddess the necklace Brísingamen falls. Indignant, Freyja responds:

The gods and goddesses assemble at a thing and debate how to solve the problem. The god Heimdallr proposes to dress Thor up as a bride, complete with bridal dress, head-dress, jingling keys, jewelry, and the famous Brísingamen. Thor objects but is hushed by Loki, reminding him that the new owners of the hammer will soon be settling in the land of the gods if the hammer is not returned. Thor is dressed as planned and Loki is dressed as his maid. Thor and Loki go to Jötunheimr.
In the meantime, Thrym tells his servants to prepare for the arrival of the daughter of Njörðr. When ""Freyja"" arrives in the morning, Thrym is taken aback by her behavior; her immense appetite for food and mead is far more than what he expected, and when Thrym goes in for a kiss beneath ""Freyja's"" veil, he finds ""her"" eyes to be terrifying, and he jumps down the hall. The disguised Loki makes excuses for the bride's odd behavior, claiming that she simply has not eaten or slept for eight days. In the end, the disguises successfully fool the jötnar and, upon sight of it, Thor regains his hammer by force.
In the poem Oddrúnargrátr, Oddrún helps Borgny give birth to twins. In thanks, Borgny invokes vættir, Frigg, Freyja, and other unspecified deities.

Freyja is a main character in the poem Hyndluljóð, where she assists her faithful servant Óttar in finding information about his ancestry so that he may claim his inheritance. In doing so, Freyja turns Óttar into her boar, Hildisvíni, and, by means of flattery and threats of death by fire, Freyja successfully pries the information that Óttar needs from the jötunn Hyndla. Freyja speaks throughout the poem, and at one point praises Óttar for constructing a hörgr (an altar of stones) and frequently making blót (sacrifices) to her:


=== Prose Edda ===
Freyja appears in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál. In chapter 24 of Gylfaginning, the enthroned figure of High says that after the god Njörðr split with the goddess Skaði, he had two beautiful and mighty children (no partner is mentioned); a son, Freyr, and a daughter, Freyja. Freyr is ""the most glorious"" of the gods, and Freyja ""the most glorious"" of the goddesses. Freyja has a dwelling in the heavens, Fólkvangr, and that whenever Freyja ""rides into battle she gets half the slain, and the other half to Odin [...]"". In support, High quotes the Grímnismál stanza mentioned in the Poetic Edda section above.
High adds that Freyja has a large, beautiful hall called Sessrúmnir, and that when Freyja travels she sits in a chariot and drives two cats, and that Freyja is ""the most approachable one for people to pray to, and from her name is derived the honorific title whereby noble ladies are called fruvor [noble ladies]"". High adds that Freyja has a particular fondness for love songs, and that ""it is good to pray to her concerning love affairs"".
In chapter 29, High recounts the names and features of various goddesses, including Freyja. Regarding Freyja, High says that, next to Frigg, Freyja is highest in rank among them and that she owns the necklace Brísingamen. Freyja is married to Óðr, who goes on long travels, and the two have a very fair daughter by the name of Hnoss. While Óðr is absent, Freyja stays behind and in her sorrow she weeps tears of red gold. High notes that Freyja has many names, and explains that this is because Freyja adopted them when looking for Óðr and traveling ""among strange peoples"". These names include Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, and Vanadís.
Freyja plays a part in the events leading to the birth of Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse. In chapter 42, High recounts that, soon after the gods built the hall Valhalla, a builder (unnamed) came to them and offered to build for them in three seasons a fortification so solid that no jötunn would be able to come in over from Midgard. In exchange, the builder wants Freyja for his bride, and the sun and the moon. After some debate the gods agree, but with added conditions. In time, just as he is about to complete his work, it is revealed that the builder is, in fact, himself a jötunn, and he is killed by Thor. In the meantime, Loki, in the form of a mare, has been impregnated by the jötunn's horse, Svaðilfari, and so gives birth to Sleipnir. In support, High quotes the Völuspá stanza that mentions Freyja. In chapter 49, High recalls the funeral of Baldr and says that Freyja attended the funeral and there drove her cat-chariot, the final reference to the goddess in Gylfaginning.

At the beginning of the book Skáldskaparmál, Freyja is mentioned among eight goddesses attending a banquet held for Ægir. Chapter 56 details the abduction of the goddess Iðunn by the jötunn Þjazi in the form of an eagle. Terrified at the prospect of death and torture due to his involvement in the abduction of Iðunn, Loki asks if he may use Freyja's ""falcon shape"" to fly north to Jötunheimr and retrieve the missing goddess. Freyja allows it, and using her ""falcon shape"" and a furious chase by eagle-Þjazi, Loki successfully returns her.
In chapter 6, a means of referring to Njörðr is provided that refers to Frejya (""father of Freyr and Freyja""). In chapter 7, a means of referring to Freyr is provided that refers to the goddess (""brother of Freyja""). In chapter 8, ways of referring to the god Heimdallr are provided, including ""Loki's enemy, recoverer of Freyja's necklace"", inferring a myth involving Heimdallr recovering Freyja's necklace from Loki.
In chapter 17, the jötunn Hrungnir finds himself in Asgard, the realm of the gods, and becomes very drunk. Hrungnir boasts that he will move Valhalla to Jötunheimr, bury Asgard, and kill all of the gods—with the exception of the goddesses Freyja and Sif, who he says he will take home with him. Freyja is the only one of them that dares to bring him more to drink. Hrungnir says that he will drink all of their ale. After a while, the gods grow bored of Hrungnir's antics and invoke the name of Thor. Thor immediately enters the hall, hammer raised. Thor is furious and demands to know who is responsible for letting a jötunn in to Asgard, who guaranteed Hrungnir safety, and why Freyja ""should be serving him drink as if at the Æsir's banquet"".
In chapter 18, verses from the 10th century skald's composition Þórsdrápa are quoted. A kenning used in the poem refers to Freyja. In chapter 20, poetic ways to refer to Freyja are provided; ""daughter of Njörðr"", ""sister of Freyr"", ""wife of Óðr"", ""mother of Hnoss"", ""possessor of the fallen slain and of Sessrumnir and tom-cats"", possessor of Brísingamen, ""Van-deity"", Vanadís, and ""fair-tear deity"". In chapter 32, poetic ways to refer to gold are provided, including ""Freyja's weeping"" and ""rain or shower [...] from Freyja's eyes"".
Chapter 33 tells that once the gods journeyed to visit Ægir, one of whom was Freyja.  In chapter 49, a quote from a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason employs the kenning ""Óðr's bedfellow's eye-rain"", which refers to Freyja and means ""gold"".
Chapter 36 explains again that gold can be referring to as Freyja's weeping due to her red gold tears. In support, works by the skalds Skúli Þórsteinsson and Einarr Skúlason are cited that use ""Freyja's tears"" or ""Freyja's weepings"" to represent ""gold"". The chapter features additional quotes from poetry by Einarr Skúlason that references the goddess and her child Hnoss. Freyja receives a final mention in the Prose Edda in chapter 75, where a list of goddesses is provided that includes Freyja.


=== Heimskringla ===

The Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga provides a euhemerized account of the origin of the gods, including Freyja. In chapter 4, Freyja is introduced as a member of the Vanir, the sister of Freyr, and the daughter of Njörðr and his sister (whose name is not provided). After the Æsir–Vanir War ends in a stalemate, Odin appoints Freyr and Njörðr as priests over sacrifices. Freyja becomes the priestess of sacrificial offerings and it was she who introduced the practice of seiðr to the Æsir, previously only practiced by the Vanir.
In chapter 10, Freyja's brother Freyr dies, and Freyja is the last survivor among the Æsir and Vanir. Freyja keeps up the sacrifices and becomes famous. The saga explains that, due to Freyja's fame, all women of rank become known by her name—frúvor (""ladies""), a woman who is the mistress of her property is referred to as freyja, and húsfreyja (""lady of the house"") for a woman who owns an estate.
The chapter adds that not only was Freyja very clever, but that she and her husband Óðr had two immensely beautiful daughters, Gersemi and Hnoss, ""who gave their names to our most precious possessions"".


=== Other ===
Freyja is mentioned in the sagas Egils saga, Njáls saga, Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka, and in Sörla þáttr.

Egils saga
In Egils saga, when Egill Skallagrímsson refuses to eat, his daughter Þorgerðr (here anglicized as ""Thorgerd"") says she will go without food and thus starve to death, and in doing so will meet the goddess Freyja:

Thorgerd replied in a loud voice, ""I have had no evening meal, nor will I do so until I join Freyja. I know no better course of action than my father's. I do not want to live after my father and brother are dead.""

Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka
In the first chapter of the 14th century legendary saga Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka, King Alrek has two wives, Geirhild and Signy, and cannot keep them both. He tells the two women that he would keep whichever of them that brews the better ale for him by the time he has returned home in the summer. The two compete and during the brewing process Signy prays to Freyja and Geirhild to Hött (""hood""), a man she had met earlier (earlier in the saga revealed to be Odin in disguise). Hött answers her prayer and spits on her yeast. Signy's brew wins the contest.

Sörla þáttr
In Sörla þáttr, a short, late 14th century narrative from a later and extended version of the Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar found in the Flateyjarbók manuscript, a euhemerized account of the gods is provided. In the account, Freyja is described as having been a concubine of Odin, who bartered sex to four dwarfs for a golden necklace. In the work, the Æsir once lived in a city called Asgard, located in a region called ""Asialand or Asiahome"". Odin was the king of the realm, and made Njörðr and Freyr temple priests. Freyja was the daughter of Njörðr, and was Odin's concubine. Odin deeply loved Freyja, and she was ""the fairest of woman of that day"". Freyja had a beautiful bower, and when the door was shut no one could enter without Freyja's permission.
Chapter 1 records that one day Freyja passed by an open stone where dwarfs lived. Four dwarfs were smithying a golden necklace, and it was nearly done. Looking at the necklace, the dwarfs thought Freyja to be most fair, and she the necklace. Freyja offered to buy the collar from them with silver and gold and other items of value. The dwarfs said that they had no lack of money, and that for the necklace the only thing she could offer them would be a night with each of them. ""Whether she liked it better or worse"", Freyja agreed to the conditions, and so spent a night with each of the four dwarfs. The conditions were fulfilled and the necklace was hers. Freyja went home to her bower as if nothing happened.
As related in chapter 2, Loki, under the service of Odin, found out about Freyja's actions and told Odin. Odin told Loki to get the necklace and bring it to him. Loki said that since no one could enter Freyja's bower against her will, this would not be an easy task, yet Odin told him not to come back until he had found a way to get the necklace. Howling, Loki turned away and went to Freyja's bower but found it locked, and that he could not enter. So Loki transformed himself into a fly, and after having trouble finding even the tiniest of entrances, he managed to find a tiny hole at the gable-top, yet even here he had to squeeze through to enter.
Having made his way into Freyja's chambers, Loki looked around to be sure that no one was awake, and found that Freyja was asleep. He landed on her bed and noticed that she was wearing the necklace, the clasp turned downward. Loki turned into a flea and jumped onto Freyja's cheek and there bit her. Freyja stirred, turning about, and then fell asleep again. Loki removed his flea's shape and undid her collar, opened the bower, and returned to Odin.
The next morning Freyja woke and saw that the doors to her bower were open, yet unbroken, and that her precious necklace was gone. Freyja had an idea of who was responsible. She got dressed and went to Odin. She told Odin of the malice he had allowed against her and of the theft of her necklace, and that he should give her back her jewelry.
Odin said that, given how she obtained it, she would never get it back. That is, with one exception: she could have it back if she could make two kings, themselves ruling twenty kings each, battle one another, and cast a spell so that each time one of their numbers falls in battle, they will again spring up and fight again. And that this must go on eternally, unless a Christian man of a particular stature goes into the battle and smites them, only then will they stay dead. Freyja agreed.


== Later Scandinavian folklore ==

Although the Christianization of Scandinavia sought to demonize the native gods, belief and reverence in the gods, including Freyja, persisted throughout the modern period and melded into Scandinavian folklore. Britt-Mari Näsström comments that Freyja became a particular target under Christianization:

Freyja's erotic qualities became an easy target for the new religion, in which an asexual virgin was the ideal woman [...] Freyja is called ""a whore"" and ""a harlot"" by the holy men and missionaries, whereas many of her functions in the everyday lives of men and women, such as protecting the vegetation and supplying assistance in childbirth were transferred to the Virgin Mary.

However, Freyja did not disappear. In Iceland, Freyja was called upon for assistance by way of Icelandic magical staves as late as the 18th century; and as late as the 19th century, Freyja is recorded as retaining elements of her role as a fertility goddess among rural Swedes.
The Old Norse poem Þrymskviða (or its source) continued into Scandinavian folk song tradition, where it was euhemerized and otherwise transformed over time. In Iceland, the poem became known as Þrylur, whereas in Denmark the poem became Thor af Havsgaard and in Sweden it became Torvisan or Hammarhämtningen. A section of the Swedish Torvisan, in which Freyja has been transformed into ""the fair"" (den väna) Frojenborg, reads as follows:

In the province of Småland, Sweden, an account is recorded connecting Freyja with sheet lightning in this respect. Writer Johan Alfred Göth recalled a Sunday in 1880 where men were walking in fields and looking at nearly ripened rye, where Måns in Karryd said: ""Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe"". Along with this, Göth recalls another mention of Freyja in the countryside:

When as a boy I was visiting the old Proud-Katrina, I was afraid of lightning like all boys in those days. When the sheet lightning flared at the night, Katrina said: ""Don't be afraid little child, it is only Freyja who is out making fire with steel and flintstone to see if the rye is ripe. She is kind to people and she is only doing it to be of service, she is not like Thor, he slays both people and livestock, when he is in the mood"" [...] I later heard several old folks talk of the same thing in the same way.

In Värend, Sweden, Freyja could also arrive at Christmas night and she used to shake the apple trees for the sake of a good harvest and consequently people left some apples in the trees for her sake. However, it was dangerous to leave the plough outdoors, because if Freyja sat on it, it would no longer be of any use.
Many Asatru practitioners today mostly honor Freyja as a goddess of fertility, abundance and beauty. A common rite for modern Freya worshippers is to bake foods that have some connection to love in one way or another, such as chocolate. Freyja is also called upon for protection, usually when it comes to a domestic violence situation.


== Eponyms ==

Several plants were named after Freyja, such as Freyja's tears and Freyja's hair (Polygala vulgaris), but during the process of Christianization, the name of the goddess was replaced with that of the Virgin Mary. In the pre-Christian period, the Orion constellation was called either Frigg's distaff or Freyja's distaff (Swedish Frejerock).
Place names in Norway and Sweden reflect devotion to the goddess, including the Norwegian place name Frøihov (originally *Freyjuhof, literally ""Freyja's hof"") and Swedish place names such as Frövi (from *Freyjuvé, literally ""Freyja's vé""). In a survey of toponyms in Norway, M. Olsen tallies at least 20 to 30 location names compounded with Freyja. Three of these place names appear to derive from *Freyjuhof ('Freyja's hof'), whereas the goddess's name is frequently otherwise compounded with words for 'meadow' (such as -þveit, -land) and similar land formations. These toponyms are attested most commonly on the west coast though a high frequency is found in the southeast.
Place names containing Freyja are yet more numerous and varied in Sweden, where they are widely distributed. A particular concentration is recorded in Uppland, among which a number derive from the above-mentioned *Freyjuvé and also *Freyjulundr ('Freyja's sacred grove'), place names that indicate public worship of Freyja. A variety of place names (such as Frøal and Fröale) have been seen as containing an element cognate to Gothic alhs and Old English ealh (""temple""), although these place names may be otherwise interpreted. In addition, Frejya appears as a compound element with a variety of words for geographic features such as fields, meadows, lakes and natural objects such as rocks.
The Freyja name Hörn appears in the Swedish place names Härnevi and Järnevi, stemming from the reconstructed Old Norse place name *Hörnar-vé (meaning ""Hörn's vé"").


== Archaeological record and historic depictions ==

A priestess was buried c. 1000 with considerable splendour in Hagebyhöga in Östergötland. In addition to being buried with her wand, she had received great riches which included horses, a wagon and an Arabian bronze pitcher. There was also a silver pendant, which represents a woman with a broad necklace around her neck. This kind of necklace was only worn by the most prominent women during the Iron Age and some have interpreted it as Freyja's necklace Brísingamen. The pendant may represent Freyja herself.
A 7th-century phalara found in a ""warrior grave"" in what is now Eschwege in northwestern Germany features a female figure with two large braids flanked by two ""cat-like"" beings and holding a staff-like object. This figure has been interpreted as Freyja. This image may be connected to various B-type bracteates, referred to as the Fürstenberg-type, that may also depict the goddess; they ""show a female figure, in a short skirt and double-looped hair, holding a stave or sceptre in her right hand and a double-cross feature in the left"".
Upon its discovery, the 10th century Oseberg ship burial was found to contain a ceremonial wagon. One side of the ornate wagon features a depiction of nine cats. Scholars have linked this depiction to Freyja's cat-led chariot and a broader associations between the Vanir and wagons.
A 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany. Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a distaff. Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively.


== Theories ==


=== Relation to Frigg and other goddesses and figures ===
Due to numerous similarities, scholars have frequently connected Freyja with the goddess Frigg. The connection with Frigg and question of possible earlier identification of Freyja with Frigg in the Proto-Germanic period (Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis) remains a matter of scholarly discourse. Regarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy comments, ""the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.""
Like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name Freyja is not attested outside of Scandinavia, as opposed to the name of the goddess Frigg, who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic *Frijjō. Similar proof for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Freyja descends does not exist, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to lack of evidence.
In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá, a figure by the name of Gullveig is burnt three times yet is three times reborn. After her third rebirth, she is known as Heiðr. This event is generally accepted as precipitating the Æsir–Vanir War. Starting with scholar Gabriel Turville-Petre, scholars such as Rudolf Simek, Andy Orchard, and John Lindow have theorized that Gullveig/Heiðr is the same figure as Freyja, and that her involvement with the Æsir somehow led to the events of the Æsir–Vanir War.
Outside of theories connecting Freyja with the goddess Frigg, some scholars, such as Hilda Ellis Davidson and Britt-Mari Näsström, have theorized that other goddesses in Norse mythology, such as Gefjon, Gerðr, and Skaði, may be forms of Freyja in different roles or ages.


=== Receiver of the slain ===
Freyja and her afterlife field Fólkvangr, where she receives half of the slain, have been theorized as connected to the valkyries. Scholar Britt-Mari Näsström points out the description in Gylfaginning where it is said of Freyja that ""whenever she rides into battle she takes half of the slain"", and interprets Fólkvangr as ""the field of the Warriors"". Näsström notes that, just like Odin, Freyja receives slain heroes who have died on the battlefield, and that her house is Sessrumnir (which she translates as ""filled with many seats""), a dwelling that Näsström posits likely fills the same function as Valhalla. Näsström comments that ""still, we must ask why there are two heroic paradises in the Old Norse view of afterlife. It might possibly be a consequence of different forms of initiation of warriors, where one part seemed to have belonged to Óðinn and the other to Freyja. These examples indicate that Freyja was a war-goddess, and she even appears as a valkyrie, literally 'the one who chooses the slain'.""
Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that ""in her mythological role as the chooser of half the fallen warriors for her death realm Fólkvangr, the goddess Freyja, however, emerges as the mythological role model for the Valkyrjar  [sic] and the dísir.""


=== The Oriental hypothesis ===
Gustav Neckel, writing in 1920, connects Freyja to the Phrygian goddess Cybele. According to Neckel, both goddesses can be interpreted as ""fertility goddesses"" and other potential resemblances have been noted. Some scholars have suggested that the image of Cybele subsequently influenced the iconography of Freyja, the lions drawing the former's chariot becoming large cats. These observations became an extremely common observation in works regarding Old Norse religion until at least the early 1990s. In her book-length study of scholarship on the topic of Freyja, Britt-Mari Näsström (1995) is highly critical of this deduction; Näsström says that ""these 'parallels' are due to sheer ignorance about the characteristics of Cybele; scholars have not troubled to look into the resemblances and differences between the two goddesses, if any, in support for their arguments for a common origin.""


== In art and literature ==

Into the modern period, Freyja was treated as a Scandinavian counterpart to the Roman Venus in, for example, Swedish literature, where the goddess may be associated with romantic love or, conversely, simply as a synonym for ""lust and potency"". In the 18th century, Swedish poet Carl Michael Bellman referred to Stockholm prostitutes in his Fredman's Epistles as ""the children of Fröja"". In the 19th century, Britt-Mari Näsström observes, Swedish Romanticism focused less on Freyja's erotic qualities and more on the image of ""the pining goddess, weeping for her husband"".
Freyja is mentioned in the first stanza (""it is called old Denmark and it is Freja's hall"") of the civil national anthem of Denmark, Der er et yndigt land, written by 19th century Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger in 1819. In addition, Oehlenschläger wrote a comedy entitled Freyjas alter (1818) and a poem Freais sal featuring the goddess.
The 19th century German composer Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen opera cycle features Freia, the goddess Freyja combined with the apple-bearing goddess Iðunn.
In late 19th century and early 20th century Northern Europe, Freyja was the subject of numerous works of art, including Freyja by H. E. Freund (statue, 1821–1822), Freja sökande sin make (painting, 1852) by Nils Blommér, Freyjas Aufnahme uner den Göttern (charcoal drawing, 1881), and Frigg; Freyja (drawing, 1883) by Carl Ehrenberg (illustrator), Freyja (1901) by Carl Emil Doepler d. J., and Freyja and the Brisingamen by J. Doyle Penrose (painting, 1862–1932). Like other Norse goddesses, her name was applied widely in Scandinavia to, for example, ""sweetmeats or to stout carthorses"".
Vanadís, one of Freyja's names, is the source of the name of the chemical element vanadium, so named because of its many colored compounds.


== In popular culture ==
Frigga (sometimes called Freyja) is a fictional character appearing in  Marvel Comics starting in 1963. The character in particular is based on the goddess Freyja of Norse mythology.
Starting in the early 1990s, derivatives of Freyja began to appear as a given name for girls. According to the Norwegian name database from the Central Statistics Bureau, around 500 women are listed with the first name Frøya (the modern Norwegian spelling of the goddess's name) in the country. There are also several similar names, such as the first element of the dithematic personal name Frøydis.
Freyja is featured in several video games including the 2002 Ensemble Studios game Age of Mythology, the 2014 third-person multiplayer online battle arena game Smite, the 2018 Santa Monica Studio game God of War, and in its 2022 sequel God of War Ragnarök.
""Freya"" is a song by American heavy metal band The Sword from their 2006 debut album Age of Winters. A playable cover version was featured in Guitar Hero II, released the same year.


== See also ==
List of Germanic deities
List of people, items and places in Norse mythology
Category:Norse underworld


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Freyja at Wikimedia Commons"
Player (band),"Player is an American rock band that was formed in 
Los Angeles in the late 1970s. The group scored several US Hot 100 hits, three of which went into the top 40; two of those single releases went top 10, including the No. 1 hit ""Baby Come Back"", written by group members Peter Beckett and J.C. Crowley.


== Career ==
Player first came together in Los Angeles, California. The original members included Peter Beckett (vocals, guitar), John Charles ""J.C."" Crowley (vocals, keyboards, guitar), Ronn Moss (vocals, bass), and John Friesen (drums).
Beckett, an Englishman from Liverpool, had been in a progressive rock group called Paladin, then Skyband in 1974 with Australian Steve Kipner (who had also played with the Australian band Tin Tin, of which Beckett had also briefly been a member). At that time, Beckett, Kipner and Skyband were based in Los Angeles. After Skyband broke up in 1975, Beckett was still living there and met Crowley at a party. He and Crowley teamed up in a new band called Riff Raff, which soon changed its name to Bandana and released a single, ""Jukebox Saturday Night"", on Dennis Lambert and Brian Potter's Haven label. Steve Kipner and former Grass Roots guitarist Reed Kailing were also members of Riff Raff/Bandana, but Kipner was gone before the single's recording and Kailing was aced out after its release, though some of the Bandana tracks with Kailing's playing and co-writing later appeared on Player's debut.
When the Haven label folded soon afterward, Lambert and Potter brought the others over to RSO Records in 1976, and Beckett and Crowley started anew as Player with manager Paul Palmer, who brought in Moss and Friesen (a former percussionist and musical director for the Ice Follies). Wayne Cook, a keyboardist/session player and former member of Steppenwolf, was an additional band member for its live performances; he is the curly-haired keyboardist in the band's videos from the 1970s.
Player gained popularity as a live act during the heyday of the 1970s stadium rock era. They first went on the road in the fall of 1977 opening for Gino Vannelli, then Boz Scaggs. They began to develop a distinctive, edgy and melodic rock style. Their biggest hit, ""Baby Come Back"", released in late 1977, rose to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1978 and was a chart success in other countries. Their follow-up single, ""This Time I'm in It for Love"", also peaked at No. 10 the same year. This makes it an error to claim, as VH1 and others have claimed, that Player was a ""one-hit wonder"". Among several notable accolades, Player was named Billboard's Best New Singles Artist of 1978.
Eric Clapton invited them to open for him during his 1978 North American ""Slow Hand"" tour. That was when the band started to change away from the ""blue-eyed soul"" sound of their debut album, leading to a much harder rock sound on their next one, Danger Zone, later that year. Beckett explained their change in sound: ""When they put us on the Eric Clapton tour, the band took a turn to the left. Instead of sticking with the R&B Pop thing, which is what the first album was, we started to think we're gonna be onstage with Clapton, so we'd better write some Rock 'n' Roll songs. So, we grew our hair real long. We got the bigger amps, the 100 watt Marshalls and we started to change the band. And the band changed. Then, we stopped getting hits"".
Later in 1978, keyboardist Cook left and was replaced by Bob Carpenter (who would go on to join Nitty Gritty Dirt Band). Eventually the band began to headline some of their own events, as well as continuing to open shows for artists like Heart and Kenny Loggins in the fall of 1978. But after playing a show with the latter at Coconut Grove in Miami, Florida, on October 29, 1978, tension among the various group members resulted in a huge blow up. When the smoke finally cleared, and after the group played a few more shows with Heart in late 1978, Beckett left the group and Player was without a record contract.
The remaining three, Crowley, Moss and Friesen, attempted to find a new deal and carry on but were unsuccessful. Crowley then decided to return to his native Texas, where he later pursued a career in country music. In the meantime, Beckett regrouped with Moss and Friesen to continue on as Player.
Player released four albums during their active touring years: Player (RSO Records in 1977), Danger Zone (RSO Records in 1978), Room With A View (Casablanca Records in 1980), the latter without Crowley, and Spies Of Life (RCA Records in 1981). After a long absence, Beckett brought Moss back into the fold in 1995 and, in 1996, Player released their fifth album, Lost In Reality, on River North Records. Two Many Reasons followed in 2013, on Frontiers Records. Like Reality, it was written and produced by Beckett.


== Lineup changes and dissolution ==

Miles Joseph (vocals, guitar) and Gabriel Katona (keyboards, ex-Rare Earth) joined Beckett, Moss and Friesen in the studio for the group's third album, Room With a View (April 1980), produced by Beckett with Tony Peluso on Casablanca Records. But when the album failed to sell in big numbers, Player was dropped by Polygram, after that company took over Casablanca completely. 
By the end of 1980, Player wasn't active, recording or touring, so Moss decided to pursue an acting career. He originated the role of Ridge Forrester on the new CBS-TV soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful from 1987 until August 2012, after which he made the decision to not continue in the series after he was injured in an auto accident.
As Moss was occupied with acting, Beckett kept going as Player with Friesen, Joseph, Katona and Rusty Buchanan (vocals, bass, ex-Sugarloaf) and with producer Dennis Lambert back on board, released their fourth album, Spies of Life, on RCA in late 1981. The band continued until 1982 and played on the music series Solid Gold that year. But after this, the band once again found themselves without a record deal and elected to go their separate ways. Guitarist Miles Joseph later passed away of heart failure on December 25, 2012.
During the years following 1982, Peter Beckett worked mostly as a composer behind the scenes in movies and television. He also was a songwriter providing material for recording artists such as Janet Jackson, Olivia Newton-John, The Temptations, Starship, Kenny Rogers and more. He went on to become a member of Little River Band from 1989 to 1997 and played ""Baby Come Back"" at its performances. And during his time in LRB, he took time out to record a solo album, Beckett, released in 1991 on Curb Records.
J.C. Crowley (who still occasionally wrote with Beckett) became a Nashville performer and songwriter, recording his only solo album, Beneath the Texas Moon, in 1988. In 1989 he had country hits with ""Paint the Town and Hang the Moon Tonight"" (No. 13) and ""I Know What I've Got"" (No. 21), and was named ""Best New Male Country Performer"". He wrote a number of songs recorded by Nashville artists, including Johnny Cash and The Oak Ridge Boys. He recovered from cancer in the late 1990s and now lives in Topanga Canyon, California.


== Return ==
Although the original lineup of Player had disbanded, Beckett and Moss rejoined forces to work on a solo album for Moss, but the duo ended up recording an additional studio album as Player instead, released in Japan in August 1995 as Electric Shadow and renamed Lost in Reality when put out on River North Records in the U.S. in May 1996.
On December 16, 1997, Player played live for the first time in years at the L.A. Music Awards at the Hollywood Palladium with a lineup consisting of Beckett, Moss, Elliot Easton (of The Cars) on guitar, Burleigh Drummond of Ambrosia on drums and Tony Sciuto of Little River Band on keyboards. A compilation album, Best of Player, was released in 1998.
The response to the group's reunion show was so enthusiastic that they had several offers for more concert dates. River North Records dropped the band and Player tried to buy back the rights to the Lost in Reality CD but were unsuccessful.
Player toured in the spring of 1998 with a lineup of Beckett, Moss, Sciuto, Drummond, guitarist Steve Farris (formerly of Mr. Mister) and percussionist Ron Green, with guitarist Dave Amato (from REO Speedwagon) and drummer Ron Wikso (formerly of Foreigner and The Storm) filling in for Farris and Drummond as needed, depending on the schedules of the others.
In 2000 the lineup of Player included: drummer Craig Pilo, guitarist Michael Hakes, Green, Sciuto, Moss and Beckett playing more shows across the United States. But Michael Hakes died on November 19, 2003, of complications from leukemia. After Hakes' death, the band stopped touring and concentrated on other projects.
In 2007 Player reunited once again with a lineup of: Beckett, Moss, Pilo, Green, Ricky Zacharaides (guitar) and Ed Roth (keyboards). Percussionist Ron Green last appeared with Player in 2008.
By 2009, Rob Math (guitar) and keyboardist Johnny English (now known as Jawn Star) had come in to replace Zacharaides and Roth.
On November 14, 2009, J.C. Crowley temporarily reunited with Beckett and Moss at Agua Caliente Casino Resort Spa in Rancho Mirage, California, for a tribute concert to Dennis Lambert in a charity benefiting the Desert Arc Foundation.
In February 2013 Player (Beckett and Moss) released their new album, Too Many Reasons, on Frontiers Records. They toured throughout the United States and Canada over the summer as part of the Sail Rock 2013 with Christopher Cross, Gary Wright, Al Stewart, Orleans, Firefall, Robbie Dupree and John Ford Coley.
Quiet Riot's drummer, Frankie Banali, guested with Player on June 3, 2013, for a charity concert in Agoura, CA.
Roger Williams' drummer, Jimmy Carnelli, took over as their new drummer in 2014 and Player did an extensive tour of Australia in November 2014 promoted as ""An Intimate Evening with Ronn Moss & Player"", playing up Ronn's huge popularity Down Under.
Beckett and Moss split off from the last incarnation of the band to tour with another band, the Yacht Rock Revue, both on cruise ships and other venues around the U.S in 2014. In 2015 Beckett and Moss appeared on tour with Rock The Yacht 2015 with Little River Band as well as various dates with Orleans and Ambrosia.
The two continued to tour in 2017 together, then separately: Peter Beckett as ""The Voice of Player"" and Moss as ""Ronn Moss & Friends"". Moss, though still listed an official member of the band, wasn't appearing with them in the latter part of 2017, where Mark Winley (ex-Johnny Winter) was standing in for him, alongside Beckett, Math, drummer Burleigh Drummond and new Singer/keyboardist Buster Akrey, known for writing the Power Rangers music.
In the summer of 2018, Beckett appeared with Rock The Yacht 2018 alongside Ambrosia, John Ford Coley, Robbie Dupree and Stephen Bishop.
Ronn Moss did his fourth solo tour of Australia with Player band mate Jawn Star in March 2019 and was slated to tour Italy for the first time in the summer of 2019 as well as releasing a new album, My Baby's Back.
In the meantime, Beckett continued to tour in 2019 as Peter Beckett's Player with Rob Math, Burleigh Drummond, Buster Akrey and Mark Winley. 


=== Lawsuit and settlement ===
In May 2018 Ronn Moss filed a lawsuit against former Player bandmate Peter Beckett over rights to the band's trademark. In November 2018, Moss and Beckett reached a settlement resulting in a stipulated court order, which stated that both Moss and Beckett owned common rights to the Player name and that the “mark is valid, subsisting, and enforceable.""
The court further ordered the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office to update the registration for the Player trademark to “Peter Beckett and Ronn Moss, DBA"", an unincorporated partnership. In the joint press release announcing their settlement, Moss and Beckett stated that in order to avoid any potential fan confusion, Moss and Becket have agreed to add their own name in front of the Player mark whenever they use it – i.e. Peter Beckett's Player or Ronn Moss’ Player. According to the court order, the use of the name by either Beckett or Moss for individual use ""without the consent of the other and in a manner which does not constitute fair use, is likely to cause consumer confusion as the source or sponsorship of such goods or services.”


== Side projects ==

Moss (with Beckett) has recorded two solo albums: I'm Your Man (2000) and Uncovered (2005). Both Moss and Beckett continue to play limited concert schedules as solo artists and teamed up to play in Australia in 2006 in support of Uncovered.
On May 12, 2014, Player appeared on ABC's daytime drama/soap opera ""General Hospital"" as a surprise guest for the annual ""Nurses Ball"" segment. That lineup was Beckett (vocals, guitar), Moss (vocals, bass), Rob Math (vocals, guitar), Jawn Star (vocals, keyboard), and Bryan Hitt (drummer for REO Speedwagon).


== Discography ==


=== Studio albums ===


=== Compilation albums ===
Baby Come Back (1978)
Best of Player (1990)
The Best of Player – Baby Come Back (1998)


=== Singles ===


== References ==


== External links ==
Peter Beckett's Player website
Official Peter Beckett website
Ronn Moss' Player website
Official Ronn Moss website"
Borderlescott,"Borderlescott (foaled 12 April 2002) is a British Thoroughbred racehorse. A specialist sprinter noted for his consistency and durability he raced 85 times on 25 different tracks in twelve seasons between 2004 and 2015. He won fourteen races and was placed second or third on thirty occasions. In his early career the gelding showed promising form, winning one minor race as a juvenile in 2004 and four handicap races in the following year. In 2006 he recorded his first major success when he won the Stewards' Cup. He failed to win in 2007 but emerged as a top-class sprinter in the following year when his wins included the Nunthorpe Stakes. He won the Nunthorpe Stakes again in 2009 and added a win in the King George Stakes in 2010. He won the Beverley Bullet Sprint Stakes in 2012 before being retired at the end of the year. He came out of retirement in 2013 and raced nineteen times without success before being retired again in 2015.


== Background ==
Borderlescott is a small bay horse with a narrow white blaze bred by James Clark. He was sired by Compton Place, a sprinter who won the July Cup in 1997, before becoming a successful breeding stallion. Compton Place was a representative of the Byerley Turk sire line, unlike more than 95% of modern thoroughbreds, who descend directly from the Darley Arabian. Borderlescott's dam Jeewan, a daughter of the St Leger winner Touching Wood, won one minor race at Catterick Racecourse from seven attempts as a three-year-old in 1988. She was descended from Caerlissa, a broodmare who was the ancestor of other major winners including Flying Water and St Paddy.
As a yearling in October 2003, Borderlescott was consigned to the Doncaster Sales and was bought for 13,000 guineas by Robin Bastiman. Bastiman trained the horse at his stable at Cowthorpe in North Yorkshire.


== Racing career ==


=== 2004–2007: early career ===
Borderlescott began his racing career by finishing sixth in a maiden race over five furlongs at York Racecourse on 11 June. After finishing unplaced in a similar event at Carlisle later that month he ran third at Beverley before recording his first success in a nursery (a handicap race for juveniles) at Hamilton Park Racecourse on 31 July.
In his second season Borderlescott raced exclusively in handicaps and made steady improvement in his eight races. He won minor events at Haydock Park in May, Redcar and Ripon Racecourse in August and a more valuable event at York in October. In the last-named race, the Coral Sprint Trophy over six furlongs, he took the lead at half way, went clear of his seventeen rivals approaching the final furlong and held on to win by three quarters of a length from Machinist. The beaten horses included Les Arcs and Continent
Borderlescott began his third season by winning a handicap over six furlongs at York in May and was then sent to Royal Ascot where he finished fourth under a weight of 130 pounds in the Wokingham Stakes. He was then sent to Ireland and moved up in class for the Listed Belgrave Stakes at Fairyhouse where he was beaten a head by the seven-year-old Osterhase. On 5 August the gelding carried a weight of 131 pounds in the Stewards' Cup at Goodwood Racecourse and started at odds of 10/1 in a field of 27 runners. Ridden as in most of his early races by Royston Ffrench he tracked the leaders before taking the lead 150 yards from the finish. In a blanket finish, he prevailed by a neck from Mutamared with five other runners within a length of the winner. In the Ayr Gold Cup in September, Borderlesscott carried top weight of 136 pounds and finished second of the 23 runners behind Fonthill Road, before being sent to France where he finished sixth in the Listed Prix de Bonneval at Chantilly Racecourse. On his final appearance of the year he was stepped up to Group Three level for the first time for the Bentinck Stakes at Newmarket Racecourse on 13 October. He took the lead a furlong out but was caught in the last stride and beaten a short head by the favourite Bygone Days.
As a five-year-old, Borderlesscot failed to win in ten races but showed consistent form in major sprints. After finishing second at Haydock on his debut he was runner-up in the Listed Leisure Stakes at Windsor before being stepped up to Group One level and finishind unplaced in the Golden Jubilee Stakes and the July Cup. When attempting to repeat his 2006 in the Stewards' Cup he was beaten a short head by Zidane, to whom he was conceding eight pounds. Another short head defeat followed in the Beverley Bullet before he finished unplaced in the Ayr Gold Cup. In late autumn he finished fourth in the Bentinck Stakes and then sustained two narrow defeats in Listed races when finishing second in the Wentworth Stakes at Doncaster and the Golden Rose Stakes on the Polytrack surface at Lingfield Park.


=== 2008: six-year-old season ===
On his first appearance of 2008, Borderlescott started 5/4 favourite for a minor event over five furlongs at Musselburgh Racecourse on 2 May. Ridden for the first time by Robert Winston, he took the lead inside the final furlong and won by a length and a half from Desert Lord. He was then stepped up in class for the Temple Stakes at Haydock and finished second, beaten two lengths by the three-year-old filly Fleeting Spirit.
The gelding was dropped back to Listed class for the Cathedral Stakes at Salisbury in June. He started 7/4 favourite but was beaten two lengths by the Richard Hannon, Sr-trained Edge Closer. In the City Walls Stakes at Chester in July he took the lead in the closing stages but was caught in the last stride and beaten a nose by Green Manalishi. On 2 August Borderlescott carried 136 pounds as he ran for the third time in the Stewards' Cup. He was among the leaders from the start and established a clear advantage two furlongs out but was overtaken in the closing stages and finished third behind Conquest and King's Apostle.
Borderlescott was then aimed at the Group One Nunthorpe Stakes at York. The meeting was abandoned owing to the poor condition of the track and the Nunthorpe was rescheduled and run on the July Course at Newmarket on 22 August. Ridden by Pat Cosgrave, he started at odds of 12/1 in a fourteen-runner field. The King's Stand Stakes winner Equiano started favourite ahead of Kingsgate Native, who had won the race as a juvenile in 2007. The other contenders were Sakhee's Secret, Dandy Man (Palace House Stakes), National Colour (a multiple Grade One-winning mare from South Africa), Benbaun (Prix de l'Abbaye), Captain Gerrard (Cornwallis Stakes, Palace House Stakes), Percolator (Prix du Bois), Flashmans Papers (Windsor Castle Stakes), Prime Defender (European Free Handicap, Sandy Lane Stakes), Moorhouse Lad (King George Stakes), Desert Lord and Shryl. Borderlescott tracked the leaders as Captain Gerrard set the pace before National Colour went to the front two furlongs out. The gelding overhauled the South African mare inside the final furlong to win by half a length with Kingsgate Native taking third ahead of Equiano and Benbaun.
In October, the gelding was sent to France for the Group One Prix de l'Abbaye over 1000 metres at Longchamp Racecourse. He finished third behind Marchand d'Or and Moorhouse Lad with Fleeting Spirit, National Colour and Equiano among the unplaced horses. Three weeks later, Borderlescott ended his season in the Listed Mercury Stakes on the Polytrack course at Dundalk. Starting the 4/5 favourite under a weight of 143 pounds, he took the lead a furlong out and won by a neck from the three-year-old filly Invincible Ash. Bastiman commented ""He did his job. He's only a little horse to carry 10-3 but he's so tough and genuine. Remember, he had to run twice at Longchamp but he picked up well and was game"".


=== 2009: seven-year-old season ===

Borderlescott began his 2009 campaign on 2 May in the Palace House Stakes at Newmarket and finished third behind Amour Propre and Hoh Hoh Hoh. Later that month he started 2/1 favourite for the Temple Stakes, but in a three-way photo-finish he was beaten a neck by Look Busy, with Wid Dud a head away in third. At Royal Ascot in June he started at odds of 10/1 for the King's Stand Stakes and finished fifth of the fifteen runners behind the Australian gelding Scenic Blast. On 11 July Borderlescott was dropped in class for the Listed City Walls Stakes over five furlongs at Chester and started 6/5 favourite. He started well but then lost his position and looked unlikely to obtain a clear run at half way before accelerating in the straight, taking the lead inside the final furlong and winning by a length and a neck from Captain Gerrard and Hoh Hoh Hoh.
At Goodwood, Borderlescott started favourite for the King George Stakes but looked to be outpaced in the closing stages and finished fourth behind Kingsgate Native, Total Gallery and Inxile. It was Cosgrave's last ride on the gelding, with Neil Callan taking over when Borderlescott attempted to repeat his 2008 success in the Nunthorpe Stakes on 21 August. He was the 9/1 fourth choice in the betting behind Kingsgate Native, Radiohead (Norfolk Stakes) and Amour Propre, whilst the other runners included Tax Free (Prix du Gros Chêne, Prix du Petit Couvert), Dandy Man, Ialysos (Coral Charge), Equiano, Art Connoisseur (Golden Jubilee Stakes), Look Busy, Moorhouse Lad, Benbaun, Captain Gerrard and the South African challenger Mythical Flight. The runners split into groups across the wide straight with Borderlescott racing down the centre of the course before switching to the right in last quarter mile. He overtook Benbaun inside the final furlong and won by a neck, with Radiohead taking third ahead of Tax Free and Amour Propre. After the race, Bastiman said ""It's brilliant to win on our home ground. We're only eight miles away, so it's just the job. He comes right at this time of year and I keep telling everybody that. He likes that fast pace and got a nice lead today"". Callan said ""It's a fabulous buzz. He jumped real quick and once I got him out it took about 100 yards, then the turbo kicked in and he went there easy with hands and heels"".
In October he was sent to France for another attempt at the Prix de l'Abbaye and finished sixth, two lengths behind the winner Total Gallery. On his final appearance of the season he was sent to contest the Hong Kong Sprint at Sha Tin Racecourse in December. He started an 83/1 outsider and finished unplaced behind the local champion Sacred Kingdom.


=== 2010–2012: later career and first retirement ===

As an eight-year-old in 2010, Borderlescott finished second to Equiano in the Palace House Stakes and third to Kingsgate Native in the Temple Stakes before finishing third to Equiano and Markab in the King's Stand Stakes. He then started odds on favourite for the City Wall Stakes but finished third, beaten a hort head and a neck by Blue Jack and Captain Dunne. Kieren Fallon took the ride when the gelding started 9/2 favourite for the King George Stakes at Goodwood on 29 July. Captain Dunne, Amour Propre and Moorhouse Lad were in the field as well as the Todd Pletcher-trained American mare Starish Bay, and the improving handicappers Astrophysical Jet and Tropical Treat. After tracking the leaders for most of the way, Borderlescott produced a decisive burst of acceleration to take the lead inside the final furlong and won by half a length and a head from Group Therapy and Astrophysical Jet. In August, the gelding attempted to equal the achievement of Tag End and Sharpo by winning a third consecutive Nunthorpe Stakes. Ridden by Callan, he started at odds of 11/1 and finished sixth of the twelve runners behind Sole Power. In the Haydock Sprint Cup two weeks later he chased the leaders before weakening in the closing stages and finishing eighth behind Markab.
Borderlescott had his least active season in 2011 when he failed to win in three races. He finished fifth in the Palace House Stakes, fourth in the Temple Stakes and ninth in the City Wall Stakes.
In 2012 the ten-year-old finished unplaced on his first two starts before finishing second in  minor race at Chester. He then finished fourth in the Temple Stakes, sixth in the Midsummer Stakes at Cork and second in the Summer Cup at Thirsk. In August he made yet another attempt to win the Stewards' Cup and finished ninth behind Hawkeyethenoo under a weight of 135 pounds. On 1 September he was ridden by Frederik Tylicki when he contested the ninth running of the Listed Beverley Bullet Sprint Stakes over five furlongs at Beverley Racecourse. Starting at odds of 8/1 he tracked the leaders before taking the lead a furlong out and winning by a length from the favourite Masamah. After the race Bastiman said ""It's great to see him back, the ground came right for him. It was a mistake to run him in Ireland because he came back stiff. He wasn't right at Thirsk next time and the ground came up too loose on top for him in the Stewards' Cup, and he's probably not as good over six furlongs anyway."" The gelding made no impact in his three subsequent races that year, finishing unplaced in the Ayr Gold Cup, Prix de l'Abbaye and Mercury Stakes.
In November 2012 it was announced that Borderlescott was to be retired from racing. Bastiman said ""He's almost 11 now and I was just a little worried with the way he ran last time in Ireland. He wasn't too clever afterwards and his heart was beating ten to the dozen. No matter what he's always run as hard as he can and tried his heart out. He's roughed up and out in the paddock now, happy. He's a very popular horse and he gets plenty of cards from people and things like boxes of polo mints. The crowd at Beverley loved him.""


=== 2013–2015: comeback and second retirement ===
Borderlescott's retirement was short-lived, as he returned to the track as an eleven-year-old in 2013. Robin Bastiman explained ""He had a long season last year, and I don't think he was quite right in Ireland. But my daughter was messing around with him during the winter and we thought: 'Come on, let's check his heart and see if he's 100 per cent.' They're creatures of habit, they get into a routine. And he's a one-off, this horse. He wants to win. That's what sets him apart from all the others I've had"". He failed to win in seven races but produced several good performances in defeat, producing his best effort when taking third place behind Stepper Point in the Beverley Bullet.
On his debut as a twelve-year-old the gelding was sent to Musselburgh for a race named in his honour, the Borderlescott Sprint Trophy. He took the lead inside the final furlong but was caught in the last stride and beaten a short head by the four-year-old Smoothtalkinrascal. He finished unplaced in his next six races (including a final bid for the Stewards' Cup) before ending the year with a second place at Musselburgh in October.
In 2015 Borderlecott was trained by Robin Bastiman's daughter Rebecca. On his first appearance of the year he again finished second in his own race at Musselburgh, beaten one and a quarter lengths by his fellow veteran Tangerine Trees. In May he finished fourth in a handicap at Goodwood and third in a similar event at Nottingham. On his eighty-fifth and final appearance, Borderlescott finished fifth of the six runners in a handicap at Ayr on 20 June. His second retirement was announced on 1 July. Rebecca Bastiman said: ""He's been putting so much into his races, he was blowing hard after [his final race]. He's now in a field enjoying himself."" Robin Bastiman said: ""It's a shame but I'd hate for anything to happen to him. He's trying too hard and it's not fair on him. He's been a fantastic horse and he still goes out with all the other horses. He wasn't bad for 13,000gns as a yearling.""


== Pedigree ==


== References =="
2013 Colorado recall election,"The Colorado recall election of 2013 was a successful effort to recall two Democratic members of the Colorado Senate following their support for new gun control legislation. Initially four politicians were targeted, but sufficient signatures could only be obtained for State Senate President John Morse and State Senator Angela Giron.
During the petition drive, national organizations on both the gun rights and gun control sides became involved by providing mailings and donations. Once the petitions were submitted, Morse and Giron challenged the effort in court, but were denied the injunction that they had requested from the court. A further court hearing resulted in the election being conducted in-person rather than by mail, which also led to Giron complaining of voter suppression.
In the election, held on September 10, 2013, both Morse and Giron were recalled by the voters of their districts and replaced with Republicans George Rivera and Bernie Herpin, respectively. It was the first time a state legislator in Colorado had been recalled. In the 2014 Senate elections 13 months later, both Rivera and Herpin were defeated by their Democratic opponents.


== Background ==

In early 2013, the Colorado legislature passed a series of gun control bills following the theater shooting in Aurora, Colorado and the Sandy Hook school shooting in Newtown, Connecticut. The new laws provided for a ban on magazines holding more than fifteen rounds of ammunition, a universal background check, and a requirement that buyers pay a fee for the background check.
The initial recall petitions targeted Senate President John Morse and State Representative Mike McLachlan. Two additional petitions were also filed against Senators Evie Hudak and Angela Giron. All four are members of the Colorado Democratic Party.
The recall drive against Morse was spearheaded by the Basic Freedom Defense Fund (BFDF) and the El Paso County Freedom Defense Committee. The recall drive against Giron was led by Pueblo Freedom and Rights.
During the petition drive, groups supporting Morse accused the firm collecting the signatures of hiring convicted felons and gathering personal information. Recall backers said that Morse's group was misleading the public. In addition, the recall drives brought in support from national groups on both sides of the issue. The National Rifle Association (NRA) supported the recall effort with mailers and donations. National groups opposing the recall included America Votes, believed to be financially supported by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, as well as California billionaire Eli Broad.


== Submission and certification of petitions ==

On June 3, 2013, BFDF turned in over 16,000 signatures petitioning to recall Morse to the Colorado Secretary of State, Republican Scott Gessler, of which only 7,178 needed to be certified in order to force a recall election. In addition, over 13,000 signatures were turned in to recall Giron, of which 11,285 needed to be certified. Efforts to recall McLachlan failed, collecting only about 8,500 signatures of the 10,587 needed. Likewise, the efforts to recall Hudak also failed, falling short of the 18,962 signatures needed.
A group backing Morse alleged that fifty of the signatures on the petitions were forged, including one individual who had been dead for two years. A spokesman for BFDF immediately issued a statement calling for an investigation and stating that if anyone committed fraud the guilty party should be prosecuted ""to the fullest extent of the law."" The group calling for the recall also alleged that Morse's volunteers were harassing those that signed the petition, requesting that they remove their name from the petition.


=== Challenges ===
Immediately after the signatures for recalling Morse were certified, he filed a challenge to the petitions. Mark Grueskin, Morse's attorney, said: ""The petitions circulated are as valid as the back of a matchbook. All of the signatures are invalid."" The recall petition was also certified for the effort against Giron. Both Senators claimed the petitions were invalid because they did not use the explicit language that Morse and Giron claim was required under the state constitution. The initial hearings were before the Secretary of State's Office, which denied the challenges.
On July 9, 2013, Morse filed suit in the Denver District Court seeking an injunction to block the recall election. At the same time Secretary of State Gessler filed suit to force Democratic Governor John Hickenlooper to set a date for the recall election. On July 18, 2013, Denver District Court Judge Robert Hyatt issued a preliminary ruling that the recall process must proceed even while Morse and Giron challenged the process in court. Hickenlooper then set the recall election for September 10.


== Election ==


=== Campaign ===
Once the election date was set as September 10, national organizations on both sides of the gun-control debate started to weigh in. On the recall, pro-gun rights side was the National Rifle Association and Americans for Prosperity, while on the gun control side was the Mayors Against Illegal Guns and Mayor Bloomberg. Morse went door-to-door in an effort to gain voter support and both sides of the campaigns accused the other side of mud-slinging. Morse supporters were upset about an ad alleging ethical misconduct by Morse, noting that he had been cleared of those allegations. Giron supporters were accused of misrepresenting the issue as a choice on women's rights and abortion.
Financial donations were also an issue. Bloomberg and Broad donated $350,000 and $250,000, respectively, to support the Senators. The Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee also spent $250,000 to oppose recall. The NRA spent over $108,000 to support the recall efforts. In total, the Morse and Giron side spent approximately $3,000,000 opposing the recall, while the recall supporters spent about $500,000.


=== Replacement candidates ===
Early in the recall process, Republican George Rivera announced his candidacy for Giron's senate seat. Rivera was planning to run against Giron in the 2014 elections but stated he would put his name on the ballot during the recall process. Rivera had to turn in a petition with 1,000 signatures in order to qualify to be on the ballot and turned in 1,500 signatures on July 26. Sonia Negrete Winn, a Democrat, also sought to be on the ballot to replace Giron, but failed to obtain the required signatures to be a candidate. In Morse's district, Republican Bernie Herpin announced his interest in replacing Morse and submitted sufficient signatures to qualify for the ballot.


=== Ballot challenge ===
On August 7, 2013, the Libertarian Party filed a lawsuit stating that they were denied access to have their candidate on the ballot due to a conflict between state law and the state constitution. State law provided for ten days to obtain ballot petition signatures, while the state constitution provided for fifteen days. On August 12, Colorado District Court Judge Robert McGahey ruled that the state constitution's provisions had to be followed, and that prospective candidates had until August 26 to turn in their petitions. The Colorado Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal. The ruling meant that election officials would be unable to conduct the election by mail, as is usual for Colorado, and would have to open up polls for in-person voting. Morse stated that not voting by mail was ""bad for everybody.""
On August 27, 2013, Hickenlooper asked the Colorado Supreme Court to clarify if a voter had to vote for recall in order to vote for a replacement candidate. At the same time, Libertarian Jan Brooks turned in petitions to be on the ballot against Morse while Democrat Richard Anglund announced his write-in candidacy against Giron. On August 28, the Supreme Court ruled that a voter did not have to vote to recall in order to vote for a replacement, but that the Senators could only be recalled by a majority vote. Secretary of State Gessler announced that Brooks did not have sufficient signatures to qualify for the ballot, leaving only Republican opponents on the ballot.


== Detailed results ==


=== District 3 ===


==== Polling ====
When asked ""Will you vote 'yes' or 'no' on the question of whether Angela Giron should be recalled from the office of State Senator?""


==== Results ====
Morse conceded on the evening of September 10. Initial poll returns seemed to indicate that Giron would win her recall election. The final votes were 9,131 to recall Morse and 8,812 to keep him, a 1.78% difference. The final results also ousted Giron, 19,451 to 15,376, an 11.7% difference. Giron's recall was more surprising, as the district is 47% Democratic to 23% Republican, and news reports stated that Giron was stunned at the results. Other sources stated that Giron remained defiant. Giron has claimed that the recall was due to voter suppression. Giron noted that ""We were less than two weeks out and we didn't know what the rules were,"" referring to the change from mail-in ballots to in-person voting.
With the recall of Morse and Giron, Herpin and Rivera were elected to the State Senate to replace them, defeating their respective write-in opponents.


=== District 11 ===


== Aftermath ==


=== Reactions ===
Giron and Democratic National Committee Chair Debbie Wasserman Schultz claimed that the recall defeat was due to voter suppression. The Denver Post disputed this, saying that the result wasn't caused by voter suppression but the fact that more people showed up to vote against Giron than to vote for her. Gessler said that the Democrats fared worse where more people turned out. Wasserman Schultz also stated that the money spent by the NRA and the Koch brothers made it impossible for Democrats to win.
Charles C. W. Cooke, writing in the National Review Online, stated that it was a grassroots effort, triggered by the perception that the two senators were not listening to the concerns of the public. Ashby Jones of The Wall Street Journal viewed it as a major win for the NRA and a ""stinging defeat"" for Mayor Bloomberg.
Reuters journalist Keith Coffman stated that the defeat was a sign that Democrats who control Colorado government had reached too far, not just on gun-control, but in other areas also, such as not considering religious exemptions for same sex adoptions, or same-day voter registration.


=== Polling ===
Polling firm Public Policy Polling conducted a poll of Giron's district between September 7 and 9, asking likely voters if they supported the recall of Giron, whether they supported various components of the gun control bill, whether they approved of the NRA and Governor Hickenlooper, and who they would vote for in a hypothetical 2014 gubernatorial election between Hickenlooper and Republican Tom Tancredo, as well as various methodological questions. The results found voters supported recalling Giron by 54% to 42%, with 4% undecided.
However, the firm did not release the poll results before the election. The day after the election, when Giron had been recalled by 12 points, they released the poll and company director Tom Jensen explained why they had not initially done so, citing numerous unusual results. These included the district supporting her recall by such a wide margin, despite having been carried by 20 points by Democratic President Barack Obama in the 2012 election; and voters saying they supported universal background checks by 68% to 27% and being split 47% to 47% on limiting high-capacity ammunition magazines to 15 bullets. Jensen opined that ""if voters were really making their recall votes based on those two laws, that doesn't point to recalling Giron by a 12 point margin"" and that the NRA had done a ""good job of turning the election more broadly into 'do you support gun rights or are you opposed to them.'"" Their decision not to release the poll before the election caused significant controversy, with some statisticians and journalists criticising them and others supporting them.


=== 2014 elections ===
In the November 2014 Senate elections 13 months later, both Rivera and Herpin were defeated by large margins by their Democratic opponents. Rivera lost to State Representative Leroy Garcia and Herpin lost to State Representative Michael Merrifield, a noted gun control advocate. Rivera lost by 22,814 votes (45.06%) to 27,813 (54.94%) and Herpin lost by 14,978 votes (41.52%) to 18,815 (52.16%). Despite reclaiming the two seats, the Democrats lost their overall majority in the Colorado Senate.


== Campaign to recall Evie Hudak; her resignation ==
On October 4, 2013, Colorado Secretary of State Scott Gessler approved a second petition to recall Colorado State Senator Evie Hudak, also an advocate of gun control; the signature gatherers had 60 days to collect 18,300 or more signatures to force a recall election in Colorado Senate District 19 which encompasses Arvada, Colorado and Westminster, Colorado. Hudak later resigned rather than face recall. Because she resigned, the Democrats were able to appoint a replacement; if she had been recalled, the Republicans could have gained a majority in the state senate.


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Result of the 2013 Recall Election, Colorado Secretary of State"
Array DBMS,"An array database management system or array DBMS provides database services specifically for arrays (also called raster data), that is: homogeneous collections of data items (often called pixels, voxels, etc.), sitting on a regular grid of one, two, or more dimensions. Often arrays are used to represent sensor, simulation, image, or statistics data. Such arrays tend to be Big Data, with single objects frequently ranging into Terabyte and soon Petabyte sizes; for example, today's earth and space observation archives typically grow by Terabytes a day. Array databases aim at offering flexible, scalable storage and retrieval on this information category.


== Overview ==
In the same style as standard database systems do on sets, Array DBMSs offer scalable, flexible storage and flexible retrieval/manipulation on arrays of (conceptually) unlimited size. As in practice arrays never appear standalone, such an array model normally is embedded into some overall data model, such as the relational model. Some systems implement arrays as an analogy to tables, some introduce arrays as an additional attribute type.
Management of arrays requires novel techniques, particularly due to the fact that traditional database tuples and objects tend to fit well into a single database page –   a unit of disk access on server, typically 4 KB –  while array objects easily can span several media. The prime task of the array storage manager is to give fast access to large arrays and sub-arrays. To this end, arrays get partitioned, during insertion, into so-called tiles or chunks of convenient size which then act as units of access during query evaluation.
Array DBMSs offer query languages giving declarative access to such arrays, allowing to create, manipulate, search, and delete them. Like with, e.g., SQL, expressions of arbitrary complexity can be built on top of a set of core array operations. Due to the extensions made in the data and query model, Array DBMSs sometimes are subsumed under the NoSQL category, in the sense of ""not only SQL"". Query optimization and parallelization are important for achieving scalability; actually, many array operators lend themselves well towards parallel evaluation, by processing each tile on separate nodes or cores.
Important application domains of Array DBMSs include Earth, Space, Life, and Social sciences, as well as the related commercial applications (such as hydrocarbon exploration in industry and OLAP in business). The variety occurring can be observed, e.g., in geo data where 1-D environmental sensor time series, 2-D satellite images, 3-D x/y/t image time series and x/y/z geophysics data, as well as 4-D x/y/z/t climate and ocean data can be found.


== History and status ==
The relational data model, which is prevailing today, does not directly support the array paradigm to the same extent as sets and tuples. ISO SQL lists an array-valued attribute type, but this is only one-dimensional, with almost no operational support, and not usable for the application domains of Array DBMSs. Another option is to resort to BLOBs (""binary large objects"") which are the equivalent to files: byte strings of (conceptually) unlimited length, but again without any query language functionality, such as multi-dimensional subsetting.
First significant work in going beyond BLOBs has been established with PICDMS. This system offers the precursor of a 2-D array query language, albeit still procedural and without suitable storage support.
A first declarative query language suitable for multiple dimensions and with an algebra-based semantics has been published by Baumann, together with a scalable architecture. Another array database language, constrained to 2-D, has been presented by Marathe and Salem. Seminal theoretical work has been accomplished by Libkin et al.; in their model, called NCRA, they extend a nested relational calculus with multidimensional arrays; among the results are important contributions on array query complexity analysis. A map algebra, suitable for 2-D and 3-D spatial raster data, has been published by Mennis et al.
In terms of Array DBMS implementations, the rasdaman system has the longest implementation track record of n-D arrays with full query support. Oracle GeoRaster offers chunked storage of 2-D raster maps, albeit without SQL integration. TerraLib is an open-source GIS software that extends object-relational DBMS technology to handle spatio-temporal data types; while main focus is on vector data, there is also some support for rasters. Starting with version 2.0, PostGIS embeds raster support for 2-D rasters; a special function offers declarative raster query functionality. SciQL is an array query language being added to the MonetDB DBMS. SciDB is a more recent initiative to establish array database support. Like SciQL, arrays are seen as an equivalent to tables, rather than a new attribute type as in rasdaman and PostGIS.
For the special case of sparse data, OLAP data cubes are well established; they store cell values together with their location –  an adequate compression technique in face of the few locations carrying valid information at all –  and operate with SQL on them. As this technique does not scale in density, standard databases are not used today for dense data, like satellite images, where most cells carry meaningful information; rather, proprietary ad hoc implementations prevail in scientific data management and similar situations. Hence, this is where Array DBMSs can make a particular contribution.
Generally, Array DBMSs are an emerging technology. While operationally deployed systems exist, like Oracle GeoRaster, PostGIS 2.0 and rasdaman, there are still many open research questions, including query language design and formalization, query optimization, parallelization and distributed processing, and scalability issues in general. Besides, scientific communities still appear reluctant in taking up array database technology and tend to favor specialized, proprietary technology.


== Concepts ==
When adding arrays to databases, all facets of database design need to be reconsidered –  ranging from conceptual modeling (such as suitable operators) over storage management (such as management of arrays spanning multiple media) to query processing (such as efficient processing strategies).


=== Conceptual modeling ===
Formally, an array A is given by a (total or partial) function A: X → V where X, the domain is a d-dimensional integer interval for some d > 0 and V, called range, is some (non-empty) value set; in set notation, this can be rewritten as { (p,v) | p ∈ X, v ∈ V }. Each (p,v) in A denotes an array element or cell, and following common notation we write A[p] = v. Examples for X include {0..767} × {0..1023} (for XGA sized images), examples for V include {0..255} for 8-bit greyscale images and {0..255} × {0..255} × {0..255} for standard RGB imagery.
Following established database practice, an array query language should be declarative and safe in evaluation.
As iteration over an array is at the heart of array processing, declarativeness very much centers on this aspect. The requirement, then, is that conceptually all cells should be inspected simultaneously –  in other words, the query does not enforce any explicit iteration sequence over the array cells during evaluation. Evaluation safety is achieved when every query terminates after a finite number of (finite-time) steps; again, avoiding general loops and recursion is a way of achieving this. At the same time, avoiding explicit loop sequences opens up manifold optimization opportunities.


=== Array querying ===
As an example for array query operators the rasdaman algebra and query language can serve, which establish an expression language over a minimal set of array primitives. We begin with the generic core operators and then present common special cases and shorthands.
The marray operator creates an array over some given domain extent and initializes its cells:

where index-range-specification defines the result domain and binds an iteration variable to it, without specifying iteration sequence. The cell-value-expression is evaluated at each location of the domain.
Example: ""A cutout of array A given by the corner points (10,20) and (40,50).""

This special case, pure subsetting, can be abbreviated as

This subsetting keeps the dimension of the array; to reduce dimension by extracting slices, a single slicepoint value is indicated in the slicing dimension.
Example: ""A slice through an x/y/t timeseries at position t=100, retrieving all available data in x and y.""

The wildcard operator * indicates that the current boundary of the array is to be used; note that arrays where dimension boundaries are left open at definition time may change size in that dimensions over the array's lifetime.
The above examples have simply copied the original values; instead, these values may be manipulated.
Example: ""Array A, with a log() applied to each cell value.""

This can be abbreviated as:

Through a principle called induced operations, the query language offers all operations the cell type offers on array level, too. Hence, on numeric values all the usual unary and binary arithmetic, exponential, and trigonometric operations are available in a straightforward manner, plus the standard set of Boolean operators.
The condense operator aggregates cell values into one scalar result, similar to SQL aggregates. Its application has the general form:

As with marray before, the index-range-specification specifies the domain to be iterated over and binds an iteration variable to it –  again, without specifying iteration sequence. Likewise, cell-value-expression is evaluated at each domain location. The condense-op clause specifies the aggregating operation used to combine the cell value expressions into one single value.
Example: ""The sum over all values in A.""

A shorthand for this operation is:

In the same manner and in analogy to SQL aggregates, a number of further shorthands are provided, including counting, average, minimum, maximum, and Boolean quantifiers.
The next example demonstrates combination of marray and condense operators by deriving a histogram.
Example: ""A histogram over 8-bit greyscale image A.""

The induced comparison, A=bucket, establishes a Boolean array of the same extent as A. The aggregation operator counts the occurrences of true for each value of bucket, which subsequently is put into the proper array cell of the 1-D histogram array.
Such languages allow formulating statistical and imaging operations which can be expressed analytically without using loops. It has been proven that the expressive power of such array languages in principle is equivalent to relational query languages with ranking.


=== Array storage ===
Array storage has to accommodate arrays of different dimensions and typically large sizes. A core task is to maintain spatial proximity on disk so as to reduce the number of disk accesses during subsetting. Note that an emulation of multi-dimensional arrays as nested lists (or 1-D arrays) will not per se accomplish this and, therefore, in general will not lead to scalable architectures.
Commonly arrays are partitioned into sub-arrays which form the unit of access. Regular partitioning where all partitions have the same size (except possibly for boundaries) is referred to as chunking. A generalization which removes the restriction to equally sized partitions by supporting any kind of partitioning is tiling. Array partitioning can improve access to array subsets significantly: by adjusting tiling to the access pattern, the server ideally can fetch all required data with only one disk access.
Compression of tiles can sometimes reduce substantially the amount of storage needed. Also for transmission of results compression is useful, as for the large amounts of data under consideration networks bandwidth often constitutes a limiting factor.


=== Query processing ===
A tile-based storage structure suggests a tile-by-tile processing strategy (in rasdaman called tile streaming). A large class of practically relevant queries can be evaluated by loading tile after tile, thereby allowing servers to process arrays orders of magnitude beyond their main memory.

Due to the massive sizes of arrays in scientific/technical applications in combination with often complex queries, optimization plays a central role in making array queries efficient. Both hardware and software parallelization can be applied. An example for heuristic optimization is the rule ""maximum value of an array resulting from the cell-wise addition of two input images is equivalent to adding the maximum values of each input array"". By replacing the left-hand variant by the right-hand expression, costs shrink from three (costly) array traversals to two array traversals plus one (cheap) scalar operation (see Figure, which uses the SQL/MDA query standard).


== Application domains ==
In many – if not most – cases where some phenomenon is sampled or simulated the result is a rasterized data set which can conveniently be stored, retrieved, and forwarded as an array. Typically, the array data are ornamented with metadata describing them further; for example, geographically referenced imagery will carry its geographic position and the coordinate reference system in which it is expressed.
The following are representative domains in which large-scale multi-dimensional array data are handled:

Earth sciences: geodesy / mapping, remote sensing, geology, oceanography, hydrology, atmospheric sciences, cryospheric sciences
Space sciences: Planetary sciences, astrophysics (optical and radio telescope observations, cosmological simulations)
Life sciences: gene data, confocal microscopy, CAT scans
Social sciences: statistical data cubes
Business: OLAP, data warehousing
These are but examples; generally, arrays frequently represent sensor, simulation, image, and statistics data.
More and more spatial and time dimensions are combined with abstract axes, such as sales and products; one example where such abstract axes are explicitly foreseen is the [Open_Geospatial_Consortium |Open Geospatial Consortium] (OGC) coverage model.


== Standardization ==
Many communities have established data exchange formats, such as HDF, NetCDF, and TIFF. A de facto standard in the Earth Science communities is OPeNDAP, a data transport architecture and protocol. While this is not a database specification, it offers important components that characterize a database system, such as a conceptual model and client/server implementations.
A declarative geo raster query language, Web Coverage Processing Service (WCPS), has been standardized by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC).
In June 2014, ISO/IEC JTC1 SC32 WG3, which maintains the SQL database standard, has decided to add multi-dimensional array support to SQL as a new column type, based on the initial array support available since the 2003 version of SQL. The new standard, adopted in Fall 2018, is named ISO 9075 SQL Part 15: MDA (Multi-Dimensional Arrays).


== List of array DBMSs ==
Oracle GeoRaster
MonetDB/SciQL
PostGIS
rasdaman
SciDB


== See also ==
Data Intensive Computing


== References =="
Momentum (organisation),"Momentum is a British left-wing political organisation which has been described as a grassroots movement supportive of the Labour Party; since January 2017, all Momentum members must be (or become) members of the party. It was founded in 2015 by Jon Lansman, Adam Klug, Emma Rees and James Schneider after Jeremy Corbyn's successful campaign to become Labour Party leader and it was reported to have between 20,000 and 30,000 members in 2021.
The organisation has polarised Labour politicians and journalists since it was founded. Although Momentum has been compared to the Labour Party's Militant tendency by those on the right of the party, its grassroots engagement and effective, low-budget informational videos (such as those used in the 2017 general-election campaign) have been praised. The organisation originally set up – and maintains close ties with – The World Transformed.


== Stated aims and principles ==
Since its inception, Momentum has stated its core objective as ""to create a mass movement for real progressive change"". In their 2021 strategy document ""Socialist Organising in a New Era"", published on their website, Momentum has three strategic priorities:

Elect socialists and win the radical policies the current moment demands
Support struggles in our communities and workplaces
Scale up political education in our movement and across the country
Momentum has campaigned for the Labour Party to adopt certain pledges in its party manifesto. In 2019 it campaigned for the inclusion of a green new deal and a four-day workweek.


== Structure ==
Momentum is not a member-controlled unincorporated association — like the Labour Party, for example — but a private company. According to Companies House, the current officers of Momentum Campaign (Services) Ltd are solicitor Anthony Kearns (since 2019) and co-chairs Andrew Scattergood and Gaya Sriskanthan (since 2021). Momentum originally had a delegate system for an executive board, known as the steering committee. In late October 2016, the steering committee voted to adopt one member, one vote (OMOV) for a digital instead of the delegate system; the decision, however, was controversial and did not survive a general vote. A new constitution, including OMOV, was announced on 11 January 2017. New Momentum members were required to be members of the Labour Party, with existing Momentum members required to join the party by July of that year. Lansman initiated changes via email. After persuading the steering committee, he replaced the national committee with a Labour-only national coordinating group (NCG). A new online model of organisation without a regional structure was created to prevent far-left entryists dominating delegate meetings.
After a January 2017 Momentum survey with a response rate of over 40 per cent, the organisation's steering committee voted to introduce a new constitution. Lansman resigned as a director on 12 January 2017 (replaced by Christine Shawcroft) to stand for election to the steering committee. Momentum introduced its new constitutional structure in early March; the new NCG met on 11 March and a conference was held on 25 March, both in Birmingham. In 2020, the newly elected NCG began a process of ""refounding Momentum"". This was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic; however, the process of members re-writing the constitution was begun in 2021.


=== Membership ===

In 2015 – the year it was founded – Momentum had 60,000 supporters (who paid no fees) and 50 local groups. By September 2017, it had 31,000 members in 170 local groups and a staff of 15. In January 2018, the group had 35,000 members. By April of that year, Momentum had 40,000 members. According to the organisation, 95 per cent of its funding comes from membership fees and small donations; the average fee is £3 per year. In July 2018, it was reported that Momentum had 42,000 members: 92 per cent (38,700) in England, four per cent (2,000) in Wales, and three per cent (1,300) in Scotland. Its membership base has been seen as falling into two types: young activists who joined the Labour Party during (and after) Corbyn's first leadership election in 2015, and older, left-wing veterans of the Labour Party and the far left.
In 2021, it was reported by the i paper that Momentum had between 20,000 and 30,000 members and remains the largest campaign group connected to the Labour Party.


=== Relationship with other UK organisations ===
Momentum maintains close ties with the Centre-Left Grassroots Alliance, a coalition of left-wing groups in the Labour Party who nominate joint candidates for the National Executive Committee and other internal elected positions. In 2016, the Scottish left-wing Campaign for Socialism (CfS) formed a partnership with Momentum; although they remain separate organisations, they share membership and resources. CfS membership increased from 400 in 2015 to 1,418 by 2019.
The left-wing Welsh Labour Grassroots has similar links to Momentum.
A few trade unions which are affiliated to the Labour Party have also affiliated to Momentum, providing some financial support. This includes the Communication Workers Union, Transport Salaried Staffs' Association, Bakers, Food and Allied Workers' Union and the Fire Brigades Union. There has been regular speculation in the media that Unite the Union would affiliate to Momentum also, but the idea has been rejected by the union- they have however collaborated strategically.


=== National Coordinating Group ===
In the first election (in 2018), eight Members' Representatives were elected: four for London and the South East; two for the Midlands, the East, the West and Wales; two for the North, Scotland and International; and four public-office holders. Thirty-four per cent of the membership (7,500) voted. Additional elections were held in April of that year for four positions in each of the four regional coordinating offices, and over 13,000 votes (35 per cent of the eligible membership) were cast.
For the second NCG election, in 2020, Momentum's represented geographic regions expanded from four to five. Two slates were nominated for all the positions: Momentum Renewal and Forward Momentum. Both were endorsed by left-wing figures, journalists and politicians, and their ideology had some overlap. Sam Bright of Byline Times wrote, ""Both want to reform the democratic structures of the organisation; both want to see more devolution of powers to local groups; both want to defend the radical policies of the Corbyn era"". The Momentum Renewal slate emphasised community trade-union organisation. Forward Momentum intended to further democratise Momentum, advocating greater democracy in the Labour Party and the use of open primaries for internal elections. Forward Momentum candidates won in all regions except for public-office holders.
In 2022, the third election took place. Two slates of candidates have emerged from this election ""Your Momentum"" and ""Momentum Organisers"". The outcome of the election was that the Momentum Organisers slate won 15 seats, whilst Your Momentum won 14 seats. 3,380 votes were cast.
The group's present composition is:


== Background ==

Momentum was founded in 2015 by Jon Lansman and fellow national organisers Adam Klug, Emma Rees and James Schneider, four weeks after Jeremy Corbyn's successful campaign for the Labour Party leadership. Local groups formed to support Corbyn's leadership, uniting several factions of the left across Britain. Lansman was active in Tony Benn's 1981 deputy leadership bid and, after volunteering for Corbyn's leadership bid, had become the director of Jeremy Corbyn Campaign 2015 (Supporters) Ltd, which held the data collected during the campaign. In addition to their support of Corbyn, Momentum has three primary goals: to win elections for Labour, to create a socialist Labour government, and to help build a broader social movement. Corbyn was positive about Momentum after it was formed, saying in 2016: ""I see Momentum as a social movement. A movement that will campaign on all of these issues. But above all, excite and unite people to come together, to come together to challenge injustice, inequality and social exclusion. Bring people together to achieve things together. That is what is makes us [Labour] so different from every other political party in this country.""
When it was formed, Momentum wanted to focus on local and Labour Party issues. It was inspired by Syriza in Greece and Podemos in Spain, both of which used pragmatic, grassroots organising to counter the effects of fiscal austerity. The movement has also benefited from ideas by other campaigns operating on a left-wing or progressive platform, such as Bernie Sanders' campaigns to become a presidential candidate for the Democratic party in 2016 and 2020 and Beto O'Rourke's campaign to become a Democratic Senator in Texas.


=== International relationships ===
Momentum has formed ties with other political organisations across North America and Europe. They have collaborated with the Canadian Leap movement, the Young Socialists in the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Democratic Socialists of America in the United States and similar organisations in Greece. In 2018, Rees and Klug made a ten-week lecture tour of the United States to educate progressive activists and members of the National Nurses United union on political campaigning techniques and to advise Real Justice.


=== Early infiltration from the far left ===
Members of the Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP) had raised concerns that parties on the far left of British politics, including the Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition, Left Unity, the Socialist Workers Party (SWP), the Socialist Party and the Alliance for Workers' Liberty (AWL), might join Momentum to influence the Labour Party. Momentum was indeed mired by members of these groups and the disruption they caused in its organisation. An example was Jill Mountford, a longtime member of AWL who was accused of bullying with Momentum. The groups considered disbanding and supporting Momentum; in 2015, Left Unity members unsuccessfully proposed a merge with the organisation several times.
The movement has been compared to the Militant tendency, a Trotskyist group which was expelled by Labour under Neil Kinnock during the 1980s. Labour MP Owen Smith accused Momentum of using Militant-tendency tactics such as threatening to deselect Labour MPs, a concern echoed by former deputy Labour leader Roy Hattersley. Oliver Kamm of The Times wrote in October 2015, ""Like the Trotskyists of a generation ago Momentum is an entrist organisation that's parasitic on the Labour host. This time, though, the far left has managed to gain control of the party structures and is intent on making life tough for Labour MPs"". A Labour councillor in Liverpool in 2019 said about Momentum's presence in the city, ""I think Momentum in Liverpool is a mask for Militant. There are decent Momentum people and then there are the others who have their own agenda"".
Momentum and a number of political commentators characterise their supposed relationship with other groups as unfair, and in October 2015 the organisation said that it would resist such entryism. Author and journalist Michael Crick criticises the comparison to Militant, saying that ""the rise of Jeremy Corbyn can be attributed more to the phenomenon of 'Corbynmania' than to hard-left entrism"". Former Labour MP Peter Kilfoyle, the Merseyside Labour-leadership enforcer against Militant during the 1980s as the party's north-west regional organiser, also rejected the comparison and describing Momentum as filling the role on the left of the party as Progress did on the right. In December 2015, Labour deputy leader Tom Watson said on the Today programme: ""They look like a bit of a rabble to me, but I don't think they are a problem for the Labour Party"". James Schneider said in response to the accusation, ""The purpose of Momentum is not to have internal factional battles, it's to look outside"".


== Campaign history ==


=== Early years (2015–2017) ===
Momentum began a campaign known as Democracy SOS to address the Conservative-Liberal Democratic government's change to an Individual Electoral Registration system; the Electoral Commission had recommended that the program be implemented a year later than it was. The commission believed, based on 2015 records, that eight million people were eligible to vote but were not registered. 1.9 million registered voters were also removed by the change. Momentum utilized their network to campaign in towns and on university campuses to encourage voter registration.
In 2016, former Labour shadow chancellor John McDonnell praised Momentum for their work in the local elections that May. The organisation coordinated activists from Brighton and London to areas such as Hastings, Crawley and Harlow; activists in the North West were directed to West Lancashire.
Prior to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Momentum declared its support for the UK remaining in the European Union (EU).
After the 2017 Stoke-on-Trent Central and Copeland by-elections were called, Momentum mobilised its activist base to campaign for both. They introduced two technological applications: a phone-banking web application called Grassroots Now (used in Corbyn's 2015 and 2016 Labour-leadership election campaigns), and a carpooling web application to help out-of-town activists travel to campaign events. Stoke-on-Trent Labour Party candidate Gareth Snell won, and Labour candidate Gillian Troughton lost to her Conservative opponent in the traditional Labour stronghold of Copeland.


=== 2017 general election campaign and aftermath ===

In the run-up to the 8 June 2017 general election, Momentum worked to mobilise voters and encourage volunteers to canvass on behalf of Labour. Their campaign strategy was to target marginal seats (rather than defend safe ones); their MyNearestMarginal.com website enabled voters to search for campaign events in marginal constituencies closest to them, and voters could promise to volunteer on election day at ElectionDayPledge.com. Momentum worked with organisers from Bernie Sanders' 2016 presidential campaign to hold training sessions for volunteers which included persuasive-conversation training. Senior figures from Sanders' campaign included Erika Uyterhoeven (former national director for outer-state organising), Grayson Lookner, Jeremy Parkin and Kim McMurray.
Momentum had an effective social-media presence, and a number of their low-budget videos went viral. One example was ""Daddy, do you hate me?"", which was watched by 12.7 million Facebook users (more than one in three of the UK's Facebook users). By the end of the election campaign, Momentum videos had a total of 51 million views.
Membership in the organisation increased by 1,500 within four days of the general election, and by another 3,000 within two months of the election. Momentum's Facebook page had 23.7 million views, and its videos were watched by 12.7 million users. The organisation spent less than £2,000 on Facebook advertisements. In May 2017, Noam Chomsky said that the Labour Party's future of the party lay with the left and Momentum: ""The constituency of the Labour Party, the new participants, the Momentum group and so on, [...] if there is to be a serious future for the Labour Party that is where it is in my opinion"". On polling day, 10,000 Momentum activists knocked on an estimated 1.2 million doors in the UK.
Although Labour lost five seats to the Conservatives in the general election, the party gained 28 seats from the Tories, six from the Scottish National Party and two from the Lib Dems. Almost every constituency targeted by Momentum was won by Labour. Former Conservative Party director of communications Giles Kenningham said in July 2017, ""Labour have used Momentum to devastating effect"". Later that month, Conservative MP Michael Gove said: ""The Conservative Party can learn a lot from Momentum"". In August, it was announced that the Communication Workers Union would affiliate with Momentum after its executive committee voted unanimously to join the organisation. John McTernan, a former critic of the Labour left and Corbyn, joined Momentum that summer. Adam Klug resigned as Momentum national co-ordinator that summer after the snap general election, and national co-ordinator and co-founder Emma Rees resigned in October. Laura Parker, who resigned as Jeremy Corbyn's political secretary before the national conference, replaced Rees as national co-ordinator.
The Electoral Commission (EC) announced in March 2019 that Momentum had been fined £16,700 for multiple breaches of electoral law, including failing to accurately report donations during the general-election period. The fine for not submitting an accurate spending return was the largest imposed on a non-party campaign. Although the organisation was initially investigated by the EC for overspending, the commission found that this was not the case. Momentum national treasurer Puru Miah, a councilor in Tower Hamlets, said that ""we have put in place comprehensive systems so we can fully adhere to regulations"". An April 2020 Momentum report analysed their performance in the 2017 and 2019 general elections, saying that constituencies such as Broxtowe, Hendon, Morley and Outwood, Southampton Itchen, Pudsey, Thurrock and Harrow East could have been won with the enhanced ground support they had by 2019.


=== Unseat campaign and expansion into local government (2017–2019) ===
Momentum began their Unseat campaign after the 2017 general election with partners like Owen Jones, targeting constituencies where prominent Conservative MPs had a small majority and were susceptible to a Labour win at the next general election. Thousands of people attended Unseat events for seats held by Education Secretary Justine Greening (Putney), Department for Work and Pensions Secretary Iain Duncan Smith (Chingford and Woodford Green) and Prime Minister Boris Johnson (Uxbridge and South Ruislip). The campaign motivated Duncan Smith to contact local Conservative associations to organise activists to conduct counter-campaigns.
Because the Labour Party believed that another snap general election was likely, the party conducted its selection procedure to have a slate of parliamentary candidates in place for the 96 marginal constituencies; Momentum backed several of those candidates. By January 2019, over half of Momentum's 67 selections had become candidates. Momentum wanted the Labour manifesto to propose a four-day work week and a Green New Deal: mass state investment to address climate change.

Momentum established a candidate network providing support for new councillors and encouraging women to stand, giving them opportunities to discuss policy and training in successful Labour-controlled councils such as Salford and Preston. Momentum-backed selections in the 2018 local elections included Rokhsana Fiaz for Mayor of Newham, who was elected with an increased majority. The Trafford Labour Party leader cited Momentum as a key reason for Labour's gain of seats in the borough. Momentum-supported councillor Joseph Ejiofor became leader of Haringey London Borough Council after the elections in London.
In February 2019, after the resignation of nine Labour members of parliament (eight becoming members of the centrist Independent Group with former Conservatives), Momentum began to organise resources and activists to campaign for those seats, wanting public pressure from constituents to trigger by-elections. The organisation raised £15,000 in the hours after the split to fund the campaign. Momentum organized 100 activists on 19 March in Streatham (Chuka Umunna's constituency), with Owen Jones, Diane Abbott and Ash Sarkar speaking to activists at a rally.
In March 2019, Momentum began Bankrupt Climate Change: a protest campaign outside Barclays banks by 40 local groups. The campaign's objective was to raise awareness of Barclays' investments in fossil-fuel companies; the bank is reportedly Europe's largest financier (and the world's sixth-largest) of such companies.
During the 2019 local elections, Jamie Driscoll was selected as Labour candidate for the inaugural first North of Tyne mayoral election as a notable Momentum-backed choice. Driscoll won the election, with 56.1 per cent of the second-round vote. Brighton and Hove City Council, where Momentum backed 12 Labour candidates, and Sandwell Council were focal points for the organisation.


=== 2019 general election campaign ===

Following the announcement of the 12 December 2019 snap general election, Momentum called for a large mobilisation of Momentum and Labour members. The group increased their number of paid staff from 13 to 56 for the election campaign period. The group set a funding target of £50,000 in 48 hours, however exceeded this and raised £100,000 in 12 hours. Within six days of this funding drive Momentum have raised £255,000 from 10,000 individual donations, averaging at £26 per donation which came close to beating the amount raised during the entirety of the 2017 General election campaign. Within 10 days, the group reached over £300,000 from 11,000 donations. Parker commented on these funds saying the organisation will be able to ""scale up every aspect of our operation from the get-go, which will allow us to deliver a campaign like nothing this country has ever seen before.”
Momentum created different tools and initiatives to help activists to organise. Prior to the campaign in September Momentum created a website ""Univotes"" to help students strategically plan which constituency is better for them to vote in; as students can register at both their home address and student address. The student vote been cited by Momentum as why Labour won in Canterbury, Warwick and Leamington, Portsmouth South, Newcastle-under-Lyme and Lincoln in 2017. They created a website ""mycampaignmap.com""- as a successor to the 'My Nearest Marginal' website used for the 2017 election- which helps activists to coordinate their efforts in areas they are most needed. My Campaign Map was used to organise over 21,000 events for the election period, and had over 170,000 unique visitors.
Momentum created a new type of volunteers called ""Labour Legends"", who took time off from work and commit at least a full week of campaigning in their area, or to volunteer in other constituencies. In 10 days this initiative acquired over 1,000 people have signed up, providing 40,000 volunteer hours, and eventually rising to over 1,400 people getting involved, 500 of which were allocated to marginal seats. Momentum additionally encourages Labour party members abroad in Europe, The United States and Australia to register British expats to vote and to participate in phone banking from where they live. Momentum also created an online forum for the election, the Volunteer Slack, in which volunteers were able to assist with researching issues around the election, phonebanking, texting voters, or helping with video clips. The forum continued after the election and now exists as the ""Momentum Community"", with over 5,000 members as of August 2021.
The group developed their campaign strategy with three principles in mind, according to Emma Rees: people power, the targeting of marginal seats, and the idea of getting everybody to step up. This was done by following a decentralised model in which activists have both a clear understanding of the aims and taking on organisational roles. Momentum has created several opportunities for activists to get involved in other ways of promotion- these include “Let’s Go” teams who communicate on do phone banking using WhatsApp, volunteers who watch through interviews of Conservative and Liberal Democrat politicians to be used for videos and also people creating videos of themselves explaining why they are voting labour and posting them on social media to help engage with voters on all available platforms.
Momentum used social media advertising to encourage people to register to vote for the election. One of their adverts targeted Urdu speakers. The organising group controversially made a video for Twitter based on a Coca-Cola Christmas advert that circulates every year. They were asked to cease and desist by the Coca-Cola company and the advertisement was taken down. By the end of the election, their videos had a combined viewing of 106 million, double that of the last election.
In 2020, Momentum submitted a report to the Labour party's ""Labour Together Review"", which was a cross-factional analysis of the party's performance and strategy, making several recommendations on the tools and approach for future elections.


=== Labour leadership elections and socialist organising (2020–present) ===
Following their defeat in the 2019 general election, in which Labour lost 60 seats, Jeremy Corbyn and Momentum national coordinator Laura Parker resigned. The election loss led Corbyn to call a leadership election, coupled with the deputy leadership election, with the results of both elections announced in April 2020. On 14 January 2020, Momentum ran a two-day online consultation with their members about endorsing Rebecca Long-Bailey for leader and Angela Rayner for deputy leader. The consultation's closed format was controversial. Of the 7,395 members participating, 70 per cent supported Long-Bailey and 52 per cent supported Rayner. Momentum planned hundreds of phone-banking events to support Long-Bailey. Keir Starmer won the election in the first round (with Long-Bailey receiving 28 per cent of the vote), and Momentum failed to win any of the National Executive Committee by-elections. Momentum congratulated Starmer on his victory, and positioned themselves to work with the new leadership for ""transformational policies"". In May 2020, Momentum founder Jon Lansman announced that he would step down as chairman the following month.
Momentum has focused more on grassroots campaigning, since Starmer's election. In the face of a recession due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Momentum organised with ACORN and the London Renters' Union to organise renters to fight eviction and educate them about their tenancy rights. During the lockdown, it was believed that 220,000 private renters fell into arrears and an estimated 60,000 eviction notices were served. Momentum began encouraging their London members and supporters to join the London Renters' Union in May 2020, and the campaign was in full swing by September. To facilitate coordination, Momentum revamped their mycampaignmap website to display local groups, training and events.
In the run-up to the 2021 local elections, the London Labour Party changed its selection process for assembly members so party members select new candidates; four assembly members were not standing for re-election. This was believed to be an opportunity for Momentum, who gained influence in the regional party in the 2018 regional-conference elections to nominate candidates who would push Sadiq Khan's election manifesto to the left. In the member selections, only one Momentum-backed constituency candidate was chosen and the top four London-wide candidates were all from Momentum's slate. Subsequently, only Elly Baker and Sakina Sheikh were elected at the election in May 2021.
In March 2021, the organisation published their 2021–2024 strategy: ""Socialist Organising in a New Era"". Due to the expulsions of left-wing Labour Party members, Momentum provided legal support to those deemed unjust.


== Organising within the Labour Party ==


=== Reselection of MPs ===
Critics of Corbyn in the Parliamentary Labour Party have raised concerns that Momentum might encourage the deselection of MPs and councillors who disagree with the organisation, in a process known as reselection. The concern was amplified by prominent left-wing voices unaffiliated with Momentum. Momentum denied the accusation in 2015, saying: ""We will not campaign for the deselection of any MP and will not permit any local Momentum groups to do so. The selection of candidates is entirely a matter for local party members and rightly so"". The organization is supportive of open selections, however, in which all members (not just socialist societies and trade unions) have an equal influence on the selection process and are democratically accountable. 
In July 2018, Momentum national coordinator Laura Parker said that four Labour MPs who voted against an opposition amendment to the EU withdrawal bill should be deselected. At the Labour Party Conference that year, the organisation's reselection reforms were supported by Corbyn. In July 2019, Momentum announced they would support Labour and Momentum members who wanted to challenge sitting Labour MPs to encourage a younger, more working class and ethnically diverse pool of party representatives. Research indicates that candidates selected during this period were more likely to be aligned to the party's 'progressive' faction.


=== Labour Party democracy review (2017) ===
In 2017, the Labour Party began a democracy review which would give its membership greater voting capabilities. Momentum has advocated greater membership involvement in party decision-making and ""bolder reforms"", such as Labour members having a larger role in policy development. Momentum has pushed for lowering of the nomination threshold for Labour leadership candidates, so a left-wing successor to Corbyn could more easily contest a future election. Jon Lansman, however, called the proposed Labour reforms ""tinkering around the edges"".
Momentum tabled plans to update the selection of BAME Labour representatives, in which a one member, one vote election would replace a small-group decision. Under the Momentum plan, all Black or other-minority party members would automatically become part of BAME Labour and have a one-member, one-vote right to elect their NEC representative. BAME Labour would be an independent organisation, with its committee having direct access to its membership list and centrally-funded finances and the ability to independently organise its own campaigns and events.
Crucial votes about the democracy review took place during the 2017 Labour Party Conference in Brighton. Momentum launched M.app, a smartphone app to alert delegates to key votes on the conference floor and send real-time information about events and rallies. Although a compromise motion lowering the threshold for local party and union branches to express dissatisfaction with an MP's performance from 50 to 33 per cent passed, it was announced that the democracy review was being shelved.


=== Internal elections in the Labour Party ===
In the 2016 elections for the National Executive Committee, it emerged that Momentum, the Campaign for Labour Party Democracy and other leftist groups had formed a joint slate under the Centre-Left Grassroots Alliance (CLGA), and were backing six representatives for the NEC: Rhea Wolfson, former chair of the Oxford University Jewish Society who replaced Ken Livingstone; Christine Shawcroft, a senior Momentum figure who had been an NEC member for fifteen years and was briefly suspended from the party after defending Lutfur Rahman (gaining media attention for jocular comments about dialogue with ISIS instead of air strikes); Peter Willsman; Claudia Webbe; Ann Black, and Darren Williams. All six candidates were elected.
In 2017, Momentum and the Campaign for Socialism (their Scottish sister organisation) won five of the eight seats on the Scottish Labour executive committee. At that year's Labour conference, it was announced that the party would add three more member-elected positions on the NEC in response to a significant rise in membership. During the balloting period, Peter Willsman was removed from Momentum's list of recommended candidates after an allegation of antisemitism; Willsman had been recorded as describing some Jewish critics of Labour as ""Trump fanatics"". Three other Momentum-backed candidates were elected to the NEC: Jon Lansman, Yasmine Dar and Rachel Garnham.
In April 2020, Momentum nominated three candidates: two for casual vacancies, and one for a newly created BAME position. None of the candidates were successful, and the result was attributed to the failure of Momentum and other Labour left-wing factions to agree on a CLGA slate. The alliance agreed on a Grassroots Voice slate in July 2020: six candidates for nine Constituency Labour Party seats in the October election. Four hundred and fifty CLPs participated, the highest turnout in Labour history; forty-two per cent of the selection nominations went to the Grassroots Voice slate. Five out of six candidates were elected from the slate. As well as Momentum winning a majority of seats on Young Labour's National Executive.
In 2021, all four of Momentum's backed candidates for the newly created National Women's Committee were elected (Solma Ahmed, Ekua Bayunu, Tricia Duncan and Chloe Hopkins)- with the further two positions being other left-wing candidates from the CLGA; Momentum lost control of the London REC in a hastily organised conference; and three out of four of Momentum's backed candidates in Young Labour's new equalities roles were won In 2022, Momentum and Campaign for Socialism endorsed Coll McCail and Lauren Harper as youth reps on the Scottish Executive Committee.


== Other issues ==


=== Austerity ===

One of Momentum's primary objectives was to create an anti-austerity movement in the UK which was connected to the Labour Party. In particular, Momentum criticised George Osborne's proposal to cut tax credit payments for working families. In 2016, local Momentum groups began to collect and volunteer for food banks.


=== Antisemitism allegations ===
Since 2015, there have been a series of allegations of antisemitism against Labour Party members. Many past and current leading figures in Momentum were or are Jewish (or of Jewish ancestry), such as  Klug, Lansman, Schneider, Rhea Wolfson and Jackie Walker. Momentum accepts the existence of antisemitism in the party and acknowledges that action must be taken to combat this, although some members of the group have been accused of antisemitism themselves. Lansman attributed the antisemitism to ""conspiracy theorists"" in the party and the organisation, and Momentum has challenged the conspiracy theories with viral videos.
Walker, Momentum's vice-chair, was expelled from the Labour Party for behaviour related to antisemitism. Joshua Garfield, a Jewish youth officer in a London Momentum branch, resigned in April 2018 because antisemitism by branch members made him feel ""sometimes unsafe and certainly untrusted"". Garfield was a member (and, later, an officer) of the Jewish Labour Movement who appeared on a Panorama episode about antisemitism in the Labour Party. In the 2018 National Executive Committee elections, Momentum withdrew their support for Peter Willsman after an NEC meeting in which he described those ""lecturing"" the party about antisemitism as ""Trump fanatics"" who were ""making up duff information without any evidence at all"".
In early 2020, two Momentum-backed Labour councillors in Brighton were suspended pending an investigation after accusations of antisemitism; the Green Party then led the minority administration.
In response to Jeremy Corbyn's suspension from the Labour Party after the antisemitism report, Momentum and other left-wing groups passed motions of solidarity with him; some of the motions indicated a vote of no confidence in leader Starmer and general secretary David Evans. This led to 50 suspensions, including seven from the Momentum-affiliated Welsh Labour Grassroots.


=== Brexit ===
Momentum supported remain in the 2016 UK EU referendum.
Following the 2016 UK EU referendum, Momentum declined to take a formal position in the Brexit debate and supported the Labour Party position. Several Momentum members have supported a second referendum, however, with remaining and the government's deal as options. The People's Vote advocacy group, which included trade-union leaders and former Momentum members, was launched in April 2018. The group's launch statement was signed by TSSA union general secretary Manuel Cortes, economist Ann Pettifor, former Momentum steering group member Michael Chessum and former CWU general secretary Billy Hayes. A November 2018 poll of Momentum members found that a majority supported a second referendum. The left-wing, pro-European pressure group Another Europe Is Possible contains Momentum members such as former steering-committee member Michael Chessum. In March 2019, 188 Momentum activists sent an open letter to Jon Lansman supporting a second referendum.


=== Civil rights ===
In 2021 and 2022 Momentum organised politically against the Covert Human Intelligence Act and the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Bill (PCSC) by building connections between socialist MPs and social movements and supporting demonstrations and lobbying. In March 2021, then Momentum co-chairs Andrew and Gaya signed a Greenpeace open letter alongside other social movements opposing the PCSC Bill.


=== Immigration and refuge in the UK ===
Momentum has been supportive of refugees attempting to claim asylum in the United Kingdom. In August 2020, the organisation criticised Labour leader Keir Starmer's lack of support for those crossing the English Channel to claim asylum in the UK. Their condemnation was coordinated with Open Labour and the Labour Campaign for Free Movement.


=== 2015 Syria airstrikes ===
Momentum called for its membership to lobby Labour MPs ""to support Corbyn, not Cameron, over Syria"" on Twitter, linking to the Stop the War Coalition's Don't Bomb Syria campaign which opposed the Conservative government's proposal to extend its bombing sorties against Daesh (also known as ISIS) from Daesh-held territory in Iraq to Daesh-held territory in Syria. Corbyn had argued that Cameron's government lacked a credible plan for defeating Daesh, and the bombing in Syria would not increase the United Kingdom's national security; he has also said that military action should always be a last resort. Some Labour MPs criticised Momentum's move to lobby on party-political grounds before the Labour Party's position on military action had been decided; Gavin Shuker asked, ""Who decided this was your position on Syria, and to lobby MPs in this way?""


=== 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine ===
In February 2022, Russia initiated a full-scale invasion of Ukraine and a week prior to the invasion 11 current Labour MPs belonging to the party's left and two independent MPs signed an open letter from the Stop the War Coalition condemning NATO and the UK government for increasing tensions prior to the event. The Labour leadership under Keir Starmer threatened the MPs with expulsion and they rescinded their support. Momentum then condemned the party leadership for using the war, in their opinion, as a tool for punishing the left.


== The World Transformed ==

In 2016, Momentum began The World Transformed (TWT): an annual four-day festival at the same time as the Labour Party conference which features art, music, culture and political discussions. Although Momentum originally organised the festival, it became an independent entity with close ties to the group. In 2020, the festival became online-only and spread across a month in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and returned to a physical festival in 2021, with additional online access.
The festival has featured several international politicians present in different talks, such as: 2017 French presidential candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon, leader of the German Die Linke party Katja Kipping and leader of the Tanzanian Alliance for Change and Transparency party Zitto Kabwe (in 2018), US Democratic Congresswomen Ilhan Omar (in 2020), and US Independent Senator Bernie Sanders (in 2021)
After the 2018 World Transformed event, local one- and multi-day festivals not organised by Momentum or TWT began to emerge.


== See also ==

List of organisations associated with the Labour Party (UK)
Militant tendency, a socialist organisation that was associated with the Labour Party, disbanded in 1991
Socialist Campaign Group, MP grouping containing most Momentum supporting MPs
Tribune
Novara Media


== References ==
Notes

Citations


== External links ==

Official website"
Syd Barrett,"Roger Keith ""Syd"" Barrett (6 January 1946 – 7 July 2006) was an English singer, guitarist and songwriter who co-founded the rock band Pink Floyd in 1965. Until his departure in 1968, he was Pink Floyd's frontman and primary songwriter, known for his whimsical style of psychedelia and stream-of-consciousness writing. As a guitarist, he was influential for his free-form playing and for employing effects such as dissonance, distortion, echo and feedback.
Trained as a painter, Barrett was musically active for just over ten years. With Pink Floyd, he recorded the first three singles, their debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967), part of their second album A Saucerful of Secrets (1968), and several songs that were not released until years later. In April 1968, Barrett left the band amid speculation of mental illness and his use of psychedelic drugs. He began a brief solo career in 1969 with the single ""Octopus"", followed by albums The Madcap Laughs (1970) and Barrett (1970), recorded with the help of Pink Floyd and the Soft Machine.
In 1974, Barrett left the music industry, retired from public life and guarded his privacy until his death. He continued painting and dedicated himself to gardening. Pink Floyd recorded several tributes and homages to him, including the 1975 song suite ""Shine On You Crazy Diamond"" and parts of the 1979 rock opera The Wall. In 1988, EMI released an album of unreleased tracks and outtakes, Opel, with Barrett's approval. In 1996, Barrett was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd. He died of pancreatic cancer in 2006.


== Early life ==
Roger Keith Barrett was born on 6 January 1946 in Cambridge as the fourth of five children to a middle-class family living at 60 Glisson Road. His father, Arthur Max Barrett, was a prominent pathologist and was said to be related to Elizabeth Garrett Anderson through Max's maternal grandmother Ellen Garrett. In 1951, his family moved to 183 Hills Road, Cambridge.
Barrett played piano occasionally but usually preferred writing and drawing. He bought a ukulele aged 10, a banjo at 11 and a Höfner acoustic guitar at 14. Initially playing acoustic guitar, he later purchased a Selmer Futurama III, electric. He was a Scout with the 7th Cambridge troop and went on to be a patrol leader.
Barrett reportedly used the nickname Syd from the age of 14, derived from the name of an old Cambridge jazz bassist, Sid ""the Beat"" Barrett; Barrett changed the spelling to differentiate himself. By another account, when Barrett was 13, his schoolmates nicknamed him Syd after he came to a field day at Abington Scout site wearing a flat cap instead of his scout beret, because ""Syd"" was a ""working-class"" name. He used both names interchangeably for several years. His sister Rosemary said: ""He was never Syd at home. He would never have allowed it.""
At one point at Morley Memorial Junior School, Barrett was taught by the mother of his future Pink Floyd bandmate Roger Waters. Later, in 1957, he attended Cambridgeshire High School for Boys with Waters. His father died of cancer on 11 December 1961, less than a month before Barrett's 16th birthday. On this date, Barrett left the entry in his diary blank. By this time, his siblings had left home and his mother rented out rooms to lodgers.
Eager to help her son recover from his grief, Barrett's mother encouraged the band in which he played, Geoff Mott and the Mottoes, a band which Barrett formed, to perform in their front room. Waters and Barrett were childhood friends, and Waters often visited such gigs. At one point, Waters organised a gig, a CND benefit at Friends Meeting House on 11 March 1962, but shortly afterwards Geoff Mott joined the Boston Crabs, and the Mottoes broke up.
In September 1962, Barrett took a place at the art department of the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, where he met future Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour. In late 1962 and early 1963, the Beatles made an impact on Barrett, and he began to play Beatles songs at parties and at picnics. In 1963, he became a Rolling Stones fan and attended a performance at a village hall in Cambridgeshire. He said Bo Diddley was his greatest influence.
At this point, Barrett started writing songs. One friend recalled hearing ""Effervescing Elephant"", which he later recorded for his solo album Barrett. Also around this time, Barrett and Gilmour occasionally played acoustic gigs together. Barrett referred to Gilmour as ""Fred"" in letters to girlfriends and relatives. Barrett had played bass guitar with Those Without in mid-1963 and bass and guitar with the Hollerin' Blues the next year. In 1964, Barrett and Gausden saw Bob Dylan perform. After this performance, Barrett was inspired to write ""Bob Dylan Blues"". Barrett, now thinking about his future decided to apply for Camberwell College of Arts in London. He enrolled in the college in mid-1964 to study painting.


== Career ==


=== Pink Floyd (1965–1968) ===

Starting in 1964, the band that would become Pink Floyd evolved through various line-up and name changes including the Abdabs, the Screaming Abdabs, Sigma 6 and the Meggadeaths. Barrett joined them in 1965 when they were called the Tea Set (sometimes spelled T-Set) When they played with another band of the same name, Barrett came up with the name the Pink Floyd Sound (also known as the Pink Floyd Blues Band, later the Pink Floyd). 
In 1965, Barrett had his first LSD trip in the garden of his friend Dave Gale, with Ian Moore and the future Pink Floyd cover artist Storm Thorgerson. During one trip, Barrett and another friend, Paul Charrier, ended up naked in the bath, reciting: ""No rules, no rules"". As a result of the continued drug use, the band became absorbed in Sant Mat, a Sikh sect. Thorgerson (then living on Earlham Street) and Barrett went to a London hotel to meet the sect's guru. Thorgerson joined the sect, but Barrett was deemed too young. Thorgerson saw this as a deeply important event in Barrett's life, as he was upset by the rejection. While living near his friends, Barrett wrote more songs, including ""Bike"".
While Pink Floyd began by playing cover versions of American R&B songs, by 1966 they had carved out their own style of improvised rock and roll, which drew as much from improvised jazz. After the guitarist Bob Klose departed, the band's direction changed. However, the change was not instantaneous, with more improvising on the guitars and keyboards. The drummer, Nick Mason, said most of the band's ideas came from Barrett.

Around this time, Barrett wrote most of the songs for Pink Floyd's first album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967), and songs that later appeared on his solo albums. His reading reputedly included Grimm's Fairy Tales, Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and The I-Ching. In 1966, Pink Floyd became a popular group in the London underground psychedelic music scene. By the end of the year, Pink Floyd had gained a reliable management team in Andrew King and Peter Jenner. In October, they booked a session at Thompson Private Recording Studio, in Hemel Hempstead, for Pink Floyd to record demos. King said of the demos: ""That was the first time I realised they were going to write all their own material; Syd just turned into a songwriter, it seemed like overnight.""

Barrett wrote the group's first single, ""Arnold Layne"" about a man stealing clothes from washing lines. Shortly afterwards, Pink Floyd signed a record deal with EMI. They recorded the album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, intermittently between February and July 1967 in Studio 3 at Abbey Road Studios (then called EMI Recording Studios), and produced by the former Beatles engineer Norman Smith. Of the eleven songs Barrett wrote eight and co-wrote another two. The album reached number six on the British album charts.


==== Health problems ====
Through late 1967 and early 1968, Barrett became increasingly erratic, partly due to his heavy use of psychedelic drugs such as LSD. He developed a blank, dead-eyed stare. Barrett did not recognise friends, and he often did not know where he was. While Pink Floyd were recording ""See Emily Play"" at the Sound Techniques studio, Gilmour stopped by on his return visit from Europe to say hello to Barrett. According to Gilmour, he ""just looked straight through me, barely acknowledged me that I was there"". The record producer Joe Boyd described encountering Barrett at the UFO Club in mid-1967: ""His sparkling eyes had always been his most attractive feature but that night they were vacant, as if someone had reached inside his head and turned off a switch. During their set he hardly sang, standing motionless for long passages, arms by his sides, staring into space."" On a tour of Los Angeles, Barrett is said to have exclaimed, ""Gee, it sure is nice to be in Las Vegas!"" Many reports described him on stage, strumming one chord through the entire concert, or not playing at all. At a show in Santa Monica, Barrett slowly detuned his guitar.
Interviewed on the Pat Boone in Hollywood television programme during the tour, Barrett replied with a ""blank and totally mute stare"". According to Mason, ""Syd wasn't into moving his lips that day."" Barrett exhibited similar behaviour during the band's first appearance on Dick Clark's television show American Bandstand. Surviving footage of this appearance shows Barrett miming his parts competently; however, during a group interview afterwards, Barrett gave terse answers. During their appearance on the Perry Como show, Wright had to mime all the vocals on ""Matilda Mother"" because of Barrett's condition. Barrett would often forget to bring his guitar to sessions, damage equipment and was occasionally unable to hold the plectrum. 
Barrett made his last recordings with Pink Floyd in October, for the single ""Apples and Oranges"". He said the song was ""about a girl whom I just saw walking around Richmond"". By this time, he was having difficulty writing hit material for the group. Before a performance in late 1967, Barrett reportedly crushed Mandrax tranquilliser tablets and a tube of Brylcreem into his hair, which melted down his face under the heat of the stage lighting, making him look like ""a guttered candle"". Mason disputed the Mandrax portion of this story, saying that ""Syd would never waste good mandies"". During Pink Floyd's UK tour with Jimi Hendrix in November, the guitarist David O'List of the Nice, who were fifth on the bill, substituted for Barrett on several occasions when he was unable to perform or failed to appear.


==== Departure from Pink Floyd ====
Around Christmas 1967, Pink Floyd asked Gilmour to join as a second guitarist to cover for Barrett. For a handful of shows, Gilmour played and sang while Barrett wandered around on stage, occasionally joining the performance. The other band members grew tired of Barrett's behaviour. On 26 January 1968, when Waters was driving on the way to a show at Southampton University, they elected not to pick him up. One person said, ""Shall we pick Syd up?"" and another said, ""Let's not bother."" As Barrett had written the bulk of the band's material, the plan was to retain him as a non-touring member, as the Beach Boys had done with Brian Wilson, but this proved impractical.
According to Waters, Barrett came to what was to be their last practice session with a new song he had dubbed ""Have You Got It Yet?"". The song seemed simple when he first presented it, but it soon became impossible to learn. The band eventually realised that Barrett was changing the arrangement as they played, and that Barrett was playing a joke on them. According to Gilmour, ""Some parts of his brain were perfectly intact—his sense of humour being one of them."" Waters called it ""a real act of mad genius"".
Of the songs Barrett wrote for Pink Floyd after The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, only ""Jugband Blues"" was included on their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets (1968). ""Apples and Oranges"" became an unsuccessful single, while ""Scream Thy Last Scream"", ""Vegetable Man"" and the instrumental ""In the Beechwoods"" remained unreleased until 2016. Barrett played guitar on the Saucerful of Secrets tracks ""Remember a Day"" and ""Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"".
Barrett spent time outside the recording studio, in the reception area, waiting to be invited in. He also came to a few performances and glared at Gilmour. On 6 April 1968, Pink Floyd announced that Barrett was no longer a member, the same day their contract with Blackhill Enterprises was terminated. Considering him the band's musical leader, Blackhill Enterprises retained Barrett.


=== Solo years (1968–1972) ===
After leaving Pink Floyd, Barrett was out of the public eye for a year. In 1969, at the behest of EMI and Harvest Records, he embarked on a brief solo career, releasing two solo albums, The Madcap Laughs and Barrett (both 1970), and a single, ""Octopus"". Some songs, ""Terrapin"", ""Maisie"" and ""Bob Dylan Blues"", reflected Barrett's early interest in the blues.


==== The Madcap Laughs (1970) ====

After Barrett left Pink Floyd, Jenner quit as their manager. He led Barrett into EMI Studios to record tracks in May that were released on Barrett's first solo album, The Madcap Laughs. However, Jenner said: ""I had seriously underestimated the difficulties of working with him."" By the sessions of June and July, most of the tracks were in better shape; however, shortly after the July sessions, Barrett broke up with his girlfriend Lindsay Corner and went on a drive around Britain, ending up in psychiatric care in Cambridge. During New Year 1969, Barrett—somewhat recovered—had taken up tenancy in a flat on Egerton Gardens, South Kensington, London, with the postmodernist artist Duggie Fields. Barrett's flat was so close to Gilmour's that Gilmour could look right into Barrett's kitchen.

Deciding to return to music, Barrett contacted EMI and was passed to Malcolm Jones, the head of EMI's new prog rock label, Harvest. After Norman Smith and Jenner declined to produce Barrett's record, Jones produced it. Barrett wanted to recover the recordings made with Jenner; several of the tracks were improved upon. The sessions with Jones started in April 1969 at EMI Studios. After the first, Barrett brought in friends to help: the Humble Pie drummer Jerry Shirley, and Willie Wilson, the drummer of Gilmour's old band Jokers Wild. For the sessions, Gilmour played bass. Jones said that communicating with Barrett was difficult: ""It was a case of following him, not playing with him. They were seeing and then playing so they were always a note behind.""  A few tracks on the album feature overdubs by members of Soft Machine.  During this time, Barrett also played guitar on the sessions for the Soft Machine founder Kevin Ayers' debut LP Joy of a Toy, although his performance on ""Religious Experience"", later titled ""Singing a Song in the Morning"", was not released until the album was reissued in 2003. 
At one point, Barrett told his flatmate that he was going for an afternoon drive, but followed Pink Floyd to Ibiza; according to legend, he skipped check-ins and customs, ran onto the runway and attempted to flag down a jet. One of his friends, J. Ryan Eaves, the bass player for the short-lived but influential Manchester band York's Ensemble, spotted him on a beach wearing dirty clothes and with a carrier bag full of money. During the trip, Barrett asked Gilmour for help in the recording sessions.
After two of the Gilmour/Waters-produced sessions, they remade one track from the Soft Machine overdubs and recorded three tracks. These sessions came to a minor halt when Gilmour and Waters were mixing Pink Floyd's newly recorded album, Ummagumma. However, through the end of July, they managed to record three more tracks. The problem with the recording was that the songs were recorded as Barrett played them ""live"" in studio. On the released versions a number of them have false starts and commentaries from Barrett. Despite the track being closer to complete and better produced, Gilmour and Waters left the Jones-produced track ""Opel"" off Madcap.
Upon the album's release in January 1970, Jones was shocked by the substandard musicianship on the songs produced by Gilmour and Waters. Gilmour said: ""Perhaps we were trying to show what Syd was really like. But perhaps we were trying to punish him."" Waters was more positive: ""Syd is a genius."" Barrett said: ""It's quite nice but I'd be very surprised if it did anything if I were to drop dead. I don't think it would stand as my last statement.""


==== Barrett (1970) ====

The second album, Barrett, was recorded more sporadically, the sessions taking place between February and July 1970. The album was produced by Gilmour, and featured Gilmour on bass guitar, Richard Wright on keyboard and Humble Pie drummer Jerry Shirley. The first two songs attempted were for Barrett to play and/or sing to an existing backing track. However, Gilmour thought they were losing the ""Barrett-ness"". One track (""Rats"") was originally recorded with Barrett on his own. That would later be overdubbed by musicians, despite the changing tempos. Shirley said of Barrett's playing: ""He would never play the same tune twice. Sometimes Syd couldn't play anything that made sense; other times what he'd play was absolute magic."" At one session, Barrett said, ""Perhaps we could make the middle darker and maybe the end a bit middle afternoonish. At the moment it's too windy and icy."" Wright said the Barrett sessions were simply a way of helping Barrett in any way possible, rather than worrying about particular sounds or production.
These sessions were happening while Pink Floyd had just begun to work on Atom Heart Mother. On various occasions, Barrett went to ""spy"" on the band as they recorded their album.


==== Performances ====
Despite the numerous recording dates for his solo albums, Barrett undertook very little musical activity between 1968 and 1972 outside the studio. On 24 February 1970, he appeared on John Peel's BBC radio programme Top Gear playing five songs—only one of which had been previously released. Three would be re-recorded for the Barrett album, while the song ""Two of a Kind"" (written by Richard Wright) was a one-off performance. Regarding ""Two of a Kind"", David Gilmour stated that Wright wrote the song but an increasingly confused Barrett insisted it was his own composition (and wanted to include it on The Madcap Laughs). Barrett was accompanied on this session by Gilmour and Shirley who played bass and percussion, respectively. These five songs were originally released on Syd Barrett: The Peel Session.
 The gig took place on 6 June 1970 at the Olympia Exhibition Hall as part of a Music and Fashion Festival. The trio performed four songs, ""Terrapin"", ""Gigolo Aunt"", ""Effervescing Elephant"" and ""Octopus"". Poor mixing left the vocals barely audible until part-way through the last number. At the end of the fourth song, Barrett unexpectedly but politely put down his guitar and walked off the stage. The performance has been bootlegged. Barrett made one last appearance on BBC Radio, recording three songs at their studios on 16 February 1971. All three came from the Barrett album. After this session, he took a hiatus from his music career that lasted more than a year, although in an extensive interview with Mick Rock and Rolling Stone in December, he discussed himself at length, showed off his new 12-string guitar, talked about touring with Jimi Hendrix and stated that he was frustrated in terms of his musical work because of his inability to find anyone good to play with.


=== Later years (1972–2006) ===


==== Stars and final recordings ====

In February 1972, after a few guest spots in Cambridge with ex-Pink Fairies member Twink on drums and Jack Monck on bass using the name The Last Minute Put Together Boogie Band (backing visiting blues musician Eddie ""Guitar"" Burns and also featuring Henry Cow guitarist Fred Frith), the trio formed a short-lived band called Stars.Though they were initially well received at gigs in the Dandelion coffee bar and the town's Market Square, one of their gigs at the Corn Exchange in Cambridge with MC5 proved to be disastrous. Twink recalled that, a few days after this show, Barrett stopped him on the street, showed him a scathing review of the gig they had played, and quit on the spot.
Free from his EMI contract on 9 May 1972, Barrett signed a document that ended his association with Pink Floyd, and any financial interest in future recordings. He attended an informal jazz and poetry performance by Pete Brown and former Cream bassist Jack Bruce in October 1973. Brown arrived at the show late, and saw that Bruce was already onstage, along with ""a guitarist I vaguely recognised"", playing the Horace Silver tune ""Doodlin'"". Later in the show, Brown read out a poem, which he dedicated to Syd, because, ""he's here in Cambridge, and he's one of the best songwriters in the country"" when, to his surprise, the guitar player from earlier in the show stood up and said, ""No, I'm not"". 
By the end of 1973, Barrett had returned to live in London, staying at various hotels and, in December of that year, settling in at Chelsea Cloisters. He had little contact with others, apart from his regular visits to his management's offices to collect his royalties, and occasional family visits.
In August 1974, Jenner persuaded Barrett to return to Abbey Road Studios in hope of recording another album. According to John Leckie, who engineered these sessions, even at this point Syd still ""looked like he did when he was younger ... long haired"". The sessions lasted three days and consisted of blues rhythm tracks with tentative and disjointed guitar overdubs. Barrett recorded eleven tracks, the only one of which to be titled was ""If You Go, Don't Be Slow"". Once again, Barrett withdrew from the music industry, but this time for good. He sold the rights to his solo albums back to the record label and moved into a London hotel. During this period, several attempts to employ him as a record producer (including one by Jamie Reid on behalf of the Sex Pistols, and another by The Damned, who wanted him to produce their second album) were fruitless.


==== Wish You Were Here sessions ====

On 5 June 1975, Barrett visited the members of Pink Floyd in during the final stages of recording their ninth album, Wish You Were Here. He attended the Abbey Road session unannounced, and watched the band working on the final mix of ""Shine On You Crazy Diamond""—a song about him. Barrett, then 29, was overweight and had shaved off all of his hair (including his eyebrows), and his former bandmates did not initially recognise him. Barrett spent part of the session brushing his teeth. Waters asked him what he thought of the song to which Barrett responded ""sounds a bit old"". He is reported to have briefly attended the reception for Gilmour's wedding to Ginger that immediately followed the recording sessions, but Gilmour said he had no recollection of this. It was the last time any member of the group ever saw him.


==== Withdrawal to Cambridge ====
In 1978, when Barrett's money ran out, he moved back to Cambridge to live with his mother. He returned to live in London for a few weeks in 1982, but soon returned to Cambridge permanently. Barrett walked the 50 miles (80 km) from London to Cambridge. Until his death, he received royalties from his work with Pink Floyd; Gilmour said, ""I made sure the money got to him."" In 1996 Barrett was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd, but did not attend the ceremony.
According to the biographer and journalist Tim Willis, Barrett, who had reverted to using his birth name Roger, continued to live in his late mother's semi-detached home, and returned to painting, creating large abstract canvases. He was also an avid gardener. His main point of contact with the outside world was his sister, Rosemary, who lived nearby. He was reclusive, and his physical health declined, as he had stomach ulcers and type 2 diabetes.
Although Barrett had not appeared or spoken in public since the mid-1970s, reporters and fans travelled to Cambridge seeking him, despite public appeals from his family to stop. In 1988 a reporter from the News of the World tracked down Barrett and declared him ""a hopeless case"". Apparently, Barrett did not like being reminded about his musical career and the other members of Pink Floyd had no direct contact with him. According to The Observer, he visited his sister's house in November 2001 to watch the BBC Omnibus documentary about him, said it was ""a bit noisy"", enjoyed seeing Mike Leonard again (calling him his ""teacher""), and enjoyed hearing ""See Emily Play"". 
Barrett made a final public acknowledgement of his musical past in 2002, his first since the 1970s, when he autographed 320 copies of Psychedelic Renegades, a book by the photographer Mick Rock which contained a number of photos of Barrett. Rock had conducted Barrett's final interview in 1971 before his retirement from the music industry, and Barrett visited Rock in London several times for tea and conversation in 1978. They had not spoken in more than 20 years when Rock approached Barrett to autograph his book, and Barrett uncharacteristically agreed. Having reverted to his birth name, he autographed the book ""Barrett"".


== Death and tributes ==
Barrett died at home in Cambridge on 7 July 2006 aged 60, from pancreatic cancer. His death was reported five days later. He was cremated at a funeral at Cambridge Crematorium on 18 July 2006; no Pink Floyd members attended. In a statement, Wright said: ""The band are very naturally upset and sad to hear of Syd Barrett's death. Syd was the guiding light of the early band lineup and leaves a legacy which continues to inspire."" Gilmour said: ""Do find time to play some of Syd's songs and to remember him as the madcap genius who made us all smile with his wonderfully eccentric songs about bikes, gnomes, and scarecrows. His career was painfully short, yet he touched more people than he could ever know.""
NME produced a tribute issue to Barrett a week later with a photo of him on the cover. In an interview with The Sunday Times, Barrett's sister, Rosemary Breen, said that he had written an unpublished book about the history of art. According to local newspapers, Barrett left approximately £1.7 million to his four siblings, largely acquired from royalties from Pink Floyd compilations and live recordings featuring Barrett's songs. A tribute concert, ""Madcap's Last Laugh"", was held at the Barbican Centre, London, on 10 May 2007 with Barrett's bandmates and Robyn Hitchcock, Captain Sensible, Damon Albarn, Chrissie Hynde and Kevin Ayers. Gilmour, Wright and Mason performed the Barrett compositions ""Bike"" and ""Arnold Layne"", and Waters performed a solo version of his song ""Flickering Flame"".
In 2006, Barrett's home in St. Margaret's Square, Cambridge, was put on the market and attracted considerable interest. After over 100 showings, many to fans, it was sold to a French couple who knew nothing about Barrett. On 28 November 2006, Barrett's other possessions were sold at an auction at Cheffins auction house in Cambridge, raising £120,000 for charity. Items sold included paintings, scrapbooks and everyday items that Barrett had decorated.
A series of events called The City Wakes was held in Cambridge in October 2008 to celebrate Barrett's life, art, and music. Breen supported this, the first series of official events in memory of her brother. After the festival's success, arts charity Escape Artists announced plans to create a centre in Cambridge, using art to help people with mental health problems. A memorial bench was placed in the Botanic Gardens in Cambridge and a more prominent tribute was planned in the city.


== Legacy ==


=== Compilations ===
In 1988, EMI Records (after constant pressure from Malcolm Jones) made an album of Barrett's studio out-takes and unreleased material recorded from 1968 to 1970 under the title Opel. The disc was originally set to include the unreleased Barrett Pink Floyd songs ""Scream Thy Last Scream"" and ""Vegetable Man"", which had been remixed for the album by Jones, but the band pulled the two songs before Opel was finalised. 
In 1993, EMI issued Crazy Diamond, a boxed set of all three albums, each with further out-takes from his solo sessions that illustrated Barrett's inability or refusal to play a song the same way twice. EMI also released The Best of Syd Barrett: Wouldn't You Miss Me? in the UK on 16 April 2001 and in the US on 11 September 2001. It was the first official release of his song ""Bob Dylan Blues"", taken from a demo tape that Gilmour had kept after an early 1970s session.  The tape also contains the unreleased ""Living Alone"" from the Barrett sessions. In October 2010, Harvest/EMI and Capitol Records released An Introduction to Syd Barrett, a collection of his Pink Floyd and remastered solo work. The 2010 compilation An Introduction to Syd Barrett includes the downloadable bonus track ""Rhamadan"", a 20-minute track recorded at one of Syd's earliest solo sessions, in May 1968. In 2011, it was announced that a vinyl double album version would be issued for Record Store Day.
Bootleg editions of Barrett's live and solo material exist. For years the ""off air"" recordings of the BBC sessions with Barrett's Pink Floyd circulated, until an engineer who had taken a tape of the early Pink Floyd gave it back to the BBC, which played it during a tribute to John Peel on their website. During this tribute, the first Peel programme (Top Gear) was aired in its entirety. It  featured the 1967 live versions of ""Flaming"", ""Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun"", and a brief 90-second snippet of the instrumental ""Reaction in G"". In 2012, the engineer Andy Jackson said he had found a number of tapes in Mason's possession, containing versions of R&B songs that Pink Floyd played in their early years.


=== Creative impact ===

Barrett wrote most of Pink Floyd's early material, and their producer, Norman Smith compared him favourably with John Lennon in his memoir: ""Syd Barrett could write like John. I've said it before. He wasn't quite as good as John, and I am talking about a Syd on top form with 'See Emily Play'. But he would have developed. Definitely! In time he would have got even better."" Jimmy Page never saw Barrett play with the Floyd, but was a fan of the early group's music, telling an interviewer, ""Syd Barrett's writing with the early Pink Floyd was inspirational. Nothing sounded like Barrett before Pink Floyd's first album. There were so many ideas and so many positive statements. You can really feel the genius there, and it was tragic that he fell apart. Both he and Jimi Hendrix had a futuristic vision in a sense."" According to critic Steven Hyden, even after Barrett left the band, Barrett's spirit ""haunted"" their records, and their most popular work ""drew on the power of what Barrett signified"".
Barrett was an innovative guitarist, using extended techniques and exploring the musical and sonic possibilities of dissonance, distortion, feedback, the echo machine, tapes and other effects; his experimentation was partly inspired by free improvisation guitarist Keith Rowe of the group AMM, active at the time in London. Rowe would lay the guitar flat on a table and, among other things, would run ball bearings, metal rulers, coins, or knives along the strings. AMM and Pink Floyd played several gigs together from early 1966 to early 1967, and Barrett even attended the recording session for the group's debut album, ""AMMMusic"", in June 1966. One of Barrett's trademarks was playing his guitar through an old echo box while sliding a Zippo lighter up and down the fret-board. Barrett used Binson delay units to achieve his trademark echo sounds.
Barrett's vocal recordings both with Pink Floyd and in later solo albums were delivered in his southern English accent. He was described by Guardian writer Nick Kent as having a ""quintessential English style of vocal projection"". David Bowie said that Barrett, along with Anthony Newley, was the first person he had heard sing rock or pop music with a British accent.
Barrett's free-form sequences of ""sonic carpets"" pioneered a new way to play the rock guitar. He played several different guitars during his tenure, including an old Harmony hollowbody electric, a Harmony acoustic, a Fender acoustic, a single-coil Danelectro 59 DC, several different Fender Telecasters and a white Fender Stratocaster in late 1967. A silver Fender Esquire with mirrored discs glued to the body was the guitar he was most often associated with and the guitar he ""felt most close to"". The mirrored Esquire was traded for a black Telecaster Custom, in 1968. Its whereabouts are currently unknown.


=== Influence ===
Many artists have acknowledged Barrett's influence on their work. Paul McCartney, Pete Townshend, Blur, Kevin Ayers, Gong, Marc Bolan, Tangerine Dream, Genesis P-Orridge, Julian Cope, Pere Ubu, Jeff Mangum, The Olivia Tremor Control, The Flaming Lips, Animal Collective, John Maus, Paul Weller, Roger Miller, East Bay Ray and David Bowie were inspired by Barrett; the Sex Pistols, and The Damned all expressed interest in working with him at some point during the 1970s. Bowie recorded a cover of ""See Emily Play"" on his 1973 album Pin Ups. The track ""Grass"", from XTC's album Skylarking was influenced when Andy Partridge let fellow band member Colin Moulding borrow his Barrett records. Robyn Hitchcock's career was dedicated to being Barrett-esque; he even played ""Dominoes"" for the 2001 BBC documentary The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story.
Barrett also had an influence on alternative and punk music in general. According to critic John Harris:

To understand his place in modern music you probably have to first go back to punk rock and its misguided attempt to kick aside what remained of the psychedelic 1960s. Given that the Clash and Sex Pistols had made brutal social commentary obligatory, there seemed little room for any of the creative exotica that had defined the Love Decade—until, slowly but surely, singing about dead-end lives and dole queues began to pall, and at least some of the previous generation were rehabilitated. Barrett was the best example: having crashed out of Pink Floyd before the advent of indulgent ""progressive"" rock, and succumbed to a fate that appealed to the punk generation's nihilism, he underwent a revival.

Barrett's decline had a profound effect on Waters' songwriting, and the theme of mental illness permeated the later Pink Floyd albums The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Wish You Were Here (1975) and The Wall (1979). The reference to a ""steel rail"" in the song ""Wish You Were Here""—""can you tell a green field from a cold steel rail?""—references a recurring theme in Barrett's song ""If It's In You"" from The Madcap Laughs. The song suite ""Shine On You Crazy Diamond"" from Wish You Were Here is also a tribute to Barrett.
In 1987, an album of Barrett cover songs called Beyond the Wildwood was released. The album was a collection of cover songs from Barrett's tenure with Pink Floyd and from his solo career. Artists appearing were UK and US indie bands including The Shamen, Opal, The Soup Dragons, and Plasticland.
Other artists who have written tributes to Barrett include his contemporary Kevin Ayers, who wrote ""O Wot a Dream"" in his honour (Barrett provided guitar to an early version of Ayers' song ""Religious Experience: Singing a Song in the Morning"") Robyn Hitchcock has covered many of his songs live and on record and paid homage to his forebear with the song ""(Feels Like) 1974"". Phish covered ""Bike"", ""No Good Trying"", ""Love You"", ""Baby Lemonade"" and ""Terrapin"". The Television Personalities' single ""I Know Where Syd Barrett Lives"" from their 1981 album And Don't the Kids Love It is another tribute.
Johnny Depp showed interest in a biographical film based on Barrett's life. Barrett is portrayed briefly in the opening scene of Tom Stoppard's play Rock 'n' Roll (2006), performing ""Golden Hair"". His life and music, including the disastrous Cambridge Corn Exchange concert and his later reclusive lifestyle, are a recurring motif in the work.
In 2016, in correspondence with the 70th anniversary birthday, The Theatre of the Absurd, an Italian independent artists group, published a short movie in honour of Barrett named Eclipse, with actor-director Edgar Blake in the role of Barrett. Some footage from this movie was also shown at Syd Barrett – A Celebration during Men on the Border's tribute: the show took place at the Cambridge Corn Exchange, with the participation of Barrett's family and old friends.
For 2017 TV series Legion creator Noah Hawley named one of the characters after Barrett, whose music was an important influence on the series.
The 2023 documentary film Have You Got It Yet? The Story of Syd Barrett and Pink Floyd features interviews with Roger Waters, Nick Mason, David Gilmour, Barrett's sister Rosemary Breen, and Pink Floyd managers Peter Jenner and Andrew King. It is directed by Roddy Bogawa and Storm Thorgerson, and narrated by Jason Isaacs.


== Health ==
Members of Barrett's family reported he neither suffered from mental illness nor had he received treatment for it since they had resumed regular contact in the 1980s. Breen said he had spent some time in a private ""home for lost souls""—Greenwoods in Essex—but that there was no formal therapy programme there. Some years later, Barrett agreed to sessions with a psychiatrist at Fulbourn Hospital in Cambridge, but Breen said that neither medication nor therapy was considered appropriate. 
Breen also denied Barrett was a recluse or that he was vague about his past: ""Roger may have been a bit selfish—or rather self-absorbed—but when people called him a recluse they were really only projecting their own disappointment. He knew what they wanted, but he wasn't willing to give it to them."" In 1996, Wright said that Barrett's mother told the members of Pink Floyd not to contact him because being reminded of the band would make him depressed for weeks.


=== Band opinions ===
In the 1960s, Barrett used psychedelic drugs, especially LSD, and there are theories he had schizophrenia. Wright asserted that Barrett's problems stemmed from a massive overdose of acid, as the change in his personality and behaviour came on suddenly. However, Waters maintains that Barrett suffered ""without a doubt"" from schizophrenia. Gilmour said: ""In my opinion, his nervous breakdown would have happened anyway. It was a deep-rooted thing. But I'll say the psychedelic experience might well have acted as a catalyst. Still, I just don't think he could deal with the vision of success and all the things that went with it."" According to Gilmour in a 1974 interview, the other members of Pink Floyd approached the psychiatrist R. D. Laing with the ""Barrett problem"". After hearing a tape of a Barrett conversation, Laing declared him ""incurable"".


=== Opinions of others ===
In his book Saucerful of Secrets: The Pink Floyd Odyssey, Nicholas Schaffner interviewed people who knew Barrett before and during his Pink Floyd days, including his friends Peter and Susan Wynne-Wilson, the artist Duggie Fields (with whom Barrett shared a flat during the late 1960s), June Bolan, and the Pink Floyd album artist Storm Thorgerson. Bolan became concerned when Barrett ""kept his girlfriend under lock and key for three days, occasionally shoving a ration of biscuits under the door"". 
According to the writer and critic Jonathan Meades, some groupies treated Barrett with cruelty; one said they put Barrett in a cupboard while he was having a bad trip. Thorgerson responded: ""I do not remember locking Syd up in a cupboard. It sounds to me like pure fantasy, like Jonathan Meades was on dope himself."" Thorgeson's colleague Aubrey Powell said the groupies probably told Meades this to ""wind him up"".
Other friends said that Barrett's flatmates, who had also taken LSD, thought of Barrett as a genius or a deity, and were spiking his morning coffee every day, leaving him in a never-ending trip. He was rescued from that flat by friends, but his erratic behaviour continued. According to Thorgerson, ""On one occasion, I had to pull him [Barrett] off [his girlfriend] Lindsay because he was beating her over the head with a mandolin."" Powell recalled this event, but Corner denied this happened. On one occasion, Barrett threw a woman across the room because she refused to go to Gilmour's house.


== Personal life ==
According to his sister, Rosemary, Barrett took up photography and sometimes they went to the seaside together. She also said he took a keen interest in art and horticulture and continued to devote himself to painting:

Quite often he took the train on his own to London to look at the major art collections—and he loved flowers. He made regular trips to the Botanic Gardens and to the dahlias at Anglesey Abbey, near Lode. But of course, his passion was his painting.
Barrett had relationships with various women, Evelyn ""Iggy"" Rose (aka ""Iggy the Eskimo""), who appeared on the back cover of The Madcap Laughs. He never married or had children.


== Discography ==

Solo albums

The Madcap Laughs (1970)
Barrett (1970)
with Pink Floyd

The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967)
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
1965: Their First Recordings (2015)
The Early Years 1965–1972 (2016)


== Filmography ==
Syd Barrett's First Trip (1966) directed by Nigel Lesmoir-Gordon
London '66–'67 (1967)
Tonite Let's All Make Love in London (1967)
The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story (2003)
Have You Got It Yet? The Story of Syd Barrett and Pink Floyd (2023)


== See also ==

List of songs recorded by Syd Barrett
List of songs about or referencing Syd Barrett


== References ==


=== Informational notes ===


=== Citations ===


=== Bibliography ===


== External links ==

The Official Syd Barrett Website
The Syd Barrett Archives
Official trailer for Have You Got It Yet? The Story of Syd Barrett and Pink Floyd
Syd Barrett at AllMusic 
Syd Barrett discography at Discogs"
Khalq,"Khalq (Dari/Pashto: خلق, lit. 'masses'  or 'people') was a faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). Its historical de facto leaders were Nur Muhammad Taraki (1967–1979), Hafizullah Amin (1979) It was also the name of the leftist newspaper produced by the same movement. The Khalq wing was formed in 1967 after the split of the party due to bitter resentment with the rival Parcham faction which had a differing revolutionary strategy.
It was made up primarily of Pashtuns from rural backgrounds. Its leaders preferred a mass organization approach and advocated class struggle to overthrow the system to bring about political, economic and social changes. They would rule the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan that was formed as a result of the Saur Revolution in 1978. The Khalqists introduced radical reforms and carried out brutal crackdowns on dissent turning Afghanistan into a police state run by the AGSA (and later KAM). The Khalqist crackdowns encouraged the rebellion of the religious and ethnic minority segments present in the Afghan society, which led more people joining exiled Islamist parties in Pakistan. Khalqist rule would be ended following the Soviet military intervention in December 1979 overthrowing Hafizullah Amin.


== Early political history ==
The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan held its First Congress on 1 January 1965. Twenty-seven men gathered at Nur Mohammed Taraki's house in Kabul, elected Taraki PDPA Secretary General, Babrak Karmal as Deputy Secretary General, and chose a five-member Central Committee(or Politburo).
Finally, Hafizullah Amin was the only Khalqi member of the PDPA to be elected to Parliament in 1969.


=== Khalq – Parcham division of the PDPA ===
The party was weakened by bitter, and sometimes violent, internal rivalries. The Khalq faction was more tribal, whereas the Parcham had more support among the urban population and middle classes. Especially on the ideological level, Karmal and Taraki differed in their perceptions of Afghanistan's revolutionary potential:

Taraki believed that revolution could be achieved in the classical Leninist fashion by building a tightly disciplined working-class party.
Karmal felt that Afghanistan was too undeveloped for a Leninist strategy and that a national democratic front of patriotic and anti-imperialist forces had to be fostered in order to bring the country a step closer to socialist revolution.
The newspaper was highly successful, especially among students. Its first edition sold 20,000 copies, and later editions numbered around 10,000 (there were only six editions altogether).  On 23 May 1966, the authorities closed Khalq on the grounds that it was anti-Islamic, anticonstitutional, and antimonarchical.  Karmal's faction founded Parcham, a weekly magazine that he published between March 1968 and July 1969. Parcham was shut down in June 1969 on the eve of parliamentary elections.


=== The Republican coup of 1973 ===
Khalq was excluded from the new government because of its lack of good political connections and its go-it-alone policy on noncooperation. Taraki did advocate a united front briefly after former Prime Minister Mohammad Daoud Khan's takeover in an attempt to gain places in the government for his followers, but this effort was unsuccessful. The Khalqists claimed to be more leftist and more independent of the Soviet Union than Parcham, but their base of support was not strong among the masses, and much stronger in the military. Because of this, Khalq abandoned his party's traditional emphasis on working-class recruitment and sought to build his own power base within the officer corps. Khalq's influence at Kabul University was also limited.
In 1973, the Khalq faction energetically began to encourage military personnel to join them. Taraki had been in charge of Khalq activity in the military. In 1973 he passed his recruitment duties to Amin. This move was highly successful: by the time of the communist coup, in April 1978, Khalq outnumbered Parcham by a factor of two or three to one. The Moscow-sponsored union of Parcham and Khalq may have been in preparation for his peaceful passage from the scene in the near future. The merger of Parcham and Khalq rapidly became unglued. However, Mir Akbar Khyber, a prominent leftist, was killed by the government and his associates. Although the government issued a statement deploring the assassination, the PDPA leaders feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all. In this way, both Khalq and Parcham forgot their internal rivalries and worked to overthrow the government.
On the eve of the communist coup, Hafizullah Amin was the only member of the Central Committee that was not arrested. The police did not send him to immediate imprisonment, as it did with Politburo members of the PDPA on 25 April 1978. He was the last person to be arrested, his imprisonment was postponed for five hours, during which time Amin, without having the authority and while the Politburo members were in prison, instructed the Khalqi army officers to overthrow the government.
The Khalqist Army cells prepared for a massive uprising. On 27 April, the Khalqist military leaders began the revolution by proclaiming to the cells in the armed forces that the time for revolution had arrived. Khalqist Colonel Mohammad Aslam Watanjar was the Army commander on the ground during the coup, and his troops gained control of Kabul. Colonel Abdul Qadir, the leader of the Air Force squadrons, also launched a major attack on the Royal Palace, in the course of which President Mohammad Daoud Khan and most of his family, including women and children, were assassinated.


== The Saur Revolution (April 1978 – April 1992) ==
The Saur Revolution, as the new government labeled its coup d'état (after the month in the Persian calendar in which it occurred), was almost entirely the achievement of the Khalq faction of the PDPA. Khalq's victory was partially due to Daoud's miscalculation that Parcham was the more serious threat. This success gave it effective control over the armed forces, a great advantage over its Parchami rival. During the first months of the revolution, Cabinet membership was split eleven to ten, with Khalq in the majority.


=== Khalq as Government (April 1978 – December 1979) ===
Initially, the revolutionary government of Khalq had a period of acceptance from the Afghan populace partly due to its land reform program. However, its mild form of Marxism grew increasingly out of hand by late 1978, and the government became increasingly outspoken, symbolically changing the national flag to a red one.
The initial, moderate, approach to Islam taken by the PDPA was quickly abandoned as the Khalqists sought to consolidate their hold on power. Khalq dominated the Revolutionary Council, which was to serve as the ruling body of the government.  The Khalq leadership ran the country by issuing a series of eight edicts. They suspended all laws except those on civil matters and the criminal law of the Daoud period. They also embarked on a campaign of land reform  that resulted in the arrest and summary execution of tens of thousands who opposed the Khalq policy of encouraging the education of girls. By putting Afghanistan on the revolutionary road, the Khalq wing of the PDPA stirred reactionaries into revolt.

PDPA general secretary Nur Mohammad Taraki refused to tolerate any Parchamis in the military and insisted that all officers affiliate with Khalq. By June 1978 an estimated 800 Parchami military personnel quit the armed forces in a purge of Parchamis. They accomplished this performing the elimination of the opposition and removal of any restraints posed by the Parchamis. Hafizullah Amin took over as Chairman of the Ministers Council (prime minister) in March 1979, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party, Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and in control of the Army, though now he reportedly devoted a lot of his time at the Royal Palace, which had been renamed the People's Palace. Events also tended to sub-divide the protagonists. The intense rivalry between Taraki and Amin within the Khalq faction heated up. In September 1979, Taraki's followers, with Soviet complicity, had made several attempts on Amin's life. The final attempt backfired. Amin's murder of Taraki divided the Khalqis. Rival military cliques divided the Khalqis further.
In late October, Amin made a military sweep against the insurgents, victoriously driving 40,000 people – mostly non-combatants – across the border into Pakistan. At the end of 1979 there were 400,000 Afghan refugees, mostly in Pakistan. The USSR attempted to temper the Khalqis' radicalism, urging attendance at mosques, inclusion of Parchamis and non-communists in the government, and a halt to the unpopular land reform movement. Most of this advice was ignored. The last Khalq leader, Hafizullah Amin, was assassinated after Soviet intelligence forces took control of the government and installed Babrak Karmal, a Parchami, in his place.


=== The Parcham Government and Soviet invasion (December 1979 – April 1989) ===
Khalqi-Parchami differences began to rend the military as Khalqi leaders, fearful that the Parchamis retained their cellular organization within the military, mounted massive purges of Parchamis. Thanks to Amin's efforts in the 1970s, the officer corps consisted largely of Khalqis. The Army was also not immune to antigovernment sentiment. Soldiers began to desert and mutiny. Herat was the site of an uprising in March 1979 in which a portion of the town's military garrison joined. The rebels butchered Soviet citizens as well as Khalqis.
The purging of Parchamis had left the military forces so dominated by Khalqis that the Soviets had no choice but to rely upon Khalqi officers to rebuild the army. Khalq officers and men expressed bitterness over the preferential treatment given their Parcham rivals by the Parcham dominated regime. Disaffected Khalqis often assisted the Mujahideen. Khalqis in the armed forces often accused their Parchami officers of using them as cannon fodder and complained that young Parchami men were exempted from compulsory military service. A show of this was that, in 1980, at the April military parade celebrating the Saur Revolution, many Tank Corps continued to display the Red Flag of Khalq, instead of the new national flag adopted by Babrak Karmal.
There were also further differences within Khalq between the loyalists of Taraki and those of Amin. Asadullah Sarwari and Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy were part of the pro-Taraki group, calling itself the ""principled Khalqis"". They clashed heads several times with the government of Karmal.


== PDPA-Khalq (1989–present) ==


=== Najibullah Administration (1986–1992) ===
After the 40th Soviet Army left the country, PDPA General Secretary and President Mohammad Najibullah suffered, to a lesser degree, the same disadvantage that Karmal had when he was installed as General Secretary of the PDPA by the Soviets. This fact was shown by the fierceness of the resistance to Najibullah's appointment within the Parcham faction. This split persisted, forcing PDPA leader Najibullah to straddle his politics between whatever Parchami support he could maintain and alliances he could win from the Khalqists.

In December 1989, 127 Khalqist military officers were arrested for an attempted coup. Twenty-seven officers escaped and later showed up at a press conference with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in Peshawar. Former Minister of Tribal Affairs, Bacha Gul Wafadar and Minister of Civil Aviation Hasan Sharq were among the conspirators. In March 1990, once again the Mujahideen leader Gulbuddin Hekmatyar cooperated in a coup attempt, this time led by the Khalqist Defense minister Shahnawaz Tanai. Tanai was apparently also supported by those important Khalqist who remained in the Politburo, Assadullah Sarwary and Mohammad Gulabzoi, respectively their country's envoys to Aden and Moscow. They were said to have been intimately connected with the coup and with Gen. Tanai. However, Tanai had no direct control of troops inside Kabul. The plot misfired and failed because of faulty communications. Sarwary and Gulabzoi were both expelled immediately from the party.


=== Afghan Civil War (1992–2001) ===
At the end, however, the former Khalqists either joined or allied themselves with the Taliban or other Mujahideen warlords after the collapse of President Najibullah's Government in April 1992. A perfect example of this was that, once Kabul was captured, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar gained the support of the majority Pashtun Khalqist hardliners, including the Minister of Internal Affairs Raz Mohammad Paktin and then Defence Minister Mohammad Aslam Watanjar. Another example of this is the fact that Gen. Tanai (according to western diplomatic sources) provided the Taliban a skilled cadre of military officers. The Khalqis also ran the Taliban's small air force and military artillery and tanks.
In this way, the Khalqi faction were once again involved in the war, using his pilots to fly the Mig-21 and Sukhoi fighters of what was left of the Afghan Air Force, driving Soviet Tanks and using Soviet Artillery. With no central government and fighting for different groups, Khalq was merely a pawn in the Afghan Civil War between the Afghan Northern Alliance and the Taliban.


=== Karzai Administration (2002–2014) ===
After the fall of the Taliban in 2001, the presence of US forces in the province of Khost led to significant changes in the power dynamics of the region. As military units operated in the area, they sought alliances with like-minded individuals who shared their immediate goals. In a peculiar turn of events, the power vacuum created by the Taliban's defeat allowed former communists, who were once adversaries of the United States during the 1980s, to rise to power. These individuals, being staunchly anti-Taliban, became valuable allies to the US and Coalition partners in the region. This unexpected shift in power dynamics set the stage for the establishment of the Khost Protection Force (KPF), a paramilitary group that would play a significant role in the security landscape of Khost province.
Other Khalqists had developed fairly close relations with the Hamid Karzai regime after the defeat of the Taliban.

General Babrak Shinwari, former head of the youth affairs section of the PDPA under Taraki and Amin, who migrated to Peshawar in Pakistan in the winter of 1992. He later helped found the Afghanistan-Pakistan People Friendship Society and was elected member of the Loya Jirga by a council of elders from Nazyan Shinwari area of Nangarhar province.


== Prominent members ==
Hafizullah Amin
Shahnawaz Tanai
Nur Mohammad Taraki
Mohammad Aslam Watanjar
Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy
Assadullah Sarwari


== See also ==
Saur Revolution
1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt
Parcham
People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan


== References ==


== External links ==
A brief description of the Khalqist successful Coup of 1978
Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan – Khalqist Administration
About the future of the Afghan Khalqi faction"
Oteil Burbridge,"Oteil Burbridge (born August 24, 1964) is an American multi-instrumentalist, specializing on the bass guitar, trained in playing jazz and classical music from an early age. He has achieved fame primarily on bass guitar during the resurgence of the Allman Brothers Band from 1997 through 2014, and as a founding member of the band Dead & Company. Burbridge was also a founding member of The Aquarium Rescue Unit and Tedeschi Trucks Band, with whom his brother Kofi Burbridge was the keyboardist and flautist.  He has worked with other musicians including Bruce Hampton, Trey Anastasio, Page McConnell, Bill Kreutzmann and Derek Trucks.
Burbridge has been recognized for his ability to incorporate scat-singing into his improvised bass solos. Burbridge endorses Fodera, Modulus, Sukop and Dunlop guitars and effects. He is ranked 64th on Bass Player magazine's list of ""The 100 Greatest Bass Players of All Time"".


== Musical career ==


=== Early endeavors ===
Burbridge was born and raised in Washington, D.C., to an African American family with some Egyptian heritage. His name, Oteil, means ""explorer"" or ""wanderer"". When he and elder sibling Kofi showed talent for music, their mother encouraged them with classical and jazz courses hoping to nurture their musical inclinations and keep them out of trouble. Kofi remembers Oteil's first drum set: a Quaker Oatmeal box, when he was only three or four years old. Both brothers were introduced to a wide variety of instruments, and became multi-instrumentalists, with both being taught to play the piano. Oteil gained proficiency on the bass clarinet, violin, and trumpet; however, bass guitar and drums became his instruments of choice (while Kofi developed a love for both flute and keyboards). Burbridge was also interested in the theater and became the co-host of a local children's television show called ""Stuff"". He was enrolled in the Sidwell Friends School, graduating in 1982.
Oteil performed regularly in a variety of D.C. bands as a teenager, gathering experience playing R&B, rock, Brazilian music and jazz among other styles.  He moved to Virginia Beach and worked mostly in cover bands there, and subsequently became part of the Atlanta musical scene, where he played with different musicians and also became fluent in other genres of music.


=== The Aquarium Rescue Unit ===
As one of the original members of Bruce Hampton's avant-garde band, the Aquarium Rescue Unit, Burbridge was introduced to members of the jam band scene in the southeast of the United States.  This included members of Phish, Phil Lesh and Friends, and Blues Traveler, who freely sat in with one another in each other's bands. When Hampton left the Aquarium Rescue Unit, it slowly disbanded; however, Burbridge had developed a reputation on the four-, five-, and eventually the six-string bass guitar, enjoying the less commercial aspects of playing with Atlanta-area musicians. During its initial years, the band was composed of Bruce Hampton, Oteil Burbridge, Jimmy Herring, Jeff Sipe, Matt Mundy, and Count M'Butu. Although the band was never commercially successful, their unique combination of bluegrass, rock, Latin, blues, jazz, and funk (along with the impeccable chops of the members) led to their becoming an influence on other bands and served as a kind of template for their own future musical endeavors.


== Musical collaborations ==


=== Dead & Company ===

In 2015 Burbridge joined Dead & Company to play bass/drums. The band consists of himself with Bob Weir, John Mayer, Mickey Hart, Jay Lane and Jeff Chimenti. The band's first performance was on October 29, 2015 at Times Union Center in Albany, New York. They have since toured in the fall of 2015, the summer of 2016, the summer of 2017, the fall of 2017, the summer of 2018, and did a series of three shows in Mexico called ""Playing in the Sand"" in January 2019.  Dead & Company started their Summer Tour 2019 at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California on May 31 and June 1, 2019. They toured again in the summer of 2021, summer of 2022 and the final tour in summer 2023. He played with the band again during their summer 2024 and spring 2025 residencies at The Sphere.


=== Les Brers ===

In 2015 Burbridge became a founding member of Les Brers, a band led by founding Allman Brothers Band drummer Butch Trucks. The band also consists of his former Allman Brothers bandmates Jaimoe, Marc Quiñones and Jack Pearson along with Pat Bergeson, Bruce Katz and Lamar Williams Jr.


== Previous musical collaborations ==


=== The Allman Brothers Band ===

Burbridge was a full-time member of the Allman Brothers Band from 1997 until their retirement in 2014, touring and recording with the band for 17 years. In February 2012, he received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award for his years with the band. Burbridge played on the albums Peakin' at the Beacon (2000), Hittin' the Note (2003), One Way Out (2004) as well as the DVD Live at the Beacon Theatre (2003, certified Platinum 2004).  He was nominated for two Grammy Awards as a member of the band in 2003 and 2004. He occasionally provided lead vocals with the band, including their cover of the Dead's ""Franklin’s Tower"" and, during the Brothers' final year, ""Seven Turns.""


=== Tedeschi Trucks Band ===

In 2010, Oteil joined his brother Kofi and Allman Brothers bandmate Derek Trucks as the bassist in the new group Tedeschi Trucks Band; an eleven piece ensemble which merged some former members of The Derek Trucks Band and Susan Tedeschi's backing band. Tedeschi Trucks Band performed at Eric Clapton's Crossroads Guitar Festival 2010; one of Oteil's compositions ""Love Has Something Else to Say"" appears on the DVD release. The Tedeschi Trucks Band released their debut album, Revelator, in 2011, which won the Grammy for Best Blues Album at the 54th Grammy Awards. In 2012, the band released their sophomore album, Everybody's Talkin' , a double live album compiled from their 2011 world tour.
On October 5, 2012, Oteil posted a statement on the band's website that he ""will not be able to continue to tour with TTB"", so he can start a family. He did ""hope that we have music left to make together in the future.""


=== BK3 ===

Oteil Burbridge joined the Bill Kreutzmann Trio alongside Bill Kreutzmann of the Grateful Dead and Scott Murawski of Max Creek, as the BK3. They toured throughout 2008 and early 2009 before Oteil left due to touring commitments with the Allman Brothers Band. The group played several Grateful Dead classics, Max Creek originals and covers, as well as many new songs written by Robert Hunter.[4]


=== Oteil and the Peacemakers ===
In 1998, Burbridge formed a band called Oteil and the Peacemakers. Based in Birmingham, Alabama, it featured musicians Matt Slocum on keyboards, Mark Kimbrell on guitar, Chris Fryar on drums, and vocalist Paul Henson, a carry over from the post-Colonel Aquarium Rescue Unit releases. They released their first album, Love of a Lifetime, that same year. That was followed up in 2003 by the CD/DVD set entitled The Family Secret. In 2005, Burbridge took his music in a greater spiritual direction for their third album titled Believer.


=== Vida Blue ===

Burbridge also was approached by Page McConnell of Phish who invited him and Russell Batiste, Jr. (then of the Funky Meters) to participate in another venture as an electronic trio with vocals. Their name was not chosen until Major League Baseball pitcher Vida Blue hopped up on stage with them and they decided to name themselves after the baseball star. The trio formed in 2001 and continued performing until 2004, putting out a DVD and two albums, and later joining forces with a Latin-rock sextet which sampled a variety of musical genres including the jazz and electronic music-flavored alternative rock music of Vida Blue.


== Other projects ==


=== The Adventures of the Green Thumb and Purple Haze ===
The Green Thumb is a serial comic book that Burbridge created with artist LeVar Carter following the adventures of twin cannabis superheroes. The comic explores themes involving the power of nature and spirituality, the role corporations and governments play in stifling scientific and cultural advancements for the purpose of preserving profits and power, and also what it means to be deemed illegal just by one's lot in life (as it pertains to one's biology, nationality, gender, sexuality). A book featuring the characters was published in 2014.


=== Film ===
Burbridge also had a bit part, as a teenager, playing a street thug named Lolo in the 1979 Peter Sellers movie Being There.  The movie is a black comedy about politics and the woes of celebrity and fame.  Although Burbridge plays a small part in a short scene, it is one of the film's many famous moments.


=== Podcast ===
Since 2020 Burbridge has cohosted the Comes A Time Podcast with comedian Mike Finoia.
Oteil is a fan of professional wrestling.


== Discography ==


=== Solo ===
Water in the Desert (2017)
Lovely View of Heaven (2023)


=== With The Zac Brown Band ===
The Grohl Sessions, Vol. 1 (2013)


=== With The Tedeschi Trucks Band ===
Revelator (2011)
Everybody's Talkin' (2012)


=== With The Allman Brothers Band ===
Peakin' at the Beacon (2000)
Hittin' the Note (2003)
Live at the Beacon Theatre (DVD) (2003)
One Way Out (2004)
40 (DVD) (2014)
The Fox Box (2017)
Cream of the Crop 2003 (2018)
Warner Theatre, Erie, PA 7-19-05 (2020)


=== With Oteil and the Peacemakers ===
Love of a Lifetime (1998)
The Family Secret (2003)
Believer (2005)


=== With Vida Blue ===
Vida Blue (2002)
The Illustrated Band (2003)
Crossing Lines (2019)


=== With The Aquarium Rescue Unit ===
Col. Bruce Hampton & the Aquarium Rescue Unit (1992)
Mirrors of Embarrassment (1993)
Eepeee (1994)
In a Perfect World (1994)
The Calling (2003)


=== Other ===
Arkansas (1987/2000) – Col Bruce Hampton
Gossip (1996) – T Lavitz
Surrender to the Air (1996) – Surrender to the Air
What Did He Say? (1997) – Victor Wooten
Bass Extremes: Cookbook (1998) – Steve Bailey, Victor Wooten
Bass Day '98 (1999) – various artists
Searching for Simplicity (1998) – Gregg Allman
The Stranger's Hand (1999) – Oteil Burbridge, Howard Levy, Jerry Goodman, Steve Smith
Croakin' at Toad's (2000) – Frogwings
The Deep End, Volume 1 (2001) – Gov't Mule
Live in NYC 6/16/04 (2005) – Heavenly Jams Band
Go There (2007) – Scott Sawyer
Lifeboat (2008) – Jimmy Herring
The Imagine Project (2010) – Herbie Hancock
Cooking With Dynamite! (2011) – Hawk Tubley & The Airtight Chiefs
Ashes & Dust (2015) – Warren Haynes


== References ==


== External links ==
Oteil Burbridge official website
Allman Brothers Band official website
Tedeschi Trucks Band official website
The Green Thumb and Purple Haze comic official website"
2022 Portuguese legislative election,"Early legislative elections were held on 30 January 2022 in Portugal to elect members of the Assembly of the Republic to the 15th Legislature of the Third Portuguese Republic. All 230 seats to the Assembly of the Republic were up for election.
On 27 October 2021, the budget proposed by the Socialist minority government was rejected by the Assembly of the Republic. The Left Bloc (BE) and the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), both of whom had previously supported the government, joined the centre-right to right-wing opposition parties and rejected the budget. On 4 November 2021, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, the President of Portugal, announced a snap election to be held on 30 January 2022. This election was the third national election held in Portugal during the COVID-19 pandemic - as the country held a presidential election (January) and local elections (September) in 2021 - and the fourth overall, as there was a regional election in the Azores in October 2020. The ruling national government led the local elections but suffered losses, especially in Lisbon.
The Socialist Party (PS) of incumbent Prime Minister António Costa won an unexpected majority government in the Assembly of the Republic, the second in the party's history. The PS received 41.4 percent of the vote and 120 seats, four seats above the minimum required for a majority. The PS won the most votes in all districts in mainland Portugal, only failing to win the Autonomous Region of Madeira. Political analysts considered the PS to have benefited from voters of the BE and the Unitary Democratic Coalition (CDU) casting their votes for the PS instead.
The Social Democratic Party (PSD) remained stable but underperformed opinion polls that had predicted a close race with the PS. The PSD won 29.1 percent of the vote, a slightly higher share than in 2019, and received 77 seats, two seats less than the previous election. The PSD was surpassed by the PS in districts like Leiria and Viseu, and lost Bragança by only 15 votes to the PS. In the aftermath of the election, party leader Rui Rio announced he would resign from the leadership.
CHEGA finished in third place, winning 12 seats and 7.2 percent of the vote. The Liberal Initiative (IL) finished in fourth place, winning 8 seats and 4.9 percent of the vote. Both parties experienced a surge of voters and made gains this election, though CHEGA received 100,000 fewer votes than its leader had received in the previous year's presidential election, an election in which turnout was lower.
The BE and CDU both suffered significant losses, being surpassed by the IL and CHEGA. Their rejection of the 2022 budget was considered to be a factor in losing votes and seats, along with tactical voting. The BE won 5 seats and 4.4 percent of the vote. CDU won 6 seats and 4.3 percent of the vote, while losing seats in Évora and Santarém districts. The Ecologist Party ""The Greens"" (PEV) lost all their seats for the first time.
The CDS – People's Party (CDS–PP) lost all their seats for the first time, receiving 1.6 percent of the vote. Party leader Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos announced his resignation. People Animals Nature (PAN) suffered losses as well, winning 1 seat and 1.6 percent of the vote, 3 fewer seats than in the previous election. LIVRE won 1 seat and received 1.3 percent of the vote, holding on to the single seat they won in the previous election, with party leader Rui Tavares being elected in Lisbon.
The voter turnout grew, compared with the previous election, with 51.5 percent of registered voters casting a ballot, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal.
After controversies and accusations because of the counting of overseas ballots, the Constitutional Court forced the repetition of the election in the Europe constituency, which elects two MPs. Therefore, the swearing in of the new Parliament and Government was delayed by a month and a half. The rerun of the election in the overseas constituency of Europe occurred, for in person voting, on 12 and 13 March 2022, and postal ballots were received until 23 March 2022. The final, certified results of the election were published in the official journal, Diário da República, on 26 March 2022.


== Background ==


=== Fall of the government ===

The proposed budget for 2022 was rejected on 27 October 2021 by all Opposition parties, with the expection of PAN and two Independent MPs, and with the then PS minority being the only one voting in favour. Prime Minister António Costa said to Members of Parliament, in his speech before the final vote, that he would not resign and would ask for a ""stable, reinforced and lasting new majority"" in the early elections.

After the Parliamentary vote, President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa started hearing parties and convened the Council of State, thus deciding to dissolve Parliament and call a snap election for 30 January 2022.


=== Leadership changes and challenges ===


==== Liberal Initiative ====
Early in December 2019, the Liberal Initiative (IL) elected a new leader after their previous leader, Carlos Guimarães Pinto, stepped down. Their sole MP, João Cotrim de Figueiredo, was elected as leader with 96 percent of the votes in the party's convention. The results were the following:


==== Social Democratic Party ====

The Social Democrats (PSD), the largest opposition party, held a two-round leadership election on 11 January and 18 January 2020. Three candidates were in the race: incumbent PSD leader Rui Rio, former PSD parliamentary caucus leader Luís Montenegro and current Deputy Mayor of Cascais Miguel Pinto Luz. Around 40,000 party members, out of almost 110,000, were registered to vote. In the first round, on 11 January, Rui Rio polled ahead with 49 percent of the votes against the 41.4 percent of Luís Montenegro and 9.6 percent of Miguel Pinto Luz, with both Rio and Montenegro qualifying for a second round. A week later, on 18 January, Rui Rio was re-elected as PSD leader with 53.2 percent of the votes, against the 46.8 percent of Luís Montenegro. In both rounds, turnout of registered members achieved almost 80%. The results were the following:

A leadership election in the PSD was held on 27 November 2021. The original date was 4 December 2021, but the party voted to advance the date in one week. MEP Paulo Rangel was a candidate for the leadership. He faced incumbent PSD leader Rui Rio, who announced his re-election bid on 19 October 2021. Around 46,000 party members, out of more than 85,000 active members, were registered to vote. On 27 November 2021, Rui Rio defeated Paulo Rangel by a 52.4 to 47.6 percent margin and was reelected for a 3rd term as party leader. The results were the following:


==== CDS – People's Party ====

CDS – People's Party also elected a new leader after former leader Assunção Cristas stepped down after the party's worst result ever in a general election in the 2019 elections. Five candidates were in the race: People's Youth leader Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos, current CDS MP from Aveiro João Almeida, former MP Filipe Lobo d'Ávila, Abel Matos Santos and Carlos Meira. The new leader was elected in a party congress between 25 and 26 January 2020. In that congress, in Aveiro city, Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos was elected leader with 46.4 percent of the delegates votes, against the 38.9 percent of João Almeida and 14.5 percent of Filipe Lobo d'Ávila. Abel Matos Santos and Carlos Meira had stepped down from the race, near the end of the congress but before the vote, in support of Rodrigues dos Santos. The results were the following:


==== People-Animals-Nature ====
In March 2021, the People-Animals-Nature (PAN) leader and spokesperson, André Silva, announced he was leaving the leadership of the party to dedicate more time to his family. A party congress to elect a new leader was scheduled for the weekend of 5–6 June 2021. For that leadership congress, only one candidate stepped forward, Inês Sousa Real, the party's parliamentary leader. On 6 June, Inês Sousa Real was elected as leader of PAN with 87.2 percent of the votes in the party's congress in Tomar. The results were the following:


=== Date ===

According to the Constitution of Portugal, an election must be called between 14 September and 14 October of the year that the legislature ends but can be called earlier. The election is then called by the president of Portugal, not at the sole request of the prime minister of Portugal, after listening to all of the parties represented in Parliament. The election date must be announced at least 60 days in advance if it is held as the legislature ends, but the election must be held within 55 days if it is called during an ongoing legislature (dissolution of parliament). The election day is the same in all multi-seat constituencies, and should fall on a Sunday or a national holiday. The next legislative election should have taken place no later than 8 October 2023; however, due to the rejection of the 2022 State Budget, during which the left-wing parties joined the right-wing parties and voted against the proposal, a snap election was called for 30 January 2022.


=== Electoral system ===
The Assembly of the Republic has 230 members elected to four-year terms. Governments do not require absolute majority support of the Assembly to hold office, as even if the number of opposers of government is larger than that of the supporters, the number of opposers still needs to be equal or greater than 116 (absolute majority) for both the Government's Programme to be rejected or for a motion of no confidence to be approved.
The number of seats assigned to each constituency depends on the district magnitude. The use of the d'Hondt method makes for a higher effective threshold than certain other allocation methods such as the Hare quota or Sainte-Laguë method, which are more generous to small parties.
The distribution of MPs by constituency was the following:


=== Voting during COVID-19 ===
In January 2022, Portugal was experiencing rising infection rates as the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant had a prevalence of 93% among variants in the country. Because of this situation, thousands of voters were likely to be in isolation on 30 January, election day. To address this situation, the government asked for legal advice regarding the issue from the Portuguese Attorney-General's Office. On 19 January, the government announced that isolated voters would be able to vote on election day and recommended that these voters cast a ballot during the last hour the polls were open, between 6pm and 7pm 30 January.


=== Early voting ===
Voters were also able to vote early, which happened on 23 January, one week before election day. Voters had to register between 16 and 20 January 2022 in order to be eligible to cast an early ballot. By the 20 January deadline, 315,785 voters had requested to vote early, a number well below expectations. On 23 January, 285,848 voters (90.5 percent of voters that requested) cast an early ballot.


== Parties ==


=== Parliamentary factions ===
The table below lists the parties represented in the Assembly of the Republic during the 14th legislature (2019–2022) and that also contested the  2022 elections:


==== Seat changes ====
On 3 February 2020, Livre MP Joacine Katar Moreira announced she was leaving the party, after the party leadership withdrew their confidence in her, due to deep disagreements between both sides. She remained in Parliament as an Independent.
On 25 June 2020, People Animals Nature MP Cristina Rodrigues announced she was resigning for her party, after deep disagreements with the party's leadership. She remained in Parliament as an Independent.


=== Non-represented parties ===
The table below lists smaller parties not represented in the Assembly of the Republic that contested the elections in at least one constituency:


=== Rejected ===
A coalition between the People's Monarchist Party (PPM) and the United Party of Retirees and Pensioners (PURP) was rejected by the Constitutional Court because of several irregularities.


== Campaign period ==


=== Party slogans ===


=== Candidates' debates ===


==== With parties represented in  Parliament ====
A total of 38 debates were scheduled for these elections. CDU leader, Jerónimo de Sousa, would only attend the debates on the main channels of each of the three main networks, RTP1, SIC and TVI. Therefore, he was absent from the debates in the news channels of the three networks, SIC Notícias, RTP3 and CNN Portugal. Shortly after, the debates between Jerónimo de Sousa and other party leaders on those cable channels, were cancelled, thus reducing the number of debates to 32. On 11 January 2022, the PCP announced that Jerónimo de Sousa would undergo urgent vascular surgery on 12 January and would be out of the campaign trail for 10 days, thus being absent in the debates. João Oliveira substituted him in the debate with PSD leader Rui Rio.
Rádio Observador organised two hour and a half debates with the head candidates for the Porto and Lisbon districts. The Porto debate aired on 11 January and the Lisbon  debate aired on 14 January.


==== With parties not represented in Parliament ====
A debate between parties not represented in Parliament was also held on RTP1.


== Opinion polling ==


== Voter turnout ==
The table below shows voter turnout throughout election day including voters from Overseas.


== Results ==


=== National summary ===


=== Distribution by constituency ===


=== Maps ===

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Electorate ===


== Aftermath and reactions ==

The Socialist Party (PS) of incumbent prime minister António Costa won an unexpected absolute majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the second in the party's history. The PS received 41.5% of the vote and 118 seats, two above the minimum required for a majority. The PS won the most votes in all districts in mainland Portugal, only failing to win Madeira. Commentators considered the PS to have benefited from a transfer of the BE and the Unitary Democratic Coalition (CDU) voters to them. Costa said that his ""absolute majority doesn't mean absolute power"" and that he would still be open to forming a coalition, despite it no longer being a requirement to govern. He also promised reforms, saying: ""The conditions have been created to carry out investments and reforms for Portugal to be more prosperous, fairer, more innovative.""
The Social Democratic Party (PSD) remained stable, underperforming opinion polls that had predicted a close race with the PS. The PSD won 29 percent of the vote, a slightly higher share than in 2019, and received 77 seats, two less than the previous election. The PSD was surpassed by the PS in their strongholds, such as Leiria and Viseu, and lost Bragança by only 15 votes to the PS. In the aftermath of the election, party leader Rui Rio announced he would resign from the leadership.
CHEGA finished in third place, winning 12 seats and 7.2 percent of the vote. The Liberal Initiative (IL) finished in fourth place, winning 8 seats and 4.9 percent of the vote. Both parties experienced a surge of voters and made gains in this election. CHEGA leader André Ventura celebrated a ""great night"", though the party received more than 100,000 fewer votes than Ventura had received in the previous year's presidential election, an election in which turnout was lower. He blamed the PS majority on PSD leader Rio for not forming an alliance between the two right-wing parties and stated ""From now on there won't be a soft opposition. We will assume the role of being the real opposition to the Socialists and restore dignity to this country."" IL leader João Cotrim de Figueiredo also celebrated sufficient gains to form a parliamentary group, and said that his party would be a ""firm opposition to socialism"".
Both the BE and CDU suffered losses, being surpassed by the CHEGA and IL, with 5 seats and 4.4 percent of the vote; their rejection of the 2022 budget was considered to be a factor in losing votes and seats, as well as tactical voting to avoid a PSD plurality.  The CDU won 6 seats and 4.3 percent of the vote, while losing seats in Évora and Santarém districts. The Ecologist Party ""The Greens"" (PEV) lost all their seats for the first time. Catarina Martins of the BE blamed the PS for having created a ""false crisis"" that she believed had resulted in a polarised election that penalised parties to the left of the PS. She also spoke out against the gains for CHEGA. Portuguese Communist Party leader Jerónimo de Sousa made a similar statement about the PS.
The CDS – People's Party (CDS–PP) lost all their seats for the first time, receiving 1.6 percent of the vote. Party leader Francisco Rodrigues dos Santos announced his resignation. Also due to tactical voting, People Animals Nature (PAN) suffered losses, winning 1 seat and 1.6 percent of the vote, 3 fewer seats than in the previous election. PAN leader Inês Sousa Real spoke of sadness after this result, and said that an absolute majority would be bad for democracy. LIVRE won 1 seat and received 1.3 percent of the vote, holding on to the single seat they won in the previous election, with party leader Rui Tavares being elected in Lisbon. Tavares pledged to get Costa to work with other left-wing parties.
The voter turnout was the highest since the 2015 Portuguese legislative election, with 51.5 percent of registered voters casting a ballot.


=== Overseas ballots controversy ===
In this election, 257,791 ballots from overseas were received, but, during the process of counting the ballots, a controversy started. The Social Democratic Party (PSD) filed a complaint in order for the ballots with no ID card copy to be put aside. The Portuguese electoral law requires that for a ballot received by mail to be valid, it needs to be accompanied with an ID card copy of the voter (in order to confirm the identity of the voter, as the equivalent of presenting the ID to the poll workers when voting in person). The Socialist Party (PS) protested against the PSD complaint, reminding the PSD that all parties had had an informal meeting in which it had been decided that all ballots, with or without an ID card copy, would be counted and declared valid. The PSD had confirmed their position in that meeting, but announced that they had changed their mind after they were given a document stating that any such actions would be illegal. Nonetheless, the PSD and the Electoral Commission (CNE) warned and advised counting staffs to separate the ballots. But this guideline wasn't followed by several counting staffs, and by the end of the counting of ballots, 80.32% of the Europe constituency ballots, 157,205 ballots out from a total of 195,701, were considered invalid and thrown out. Several parties (Volt, LIVRE, PAN, CHEGA, MAS) appealed to the Constitutional Court in order to have the ballots counted. Of the 5 complaints filed, however, the court accepted only Volt Portugal's complaint. On 15 February, the Court annulled the election in the Europe constituency and demanded a repetition of the vote. The National Election Committee determined that for the rerun of the parliamentary elections in the constituency of Europe on March 12 and 13 can be voted in person, just as until March 23 by absentee ballot. 109,350 ballots were received until 23 March, and of those, 30% (32,777) were declared null as they were not accompanied with an ID card copy. In terms of results, the PS was able to win the two seats from the Europe constituency, unlike in the original election when the PS and PSD both won one seat.


=== International reactions ===
 EU: The European Commission's First Vice-president Frans Timmermans congratulated Costa's victory on Twitter as ""an important victory for Portugal and Europe.""
 Spain: Spanish prime minister Pedro Sánchez, leader of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, congratulated Costa on Twitter, stating that ""Portugal has once again opted for a social democratic project that combines growth and social justice. Together we will continue to promote in our countries and in Europe a socialist response to the challenges we share.""
 UK: Keir Starmer, the British opposition and Labour Party leader, congratulated Costa on Twitter for ""a victory for seriousness in government, shared prosperity and social justice.""
 India: Indian prime minister Narendra Modi congratulated Costa, who is Luso-Indian, on Twitter ""for resounding performance in the parliamentary elections in Portugal and his re-election."" He also stated: ""Look forward to continue deepening the warm and time-tested relationship with Portugal.""
 Brazil: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, then former president of Brazil and presidential pre-candidate in the 2022 Brazilian general election, congratulated Costa and his party for ""their great electoral victory in Portugal"", wishing them ""good luck"".


=== Fall of the government ===

On 7 November 2023, the Police and several agents of the Public Prosecutor's office conducted a series of searches to the official residency of the Prime Minister, ministries, and other sites that culminated in the arrest of several people including the chief of staff of the Prime Minister. António Costa himself was also indicted as a suspect in a case of corruption involving the lithium and hydrogen businesses. Shortly after this revelation by the Public Prosecutor's office, Prime Minister António Costa tendered his resignation to President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa and also announced he was stepping down from the PS leadership.
After this, the President heard all parties and met with the Council of State. On 9 November 2023, President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa called a snap legislative election for 10 March 2024. For the first time ever in Portuguese democracy, a single party majority government didn't complete its full term.


== See also ==
Elections in Portugal
List of political parties in Portugal
Politics of Portugal


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Marktest, opinion poll tracker
Official results site, Portuguese Ministry of Internal Administration
Portuguese Electoral Commission
ERC, official publication of polls
Average of polls and seat simulator"
Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War,"Casualties in the Russo-Ukrainian War include six deaths during the 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, 14,200–14,400 military and civilian deaths during the War in Donbas, and up to 1,000,000 estimated casualties during the Russian invasion of Ukraine till mid-September 2024.
The War in Donbas's deadliest phase (pre-2022) occurred before the Minsk agreements, aimed at ceasefire and settlement. Despite varied reports on Ukrainian military casualties due to underreporting, official figures eventually tallied, indicating significant military and civilian casualties on both sides. The war also saw a substantial number of missing and captured individuals, with efforts to exchange prisoners between conflicting parties. Foreign fighters and civilian casualties added to the war's complexity, with international involvement and impacts extending beyond the immediate conflict zones.
The subsequent Russian invasion of Ukraine further escalated casualties and destruction. Conflicting reports from Russian and Ukrainian sources indicated high military and civilian casualties, with significant discrepancies in reported numbers. Foreign involvement continued, with both foreign fighters and civilian deaths reported. Efforts to identify and repatriate the deceased, alongside the treatment of prisoners of war, highlighted the human cost of the ongoing conflict.


== Russian annexation of Crimea (2014) ==

During the Russian annexation of Crimea from 23 February through 19 March 2014, six people were killed. The dead included three protesters, two Ukrainian soldiers and one Russian Cossack paramilitary. On 10 August 2016, Russia accused the Special Forces of Ukraine of conducting a raid near the Crimean town of Armiansk which killed two Russian servicemen. The government of Ukraine dismissed the report as a provocation. Ten people were forcibly disappeared between 2014 and 2016 and were still missing as of 2017.


== War in Donbas (2014–2022) ==

The overall number of estimated deaths in the war in Donbas from 6 April 2014 to 31 December 2021 was 14,200–14,400. This included about 6,500 pro-Russian separatist fighters, 4,400 Ukrainian fighters, and 3,404 civilians. This number includes non-combat military deaths, as well as deaths from mines and unexploded ordnance. The vast majority of the deaths took place in the first year of the war, when major combat took place before the Minsk agreements.


=== Total deaths ===

Initially, the known number of Ukrainian military casualties varied widely due to the Ukrainian Army drastically understating its casualties, as reported by medics, activists and soldiers on the ground, as well as at least one lawmaker. Several medical officials reported they were overstretched due to the drastic number of casualties. Eventually, the Ukrainian Defence Ministry stated that the numbers recorded by the National Museum of Military History were the official ones, although still incomplete, with 4,638 deaths (4,500 identified and 138 unidentified) cataloged by 1 December 2021.
According to the Armed Forces of Ukraine, 1,175 of the Ukrainian servicemen died due to non-combat causes by 5 March 2021. Subsequently, the military did not publish new figures on their non-combat losses, stating they could be considered a state secret.


=== Deaths by regions ===

The following table does not include the 298 deaths from the shootdown of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 or the deaths of Ukrainian servicemen, which are listed separately.


=== Missing and captured ===
By 15 May 2016, the Donetsk region's prosecutors reported 1,592 civilians had gone missing in government-controlled areas, of whom 208 had been located. At the same time, a report by the United Nations stated 1,331–1,460 people were missing, including at least 378 soldiers and 216 civilians. 345 unidentified bodies, of mostly soldiers, were also confirmed to be held at morgues in the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast or buried. In all, as of late October, 774 people were missing according to the government, including 271 soldiers. By the end of December 2017, the number of confirmed missing on the Ukrainian side was 402, including 123 soldiers. The separatists also reported 433 missing on their side by mid-December 2016, and 321 missing by mid-February 2022.
As of mid-March 2015, according to the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU), 1,553 separatists had been released from captivity during prisoner exchanges between the two sides. Subsequently, Ukraine released another 316 people by late February 2016, according to the DPR and other media reports, while by September, 1,598 security forces members and 1,484 civilians had been released by the rebels. 1,110 separatist fighters and supporters, including 743 civilians, were reportedly still being held by Ukrainian forces as of late March 2016, according to the DPR. They updated the figure of separatist prisoners to 816, including 287–646 civilians, in December. At the end of May 2015, the Ukrainian commander of Donetsk airport, Oleg Kuzminykh, who was captured during the battle for the complex, was released.
In December 2017, a large prisoner exchange took place where the rebels released 73 out of 176 prisoners they were holding, while Ukraine released 306 out of 380 of their prisoners. Out of those that were released by Ukraine, 29 brought to the exchange point refused to go back to separatist-held territory, while 40 who were already previously released did not show up for the exchange. Meanwhile, out of those released by the rebels, 32 were soldiers. This brought the overall number of prisoners released by the rebels to 3,215. Among those still held by the separatists, 74 were soldiers. The number of released prisoners was updated to 3,233 in early March 2019. At the end of December 2019, a new prisoner exchange took place, with Ukraine releasing 124 separatist fighters and their supporters, while 76 prisoners, including 12 soldiers, were returned to Ukraine by the rebels. Another five or six prisoners released by the separatists decided to stay in rebel-controlled territories. The last exchange took place on 16 April 2020, with the separatists releasing 20 people, including 17 civilians, in exchange for 14. while 214 remained in captivity.


=== Foreign fighters ===
Foreign volunteers have been involved in the conflict, fighting on both sides. The NGO Cargo 200 reported that they documented the deaths of 1,479 Russian citizens while fighting as part of the rebel forces. The United States Department of State estimated 400–500 of these were regular Russian soldiers. Two Kyrgyz and one Georgian have also been killed fighting on the separatist side. Additionally, at least 262 foreign-born Ukrainian citizens or foreigners died on the Ukrainian side. One of those killed was the former Chechen rebel commander Isa Munayev.
In late August 2015, according to a reported leak by a Russian news site, Business Life (Delovaya Zhizn), 2,000 Russian soldiers had been killed in Ukraine by 1 February 2015.


=== Foreign civilians and journalists ===

At least 306 foreign civilians were killed in the war in Donbas prior to the 2022 invasion:

298 passengers and crew of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17
Italian journalist Andrea Rocchelli and his Russian fixer and interpreter, activist Andrei Mironov
Four other civilian journalists and media workers from Russia: Igor Kornelyuk and Anton Voloshin, a correspondent and sound engineer respectively; Anatoly Klyan, a camera operator; and Andrey Stenin, a photojournalist
One Russian civilian killed in the shelling of Donetsk, Russia
One Lithuanian diplomat


=== Landmines and other explosive remnants ===
As a consequence of the conflict, large swaths of the Donbas region have become contaminated with landmines and other explosive remnants of war (ERW). According to the UN Humanitarian Coordinator in Ukraine, in 2020 Ukraine was one of the countries most affected by ERW in the world, and had had nearly 1,200 casualties caused by mines or ERW since the beginning of the conflict in 2014. A report by UNICEF released in December 2019 said that 172 children had been injured or killed due to landmines and other explosives.


== Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present) ==


=== Total casualties ===

In September 2022, Russia's Ministry of Defence confirmed that 5,937 Russian soldiers had been killed in combat. It also claimed 61,207 Ukrainian soldiers had been killed and 49,368 wounded by this point. Mid-December 2024, Russia updated its claim of Ukrainian military casualties to almost 1,000,000 killed and wounded. In addition, the DPR confirmed that by 22 December 2022, 4,163 of their servicemen had been killed and 17,329 wounded. Subsequently, leaked US intelligence documents cited the Russian FSB that Russian forces suffered 110,000 casualties by 28 February 2023.

According to BBC News Russian and the Mediazona news website, out of 113,436 Russian soldiers and contractors whose deaths they had documented by 12 June 2025, 4.5 percent (5,138) were officers, while 7.1 percent (8,076) were Motorized Rifle Troops and 3.1 percent (3,493) were members of the Russian Airborne Forces (VDV). In addition, 11 percent (12,469) of Russian soldiers whose deaths had been confirmed were people who were mobilized, while 15.1 percent (17,125) were convicts. The BBC further stated that The actual toll is likely much higher than can be determined through open sources. Military experts we interviewed suggest that our analysis of Russian cemeteries, war memorials, and obituaries may account for between 45% and 65% of the real death toll. Thus, the BBC stated that the actual death toll of Russian forces, counting only Russian servicemen and contractors (i.e. excluding DPR/LPR militia), was 174,518–251,080 by mid-June 2025.
Wagner PMC chief Yevgeny Prigozhin confirmed that his organization had lost over 20,000 troops killed by May 25, 2023. He went on to claim that overall, the Russian military had lost 120,000 dead in Ukraine by late June 2023. He accused the Ministry of Defence of systematically downplaying Russian losses.

The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) found that more Russian soldiers died in the first year of the war in Ukraine than in all its other wars since World War II combined, an average 5,000 to 5,800 soldiers a month, vs 13,000 to 25,000 in Chechnya over 15 years and 14,000 to 16,000 in Afghanistan. Thus, the first year of the Ukraine war was 25 times deadlier than Chechnya and 35 times more so than Afghanistan.
Meduza, analyzing data on confirmed soldiers killed and data retrieved from the Russian probate registry, estimated 75,000 Russian soldiers were killed since the start of the invasion and by the end of 2023, a statistical estimate within a wide range of between 66,000 and 88,000 killed. Subsequently, several months later, Meduza gave a new estimate of 64,000 soldiers killed in 2022 and 2023, based on excess deaths reported by Rosstat, including those in Crimea, but not other Ukrainian regions seized by Russia. Using a similar analysis, but in addition using a statistical model of the ratio of total deaths to deaths confirmed by name, stratified by age group, and the Mediazona updated counts of named deaths, Meduza gave an updated estimate of total Russian deaths of 120,000 killed through to 30 June 2024. Several days later, The Economist made its own calculation using the severely-wounded-to-killed ratio from leaked documents by the United States Department of Defense, giving an estimate of between 462,000 and 728,000 Russian soldiers killed or wounded since the start of the conflict. According to their estimate, approximately 2% of all Russian men between the ages of 20 and 50 may have been killed or seriously wounded in Ukraine since February 2022. By the end of 2024, Meduza estimated that over 165,000 Russian soldiers had died during the war.
Meanwhile, Ukraine confirmed it had 10,000 killed and 30,000 wounded by the start of June 2022, while 7,200 troops were missing, including 5,600 captured. At the height of the fighting in May and June 2022, according to president Zelenskyy and presidential advisor Mykhailo Podolyak, between 100 and 200 Ukrainian soldiers were being killed in combat daily, while presidential adviser Oleksiy Arestovych said 150 soldiers were being killed and 800 wounded daily. Mid-June, Davyd Arakhamia, Ukraine's chief negotiator with Russia, told Axios that between 200 and 500 Ukrainian soldiers were killed every day. By late July, Ukrainian daily losses fell to around 30 killed and about 250 wounded. In August 2023, The New York Times quoted unnamed U.S. officials as saying that up to 70,000 Ukrainian troops had been killed and 100,000 to 120,000 wounded. However, a new estimate by a U.S. official in October 2024, put the number of Ukrainian casualties at more than 57,500 killed and 250,000 wounded. As of 25 February 2024, Ukraine confirmed 31,000 of its soldiers had been killed in the conflict. In late November 2024, based on all previous estimates of Ukrainian military casualties, The Economist estimated Ukrainian losses at between 60,000 and 100,000 killed and 400,000 wounded. On 8 December 2024, US president-elect Donald Trump claimed 400,000 Ukrainian soldiers had been killed and seriously wounded so far during the war. Subsequently, President Zelenskyy announced 43,000 Ukrainian soldiers were killed and 370,000 were wounded, but that “approximately 50%” of these soldiers recovered and had returned to active duty. He updated the Ukrainian military's casualty toll in mid-February 2025, to over 46,000 killed and 380,000 wounded.
According to the UALosses project started at the end of 2023, found to be reliable by Mediazona, Meduza, the Book of Memory group and BBC News Russian, themselves also running projects tracking military fatalities in the conflict, it had documented by name the deaths of 70,935 Ukrainian fighters as of 21 May 2025, including non-combat losses.
As of mid-April 2023, around 7,000 Ukrainian soldiers remained missing, of whom some 60-65 per cent were believed to be prisoners. The number of missing was updated to 63,000 by mid-February 2025, 90 percent of which were thought to be soldiers.
Yuriy Lutsenko, the former Ukrainian Prosecutor General and member of the opposition party European Solidarity, said on Ukrainian television in January 2024 that around 500,000 Ukrainian soldiers had been killed or wounded, and that about 30,000 were becoming casualties every month.
Ukrainian estimates of Russian military losses tended to be high, while Russian estimates of their own losses tended to be low. Combat deaths can be inferred from a variety of sources, including satellite imagery and video image of military actions. According to a researcher at the Department of Peace and Conflict Research at Uppsala University in Sweden, regarding Russian military losses, Ukraine engaged in a misinformation campaign to boost morale and Western media were generally happy to accept its claims, while Russia was ""probably"" downplaying its own casualties. Ukraine also tended to be quieter about its own military fatalities. According to BBC News, Ukrainian claims of Russian fatalities included the injured as well. Western countries emphasized the Russian military's toll, while Russian news outlets have largely stopped reporting on the Russian death toll. In early June 2022, the Svetlogorsk City Court in the Kaliningrad region ruled that a list of Russian soldiers killed in Ukraine, published by privately owned news websites, constituted ""classified information"" and its publication could be considered a criminal offense.
In late January 2025, The New York Times reported that analysts concluded that Russia's losses, including killed and severely injured, were slightly fewer than two soldiers for every Ukrainian soldier killed or severely wounded, after they combined multiple different estimates of Ukrainian losses. Information on military casualties is a state secret in both Russia and Ukraine, while the Ukrainian government has been especially secretive, restricting access to demographic data that could be used to estimate its losses. In addition, Western intelligence agencies have been reluctant to disclose their internal calculations of Ukrainian military casualties for fear of undermining an ally. American officials previously said that Ukraine withholds this information from even its closest allies.
Men from the poverty-stricken regions of Russia's Far North, Far East and Siberia were overrepresented among Russian war casualties. Buryats, Kalmyks, Tuvans, Chukchi, and Nenets were reported as Russia's ethnic minority groups suffering disproportionately high casualty rates among Russian forces. On the Ukrainian side, per UA Losses, as of 21 May 2025, the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast has the highest number of confirmed Ukrainian soldiers dead or missing at 13,274, while the Kirovohrad Oblast has the highest confirmed death and missing count per capita at 5.949 per 1,000.
In terms of confirmed deaths of officers of both belligerents, according to groups collecting that information, 5,076 Russian officers had been killed as of 20 May 2025, and 5,835 Ukrainian officers were dead as of 21 May 2025.
According to NATO and Western military officials, around 1,200 Russian soldiers were killed or wounded in Ukraine every day on average in May and June 2024. In July 2024, Chief of the General Staff of the British Army Sir Roland Walker said that with the current way of fighting, it would take Russia five years to control the four regions of Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhia that Russia claims as its own, and it would cost Russia from 1.5 to 1.8 million casualties. He said there are ""no winners"" in Russia's invasion of Ukraine, adding that ""it is an utter devastation for both sides and lost generations."" By August 2024, the daily average of Russian military casualties in the conflict was about 1,000 soldiers, according to a Western official.
The number of civilian and military deaths is impossible to determine with precision. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) considers the number of civilian casualties to be considerably higher than the one the United Nations are able to certify.


=== Civilian deaths ===

By 30 April 2025, OHCHR had recorded 45,001 civilian casualties in Ukraine since February 24, 2022: 13,134 killed and 31,867 injured, but said they believe the real number is higher. This included 37,950 (10,449 killed and 27,501 injured) occurred on territory covered by the government of Ukraine and 7,051 (2,685 killed and 4,366 injured) on territory controlled by Russian armed forces or their affiliates. 11,354 deaths were caused by explosive weapons ""with wide area effects"", 429 by mines and explosive remnants, 1,351 by small arms, including from crossfire, or road accidents involving military or civilian vehicles.
As of 30 June 2023, OHCHR said it had received information on 287 civilian casualties in Western Russia, with 58 killed and 229 injured, while six more were killed and 16 injured in the Republic of Crimea. Another two civilians were killed and one injured in a Ukrainian drone attack on the Crimean bridge on 17 July 2023, while five civilians were killed and 151 were injured by a Ukrainian missile attack in Sevastopol, in Crimea, on 23 June 2024. Sergey Aksyonov, the Russian-installed head of Crimea, also alleged that a Ukrainian attack on drilling platforms in the Black Sea near Crimea had left seven Chernomorneftegaz workers missing. The 7x7 Russian opposition media outlet confirmed the deaths of 394 civilians in Russia by 25 December 2024, not including those in Crimea. In addition, missiles struck the Polish border village of Przewodów in Lublin Voivodeship on 15 November 2022, and killed two Polish civilians.
In April 2022, the civilian death toll included more than 200 children. In March 2022, 55 of the war-related child deaths were from the Kyiv area and another 34 were from Kharkiv. On 17 February 2023, the Ukrainian prosecutor general announced that at least 461 children had been killed since the start of the invasion, with a further 923 wounded. Most of these child victims were from the Donetsk region.
By February 2023, Ukrainian chief prosecutor for war crimes Yuriy Belousov claimed that ""there could be 100,000 civilians killed across Ukraine, whose bodies will have to be found and identified once occupied territory is liberated."" A Project on Defense Alternatives study calculated a ""modest"" figure of 40,000 Ukrainian civilian dead by April 2023. In May 2023, US officials claimed Ukrainian civilian deaths were at 42,000, twice the then-estimated figure for Ukrainian military losses. According to the Kyiv Independent, Russia does not allow monitoring in territories it controls, where civilian deaths are thought to be highest.


=== Foreign civilians ===
At least 174 foreign citizens civilians from 25 countries are confirmed to have been killed during the war within Ukraine. Over 70 missing from Azerbaijan were also reported.

Paul Urey and Dylan Healy, two British aid workers, were captured by Russian forces. Healy was charged with 'forcible seizure of power' and undergoing 'terrorist' training, but later released on 21 September 2022, while Urey died in captivity. An American citizen was also detained by pro-Russian separatists forces and accused of 'participation in pro-Ukrainian protests'. He was released on 28 October 2022, and reached Ukrainian-controlled territory by 14 December.


=== Foreign fighters ===
Excluding the Russian and Ukrainian military casualties, at least 1,480-1,574 combatants, foreign citizens or foreign-born, were killed during the war. By January 2023, another 1,000 had been wounded while fighting on the Ukrainian side. Below is a list of the nationalities of foreign combatant casualties.

Two Peruvians, an Azerbaijani, a Colombian, a Czech, an Estonian and a Lithuanian foreign fighter were also reported missing while fighting alongside the Ukrainian military, and 16 Indians went missing while fighting for Russia. A Cuban fighting on the Russian side also said that a number of Cuban fighters had been killed or gone missing during the conflict as of September 2023, while Russian sources presented the passport of an American fighter who was claimed to have either been killed or captured, although this was not confirmed.


=== Identification, repatriation and exchanges ===
Sergiy Kyslytsya, the Ukrainian Ambassador to the United Nations, announced on 27 February 2022, that the country had reached out to the International Committee of the Red Cross for help in the repatriation effort of the bodies of killed Russian soldiers. Due to concerns that Russia was not reporting the number or any casualties of soldiers in Ukraine, the Ukrainian Interior Ministry began issuing appeals that same day for relatives of Russian soldiers to help identify wounded, captured, or killed soldiers. The initiative, called Ishchi Svoikh (Russian: Ищи Своих, lit. 'Look for Your Own'), appeared aimed in part at undermining morale and support for the war in Russia and was quickly blocked by the Russian government's media regulator the day the initiative began at the request of Russia's Prosecutor-General's Office.
Ukrainian authorities began using facial recognition technology supplied to them by Clearview AI on 12 March 2022, to help identify the deceased, along with potentially using it to uncover Russian spies, vet people at checkpoints and potentially combat misinformation. The Chief Executive of Clearview claimed that the technology could be more effective than matching fingerprints or other identifiable aspects of the individual, although a study by US Department of Energy raised concerns about decomposition reducing its effectiveness. Kyiv authorities have also reached out to the International Commission on Missing Persons, which was formed to help after the 1990s Balkan conflicts and the 1995 Srebrenica massacre, and identifies individuals by collecting DNA samples from the deceased and families to cross match. The organization will also document the location of the body and how the individual died.
As Russian soldiers began to retreat the identification of the dead civilians who had been unreported due to communication issues and constant fighting began to be reported. Documentation and identification of the bodies began with many hastily dug graves and rubble being cleared away to photograph and identify the bodies as well as count the number involved. Handwritten tags and passports have been attached to the bodies after identification before they are taken by coroners and officials. In some locations villagers kept track of the deceased, such as in Yahidne, a village north of Kyiv, where they used a school basement wall to write the names of the deceased while under Russian control.
As of late May 2022, Ukrainian authorities had stored at least 137 bodies of Russian soldiers that were collected near Kyiv, as well as 62 in the Kharkiv region.

In December 2024, Russia's Deputy Minister of Defence Anna Tsivilyova mentioned 48,000 soldiers missing in action for whom relatives have contributed DNA samples as part of search applications.


=== Amputations ===

On 2 August 2023, an investigation by The Wall Street Journal found that Ukrainian medical amputations in the war came to between 20,000 and 50,000 including both military and civilians. In comparison, during World War One 41,000 British and 67,000 Germans needed amputations.


=== Prisoners of war ===

Russia reported it had captured 572 Ukrainian soldiers by 2 March 2022, while Ukraine stated 562 Russian soldiers were being held as prisoners as of 19 March, with 10 previously reported released in prisoner exchanges for five Ukrainian soldiers and the mayor of Melitopol, Ivan Fedorov. Subsequently, the first large prisoner exchange took place on 24 March, when 10 Russian and 10 Ukrainian soldiers, as well as 11 Russian and 19 Ukrainian civilian sailors, were exchanged. Among the released Ukrainian soldiers was one of 13 Ukrainian border-guard members captured during the Russian attack on Snake Island. Later, on 1 April 86 Ukrainian servicemen were exchanged for an unknown number of Russian troops.
Ukraine's ambassador to the U.S., Oksana Markarova, reported that a platoon of the 74th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade from Kemerovo Oblast surrendered to Ukraine, saying they ""didn't know that they were brought to Ukraine to kill Ukrainians"". Ukraine held a series of press conferences with about a dozen POWs, where the POWs made comments against the invasion, how they had been manipulated and for the conflict to end. According to The Guardian, while it was likely that Ukraine was using the discomfort of captured soldiers for propaganda purposes, still the videos succeeded in showing the Russian servicemen's ""authentic sense"" of regret for having come to Ukraine. Amnesty International said that Article 13 of the Third Geneva Convention prohibits videos of captured soldiers. Captured Ukrainian soldiers with British citizenship were recorded calling for Boris Johnson to arrange for them to be freed in exchange for pro-Kremlin Ukrainian politician Viktor Medvedchuk. MP Robert Jenrick called the videos, broadcast separately on Russia-24, a ""flagrant breach"" of the Geneva Convention. A Russian spokeswoman claimed that she told Johnson in a phone call about the men's treatment that the UK should ""show mercy"" to Ukrainian citizens by stopping military aid to the Ukrainian government when asked to show the men mercy.
The head of the Ukrainian Coordination Headquarters for POW Treatment, Iryna Vereshchuk, raised concerns that Russia had not released information to Ukrainian authorities on the location of any Ukrainian POW's and the International Red Cross had not been allowed to see them, as of 16 March.
By 21 April, Russia claimed that 1,478 Ukrainian troops had been captured during the course of the siege of Mariupol. On 22 April, Yuri Sirovatko, Minister of Justice of the Donetsk People's Republic, claimed that some 3,000 Ukrainian prisoners of war were held in the territory of the DPR. On 20 May, the Russian Ministry of Defense claimed that 2,439 Ukrainian soldiers had been taken prisoner over the previous five days as a result of the surrender of the last defenders of Mariupol, entrenched inside the Azovstal Iron and Steel Works. On 26 May, Rodion Miroshnik, ambassador of the Luhansk People's Republic to Russia, claimed that around 8,000 Ukrainian POWs were held within the territory of the DPR and LPR. According to a statement by Sergei Shoigu, Russia's Minister of Defence, in early June 2022, 6,489 Ukrainian soldiers had surrendered since the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
In a report by The Independent on 9 June, it cited an intelligence report that more than 5,600 Ukrainian soldiers had been captured, while the number of Russian servicemen being held as prisoners had fallen to 550, from 900 in April, following several prisoner exchanges. In contrast, the Ukrayinska Pravda newspaper claimed 1,000 Russian soldiers were being held as prisoners as of 20 June.
According to Ukraine, as of mid-November 2023, 4,337 Ukrainians were being held by Russia as prisoners of war, including 3,574 soldiers and 763 civilians, while by this point 2,598 Ukrainians had been released, including 133 civilians. As of early June 2024, according to Russia, 6,465 Ukrainian soldiers were still being held prisoner in Russia and 1,348 Russian soldiers were prisoners in Ukraine, while by this point 3,210 Ukrainians had been confirmed released, including 143 civilians. By 6 May 2025, the number of prisoners released by Russia during prisoner exchanges rose to 4,757, including 189 civilians. An additional 529 Ukrainians were released by Russia outside of the exchanges. At least 800 Russian soldiers had also been confirmed to have been released by late February 2023. In August 2024, between 247 and 594 Russian soldiers had been captured during fighting in Kursk Oblast. As of the beginning of February 2025, 1,382 Russian servicemen that were previously thought missing were confirmed to be in Ukrainian captivity, while the overall number of Russian prisoners of war was thought to be much higher.
According to the UALosses project, 6,404 Ukrainian soldiers were being held as prisoners as of 23 April 2025. By 21 May 2025, the number had fallen to 6,087.
A study of Russian prisoners of war captured by Ukraine found that 55% of the soldiers had been motivated to fight to ""improve their livelihoods"", while 36% were ideologically motivated.


== See also ==
List of ongoing armed conflicts
Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War
The Wall of Remembrance of the Fallen for Ukraine
Casualties during the 2013–2014 Ukraine crisis
Military history of the Russian Federation


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Casualties of the War in Donbas at Wikimedia Commons"
1945 Indiana Hoosiers football team,"The 1945 Indiana Hoosiers football team was an American football team that represented the Indiana University Bloomington in the 1945 Big Ten Conference football season, compiled the only undefeated record and won the first Big Ten Conference championship in the program's history.  In their 12th year under head coach Bo McMillin, the Hoosiers compiled a 9–0–1 record (5–0–1 Big Ten), outscored their opponents by a combined total of 279 to 56, and finished the season ranked #4 in the final AP Poll. The lone blemish on the team's record was a 7–7 tie with Northwestern in the second game of the season.
Head coach Bo McMillin was selected as the Coach of the Year by his fellow college football coaches.  Four Hoosier players also received first-team honors on either the 1945 All-America Team or the 1945 All-Big Ten Conference football team. End Bob Ravensberg was a consensus first-team All-American, while fullback Pete Pihos received first-team All-American honors from Yank, the Army Weekly. Freshman halfback George Taliaferro rushed for 719 yards (the first African-American player to lead the Big Ten in rushing) and received second-team All-American honors.  Pihos, Taliaferro, and end Ted Kluszewski also received first-team All-Big Ten honors. Pihos, Taliaferro, and coach McMilllin were later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.
Quarterback Ben Raimondi led the team in passing, completing 35 of 83 passes for 593 yards and 10 touchdowns with three interceptions.  Mel Groomes was the team's leading receiver with 12 catches for 223 yards. In 1948, Groomes became the first African-American player to sign with the Detroit Lions.


== Before the season ==
The 1944 Indiana football team compiled a 7–3 record and finished in fifth place in the Big Ten Conference. Players lost from the 1944 team included John Tavener, who was the consensus first-team center on the 1944 All-America Team.  Bob Meyer was expected to fill Tavener's spot in the middle of the line, but he suffered a broken leg in the 1945 season opener against Michigan.  John Cannady, who had previously been a fullback and linebacker, eventually won the job.
Another loss from the 1944 team was halfback Robert Hoernschemeyer.  Hoernschemeyer was a second-team All-Big Ten player in 1944, but he entered the Naval Academy after the 1944 season, played for the Navy Cadets in 1945, and then played 10 years of professional football.
On the other hand, several players returned from military service in time for the 1945 season.  Most prominent among these were Pete Pihos and Howie Brown. Pihos was a lieutenant in the 35th Infantry Division, and Brown received three Purple Heart citations for his service in the European Theater of Operations. Neither had been discharged when the season began, but they were granted 60-day leaves by the Army and returned in time for the second game of the season against Northwestern.


== Schedule ==


== Rankings ==


== Game summaries ==


=== Week 1: at Michigan ===

On September 22, 1945, Indiana opened its season with a 13–7 victory over Michigan. Indiana scored a touchdown in the first quarter on a pass from Ben Raimondi to Ted Kluszewski, but Kluszeweski's kick for extra point went wide.  In the second quarter, the Hoosiers scored again on a touchdown pass from Raimondi to Mel Groomes that covered 56 yards, including 34 yards of Groomes running down the sideline. Kluszewski's extra point kick was successful, and Indiana led 13–0 at halftime. In his first college football game, freshman halfback George Taliaferro rushed for 95 yards on 20 carries.
Indiana's starting lineup against Michigan was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Frank Ciolli (left guard), Bob Meyer (center), Joe Sowinski (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Kluszewski (right end), Raimondi (quarterback), Taliaferro (left halfback), Groomes (right halfback), and Nick Lysohir (fullback).


=== Week 2: at Northwestern ===

On September 29, 1945, Indiana and Northwestern played to a 7–7 tie in Evanston, Illinois. Northwestern end Stan Gorski recovered a blocked punt in the end zone midway through the first quarter to give Northwestern a 7–0 lead.  Northwestern held the lead until late in the fourth quarter when Ben Raimondi threw a four-yard touchdown pass to Pete Pihos. Pihos dragged three Northwestern defenders with him into the end zone. George Taliaferro rushed for 56 yards on 19 attempts.  In all, Indiana gained 152 rushing yards and 133 passing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Northwestern was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), Oleksak (center), Frank Ciolli (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Ted Kluszewski (right end), Raimondi (quarterback), Taliaferro (left halfback), Dick Deranek (right halfback), and Nick Lysohir (fullback).


=== Week 3: at Illinois ===

On October 6, 1945, Indiana defeated Illinois by a 6–0 score in Champaign, Illinois. In the second quarter, Mel Groomes threw a touchdown pass to Ted Kluszewski, but the play was called back because a Great Dane dog had gotten loose on the field during the play.  In the third quarter, the Hoosiers moved the ball to the Illinois one-yard line, but the Illinois defense held. The Hoosiers did not score until the fourth quarter when Ben Raimondi threw a touchdown pass to Kluszewski.  Defensively, the Chicago Tribune described Pete Pihos as a ""demon"", and the Hoosiers held the Illini to 113 rushing yards and 35 passing yards.  Offensively, the Hoosiers gained 200 rushing yards and 41 passing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Illinois was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), John Cannady (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Kluszewski (right end), Raimondi (quarterback), George Taliaferro (left halfback), Groomes (right halfback), and Pihos (fullback).


=== Game 4: Nebraska ===

On October 13, 1945, the Hoosiers defeated Nebraska by a 54–14 score at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington.  Indiana's eight touchdowns were scored by Dick Deranek, Pete Pihos, Mel Groomes, Bob Ravensberg, Bob Miller (95-yard kickoff return to start the second half), Bill Armstrong (2), and Tom Schwartz.  The Hoosiers gained 417 yards in the game, 272 rushing yards and 145 passing yards.  Defensively, the Hoosiers held the Cornhuskers to 79 rushing yards and 117 passing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Nebraska was Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), Allan Horn (center), Frank Ciolli (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Lou Mihajlovich (right end), Ben Raimondi (quarterback), George Taliaferro (left halfback), Deranek (right halfback), and Pihos (fullback).


=== Week 5: at Iowa ===

On October 20, 1945, Indiana defeated Iowa by a 52–20 score in Iowa City. Indiana's first touchdown was scored on a 20-yard interception return by Bob Ravensberg.  Less than two minutes later, Ravensberg scored again when he recovered a blocked punt in the end zone. George Taliaferro had two long touchdown runs of 62 and 74 yards.  Bill Armstrong ran 43 yards for Indiana's fifth touchdown, and Dick Deranek scored on a reverse around Iowa's right end to give the Hoosiers a 40–0 lead at halftime. In the third quarter, Indiana scored twice, on a short pass from Ben Raimondi to John Gorski and on a long pass from Raimondi to Deranek covering 48 yards.  Indiana led 52–0 at the end of the third quarter and had allowed Iowa only two first downs.  In the fourth quarter, Iowa scored 20 points against the Hoosier reserves.  Indiana totaled 337 rushing yards and 94 passing yards, and held Iowa to 115 rushing yards and 134 passing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Iowa was Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), Allan Horn (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Lou Mihajlovich (right end), Raimondi (quarterback), Taliaferro (left halfback), Mel Groomes (right halfback), and Pete Pihos (fullback).


=== Game 6: Tulsa ===

On October 27, 1945, the Hoosiers defeated a previously undefeated Tulsa team by a 7–2  score at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington. Tulsa captain Charles Stanley was ejected from the game in the first quarter for ""using a knee on"" Indiana's African-American halfback George Taliaferro.  The Hoosiers sole touchdown came on a 60-yard sweep around left end; after a 20-yard gain, Pete Pihos lateraled the ball to Bob Ravensberg who ran the rest of the way. In the third quarter, the Hoosiers were pinned deep in their own territory by a Hardy Brown punt, and after a penalty pushed them back further, George Taliaferro was tackled behind the goal line for a safety. Indiana rushed for 224 yards in the game and held Tulsa to 80 rushing yards and five passing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Tulsa was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), John Cannady (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Ted Kluszewski (right end), Ben Raimondi (quarterback), George Taliaferro (left halfback), Mel Groomes (right halfback), and Pete Pihos (fullback).


=== Game 7: Cornell ===

On November 3, 1945, the Hoosiers defeated the Cornell College team by a 46–6  score at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington. Dick Deranek scored three touchdowns for Indiana. Additional touchdowns were scored by Pete Pihos, George Taliaferro, Leroy Stovall, and William Buckner.  Carl Anderson served as the acting head coach for the game, while head coach Bo McMillin scouted the Michigan-Minnesota game in Ann Arbor.
Indiana's starting lineup against Cornell was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), John Cannady (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Lou Mihajlovich (right end), Ben Raimondi (quarterback), George Taliaferro (left halfback), Mel Groomes (right halfback), and Pete Pihos (fullback).


=== Week 8: at Minnesota ===

On November 10, 1945, Indiana limited Bernie Bierman's Minnesota Golden Gophers to 20 rushing yards and won by a 49–0 score at Minneapolis. George Taliaferro returned the opening kickoff 95 yards and scored three touchdowns in a game that the Chicago Tribune called ""the most decisive licking any Minnesota team ever has received.""  Indiana scored its 49 points in the first three quarters, 28 of them in the second quarter, before turning the game over to its deep reserves.  All 34 players on Indiana's traveling squad appeared in the game.  Additional Indiana touchdowns were scored by Bob Miller, Pete Pihos, Dick Deranek, and Tom Schwartz.  Indiana gained 245 rushing yards and 123 passing yards while holding Minnesota to 20 rushing yards and 90 passing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Minnesota was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), John Cannady (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Ted Kluszewski (right end), Ben Raimondi (quarterback), Taliaferro (left halfback), Mel Groomes (right halfback), and Pihos (fullback).


=== Week 9: at Pittsburgh ===

On November 17, 1945, Indiana defeated Pittsburgh by a 19–0 score in Pittsburgh. Fullback Pete Pihos scored two touchdowns, and Bob Ravensberg also scored a touchdown on a pass from Ben Raimondi. Indiana gained 192 rushing yards and held Pittsburgh to only 18 rushing yards.
Indiana's starting lineup against Pittsburgh was Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), John Cannady (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Ted Kluszewski (right end), Raimondi (quarterback), George Taliaferro (left halfback), Mel Groomes (right halfback), and Pihos (fullback).


=== Game 10: Purdue ===

On November 24, 1945, the Hoosiers defeated Purdue by a 26–0 score at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington.  With the victory, the Hoosiers claimed both the Old Oaken Bucket trophy and the first Big Ten Conference football championship in school history.  After a scoreless first half, Pete Pihos scored two touchdowns in the third quarter. In the fourth quarter, Ben Raimondi threw touchdown passes to Ted Kluszewski and Lou Mihajlovich.  The Hoosiers gained 349 rushing yards in the game.  On defense, Indiana held Purdue's touted passing offense led by quarterback Bob DeMoss to one two-yard completion in 15 attempts. After the game, Indiana University president Herman B Wells congratulated the team in the locker room and declared the following Monday to be a holiday with no classes to be held.
Indiana's starting lineup against Purdue was Bob Ravensberg (left end), Russ Deal (left tackle), Joe Sowinski (left guard), John Cannady (center), Howie Brown (right guard), Jon Goldsberry (right tackle), Kluszewski (right end), Raimondi (quarterback), George Taliaferro (left halfback), Mel Groomes (right halfback), and Pihos (fullback).


== After the season ==
The Associated Press released the results of its final poll on December 4, 1945.  The 1945 Army Cadets football team was selected as the national champion with 1,160 points and first-place votes by 115 of 116 voters.  Indiana was ranked fourth with 720 points.
Indiana head coach Bo McMillin was selected in voting by his fellow college football coaches as the 1945 ""Coach of the Year"".  McMillin received 445 points and 63 first-place votes out of 155 ballots cast. Army's Earl Blaik finished second with 212 points and 28 first-place votes.
Several Indiana players also won post-season honors. These include:

End Bob Ravensberg was selected as a consensus first-team player on the 1945 All-America Team, receiving first-team honors from Look magazine, The Sporting News, and the Football Writers Association of America. He also received second-team All-American honors and second-team All-Big Ten honors from the United Press (UP).
Fullback Pete Pihos received first-team All-American honors from Yank, the Army Weekly, and second-team All-American honors from the UP, Associated Press (AP), and The Sporting News.  He also received first-team All-Big Ten honors from both the AP and UP. Pihos also finished eighth in the voting for the 1945 Heisman Trophy.  He was later inducted into both the College Football Hall of Fame and the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Freshman halfback George Taliaferro led the Big Ten with 719 rushing yards on 156 carries (4.6 yards per carry), becoming the first African-American player to lead the conference in rushing yardage. He received second-team All-American honors from the Central Press, International News Service (INS), and The Sporting News. He also received third-team All-American honors from the AP and first-team All-Big Ten honors from both the AP and UP. Taliaferro was later inducted in the College Football Hall of Fame.
End Ted Kluszewski received first-team All-Big Ten from both the AP and UP. Kluszewski went on to play in Major League Baseball for 15 years.
Tackle Jon Goldsberry received second-team All-Big Ten from the UP.


== Personnel ==


=== Varsity letter winners ===
The following 25 players received varsity letters for their participation on the 1945 Indiana football team.  Players who started at least half of the team's ten games are displayed in bold.

Bill Armstrong, #12
Charlie Armstrong, #72
Howie Brown, #73 – started 7 games at right guard
John Cannady, #38 – started 5 games at center
Frank Ciolli, #62 – started 1 game at left guard, 2 games at right guard
Russ Deal, #67 – started all 10 games at left tackle
Dick Deranek, #88 – started 2 games at right halfback
Jon Goldsberry, #78 – started all 10 games at right tackle
Mel Groomes, #57 – started 8 games at right halfback
Bob Harbison, #64
Allan Horn, #50 – started 2 games at center
Ted Kluszewski, #83 – started 7 games at right end
John Kokos, #43
Nick Lysohir, #33 – started first 2 games at fullback
Bob Meyer, #22 – started one game at center
Lou Mihajlovich, #81 – started 3 games at right end
Bob Miller, #10
Pete Pihos – started final 8 games at fullback
Ben Raimondi, #46 – started all 10 games at quarterback
Bob Ravensberg, #61 – started all 10 games at left end
Tom Schwartz, #82
Nick Sebek, #25
Joe Sowinski -started all 10 games, one at right guard and nine at left guard
Leroy Stovall
George Taliaferro, #44 – started all 10 games at left halfback


=== Reserves ===
Jack Adams, #11
Bill Bradley
William Buckner
Joe Gilliam Sr., #41
John Gorski, #62
Hagmann, #75
Don Jones, #40
Robert Joseph, #76
Pat Kane, #87
Larry Napolitan
Francis Oleksak, #54 – started one game at center


=== Players in the NFL ===
Eleven players from the 1945 Indiana football team were either drafted to play or actually played in the National Football League.  They are:

Pete Pihos was selected by the Philadelphia Eagles with the 41st pick in the 1945 NFL draft.  He played nine years for the Eagles from 1947 to 1955 and was later inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Howie Brown was selected by the Green Bay Packers with the 206th pick in the 1946 NFL draft. He played for the Detroit Lions from 1948 to 1950.
John Cannady was selected by the New York Giants with the 22nd pick in the 1947 NFL draft. He played eight seasons with the Giants from 1947 to 1954.
Ben Raimondi was selected by the Chicago Cardinals with the 41st pick in the 1947 NFL Draft. He played for the New York Yankees (AAFC) in 1947.
Bob Ravensberg was selected by the Cardinals with the 150th pick in the 1947 NFL Draft. He played for the Cardinals in 1948 and 1949.
Dick Deranek was selected by the Pittsburgh Steelers with the 82nd pick in the 1948 NFL draft, but did not play in the NFL.
Mel Groomes was undrafted in 1948. Indiana head coach Bo McMillin became head coach and general manager of the Detroit Lions in 1948.  One of McMillin's first personnel moves was signing Groomes to a contract with the Lions on April 17, 1948.  At the time, only one other NFL team, the Los Angeles Rams, had an African-American player, and Groomes was the first African-American to sign a contract with the Detroit Lions. Groomes played for the Lions in 1948 and 1949.
Lou Mihajlovich was undrafted in 1948, but went on to play for the Los Angeles Dons in 1948 and the Green Bay Packers in 1954.
Jon Goldsberry was selected by the Cardinals with the 40th pick in the 1949 NFL draft.  Goldsberry played for the Cardinals in 1949 and 1950.
George Taliaferro was selected by the Chicago Bears with the 129th pick in the 1949 NFL Draft.  He played seven years in the NFL from 1949 to 1955.
Nick Sebek was selected by the Washington Redskins with the 248th pick in the 1949 NFL Draft. He played for the Redskins in 1950.
In addition, Ted Kluszewski went on to play 15 seasons in Major League Baseball.


=== Coaches and administrators ===
Head coach: Bo McMillin
Assistant coaches: Carl Anderson (backfield), Tim Temerario (tackles, guards, centers), Charles McDaniel (reserves), John Kovatch (ends), Paul ""Pooch"" Harrell (scout), Gordon Fisher (reserves)
Athletic director: Zora G. Clevenger


== References ==


== External links ==
Official Team Photo"
Ebrahim Hussein,"Ebrahim Hussein (born 1943 in Lindi, Tanganyika Territory) is a Tanzanian playwright and poet. His first play, Kinjeketile (1969), written in Swahili, and based on the life of Kinjikitile Ngwale, a leader of the Maji Maji Rebellion, is considered ""a landmark of Tanzanian theatre"". 
Hussein's work stands in a literary tradition expressed in the national language Swahili following the country's independence from the United Kingdom in 1961. Since his works, with the exception of Kinjeketile  and another play, have not been translated, his work has not become well-known outside of East Africa.


== Works and importance for Swahili theatre ==
Hussein was born into a family of Arab descent in Lindi, a town of the Swahili coast on the Indian Ocean in 1943. He was educated at the Aga Khan Secondary School in Dar es Salaam and at the University College Dar es Salam of the former University of Eastern Africa, where he studied French literature and theatre arts. Hussein's work stands in a theatrical tradition that was created after the country's independence from Great Britain in 1961. The decision for Swahili as the national language of Tanzania in 1964 favoured an independent drama literature that took a middle way between the traditions of the Swahili-speaking peoples of the coast and Zanzibar and the conventions of the European theatre.
Still a student, he wrote his first short plays Wakati Ukuta (Time is a Wall) and Alikiona (Consequences) in 1967. They focus on tensions between the old and new generations and the social tensions resulting from European colonialism. Although he accepted elements of the European notions of a ""well-made play"" in the tradition of Aristotle, like the picture-frame stage, he was also interested in traditional African theatrical forms and the expectations of the audience. Some of his plays, like Alikiona, incorporate elements of kichekesho, which is a comical interlude found in the middle of many taarab performances and in other plays, Hussein used Swahili traditions of storytelling (hadithi).
In 1969, Hussein wrote his first full-length play, Kinjeketile, based on the life of Kinjikitile Ngwale, a leading figure of the Maji Maji uprising during German colonial rule in East Africa. The play was directed by the East German literary scholar Joachim Fiebach, who was a visiting professor at the University of Dar es Salaam, and became a model for the new East African theatre. Starting with Kinjeketile, Hussein used elements of epic theatre as developed by German playwright Bertolt Brecht.  During the following years, Kinjeketile became a sort of national epic, for the first time expressing anticolonial self-esteem in East African theatre. The text sold over 20,000 copies and was adopted as a textbook for secondary schools in the 1970s. Hussein himself translated Kinjeketile into English, and published by Oxford University Press in Dar es Salaam, the play became also known abroad.
During the early 1970s, Hussein studied at the Humboldt University in East Berlin and wrote his PhD dissertation ""On the development of theatre in East Africa"". Other plays include Mashetani (1971), an overtly political play, Jogoo Kijijini (1976), an experiment in dramatic performance, and Arusi (1980), in which Hussein's main character expresses disillusionment with the Tanzanian socialist practice of ujamaa. Hussein also wrote poetry in free verse, a new poetical form for Swahili literature that was also widely read in the schools and universities of East Africa. His works written in a poetic and, at the same time, modern language became a model for the socialist cultural policy of Tanzania, even if they contained ambiguous heroes, who sometimes doubt their actions. On the other hand, the ""poetic, elliptic prose"" of his later plays has been found difficult to appreciate.
In 1975 he began teaching theatre studies at the University of Daresalaam and temporarily directed their theatre group. Until his departure in 1986, he taught as a professor of theatre studies at this university. Since then, he has led a life without many contacts in his house in the district of Kariakoo.


== Works ==


== Ngao ya Jadi ==
Hussein's play for one actor, Ngao ya Judi, tells the story of Sesota, a serpent, that terrorizes a village, so a young peasant is called upon to defeat Sesota. The peasant succeeds and the village rejoices. Over time, the evil the serpent brought grows again, causing the village to become more and more depraved. Eventually, Sesota returns, with no-one to challenge him. 
This text is a retelling of a Swahili folk story in which Sesota is defeated by being trapped in a pot rather than killed and who eventually returns. In Hussein's version, Sesota represents colonialism that the ""peasant"" desperately tries to fight. Hussein speaks about how the remnants of colonialism still remain and that any amount of Western influence on African culture brings back that evil. Through this, the retelling also shows that there is no ""good vs. evil"" like in traditional stories, but that the world is rather morally grey. One significant moment is when the village is celebrating after Sesota's death; names of a variety of famous African writers and artists are listed. Here, Hussein seems to be criticizing his fellow artists, saying that their work only comes during moments of joy, rather than being used to combat oppression.


== Reception ==
Not least because of his political statement about the history of the Maji-Maji uprising, Hussein's play Kinjeketile became one of the standard Swahili texts in Tanzanian and Kenyan schools and was reprinted several times. 
German literary scholar Joachim Fiebach published a German translation of Kinjeketile in his anthology of African plays in 1974. In his study of Hussein's work, he pointed out that the play's anti-colonial message of the conflict between the colonised and the colonisers had overshadowed a second more general meaning: According to Fiebach's analysis, the colonised Africans are not glorified, but lacking strategic vision, mired in trivial disputes and impeded by personal hostilities. Referring to Hussein’s theatrical style, Fiebach described it as a “dramaturgy that seems to merge or mix adopted European models of an intimate theatre with non-Aristotelic and completely unique techniques.”
In his study on Hussein's importance for Swahili theatre, French scholar of African literature Alain Ricard wrote, ""Ebrahim Hussein is the best known Swahili playwright, and Tanzania's most complex literary personality. Known first and foremost as a dramatist, he is also a theorist whose dissertation on the theatre in Tanzania remains the standard reference work. His plays are a corpus of theatrical material with great significance to an understanding of Tanzania's political and social development in relation to the Swahili/Islamic coastal culture, of which he is a part."" Referring to the absence of Hussein's international recognition and the predicament of African literature written in African languages, Ricard wrote:

A truly innovative and creative writer, a perceptive thinker, a gifted poet, he has often suffered neglect precisely because he has remained steadfastly committed to Kiswahili. His predicament illustrates the double-bind situation that menaces African literature in African languages. An international reputation is only possible when African-language works are translated into European languages, but few African-language works are translated.
While Hussein focused on research at the Humboldt University in East Berlin for his PhD thesis from 1970 to 1973, the first scholarly study of his work, Drama and National Culture: a Marxist Study of Ebrahim Hussein, a PhD thesis was published in 1989 by the US-American literary scholar Robert M. Philipson. In his 1999 review of Alain Ricard's study on Hussein, Philipson wrote: “Ebrahim Hussein is a difficult case. After Wole Soyinka and Athol Fugard, he is the most interesting and talented dramatist that Africa has produced, but his name is rarely mentioned in European studies on African literature. [...] The reason for this is simple: Hussein writes in Swahili, and his dramatic work, with the exception of Kinjeketile, has not been translated into a Western language.”


== Ebrahim Hussein Poetry Prize ==
The Ebrahim Hussein Poetry prize is an honour awarded annually since 2014 to the winner of the poetry contest under the same name. The contest was created by Safarani Seushi in line with the wish of the late Canadian filmmaker, Gerald Belkin (1940–2012). Belkin was in the process of creating this award, to be named after ""his friend and renowned filmmaker and playwright, Professor Ebrahim Hussein"", when he died. His goal in establishing the award and prize fund was to foster the careers of Swahili literary authors. The selected poems were published as Diwani ya tunzo ya ushairi ya Ebrahim Hussein (Anthology of Ebrahim Hussein Poetry Prize) in 2017.


== Ebrahim Hussein Fellowship ==
The Ebrahim Hussein Endowment for research in African expressive cultures was established in the College of Letters and Science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2003, thanks to the generosity of Robert M. Philipson, an alumnus of the college (PhD, 1989). The college awards up to $7,500 each year to one or more full-time graduate students in there to carry out research on African expressive cultures and/or archives outside of the United States. Winners of the fellowship include Vincent Ogoti, a Kenyan playwright. 


== References ==


== Further reading ==
John Githongo (8 May 2023). ""Prof. Ebrahim Hussein: Kiswahili, Poetry and Freedom - The Elephant"". Retrieved 23 December 2024.
S. O. Solanke. 2013. “Deploying Myths through Facts and Fictions in the Struggle for Tanzanians’ National Soul in Ebrahim N. Hussein’s Kinjeketile.” Venec 4 (1): 106–21.OCLC 8539661746
Affiah, Uwem, und Patience George Eni. Drama and the Revolutionary Archetype: Ebrahim Hussein’s Kinjeketile and Wa Thiong’o And Mugo’s The Trial Of Dedan Kimathi. European Journal of Literature, Language and Linguistics Studies 2.3 (2018).
Mwaifuge, Eliah S. German Colonialism, Memory and Ebrahim Hussein’s Kinjeketile. 2014, (pdf)
Kuloba, Agnes N. Translation inadequecies in the English version of Kinjeketile. Diss. University of Nairobi, 2013.
Alamin M. Mazrui (2007), Swahili Beyond the Boundaries: Literature, Language, and Identity, Ohio University Press, pp. 34–35, ISBN 978-0-89680-252-0
Martin Banham, Errol Hill, George Woodyard (4 August 1994), The Cambridge Guide to African and Caribbean Theatre, Cambridge University Press, pp. 115–116, ISBN 978-0-521-41139-4{{citation}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Lihamba, Amandina (1992). ""Popular theatre in Africa"". Voices from Africa (4): 53–64. OCLC 1248428484.
Lihamba, Amandina (1985). Politics and theatre in Tanzania after the Arusha declaration, 1967–1984 (Thesis). Leeds. OCLC 1184537252.
Mlama, Penina Muhando (1985). Tanzania's cultural policy and its implications for the contribution of the arts to socialist development. Dar es Salaam: Utafiti. OCLC 61749373.


== External links ==
Ebrahim Hussein in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Kinjeketile – English translation and analysis"
Fannia Cohn,"Fannia Mary Cohn (April 5, 1885 – December 24, 1962) was a leading figure in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) during the first half of the 20th century. She is remembered as one of the pioneers of the workers' education movement in the United States and as a prolific author on the theme of trade union education.


== Biography ==


=== Early years ===
Fannia Mary Cohn was born on April 5, 1885, to an ethnic Jewish family in Kletsk, Belarus, then part of the Russian Empire. She was the fourth of five children of a successful owner of a flour mill and his wife. Fannia received an education in private schools, with her parents encouraging their daughter to read extensively.
Cohn was radicalized during her teenaged years in the Tsarist empire. At the age of 16 she joined the Socialist Revolutionary Party (PSR), the intellectual successor of the Narodnik movement of the 1870s. She was active in the Minsk section of the PSR, a secret revolutionary political party, for the next three years.


=== Emigration to America ===
In 1904 her brother was nearly killed in an anti-Jewish pogrom, spurring Fannia to emigrate to the United States. Arriving in New York City, Cohn soon joined the Socialist Party of America. Cohn decided against further formal education in 1905, instead taking a job as a garment worker in order to participate directly in the Yiddish-language labor movement of New York City.
In 1906 Fannia began her efforts to organize workers in the white goods trade. Organizing this particular trade was difficult because workers within it were of various nationalities and spoke different languages. During a 1908 strike of household linen makers, Cohn met Rose Schneiderman, with whom she became closely associated. Both Cohn and Schneiderman believed in the efficacy of recruiting female strike leaders from the union rank-and-file rather than relying upon a male-dominated centralized union bureaucracy for the settlement of labor disputes. They employed this outlook to bridge the ethnic gaps amongst worker in the white goods trade, finding a leader amongst the women of different ethnicities who could speak to the workers in their own language and cultivating her organizing talents. This strategy was successful and by 1909 the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) recognized the white goods' worker's union.
Fannia helped to organize Local 24 of the ILGWU in Brooklyn and was elected to the Executive Board of the local in 1909 at the young age of 24. She was elected Chair of the Executive Board in 1913 and remained in that position until 1914. During the years 1912 and 1913 Cohn played a prominent role as a leader of the strike movement of New York City's organized garment workers.
In 1914 the National Women's Trade Union League (NWTUL), an organization established in 1903, launched a training school for women organizers, a year-long program combining academics and field work. New York ILGWU leader Cohn was one of the first three chosen to attend the program in Chicago. In 1915, she was asked by the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union to organize Chicago dressmakers and in doing so founded ILGWU Local No. 59. In connection with this activity, Cohn was a key leader of a major strike of Chicago garment workers which began late in 1915 and continued into the following year, serving as a general organizer for the ILGWU.
In 1916 Cohn was elected as the first female vice president of the ILGWU. She would serve in this capacity until 1925.


=== Workers' education ===
In 1918 Cohn took the leadership of the ILGWU's Education Committee, and eventually rose to become Vice President of the union. After being elected as the first female vice president of ILGWU, Fannia Cohn continued to pioneer and promote an image of the labor movement that integrated education as well as personal growth. Cohn, soon after her promotion, lobbied for the establishment of an Education Department within the union and subsequently, served as secretary upon its launch.
In the wake of this new educational reform, women within the union began to militantly mobilize due to their growing discontent with the ILGWU leadership and in turn, jumpstarted a rebellion that consequently crippled the union’s infrastructure. As a result, Fannia Cohn would be blamed for this rebellion as well as her failure to condemn it and would thus be castigated and ostracized from all fronts – including the militants she inspired. Cut off by union leaders, Cohn later channelled her activism into education, as she fostered some of the country's prominent scholars as allies and even teachers in her workers education courses.
Cohn was instrumental in the formation of the Workers' Education Bureau of America in 1921.
Cohn was a co-founder of  Brookwood Labor College in 1924, an initiative associated with labor educator A. J. Muste. She would serve as a director of Brookwood until 1933, also sitting on the board of Brookwood's Labor Publication Society, publisher of the magazine Labor Age. In 1932 Cohn was named a vice president of Brookwood Labor College, a position in which she remained until 1937. During her time at Brookwood, Cohn served as a mentor to Floria Pinkney, the first African-American labor organizer in the ILGWU.


=== Conferences and political activity ===
Fannia Cohn was selected as an American delegate to the International Women's Conference held in Washington, D.C., in 1919. She was also a delegate to the 1st International Conference on Workers' Education, held in Brussels, Belgium in 1922. She served in a similar capacity at the 2nd International Conference on Workers' Education, held in Oxford, England, in 1924.
In 1924 Cohn became active in the Conference for Progressive Political Action (CPPA), a group envisioned as an umbrella organization of progressive political and trade union activists leading towards the establishment of a labor party in the United States. Cohn was elected a member of the National Committee of the CPPA. Despite the failure of that organization to survive beyond 1925, Cohn remained active in left wing politics at least through the 1940s as a member of the League for Industrial Democracy.


=== Death and legacy ===
Fannia Cohn retired from trade union affairs in 1961. She died in New York City on December 24, 1962. She was 77 years old at the time of her death.


== Footnotes ==


== Works ==

The Educational Work of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union: Report Submitted to the Conference of the Worker's Education Bureau of America, April 2, 1921. New York : Educational Dept., International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, [1921].
Report of First International Conference on Workers' Education held in Brussels, Belgium, August 16th and 17th, 1922. With Spencer Miller. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, n.d. [c. 1922].
Winning Workingmen to Unionism. New York: International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [1920s].
Woman's Eternal Struggle: What Workers Education Will Do for Woman. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c. 1932].
The Uprising of the Sixty Thousand: The General Strike of the Dressmakers' Union, August 16, 1933. New York: International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [1933].
A New Era Opens for Labor Education: Discussion at the Workers' Education Bureau Conference, October 2, 1933, Washington, DC. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, n.d. [1933].
Social Responsibility. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c 1933].
Workers' Education and Labor Leadership. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, 1935.
Can Women Lead? New York: n.p., 1936.
Working Women in Action. New York: n.p., 1936.
We Kept Our Faith: A Memorial to Our Triangle Victims. New York: n.p., 1936.
Action Based on Knowledge is Power. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c. 1936].
The Workers Education Bureau — An Arm of the Labor Movement. New York: Workers Education Bureau, n.d. [c. 1936].
Method and Approach in a Discussion of the Economics of the Garment Industry for Young Workers. New York: n.p., 1937.
History: Fiction or Fact: What is Workers' Education, Including Suggestions for Teachers in Workers' Classes. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1938.
Progressives Must Choose. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, n.d. [c. 1938].
Why is Our Union Different? New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1939.
Workers' Education in the World Crisis: A Discussion at the Annual Conference of the American Association for Adult Education on May 21, 1940, at the Hotel Astor, New York. New York: American Association for Adult Education, 1940.
Workers' Education in War and Peace. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, 1943.
Facing the Future: Where Do We Go from Here? ... New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1945.
Labor Unions and the Community. New York: Workers Education Bureau of America, 1946.
Organized Labor's Contribution to the Nation. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1946.
UNESCO: Its Objectives and How to Implement Them. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1947.
Learn - Play - Act: A Program of Progressive Workers' Education. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1947.
Philosophy of Workers' Education. n.c.: n.p., n.d. [c. 1948].
Workers' Education: The Dream and the Reality. New York: Educational Department, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1948.
Adult Labor Education in a Troubled World: A Guide for Teachers. New York: International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, 1958.
Why Workers' Education? Los Angeles: n.p., n.d.


== Further reading ==
Ricki Carole Myers Cohen, Fannia Cohn and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. PhD dissertation. University of Southern California, 1976.
Brian Dolber, ""Sweating for Democracy: Working Class Media and the Struggle for 'Hegemonic Jewishness,' 1919-1941."" PhD dissertation. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 2011.
Louis Levine, The Women's Garment Workers: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1924.
Benjamin Stolberg, Tailor's Progress: The Story of a Famous Union and the Men Who Made It. New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1944.


== External links ==
New York Public Library Archives and Manuscripts – Fannia M. Cohn Papers: Three groups of documents, including correspondence, writings (articles, speeches, plays, etc.) and ILGWU-related documents
ILGWU Education Department – Fannia Cohn Papers:  Documentation of her work at the ILGWU from 1918 to 1961."
Immigration detention,"Immigration detention is the policy and practice of incarcerating both foreign national asylum seekers/refugees and immigrants — whether suspected of unauthorized arrival, illegal entry, visa violations, as well as those subject to deportation and removal — in detention centers for the purpose of immigration control, until a decision is made by immigration authorities to grant a visa and release them into the community, or to repatriate them to their country of departure. Mandatory detention refers to the practice of compulsorily detaining or imprisoning people who are considered to be illegal immigrants or unauthorized arrivals into a country. Some countries have set a maximum period of detention, while others permit indefinite detention.


== Americas ==


=== Canada ===
In Canada, immigration detainees are held in Immigration Holding Centres (IHCs), known as Le centre de surveillance de l'immigration (CSI) in French, under the auspices of the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA), who are granted such authority through the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA). Immigration detainees may also be kept in provincial jails, either because the IHCs are full, there is no centres in their region, or the detainee's file has a link to criminality.
As of 2020, Canada has three IHCs, each facility with different ownership and operations:

Laval IHC (Laval, Quebec): Opened in 1999, the Laval IHC operates under a Memorandum of Understanding between CBSA and the Correctional Services of Canada, the latter of whom owns the facility. The facility, known as Le centre de surveillance de l'immigration de Laval in French, is located approximately 30 km (19 mi) from the Montréal-Trudeau International Airport, and includes three buildings and a capacity of holding up to 109 detainees.
Greater Toronto Area IHC (Toronto, Ontario): Opened in 2003, GTA IHC is provided to the CBSA under a third-party service contract with a vendor. The facility is located around 8 km (5.0 mi) from Pearson International Airport, containing three stories, with an accommodation capacity of up to 183 detainees.
British Columbia IHC (Surrey, British Columbia): Opened in 2020, BC IHC facility is owned by the CBSA. The facility is located about 30 km (19 mi) from Vancouver International Airport, and able to accommodate up to 70 detainees.
There is no maximum limit to the length of detention, and children may be ""housed"" in IHCs to prevent the separation of families. Detainees can include: asylum seekers without sufficient amount of necessary identification papers, foreign workers whose visas had expired, and people awaiting deportation. In 2017, Canada received the highest number of asylum claims in its history; between 2017 and 2018, 6609 people were detained in holding centres, compared to 4,248 a year prior.
Between April 2019 and March 2020, CBSA detained 8,825 people, including 138 minors (mostly with a detained parent)—almost 2,000 of these detainees were kept in provincial jails. However, as of November 2020, in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, there were only 94 immigration detainees in provincial jails, 12 in Laval IHC, 18 in Greater Toronto IHC, and 11 in British Columbia IHC.


=== United States ===

In the United States, a similar practice began in the early 1980s with Haitians and Cubans detained at Guantanamo Bay, and other groups such as Chinese in jails and detention centres on the mainland. The practice was made mandatory by legislation passed in 1996 in response to the Oklahoma City bombing, and has come under criticism from organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Human Rights First, all of whom have released major studies of the subject, and the American Civil Liberties Union. As of 2010, about 31,000 non-citizens were held in immigration detention on any given day, including children, in over 200 detention centres, jails, and prisons nationwide.
The T. Don Hutto Residential Center opened in 2006 specifically to house non-criminal families. There are other significant facilities in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Oakdale, Louisiana, Florence, Arizona, Miami, Florida, Seattle, York, Pennsylvania, Batavia, New York, Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, and all along the Texas–Mexico border.
During the five years between 2003 and 2008, about 104 mostly young individuals died in detention of the US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) or shortly afterwards, and medical neglect may have contributed to 30 of those deaths. For example, on 6 August 2008, 34-year-old New Yorker Hiu Lui Ng died in the detention of ICE. Editors at The New York Times condemned the death and urged that the system must be fixed. ICE has stated that the number of deaths per capita in detention is dramatically lower for ICE detainees than for US prison and jail populations, that they provide ""the best possible healthcare"" and that the nation as a whole is ""experiencing severe shortages of qualified health professionals."" In May 2008 Congress began considering a bill to set new standards for immigrant detainee healthcare.
In 2009, the Obama Administration pledged to overhaul the current immigration detention system and transform it into one that is less punitive and subject to greater federal oversight. Immigrants' rights advocates expressed concern over Obama's reform efforts. Immigrants' rights advocates believe the all current immigration policies ""have been undermined by the Immigration agency's continued overreliance on penal incarceration practices and by the pervasive anti-reform culture at local ICE field offices.""


== Asia-Pacific ==
Most Asian states imprison immigrants on visa violations or for alleged trafficking, including the victims of trafficking and smuggling. These include Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia.


=== Australia ===

In Australia, mandatory immigration detention was adopted in 1992 for all non-citizens who arrive in Australia without a visa. That only 'border applicants' are subject to detention has sparked criticism, as it is claimed to unfairly discriminate against certain migrants. Other unlawful non-citizens, such as those that overstay their visas, are generally granted bridging visas while their applications are processed, and are therefore free to move around the community. The long-term detention of immigrant children has also sparked criticism of the practice by citizen's groups such as ChilOut and human rights organizations. Nonetheless, the High Court of Australia has confirmed, by the majority, the constitutionality of indefinite mandatory detention of aliens. This and related decisions have been the subject of considerable academic critique.
Australia has also sub-contracted with other nations to detain would-be immigrants offshore, including Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Nauru. Australia also maintains an offshore detention facility on Christmas Island. In July 2008, the Australian government announced it was ending its policy of automatic detention for asylum seekers who arrive in the country without visas. However, by September 2012, offshore detention was reinstated. Following the 2013 Australian federal election policies have been toughened and Operation Sovereign Borders has been launched.


=== India ===
The first immigration detention centre in Assam state had come up in 2008 when the Indian National Congress (INC) government was in power. In 2011 the Congress government set up three more camps. In 2018 and onwards the Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP) government has plans to build more camps across India.


=== Japan ===
Japanese immigration law permits indefinite detention without a court order including for those that overstay and those who seek asylum. Three immigration detention centers are maintained by immigration bureau for long-term detainees:

Higashi Nihon Nyukoku Kanri Center (Ushiku, Ibaraki, East Japan) – capacity: 700
Nishi Nihon Nyukoku Kanri Center (Ibaraki, Osaka, West Japan)
Omura Nyukoku Kanri Center (Omura, Nagasaki) – capacity: 800
Additionally, 16 regional detention houses are managed for short-term detention. However, many of the long-term detainees have been detained in regional short-term detention houses that lack facilities such as common rooms and recreational area. Some detainees spend significant time (up to 13 days) in isolation due to disciplinary measures. Practices of immigration bureau has been criticized for the ""lack of transparency"", ""indefinite detention"" and its ""arbitrary"" nature.


== Europe ==


=== Austria ===
The largest facility in Austria is the Federal care center east in Traiskirchen.


=== Greece ===
In late 2019, Greece's liberal-conservative government of New Democracy, led by Kyriakos Mitsotakis, announced the creation of five closed, pre-departure detention centers for refugees and immigrants, located on the Aegean islands of Leros, Chios, Lesvos, Kos, and Samos. Hosting over 20,000 immigrants, the islands will be compensated with a 30% VAT reduction. Ten other closed detention camps were planned as of 2019.


=== Italy ===
Since 6 March 1998 (law n.40/1998, aka the Turco-Napolitano law), irregular immigrants whose asylum requests have been denied are held in ""Provisional Stay Centers"" (Italian: Centri di Permanenza Temporanea, CPT) while awaiting expulsion from Italy.
Since 30 July 2002, the Bossi-Fini law (law n. 189/2002) made illegal entry and stay in Italian territory a criminal offence. The centers interned both individuals already sanctioned to expulsion, as before, and other irregular immigrants awaiting proper identification and evaluation of their asylum claims. Accordingly, since 23 May 2008 (law n.125/2008), they were renamed as ""Identification and Expulsion Centers"" (Italian: Centri di Identificazione ed Espulsione, CIE).
From 13 April 2017, the Minniti-Orlando law (law n. 46/2017) renamed the centers again, as ""Permanence Centers for Repatriations"" (Italian: Centri di Permanenza per i Rimpatri, CPR). 20 CPRs were planned, but by 2018, only the following were operational:

Roma, for 125 female inmates.
Bari, for 90 male inmates.
Brindisi, for 48 male inmates.
Torino, for 175 male inmates.
Potenza, for 100 male inmates.
The facility of Caltanissetta (for 96 male inmates) was provisionally inoperative, pending extensive repairs after an inmates’ revolt. Works were undergoing to open further centers at Gradisca d'Isonzo, Modena, Macomer, Oppido Mamertina and Montichiari.
Besides the CPRs, Italy operates two further types of not-detention centers for migrants:

""First Aid and Reception Centers"" (Italian: Centri di Primo Soccorso e Accoglienza, CPSA); short-stay centers handling initial medical aid, health screening, identification and asylum claims. In 2018, operational CPSAs were located at Lampedusa, Elmas, Otranto and Pozzallo.
""Reception Centers for Asylum Seekers"" (Italian: Centri Accoglienza per i Richiedenti Asilo, CARA), where the vast majority of arriving migrants are housed due to the limited capacity of the CPRs. The centers additionally house migrants previously detained in CPRs that have not been repatriated within the statutory maximum detention period, and have therefore been released from custody. In 2018, operational CARAs were located at Gradisca d'Isonzo, Arcevia, Castelnuovo di Porto, Manfredonia, Bari, Brindisi, Crotone, Mineo, Pozzallo, Caltanissetta, Lampedusa, Trapani and Elmas. Several NGOs and government organizations have described conditions inside the centres as ""inhuman"". Amnesty International has denounced the prolonged detention of immigrants in containers and other inadequate housing, where they are exposed to extreme temperatures and subjected to overcrowded conditions.


=== Malta ===
In 2002 and the following years, Malta began to receive a large influx of migrants. The government then begun to apply the 1970 Chapter 217 of the Laws of Malta (Immigration Act), providing for detention for all ""prohibited migrants"", including prospective asylum seekers, soon after apprehension by the immigration authorities. In 2003, the Maltese government substituted the indefinite detention policy with an 18-month detention length (the maximum under EU law) after which the applicant is transferred to an open centre if the processing of his/her application has not been finished.: 19 
The Maltese detention policy, the strictest in Europe, gathered heavy criticism by the UNHCR for the extensive duration of detention, and in 2004 it was also criticized by the Commissioner for Human Rights of Council of Europe, Álvaro Gil-Robles, as international standards required cautious and individual examination of each case and proper legal checks before incarceration, which were missing in the Maltese legislation. The Council of Europe also criticised four of the administrative detention centres as in ""deplorable conditions"" and failing to live up to legally binding international standards: 19–20 
The Ministry for Justice and Home Affairs pursued the migrants detention policy nevertheless, justifying it in 2005 by ""national interest, and more specifically, for reasons concerning employment, accommodation and maintenance of public order."" In 2008, an EP-OIM comparative study found that ""following a long stay in detention [illegal immigrants] are then released into the community...joining the black market economy and suffering abuse with regard to conditions of work.
The detention policy was criticised, in the following years, by NGOs and international bodies, including Human Rights Watch, the Jesuits and UNHCR. In 2012, the Council of Europe reiterated that such a policy is contrary to the prohibition of arbitrary detention in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).


=== Netherlands ===
In the Netherlands, foreigners who fail to obtain a residence status can be detained prior to deportation. Detention centers are located in Zaandam, Zeist, and Alphen aan den Rijn. Additionally, there are deportation centers at Schiphol and Rotterdam airports.
Immigration detention in the Netherlands has been criticised for the conditions immigrants are held in – which are often worse than those for criminal detainees – due to a lack of probationary leave, rehabilitation assistance, legal assistance, laws restricting the maximum detention time and a maximum time for judicial review from a judge.


=== Portugal ===
In Portugal, the Ministry of Interior is responsible for immigration matters. As of 2009, the sole officially designated immigration detention centre is Unidade Habitacional de Santo António, located in Porto. Opened in 2006, the centre is managed by the Foreigners and Borders Service (Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras, SEF).
There are also five Temporary Installation Centres (Centros de Instalação Temporária, CIT) located at major airports including Porto, Lisbon, Faro, Funchal, and Ponta Delgada.
In addition to these government-run facilities, there are two non-secure centers located near Lisbon: the Bobadela reception centre for asylum seekers, operated by the Portuguese Council for Asylum Seekers (Conselho Português para os Refugiados, CPR), and the Pedro Arupe reception centre, managed by the Jesuit Refugee Service.


=== Spain ===
There are nine detention centers in Spain, known as CIEs (Centro de Internamiento de Extranjeros), run by the Ministry of the Interior, which can be found in the cities of Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Algeciras, Tarifa, Malaga, and in the islands of Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Tenerife.
Expulsion paperwork can be initiated when a foreign person is in one of the following situations:

Lacking documentation in Spanish territory.
Working without a work permit, even if they have a valid resident permit.
Be involved in activities that violate public order or interior or exterior state security or any activity contrary to Spanish interests or that could put in danger Spain's relations with other countries.
Be convicted inside or outside of Spain of a crime punishable by incarceration for greater than one year.
Hiding or falsifying their situation from the Ministry of the Interior.
Lacking a legal livelihood or taking part in illegal activity.
Various civil organizations (e.g. APDHA, SOS Racismo, and Andalucía Acoge) have appealed to the Supreme Court of Spain, declaring the regulations behind the CIEs null and void for violating several human rights.


=== Ukraine ===
In Ukraine ""Temporary Detention Centres"", including one in Pavshyno, are run by the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine, responsible to the President.


=== United Kingdom ===

The British Home Office has a number of detention centres, including (as of January 2015): 11 designated Immigration Removal Centres (IRCs), 4 designated Residential and Short Term Holding Facilities, and 1 Non-Residential Short Term Holding Facility. Four of the IRCs are managed by the Prison Service and the others are outsourced to private companies including Mitie, GEO Group, G4S Group, and Serco. Individuals can be detained under Immigration Act powers for a number of reasons. The largest category of detainees is people who have claimed asylum. Other people include those detained awaiting determination of their right to entry to the UK, people who have been refused permission to enter and are awaiting removal, people who have overstayed the expiry of their visas or have not complied with their visa terms, and people lacking the required documentation to live in the UK.
The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 formally changed the name of ""detention centres"" to ""removal centres"".
Both operation centres ran by G4S Group (as of 2018. Since 2020 both centres have been run by Serco) are located near Gatwick Airport:

Brook House Immigration Removal Centre
Tinsley House Immigration Removal Centre
Operation centres ran by Mitie (as of 2018) include:

Campsfield House (Oxfordshire)
Colnbrook Immigration Removal Centre (near Heathrow Airport)
Harmondsworth Immigration Removal Centre (near Heathrow Airport)
Other operation centres (as of 2018) include:

Larne House (Larne, County Antrim), run by Tascor, a subsidiary of Capita
Pennine House, at Manchester Airport which is run by Tascor
Dungavel (Lanarkshire), run by GEO Group
Morton Hall Immigration Removal Centre (near Newark), run by Her Majesty's Prison Service
Yarl's Wood Immigration Removal Centre (Bedfordshire), run by Serco
Additionally, some prisons detain migrants or asylum seekers purely under Immigration Act powers, usually if they have been serving a prison sentence which has expired. There are also four short term holding facilities in Manchester, Dover, Harwich and Colnbrook.
The British government has been given powers to detain asylum seekers and migrants at any stage of the asylum process. The use of asylum has increased with the introduction of the process of 'fast track', or the procedure by which the Immigration Service assess asylum claims which are capable of being decided quickly. Fast-tracking takes place in Oakington Reception Centre, Harmondsworth, and Yarl's Wood.
There are three situations in which it is lawful to detain an asylum seeker or migrant.

To fast track their claim
If the government has reasonable grounds to believe that the asylum seeker or migrant will abscond or not abide by the conditions of entry.
If the asylum seeker or migrant is about to be deported.
Once detained, it is possible to apply for bail. There is legal aid for representation at bail hearings and the organisation Bail for Immigration Detainees provides help and assistance for those subject to detention to represent themselves.
Since summer 2005, there has been an increase in the detention of foreign nationals since Home Secretary Charles Clarke's foreign prisoners scandal, which revealed that there were a number of foreign nationals who had committed crimes and had not been deported at the end of their sentence.
Criticism of UK immigration detention focuses on comparisons with prison conditions in which persons are kept though they have never been convicted of a crime, the lack of judicial oversight, and on the lengthy bureaucratic delays that often prevent a person from being released, particularly when there is no evidence that the detainee will present a harm or a burden to society if allowed to remain at large while their situation is examined. In 2006, the conditions of detention centres were criticised, by the UK Inspector of Prisons.


== See also ==

Immigration detention in the United States
Immigration detention in the United Kingdom
Concentration camps
Decarceration in the United States
Dawn raid
Golden Venture
Mandatory sentencing
Mariel boatlift
Pacific Solution


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== Notes ===


== Further reading ==
Austin, Janet, ed. 2003. From Nothing to Zero: Letters from Refugees in Australia's Detention Centres. Melbourne: Lonely Planet.
Bernstein, Nina. 2010 March 29. ""Disabled Immigration Detainees Face Deportation."" New York Times.
Dow, Mark. 2005. American Gulag: Inside U.S. Immigration Prisons. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24669-1, ISBN 978-0-520-24669-0.
Kalhan, Anil. 2010. ""Rethinking Immigration Detention."" Columbia Law Review Sidebar (110):42–42. SSRN 1556867. Archived.
Mares, Peter. 2001. Borderline. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
""Immigrant Families Behind Bars."" Making Contact Radio. 2009 October 21.


== External links ==
Global Detention Project: Mapping the use of detention"
Trevor Lawrence,"William Trevor Lawrence (born October 6, 1999) is an American professional football quarterback for the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL). Considered among the highest-touted college football prospects, he won the 2019 National Championship Game as a freshman with the Clemson Tigers and set the school's record for quarterback wins. Selected first overall by the Jaguars in the 2021 NFL draft, Lawrence had a breakout season in 2022 when he led the Jaguars to their first division title and playoff win since 2017.


== Early life ==

William Trevor Lawrence was born in Knoxville, Tennessee on October 6, 1999. He later attended Cartersville High School in Cartersville, Georgia, where he played football and basketball. As a junior in 2016, he was The Atlanta Journal-Constitution player of the year after completing 250 of 406 passes for 3,904 yards and 51 touchdowns. As a sophomore, he passed for 3,655 yards and 43 touchdowns and as a freshman had 3,042 yards and 26 touchdowns.
From his sophomore year to his senior year, Lawrence led the Purple Hurricanes to 41 straight victories, winning two state championships and four region titles while also receiving numerous national high school player of the year honors. In 2017, Lawrence broke the Georgia state record for passing yards and passing touchdowns, which were previously held by Deshaun Watson of Gainesville, who also played for Clemson.
Lawrence was a five-star recruit who was regarded as one of the best high school quarterback prospects of all time. On December 16, 2016, he committed to Clemson University to play college football.


== College career ==


=== Freshman year ===

Lawrence started his freshman season behind Kelly Bryant on Clemson's depth chart, but was given equal playing time in the season's first games. Head coach Dabo Swinney named Lawrence the new starter after four games, after which Bryant announced his intention to transfer schools. Lawrence led Clemson to an undefeated regular season, a 42–10 victory over Pittsburgh in the ACC Championship Game, and a bid to play in the College Football Playoff. The Tigers were ranked No. 2 in the College Football Playoff rankings, and defeated No. 3 Notre Dame, 30–3, in the 2018 Cotton Bowl Classic. They advanced to the 2019 College Football Playoff National Championship game, where they defeated Alabama, 44–16, handing the Crimson Tide their worst loss of the Nick Saban era. Lawrence was named Offensive MVP of the game and became the first true freshman quarterback to start for a national champion since Jamelle Holieway in 1985 for Oklahoma.
Lawrence threw for 3,280 passing yards and 30 touchdowns on the season, and was awarded the National Freshman of the Year and Archie Griffin Award by the Touchdown Club of Columbus. He was also awarded ACC Rookie of the Year honors.


=== Sophomore year ===

Returning for his sophomore year with the Tigers, Lawrence was named preseason ACC Player of the Year and was considered a leading candidate for the Heisman Trophy. Relatively inconsistent play in the early part of the season all but lost Lawrence the Heisman Trophy race, but he led FBS in passer rating over the final half of the regular season and ended seventh in Heisman Trophy voting. Lawrence helped lead Clemson to an undefeated regular season and an ACC Championship Game victory over Virginia, which gave them the No. 3 ranking in the final College Football Playoff rankings. In the 2019 Fiesta Bowl against Ohio State, he had 259 passing yards and two touchdowns to go along with 16 rushes for 107 yards and a touchdown in the 29–23 victory that brought them to the national championship game for the second consecutive year. Lawrence lost the first game of his career in the CFP Championship Game against LSU, as Clemson snapped its 29-game winning streak and lost 42–25. Lawrence posted the worst passer rating of his career as he only completed 18 of 37 passes for 234 yards and zero passing touchdowns in the game.


=== Junior year ===

Lawrence returned for his junior season with the Tigers. In his first six games of the season, Lawrence threw for 1,833 passing yards with 17 touchdowns and two interceptions. On October 30, 2020, Lawrence tested positive for COVID-19, which resulted in a 10-day quarantine, per ACC protocols. As a result, he missed two games before returning. Clemson lost one of those two games, to Notre Dame. After Lawrence returned to the team, he helped guide the Tigers back to the ACC Championship Game by finishing in second in the division-less format adopted for the 2020 season. They defeated Notre Dame in the rematch in the conference title game with Lawrence starting at quarterback, and were selected to a spot in the College Football Playoff. In the CFP semi-final, the Sugar Bowl, Lawrence and the Tigers lost to Ohio State.
Lawrence finished his final season with the Tigers 231-of-334 for 3,153 passing yards with 24 touchdowns and five interceptions. He was named ACC Player of the Year, and finished in second in voting for the Heisman Trophy behind Alabama wide receiver DeVonta Smith. After the season, Lawrence would be the men's recipient of the ACC Athlete of the Year award across all conference sports, sharing honors with women's recipient Charlotte North of Boston College lacrosse.


=== College statistics ===


== Professional career ==


=== Pre-draft ===

One of the NFL's highest-regarded amateur prospects, Lawrence was nearly unanimously projected to be taken first overall in the 2021 NFL draft. He drew comparisons to Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterbacks John Elway and Peyton Manning and 2012 first overall pick Andrew Luck, with the slogan ""Tank for Trevor"" gaining popularity among fans of struggling teams. ESPN's Mel Kiper Jr. ranked Lawrence as the fourth highest-graded quarterback he had ever evaluated, behind Elway, Luck, and Manning.


=== 2021 ===

After undergoing surgery to repair a torn labrum in his left shoulder, Lawrence was officially selected first overall by the Jacksonville Jaguars, who finished with a league-worst 1–15 record the previous season. He signed his four-year rookie contract, worth $36.8 million with a $24.1 million signing bonus, on July 5, 2021.
Ahead of the final week of preseason, Lawrence was named the Jaguars' starting quarterback for 2021. Making his NFL debut against the Houston Texans, he finished with 332 passing yards, three touchdowns, and three interceptions in a 37–21 defeat. The loss was Lawrence's first in a regular season game. In his second game against the Denver Broncos, he threw a touchdown pass on the opening drive, but completed only eight of 25 passes afterwards and was intercepted twice as the Jaguars lost 23–13. Lawrence had a stronger performance when he faced the Cincinnati Bengals in the Week 4 Thursday Night Football matchup, completing 17 of 24 passes for 204 yards and scored his first rushing touchdown, also making it his first NFL game without an interception. Despite his efforts, the Jaguars lost 24–21.
Lawrence won his first NFL game in Week 6 against the Miami Dolphins, throwing for 319 yards and a touchdown during the 23–20 victory. Having played the game at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, he became the first NFL rookie to win in London. The victory was also the Jaguars' first since Week 1 of the 2020 season, ending a 20-game losing streak.
Following a 31–7 loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Lawrence took part in the season's biggest upset when he helped the 15.5-point underdog Jaguars defeat the Buffalo Bills 9–6. However, the victory began a stretch that saw Lawrence throw only two touchdown passes in nine games, including seven games without any touchdowns, while having eight interceptions. The Jaguars also went on an eight-game losing streak, dropping them to the league's worst record for a second consecutive year. Nevertheless, Lawrence concluded the season with his strongest performance in Week 18, completing 23 of 32 passes for 223 yards and two touchdowns to secure a 26–11 upset over the Indianapolis Colts. 
Lawrence finished second in rookie passing yards behind Mac Jones with 3,641, but also had a league-high 17 interceptions.


=== 2022 ===

After losing to the Washington Commanders in the season opener, Lawrence won his next two games against the Colts and Los Angeles Chargers, throwing for a combined 497 yards and five touchdowns. The latter also marked Lawrence's first road victory and earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week. However, the Jaguars went on a five-game losing streak, during which Lawrence completed 57.8% of his passes for 1,068 yards, five touchdowns, and five interceptions. He also had two games without any touchdown passes. The losing streak ended with a Week 9 victory over the Las Vegas Raiders, which saw Lawrence help Jacksonville overcome a 20–10 halftime deficit to win 27–20.
The Week 9 victory kicked off the Jaguars winning seven of their last nine games, with Lawrence throwing for 2,273 yards, 15 touchdowns, and two interceptions. During this period, he led a game-winning drive against the Baltimore Ravens in the final two minutes of their Week 12 matchup and helped overcome a 17-point third quarter deficit in Week 15 to defeat the Dallas Cowboys in overtime. Lawrence was also named AFC Player of the Week in Week 14 after completing 30 of 42 passes for 368 yards and three touchdowns and scoring a rushing touchdown in a 36–22 victory over the Tennessee Titans. In the season finale against the Titans to determine the AFC South, he completed 20 of 32 passes for 212 yards and one touchdown to win 20–16 and clinch the Jaguars' first division title since 2017.
During the Wild Card round against the Chargers, Lawrence threw four interceptions in the first half, three of which were in the first quarter, which contributed to the Chargers taking a 27–0 lead. However, Lawrence rebounded by throwing a touchdown pass before halftime and completing 18 of 23 passes for 211 yards and three touchdowns in the second half to secure the 31–30 victory. The Jaguars' 27-point comeback was the third-largest in NFL history. The next week against the eventual Super Bowl LVII champion Kansas City Chiefs in the Divisional Round, Lawrence completed 24 of 39 passes for 217 yards, a touchdown, and an interception in the 27–20 loss, marking his first defeat on a Saturday.
Lawrence finished the 2022 season with 4,113 passing yards, 25 touchdowns, eight interceptions, and a 66.3 completion percentage, all noted improvements from his rookie campaign. For his performance, he was named as an alternate to the 2023 Pro Bowl and was the first Jaguars quarterback to receive Pro Bowl honors since David Garrard in 2009. He was ranked 96th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2023.


=== 2023 ===

In the season opener, Lawrence completed 24 of 32 passes for 241 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception in a 31–21 victory against the Colts. In Week 2, Lawrence completed 22 of 41 attempts for 216 yards in a 17–9 defeat against the Chiefs. In the following week against the Texans, Lawrence threw for 279 yards with a touchdown and an interception in a 37–17 loss. In Week 4 against the Atlanta Falcons at Wembley Stadium, Lawrence completed 23 of 30 attempts for 207 yards and a touchdown in a 23–7 victory. In the following week, at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, Lawrence went 25-of-37 for 315 yards and a touchdown, beating the Bills 25–20, despite losing two fumbles. Returning to Jacksonville in Week 6 against the Indianapolis Colts, Lawrence completed 20 of 30 passes including two touchdowns and an interception in a 37–20 victory. Lawrence left the game late with a sprained left knee. In Week 7 against the New Orleans Saints, despite still being hampered by his sprained left knee, Lawrence completed 20 of 29 passes for 204 yards and one touchdown to secure a 31–24 victory. In Week 8, Lawrence completed 24 of 32 passes for 292 yards, one touchdown, and one interception in a 20–10 victory against the Pittsburgh Steelers.
After the bye week, Lawrence threw for 185 yards and two interceptions, and lost a fumble in a 34–3 defeat against the San Francisco 49ers. Lawrence bounced back from his poor performance against the Titans, completing 24 of 32 attempts for 262 yards and two touchdowns, plus rushing for another two touchdowns to secure a 34–14 victory. Lawrence was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week after his performance in Week 11. In Week 13 against the Bengals, Lawrence completed 22 of 29 passes for 259 yards, two passing touchdowns, and a rushing touchdown before suffering an ankle sprain in the fourth quarter. Lawrence was helped off the field and did not return as the Jaguars went on to lose 34–31 in overtime. Despite the ankle sprain, Lawrence played the following week in a 31–27 loss to the Cleveland Browns, where he threw three touchdowns and three interceptions.
In Week 15, Lawrence struggled in a 23–7 loss on Sunday Night Football versus the Baltimore Ravens, and in Week 16, Lawrence suffered a shoulder injury in a 30–12 loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Lawrence did not play in a Week 17 win versus the Carolina Panthers, marking the first missed game in his NFL career. In his return in Week 18 against the Titans, Lawrence was intercepted twice, and the Jaguars also turned the ball over on downs three times as they lost to the Titans 28–20, finishing the season having lost Lawrence's last five starts and missing the playoffs. He finished the season with 4,016 passing yards, 21 touchdowns and 14 interceptions through 16 games played as he dealt with four separate injuries.


=== 2024 ===

On April 29, 2024, the Jaguars picked up the fifth-year option on Lawrence's contract. On June 14, 2024, Lawrence signed a five-year, $275 million contract extension, including $142 million guaranteed, which tied him with Joe Burrow as the highest paid player in NFL history at the time of the signing.
After the Jaguars dropped to 0–4 and Lawrence suffered his ninth consecutive loss as a starter, he threw for a career-high 371 yards and two touchdowns in Week 5 against the Colts, leading the team to a 37–34 victory on his 25th birthday. On November 3, in a Week 9 loss against the Philadelphia Eagles, Lawrence sustained a left shoulder injury that later identified as significant AC joint sprain; he was declared inactive for the Jaguars' following two games. Following their bye week, Lawerence returned to the lineup on December 1 against the Texans. He left the game in the second quarter with a concussion after a violent hit from Azeez Al-Shaair during a slide, sparking a sideline brawl. On December 4, Lawrence was placed on injured reserve.
Lawrence threw for 2,045 yards, 11 touchdowns and seven interceptions in his ten starts. The Jaguars finished with a 4–13 record with Lawrence leading them to a record of 2–8 under center, missing the playoffs.


== NFL career statistics ==


=== Regular season ===


=== Postseason ===


== Personal life ==
Lawrence is Baptist. He is noted for his long blond hair. Lawrence's older brother, Chase, is a visual artist for whom Trevor has posed. On April 10, 2021, Lawrence married Marissa Mowry, whom he had been dating since high school. In June 2024, the couple announced they were expecting their first child.
In 2021, Lawrence, among other high-profile athletes and celebrities, was a paid spokesperson for FTX, a cryptocurrency exchange. In November 2022, FTX filed for bankruptcy, wiping out billions of dollars in customer funds. Lawrence, alongside other spokespeople, is currently being sued for promoting unregistered securities through a class-action lawsuit.
American Eagle featured Lawrence in its ""Live Your Life"" marketing campaign in 2024.


== References ==


== External links ==

Trevor Lawrence on Twitter
Career statistics from NFL.com · ESPN · Pro Football Reference
Jacksonville Jaguars profile
Clemson Tigers profile
Trevor Lawrence at IMDb"
2022 Tower Hamlets London Borough Council election,"The 2022 Tower Hamlets London Borough Council election took place on 5 May 2022. All 45 members of Tower Hamlets London Borough Council were elected. The elections took place alongside local elections in the other London boroughs and elections to local authorities across the United Kingdom.
In the previous election in 2018, the Labour Party regained control of the Council from no overall control, winning 42 out of the 45 seats with the Conservative Party as the principal opposition with two of the remaining three seats. The election coincided with an election for the mayor of Tower Hamlets. In the 2022 elections, the Aspire Party gained control of the Council from Labour, winning 24 seats, and also won the mayoralty. Reduced to 19 seats, this is the lowest ever number of seats Labour have ever held in the history of Tower Hamlets; the Conservatives retained one seat, while the Green Party gained one seat.


== Background ==


=== History ===

The thirty-two London boroughs were established in 1965 by the London Government Act 1963. They are the principal authorities in Greater London and have responsibilities including education, housing, planning, highways, social services, libraries, recreation, waste, environmental health and revenue collection. Some powers are shared with the Greater London Authority, which also manages passenger transport, police, and fire.
Since its formation, Tower Hamlets has generally been under Labour control. The SDP–Liberal Alliance won a majority of seats in the 1986 election, and the newly formed Liberal Democrats won a majority in the 1990 election. There was also a period of no overall control from 2014 to 2018. From 1990 to 2006, all councillors elected to the council were Labour or Liberal Democrats. In the 2006 election, Labour maintained its majority by winning 26 seats, but the new Respect Party won twelve seats, with the Conservatives on seven and the Liberal Democrats on six. In the 2010 election Respect lost all but one of its seats, with Labour winning 41, the Conservatives winning eight and the Liberal Democrats winning one. Respect was the only party to advocate a change in executive arrangements at the council by the introduction of a directly elected mayor of Tower Hamlets. A mayoral petition was successfully arranged by the Respect activist Abjol Miah, which was successful.
The Labour councillor Lutfur Rahman, who had been leader of the council from 2008 until he was replaced in 2010 after a Channel 4 documentary linked him to the Islamic Forum of Europe, was selected as his party's candidate for the mayoralty. He was removed as the candidate by the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party after ""very serious allegations"" about the selection. He subsequently ran as an independent candidate with support from Respect. Rahman was elected in the October 2010 election with more than half of the vote in the first round. Rahman established a new political party called Tower Hamlets First in 2013. He ran for re-election as the Tower Hamlets First candidate in 2014, being re-elected in the second round against the Labour candidate John Biggs. In the concurrent council election, Tower Hamlets First won 18 seats, with Labour on 22 and the Conservatives on 5, resulting in no overall control of the council.
In 2015, Rahman was removed from office and his election was declared void after he was found guilty of electoral fraud. He was barred from seeking re-election for five years. Tower Hamlets First was de-registered as a political party by the Electoral Commission shortly after. In the 2015 re-run of the mayoral election, Rahman endorsed the independent candidate Rabina Khan. Khan had been elected as a Labour councillor in 2010 but had been suspended for supporting Rahman's initial 2010 election, and had been re-elected in the 2014 council election as a Tower Hamlets First councillor. Biggs won the election. The former Tower Hamlets First councillors formed the Tower Hamlets Independent Group. Khan formed the breakaway group the People's Alliance of Tower Hamlets (PATH) with some other Tower Hamlets Independent Group councillors, which was formally registered in 2018. The remaining Tower Hamlets Independent Group councillors formed the new party Aspire.
In the most recent mayoral election in 2018, Khan stood as the PATH candidate, coming second, and Ohid Ahmed stood for Aspire. Ahmed had been endorsed by Rahman. Biggs was successfully re-elected for the Labour Party with 48.4% of the vote in the first round and 72.7% of the vote after second preferences were taken into account. In the concurrent council election, Labour won 42 seats with 46.1% of the vote, while the Conservatives won two seats with 9.9% of the vote across the borough. Khan was elected as a councillor for PATH, with her party winning 11.3% of the vote across the borough. Aspire lost all their representation, winning no seats with 15.4% of the vote. The Liberal Democrats received 8.6% of the vote and the Green Party received 7.9% of the vote, but neither won any seats.


=== Council term ===
Rabina Khan disbanded PATH in August 2018 and switched to the Liberal Democrats. Mohammed Pappu, a councillor for Blackwall and Cubitt town, was suspended from the Labour Party in October 2018 after sharing antisemitic posts on social media. In the following month, he apologised, saying that he had not read the posts properly and offered to undergo training. A Labour councillor for Lansbury ward, Mohammad Harun, resigned in December 2018 after Biggs ordered an investigation into allegations of housing fraud. A Labour councillor for Shadwell ward, Ruhul Amin, resigned in January 2019 because he was moving to Bangladesh. Both by-elections took place in February 2019, with Rajib Ahmed holding Lansbury for Labour and Ohid Ahmed coming in second place for Aspire. The Aspire candidate Mohammad Harun Miah won the by-election in Shadwell, with the Labour candidate Asik Rahman coming in second place. Asik Rahman had apologised during the campaign for liking the Facebook page of Zakir Naik, a preacher who was banned from entering the UK.
The leader of the Conservatives on the council, Andrew Wood, resigned from his party to sit as an independent in February 2020 while remaining in the Conservative group on the council. He cited the Conservative government's approach to Brexit and decision to override guidance to approve a controversial housing development in the borough. John Pierce, a Labour councillor for Weavers ward, died in June 2021. He had been first elected in 2012. A by-election to fill the seat was held in August 2021, which was won by the Aspire candidate Kabir Ahmed. A Conservative councillor credited Aspire's victory to the Labour council's implementation of low traffic neighbourhood schemes, which Ahmed promised to end if Aspire won the 2022 council election.


=== Mayoral referendum ===
Tower Hamlets held a referendum in May 2021 on whether to maintain the system of directly electing a mayor, or to return to the leader-and-cabinet model where councillors elect a leader. Biggs and the Labour Party, the Conservatives, the Liberal Democrats including Rabina Khan, and the Green Party campaigned in favour of ending the mayoral system, while Rahman campaigned to keep it. The outcome of the referendum was to continue with the mayoral system, with 77.8% of votes in favour.


== Campaign ==


=== Council election ===
The communities minister Kemi Badenoch wrote to the Metropolitan Police and Electoral Commission about concerns over the possibility of election fraud and family voting in Tower Hamlets.


=== Council candidates ===
The Labour Party, Conservative Party and Liberal Democrats all fielded a full slate of 45 candidates each. Aspire put forward 44 candidates - missing one candidate in the Whitechapel ward where Shahed Ali stood for the ""Resurrection Young People. In Sha Allah"" party.  The Green Party fielded 39 candidates, with both the SDP and TUSC standing one candidate each.
The election also saw the first openly transgender candidate stand in Tower Hamlets with Rebecca Jones of the Liberal Democrats in Bethnal Green West.


=== Mayoral election ===
The Labour mayor of Tower Hamlets, John Biggs, sought re-election. In January 2022, the Liberal Democrat councillor Rabina Khan was announced as her party's candidate for the mayoralty. In the same month, the independent councillor Andrew Wood, who had resigned from the Conservative group in 2020, announced he would stand for election as both a councillor and mayor. Wood said the council should spend more of its reserves building homes, schools and bridges. The former mayor of the borough, Lutfur Rahman, announced his candidacy for the Aspire party in February 2022. Rahman's five-year ban from standing for election, having been found guilty by an election court of ""corrupt and illegal practices"", had lapsed. He was endorsed at his formal campaign launch in March by the former mayor of London Ken Livingstone and the peer Pola Uddin. Elliott Weaver stood as the Conservative mayoral candidate.


== Electoral process ==
Tower Hamlets, like other London borough councils, elects all of its councillors at once every four years. The previous election took place in 2018. The election took place by multi-member first-past-the-post voting, with each ward being represented by two or three councillors. Electors had as many votes as there are councillors to be elected in their ward, with the top two or three being elected.
All registered electors (British, Irish, Commonwealth and European Union citizens) living in London aged 18 or over were entitled to vote in the election. People who lived at two addresses in different councils, such as university students with different term-time and holiday addresses, were entitled to be registered for and vote in elections in both local authorities. Voting in-person at polling stations took place from 7:00 to 22:00 on election day, and voters were able to apply for postal votes or proxy votes in advance of the election.


== Council composition ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Results summary ==


== Results by ward ==
Asterisks denote incumbent councillors seeking re-election. Unless otherwise noted, the councillors seeking re-election were elected in 2018.


=== Bethnal Green East ===
The Bethnal Green ward was renamed Bethnal Green East in 2022 with no changes to the boundaries.


=== Bethnal Green West ===
The St Peters ward was renamed Bethnal Green West in 2022 with no changes to the boundaries.


=== Blackwall and Cubitt Town ===


=== Bow East ===


=== Bow West ===


=== Bromley North ===


=== Bromley South ===


=== Canary Wharf ===

† Andrew Wood was elected for the Conservative Party in 2018, but resigned to sit as an Independent in 2020.


=== Island Gardens ===


=== Lansbury ===


=== Limehouse ===


=== Mile End ===


=== Poplar ===


=== Shadwell ===

† Rabina Khan was elected for PATH in 2018, but defected to the Liberal Democrats.


=== Spitalfields and Banglatown ===


=== St Dunstan's ===


=== St Katharine's and Wapping ===


=== Stepney Green ===


=== Weavers ===


=== Whitechapel ===


== Candidate winning margin ==
Eight candidates won election by fewer that 100 votes - although one of these was over a candidate from the same party.


== Changes 2022-2026 ==


=== Affiliation changes ===


=== By-elections ===


==== Bow East ====


== References =="
Team Liquid PH,"Team Liquid Philippines, (formerly known as: AURA Philippines and ECHO Philippines, abbreviated as TLPH or TL) is a Southeast Asian based esports team under the franchise of Team Liquid, a Dutch-based organization. The team currently participates as a professional and amateur Mobile Legends: Bang Bang team for MPL Philippines and MDL Philippines, respectively.
In 2024, Team Liquid acquired a majority stake on the Indonesian-based level STUN.GG which manages the rights of AURA Esports, the parent company of then-ECHO Philippines. Team Liquid has since rebranded the Filipino and Indonesian rosters for both MPL and MDL of AURA Esports, now rebranding the team names to include Liquid in its name.


== Mobile Legends: Bang Bang ==


=== Mobile Legends Professional League ===


==== Bren No Limit ====
In season 2, the team traces its roots back to the Digital Devils No Limit which they were later acquired by Bren Esports to be rebranded as Bren No Limit. The following season, the team managed to finish as 5th–6th placers in the playoffs.


==== Sunsparks ====
Come the fourth season of MPL, they acquired Renzio and Fuzaken while Chico and Vern left the team and rebranded to SunSparks but remained as the sister team of Bren. They claimed their first championship after a grueling match against ONIC Philippines in the grand final, 3–2, and became a full-fledged MPL/PH powerhouse.
In season 5, Later on they swapped with their nemesis ONIC Philippines trading ""fuzaken"" in exchange of ""Greed_"" and also they got ""Killuash"" from his previous team Arkangel, the MPL-S3 winner, together with Eski FLexx (Sky). They have defeated Bren Esports in the Upper Bracket Finals to advance to its second grand finals appearance, and beat ONIC Philippines for the second time to become the first team in MPL Philippines as the back-to-back champions in league history.


==== Aura Philippines ====
In season 6, AURA Esports from Indonesia acquired the whole roster and rebranded to AURA PH. Despite a very good performance in the early and middle phases, They are the one also created the well known ""Diggie Strat"" unorthodox strategy in MPL. With the lackluster performance in their final games of the regular season and heading towards the playoffs, they were still ultimately eliminated by ONIC PH, 0–3. Renzio and Kielvj left the team and was replaced by Hadess and Bennyqt.
In season 7 of MPL Philippines, the team managed to qualify for the playoffs but then lost to Execration, 0–3.
In season 8, their parent team AURA Esports allowed them to change their name to ECHO but still same management. Some changes were made in their rosters, letting go their former players Killuash, Jaypee and ""Greed_"", to which he goes back to his former team ONIC Philippines as Baloyskie. Later on they announced their new players including KurtTzy. As they were able to qualify for the playoffs, but were eliminated to the Omega Esports in four games in the first round of the playoffs, 3 games to 1.
During the 2021 MPL Invitational, ECHO Philippines managed to win their opener by defeating their Indonesian counterpart, AURA Esports in 2–1 match. ECHO was then eliminated from the tournament after a second round loss to fellow Filipino team in RSG Philippines, 1–2.


=== Season 9 ===


==== Arrival of Nepomuceno, Cabrera and Serafico ====
MPL Philippines' Season 9 offseason included big names such as M2 World Champion Karl Gabriel ""KarlTzy"" Nepomuceno and Tristan ""YAWI"" Cabrera leaving Bren Esports and Nexplay EVOS, respectively. Nepomuceno spent four seasons with Bren, winning an MPL Title in Season 6 and winning the M2 World Title in Singapore in the same year. Meanwhile, Cabrera spent his entire professional career with Nexplay EVOS, playing under the stewardship of Setsuna ""DOGIE"" Ignacio. Meanwhile, Frediemar ""3MarTzy"" Serafico spent his professional career with Cignal Ultra in Season 7 and TNC Pro Team – ML in Season 8. Serafico left TNC following the team's elimination from the Season 8 playoffs.
Nepomuceno, Cabrera and Serafico joined forces with ECHO Philippines for Season 9 and confirmed it through their roster introduction which included the return of notable veterans such as Ashley ""Killuash"" Cruz. Following the retirement of Coach Steve ""Dale"" Vitug, Coach Michael ""Arcadia"" Bocado stepped up at the helm and will coach the ""Dynasty"" of ECHO Philippines.
ECHO finished the season with an 8–6 record, securing the third seed behind RSG Philippines and TNC Pro Team – ML. ECHO's KurtTzy was awarded the Week 3 MVP. ECHO would see a disappointing finish for the star-studded lineup with Omega Esports, Coached by Jomie ""Coach P4KBET"" Abalos swept the superteam in the play-in tournament.


==== Vinuya's arrival and Bocado's departure ====
Following a disappointing playoff finish for the roster, the team would lose head coach Michael ""Arcadia"" Bocado who signed with RRQ Hoshi in Indonesia following the subsequent departure of Coach Acil (now known as Coach Adi). Regardless, the organization was able to acquire the services of many key players in the long run.
Sanford ""Sanford"" Marin Vinuya left the same team as Cabrera a season prior from Nexplay EVOS. He was a reserved rookie on the roster of NXPE and decided to join ECHO for Season 10. Vinuya and Cabrera never played a single game together in a series during the Season prior to joining ECHO. Vinuya's signing would be capitalized by signing depth players to the squad such as the veteran Jaypee ""Jaypee"" Cruz, Alston ""Sanji"" Pabico, Jhonville ""Outplayed"" Villar, and Justine ""Zaida"" Palma. The final roster for Season 10 was revealed through a Facebook post.


=== Season 10 ===
ECHO was slated as the fifth seed during the first half of the season, going 5–2 and a 11–8 match standing. Many doubted ECHO's ability to pull off any championship hopes for the season with the return of the VeeWise tandem of Blacklist International. Regardless of the doubters, ECHO went on another 5–2 regular season finish during the remainder of the second half of the season, finishing with a 10–4 record. They were seeded 2nd however after a 2–0 defeat against Blacklist International who took Seed No. 1. Regardless, ECHO's chances of a title became higher as the limelight shown over the team.
In the playoffs, the team played RSG Philippines who defeated ONIC in three games during the play-ins. ECHO would quickly dismantle the reigning defending champions, defeating them 3–1 and setting up a match against Blacklist International in the Upper-Bracket Finals. Whoever wins this series would be the first team to qualify for the annual MLBB M4 World Championship in Jakarta. However, the VeeWise Tandem and Blacklist's UBE strategy proved too much for ECHO this time and dropped to the Lower-Bracket Finals after getting swept. The team was able to secure the Grand Finals spot regardless after defeating and denying RSG Philippines a chance to go back-to-back and a chance for the MLBB M4 spot. This will be ECHO's first major international competition as a franchise under the name ECHO Philippines.
ECHO became the favorites to win the title after going 2–1 against Blacklist International. However, ECHO succumbed to the pressure and lost 3 straight games that gave Blacklist their third franchise title. This will be ECHO's first appearance under the name ECHO as their last appearance in the Finals was during Season 5 when the team members were still playing under Sunsparks.


==== MLBB M4 World Championships ====

ECHO and Blacklist were the heavy favorites to win the title in Jakarta and continue the Philippines' dominance over the eSports industry in the region. During the group stages, ECHO was slated in Group C alongside RRQ Hoshi, RSG Singapore and Occupy Thrones. ECHO goes undefeated in the group stage and secures an Upper-Bracket appearance alongside RRQ.
In the Upper-Brackets however, ECHO would see themselves in a potential 3–2 reverse sweep situation after Team HAQ won two-straight games that forced their series into a Game 5. However, ECHO would defy Team HAQ the ability to reverse sweep and stomped the Malaysian representatives into the Lower-Brackets, winning Game 5 and set up a match between ONIC Esports.
The Upper-Bracket Semifinals featured two Philippines vs. Indonesia series with Blacklist and RRQ Hoshi being the other. ECHO would dismantle Kairi's ONIC Esports to take a 3–1 series victory and an Upper-Bracket Final position. Their victory was largely part of the exceptional performance Benedict ""BennyQt"" Gonzales showed in Game 4 that turned the tides in favor of their team.
In the Upper-Bracket Finals, ECHO solidified a PH vs. PH matchup between them and Blacklist International, a rematch of the Grand Finals of MPL PH S10. ECHO had the momentum and led a 2–1 series lead against Blacklist, however, Game 4 saw Salic ""Hadji"" Imam and Edward ""EDWARD"" Dapadap step up to force Game 5. Blacklist would dominate ECHO in Game 5 and booked their ticket to defend their world title in the Grand Finals, sending ECHO to the Lower-Bracket Finals for the second-time since the two teams matched together.
ECHO would matchup against RRQ Hoshi in the Lower-Bracket Finals, a match reunion between the team and their former head coach Arcadia. RRQ Hoshi was the final hope for Indonesia during the match after they swept MPL Indonesia's champions ONIC Esports to secure the Lower-Bracket Finals spot.
RRQ would tie the series 1–1 in a Game 2 comeback, however, ECHO's prowess in the battlefield proved to be too much for the ""Kings of Kings"" and ECHO was able to set a third rematch in the Grand Finals against Blacklist International.
ECHO would defy expectations and will win their first organization's international title, winning the MLBB M4 World Championships and defeating Blacklist International in the Grand Finals. ECHO's Benedict ""BennyQt"" Gonzales would be named Finals MVP and the team secured the Philippines' third World Title.
With their victory, the offseason for MPL Philippines Season 11 began and no notable changes were seen given ECHO's international victory.


=== Season 11 ===
ECHO would blow the start of MPL Philippines Season 11, going on a 6–0 undefeated record. ECHO would have the second-longest winning streak prior to the introduction of the franchise system in MPL history behind Blacklist International's 10–0 in Season 8. ECHO's win streak would subsequently come to an end however after losing to Bren Esports 2–1 during Week 5.
ECHO continued to dominate Season 11 and tied Bren Esports' record of 11–3 to secure the Upper-Bracket advantage. The team would collect accolades such as two Week MVPs for Gonzales and Cabrera.
ECHO was sent down to the Lower-Bracket Semis after a 3–2 defeat against RSG Slate Philippines (now RSG Philippines). ECHO was sent to face Bren Esports after a 3–1 defeat against Blacklist International. However, ECHO would make quick works of Bren and their rematch games against RSG Slate in the Lower-Bracket Finals, securing a second-consecutive Finals appearance. ECHO would continue their playoff berth as they sweep Blacklist International for the second time, securing their first MPL title as ECHO Philippines.


==== MSC 2023 ====

ECHO and Blacklist would remain in contention to represent the Philippines in MSC 2023 in Phnom Penh. ECHO would give a promising start after a 2–0 victory in the Group Stage against Fire Flux Impunity and Team EVO. ECHO would face-off Group D's 2nd Seed, TODAK in the Quarterfinals before they lost in a 3–0 sweep against ONIC Esports, avenging the lost in M4. ECHO's defeat brought them down to the third place match against BURN x FLASH after the team lost to Blacklist International.
ECHO were poised and were favored to win third place, however, BxF was able to send the series in five games. Regardless, ECHO won third place in MSC 2023 and a subsequent fallout of dominance from Filipino teams showed after Blacklist faltered in six against ONIC.


=== Season 12 ===
ECHO would intact their roster for the fourth-consecutive season. However, it is worth pointing out that Cabrera did not play during the opening of the season and instead, Jaypee, who was playing for ECHO's Development Roster, ECHO Proud, would be transferred to the MPL roster to replace Cabrera. As of September 29, 2023, ECHO remains undefeated with an 8–0 record, trouncing their 6–0 record from the previous season. ECHO defeated Blacklist International during the second leg of the season 2–0 that propelled the team as the only team to score a win-rate of above 80%.
ECHO Philippines went on an 11–0 undefeated run in MPL Philippines Season 12 and hopes were high to break Blacklist International's record from Season 8. Blacklist also went 11–0 in Season 8 but fell into a 2–0 defeat against ONIC Philippines that ended their abrupt undefeated run. No team has yet to accomplish such a feat other than ECHO. However, ECHO would lose in the same fashion as Blacklist did in Season 8, going down 2–0 against RSG Philippines that abruptly ended their undefeated streak. Despite Game 1 looking on ECHO's favor, a fatal play error and numerous pieces going down one-by-one, ECHO couldn't gain any more momentum coming into Game 2. ECHO now ties Blacklist International with the best Regular Season performance and the best regular season streak in MPL Philippines history with both teams going 11–0 in their abrupt run for the title.


=== Season 13 ===


==== Rebranding to Liquid ECHO ====
ECHO Philippines, alongside its parent group AURA Esports whom is fueling teams in MPL Indonesia, announced their partnership with the Dutch-based organization Team Liquid that would immediately replace AURA as the parental group and partner for both teams. ECHO Philippines was renamed temporarily as ""Liquid ECHO"". The team will be participating as ""Team Liquid PH for MPL Philippines Season 14.


== Awards ==
On July 15, ECHO took home the Mobile Team of the Year award during the Mobile Gaming Awards 2023 in Los Angeles, California. Besides the team's overall recognition, their gold laner Benedict ""BennyQT"" Gonzales also received the Mobile Player of the Year trophy, besting top-tier players like PUBG's Harsh ""Goblin"" Paudwal and Burenbayar ""TOP"" Altangerel, Clash Royale's Moamed ""Mahamed Light"" Tarek, Free Fire's Ratchanon ""Moshi"" Kunrayason, and Jeong ""TENSAI"" Seung-jin.


=== Seasons summary ===


==== MPL Philippines ====


==== MDL Philippines ====


=== Current roster ===
Team Liquid PH currently suffices its MPL Philippines roster and its MDL Philippines Development Roster.

References


== External links ==
Facebook"
Solenoid (mathematics),"This page discusses a class of topological groups. For the wrapped loop of wire, see Solenoid.

In mathematics, a solenoid is a compact connected topological space (i.e. a continuum) that may be obtained as the inverse limit of an inverse system of topological groups and continuous homomorphisms

  
    
      
        
          f
          
            i
          
        
        :
        
          S
          
            i
            +
            1
          
        
        →
        
          S
          
            i
          
        
        
        ∀
        i
        ≥
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle f_{i}:S_{i+1}\to S_{i}\quad \forall i\geq 0}
  

where each 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S_{i}}
  
 is a circle and fi is the map that uniformly wraps the circle 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            i
            +
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S_{i+1}}
  
 for 
  
    
      
        
          n
          
            i
            +
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{i+1}}
  
 times (
  
    
      
        
          n
          
            i
            +
            1
          
        
        ≥
        2
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{i+1}\geq 2}
  
) around the circle 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S_{i}}
  
.: Ch. 2 Def. (10.12) 
This construction can be carried out geometrically in the three-dimensional Euclidean space R3. A solenoid is a one-dimensional homogeneous indecomposable continuum that has the structure of an abelian compact topological group.
Solenoids were first introduced by Vietoris for the 
  
    
      
        
          n
          
            i
          
        
        =
        2
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{i}=2}
  
 case, and by van Dantzig the 
  
    
      
        
          n
          
            i
          
        
        =
        n
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{i}=n}
  
 case, where 
  
    
      
        n
        ≥
        2
      
    
    {\displaystyle n\geq 2}
  
 is fixed. Such a solenoid arises as a one-dimensional expanding attractor, or Smale–Williams attractor, and forms an important example in the theory of hyperbolic dynamical systems.


== Construction ==


=== Geometric construction and the Smale–Williams attractor ===

Each solenoid may be constructed as the intersection of a nested system of embedded solid tori in R3.
Fix a sequence of natural numbers {ni}, ni ≥ 2. Let T0 = S1 × D be a solid torus. For each i ≥ 0, choose a solid torus Ti+1 that is wrapped longitudinally ni times inside the solid torus Ti. Then their intersection

  
    
      
        Λ
        =
        
          ⋂
          
            i
            ≥
            0
          
        
        
          T
          
            i
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Lambda =\bigcap _{i\geq 0}T_{i}}
  

is homeomorphic to the solenoid constructed as the inverse limit of the system of circles with the maps determined by the sequence {ni}.
Here is a variant of this construction isolated by Stephen Smale as an example of an expanding attractor in the theory of smooth dynamical systems. Denote the angular coordinate on the circle S1 by t (it is defined mod 2π) and consider the complex coordinate z on the two-dimensional unit disk D. Let f be the map of the solid torus T = S1 × D into itself given by the explicit formula

  
    
      
        f
        (
        t
        ,
        z
        )
        =
        
          (
          
            2
            t
            ,
            
              
                
                  1
                  4
                
              
            
            z
            +
            
              
                
                  1
                  2
                
              
            
            
              e
              
                i
                t
              
            
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle f(t,z)=\left(2t,{\tfrac {1}{4}}z+{\tfrac {1}{2}}e^{it}\right).}
  

This map is a smooth embedding of T into itself that preserves the foliation by meridional disks (the constants 1/2 and 1/4 are somewhat arbitrary, but it is essential that 1/4 < 1/2 and 1/4 + 1/2 < 1). If T is imagined as a rubber tube, the map f stretches it in the longitudinal direction, contracts each meridional disk, and wraps the deformed tube twice inside T with twisting, but without self-intersections. The hyperbolic set Λ of the discrete dynamical system (T, f) is the intersection of the sequence of nested solid tori described above, where Ti is the image of T under the ith iteration of the map f. This set is a one-dimensional (in the sense of topological dimension) attractor, and the dynamics of f on Λ has the following interesting properties:

meridional disks are the stable manifolds, each of which intersects Λ over a Cantor set
periodic points of f are dense in Λ
the map f is topologically transitive on Λ
General theory of solenoids and expanding attractors, not necessarily one-dimensional, was developed by R. F. Williams and involves a projective system of infinitely many copies of a compact branched manifold in place of the circle, together with an expanding self-immersion.


=== Construction in toroidal coordinates ===
In the toroidal coordinates with radius 
  
    
      
        R
      
    
    {\displaystyle R}
  
, the solenoid can be parametrized by 
  
    
      
        t
        ∈
        
          R
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle t\in \mathbb {R} }
  
 as
  
    
      
        ζ
        =
        2
        π
        t
        ,
        
        r
        
          e
          
            i
            θ
          
        
        =
        
          ∑
          
            k
            =
            1
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          r
          
            k
          
        
        
          e
          
            2
            π
            i
            
              ω
              
                k
              
            
            t
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \zeta =2\pi t,\quad re^{i\theta }=\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }r_{k}e^{2\pi i\omega _{k}t}}
  
where

  
    
      
        
          ω
          
            k
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            
              
                n
                
                  1
                
              
              ⋯
              
                n
                
                  k
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
        
        
          r
          
            k
          
        
        =
        R
        
          δ
          
            1
          
        
        ⋯
        
          δ
          
            k
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega _{k}={\frac {1}{n_{1}\cdots n_{k}}},\quad r_{k}=R\delta _{1}\cdots \delta _{k}}
  

Here, 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            k
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{k}}
  
 are adjustable shape-parameters, with constraint 
  
    
      
        0
        <
        δ
        <
        1
        −
        
          
            1
            
              1
              +
              sin
              ⁡
              
                
                  π
                  
                    n
                    
                      k
                    
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle 0<\delta <1-{\frac {1}{1+\sin {\frac {\pi }{n_{k}}}}}}
  
. In particular, 
  
    
      
        δ
        =
        
          
            1
            
              2
              
                n
                
                  k
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta ={\frac {1}{2n_{k}}}}
  
 works.
Let 
  
    
      
        S
        ⊂
        
          
            R
          
          
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S\subset \mathbb {R} ^{3}}
  
 be the solenoid constructed this way, then the topology of the solenoid is just the subset topology induced by the Euclidean topology on 
  
    
      
        
          
            R
          
          
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}}
  
.
Since the parametrization is bijective, we can pullback the topology on 
  
    
      
        S
      
    
    {\displaystyle S}
  
 to 
  
    
      
        
          R
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
  
, which makes 
  
    
      
        
          R
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
  
 itself the solenoid. This allows us to construct the inverse limit maps explicitly:
  
    
      
        
          g
          
            k
          
        
        :
        
          R
        
        →
        
          S
          
            k
          
        
        ,
        
        
          g
          
            k
          
        
        (
        t
        )
        =
        (
        r
        ,
        θ
        ,
        ζ
        )
        
           in toroidal coordinates, where 
        
        ζ
        =
        2
        π
        t
        ,
        
        r
        
          e
          
            i
            θ
          
        
        =
        
          ∑
          
            k
            =
            1
          
          
            k
          
        
        
          r
          
            k
          
        
        
          e
          
            2
            π
            i
            
              ω
              
                k
              
            
            t
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle g_{k}:\mathbb {R} \to S_{k},\quad g_{k}(t)=(r,\theta ,\zeta ){\text{ in toroidal coordinates, where }}\zeta =2\pi t,\quad re^{i\theta }=\sum _{k=1}^{k}r_{k}e^{2\pi i\omega _{k}t}}
  


=== Construction by symbolic dynamics ===
Viewed as a set, the solenoid is just a Cantor-continuum of circles, wired together in a particular way. This suggests to us the construction by symbolic dynamics, where we start with a circle as a ""racetrack"", and append an ""odometer"" to keep track of which circle we are on.
Define 
  
    
      
        S
        =
        
          S
          
            1
          
        
        ×
        
          ∏
          
            k
            =
            1
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            Z
          
          
            
              n
              
                k
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S=S^{1}\times \prod _{k=1}^{\infty }\mathbb {Z} _{n_{k}}}
  
 as the solenoid. Next, define addition on the odometer 
  
    
      
        
          Z
        
        ×
        
          ∏
          
            k
            =
            1
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            Z
          
          
            
              n
              
                k
              
            
          
        
        →
        
          ∏
          
            k
            =
            1
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            Z
          
          
            
              n
              
                k
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} \times \prod _{k=1}^{\infty }\mathbb {Z} _{n_{k}}\to \prod _{k=1}^{\infty }\mathbb {Z} _{n_{k}}}
  
, in the same way as p-adic numbers. 
Next, define addition on the solenoid 
  
    
      
        +
        :
        
          R
        
        ×
        S
        →
        S
      
    
    {\displaystyle +:\mathbb {R} \times S\to S}
  
 by
  
    
      
        r
        +
        (
        θ
        ,
        n
        )
        =
        (
        (
        r
        +
        θ
        
        mod
        
        
        1
        )
        ,
        ⌊
        r
        +
        θ
        ⌋
        +
        n
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle r+(\theta ,n)=((r+\theta \mod 1),\lfloor r+\theta \rfloor +n)}
  
The topology on the solenoid is generated by the basis containing the subsets 
  
    
      
        
          S
          ′
        
        ×
        
          Z
          
            (
            
              m
              
                1
              
            
            ,
            .
            .
            .
            ,
            
              m
              
                k
              
            
            )
          
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S'\times Z'_{(m_{1},...,m_{k})}}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        
          S
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S'}
  
 is any open interval in 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{1}}
  
, and 
  
    
      
        
          Z
          
            (
            
              m
              
                1
              
            
            ,
            .
            .
            .
            ,
            
              m
              
                k
              
            
            )
          
          ′
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Z'_{(m_{1},...,m_{k})}}
  
 is the set of all elements of 
  
    
      
        
          ∏
          
            k
            =
            1
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          
            Z
          
          
            
              n
              
                k
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \prod _{k=1}^{\infty }\mathbb {Z} _{n_{k}}}
  
 starting with the initial segment 
  
    
      
        (
        
          m
          
            1
          
        
        ,
        .
        .
        .
        ,
        
          m
          
            k
          
        
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (m_{1},...,m_{k})}
  
.


== Pathological properties ==
Solenoids are compact metrizable spaces that are connected, but not locally connected or path connected. This is reflected in their pathological behavior with respect to various homology theories, in contrast with the standard properties of homology for simplicial complexes. In Čech homology, one can construct a non-exact long homology sequence using a solenoid. In Steenrod-style homology theories, the 0th homology group of a solenoid may have a fairly complicated structure, even though a solenoid is a connected space.


== See also ==
Protorus, a class of topological groups that includes the solenoids
Pontryagin duality
p-adic solenoid
Profinite integer


== References ==

D. van Dantzig, Ueber topologisch homogene Kontinua,  Fund. Math. 15  (1930), pp. 102–125
""Solenoid"", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
Clark Robinson, Dynamical systems: Stability, Symbolic Dynamics and Chaos, 2nd edition, CRC Press, 1998 ISBN 978-0-8493-8495-0
S. Smale, Differentiable dynamical systems, Bull. of the AMS, 73 (1967), 747 – 817.
L. Vietoris, Über den höheren Zusammenhang kompakter Räume und eine Klasse von zusammenhangstreuen Abbildungen, Math. Ann. 97 (1927), pp. 454–472
Robert F. Williams, Expanding attractors, Publ. Math. IHÉS, t. 43 (1974), p. 169–203


== Further reading ==
Semmes, Stephen (12 January 2012), Some remarks about solenoids, arXiv:1201.2647, Bibcode:2012arXiv1201.2647S"
Well-formed formula,"In mathematical logic, propositional logic and predicate logic, a well-formed formula, abbreviated WFF or wff, often simply formula, is a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet that is part of a formal language.
The abbreviation wff is pronounced ""woof"", or sometimes ""wiff"", ""weff"", or ""whiff"".
A formal language can be identified with the set of formulas in the language. A formula is a syntactic object that can be given a semantic meaning by means of an interpretation. Two key uses of formulas are in propositional logic and predicate logic.


== Introduction ==
A key use of formulas is in propositional logic and predicate logic such as first-order logic.  In those contexts, a formula is a string of symbols φ for which it makes sense to ask ""is φ true?"", once any free variables in φ have been instantiated.  In formal logic, proofs can be represented by sequences of formulas with certain properties, and the final formula in the sequence is what is proven.
Although the term ""formula"" may be used for written marks (for instance, on a piece of paper or chalkboard), it is more precisely understood as the sequence of symbols being expressed, with the marks being a token instance of formula. This distinction between the vague notion of ""property"" and the inductively-defined notion of well-formed formula has roots in Weyl's 1910 paper ""Uber die Definitionen der mathematischen Grundbegriffe"". Thus the same formula may be written more than once, and a formula might in principle be so long that it cannot be written at all within the physical universe.
Formulas themselves are syntactic objects. They are given meanings by interpretations. For example, in a propositional formula, each propositional variable may be interpreted as a concrete proposition, so that the overall formula expresses a relationship between these propositions. A formula need not be interpreted, however, to be considered solely as a formula.


== Propositional calculus ==

The formulas of propositional calculus, also called propositional formulas, are expressions such as 
  
    
      
        (
        A
        ∧
        (
        B
        ∨
        C
        )
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (A\land (B\lor C))}
  
. Their definition begins with the arbitrary choice of a set V of  propositional variables. The alphabet consists of the letters in V along with the symbols for the propositional connectives and parentheses ""("" and "")"", all of which are assumed to not be in V.  The formulas will be certain expressions (that is, strings of symbols) over this alphabet.
The formulas are inductively defined as follows:

Each propositional variable is, on its own, a formula.
If φ is a formula, then ¬φ is a formula.
If φ and ψ are formulas, and • is any binary connective, then ( φ • ψ) is a formula. Here • could be (but is not limited to) the usual operators ∨, ∧, →, or ↔.
This definition can also be written as a formal grammar in Backus–Naur form, provided the set of variables is finite:

Using this grammar, the sequence of symbols

(((p → q) ∧ (r → s)) ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬s))
is a formula, because it is grammatically correct. The sequence of symbols

((p → q)→(qq))p))
is not a formula, because it does not conform to the grammar.
A complex formula may be difficult to read, owing to, for example, the proliferation of parentheses. To alleviate this last phenomenon, precedence rules (akin to the standard mathematical order of operations) are assumed among the operators, making some operators more binding than others. For example, assuming the precedence (from most binding to least binding) 1. ¬   2. →  3. ∧  4. ∨. Then the formula

(((p → q) ∧ (r → s)) ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬s))
may be abbreviated as

p → q ∧ r → s ∨ ¬q ∧ ¬s
This is, however, only a convention used to simplify the written representation of a formula. If the precedence was assumed, for example, to be left-right associative, in following order: 1. ¬   2. ∧  3. ∨  4. →, then the same formula above (without parentheses) would be rewritten as

(p → (q ∧ r)) → (s ∨ (¬q ∧ ¬s))


== Predicate logic ==
The definition of a formula in first-order logic 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
            S
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {QS}}}
  
 is relative to the signature of the theory at hand. This signature specifies the constant symbols, predicate symbols, and function symbols of the theory at hand, along with the arities of the function and predicate symbols.
The definition of a formula comes in several parts. First, the set of terms is defined recursively. Terms, informally, are expressions that represent objects from the domain of discourse.

Any variable is a term.
Any constant symbol from the signature is a term
an expression of the form f(t1,...,tn), where f is an n-ary function symbol, and t1,...,tn are terms, is again a term.
The next step is to define the atomic formulas.

If t1 and t2 are terms then t1=t2 is an atomic formula
If R is an n-ary predicate symbol, and t1,...,tn are terms, then R(t1,...,tn) is an atomic formula
Finally, the set of formulas is defined to be the smallest set containing the set of atomic formulas such that the following holds:

  
    
      
        ¬
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \neg \phi }
  
 is a formula when 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 is a formula

  
    
      
        (
        ϕ
        ∧
        ψ
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (\phi \land \psi )}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        (
        ϕ
        ∨
        ψ
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle (\phi \lor \psi )}
  
 are formulas when 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 and 
  
    
      
        ψ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \psi }
  
 are formulas;

  
    
      
        ∃
        x
        
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \exists x\,\phi }
  
 is a formula when 
  
    
      
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle x}
  
 is a variable and 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 is a formula;

  
    
      
        ∀
        x
        
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \forall x\,\phi }
  
 is a formula when 
  
    
      
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle x}
  
 is a variable and 
  
    
      
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \phi }
  
 is a formula (alternatively, 
  
    
      
        ∀
        x
        
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \forall x\,\phi }
  
 could be defined as an abbreviation for 
  
    
      
        ¬
        ∃
        x
        
        ¬
        ϕ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \neg \exists x\,\neg \phi }
  
).
If a formula has no occurrences of 
  
    
      
        ∃
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \exists x}
  
 or 
  
    
      
        ∀
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle \forall x}
  
, for any variable 
  
    
      
        x
      
    
    {\displaystyle x}
  
, then it is called quantifier-free. An existential formula is a formula starting with a sequence of existential quantification followed by a quantifier-free formula.


== Atomic and open formulas ==

An atomic formula is a formula that contains no logical connectives nor quantifiers, or equivalently a formula that has no strict subformulas.
The precise form of atomic formulas depends on the formal system under consideration; for propositional logic, for example, the atomic formulas are the propositional variables. For predicate logic, the atoms are predicate symbols together with their arguments, each argument being a term.
According to some terminology, an open formula is formed by combining atomic formulas using only logical connectives, to the exclusion of quantifiers. This is not to be confused with a formula which is not closed.


== Closed formulas ==

A closed formula, also ground formula or sentence, is a formula in which there are no free occurrences of any variable. If A is a formula of a first-order language in which the variables v1, …, vn have free occurrences, then A preceded by ∀v1 ⋯ ∀vn is a universal closure of A.


== Properties applicable to formulas ==
A formula A in a language 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
 is valid if it is true for every interpretation of 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
.
A formula A in a language 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
 is satisfiable if it is true for some interpretation of 
  
    
      
        
          
            Q
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {Q}}}
  
.
A formula A of the language of arithmetic is decidable if it represents a decidable set, i.e. if there is an effective method which, given a substitution of the free variables of A, says that either the resulting instance of A is provable or its negation is.


== Usage of the terminology ==
In earlier works on mathematical logic (e.g. by Church), formulas referred to any strings of symbols and among these strings, well-formed formulas were the strings that followed the formation rules of (correct) formulas.
Several authors simply say formula. Modern usages (especially in the context of computer science with mathematical software such as model checkers, automated theorem provers, interactive theorem provers) tend to retain of the notion of formula only the algebraic concept and to leave the question of well-formedness, i.e. of the concrete string representation of formulas (using this or that symbol for connectives and quantifiers, using this or that parenthesizing convention, using Polish or infix notation, etc.) as a mere notational problem.
The expression ""well-formed formulas"" (WFF) also crept into popular culture. WFF is part of an esoteric pun used in the name of the academic game ""WFF 'N PROOF: The Game of Modern Logic"", by Layman Allen, developed while he was at Yale Law School (he was later a professor at the University of Michigan). The suite of games is designed to teach the principles of symbolic logic to children (in Polish notation). Its name is an echo of whiffenpoof, a nonsense word used as a cheer at Yale University made popular in The Whiffenpoof Song and The Whiffenpoofs.


== See also ==

Ground expression
Well-defined expression
Formal language
Glossary of logic
WFF 'N Proof


== Notes ==


== References ==
Allen, Layman E. (1965), ""Toward Autotelic Learning of Mathematical Logic by the WFF 'N PROOF Games"", Mathematical Learning: Report of a Conference Sponsored by the Committee on Intellective Processes Research of the Social Science Research Council, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 30 (1): 29–41
Boolos, George; Burgess, John; Jeffrey, Richard (2002), Computability and Logic (4th ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00758-0
Ehrenberg, Rachel (Spring 2002). ""He's Positively Logical"". Michigan Today. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-02-08. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
Enderton, Herbert (2001), A mathematical introduction to logic (2nd ed.), Boston, MA: Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-238452-3
Gamut, L.T.F. (1990), Logic, Language, and Meaning, Volume 1: Introduction to Logic, University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-28085-3
Hodges, Wilfrid (2001), ""Classical Logic I: First-Order Logic"", in Goble, Lou (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic, Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-20692-7
Hofstadter, Douglas (1980), Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-005579-5
Kleene, Stephen Cole (2002) [1967], Mathematical logic, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-42533-7, MR 1950307
Rautenberg, Wolfgang (2010), A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic (3rd ed.), New York: Springer Science+Business Media, doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1221-3, ISBN 978-1-4419-1220-6


== External links ==
Well-Formed Formula for First Order Predicate Logic - includes a short Java quiz.
Well-Formed Formula at ProvenMath"
Rosemount Ski Boots,"Rosemount Ski Boots introduced one of the earliest all-plastic ski boots for the downhill skiing market, competing with Bob Lange for the title of ""first"". Rosemount's design was easily distinguished by its use of the uncommon ""side-entry"" method for putting the boot on, which was rare at the time and is no longer used.
The boot was introduced by Rosemount Engineering, better known for their aerospace instrumentation. They referred to the boot division as either the Rosemount Consumer Products Division or Sports Technology.
Rosemount sold the factory to Bass Sports in 1968, but  the boots retained the Rosemount name throughout their production. Many variations of the design were introduced over the next four years, and Bass added ski bindings and ski poles as well. The rest of Rosemount became Rosemount Inc. when they were purchased by Emerson in 1976.
Bass Sports was in turn purchased by Raichle in 1972, who ended production of the Rosemount boot in favor of their own designs the next year. Ironically, one of the few other side-entry boot designs was the Raichle Fibre Jet (aka Red and Red Hot), another fiberglass design which was no longer in production.


== History ==


=== Leather boots ===
Downhill skiing evolved as a specialization of a previously generic skiing sport. Before the era of ski lifts, skiing always involved cross-country portions, and the downhills tended to be short, slow, and had to be skied back up.
Equipment during this era was designed for the cross-country portions. This normally consisted of a wooden ski, a leather winter boot, and a cable binding to keep the two together. This combination of equipment was far from optimal for downhill skiing. During the downhill portions the skis are turned by rotating them onto their edges; in traditional cable bindings, the heel is free to lift from the ski to allow a striding motion, and the system offers little support for edging.
The introduction of ski lifts, especially after World War II, led to the specialization of downhill as a separate sport, and new equipment evolved to meet this market. One example was the ""Kandahar"" style cable bindings, which added small metal hooks near the heel. When the cable was passed under the clips it was locked in place and offered much better edging control. By the mid-1950s these were joined by a number of new binding systems that allowed the toe of the boot to release during  fall.
The style of skiing allowed by the new bindings demanded new boots that were much stiffer as well, and a number of designs that were boiled in oil or soaked in glue became common in the 1950s. They were initially so rigid to be extremely uncomfortable, but softened up after a break-in period. The comfortable period was quite short, as the breaking-in (or down) process would continue until it became too soft to offer good control. A typical pair might last a single season – or only weeks for racers. The leather was far from ideal in other ways as well; it would soak up water or snow and then freeze, making them very difficult to get on or off while also offering little warmth.


=== Rosemount Engineering ===

A number of experiments with composite designs were carried out by a variety of inventors through the 1950s, but all faced what appeared to be a catch-22; a boot stiff enough side-to-side to offer good edge control was too stiff front-to-back to allow the natural flexing motion of the leg that occurs during turns or on bumps. Early examples using plastics or fibreglass invariably proved far too rigid to be skied.
Frank Werner, president of Rosemount Engineering, had taken up skiing in the late 1950s when downhill was first becoming a major sport. He took it upon himself to develop a new boot that offered the perfect mix of sideways rigidity and forward flex, handing these twin demands to his engineering staff.
They responded with a simple solution that is now universal; the boot is made of two separate pieces, a shoe covering the foot and heel, and a separate section that forms a cuff around the lower leg. The two pieces are joined together with a hinge near the ankle. Their design was unique in the details of its construction; in modern designs the upper and lower portions of the boot overlap in front of the ankle, in the Rosemount design the two were entirely separate and held together with large stainless steel plates. The forward flex was entirely unconstrained, as the two halves did not rub over each other. As long as the hinge was mechanically strong enough, it would provide unlimited lateral stiffness.
Rosemount's chosen material was fiberglass reinforced epoxy. This was mechanically strong, lightweight, weatherproof, and could be easily formed into any required shape. It was strong enough that the metal hinges could be riveted directly to it. However, fibreglass thick enough to bear these loads would be essentially rigid, and could not be opened or closed by conventional means – splitting it along the top of the boot and pulling it closed with laces. This was a concern, as a fibreglass cuff that fit the lower leg tightly enough for control would not allow the larger sections of the foot and heel to pass through it when putting it on.
Rosemount's solution was to build the boot in two halves, one covering the majority of the foot and leg, and a smaller section that hinged along the footbed, rotating out to the side. To put the boot on, the moving section was rotated out, allowing the skier's foot to be inserted through the opened side of the boot. The moving section was then rotated up, back into place, and held there by two buckles, one on the foot and one on the leg cuff. The seam was then sealed from the snow with an elastic material that was stretched over the front of the boot.
Forward flex was controlled by three neoprene bands connected to the cuff through a strap running up the back of the boot. The bands were located under the removable sole liner, and could be replaced to change the stiffness. For comfort and fit, the boot was customized by inserting a series of small leather pads in a variety of sizes. The pillows contained one or more plastic bags filled with tiny plastic beads. The bags could be hand-moulded into the required shape, and natural movement of the foot would keep them in the approximate shape needed for comfort. Initial setup was time consuming, and presented a problem in the ski shops.
Rosemount's first production run of 900 prototype boots was sent to the ski shops in 1965/66. By this point, Bob Lange had already shipped a number of boots made of ""Royalite"" ABS plastic; these were not very successful, but do they pre-date the Rosemount examples as the earliest plastic boots.


=== Improvements ===
The boot design quickly proved to have a number of problems. The most serious was that seam between the two halves of the boot  could not be easily sealed, and water and snow could be forced into the boots through the hinge or the seam where the two halves met in front or behind it.
This led to a modification for the 1966/67 season, moving the hinge from the bottom of the foot to the back of the leg, allowing the moving flap to rotate back instead of to the side. The buckles and fabric flap were combined into one system, a larger piece of fabric that wrapped the entire front of the boot and buckled closed at the back of the boot. Two cables, one each at the top and bottom of the flap, fit into grooves on the front of the boot to keep the flap from sliding around.
A separate piece of elastic fabric was added at the top of the leg cuff, sealing it around the leg and preventing snow from entering on the top. Separate pieces of neoprene could be inserted between the cuff and foot in order to adjust the forward flex pattern of the boot, and the hinges could be adjusted to modify the ""cant"", the lateral angle between the foot and leg.
However, even the small amount of flexing that did occur in the shell allowed the joint along the side of the foot to open slightly. The section of the joint along the bottom of the boot, just above the ski where the hinge used to be, was not covered by the fabric flap. A clip was supposed to keep this closed, but was considered to be useless. During turns, snow could be jammed up against the joint and would melt inside the boot; wet feet were a common problem.


=== Bass Sports ===
By 1968, the company had sold their factory to the G. H. Bass shoe company in Maine. Its original owner, George Henry Bass, had been producing conventional leather boots since the 1940s. Now run by his son, Robert ""Bunny"" Bass, an avid skier and one of the founders of the Sugarloaf ski resort in Maine. Bass kept the Rosemount brand and continued to improve the design.
A further modification followed for the 1969 season, enlarging the metal hinge on the medial side (inside) until it covered most of that side of the boot. The larger plate was designed to clip into a metal flange running along the side of the boot just below the opening. Closing the boot was a two-step operation, the flap was swung closed and then the metal plate was pushed downward until it clipped into the flange. Judging by contemporary reports, this appears to have solved the leakage problem.
Another change, on some models, was the introduction of a separate adjustment for the natural forward lean of the boot. In earlier models this was set through shoe laces on the front of the cuff, in the new ""Fastback"" models, a screw jack on the back of the boot allowed lean adjustment at any time.


=== Other products ===
Bass Sports also introduced a number of other products under the Rosemount name. These included a series of fibreglass ski poles, which were relatively new at the time, and a new ski binding design.
Ski bindings evolved from the cable binding system of the 1950s, which looped around behind the boot and over the back of the sole. Many boots of the 1950s and 60s included a semi-circular indentation in the sole to provide a better fit for the cable. Early releasing bindings were designed to fit into this groove or over the sole, like a cable, often using a metal roller about the same size as the cable, the Look Nevada's ""Gran Prix"" release heel being a typical example. When plastic boots were introduced, they too provided similar sole extensions for mounting the bindings.
However, as there was no standardization of boot sole shapes, designing a binding that worked with any boot was difficult. Worse, on leather boots the mounting point would change as the leather wore down, or even due to flexing during the day. One solution to this problem was to use small metal fittings screwed into the boot, to provide a known and unchanging mounting point for the bindings. Solutions like these were features of some of the first so-called safety bindings, the Miller  and Cubco, while popular ""plate binding"" designs of the 1970s used metal plates that extended along the entire sole of the boot. The bindings clipped onto these plates instead of the boot proper, providing a much more reliable release.
Rosemount's solution was something of a blending of these designs. The hard sole of the boot served as the plate, with small metal clips moulded into the toe and heel flanges to provide an attachment point for their bindings. The attachment points were customized for their own SE-1 toe and SE-2 heel, but their position left the flanges free to be used with any conventional binding of the era, even cables. Mechanically, the SE-1 and SE-2 looked and operated like the contemporary designs from 
Cubco and Gertsch.
Advertising for the bindings appeared in 1970, and Rosemount boots featured the metal clips that year. However, later designs from 1972 lack the clips and no further advertising can be found.
Along with the bindings, the Rosemount LOTORK system was introduced in 1970. This consisted of a metal plate that was affixed with adhesive to the top of the ski under the foot. The plate had bearings inside that allowed it to rotate to the sides. It had been found that friction between the ski and ski boot was much higher than imagined, enough to prevent the toe piece from releasing under certain conditions. The LOTORK was a solution to this, allowing easy rotation under any conditions. Similar products from other companies typically used teflon pads in place of the rotating mechanism.


=== End of the Line ===
In 1968 Bass purchased Rosemount, it picked up distribution rights to some European brands, including Hexcel skis, Raichle boots, Splitkein cross country skis, and a skiwear line. The ski-related companies were organized as Bass Sports, or Sports Technology, separate from the shoe company. In 1972 Raichle set up its own North American distribution company, Raichle-Molitor USA, under the leadership of Heinz Herzog. At that time, ""Bunny"" Bass retired and was succeeded by sales manager Butch Wieden. The Rosemount brand was retired, too.


== See also ==
Rosemount Inc.


== References ==
Citations

Bibliography


== External links ==
Images of Rosemount advertisements, retrieved on July 18, 2009
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Greg Morrill, ""Leather ski boots: I spotted two pairs on the mountain"", Stowe Reporter, 20 January 2011"
Operation Gideon (2020),"This article uses Spanish naming customs: the paternal surname is first, and the maternal surname is second.

Operation Gideon (Spanish: Operación Gedeón) was an unsuccessful attempt by the Active Coalition of the Venezuelan International Reserve, Venezuelan dissidents, and a private security firm, Jordan Goudreau's Silvercorp USA, to infiltrate Venezuela by sea and remove Nicolás Maduro from power. The plan executed from 3 to 4 May 2020 was for expatriate Venezuelan former military personnel living in Colombia to enter the country by boat at Macuto, take control of an airfield, capture Maduro and other high-level figures in his administration, and expel them from the country.
A landing attempt to initiate the operation went forward despite its impracticality. Two boats were launched from eastern Colombia toward the Caribbean coast of Venezuela north of Caracas, carrying approximately 60 Venezuelan dissidents and two American former Green Berets employed as mercenaries by Silvercorp. Both boats were intercepted before they reached land. At least six Venezuelan dissidents in the first boat were killed, and all but four of the invaders were captured during the attempted landing or subsequent search operations, including the two Americans from the second boat, whose interrogations were broadcast on state television.
Venezuelan intelligence agencies and the Associated Press (AP) had prior knowledge of the operation. Commentators and observers described the operation as amateurish, underfunded, poorly organized, impossible, and a suicide mission, and divergent narratives led to questions about how the plot unfolded. Sources criticized the poor planning and execution, alternating between characterizing the operation as an attempted invasion, infiltration, raid, ambush, assassination or coup. Maduro and his representatives described the attacking force as terrorists who planned to kill him in a plot coordinated by Colombia and the United States. Guaidó and some supporters described the event as a false flag orchestrated by Maduro, and Goudreau described the team as freedom fighters seeking to restore democracy.


== Background ==

Nicolás Maduro first took office as president of Venezuela in 2013 as the hand-picked successor of Hugo Chávez after Chávez's death from cancer. Javier Corrales wrote in a Journal of Democracy article that the ""questionable electoral integrity"" and the ""slim margin"" by which Maduro won the 2013 Venezuelan presidential election brought resistance to his mandate from ""opposition parties, the media, civil society, elements of the military, and international actors"". Corrales states that Maduro ""presided over one of the most devastating national economic crises seen anywhere in modern times."" Beginning with the 2014 Venezuelan protests, Popular Will leader Leopoldo López had sought to expel Maduro, calling for ""direct action to remove"" him, according to an article published by The Wall Street Journal.
According to Rafael Villa – writing in Defence Studies in 2022 – ""Maduro's leadership [was] not consensual"" and among the changes he had made to overcome his ""political fragility"" was promoting an excessive number of officers within the military, and the election of a 2017 Constituent National Assembly to replace the opposition-led National Assembly, which had been elected in 2015. Victor Mijares writes, in the book Latin American Politics and Development, that increased authoritarianism and control of the military in an environment of extreme poverty and inflation during a period marked by protests and repression, brought about a ""legitimacy crisis coming from dubious elections"" with the ""combination of these tactics of political control and illegal rule"" leading to the presidential crisis between Maduro and Popular Will politician Juan Guaidó. According to unnamed sources cited by The Wall Street Journal article, the 2018 election – ""widely seen as fraudulent"" – convinced López that negotiations with Maduro were not an option.
A power struggle for the presidency of Venezuela began in January 2019 following the 2018 presidential election; The Wall Street Journal stated that the 2018 election was ""widely seen as fraudulent"", and according to The Washington Post, incumbent Nicolás Maduro was ""accused of stealing the 2018 elections"" and leading a repressive administration. In January 2019, Guaidó was named president of the National Assembly – the ""nation's last democratic institution"" according to The Washington Post. He was later recognized by more than 50 countries, including the United States, as interim president of Venezuela. James DeFronzo wrote in the 2021 book, Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements, that: ""Critics questioned whether there was really constitutional justification for Guaidó to become interim president in place of Maduro."" The US administration of Donald Trump pressured for the exit of Maduro, charged him with narcoterrorism, and put a US$15 million reward for information leading to his capture and arrest. Throughout 2019, the Maduro administration maintained control of Venezuela's military agencies and key governmental institutions. Maduro enjoyed the support of the higher ranks of the military, but less so among the middle and lower ranks.
Establishing a government in Venezuela required three crucial elements: according to Villa, ""the people, the international community, and the armed forces."" Following the failed 2019 Venezuelan uprising attempt led by Guaidó against Maduro on 30 April, Guaidó's movement lost momentum. William Neuman wrote in the 2022 book Things Are Never So Bad That They Can't Get Worse: Inside the Collapse of Venezuela that, with waning support and other options not materializing, Guaidó and López sought ""another way out of Venezuela's impasse"". A Wall Street Journal article stated that unnamed sources said López and his closest aides began seeking a security firm and contemplated hiring mercenaries without the knowledge of other opposition parties. Guaidó and López have said that the meetings rarely went beyond informal conversations.
After the unsuccessful April 2019 uprising, some former military and police defectors who sided with Guaidó took refuge in Colombia; they considered their aim was to ""liberate their homeland from the socialist government of [an] autocratic"" president, according to The Washington Post. Businesses began to approach the Guaidó administration, seeking to profit from contracts they expected to become available as Guaidó replaced Maduro, and proposals of an armed operation to support Guaidó began to be discussed.


== Planning ==
Operation Gideon was primarily planned by Clíver Alcalá Cordones and Jordan Goudreau.
Alcalá was a Major General in the Venezuelan Army with close ties to the Hugo Chávez government until he defected under Maduro to Colombia in 2013 and began gathering other defectors, stationing them in the La Guajira Peninsula. In 2011, he was charged by the US with providing the Colombian FARC with arms, and was indicted for narcoterrorism in March 2020 as a member of the Cartel of the Suns.
Goudreau served in the Canadian Armed Forces and later moved to Washington, D.C. and enlisted in the United States Army, eventually reaching the rank of Sergeant First Class in the 10th Special Forces Group. He became a naturalized US citizen and retired at the age of 40 due to injuries. In 2018, he founded Silvercorp USA, with the initial idea being ""to embed counter-terror agents in schools disguised as teachers"".
Goudreau is reported to have provided security at a political rally for Donald Trump in Charlotte, North Carolina in October 2018 based on material on the Silvercorp website and Instagram account. In February 2019, Silvercorp provided security services at the Venezuela Aid Live concert in Colombia, and Goudreau turned his attention to Venezuela. According to Goudreau's friend and business partner, Drew White, he saw a business opportunity in the Trump administration's intensified efforts to remove Maduro from power. White said he distanced himself from Silvercorp and Goudreau when Goudreau began discussing launching a military operation in Venezuela.
Journalist Sebastiana Barráez, who specializes in Venezuelan military reporting, writes that what came to be known as Operation Gideon was three different plans at different times: one was the preparation in the Colombian camps of exiled Venezuelan military led by Alcalá until he was extradited to the U.S. in March 2020; another was the period after that when Antonio Sequea took over the camps until he led the men on what she calls a ""suicide mission"" to an ambush at Macuto; and yet another phase was what related to SilverCorp and Diosdado Cabello who had infiltrated the camps and had advance knowledge of the plans.


=== Initial promotion: March–May 2019 ===

Alcalá openly discussed his plans to overthrow the Maduro government with a 1,000 men strong force with The Wall Street Journal, saying ""If you don't do this now, the republic is lost."" The Wall Street Journal reported that Alcalá planned to use dissident soldiers from the Venezuelan army and national guard, hoping to involve officers in the operation prior to their purging by the Maduro government.
Through connections within the private security community, Goudreau was acquainted with Keith Schiller, the longtime director of security for Donald Trump. Schiller brought Goudreau to a March 2019 fundraising event focused on security in Venezuela and future investments in the nation following a potential end of the Maduro government, which took place at the University Club of Washington, DC. Lester Toledo, the director of humanitarian aid for Guaidó's government, also attended.
Weeks later, according to an AP article, Toledo introduced Goudreau to Alcalá at JW Marriott Bogotá during a conference where groups of Venezuelan exiles, some of whom were involved in Guaidó's failed uprising, gathered. The Wall Street Journal reported that Alcalá and Goudreau had been introduced by ""associates"" of Leopoldo López and that opposition officials were convinced about the plot's feasibility. During the two-day meeting with Toledo and Goudreau, Alcalá disclosed that he had recruited some 300 men stationed at training camps on the Guajira Peninsula near Riohacha, Colombia, ready to carry out ""a 'mad plan' to push across the western border, take the oil center of Maracaibo and force their way to Caracas, the capital"". Goudreau indicated that instead of 300 as Alcalá promised, there were only 60 trainees. Goudreau proposed an alternative approach, suggesting that his company, Silvercorp, could train and equip the soldiers for a rapid strike at a cost of US$1.5 million. Goudreau said he had contacts with Trump administration officials, though reportedly did not provide support for his statements. Men familiar with the missions said Goudreau ""had convinced the men that they were training for a U.S.-backed incursion into Venezuela"", according to The Washington Post. Following the meeting at JW Marriott, Toledo and some Guaidó officials indicated that they ended contact with Goudreau because they believed the operation was a suicide mission and they did not trust Alcalá.
In May 2019, Schiller and Goudreau met with Guaidó administration officials in Miami, Florida, where Goudreau promoted the idea of providing security for Guaidó officials. Schiller distanced himself from Goudreau following the meeting, believing that Goudreau was incapable of providing the services he was offering.
Goudreau's October 2020 lawsuit stated that a $500-million proposal had been submitted by Blackwater founder Erik Prince that involved 5,000 troops and mercenaries. Guaidó and his representatives, as well as Prince and his representatives, denied such reports.


=== Colombia Silvercorp established: June 2019 ===
A Colombian branch of Silvercorp was opened in mid-2019 by Goudreau and Yacsy Alezandra Álvarez Mirabal, who acted as a translator for Alcalá and Goudreau. Álvarez was an assistant of Franklin Durán, a Venezuelan businessman who had business ties with the Venezuelan government for about two decades until his company was expropriated by the government; one of his businesses had a history of importing military equipment. Durán and his brothers were friends with Alcalá prior to the event; the AP described Durán as ""close to the government of the late Hugo Chávez"".
In June 2019, Alcalá met with the National Intelligence Directorate of Colombia asking for support, saying Goudreau was a former CIA agent. CIA contacts in Bogotá reportedly denied that Goudreau had ever been a CIA agent. According to Álvarez, former president of Colombia Álvaro Uribe and then president Iván Duque expressed support for Goudreau's efforts, offering them a training camp, an airstrip and safe passage for individuals in exchange for combatting militants of the National Liberation Army in the area. US officials learned of the ""hundreds of Venezuelan soldiers who had defected and were living precariously in Colombia"" and discussed a plan to reorganize them to assist victims of the Venezuelan refugee crisis, thus diverting them from illegal activities. When reports emerged that they might be used for an armed operation, one anonymous US official described the notion as ""completely insane"".
By 16 June 2019, Goudreau had compiled a list of required equipment, according to former United States Navy SEAL Ephraim Mattos, who met with Alcalá's troops while working in Colombia. The list included ""320 M4 assault rifles, an anti-tank rocket launcher, Zodiac boats, US$1 million in cash and state-of-the-art night vision goggles"". According to Mattos, the trainees believed they had the backing of the U.S. government; after reviewing Silvercorp on the internet, he said: ""I was like, 'Guys, guys, guys, this guy is not who he says he is.'""


=== Negotiations with Guaidó representatives: August–November 2019 ===

Guaidó established a Strategic Committee in August 2019 and named J. J. Rendón to head it. The committee was tasked with exploring possibilities and testing scenarios for the removal of Maduro from power, with methods ranging from increased international condemnation of Maduro to armed action. After reviewing all legal means of removing Maduro, the group adopted the position that the Venezuelan Constitution, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and other treaties provided justification for pursuing a change of government. Among other options, Rendón considered an insurrection against the Maduro government. Foreign contractors would advise and support Venezuelans in a military operation to capture Maduro and replace his government with Guaido's.
Sources told The Wall Street Journal that López and others had reviewed six or more bids from private military companies to enter Venezuela, encourage a rebellion in the armed forces and overthrow Maduro. By 7 September 2019, Goudreau made a sales pitch to Rendón proposing the capture of Maduro and his officials and their extraction from Venezuela with a self-financed plan at a cost of $212.9 million, backed by future oil sales.
A General Services Agreement between Venezuela and Silvercorp was signed on 16 October 2019, by Goudreau on behalf of Silvercorp and Rendón and Sergio Vergara, on behalf of the Guaidó administration.  Within a week of signing the agreement, Goudreau reportedly claimed to have secured funding for the operation, but provided no proof. Rendón told reporters that shortly after signing the agreement, Goudreau began acting suspicious and demanding immediate payment of the $1.5 million retainer that was due within a five-day period according to the agreement. Rendón transferred Goudreau $50,000 from his personal account for ""expenses"" (confirmed publicly by Goudreau) to buy more time, but the relationship between the two quickly deteriorated.
On 8 November 2019, Goudreau met Rendón and the two had a heated argument. According to Rendón, he and other Guaidó administration officials ""considered the operation dead"" after this encounter. Rendón attempted to provide a letter canceling the agreement, though Gourdeau refused. It was reported that Juan Guaidó himself signed a preliminary contract. Guaidó and his allies denied that he signed the contract directly. Goudreau provided a covert recording of ""what appears to be"", according to the Miami Herald, a video call with Guaidó on 16 October 2019 in which Guaidó purportedly says that he was going to sign the document. Guaidó and his allies state that Rendón and Vergara signed on Guaidó's behalf; Rendón said that Guaidó ""grew suspicious"" of the ""exploratory plan"" having seen only an outline.
Although an agreement had been previously signed, the opposition attempted to distance themselves from their past interactions with Goudreau. The AP wrote that Goudreau said that he advanced the operation ""without Guaidó's support"". The Washington Post wrote: ""Goudreau counters that the agreement ... bound the opposition to his services and initial fee. A seven-page document provided by Goudreau carries Guaidó's signature"" with Rendón's and Vergara's.


=== Alcalá and Goudreau resume preparations: December 2019 ===

Goudreau and Alcalá reportedly distanced themselves from the Venezuelan opposition due to their perception that the opposition was insincere and hypocritical because of alleged secret negotiations with the Maduro government. Though they no longer had the support of the opposition government, they resumed their preparations. Without aid from the US government or the Guaidó administration, Goudreau and Alcalá did not have the means required for a successful operation.
Former Venezuelan National Guard captain Javier Enrique Nieto Quintero, a leader of an international network of Venezuelan dissidents known as the Active Coalition of the Venezuelan International Reserve (CARIVE, Spanish: Coalición Activa de la Reserva Internacional Venezolana), was approached to help provide operators. According to Nieto, CARIVE asked him to meet with Alcalá and that the tactical equipment presented by the former general, including rifles and night vision goggles, with Nieto stating the materials ""showed the political leaders in Venezuela and the international community that the commitment was already there"".
By December 2019, Silvercorp had purchased a 41-foot (12 m) fiberglass boat in Florida that was equipped with navigational equipment two months later. Silvercorp received funding from an anonymous source on 13 January 2020, according to lien records. With Goudreau and translator Álvarez, two other former Green Beret operators, Airan Berry and Luke Denman, traveled to Colombia on a 16 January private flight from Opa-Locka, Florida to Barranquilla, Colombia provided by Durán. Berry was a special forces engineer sergeant in the Army from 1996 to 2013, while Denman left the Army in 2011. More than sixty Venezuelan dissidents gathered in Riohacha, Colombia, to train.
In March 2020, Goudreau traveled to Jamaica in the Silvercorp-owned fiberglass boat named Silverpoint where he met with former special forces friends and discussed Operation Gideon. According to Jack Murphy, self-identified as a former US Ranger, the CIA learned about the plan and warned Silvercorp not to go through with it on numerous occasions. Goudreau then contacted Guaidó's officials one last time asking for funding. The Wall Street Journal reported that the planned operation was ""widely known to former Venezuelan soldiers who considered participating, Venezuelan opposition figures, senior Colombian intelligence officials and even the CIA, which monitored their activities in La Guajira"". On 28 March, the boat was damaged, triggering an emergency position-indicating radio beacon that alerted authorities in Curaçao, who rescued Goudreau. They returned him to Florida and COVID travel restrictions prevented him from rejoining his men.
Hernán Alemán, an opposition politician who initially supported the plan, while describing Goudreau as a friend, indicated in an interview following the event that he did not know any details surrounding the contract or discussions that took place in the United States. He stated that Rendón never financed the operation and that he and Alcalá undertook the operation with Goudreau without his party's knowledge, deciding to finance the operation themselves. Alemán said that at its peak, the group consisted of four camps occupied by 150 military. He added that the operation was compromised and had been infiltrated, saying that after Alcalá's arrest, the operation's control was transferred to other people, there was no contact with the new leaders, and other insurgents said Sequea Torres was a mole – an allegation repeated by others but denied by Jorge Arreaza, Maduro's foreign minister.
The Venezuelan government later published an audio recording of Alemán by Venezuelan intelligence, in which he reportedly tells a listener that he had met a CIA officer at the U.S. ambassador's house; Vice magazine printed a portion of Alemán's alleged conversation (noting the recording ""could very well have been tampered with by a security service loyal to Maduro"") which has Alemán saying, ""Here in a meeting with all the bigwigs in the house of the [U.S. ambassador] ... I was even speaking with the guy from the CIA. They put me there so that the CIA guy would talk to me"". Alemán later acknowledged in an interview with Infobae that the voice on the recording was his, at a social gathering celebrating the 4 and 5 July, saying that the distortion to make it appear they had conspired with the US was untrue. He stated that, ""If there was one thing we were always very clear about, it was that the United States was not going to get involved in an action like the one [we] planned.""


=== Extradition of Alcalá to the United States: March 2020 ===

A shipment of weapons and tactical gear was confiscated on 23 March 2020 by Colombian authorities tipped off by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), with former DEA officials initially believing that the equipment was being sent to leftist guerrillas or criminal gangs. The impounded truck was headed for Venezuela carrying 26 semi-automatic rifles, night vision goggles, radios, and 15 combat helmets produced by High-End Defense Solutions, a company owned by Venezuelan Americans.
On 26 March 2020, the United States accused Maduro of narcoterrorism, and through its Narcotics Rewards Program offered a US$15 million reward for information leading to his arrest, plus an additional US$10 million each for information leading to the arrest of four close Maduro allies: Diosdado Cabello, Maikel Moreno, Tareck El Aissami, Vladimir Padrino López and Cilver Alcalá, one of the alleged leaders of the operation. The same day, Alcalá placed a video on Twitter where he assumed responsibility for ""a military operation against the Maduro dictatorship"" that included the shipment of weapons captured in Colombia, stating that the United States, Colombia, and Guaidó officials had signed an agreement to overthrow Maduro. After Alcalá assumed responsibility for the weapons shipment, the Colombian attorney general announced on 28 March that an investigation into Alcalá's role in the shipment had been opened.
Guaidó denied knowledge of the event while United States Special Representative to Venezuela Elliott Abrams described Alcalá's statement as ""despicable and quite dangerous"". Abrams later said that Alcalá ""was put up to making those terrible charges by the [Maduro] regime"". Alcalá was extradited to the United States on drug trafficking charges after voluntarily surrendering on about 27 March.
The Venezuelan government said that Alcalá was a US agent and that, after the operation failed, the United States government used narcoterrorism charges as a way to transport him to the United States to prevent him from revealing more secrets. In the context of reacting to the intercepted shipment on 26 March, Maduro stated that Alcalá was hired by the DEA to assassinate him, ""but he failed because we made him fail"".
According to Alemán, who acknowledges participating in the planning of the operation up until the point Alcalá was extradited to the United States, Sequea took control of the operation and replaced military personnel. Alemán remarked that Goudreau was unable to exercise command because he was in the United States. Alemán, saying he was basing his statements on others, accused Sequea of being a mole and of selling the group out.
In November 2021, Alcalá's lawyers lodged a motion to have the US charges dismissed along with a statement that US officials at the highest levels of the CIA, Department of the Treasury, Department of Justice, the National Security Council and the DEA were aware of his efforts to overthrow Maduro. The attorney also stated Rendón and two Guaidó allies were aware of Alcalá's coup plan. In June 2023, Alcalá pled guilty in the U.S. to ""two counts of providing material support to a terrorist group and illicit transfer of firearms"", with the narcotics charges dropped.


==== Prior knowledge of operation ====
According to the Associated Press, the operation ""was infiltrated by Maduro's vast, Cuban-trained intelligence network"" early on. The Associated Press asserted that it had investigated and published about the operation before it happened. The Venezuelan government knew the location of the camps on Guajira Peninsula by September 2019, with Vice President of Venezuela Delcy Rodríguez announcing the coordinates of the militants while speaking at the general debate of the United Nations General Assembly. The Washington Post wrote that Maduro ""was well-informed of the effort virtually from its start"".
Two days after the confiscation of weapons and munitions in Colombia, on 25 March, the Venezuelan Minister of Communication and Information, Jorge Rodríguez, gave a televised press conference in which he published details related to the training camps. Rodríguez named former Venezuelan army captain Roberto Levid ""Pantera"" Colina Ibarra, whom he identified as a murderer, as the leader of one of the training sites with the support of Colombian President Iván Duque. Rodríguez mentioned that there were three American instructors at the training camps. ""We know their cover names: agent Jordan, agent Luke, and agent Aaron,"" he announced.
On 28 March, Diosdado Cabello identified Goudreau as an adviser for Alcalá during episode 294 of the television show Con El Mazo Dando. Cabello also identified by first name the two Americans; he referred to Denman and Berry only as ""Luke"" and ""Aaron"" [phonetic spelling]. Cabello also exhibited photographs purportedly showing Goudreau, Silvercorp and content from their social media profiles, and photographs from Instagram depicting Goudreau providing security services during the Venezuela Aid Live concert in Cúcuta and at a Trump rally in Charlotte. The purpose of broadcasting the images was to show that the United States was allegedly behind the international effort to remove Maduro from power and was conspiring with narcotics traffickers, referring to Alcalá. The program also exhibited excerpts from various media organizations discussing the alleged contract between Guaidó and Silvercorp.
Around the middle of 2019, Maduro stated there was a ""plan ... to get 32 mercenaries into Venezuela to kill me and to kill Venezuelan revolutionary leaders"". After news of the event broke, Maduro was explicit about the level of insider knowledge his government had, saying in his first public appearance: ""We knew everything: what they were talking about, what they ate, what they drank, what they didn't drink, who financed them."" According to The Washington Post, a ""senior opposition official called the Alcalá-Goudreau plan 'the worst-kept secret in Venezuela'.
According to McClatchy and Goudreau, officials within the Trump administration had advance knowledge of the plan while The Wall Street Journal said that the CIA monitored and knew about the plot. The United States denied involvement and when asked about its knowledge by The Wall Street Journal, the CIA deferred comments to the White House, which said it did not have direct roles in the operation. The Colombian government said it first had knowledge of the plot after its authorities captured weapons destined for the operation and following the detention of Alcalá, though the Venezuelan opposition said that Colombian intelligence and high-level officials knew of the plot for months. In an audio recording, members of the Venezuelan opposition are heard discussing that President of Colombia Álvaro Uribe opposed any cooperation with Alcalá.


=== Final preparations, Associated Press article: April–May 2020 ===
By the time of the landing attempt, many of the dissidents had abandoned their camps following the arrest of Alcalá, investigations by Colombian authorities, and the growing pandemic; because Goudreau's promises had failed to materialize; and due to rumors that Maduro had infiltrated the operation. The Guardian suggested that Goudreau went ahead with the operation despite its poor planning because he was seeking the US$15 million reward that the US government placed on Maduro.
In November 2020, the Miami Herald published an article based on an interview with an anonymous source known by the nickname Cacique, ""a Venezuelan rebel officer who operated the communications center for the failed incursion from an undisclosed city in the United States"" and was a CARIVE member and Nieto confidant. He stated that the Maduro government had offered a reward for Colina, and two to three days before the operation, a member of the group, who directed a faction of five moles, ""sold the exact landing coordinates shortly before departure"", seeking to collect on the reward. According to the report, Maduro intelligence knew the exact coordinates where the invaders would attempt their landing, and were expecting their arrival.
As the planned operation approached, a new commander moved the group into the arid area on the Guajira Peninsula of northern Colombia, with one of the dissidents saying that the group spent their time hiding and held conviction for their cause of overthrowing Maduro.
The AP published a 1 May 2020 article written by Joshua Goodman about Goudreau, the plan and its history, and the training camps, writing that the scheme was ""far-fetched"" and that people who knew him believed he was ""in way over his head"". The article suggested that the Maduro government may have known of the plan since late-March 2020, but certainly knew by 1 May. Maduro confirmed that he knew of the plan by the evening of 1 May, and said that it had been initially planned for 10 March, but postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Objectives included securing the General Directorate of Military Counterintelligence headquarters, neutralizing the Presidential Honor Guard at Miraflores Palace and securing an airfield, where they would extract Maduro, who was code named ""Jackpot"". Silvercorp would then stay to maintain humanitarian aid distribution while Goudreau would arrive in Caracas following the operation's success. When asked why his troops would land at one of Venezuela's most fortified coastlines, twenty miles from Caracas and next to the country's biggest airport, he cited as inspiration the Battle of Gaugamela, won by Alexander the Great, who had ""struck deep into the heart of the enemy"". During the event, Goudreau gave an interview by telephone from Florida to an AP reporter. Goudreau said that his intention in launching the raid was to ""introduce a catalyst"", acknowledging that it is impractical to believe ""60 guys can come in and topple a regime"". Despite the long odds, he expressed his belief that ""60 guys can go in and inspire the military and police to flip and join in the liberation of their country"".


== Landing attempt ==

The boats launched from a beach in the Guajira Peninsula of northern Colombia, on 2 May 2020 in two waves, beginning with a pilot boat carrying 10–11 men, and followed by a larger boat carrying 46–47, including two former United States Army Special Forces members employed as private military contractors for Silvercorp. The force traveled about 400 miles (640 km) through the ocean, passing Aruba and Curaçao, planning to meet with other insurgents stationed inland that possessed weapons caches and fighting vehicles. The two boats eventually lost contact with one another.
The Maduro administration first acknowledged a ""maritime invasion"" at 07:30 a.m. on Sunday, 3 May 2020, in an announcement from Interior Minister Néstor Reverol. According to their version, a firefight ensued when the occupants of the first boat, led by Colina, shot at the Venezuelan authorities who were waiting for them to reach the shore at Macuto, La Guaira. Opposition lawmaker Wilmer Azuaje and journalist Sebastiana Barráez said that Venezuelan authorities had advance knowledge of the landing and that they staged the firefight, at odds with the government's account that the confrontation began after Colina started shooting.
The first boat was sunk by Venezuelan security forces in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, 3 May 2020, near Macuto, La Guaira. After initially reporting that eight individuals were killed and two captured, Venezuelan spokespersons revised the number of deceased to six. One of the men killed was the first boat's leader Colina, who was alleged to have directed a training camp in Riohacha.
In the afternoon of 3 May – after the first boat's arrival at Macuto and before the second boat was intercepted – Goudreau released a video to Twitter, appearing next to the CARIVE leader Nieto, in which he dubbed the plot Operation Gideon, and announced that ""[a]t 1700 hours, a daring amphibious raid was launched from the border of Colombia deep into the heart of Caracas"". Goudreau said that the operation was ongoing and that ""units have been activated in the south, east and west of Venezuela"". Goudreau later acknowledged misleading the media with false information to allow time for the men to escape. In the video, Nieto said that the objective of the operation was to detain the leadership of the Maduro government and free political prisoners.
The occupants of the second boat were reportedly destined for an area near Caracas where they would set up a camp under the supervision of Berry and Denman in preparation for an invasion force they hoped would attract disaffected Venezuelan soldiers looking to join the efforts to remove Maduro from power. According to a source close to the mission, the plan was for the men to spend a few days in safe houses before moving covertly to Caracas. A survivor of the second boat who managed to evade capture told VICE News that his group had received word from the operation's leadership that the mission was a failure and that they should attempt to escape into the mountains. An individual on the second boat later reported that the craft had experienced engine problems and had difficulty navigating due to excessive weight, with the boat's canopy, the uniforms of soldiers and even other gear being thrown overboard in an attempt to make it to shore. Goudreau told the Washington Post that he last spoke to the crew on 4 May around noon and that he engaged in efforts to ""secure a vessel out of Aruba to 'extract' them"". Most of the men on the second boat were dropped off along the shoreline to attempt escape from Venezuelan authorities, but Sequea, Denman, and Berry remained on board, possibly with the intention of seeking refuge in international waters.
Those remaining in the second boat were intercepted off the coast of Chuao by helicopters and Coast Guard boats, and did not put up any resistance. Eight men, including Sequea, Berry, Denman, and Josnars Adolfo Baduel, son of former Chávez Defense Minister Raúl Baduel, were captured from the second boat. Two other individuals were detained in Puerto Cruz later that day.

The Venezuelan military reported that the ""mercenaries"" had ""war materials"" on their boats. The Maduro government reported that the items seized included vehicles for mounting machine guns, weapons, and uniforms embroidered with an American flag. Speaking on national television that day, Reverol said that the Venezuelan military's defensive operation was ongoing, and would be for several days. By 15 May, the Maduro government reported that it had arrested 39 other defectors who had attempted to flee Venezuela, reporting a total of 91 arrested in the plot. All but four of those who left the Guajira Peninsula were killed, arrested during the attempted landing, or captured in subsequent search operations.


== Aftermath ==
Different versions of the narrative led to questions about the operation.
Maduro's Attorney General Tarek William Saab announced that 25,000 national troops were mobilized in a Venezuelan military mission named ""Bolivarian Shield"" (Spanish: Escudo Bolivariano) to protect the country from similar attempts. Saab requested that the Supreme Tribunal of Justice declare Guaidó's political party, Popular Will, a terrorist group due to the attempted sea incursion. Guaidó responded to the charges, stating that Maduro defended ""irregular groups"" like the National Liberation Army and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia.""
The Venezuelan Operational Zone of Integral Defense (Zodi) of La Guaira announced that Russian Special Operations Forces were assisting Venezuelan soldiers with surveillance from unmanned aerial vehicles, but it was determined that the equipment could not be operated in the region. The announcement was later deleted.
Nieto, one of the organizers of the operation, said on 7 May that the events were only an ""advanced tactical reconnaissance"" and that CARIVE had 3,000 troops.


=== Indictments and arrests ===

As of 21 May 2020 66 arrests took place and 99 arrests warrants had been issued, 63 of which remained outstanding.
Following 4 May, more individuals were arrested further inland with caches of weapons, ammunition, communication devices and technical pickup trucks with mounted machine guns. On 4 May, Maduro said Venezuelan forces had detained 13 ""mercenaries"", including two Americans working with Goudreau: Berry and Denman. Goudreau said that eight of his soldiers had been captured on 4 May, the two Americans and six Venezuelans, and that an unknown number had been captured on 3 May.
Maduro stated that ""dozens"" of ""mercenaries"" had been captured on 5 May. Another three individuals were arrested on 6 May. Adolfo Baduel, son of former Chávez Defense Minister, Raúl Baduel, was among the detainees and said that the two arrested Americans were linked to the Trump administration. By 6 May, the Defense Minister announced an additional three arrests via his Twitter account, publishing a photo of the purported detainees with pixelated faces on their knees with their wrists zip-tied together without disclosing the names or any other additional details regarding the accused.
Nicolás Maduro held a virtual press conference that day broadcast on state television in which he presented portions of Denman's interrogation, described by Neuman as a ""propaganda-style interrogation"". In the video, Denman states that his instructions were to seize an airport and fly Maduro to the United States, which Maduro cited as proof that the orders came directly from United States President Donald Trump. The video shows Denman answering questions that were asked in English, also indicating that he was hired through Goudreau and that they trained 50 combatants in Colombia in January 2020. Neumann wrote that, when asked ""Who commands [Goudreau]?"", Denman rolled his eyes when answering – a gesture that ""seemed intended to contradict his words"" when he replied it was Trump. Mattos, the Navy SEAL who had visited the rebel training camps in Colombia but was not involved in the operation, made the same observation, noting that it may have been a covert signal, and that ""special operation soldiers are trained to find creative ways to discredit any propaganda videos they are forced to make if captured by the enemy"" and that the odd eye movement was ""a clear sign from Luke that he is being forced"". Berry was also subject to interrogation which was videotaped and presented in parts on state television on 7 May, during a press release presented by the Jorge Rodríguez.
An additional interrogation video depicting Denman in an orange jumpsuit was aired on state television on 18 May 2020. In the video, Denman indicates that his objective in embarking on the operation, as relayed by Goudreau, was to arrive in Colombia to train Venezuelans, accompany them to Venezuela for the landing, and once the Venezuelan dissidents' objectives had been achieved, ""put Maduro on a plane"", and provide support at the airport in order that humanitarian aid could arrive.
Durán, his brother and seven other individuals were arrested in Venezuela on 24 May 2020. Durán faced charges of arms trafficking, foreign conspiracy, rebellion, terrorism and treason.
The Colombian government informed that on 2 September it had arrested four Venezuelans related to Operation Gedeon. Óscar Pérez had denounced in 2017 that both Rayder Alexander Russo (alias ""Pico"") and Osman Alejandro Tabosky, both arrested by Colombian officials and the latter also accused as intellectual author of the 2018 Caracas drone attack, were ""infiltrated agents"" in the resistance movement against Maduro.
United States federal authorities opened an investigation on Goudreau for arms trafficking. On 30 July 2024, he was indicted and charged with shipping weapons to Colombia without the necessary export licenses, and thought to be a flight risk.
In the weeks following the apprehension of Luke Denman and Airan Berry, Denman's brother, an attorney, took on the task of advocating for the release of both.


=== Criminal charges, extradition requests and sentences ===
Maduro's Attorney General, Saab, announced on 8 May that Denman and Berry would face charges for terrorism, conspiracy, ""illicit trafficking of weapons of war"" and ""(criminal) association"" – charges which carry a maximum prison sentence of 25 to 30 years. In addition, his office issued arrest warrants for Goudreau, Rendón, and Vergara for their role in the ""design, financing, and execution"" of the foiled plot. After Denman and Berry admitted to ""conspiracy, association (to commit crimes), illicit trafficking of war weapons and terrorism"" a Venezuelan court sentenced both on 6 August 2020 to 20 years in prison.
Saab announced on 15 May 2020 an arrest warrant against Popular Will politician Yon Goicoechea. Goicoechea rejected the accusations of any involvement with Operation Gideon, and accused Maduro's administration of paying and leading the uprising attempt to victimize itself and ""persecute political dissent"".
On 16 May 2020, according to a press release published by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela, several trial courts dedicated to terrorism-related crimes ordered that some 40 individuals alleged to have participated in the raid be remanded to preventive detention. Antonio Sequea Torres was also in pretrial confinement and charged with commission of aggravated intentional homicide in connection with his alleged attempt to assassinate Maduro. The Supreme Tribunal of Justice also indicated that most of those involved in the operation are alleged to have committed the crimes of treason, rebellion, arms trafficking, criminal conspiracy, and colluding with a foreign government. The mother of one of the accused, interviewed by Venezuelan newspaper El Pitazo, demanded assurance that her son was alive after receiving a phone call from her son requesting his brother's telephone number ""so that they would stop torturing him"".
According to Berry's videotaped statement, Antonio Sequea Torres and the drug trafficker Elkin Javier López, better known as Doble Rueda [transl. Two-Wheeled], also referred to as la silla [transl. the chair] – met multiple times during the planning period of the operation to coordinate logistics. The estate of López Torres in the Colombian Guajira is alleged to be the point of departure for the two boats involved in the raid. The Valledupar-based López Torres was arrested in December 2019 and his extradition was requested by the United States.
In May 2021, three Venezuelans were sentenced in Colombia to six years in prison for their relation to the operation.


=== Investigation of interception and deaths ===

Statements made to the Miami Herald by Cacique, who was involved in the operation, information about the exact landing was sold to Maduro intelligence a few days before the attempted landing. National Assembly deputy Wilmer Azuaje – president of the Venezuelan Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights and Guaidó's coordinator for expanding complaints of human rights violations – alleges that Sequea Torres ""was the military infiltrator"" who provided the information.
According to the Maduro administration, authorities awaiting the boat's arrival were fired upon by occupants of the first boat, led by Colina. In a press conference on the morning of 3 May, Diosdado Cabello reported that the early-morning exchange resulted in at least eight deaths and two arrests, indicating that it was unknown whether others drowned or swam away. Venezuelan Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López later said that the first boat had been sunk by the navy and the military sent ships to look for survivors. According to Venezuelan Information Minister Jorge Rodríguez, the second boat had changed course after eight occupants of the first boat were killed in a 45-minute shootout with Venezuelan armed forces.
Reporters from The Miami Herald and McClatchy DC stated that ""loyalists of Venezuela leader Nicolás Maduro infiltrated the ranks of the coup plotters, leading to a massacre of some invaders"". Barráez and Azuaje – the latter of which investigated the incident in connection with a human rights complaint submitted to the International Criminal Court (ICC) – accused Venezuelan authorities of torturing and executing the six men in the first boat, including Colina. Barráez wrote that when Sequea took ""control of the camps"" after Alcalá's arrest, he ""led fifty soldiers into an ambush"" and that he facilitated identification to FAES by forcing all of the other men to shave their heads except his brother-in-law, the Americans, and ""his most trusted men"". Azuaje argued the deaths were ""extrajudicial executions"", said that ""everything was rigged"" and referred to the event as the ""Macuto massacre"" comparing it to the 2018 El Junquito raid, in which Óscar Pérez and his men were killed after reportedly offering to surrender. According to Rendón, the operation was compromised for months and intelligence gathered by the Maduro government allowed the Venezuelan armed forces to set the group up for an ambush, to create a ""montage"" of the events. Cacique alleged that ""the only witnesses to the execution[s]"" were held under ""extreme security measures"".
The report submitted to the ICC in October 2020 included forensic photographs reportedly taken by the Venezuelan forensic police, CICPC; it argues that there was not an armed confrontation but that the insurgents had been set up, tortured and extrajudicially executed. Azuaje stated that the original photos from the operation, and information about the bodies, came from anonymous chavista officials. The opposition official also submitted the report to the Human Rights Commission of the European Parliament. The report identifies the six former military dead as Colina along with César Andrés Perales Sequea, Anderson Smith Araque Portilla, Jean Carlo Castro Gutiérrez, Fabián Rodríguez Salazar, and José Roberto Abreu Facúndez. Maduro stated he ordered all insurgents be taken alive.


=== Goudreau lawsuit ===
In the final days of April 2020, Rendón was contacted by Silvercorp's legal advisors demanding a payment of US$1.45 million; The Washington Post wrote that Guaidó's officials reacted to the demands in fear, believing they were being blackmailed with the threat of the canceled plans being revealed to the public. Goudreau said that the Trump administration had knowledge of the operation and that the plotters held meetings in the Trump Doral west of Miami. Goudreau sued Rendón in October 2020 for a $1.4 million breach of contract. According to Neuman, Goudreau's lawsuit says ""that he met three times with an obscure Trump official to discuss obtaining a license to export weapons"", and that he believed ""the plan had U.S. government approval"" and Guaidó officials never told him to end his operation.


== Reactions ==


=== Domestic ===
The event was described as a propaganda coup and ""public relations victory"" for the Maduro administration that negatively affected public opinion of Guaidó's administration.


==== Maduro administration ====
Maduro stated that plans included his possible assassination.
The Maduro administration accused the United States and Colombian governments of masterminding the attack, which both denied. Goudreau has also denied receiving any help for his operation from US and Colombian authorities. Maduro's Vice President Delcy Rodríguez called Goudreau ""a supremacist fanatic"" and warned that ""the Venezuelan women are waiting for you, for free, but with deep homeland passion.""
Maduro's Foreign Minister Arreaza criticized foreign governments and international organizations for their ""deafening silence in the face of the mercenary aggression against Venezuela"" and said that ""the same people who always condemn us immediately based on biased or false information, today remain silent in the face of such a serious and full case of evidence."" He added that ""all those involved in the armed aggression against Venezuela confess that they trained in Colombia, with the knowledge of the Bogotá government and the financing of drug traffickers from that country.""


==== Guaidó administration and opposition ====

Guaidó accused the Maduro administration of ""trying to create a state of apparent confusion, an effort to hide what's happening in Venezuela"", citing recent events like the gasoline shortages, the Guanare prison riot, a violent gang battle in Caracas, and the COVID-19 pandemic in Venezuela. Guaidó also demanded that the human rights of the detainees be respected. Iván Simonovis, security and intelligence commissioner for the Guaidó administration, stated that the events in Macuto would be used by the Maduro government as a pretext to harass opponents and intensify repression, saying that Guaidó's administration would investigate the events and clarify its details.
The opposition political party Justice First demanded that Guaidó immediately dismiss the officials involved with the plot and charged that they ""used his government's name for individual purposes"". Julio Borges, Guaidó's foreign minister, called for the dismissal of all officials related to the plot, stating ""we worry that energies are put into the creation of a bureaucratic caste and not into political change."" Rendon and Vergara resigned on 11 May, with Guaidó thanking the two for ""dedication and commitment to Venezuela"". Important members of López's Popular Will party resigned from their positions in the month following the incident, saying that López's strong actions and policies hurt the efforts of the opposition in whole.


==== NGOs ====
The human rights NGO PROVEA asked about the well-being of the people arrested in Macuto and in Chuao and indicated that Tarek William Saab, and the Ombudsman appointed by Maduro, Alfredo Ruiz, would be responsible for possible forced disappearances or torture of the detainees, while stressing that it would only support and promote peaceful and constitutional means that lead to the ""restoration of democracy in the country"". Maduro accused PROVEA of being ""financed by the CIA"" and giving coverage to ""terrorists"" as a response, accusations that PROVEA rejected. Human Rights Watch criticized Maduro for alleging that PROVEA had connections to the United States Central Intelligence Agency after the organization called for due process of the captured individuals. Human Rights Watch wrote: ""An international community that's closely watching what happens in Venezuela needs to send the message loud and clear: subjecting human rights defenders to politically motivated prosecution, detention or other abuses would be crossing a line for which those responsible will have to answer"".
The Futuro Presente Foundation was accused by Maduro's administration of financing the operation. Futuro Presente categorically rejected the accusations of the participation of the organization and any of its members, said they were being persecuted, asked for it to end, and said that it was based on ""completely false and unfounded accusations"".


=== International ===
 Colombia: The Colombian government rejected the accusations, calling them an attempt by the ""dictatorial regime of Nicolás Maduro"" to divert attention from problems in the country. President Duque said that he did not sponsor invasions or tricks in response to the accusations and stated ""I do things up front because I am a defender of democracy.""
 Russia: The Russian Foreign Ministry said that United States' denial was ""unconvincing"" and pointed to earlier warnings made by the Trump administration that ""all options"" are on the table, including the possibility of military action. It also said that the actions of the mercenaries deserve ""unequivocal and decisive condemnation"".
On 20 May 2020, Russia convoked a virtual open debate of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) for the purpose of urging the members of the council to condemn the attack as a threat to peace in Venezuela and to security in the region. The United States doubled down on its previous denials of any involvement in the operation, and accused the Maduro administration of using the event as a pretext to persecute political dissidents and distract from other problems in Venezuela. Russia reasserted its assessment that the statements by the United States government that it had no knowledge of the operation were dubious in light of the attackers' plans to fly their captives to the United States. Russia's U.N. ambassador, Dmitry Polyansky, asked how does the attack correlate with the ""all options are on the table"" messages.
 United States: Various US officials (including President Trump) have denied the accusations made by the Maduro administration.
President Trump said that the incident ""has nothing to do with our government"". Speaking on Fox News, Trump said ""If I wanted to go into Venezuela, I wouldn't make a secret about it"" and said that the operation would be called an ""invasion"" if he sends an army into Venezuela.
Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that there was no US government direct involvement in this operation and added: ""[If] we'd have been involved, it would have gone differently."" Regarding the detention of two Americans, Pompeo said that the US will use ""every tool"" available to secure the return of Americans if they are being held in Venezuela.
Secretary of Defense Mark Esper told reporters at the Pentagon that ""the United States government had nothing to do with what's happened in Venezuela in the last few days.""
A State Department spokesperson said that the Maduro administration has been consistent in its use of misinformation to shift focus from its mismanagement of Venezuela. It also said that there was ""little reason to believe anything that comes out of the former regime"".


=== Characterization ===
The Maduro administration described the operation as an attempted coup with the goal of assassinating Maduro, which was perpetrated by ""terrorists"" in a plot coordinated by Colombia and the United States. Initially, Interior Minister Nestor Reverol called the event an attempted ""maritime invasion"" of the country, carried out by ""terrorist mercenaries."" Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López later said the incident should not be characterized as an ""invasion,"" opting instead to describe it as an ""infiltration by sea"" that was ""a very well-planned military operation, prepared in foreign territory.""
Goudreau referred to the operation as a ""daring amphibious raid"" by ""Venezuelans trying to restore their democracy"", labelling them ""freedom fighters"". He also said that he green-lit the operation because he thought it would spur further unrest against the Maduro government.
Guaidó supporters called it an ambush orchestrated and staged by Maduro; according to The Washington Post, the Maduro administration stated that infiltration by its intelligence agents led to the ambush. Guaidó and his supporters also characterized the event as a possible false flag. Colombian President Duque, described by The Wall Street Journal as an ""ardent Maduro foe"", mentioned speculation of a false flag, saying the operation was ""allegedly promoted and financed by the dictatorial regime of Nicolás Maduro"". The Wall Street Journal reported that Trump administration officials had stated that ""it could have been a false flag organized by Mr. Maduro's regime to score propaganda points"". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung wrote that the plot ""sounds crazy and joins a series of other alleged coup attempts and assassinations whose backgrounds were so contradictory that they were dismissed as inventions for the purpose of propaganda"", though notes that the efforts overall ""were real"", citing the interviews regarding the operation. Conspiracy theories have arisen due to the lack of answers about key aspects of the operation.
U.S. Defense Secretary Mark Esper referred to the event as ""what's happened in Venezuela in the last few days,"" and a U.S. official familiar with the matter labeled the operation as poorly organized and the fighters as ""soldiers of fortune.""
Media sources, analysts and individuals used terms like murky and bizarre to describe the plot and events. Sources varied between describing the anti-Maduro plot as: an operation referred to by its code name Gideon; a failed incursion, infiltration, insurrection, invasion or raid; an assassination attempt and an attempted landing, or coup. Some sources criticized the poor planning and execution, and described the operation as more incompetent than the 1961 failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, with some referring to it as the ""Bay of Piglets"". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting writer Joshua Cho criticized the corporate media's coverage of the word mercenary and coverage overall as dismissive or misleading and biased in favor of regime change.
Villa writes that Operation Gideon was an ""attempt of some Venezuelan military and civilian dissidents (mainly exiled in Colombia) and three members of a US private security force to infiltrate Venezuela"". Neuman, DeFronzo, Vox, and Europa Press said that the goal of the operation was to install Guaidó as president.


== In popular culture ==
A 2024 documentary directed by Jen Gatien and Billy Corben titled Men of War premiered at the Toronto Film Festival in September.


== See also ==

Colombia–Venezuela relations
Golpe Azul
Machurucuto raid
Operation Red Dog


== Notes ==


== References ==


=== Bibliography ===


==== Journal articles ====
Bull, Benedicte; Rosales, Antulio (February 2023). ""How sanctions led to authoritarian capitalism in Venezuela"". Current History. 122 (841). Oakland: 49–55. doi:10.1525/curh.2023.122.841.49. hdl:10852/99738. S2CID 256449775. ProQuest 2770716344.
Corrales, Javier (3 July 2020). ""Authoritarian survival: why Maduro hasn't fallen"" (PDF). Journal of Democracy. 31 (3): 39–53. doi:10.1353/jod.2020.0044. S2CID 226738491. ProQuest 2429461768. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2023.
Harwood, Graham (22 June 2022). ""A friend and foe teach us how not to handle Venezuela"".  Chicago Policy Review. Harris School of Public Policy. ProQuest 2679242951. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022.
Koh, Steven A. (2021). ""The criminalization of foreign relations"". Fordham Law Review. 90: 737–787. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023.
Villa, Rafael Duarte (2022). ""Venezuelan military: a political and ideological model in Chavista governments"" (PDF). Defence Studies. 22 (1): 79–98. doi:10.1080/14702436.2021.1976061. S2CID 246801363. EBSCOhost 155858391. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2023.


==== Books ====
DeFronzo, James (2021). ""Revolution Through Democracy"". Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements (6th ed.). United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 433–487. doi:10.4324/9781003102649-11. ISBN 9781000434576.
Mijares, Victor M (2022). ""Venezuela: A revolutionary petrostate under stress"". In Wade, Christine J.; Kline, Harvey F. (eds.). Latin American Politics and Development (10th ed.). United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. 223–246. doi:10.4324/9781003223351-16. ISBN 9781000620559.
Neuman, William (2022). Things Are Never So Bad That They Can't Get Worse: Inside the Collapse of Venezuela (1st ed.). St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250266163.
Weeks, Gregory B.; Allison, Michael E. (2022). U.S. and Latin American Relations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1009205993.


== External links ==
El aparato estatal, sus mecanismos de represión y las restricciones al espacio cívico y democrático: Misión internacional independiente de determinación de los hechos sobre la República Bolivariana de Venezuela* [The state apparatus, its mechanisms of repression and the restrictions on civic and democratic space: Independent international fact-finding mission about the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela] (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Office of High Commissioner of Human Rights, United Nations. 18 September 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023."
Rollan Kadyev,"Rollan Kemalevich Kadyev (Crimean Tatar: Rollan Kemal oğlu Qadıyev, Russian: Роллан Кемалевич Кадыев; 9 April 1937 – 15 May 1990) was a Crimean Tatar physicist and civil rights activist in the Soviet Union. A defendant in the Tashkent process, he became known as a firebrand opponent of marginalization and delimination Crimean Tatars, publicly denouncing the restrictions on returning to Crimea as well as the government policy of claiming Crimean Tatars were not a distinct ethnic group that was exemplified by official use of the euphemism ""people of Tatar nationality who formerly lived in the Crimea"" instead of their proper ethnonym of ""Crimean Tatar"". For his activities such as distributing leaflets and verbally confronting those who endorsed the status quo against of national policy relating the Crimean Tatars, he was imprisoned on charges of ""defaming the Soviet system"", despite passionately making the case that discriminatory and assimilationist policies against Crimean Tatars was a huge deviation from proper Leninist national policy. Later on in his life he significantly softened his tone after a 1979 imprisonment for getting into a fight with a party organizer, controversially signing off an open letter critical of Ayshe Seitmuratova's activities with Radio Liberty, which was published in Lenin Bayrağı and Pravda Vostoka in February 1981.


== Early life ==
Kadyev was born on 9 April 1937 to a Crimean Tatar family in Crimea. His family strongly supported the Soviet Union; his mother Selime was a Komsomol activist since the early days of the union, and his parents named him Rollan in honor of Romain Rolland, a French writer and outspoken supporter of Stalin. The family tried to flee from advancing German troops during the invasion of Crimea, but were enable to evacuate the peninsula in time, forcing them to live quietly and hope to remain unnoticed until the Red Army returned. Despite their loyalty to the Soviet government, they were still subject to exile, and when he was a young child he was violently awakened early one May morning when a soldier who pointed a bayonet in his face; his family, like other Crimean Tatars, were subsequently given very little time to get dressed and pack a few belongings they could carry before being deported to Central Asia. The family arrived in Samarkand, where they lived in exile for decades.


== Physics career ==
Despite the hardships he endured growing up, Kadyev excelled academically in secondary school and managed to get accepted into the Physics Faculty of Samarkand State University after some setbacks. After graduating with honors in 1959 he worked at the Department of Theoretical Physics, where he focused on the study of astrophysics, gravity, and the theory of relativity; he studies were published in the Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics. After being rejected for chances to travel for science conferences in the country, he was eventually he was allowed to attend the Fifth International Conference on General Theory of Relativity, which took place in Tbilisi in Summer 1968. There he presented a report titled ""New experimental confirmation of the general theory of relativity"" with his colleague Lenur Arifov. At the conference he was asked about his Crimean Tatar background by a foreign journalist; Kadyev then spoke about the plight of Crimean Tatars instead of pretending to be ""rooted"" in the Uzbek SSR, which got him in further trouble with the KGB. By that time, he had already become known to authorities for his support of right of return and had been summoned by administrators and party officials on various occasions. Upon arrival in Samarkand after the conference his house was searched, and he was officially arrested in October 1968. After being tried with the other ""Tashkent Ten"" and subsequently serving three years in prison on charges of ""defaming the Soviet system"" he returned to teaching at Samarkand University, but after a second imprisonment and subsequent parole in 1981 for getting into a fight with a party organizer for rude remarks in 1979 he was initially banned from teaching, so he worked as a laboratory assistant at the university instead. Despite the setback, he went on to defend his thesis and attain a candidate of sciences degree, and eventually became an associate professor.


== Crimean Tatar rights activism ==
Kadyev's parents, as steadfast communists, were among the first people to join initiative groups campaigning for Crimean Tatar rights. Following their example, Kadyev also kept the dream of returning to Crimea, and soon became active in the movement as well. He was first reprimanded by party organs in December 1966 for his refusal to tow the party line; he was asked to give a lecture to a group of students about the Soviet constitution that adhered to the party line, but he felt he could not do so in good faith because he felt the constitution did not protect his rights due to the way Crimean Tatars were treated, having no right of return to Crimea and the Crimean ASSR being officially dissolved, so he asked that he not have to give the lecture. The dean subsequently convened the party bureau to reprimand him and tell him that Crimean Tatars had nothing to complain about, but Kadyev stood by his position and asked why Crimean Tatars weren't rehabilitated and allowed to return but other deported peoples were.
On 9 September 1967 when party leader Vishnevsky came to the university to read out an announcement about the 5 September 1967 government decree declaring that ""people of Tatar nationality who formerly lived in Crimea"" were officially ""rehabilitated"" before ranting against Crimean Tatars, Kadyev and his friend Veli Ismailov rebuked him in front of the audience. For doing so they summoned by the school administration and forced to attend four hours of ideological education.
In May 1968 Kadyev joined a group of an estimated 800 Crimean Tatars in an organized delegation to Moscow to hold a rally to mourn the anniversary of the deportation on 18 May and speak with political leaders. However, word about plans to hold the rally reached authorities before it happened, leading to Moscow authorities violently suppressing the activities of and detaining the Crimean Tatar visitors to Moscow before expelling them from the city on 17 May; Kadyev concluded that the KGB had been wiretapping their phones and recording their conversations because of their advance knowledge of the planned rally; he also visited Bakhchysarai, but was not able to stay for very long. Later that year at the conference in Tbilisi he gave an honest and bleak assessment of the situation Crimean Tatars faced to a foreign journalist who asked him about it, which the KGB immediately found out about. Having been on their radar for a while, they prepared to prosecute him for his activism for Crimean Tatar rights, ransacking his residence in Samarkand before eventually arresting him in early October 1968. In addition, the authorities searched his parents' and father-in-law's residences, despite him not living there at the time he was arrested. While awaiting his trial, which did not begin until 1 July 1969, he wrote letters to judicial authorities condemning the prosecution. On 12 November 1968 he wrote a letter to the prosecutor of the Uzbek SSR tearing apart arguments made by authorities against him and demanding various documents for his defense, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Constitution of the USSR, all volumes of CPSU resolutions and decrees, and the complete works of Lenin followed by threat of hunger strike.


=== 1969 trial ===
At his trial he took the stand to issue lengthy statement (over two hours long) in his defense against the prosecution's claims point by point. While he never denied having written the content of various leaflets and letters, he asserted that everything he wrote was truthful, countering the prosecutions claims that he was producing and distributing documents containing ""deliberately false fabrications discrediting the Soviet state and social system"". Later in his speech he sharply criticized Soviet national policy towards Crimean Tatars as assimilationist to further defend his right to use the word genocide to describe how they were treated; to further emphasize Soviet hypocrisy on the issue of national policy, he brought an article from issue No27 of the 1969 circulation of Novoe vremya, a Russian-language Soviet magazine, and read it aloud followed by his own commentary. The article, produced in the era of the Sino-Soviet split, condemned Chinese national policy in Xinjiang as ""reactionary"" and claimed that Maoists were trying to dissolve national minorities into the Han nation via forced assimilation. Kadyev then compared the alleged treatment of Uyghurs described in the article to that of Crimean Tatars, noting that the Soviet government treated Crimean Tatars worse than what it alleged China was doing to Uyghurs — with Crimean Tatars being exiled, their national republic dissolved, and not even recognized as a distinct ethnic group — while in contrast, Uyghurs were still allowed to live in Xinjiang and held status as titular people of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, yet the Soviet government was strongly condemning China's alleged treatment of Uyghurs while enforcing an even more harsh policy against Crimean Tatars than what alleged against China. He also compared the December 1966 statement Soviet government official Aleksey Kosygin claiming that absolutely all ethnic groups in the country were equal (even though the 1967 decree claiming to rehabilitate ""people of Tatar nationality who formerly lived in Crimea"" had not been made at the time) and expressed rage at the blatant lie, and contrasted it with a statement by Nixon (who Kadyev did not hesitate to describe as ""an American Imperialist"") tacitly acknowledging the plight of Native Americans, followed by the demand that the government at least recognize the bitter truth by acknowledging that Crimean Tatars were wronged instead of making outright lies and denying the reality about the position of Crimean Tatars in the Soviet Union; in the prosecution's filings, the indictments mocked the idea that Crimean Tatars were exile and referred to them as ""allegations"", put the word ""exile"" in quotations to delegitimize the defendants desires to return to Crimea, and frequently went out of their way to avoid acknowledging Crimean Tatars to be a distinct ethnic group via substituting the proper ethnonym ""Crimean Tatar"" with various degrading euphemisms.
Kadyev further attacked the national policy against Crimean Tatars as being fundamentally anti-Leninist, citing a 1927 Crimean magazine article that described ideal Leninist national policy in Crimea as one that empowers Crimean Tatars in Crimea to build communism, completely contrary to the Stalinist policy of a Crimea without Crimean Tatars. He later went on to point out how groundless the accusations against other defendants in the trial, describing as ""lawless"" the fact that part of the criminal case against Izzet Khairov and Nurfet Murakhas was a so-called ""libelous"" note in they left in the guest book at the Crimean Regional Museum of Local Lore during their trip to Crimea in which they requested that various Crimean Tatar war heroes and partisans including Bekir Osmanov be mentioned in museum, along with a note that Heroes of the Soviet Union Teyfuq Abdul, Uzeir Abduramanov, Abduraim Reshidov, and Seytnafe Seytveliyev (who were all Crimean Tatar) should have their portraits included in the museum's photo gallery of Crimeans awarded the title. Before eventually ending is speech with the cry ""Crimea is the homeland of the Crimean Tatars"", towards the end of his speech he issued the powerful lines that he became famous for:

The Motherland rejected us in 1944, throwing us into exile from our native land. The Motherland rejected in 1945, eliminating the national statehood of our people [by dissolving the Crimean ASSR]. The Motherland rejected us in 1956, taking away the name of Crimean Tatar from us and recognizing us as ""rooted"" in the places of exile. The Motherland rejected us today too, having put us in the dock only because we could not come to terms with the situation of our outcast
Despite his strong and passionate defense refuting the prosecution's claims, he and all the other defendants were found guilty, and he was sentenced to three years in prison on 5 August 1969. His prophetic warnings that fundamentally un-Leninist national policy in blatant violation of the constitution was detrimental to preserving the union went unheeded.


=== After release ===
After spending three years in a penal colony he returned his activities with the Crimean Tatar civil rights movement, co-authoring the Cessation Statement addressed to the Central Committee of the CPSU demanding the complete abolition of all decrees and resolutions targeting and discriminating against Crimean Tatars. In April 1977 he wrote a letter to Brezhnev criticizing the current version of the Soviet constitution and the document's contradictory stance on the national issue (since it proclaimed to be supportive of minorities yet officially solidified Crimea's status as a mere oblast of the Ukrainian SSR, impeding restoration of the Crimean ASSR sought by Crimean Tatars).


=== Second imprisonment and change in tone ===
In September 1979 he was called to a faculty meeting at the university in which he was publicly berated and reprimanded before being given a ""last warning"" to fall in line and stop supporting the Crimean Tatar movement, and on 22 September that year one of the largest newspapers in the region, Pravda Vostoka, published a lengthy article shaming him for the same reason. Later that year, Kadyev was arrested on charges of ""malicious hooliganism"" for which he was sentenced to three years in strict regime camps in January 1980; the incident that led to the charges took place on 28 November when a party organizer publicly demeaned him in front of students, making Kadyev lose his temper and hit him. In February 1981, while he was imprisoned in the Komi ASSR, an open letter appealing to Ayshe Seitmuratova, sharply criticizing her activities with Radio Liberty in the United States, was published in the newspapers Lenin Bayrağı and Pravda Vostoka appearing to be written and signed by him; later in 1982 several other Crimean Tatars received typewritten letters appearing to be from him saying he wrote the letter entirely voluntarily without pressure from authorities. Speculation remains as to the extent to which Kadyev agreed with the message of the letters, or even wrote them: Mustafa Dzhemilev has suggested that Kadyev did not write the letter at all but was merely forced to sign its contents while in prison, and historian Edward Allworth indicated Kadyev was probably blackmailed by the KGB into signing them; Yuri Osmanov and Mikhail Guboglo indicate that the system eventually broke Kadyev and convinced him to give up in order to get paroled early; Gulnara Bekirova implied that the KGB had gotten Kadyev to turn on the movement altogether, while Ruslan Eminov insists that Kadyev changed his tone in the 1980s for reasons of political pragmatism and still firmly desired right of return, and did so simply because he thought a different approach would have greater chances of success. Nevertheless, it is universally agreed that he was at the forefront of the Crimean Tatar movement in its early years, and always feared death of the nation via assimilation. Eventually, he was one of the delegates to the 1987 meeting in Moscow with high-ranking leaders in the government, where he expressed his concerns, which were in agreement with some of the more moderate members of the delegation but were the subject of harsh disagreement with others such as Dzhemilev.


== Personal life ==
He died on 15 May 1990 in a Samarkand hospital during surgery for a malignant brain tumor and was buried in the Panjob Mazori cemetery of Samarkand. He was married and had three children. In his spare time he wrote poetry in Russian and Crimean Tatar.


== References =="
Mike Kelly (Australian politician),"Colonel Michael Joseph Kelly,  (born 23 February 1960) is an Australian former politician who twice represented the Division of Eden-Monaro in the Parliament of Australia, from 2007 to 2013 and again from 2016 to 2020. He is a member of the Australian Labor Party (ALP).
Kelly was born in Adelaide and studied law at Macquarie University before joining the Australian Army in 1987. He went on to serve in Somalia, East Timor, Bosnia and Iraq. He was among senior Australian military personnel in the Iraq War. Kelly finished his military career in 2007 with the rank of colonel as Director of Army Legal Services.
Kelly was first elected to the House of Representatives for the Division of Eden-Monaro at the 2007 federal election and was immediately appointed as Parliamentary Secretary for Defence Support. In 2009, he was also appointed Parliamentary Secretary for Water. Following the 2010 federal election, Kelly was appointed as Parliamentary Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. In December 2011, he was appointed as Parliamentary Secretary for Defence in a reshuffle of the Government. In a third reshuffle in early 2013, Kelly was promoted to the outer ministry as Minister for Defence Materiel, a position he held from March to September that year.
Following the 2013 federal election, Kelly lost his seat to Liberal candidate Peter Hendy but regained the seat in the 2016 federal election. He is the first person to serve in opposition as the member for the Division of Eden-Monaro since 1972. He was the shadow Assistant Minister for Defence Industry and Support.
On 30 April 2020, Kelly announced his resignation from Parliament due to personal and family health issues. Ten days later, he confirmed he had taken up a job offer with Palantir Technologies.


== Early life ==
Kelly was born in Adelaide on 23 February 1960. He attended Asquith Boys High School in Sydney. He then studied at Macquarie University and graduated in 1983 with a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws.


== Military service ==
Kelly joined the Australian Army, specifically the Australian Army Legal Corps, in 1987.


=== Somalia ===
Kelly was deployed and served in Operation Restore Hope in Somalia from 1992 to 1993. He was awarded the Chief of the General Staff Commendation for his service and, in 1994, was made a Member of the Order of Australia in recognition of his work in Somalia.


==== Trial of Hussan Gutaale Abdul ====
In Somalia, Kelly was actively involved in the prosecution of the warlord Hussan Gutaale Abdul. Gutaale, who among many other things had attacked and killed 16 aid workers and repeatedly driven an armoured car into emaciated refugees awaiting food distribution, was arrested by an Australian patrol, held in a cage at Baidoa airport and later flown to Mogadishu to be held by US forces. He was found guilty of 31 counts of murder by a panel of three judges and sentenced to 20 years' hard labour.
Appeals were immediately made, with the prosecution demanding the death penalty mandatory for murder under the Somali Penal Code. A panel of six judges heard the appeal, upheld the previous verdicts and imposed the sentence of death to be carried out forthwith. ""The court erupted in mayhem"" and Gutaale physically attacked Kelly. Eventually a group of engineers arrived, Gutaale was handcuffed and Kelly wrestled him along the roadway to his place of execution. Gutaale was handed over to the Somali police and executed on the spot. Kelly later recalled:

Before I left Australia I had my own views on capital punishment. I was leaning fairly heavily towards the negative side. But the death of Gutaale was far more than an execution following a criminal conviction, it was more an act of communal self defence. If I was moved in any way, it was seeing Gutaale's mother in the court. She was concerned and upset, but having sat through countless statements from people who had suffered from what he had done and not just killings, but cruel killings and senseless brutality I knew too much of what he had done, and what he was capable of. I couldn't, have any sympathy for him ... I have absolutely no personal regrets about Gutaale's execution ... I'll have to admit that even when I saw him wallowing in his own blood and excrement I felt no remorse or pity, only relief. There was no other way of stopping him.


=== Bosnia-Herzegovina ===
Kelly was also deployed during the Bosnian War, which occurred from 1992 to 1995. In 1996, Kelly was part of a successful hostage recovery mission in Kenya.
Following the Bosnian War, Kelly obtained a Doctorate of Philosophy from the University of New South Wales in 1997. The research work undertaken for his doctoral dissertation has subsequently formed the basis for two books: Peace Operations: Tackling the Military, Legal and Policy Challenges (1997) and Restoring and Maintaining Order in Complex Peace Operations: The Search for a Legal Framework (1999).


=== East Timor ===
Kelly then served in the peacekeeping mission in East Timor from 1999 to 2000. He received the United Nations Force Commander's commendation in 2002 for his service there.


=== Iraq ===
Kelly was among senior Australian personnel deployed in Iraq during the Iraq War. In June 2003, he inspected detention facilities in Iraq, including those at Abu Ghraib, and reported to the Australian Government on the treatment of detainees. He was actively involved in the prosecution of Saddam Hussein.


=== Retirement ===
He finished his military career in 2007 with the rank of colonel as Director of Army Legal Services.


== Political career ==


=== Entry into politics ===
In the 2007 federal election, Kelly stood as the Labor candidate for the marginal New South Wales country electorate of Eden-Monaro, regarded as a ""Bellwether seat"".
He was criticised by his opponent, long-standing Liberal member Gary Nairn for not residing in the electorate before his nomination and for not facing a local preselection. Nairn's chief of staff also publicly likened Kelly to a Belsen Nazi concentration camp guard for serving in the military in Iraq despite opposing the war itself. The reference became a high-profile campaign issue, with claims that Nairn's office had subsequently promoted the claim using public rather than party funds. The comment was subsequently withdrawn and an apology forwarded to media outlets and to Kelly.


=== Rudd–Gillard governments ===
At the 2007 federal election on 24 November, Kelly won the seat with a 6.67% two-party-preferred swing, and was appointed Parliamentary Secretary for Defence Support in the incoming Rudd Government.
In 2008, after a prolonged and acrimonious debate within Australian veteran and political circles, Kelly formally acknowledged the existence of the 2nd D&E Platoon, a platoon of infantrymen that had been involved in a most successful ambush at Thua Tich on 29 May 1969 under the leadership of Corporal James Riddle. All trace of the platoon had disappeared from the records of the Vietnam War and had compromised the service histories of the 39 men who had served in it. In 2009, he was also appointed Parliamentary Secretary for Water.
After a redistribution changed the boundaries of Eden-Monaro, Kelly defeated Liberal candidate David Gazard in the 2010 federal election with a swing of 2%. As a result of the re-elected Labor Government's regional focus, Kelly was appointed as Parliamentary Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry in September 2010. In December 2011, he was appointed as Parliamentary Secretary for Defence in a reshuffle of the Government.
In a third reshuffle in early 2013, Kelly was promoted to the outer ministry and replaced Jason Clare as Minister for Defence Materiel.
In November 2012, Kelly was sued by Lynton Crosby for alleging on Twitter that Crosby had used push polling. The case was eventually discontinued in 2015 by Crosby Textor after Kelly issued an apology which explained that his tweet had concerned a poll from 1995 in which Textor was involved before Crosby Textor's business had commenced.


=== 2013 onwards ===
At the 2013 federal election, Kelly lost his seat to the Liberal Party candidate Peter Hendy.
Preselected as the Labor candidate for Eden-Monaro in May 2015, Kelly defeated Hendy and regained the seat at the 2016 federal election becoming the seat's first opposition member since 1972. Moreover, it was the first time since 1969 that the non-Labor side had been in government without holding Eden-Monaro.
Kelly supports same-sex marriage.
In September 2018, Kelly was the target of two anti-Semitic attacks. The first attack was when a neo-Nazi sticker with the words ""Antipodean Resistance"" was placed on his Bega electorate office window. The second incident was when pig's blood and pork was thrown at his Queanbeyan electorate office. Kelly is a supporter of Israel and his wife and son are Jewish.


=== Retirement from politics ===
On 30 April 2020, Kelly announced his resignation from Parliament and retirement from politics due to personal health issues. He also said he wanted to support his wife as she went through her own health issues. Ten days later, he announced he had taken a position at Palantir Technologies. He said that his role would allow him to ""work within [his] physical limitations but still be in a position to make a difference in relation to the issues that matter to [him]"".


== Personal life ==
Kelly is married to Rachelle and has one son.
In October 2019 Kelly collapsed and was taken to hospital for emergency surgery. He had renal failure which he attributes to severe dehydration during his overseas military service. Kelly underwent 10 medical procedures in 6 months. His health issues, and also his wife having health problems, led to him announcing his retirement from politics.


== Honours, decorations and awards ==


== See also ==
First Rudd Ministry
Second Rudd Ministry


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Mike Kelly (politician) at Wikimedia Commons
ALP homepage
Personal page, Australian Parliament website
Parliamentary Secretary for Defence Support
Parliamentary Secretary for Water
Division of Eden-Monaro
News article about Mike Kelly"
Opus number,"In music, the opus number is the ""work number"" that is assigned to a musical composition, or to a set of compositions, to indicate the chronological order of the composer's publication of that work. Opus numbers are used to distinguish among compositions with similar titles; the word is abbreviated as ""Op."" for a single work, or ""Opp."" when referring to more than one work. Opus numbers do not necessarily indicate chronological order of composition. For example, posthumous publications of a composer's juvenilia are often numbered after other works, even though they may be some of the composer's first completed works.
To indicate the specific place of a given work within a music catalogue, the opus number is paired with a cardinal number; for example, Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp minor (1801, nicknamed Moonlight Sonata) is ""Opus 27, No. 2"", whose work-number identifies it as a companion piece to ""Opus 27, No. 1"" (Piano Sonata No. 13 in E-flat major, 1800–01), paired in same opus number, with both being subtitled Sonata quasi una Fantasia, the only two of the kind in all of Beethoven's 32 piano sonatas. Furthermore, the Piano Sonata, Op. 27 No. 2, in C-sharp minor is also catalogued as ""Sonata No. 14"", because it is the fourteenth sonata composed by Ludwig van Beethoven.
Given composers' inconsistent or non-existent assignment of opus numbers, especially during the Baroque (1600–1750) and the Classical (1750–1827) eras, musicologists have developed other catalogue-number systems; among them the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV-number) and the Köchel-Verzeichnis (K- and KV-numbers), which enumerate the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, respectively.


== Etymology ==
In the classical period, the Latin word opus (""work"", ""labour""), plural opera, was used to identify, list, and catalogue a work of art.
By the 15th and 16th centuries, the word opus was used by Italian composers to denote a specific musical composition, and by German composers for collections of music. In compositional practice, numbering musical works in chronological order dates from 17th-century Italy, especially Venice. In common usage, the word opus is used to describe the best work of an artist with the term magnum opus.
In Latin, the words opus (singular) and opera (plural) are related to the words opera (singular) and operae (plural), which gave rise to the Italian words opera (singular) and opere (plural), likewise meaning ""work"". In contemporary English, the word opera has specifically come to denote the dramatic musical genres of opera or ballet, which were developed in Italy. As a result, the plural opera of opus tends to be avoided in English. In other languages such as German, however, it remains common.


== Early usage ==
In the arts, an opus number usually denotes a work of musical composition, a practice and usage established in the seventeenth century when composers identified their works with an opus number. In the eighteenth century, publishers usually assigned opus numbers when publishing groups of like compositions, usually in sets of three, six or twelve compositions. Consequently, opus numbers are not usually in chronological order, unpublished compositions usually had no opus number, and numeration gaps and sequential duplications occurred when publishers issued contemporaneous editions of a composer's works, as in the sets of string quartets by Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827); Haydn's Op. 76, the Erdödy quartets (1796–97), comprises six discrete quartets consecutively numbered Op. 76 No. 1 – Op. 76 No. 6; whilst Beethoven's Op. 59, the Rasumovsky quartets (1805–06), comprises String Quartet No. 7, String Quartet No. 8, and String Quartet No. 9.


== 19th century to date ==
From about 1800, composers usually assigned an opus number to a work or set of works upon publication. After approximately 1900, they tended to assign an opus number to a composition whether published or not. However, practices were not always perfectly consistent or logical. For example, early in his career, Beethoven selectively numbered his compositions (some published without opus numbers), yet in later years, he published early works with high opus numbers. Likewise, some posthumously published works were given high opus numbers by publishers, even though some of them were written early in Beethoven's career. Since his death in 1827, the un-numbered compositions have been cataloged and labeled with the German acronym WoO (Werk ohne Opuszahl), meaning ""work without opus number""; the same has been done with other composers who used opus numbers. (There are also other catalogs of Beethoven's works – see Catalogues of Beethoven compositions.)
The practice of enumerating a posthumous opus (""Op. posth."") is noteworthy in the case of Felix Mendelssohn (1809–47); after his death, the heirs published many compositions with opus numbers that Mendelssohn did not assign. In life, he published two symphonies (Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 11; and Symphony No. 3 in A minor, Op. 56), furthermore he published his symphony-cantata Lobgesang, Op. 52, which was posthumously counted as his Symphony No. 2; yet, he chronologically wrote symphonies between symphonies Nos. 1 and 2, which he withdrew for personal and compositional reasons; nevertheless, the Mendelssohn heirs published (and cataloged) them as the  Italian Symphony No. 4 in A major, Op. 90, and as the  Reformation Symphony No. 5 in D major and D minor, Op. 107.
While many of the works of Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904) were given opus numbers, these did not always bear a logical relationship to the order in which the works were written or published. To achieve better sales, some publishers, such as N. Simrock, preferred to present less experienced composers as being well established, by giving some relatively early works much higher opus numbers than their chronological order would merit. In other cases, Dvořák gave lower opus numbers to new works to be able to sell them to other publishers outside his contract obligations. This way it could happen that the same opus number was given to more than one of his works.  Opus number 12, for example, was assigned, successively, to five different works (an opera, a concert overture, a string quartet, and two unrelated piano works). In other cases, the same work was given as many as three different opus numbers by different publishers. The sequential numbering of his symphonies has also been confused: (a) they were initially numbered by order of publication, not composition; (b) the first four symphonies to be composed were published after the last five; and (c) the last five symphonies were not published in order of composition. The New World Symphony originally was published as No. 5, later was known as No. 8, and definitively was renumbered as No. 9 in the critical editions published in the 1950s.
Other examples of composers' historically inconsistent opus-number usages include the cases of César Franck (1822–1890), Béla Bartók (1881–1945), and Alban Berg (1885–1935), who initially numbered, but then stopped numbering their compositions. Carl Nielsen (1865–1931) and Paul Hindemith (1895–1963) were also inconsistent in their approaches. Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953) was consistent and assigned an opus number to a composition before composing it; at his death, he left fragmentary and planned, but numbered, works. In revising a composition, Prokofiev occasionally assigned a new opus number to the revision; thus Symphony No. 4 is two thematically related but discrete works: Symphony No. 4, Op. 47, written in 1929; and Symphony No. 4, Op. 112, a large-scale revision written in 1947. Likewise, depending upon the edition, the original version of Piano Sonata No. 5 in C major, is cataloged both as Op. 38 and as Op. 135.
Despite being used in more or less normal fashion by a number of important early-twentieth-century composers, including Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) and Anton Webern (1883–1945), opus numbers became less common in the later part of the twentieth century.


== Other catalogues ==

To manage inconsistent opus-number usages – especially by composers of the Baroque (1600–1750) and of the Classical (1720–1830) music eras – musicologists have developed comprehensive and unambiguous catalogue number-systems for the works of composers such as:

Johann Sebastian Bach – catalogued with a BWV-number; a Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis number assigned by Wolfgang Schmieder; however, older sources occasionally use S-numbers.
Dietrich Buxtehude – catalogued with a BuxWV-number, a Buxtehude-Werke-Verzeichnis work number.
Marc-Antoine Charpentier – identified with an H-number per H.W. Hitchcock's comprehensive catalogue.
Frédéric Chopin – four catalogue systems have been applied: (i) B-numbers, by Maurice J. E. Brown; (ii) KK-numbers, by Krystyna Kobylańska; (iii) work-letters (A, C, D, E, P and S), by Józef Michał Chomiński; and (iv) WN-numbers in the Chopin National Edition. Generally, these alternative music-catalogue systems identified compositions that the composer had not numbered.
Claude Debussy – identified with an L-number, per François Lesure's comprehensive catalogue.
Antonín Dvořák – identified with a B-number, per Jarmil Burghauser's comprehensive catalogue; which resolved the problems of different and duplicate opus-numbers assigned by the publishers of Dvořák's music.
Joseph Haydn – identified with a Hob.-number, per the 1957 catalogue by Anthony van Hoboken. Although he assigned Hoboken-numbers to the string quartets, those compositions usually are known by opus numbers.
Franz Liszt – identified with an S-number, per the catalogue The Music of Liszt (1960), by Humphrey Searle.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – identified either with a K-number or with a KV-number (Köchel-Verzeichnis nummer), per the catalogue system of Ludwig Ritter von Köchel.
Niccolò Paganini – identified with an MS-number, per the 1982 Catalogo tematico, by Moretti and Sorrento.
Domenico Scarlatti – identified with three catalogue systems; (i) L-numbers, per the 1906 catalogue by Alessandro Longo; (ii) K-numbers and Kk-numbers, per the 1953 catalogue by Ralph Kirkpatrick; and (iii) P-numbers, per the 1967 catalogue by Giorgio Pestelli.
Franz Schubert – identified with a D-number, per the catalogue of Otto Erich Deutsch.
Maurice Ravel – identified with an M-number, per the 1986 catalogue by Marcel Marnat.
Henry Purcell – identified with a Z-number, per the catalogue by Franklin B. Zimmerman.
Antonio Vivaldi – identified with a RV number, per the Ryom-Verzeichnis catalogue by Peter Ryom.
Gustav Holst – identified with an H. catalogue number,  per A Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst's Music by Imogen Holst.


== See also ==
WoO


== References =="
David Dewhurst,"David Henry Dewhurst (born August 18, 1945) is an American politician, businessman, and attorney who served as the 41st lieutenant governor of Texas from 2003 to 2015. A member of the Republican Party, he was the Texas Land Commissioner from 1999 to 2003. He was a candidate in 2012 for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by the retiring Republican Kay Bailey Hutchison, but he lost his party's runoff election to former Solicitor General Ted Cruz, who went on to win the general election.
Dewhurst's third term as lieutenant governor ended on January 20, 2015. He served as an advisory board member at the United States Secretary of Energy led by former Governor Rick Perry who was appointed by President Donald Trump in 2017.


== Personal life ==
Dewhurst's father, David Dewhurst Jr., was a World War II pilot of a Martin B-26 Marauder of the 553d Fighter-Bomber Squadron. On D-Day, flying over Cotentin peninsula in the ""Dinah Might"", he led a squadron bombing German positions on Utah Beach. After the war, David Dewhurst Jr. was killed by a drunk driver, leaving behind his wife and his two sons, David and Eugene.
Both brothers visited the Utah Beach Museum on June 7, 2007, and discovered an exhibit detailing their father's mission on D-Day. Moved, the Dewhurst brothers contributed millions of dollars for the extension of the museum, allowing it to purchase a B-26 Marauder and to open a new building.
Dewhurst is a businessman, a rancher, and a community leader in Houston, where he has served on civic and charitable boards. He graduated from Lamar High School in Houston and earned his bachelor's degree and played basketball at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona, where he was a brother of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. There he received a BA in English with a minor in history.
Lacking the eyesight to become a pilot like his father, Dewhurst became an intelligence officer in the U.S. Air Force and then an officer of the Central Intelligence Agency, and the United States State Department. During his years in the CIA, Dewhurst was stationed in Bolivia, arriving shortly before the coup against leftist president Juan José Torres.
In 1981, Dewhurst and Ted Law re-established Falcon Seaboard, a Texas-based diversified energy and investments company in Houston that Law had founded in 1935. The company quickly made Dewhurst a millionaire, but collapsed just as quickly, going into bankruptcy. Dewhurst then went into business constructing cogeneration plants, which proved to be a tremendous success. In 1996, the company sold its plants for $226 million, and in 2011, Dewhurst was worth an estimated $200 million.
In 1995, Dewhurst married Tammy Jo Hopkins, a 32-year-old model. After she pled no contest to driving while intoxicated in 1999, the couple announced that she would seek full-time help for alcohol abuse. The couple divorced in 2000.
In April 2021, Dewhurst was arrested on charges of domestic violence at a Dallas hotel. The arrest record said Dewhurst was trying to board a bus back to Houston when he realized his girlfriend, Leslie Caron, 41, had taken his laptop. She ran with it and he chased her onto a patio area near the hotel entrance trying to retrieve his laptop computer, when she fell over a concrete bench. In May 2021, the Dallas County District Attorney's Office declined to accept a domestic violence case against the former lieutenant governor, and no further action was taken.
He breeds registered Black Angus cattle and once competed in National Cutting Horse Association competitions. He also speaks Spanish.


== Political career ==


=== Land Commissioner ===
Dewhurst was elected as Commissioner of the General Land Office of Texas in 1998, when the 16-year incumbent, Garry Mauro, waged an unsuccessful campaign for governor against George W. Bush. Dewhurst was opposed in the general election by Democratic State Representative Richard Raymond, then of Benavides and thereafter of Laredo. Dewhurst described himself as a ""George Bush Republican"" and drew on his personal wealth to spend a record $8 million on his run for office (previous candidates for land commissioner had generally spent only $1 million). The campaign was a bitter one, in which Dewhurst's Republican primary opponent, Jerry E. Patterson, accused Dewhurst of trying to bribe him to leave the race, and Raymond unsuccessfully accused him of embezzlement. Dewhurst ultimately received 2,072,604 votes (57.42 percent) to Raymond's 1,438,378 ballots (39.85 percent). Dewhurst was the first Republican to serve as Land Commissioner since the Reconstruction era.


=== Lieutenant governor ===


==== 2002 election ====
Dewhurst was elected lieutenant governor in November 2002, when he defeated former Democratic Comptroller John Sharp of Victoria, now the chancellor of Texas A&M University. In that campaign, Dewhurst stressed his interest in public education and opposition to school vouchers. He again outspent his opponent significantly with a $9 million campaign.  Dewhurst polled 2,341,875 votes (51.77 percent) to Sharp's 2,082,281 (46.03 percent).
Dewhurst succeeded Bill Ratliff. (Ratliff did not contest the lieutenant governor's position in the primary, opting instead for re-election to his state senate seat.)
Summarizing Dewhurst's first term, The New York Times wrote, ""Amid low expectations, Mr. Dewhurst surprised many that first session, helping to steer a major tort-reform package and cutting the budget while earning the respect of his colleagues as a burgeoning team player."" However, the paper also noted that he ""frequently frustrated senators from both parties for not appearing to hold firm in negotiations with the House or with [Gov. Rick] Perry.""


==== 2006 election ====
Dewhurst was renominated for lieutenant governor in the Republican primary held on March 7, 2006. He defeated Tom Kelly, the same candidate whom he bested for the nomination in 2002. In the November 7, 2006, general election, Dewhurst overwhelmed Democrat Maria Luisa Alvarado, a veterans issues research analyst and the winner of her April 11 runoff primary. He received 2,512,197 votes (58.2 percent) to Alvarado's 1,616,945 (37.4 percent). Libertarian Judy A. Baker polled another 188,956 votes (4.4 percent).


==== 2010 election ====
Dewhurst filed for Lt. Governor of Texas in the 2010 election. It was widely assumed that he would run for United States Senate if Kay Bailey Hutchison had resigned. He was his party's nominee for a third term as lieutenant governor and faced Democrat Linda Chavez-Thompson, Libertarian Scott Jameson, and Green Party Herb Gonzales, Jr. in the November 2, 2010, general election.  He was re-elected to a third term on November 2, 2010, having polled 3,044,770 votes (61.80 percent) to the Democrat Linda Chavez-Thompson's 1,715,735 votes (34.82 percent) and took office on January 18, 2011, for a third four-year term, becoming the second Texas Lieutenant Governor to be elected to three four-year terms since Bill Hobby, who held the office for 18 years for five terms.


==== 2014 election ====
Dewhurst and Patrick faced each other in the May 27 runoff election for lieutenant governor. The winner would eventually run in the general election against Democratic State Senator Leticia Van de Putte of San Antonio, who was the Democratic nominee for the lieutenant governorship. During the runoff, Dewhurst released a disco-themed advertisement Lt. Gov. You've Gotta Love and a parody of Let It Go from the Disney film Frozen. On May 27, 2014, Patrick easily defeated Dewhurst in a landslide: 65% to 35%.
Patrick said after state Senator Wendy Davis of Fort Worth (who was the Democratic nominee for governor) filibustered the bill to ban late-term abortions in Texas that Dewhurst has ""lost his grip on the reins of the Senate"". Patrick called for new leadership in the chamber.
Polling by the University of Texas at Austin and The Texas Tribune showed Dewhurst leading his opponents in the primary with 26 percent of the vote, to Patrick's 13 percent, Patterson's 10 percent and Staples' 5 percent. At the time, 46 percent of voters were reported as undecided.


=== Legislation ===


==== Childhood legislation ====
He is known by his ""Texas Children First"" initiative with more severe consequences for child sexual predators in Texas and throughout the United States. The initiative includes extending statute of limitations on child sex crimes and leading the passage of Jessica's Law. The bill was signed into law by Texas Governor Rick Perry but the death penalty for second-time child rapists was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court.


==== TSA inspection bill ====
Dewhurst was accused by state senator Dan Patrick of helping to stop a bill, the passage of which would have been an attempt to make the pat downs of airplane passengers by personnel of the U.S. Transportation Security Agency (TSA) a felony in Texas.


=== Controversies ===


==== Condemnation of school stage play ====
In March 2010, a student performance of the play Corpus Christi by Terrence McNally, in which Jesus and the disciples are portrayed as being gay, was canceled at Tarleton State University in Stephenville, Texas following a condemnatory statement by Dewhurst. The university had received many complaints about the play's scheduled performance as a class project for a directing class, but in a letter posted on the university's website on March 11,  President F. Dominic Dottavio, citing freedom of speech, declared that the play would be performed. The day before the performance, Dewhurst issued his statement saying, ""No one should have the right to use government funds or institutions to portray acts that are morally reprehensible to the vast majority of Americans,"" and the performance was cancelled by the professor, who cited safety concerns. A subsequent statement by Dewhurst praised the university for canceling the performance, whereas the professor claimed to have acted on his own. Dewhurst's statement also claimed that whereas he is ""a strong defender of free speech, we must also protect the rights and reasonable expectations of Texas taxpayers and how their money is used. A play that is completely contrary to the standards of decency and moral beliefs of the vast majority of Texans should not be performed using any state resources, especially by an institution of higher learning.""


==== Calling Allen, Texas police regarding jailed relative ====
In an August 3, 2013, recording, originally released by police to the Dallas-Fort Worth NBC affiliate, NBC-DFW, Dewhurst identifies himself as the lieutenant governor and asks to speak to the police station's ""most senior police officer you have where you are right now"". He tells a police sergeant that Ellen Bevers, his stepsister's daughter-in-law, is a schoolteacher and ""the sweetest woman in the world"", and says he's sure she has been incarcerated on a ""mistaken charge"".


== 2012 United States Senate race ==

On July 18, 2011, Dewhurst addressed his supporters in an online video on his campaign website, announcing his candidacy for the vacant U.S. Senate seat for the Republican nomination. His rivals included former Mayor of Dallas Tom Leppert, ESPN college football analyst Craig James and former state Solicitor General Ted Cruz, the eventual nominee.
After a year-long campaign for the Republican nomination, Dewhurst lost to Cruz in a run-off on July 31, 2012. Cruz then won the seat in the general election against Democrat Paul Sadler of Henderson.


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website
Dewhurst for U.S. Senate campaign website
Appearances on C-SPAN"
Botan Dōrō,"Botan Dōrō (牡丹燈籠, The Peony Lantern) is a Japanese ghost story (kaidan) and one of the most famous kaidan in Japan. The plot involves sex with the dead and the consequences of loving a ghost.
It is sometimes known as Kaidan Botan Dōrō (怪談牡丹灯籠, Tales of the Peony Lantern), based on the kabuki version of the story; this title is commonly used in translation, and refers to a Stone Lantern.


== History ==
Botan Dōrō entered Japanese literary culture in the 17th century, through a translation of a book of Chinese ghost stories called Jiandeng Xinhua (New Tales Under the Lamplight) by Qu You. The collection was didactic in nature, containing Buddhist moral lessons on karma.[1]
In 1666, author Asai Ryoi responded to the Edo period craze for kaidan, spawned largely by the popular game Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai, by adapting the more spectacular tales from Jiandeng Xinhua into his own book Otogi Boko (Hand Puppets).[2] At the time, Japan's borders were entirely closed, with very little of the outside world known by its people; as such, China was viewed as a mysterious and exotic nation. Asai removed the Buddhist moral lessons and gave the stories a Japanese setting, placing Botan Dōrō in the Nezu district of Tokyo.
Otogi Boko was immensely popular, spawning multiple imitative works such as Zoku Otogi Boko (Hand Puppets Continued) and Shin Otogi Boko (New Hand Puppets), and is considered the forerunner of the literary kaidan movement that resulted in the classic Ugetsu Monogatari.[3]
In 1884, Botan Dōrō was adapted by famous storyteller San'yūtei Enchō into a rakugo, which increased the popularity of the tale.[4] In order to achieve a greater length, the story was fleshed out considerably, adding background information on several characters as well as additional subplots. It was then adapted to the kabuki stage in July 1892, and staged at the Kabukiza under the title Kaidan Botan Dōrō.[5]
In 1899, Lafcadio Hearn, with the help of a friend, translated Botan Dōrō into English for his book In Ghostly Japan. He titled his adaptation A Passional Karma, and based it on the kabuki version of the story.[6]
A more modern version of the play was written in 1974 by the playwright Onishi Nobuyuki for the Bungakuza troupe, starring Sugimura Haruko, Kitamura Kazuo and Ninomiya Sayoko. It was so successful that it was staged again a few years later in April 1976 at the Shimbashi Embujo. A new adaptation by Kawatake Shinshichi III was staged for the first time with a full kabuki casting in June 1989, again at the Shimbashi Embujo. The Kawatake version is still occasionally revived but is less popular than the Onishi one.[7]
Much like Yotsuya Kaidan, there remains a superstition that actors who play the ghost roles in Kaidan Botan Doro will come to harm. This comes from a 1919 performance at the Imperial Theater, when the two actresses playing Otsuyu and her maid became sick and died within a week of each other.[8]


== Story ==


=== Otogi Boko version ===
On the first night of Obon, a beautiful woman and a young girl holding a peony lantern stroll by the house of the widowed samurai Ogiwara Shinnojo. Ogiwara is instantly smitten with the woman, named Otsuyu, and vows an eternal relationship. From that night onward, the woman and the girl visit at dusk, always leaving before dawn. An elderly neighbor, suspicious of the girl, peeks into his home and finds Ogiwara in bed with a skeleton. Consulting a Buddhist priest, Ogiwara finds that he is in danger unless he can resist the woman, and he places a protection charm on his house. The woman is then unable to enter his house, but calls him from outside. Finally, unable to resist, Ogiwara goes out to greet her, and is led back to her house, a grave in a temple. In the morning, Ogiwara's dead body is found entwined with the woman's skeleton.[9]


=== Rakugo version ===


=== Kabuki version ===
A young student named Saburo falls in love with a beautiful woman named Otsuyu, the daughter of his father's best friend. They meet secretly, and promise to be married. However, Saburo falls ill, and is unable to see Otsuyu for a long time.
Later, when Saburo recovers and goes to see his love, he is told that Otsuyu has died. He prays for her spirit during the Obon festival, and is surprised to hear the approaching footsteps of two women. When he sees them, they look remarkably like Otsuyu and her maid. It is revealed that her aunt, who opposed the marriage, spread the rumor that Otsuyu had died and told Otsuyu in turn that Saburo had died.
The two lovers, reunited, begin their relationship again in secret. Each night Otsuyu, accompanied by her maid who carries a peony lantern, spends the night with Saburo.
This continues blissfully until one night a servant peeks through a hole in the wall in Saburo's bedroom, and sees him having sex with a decaying skeleton, while another skeleton sits in the doorway holding a peony lantern. He reports this to the local Buddhist priest, who locates the graves of Otsuyu and her maid.  Taking Saburo there, he convinces him of the truth, and agrees to help Saburo guard his house against the spirits. The priest places ofuda around the house, and prays the nenbutsu every night.
The plan works, and Otsuyu and her maid are unable to enter, although they come every night and call out their love to Saburo. Pining for his sweetheart, Saburo's health begins to deteriorate. Saburo's servants, afraid that he will die from heartbreak and leave them without work, remove the ofuda from the house. Otsuyu enters, and again has sex with Saburo.
In the morning, the servants find Saburo dead, his body entwined with Otsuyu's skeleton, with a blissful expression on his face.[10]


=== Differences ===
The main differences between the two versions are the changing of the human lover from Ogiwara Shinnojo, an elderly widower, to Saburo, a young student, and the establishment of a pre-existing lover's relationship between Otsuyu and Saburo.
Where the Otogi Boko version was written during the isolated Edo period, the rakugo and kabuki version were written after the Meiji restoration, and was influenced by the flood of Western literature and theater that accompanied the modernization of Japan.[11]
One of these influences was adding a romantic element to the story, something that was played down in older kaidan. The Otogi Boko version makes no mention of Otsuyu's death; both the rakugo and kabuki versions create the idea of Otsuyu and Saburo's love being stronger than death, and emphasize Saburo's peaceful expression when his body is found entwined with the skeleton.[12]


== Influences and references ==
Botan Dōrō establishes the theme of a sexual encounter with the ghost of a woman as a central aspect of the story, a theme which would later go on to influence a number of later kaidan.[13] This theme follows the standard pattern of a Noh theater katsuramono play, where the female ghost hides her spectral nature until the final reveal at the end of the story.
The nature of the ghost's return to Earth is either a lingering love, or a general loneliness. The Otogi Boko version of Botan Dōrō has no prior relationship, and Otsuyu merely wishes for a companion in the afterlife. The rakugo and kabuki versions, however, have Otsuyu returning for a former lover.
The sexual ghost can be found in Kyōka Izumi's story Maya Kakushi no Rei (A Quiet Obsession) which features a sensual encounter with a female ghost in an onsen.
Botan Dōrō is famous for the onomatopoeia 'karan koron', which is the sound of Otsuyu's wooden clogs announcing her appearance on stage.[14]


== Film ==

Boton Dōrō is one of the first Japanese ghost stories to be put to film, with a silent version in 1910. Six further adaptations were made between 1911 and 1937, although all of these have been lost to time and only the titles are still known. It is second only to Yotsuya Kaidan in film adaptations, with a new version released every decade as either cinematic releases, direct-to-video releases, or television versions.[15]
Notable is Satsuo Yamamoto's 1968 version, filmed for Daiei Studios. It is variously known as Bride from Hell, Haunted Lantern, Ghost Beauty, My Bride is a Ghost, Bride from Hades, or Peony Lanterns. Yamamoto's film roughly follows the Otogi Boko version of the story, establishing protagonist Hagiwara Shinzaburo as a teacher who flees an unwanted marriage with his brother's widow and lives quietly some distance from his family. The usual encounter with Otsuyu follows, although the inevitable consequence is treated as a happy ending, or, at worst, bittersweet, since they are united beyond the grave, if not in life.[16]
In 1972, director Chūsei Sone made a pink film version for Nikkatsu's Roman Porno series, entitled Hellish Love (性談牡丹燈籠, Seidan botan doro). Following the rakugo and kabuki versions, Hellish Love places emphasis on the sexual nature of the relationship between the protagonist and Otsuyu. Otsuyu is killed by her father, who disapproves of the match with such a lowly samurai, but she promises to return on Obon to be reunited with her lover.[17]
A massive change in the story is made in Masaru Tsushima's 1996 Otsuyu: Kaidan botan dōrō (Haunted Lantern). This version has Shinzaburo dreaming of a past life, where he promised a double suicide with Otsuyu, but fails to kill himself after she dies. In his present life, he meets a girl named Tsuya who is the reincarnation of his past beloved, but Shinzaburo's father arranges a marriage for him with Tsuya's sister, Suzu. Shinzaburo's friend attempts to rape Tsuya, so that she would stop being a nuisance jealous of her younger sister. Devastated, the two sisters commit suicide together. The usual consequences follow, but the film ends with Shinzaburo and Otsuyu further reincarnated together, living happily in a future life.[18]


== See also ==
Bancho Sarayashiki
Japanese mythology
Japanese horror
Obake
Onryō


== Notes ==


== References ==
^  Reider, Noriko T. ""The Emergence of Kaidan-Shu: The Collection of Tales of the Strange and Mysterious in the Edo Period"" Journal of Folklore Studies (60)1 pg. 79, 2001
^  Reider, Noriko T. ""The Appeal of Kaidan Tales of the Strange"" Journal of Folklore Studies (59)2 pg. 265, 2000
^ Iwasaka, Michiko, Ghosts and the Japanese: Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends, USA, Utah State University Press, pg. 111 1994, ISBN 0-87421-179-4
^ ""Botan Doro"". Kabuki 21. Retrieved July 8, 2006.
^ Araki, James T., Traditional Japanese Theater: An Anthology of Plays, USA, Columbia University Press, 1998
^ McRoy, Jay, Japanese Horror Cinema USA, University of Hawaii Press, pg. 22, 2005 ISBN 0-8248-2990-5
^ ""Botan Doro on Film"". Weird Wild Realm. Retrieved July 28, 2006.
^ Ross, Catrien, Supernatural and Mysterious Japan, Tokyo, Japan, Tuttle Publishing, 1996, ISBN 4-900737-37-2


== Further reading ==
Addiss, Steven, Japanese Ghosts and Demons, USA, George Braziller, Inc., 1986, ISBN 0-8076-1126-3
Kincaid, Zoe, Kabuki, the Popular Stage of Japan, USA, Macmillan, 1925


== External links ==
Lafcadio Hearn's translation ""A Passional Karma""
Mudan Dengji (Peony Lantern) by Qu You, a translated by Jeremy Yang. A translation of original Chinese version
The Peony Lantern
Otsuyu: Kaidan botan-dôrô (1998) at IMDb 
1990 botan-dôrô (1990) at IMDb 
Seidan botan-dôrô (1972) at IMDb 
Botan-dôrô (1968) at IMDb 
Kaidan botan-dôrô (1955) at IMDb 
Kaidan Botan-dōrō trailer"
Creigh Deeds,"Robert Creigh Deeds (; born January 4, 1958) is an American lawyer and politician serving as a member of the Senate of Virginia representing the 11th district since 2024, and previously the 25th district since 2001. Previously, he was the Democratic nominee for Attorney General of Virginia in 2005 and Governor of Virginia in 2009. He was defeated in both of those races by Republican Bob McDonnell. Deeds lost by just 360 votes in 2005, but was defeated by a wide margin of over 17 percentage points in 2009. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1992 to 2001.


== Personal life ==
Deeds was born on January 4, 1958, in Richmond, Virginia. The name ""Creigh"" is a family surname, originating from Confederate sympathizer David Creigh, a distant relative. His family moved early in his life to Bath County. After graduating from Bath County High School, Deeds enrolled in Concord College. He then entered the Wake Forest University School of Law, from which he received his Juris Doctor in 1984.
Deeds married Pamela Miller in February 1981. They divorced in February 2010, with an article in The Washington Post describing the marriage as ""a casualty of a nearly 20-year pursuit of a lifelong ambition that kept [Deeds] away from home"".
Deeds married Siobhan Gilbride Lomax of Lexington, Virginia, in June 2012.


=== Stabbing ===
On November 19, 2013, Deeds was stabbed multiple times at his home in Bath County, Virginia by his 24-year-old son, Gus, who then died by suicide. Deeds was initially reported to be in critical condition at University of Virginia Medical Center. Although a judge had issued an involuntary commitment order for Gus, and despite an intensive search, no available hospital bed could be found to provide him mental health treatment in the days before the attempted murder and he was released home without the ordered treatment.  As a consequence, several changes were made in the screening and admission process for people undergoing an emergency psychiatric examination in Virginia.  These changes include 2014 Virginia Senate Bill 260, sponsored by Deeds.


== Political career ==


=== House of Delegates ===
Deeds won election to the Virginia House of Delegates 1991 by defeating incumbent Emmett Hanger in a 57%–41% victory. This started a nine-year career in the Virginia House of Delegates.
In the House of Delegates, Deeds introduced several legislative proposals, including introducing Megan's Law to the Virginia General Assembly, which was passed in 1998. Other legislation promoted by Deeds include environmental protection and anti-drug laws. In 1994 Deeds supported and was a major co-sponsor of George Allen's initiative to abolish parole for those convicted of a felony.


=== State Senate ===
Deeds won a special state senate election in 2001 to succeed Emily Couric, who had died of pancreatic cancer.
During Deeds' Senate tenure, legislation that Deeds proposed includes:

SB150 – Requires that direct recording electronic devices be equipped to produce a contemporaneous paper record of each vote that can be verified by the voter and used in recounts. (2006)
SB891 – Requires the board of visitors of each public two-year and four-year institution of higher education to provide reduced in-state tuition rates for the children of faculty and staff members employed by the institution, effective for the 2008–2009 academic year. (2007) Not enacted, rolled into SB982 and left in the Senate Finance Committee.
SB34 – Increases the mandatory retirement age for judges from age 70 to age 75. (2008)
SB669 – Permits ABC agents to check the national criminal database when conducting background checks on prospective licensees. (2008)
Deeds was also a proponent of a Senate resolution to close Virginia's gun show loophole, and made public appearances to generate support for the measure.


=== Attorney General campaign ===

In 2005, Deeds and John Edwards—a Virginia state senator from Roanoke—each announced that they planned to run for Attorney General of Virginia in the Democratic primary. Edwards later decided not to run, leaving Deeds as the sole candidate for the Democratic nomination for the office.
In the general election campaign, running against Republican nominee Bob McDonnell, Deeds ran on his record as a moderate Democrat who supported gun rights, strong punishment for criminals, and the death penalty. Deeds' stance on gun control included supporting a ban on semi-automatic firearms, but that did not prevent him from earning the endorsement of the NRA, which cited his patronage of a state constitutional amendment that guaranteed the right to hunt. McDonnell outspent Deeds by almost three million dollars (McDonnell spent $5,962,067 to Deeds' $3,103,585); $2,084,089 of McDonnell's campaign contributions were funneled through the Republican State Leadership Committee, exploiting a loophole in state law that was closed by the General Assembly shortly after the election.
The initial result of the vote was 49.96%–49.95%, with Deeds behind by fewer than 350 votes. Due to the closeness of the race's outcome, Deeds asked for a recount. Judge Theodore Markow of Richmond set the recount for December 20, 2005, a date so close to the inauguration that invitations to the event were mailed without a name for the attorney general to be inaugurated. The recount reaffirmed the earlier outcome, and McDonnell became attorney general.


=== Gubernatorial campaign ===

Deeds announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for governor on December 13, 2007. At the end of a close three-way race against former DNC chair Terry McAuliffe and former State Delegate Brian Moran, Deeds won by a large margin, taking about 50 percent of the vote in the June 9, 2009, Democratic Primary. He again faced McDonnell, the Republican nominee, in the November 2009 general election. McDonnell was selected at his party's nominating convention. Deeds lost the gubernatorial race by a wide margin to McDonnell, 41.25% to 58.61%.


== Electoral history ==

To date, both of the elections Creigh Deeds has lost were to his 2005 Attorney General opponent Bob McDonnell, to whom he also lost in the 2009 Gubernatorial race.
From 1991 through 2023, Deeds has not lost an election or primary for Virginia House or Virginia Senate.
Redistricting in Virginia affected state elections in 2023. From 2001 through 2023, he represented the 25th District in the Virginia Senate. For the 2023 election, Deeds decided to move to the Charlottesville area and compete in the completely redrawn State Senate 11th District, which shared 60% of the electorate with his previous district.
With the move in 2023 came a serious primary challenge from State Delegate Sally L. Hudson, whom he narrowly defeated. Deeds went on to easily defeat Republican Philip Hamilton in the 2023 general election.


== Political positions ==


=== Taxes ===
In January 2009, Deeds proposed up to a $10,000 tax credit for businesses that made ""job-creating investments"" and supported exemption of the sales tax on the purchase of solar or wind energy systems for homeowners. He has stated that he will not make a no-tax-increase pledge and wrote in The Washington Post that he would support a new gas tax to fund transportation. In 2008, Deeds voted for a bill in the State Senate which would raise the Virginia gas tax $0.06 per gallon over the next 6 years.


=== Consumer advocacy ===
Deeds is in favor of tougher sanctions on lenders that deal subprime mortgages.


=== Death penalty ===
Deeds supports removing the ""trigger-man"" clause, which restricts the death penalty to those who physically committed the action, in Virginia capital punishment law. In 2005, Deeds said that he disagreed with the Supreme Court ruling in Roper v. Simmons, which made it unconstitutional to execute juveniles. He argued that it was the jury's duty to determine when and where the death penalty should come into play. In 2021, Deeds voted to abolish the death penalty in Virginia.


=== Gay marriage ===
In 2006, Deeds was part of the unanimous Democratic coalition that voted to oppose an amendment to the Virginia State Constitution that would ban same-sex marriage. He voted against it because he believed the Amendment went too far in its definition of marriage. In July 2009, Deeds stated he believed ""Marriage is between a man and a woman"" and declined to say gay marriage is a civil right.


=== Gun control ===
Deeds was endorsed by the NRA during his 2005 Attorney General run over Republican Bob McDonnell. Deeds supports a state ban on civilian ownership of assault weapons and signed a pledge to repeal the law restricting citizens from buying more than one handgun a month. The law was repealed by his opponent, Bob McDonnell in February 2012  He voted against the Castle Doctrine (Senate Bill 876) multiple times and previously proposed a measure that would eliminate private sales at gun shows. The bill's proponents called it a measure to prevent another disaster like the Virginia Tech massacre even though the shooter purchased his firearms from licensed gun dealers and not at a gun show. This measure ultimately failed. In February 2011, Deeds was one of eight senators on the Senate Courts of Justice Committee who ""passed by indefinitely"" House Bill 1573, defeating the bill by an 8 to 4 margin. In February 2020, Deeds broke party ranks to shelve House Bill 961 which would have prohibited the sale and transport of assault firearms, certain firearm magazines, silencers, and trigger activators. This effectively blocked the legislation championed by Gov. Northam.


=== Illegal immigration ===
In 2009, Deeds voted to make undocumented immigrants ineligible for in-state tuition and state and local benefits. He voted in favor of designating English as the official language of the United States. In 2024, he voted for healthcare for children under age 19 regardless of immigration status largely on the grounds that early and preventative care saves money by cutting down on later emergency room visits.


=== 2010 redistricting ===
Deeds introduced SB926 to create a seven-member non-partisan committee to oversee the 2010–2011 redistricting plan. In 2009, the bill passed the State Senate, 39–0, but was killed by the House of Delegates' Committee on Privileges and Elections. In 2010, the bill once again passed the Senate with unanimous vote of 40–0 before once again being killed in committee by the House of Delegates. Deeds said that, if elected Governor of Virginia, he would use his veto power and amendment powers to try to force the House of Delegates into accepting a version of SB926.


=== Education ===
Deeds' 2009 gubernatorial campaign issued a plan called ""Better Schools. Better Jobs"" to detail Deeds' plans regarding education. The plan called for up to $15,000 in student loans for 4-year college students, and for creating partnerships with community colleges and traditional universities.


=== Transportation ===
Deeds was criticized by the McDonnell campaign for lacking a coherent transportation plan. During the second debate between the candidates, McDonnell held up a blank sheet of paper as a representation of the Deeds plan. Deeds later wrote a column in The Washington Post laying out his plan, which included the possibility of a new gas tax or other tax.


== References ==


== External links ==

Profile at Vote Smart
Appearances on C-SPAN as R. Creigh Deeds
Appearances on C-SPAN as Creigh Deeds"
"Freefall: America, Free Markets, and the Sinking of the World Economy","Freefall: America, Free Markets, and the Sinking of the World Economy is a book on the causes and consequences of the Great Recession by economist and Nobel laureate Joseph E. Stiglitz, first published in 2010 by W. W. Norton & Company. While focusing on the roots of the 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent global economic slowdown, which he claims to find mainly in fiscal policy as conducted during the Bush presidency and decisions made by the Federal Reserve, Stiglitz also talks about the failure to cope with the recession during the months succeeding the Wall Street Crash of 2008. Finally, he sketches various schemes as to the possible future of the American economy, vigorously proposing a profound policy shift. In compliance with Stiglitz's general attitude towards economic policy, Freefall contains ""proposals to tame the banking sector and to foster a more humanistic style of capitalism in the United States and abroad."" According to an assessment written by Larry Elliott for The Guardian, the book ""reeks of 'I told you so'."" because during the years preceding the crisis, Stiglitz had ""warned policy makers repeatedly that the United States was headed toward a deep, painful recession if pre-emptive interventions were not made.""


== Title ==
The title of the book points at the sharp decline in stock prices following the bankruptcy of the investment bank Lehman Brothers in September, 2008. Meanwhile, its subtitle reveals Stiglitz's conviction that free markets are at the bottom of the crisis, as he makes deregulation responsible for the rise of the shadow banking system, over-leveraged banks and subprime mortgages. Accordingly, in Freefall Stiglitz criticizes advocates of deregulation and free markets, most notoriously Larry Summers and Ben Bernanke.


== Contents ==
The book which is ""rife with (...) indignation"" consists of ten chapters, some of which analyze the causes of the Great Recession while others cover the subsequent – and, as per Stiglitz, flawed – crisis management. Still others look ahead and serve the purpose of explaining Stiglitz's proposal for ""a reassessment of the sort of economy in which financiers enriched themselves by selling over-priced and risky products to some of the most vulnerable citizens in America.""
Stiglitz grants a large share of the blame for the Great Recession to George W. Bush and his far-reaching tax cuts for wealthy Americans. He also attacks Bush's successor Barack Obama for practically continuing with that fiscal policy. According to Stiglitz, Obama's decision to stick with both Ben Bernanke and Larry Summers, is sufficient proof for the president's refusal to alter the course. However, not all of Stiglitz's criticism is aimed at the White House, as he also attacks the Federal Reserve under the leadership of first Alan Greenspan and then Ben Bernanke. Moreover, he mentions the danger of economic interconnectedness and globalization, stating that by ""purchasing enormous amounts of U.S. debt in the form of T-bills and treasury issuances, the Chinese have helped to maintain artificially low interest rates and the accompanying American debt-driven consumption patterns.""


=== Deregulation ===
Common thread of Freefall is Stiglitz's conviction that deregulation and the subsequent lack of transparency in the financial sector are responsible for the severity of the Great Recession. He consequently considers regulation a requirement for solid recovery and expressed concern regarding economic policy as performed during Barack Obama's first months as president in an interview with The New York Times:

""At the time Obama appointed his economics team, he was focused on getting a team that he thought would have the confidence of the financial markets, a team that the bankers liked. (...) As an example, back in the spring of 2008, people like Bernanke were saying we’re over the worst. Regulators didn’t want to admit that they had made really bad regulatory decisions. They didn’t want to admit that they had allowed a housing bubble to grow. (...) Over the last year, there has been a drumbeat that has increased as Congress has failed to enact adequate regulations. (...) The basic thing about somebody like Paul [Volcker] is he’s not looking for another career. He tells things as they are. He is the one who said that if banks are too big to fail, then they’re too big to be managed, they’re too complex, there is no person who can really manage anything of that complexity.""
Thus Freefall also promotes to undo the 1999 repeal of the regulative Glass-Steagall Act, with Stiglitz depicting it as necessary in order to eradicate the contamination of the banking sector:

""Given what the economy has been through, it is clear that the federal government should reinstitute some revised version of the Glass-Steagall Act. There is no choice: any institution that has the benefits of a commercial bank – including the government's safety nets – has to be severely restricted in its ability to take on risk. (...) There are simply too many conflicts of interest and too many problems to allow commingling of the activities of commercial and investment banks. The promised benefits of the repeal of Glass-Steagall proved illusory and the costs proved greater than even critics of the repeal imagined. The problems are especially acute with the too-big-to-fail banks. (...) The imperative of reinstating the Glass-Steagall Act quickly is suggested by recent behaviour of some investment banks, for whom trading has once again proved to be a major source of profits.""


=== Incentives ===
A central theme of Freefall is the notion of incentives and the distorted incentive structures that allowed the 2008 financial crisis to happen. In the first chapter, Stiglitz mentions that on one hand:""One of the arguments put forward by many in the financial markets for not helping mortgage owners is that (...) incentives to repay are weakened if mortgage owners know that there is some chance they will be helped out if they don't repay"". While on the other hand:""When it came to America's big banks (...) concerns about moral hazard were shunted aside, so much so as the bank officers were allowed to enjoy huge bonuses for record losses"". Then, throughout his book, Stiglitz explains how almost every decision maker in the financial system had incentives to create a housing bubble, record high profits and pass on the risk to others as externalities.
""Before the arrival of modern innovations in finance (...) banks held on to the loans they originated, they had [incentives] to be careful."" But Stiglitz shows that with deregulation and the arrival of modern financial innovations, it turned out otherwise. With the securitization process, banks had incentives to make as much bad mortgages as possible. Those bad mortgages were ""repackaged and (..) passed on to investors, including pension funds."" With this process, it didn't matter anymore to the banks that the home owners would go bankrupt because the loss would be passed on to investors and ordinary citizens (through pension funds). Another key element in this system was the credit rating agencies. In fact, ""to buy the [bad mortgages], managers of pension funds had to be sure (...) they were safe."" To make sure that these mortgages would be bought by pension funds, banks were paying the rating agencies to get AAA ratings. Thus, ""like everyone else in the sector, [rating agencies's] incentives were distorted. (...) They were being paid by the banks that originated the securities they were asked to rate"".


== Critical reception ==
Freefall was generally well received by critics, although some expressed doubts as to the feasibility of Stiglitz's proposals for change.
The New York Times, for instance, stated that the contents of Freefall: ""may all be worthy ideas. But [that] at times, Mr. Stiglitz’s call for a new economic order seems a bit fanciful."" In an earlier review, Michiko Kakutani went even further, criticizing that his: ""remarks not only give ammunition to conservative critics who want to dismiss Mr. Stiglitz as a European-style liberal, but [that] they also have the unfortunate effect of diverting the reader’s attention from the many shrewd assessments that he makes in Freefall about the causes and consequences of the great financial meltdown of 2008.""
In a review run by The Observer, economist Will Hutton expressed more optimism, claiming: ""[i]t requires bravery to take on the vested interests – along with good ideas and a strong sense of the right trajectory. At present we have too little of any of them. Stiglitz's book successfully redresses the balance. It is very welcome – and important.""
The New Statesman rather focused on shortcomings of Freefall: ""In an impressive final chapter, Stiglitz takes apart the theorists of market fundamentalism – for their abstractness, their failure to see where economics should stop and sociology begin. But his own economics seem shorn of a social and political dimension: whether you choose Foucault, Marx or C. Wright Mills, if you are a critic of the capitalist system you must have some explanation of why it goes on producing power elites who stand in the way of attempts to control it. This is the crucial element missing from Stiglitz's analytical framework.""
The French economist Guy Sorman, author of the libertarian book Economics Does Not Lie, showed himself sceptical about Freefall, stating that its author: ""feels compelled to remind the reader that he is not a socialist: he only advocates a better world. His utopia would replace the failed market fundamentalism by striking the right balance between market and state. (...) Stiglitz’s Nobel Prize on market asymmetry was well deserved. His opinions on everything else are just opinions and deserve to be treated as such.""
The Economist juxtaposed Freefall in opposition to 13 Bankers, a slightly later published book with similar contents by Simon Johnson and James Kwak. Neither of the books was given a positive assessment, with Freefall being criticized for argumentative inconsistency: ""If policymakers failed as miserably as Mr Stiglitz believes, then he ought to be far more worried about the potential for government failure in the future. That dissonance is a glaring weakness in Mr Stiglitz's book.""


== See also ==
Post-war displacement of Keynesianism
2008–09 Keynesian resurgence
Comparisons between the Great Recession and the Great Depression


== References =="
Lila Abu-Lughod,"Lila Abu-Lughod (Arabic: ليلى أبو لغد) (born 1952) is an American anthropologist. She is the Joseph L. Buttenweiser Professor of Social Science in the Department of Anthropology at Columbia University in New York City. She specializes in ethnographic research in the Arab world, and her seven books cover topics including sentiment and poetry, nationalism and media, gender politics and the politics of memory.


== Early life and education ==
Lila Abu-Lughod was born on October 21st, 1952, in Champaign, Illinois, USA, where her father, Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, undertook his BA at the University of Illinois. Ibrahim Abu-Lughod was a prominent Palestinian academic well-known for his academic work and activism for Palestine. Her mother, Janet Abu-Lughod, née Lippman, was a leading Jewish American urban sociologist.
Abu-Lughod went to New Trier High School and graduated in 1970. She went on to study at Carleton College in 1974, graduating with a Distinction in Social Anthropology. She obtained her MA in 1978 and her PhD in Social Anthropology in 1984, both from Harvard University .


== Career ==


=== Research interests ===
Abu-Lughod's body of work is grounded in long-term ethnographic research in Egypt. Her interest in Egypt came from spending several years of her childhood in Egypt. She is especially concerned with the intersections of culture and power, as well as gender and women's rights in the Middle East. Her research interests and work include urbanism, technology, memory, museum, archives, displacement, states, sovereignty, critical theory and genealogy.


=== Graduate and postgraduate work ===
Between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s, while still a graduate student, Abu-Lughod spent time living with the Bedouin Awlad 'Ali tribe in Egypt. She stayed with the head of the community, and lived in his household alongside his large family for a cumulative two years. Her first two books, Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society and Writing Women's Worlds, are based on this fieldwork. Both books draw on her experiences living with the Bedouin women and her research into their poetry and storytelling. She explores the way that ghinnawas, songs in a poetic form that she compares to haiku and the blues, express the cultural ""patterning"" of the society, especially with regard to the relations between women and men. Abu-Lughod has described a reading group that she attended while teaching at Williams College – its other members included Catharine A. MacKinnon, Adrienne Rich, and Wendy Brown – as a formative engagement with the field of women's studies and a major influence on these early books.


=== Academic roles and appointments ===
Lila Abu-Lughod undertook multiple academic roles and appointments. At Columbia University, between 2000 until today she served as professor of anthropology and women's studies, director, Institute for Research on Women and Gender, William B. Ransford Professor of Anthropology and Gender Studies, co-director, Center for the Critical Analysis of Social Difference, director, Middle East Institute, and finally, Joseph L. Buttenwieser Professor of Social Science.
Between 1995 and 2000, at New York University, she was the co-director, Program to Internationalize Women's Studies, associate professor of anthropology and professor of anthropology and Middle East studies.
In 1990, Abu-Lughod served as the assistant professor of religion and associated faculty for the Department of Anthropology at Princeton University. She started her teaching career at Williams College as an assistant professor, for the Department of Anthropology and Sociology.
Abu-Lughod spent time as a scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study, with Judith Butler, Evelyn Fox Keller, and Donna Haraway. She also taught at New York University, where she worked on a project, funded by a Ford Foundation grant, intended to promote a more international focus in women's studies.
Abu-Lughod serves on the advisory boards of multiple academic journals, including Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society and Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies.


== Ideas, contributions and influences ==
Gender and Feminism in the Muslim World
Abu-Lughod’s work has contributed in various ways to the thought and knowledge produced around gender studies. In an interview with Columbia Center for Oral History, at Columbia University (2015) for the Institute for Research on Women, Gender and Sexuality Oral History Project, talked about how during her time at Harvard, there was no gender studies program being something that she had missed. During her appointment at NYU she worked along with her colleagues to bring international scholars working on gender. Since then Abu- Lughod was very active in working on organising conferences and events that discuss gender and sexuality issues. Her eagerness on growing debates on the same topic extended to Columbia University when she joined in Y2000.
Her 2013 book, Do Muslim Women Need Saving? investigates the image of Muslim women in Western society. It is based on her 2002 article of the same name, published in American Anthropologist. The text examines post-9/11 discussions on the Middle East, Islam, women's rights, and media. Abu-Lughod gathers examples of the Western narrative of the ""abused"" Muslim women who need to be saved. Abu-Lughod further explains how the narrative of saving Muslim women has been used as a way to justify military interventions in Muslim countries. She deftly questions the motives of feminists who feel that Muslim women should be saved from the Taliban all the while injustices occur in their own countries. She argues that Muslim women, like women of other faiths and backgrounds, need to be viewed within their own historical, social, and ideological contexts. Abu-Lughod's book argues against grouping Muslim women under one umbrella or set of characteristics. In an interview with Mariam Syed for Columbia's Journal, Abu Lughod explains the history of resistance by Muslim women from Palestine, Egypt, Sudan, Iran through scholarly writing.
Abu-Lughod's article and subsequent book on the topic have been compared to Edward Said's Orientalism. Do Muslim Women Need Saving? (2013) has been translated to French, Turkish, Arabic and Japanese.
In her latest co-edited book, with Shenila Khoja-Moolji, Karen Engle, Janet R. Jakobsen, Vasuki Nesiah, and Rafia Zakaria The Cunning of Gender Violence: Securitisation and the Violence of Law, examines the problematic of framing gender violence, based on a global view of Muslim women. She argues that generalising gender violence, as well as codifying it in institutions and NGO's would dismiss the specifity of how each culture and community would consider violence to be. With experts from the Middle East and South East Asia, on gender and feminist pressing questions, Lila Abu-Lughod argue that legal frameworks and humanitarian bodies correlated violence with Muslims. She coined the term ""securofeminists"" to refer to a group of feminists who in trying to achieve feminists goals using security measures. A practice that Abu-Lughod has expressed to be worrying.


=== Contributions to museum studies and exhibitions ===
In 2023, Lila Abu-Lughod has contributed to the world of Museums and exhibitions, by working closely with the National Museum of Qatar on an exhibition titled On the Move. The exhibition celebrates the lives of three different pastoralist communities: Qatar, Mongolia and Central Sahara. Having done extensive celebrated work on Bedouin communities in Egypt, in this exhibition Abu-Lughod work with a group of anthropologists and with museum specialists, in rethinking questions of representations, collection of objects and other forms of knowledge production other than writing.
The exhibition was in collaboration with the Mongolian National Museum and the National Art Museum.


=== Activism and view on Palestinian-Israeli Conflict ===
Abu-Lughod is a supporter of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement. Lila Abu-Lughod wrote an article for Anthropology News, which was reposted in March 2016 by Anthroboycott, about her stance on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, where she responds and contributes to the call for academics and researchers to boycott Israeli academic institutions. In this article, Abu-Lughod refers to the discrimination and indignities faced by various academics, including Noam Chomsky, as a result of their heritage and academic work.
In an interview with Mariam Syed published in the Columbia Journal (2024), Lila Abu-Lughod talked about the role of women in speaking up about the different forms of violence, and particularly sexual violence that Palestinians face daily, which have in the Gaza war. She referenced the work of Nadera Shalhoub-Kevorkian, Karen Engle, Rema Hammami, and Saba Mahmood, who had all contributed to and pointed to sexual violence against women in times of war and conflicts.


== Awards and honors ==
1974: Phi Beta Kappa, Carleton College.
1984: Malcom Kerr Dissertation Prize in the Social Sciences, Middle East Studies Association of North America.
1984: Stirling Award for Contributions to Psychological Anthropology, Society for Psychological Anthropology and the American Anthropological Association.
1987: Chicago Folklore Prize.
1998: Silver Medal for Outstanding Contributions to the Development of Anthropological and Ethnological Science through Publication, International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.
1994: Victor Turner Prize, Society for Humanistic Anthropology, American Anthropological Association.
1999: Alumni Award for Distinguished Achievement, Carleton College.
2006: Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters, Carleton College, Minnesota.
2007: Outstanding Senior Scholar Award, Middle East Section, American Anthropological Association.
2007: American Ethnological Society Senior Book Prize.
2008: Lenfest Distinguished Faculty Award, Columbia University.
2021: Exemplary Cross Field Scholarship Award, General Anthropology Division, American Anthropological Association.
2022: Visitor, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton (2022-2023)
2023: Career Award from the Association of Feminist Anthropology, American Anthropological Association.
2023: Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Significant Books and Publications


== Books and publications ==
The Cunning of Gender Violence. ISBN 978-1-4780-2043-1 (Duke University Press, 2023)
On the Move: Reframing Nomadic Pastoralism. ISBN 9789927108778 (Qatar Museums Publications, 2022)
Do Muslim Women Need Saving? (Harvard University Press, 2013) ISBN 978-0-674-72516-4
Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory with Ahmad H. Sa'di, (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 978-0-231-13578-8
Local Contexts of Islamism in Popular Media (Amsterdam University Press, 2007) ISBN 978-90-5356-824-8
Dramas of Nationhood: The Politics of Television in Egypt (University of Chicago Press, 2004) ISBN 978-0-226-00197-5
Writing Women's Worlds: Bedouin Stories (University of California Press, 1993) ISBN 978-0-520-08304-2
Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East (Editor) (Princeton University Press,1998) ISBN 978-0-691-05792-7
Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society (University of California Press, 2000) ISBN 978-0-520-22473-5
Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain (Editor) (University of California Press, 2002) ISBN 978-0-520-23231-0
Remaking Women: Feminisim and Modernity in the Middle East. (Princeton University Press, 1998). ISBN 9781400831203
Language and the Politics of Emotions. co-authored with Catherine A. Lutz. (Cambridge University Press, 1990). ISBN 978-0521388689


== Other important contributions ==
2001, Abu-Lughod delivered the Lewis Henry Morgan Lecture at the University of Rochester, considered by many to be the most important annual lecture series in the field of anthropology.
2007: named a Carnegie Scholar in 2007 to research the topic: ""Do Muslim Women Have Rights? The Ethics and Politics of Muslim Women's Rights in an International Field."" She has held research fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Guggenheim Foundation, Fulbright, and the Mellon Foundation, among others.
An article from Veiled Sentiments received the Stirling Award for Contributions to Psychological Anthropology. Writing Women's Worlds received the Victor Turner Award. Carleton College awarded her an honorary doctorate in 2006.


== See also ==
Postcolonialism
Subaltern
Orientalism
Imagined geographies


== Notes ==


== Further reading ==
An Interview with Abu-Lughod on women and Afghanistan
Profile of Lila Abu-Lughod at the Institute for Middle East Understanding
Columbia University Department of Anthropology Faculty
Lila Abu Lughod: My Father's Return to Palestine Winter-Spring 2001, Issue 11-12 Jerusalem Quarterly (Accessed 17.06. 2012)
Oral History interview with Lila Abu Lughod, 2015, IRWGS Oral History project, Columbia Center for Oral History Archives
American Ethnologist interview with Lila Abu Lughod, 2016


== External links ==
A Community of Secrets: The Separate World of Bedouin Women
Bedouin Hasham in Lila Abu Lughod's Book, Veiled Sentiments"
Robert M. Danford,"Robert M. Danford (July 7, 1879 – September 12, 1974) was an American military leader. A career officer in the United States Army, he served in both World War I and World War II, and attained the rank of major general. His notable assignments included Commandants of Cadets at the United States Military Academy and Chief of Field Artillery.
Born in New Boston, Illinois as the son of a Union Army veteran of the American Civil War, Danford graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1904, and began a long career in the Army's Field Artillery branch. He worked his way through the ranks in staff positions of increasing responsibility, and commanded a battery on the Arizona-Mexico border during the Border War that took place at the time of the Mexican Revolution. During World War I, Danford commanded several units and trained National Guard and regular Army artillery soldiers for service in France, and received promotion to temporary brigadier general.
After World War I, Danford continued to serve in high profile assignments, including Commandant of Cadets at West Point. In addition, he graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College and the United States Army War College. He commanded the 13th Field Artillery Regiment from 1935 to 1937, and was Chief of Field Artillery as a major general during World War II, serving from 1938 until retiring in 1942.
After retiring from the Army, Danford commanded the wartime civilian auxiliary of the New York City Police Department until the end of World War II in 1945, and was active in West Point alumni affairs. He died in Stamford, Connecticut in 1974, and was buried at West Point Cemetery.


== Early life ==
Robert Melville Danford was born in New Boston, Illinois on July 7, 1879. His mother was Dora Noble Danford (1855-1894), and his father was Melville Cox Danford (1847-1921), a farmer and American Civil War veteran of the Union Army's 16th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment.
Danford was educated in New Boston, Mannon, and Aledo and at the academy which was part of Mount Vernon, Iowa's Cornell College. In 1899, he earned a Master of Accounts degree from Gem City Business College in Quincy, Illinois. In 1900, Danford began attendance at the United States Military Academy. He graduated in 1904 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Field Artillery.


== Start of career ==
 
Danford's initial posting was to the 5th Field Artillery Regiment at Fort Riley, Kansas. While with the 5th Artillery, he served in the Philippines and on temporary duty with the coast artillery at the Presidio of San Francisco. He also attended the Mounted Service School at Fort Riley, and after graduation in 1907 he was assigned as the school's secretary. Danford was also promoted to first lieutenant in 1907. While serving in the Philippines in 1908, Danford assisted Edmund L. Gruber in authoring the lyrics to ""The Caisson Song"", which was later adapted into the ""U.S. Field Artillery March"" and then ""The Army Goes Rolling Along"". In 1910, Danford was assigned as aide-de-camp to Brigadier General Frederick K. Ward, the commander of Fort Riley and commandant of the Mounted Service School.
In 1911, Danford was assigned to the Army's remount depot near Lexington, Kentucky to undertake a study of horses and horse breeding, with the goal of determining the best methods for the Army to procure and employ the horses it needed for artillery, cavalry, transportation, and supply activities. He commanded a battery at Fort Sill, Oklahoma from 1912 to 1914, including service on the Arizona-Mexico border during the Border War that took place during the Mexican Revolution. From 1914 to 1915 Danford was an instructor at the Army's Field Artillery School. Danford was based at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut from 1915 to 1917, and served as senior instructor and inspector of the Connecticut National Guard. During this assignment, Danford was promoted to major, lieutenant colonel, and colonel in the National Guard and assigned to command Connecticut's 10th Field Artillery Regiment. He was promoted to captain in the Army in 1916.


== World War I ==
In 1916, the 10th Field Artillery was activated for federal service in World War I, and Danford commanded the regiment during its initial training at Tobyhanna Army Depot. From February to July 1917, Danford was assigned as assistant professor of military science at Yale University, and served as the mustering officer for members of the Connecticut National Guard as they entered federal service. While at Yale, Danford co-authored Notes on Training Field Artillery Details, a practical manual for teaching field artillery tactics and techniques. It quickly became the Army's standard reference work for training field artillery soldiers, and went through numerous printings during and after World War I. In July 1917, Danford served as mustering officer for members of the Pennsylvania National Guard, after which he traveled to Fort Sill, where he served as an artillery instructor. Originally slated to join the 42nd Division, in August, he was instead assigned to the 302nd Field Artillery, a unit of the 76th Division. He trained with the regiment at Camp Devens, Massachusetts, after which he was assigned to Plattsburgh Barracks, New York as senior instructor of field artillery for the Army's second wartime Officers' Training Camp. He was promoted to major in August, and temporary lieutenant colonel on the same day.
Danford returned to Fort Sill in December 1917, this time to assume command of the 129th Field Artillery Regiment, a Missouri National Guard unit which he led through its initial organization and training after it was federalized for the war. Among the regiment's soldiers was Harry S. Truman, who later said he learned more practical, useful information from Danford in six weeks than from six months of formal Army instruction. When Truman later served as an artillery instructor, he consciously patterned his approach on Danford's.
In April, 1918, Danford was assigned to Camp Jackson, South Carolina to command the Field Artillery Replacement Depot, which provided new artillery soldiers to fill vacancies in units as they were organized, and to bring depleted front line units back up to full strength. He commanded the depot until December, and was promoted to temporary colonel in July 1918, and temporary brigadier general the following month.
From December 1918 to May 1919, Danford served on the staff of the Chief of Field Artillery. In May, he went to France where he carried out an observation and inspection tour as a member of the American Expeditionary Forces staff.


== Post-World War I ==
After the war, Danford returned to his permanent rank of captain (March 1919); in August, 1919 he was promoted to permanent major. From August 1919 to July 1923, Danford served as Commandant of Cadets at West Point. From 1923 to 1924 he was a student at the United States Army Command and General Staff College, after which he served again on the staff of the Chief of Field Artillery.
Danford attended the United States Army War College from 1928 to 1929; after graduation, he was assigned to the 13th Field Artillery Regiment at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii. From 1931 to 1935, Danford served as executive officer to the Chief of Field Artillery, and from 1935 to 1937 he commanded the 13th Field Artillery at Schofield Barracks. He was promoted to permanent lieutenant colonel in 1928, and permanent colonel in 1935. From 1937 to 1938, Danford served at Fort Sheridan, Illinois as chief of staff for the VI Corps Area.


== World War II ==

In 1938, Danford was selected to succeed Upton Birnie Jr. as Chief of Field Artillery and promoted to major general. As the United States increased preparation for involvement in World War II and then entered the war, Danford's tenure was largely concerned with equipping, manning, and training artillery units as they were organized and fielded for wartime service. Though Danford had been seen as an opponent of technological advances, such as advocating for the use of horse-drawn artillery instead of mechanization, after firsthand observation of how effective light aircraft were for artillery observation he became a strong proponent, and helped ensure that the Army used airplanes for identifying targets, observing the impact of indirect fire, and assessing its effectiveness.
Danford retired in 1942, when the Army eliminated the branch chief positions in favor of consolidating their functions under the commander of the Army Ground Forces.


== Awards ==
For his service in World War I, Danford received the U.S. Army Distinguished Service Medal, Belgian Order of the Crown, and honorary Order of the British Empire (Commander). The citation for his Army DSM reads:

The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Robert Melville Danford, United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. While on duty in the Office of the Chief of Field Artillery, General Danford displayed marked ability in planning the organization of field artillery replacement depots. He then proceeded to Camp Jackson, South Carolina, established this depot, and administered it during the remainder of the war with rare ability and judgment.
In addition, in 1917 he received the honorary degree of Master of Arts from Yale University. In 1975, the museum board at Fort Sill designated one of the post's residence buildings as Danford House, and installed a plaque commemorating Danford's career. Built in the 1870s, the limestone house has traditionally been the quarters of Fort Sill's chief of staff.


== Later career ==
After retiring from the military, Danford organized and commanded the City Patrol Corps, a civilian auxiliary of the New York City Police Department, which provided wartime security for power plants, water filtration plants, and other sensitive facilities.
In August 1951, Time reported that 90 of West Point's 2,500 cadets were facing dismissal for mass violations of the Cadet Honor Code. The Army arranged for an investigation by a panel which included famed jurist Learned Hand and retired generals Troy H. Middleton, then president of Louisiana State University, and Danford. The board found that some of the accused cadets, most of whom were on the football team, had been receiving the answers to exams ahead of time through upper class students who were assisting them as tutors. Others were accused of knowing about the cheating, but failing to report it. The panel recommended dismissal of all 90 suspected violators; they were eventually allowed to resign, and many transferred to other schools.
Danford also served as president of the West Point Association of Graduates, secretary and treasurer and executive director of the West Point Alumni Foundation, and editor of the Register of Graduates and Former Cadets of the United States Military Academy. Danford also authored a genealogical work, 1967's The Nobles and the Raders: Being a Compilation of Members and Descendants of the Noble and Rader Families Who Were Amongst the Earliest Pioneer Settlers of Mercer County, Illinois.


== Death and burial ==
Danford died in Stamford, Connecticut on September 12, 1974. He was buried at West Point Cemetery, Section II, Row A, Site 17.


== Family ==
In 1909, Danford married Katherine V. Hyde (1888-1963) in Oakland, California. Katherine Hyde was the daughter of Alice Evelyn Van de Carr Hyde (1855-1916) and Marcus Darius Hyde (1849-1930). Marcus Hyde was a graduate of the United States Naval Academy, an attorney, and a member of the California State Assembly. Robert and Katherine Danford were the parents of one child, Janet (1915-1972), the wife of Colonel James B. Wells (1909-1996).


== References ==


== Sources ==


=== Internet ===
Thayer, Bill (May 5, 2015). ""Robert Melville Danford in Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy"". penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/home.html. Chicago, IL: Bill Thayer. Retrieved October 21, 2017.
""Memorial, James B. Wells 1934"". apps.westpointaog.org/. West Point, NY: West Point Association of Graduates. 1996.
""Robert M. Danford and Katherine V. Hyde in the California Marriage Records from Select Counties, 1850-1941"". Ancestry.com. Provo, UT: Ancestry.com, LLC. October 7, 1909. Retrieved October 21, 2017.
84th Division Alumni Association (May 10, 2017). """"The Army Goes Rolling Along"" - The Official Song of The United States Army"" (PDF). 84thdivalumni.com/. 84th Division Alumni Association.{{cite web}}:  CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)


=== Books ===
Adams, John A. (2015). General Jacob Devers: World War II's Forgotten Four Star. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-01517-4.
Ambrose, Stephen E. (1999). Duty, Honor, Country: A History of West Point. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6293-9.
Danford, Robert M.; Moretti, Onorio (1918). Notes on Training Field Artillery Details. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Danford, Robert M. (1967). The Nobles and the Raders: Being a Compilation of Members and Descendants of the Noble and Rader Families Who Were Amongst the Earliest Pioneer Settlers of Mercer County, Illinois. Darien, CT: R. M. Danford.
Davis, Henry Blaine Jr. (1998). Generals in Khaki. Raleigh, NC: Pentland Press. ISBN 1-57197-088-6.
Giangreco, D. M. (2009). The Soldier from Independence: A Military Biography of Harry Truman. Minneapolis, MN: Zenith Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-3209-2.
Hadley, Arthur Twining (1917). Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Yale University. New Haven, CT: Yale University. p. 750 – via Google Books.
Marquis, Albert Nelson (1944). Who's Who in America. Vol. 23. Chicago, IL: A. N. Marquis.
McKenney, Janice E. (2007). The Organizational History of Field Artillery 1775-2003. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. ISBN 978-0-16-077114-9.
Offner, Arnold A. (2002). Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945-1953. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4254-2.
Raines, Edgar F. (2000). Eyes of Artillery: The Origins of Modern U.S. Army Aviation in World War II. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. ISBN 978-1-5058-5478-7.
U.S. Army Adjutant General (1942). Official Army Register. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.


=== Newspapers ===
""Biography, Marcus D. Hyde"". Oakland Tribune. Oakland, CA. January 27, 1890 – via Newspapers.com.
""News of Society Across the Bay: Robert Melville Van Ford (sic) and Katherine Hyde"". San Francisco Call. San Francisco, CA. October 8, 1909 – via Newspapers.com.
""Obituary, M. C. Danford"". The Dispatch. Moline, IL. December 31, 1921 – via Newspapers.com.
""Robert M. Danford, Retired General, 95"". New York Times. New York, NY. September 14, 1974.
""Maj. Gen. Danford dies in Connecticut"". The Rock Island Argus. Moline, IL. September 17, 1974. p. 19 – via Newspapers.com.
""New Designation"". Lawton Morning Press. Lawton, OK. October 25, 1975 – via Newspapers.com.
""Largest Museum in the Army Hosts Variety of Events"". Lawton Constitution. Lawton, OK. January 25, 1976 – via Newspapers.com.
Berberea, Marie (November 1, 2013). ""Fort Sill's Historic Homes Pack Tales Of Haunts"". Army.mil. Washington, DC.


=== Magazines ===
""Biographical Sketch, Robert M. Danford"" (PDF). The Field Artillery Journal. Vol. 32. Fort Sill, OK: United States Field Artillery Association. April 1, 1942.


== External links ==

Generals of World War II"
1942 New Year Honours,"The 1942 New Year Honours were appointments by King George VI to various orders and honours to reward and highlight good works by citizens of the United Kingdom and British Empire. They were announced on 30 December 1941.
The recipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honour.


== United Kingdom and British Empire ==


=== Baron ===
The Right Honourable Sir (Albert) Charles Clauson, C.B.E., a Judge of the High Court. 1926–38. A Lord Justice of Appeal, 1938–41.
Brigadier-General The Right Honourable Sir Auckland Campbell Geddes, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., T.D., M.D., LL.D. For public services.


=== Baronet ===
Commander Sir Charles Worthington Craven, O.B.E., R.N. (Retd.), Controller General, Ministry of Aircraft Production, chairman and managing director, Vickers-Armstrongs, Limited.
Sir Ralph Lewis Wedgwood, C.B., C.M.G., lately Chairman of the Railway Executive Committee.


=== Knight Bachelor ===
Alderman Frank Samuel Alexander, lately Sheriff of the City of London, Chairman of the Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange Limited.
Richard William Allen, Esq., C.B.E., J.P., D.L., Chairman of Messrs W.H. Allen Sons and Company Limited.
Gilbert Archer, Esq. For public services, Civil Defence Commissioner for the South Eastern District of Scotland.
George Aylwen, Esq., Treasurer of St Bartholomew's Hospital.
Horace Louis Petit Boot, Esq., M.Inst.C.E., lately Sheriff of the City of London. Chairman and managing director of Horace Boot and Partners Limited and Eastwoods Limited.
Henry Francis Brand, Esq., President of the British Employers' Confederation.
Lieutenant-Colonel Frank Brook, D.S.O., M.C., H.M. Inspector of Constabulary.
George Mowlem Burt, Esq., Chairman of Messrs John Mowlem and Company, Limited.
Alderman William Bramwell Cartwright, J.P., Chairman of the West Riding County Council and of the West Riding Emergency Committee.
Frederick Charles Cook, Esq., C.B., D.S.O., M.C., M.Inst.C.E., Chief Engineer, Highways, Ministry of War Transport.
Colonel Jonathan Roberts Davidson. C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., lately Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Water Board.
Samuel Gurney-Dixon, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., J.P., Chairman of the Hampshire Education Committee and Chairman of the Education Committee of the County Councils Association.
George Tristram Edwards, Esq,. Chairman of the Ship Repairers' Central Council.
Alfred Hubert Roy Fedden, Esq., M.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.Ae.S., Chief Engineer, Bristol Aeroplane Company, Limited.
John Fisher, Esq., Director of Coastal and Short Sea Shipping, Ministry of War Transport.
Thomas Dalkin Harrison, Esq., Solicitor and Legal Adviser, Ministry of Health.
Hubert Douglas Henderson, Esq., Member of the Chancellor of the Exchequer's Consultative Council.
Robert Stuart Hilton, Esq., O.B.E., Deputy Chairman of the United Steel Companies, Limited. President of the British Iron and Steel Federation.
Arthur Lawrence Hobhouse, Esq., J.P., Chairman of the Somerset County Council.
Professor Bennett Melvill Jones, C.B.E., A.F.C., F.R.S., Professor of Aeronautical Engineering, Cambridge University. For services to aircraft development.
Guy Harold Locock, Esq., C.M.G., Director, Federation of British Industries.
Percy Herbert Mills, Esq., Controller-General of Machine Tools, Ministry of Supply.
Sydney Oswald Nevile, Esq. For services to the State Management Scheme.
George Riddle, Esq., C.B.E., Director of the Co-Operative Wholesale Society.
William James Rook, Esq., Director of Sugar, Ministry of Food.
Percy Joseph Sillitoe, Esq., C.B.E., Chief Constable, City of Glasgow Police Force.
George Clemens Usher, Esq., Director-General of Tank Supply, Ministry of Supply.
Bertrand Watson, Esq., Chief Magistrate of the Police Courts of the Metropolis.
Dominions

Arthur George Barrett, Esq., lately Lord Mayor of the City of Adelaide, State of South Australia.
The Honourable William Flood Webb, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, State of Queensland.
India

Rajivaranjan Prashad Sinha, Esq., President, Bihar Legislative Council, Bihar.
Bertie Munro Staig, Esq., C.S.I., Indian Civil Service, lately Financial Commissioner, Railways.
Ahmed Fazlur Rahman, Esq., LL.D.. Member. Federal Public Service Commission.
Major-General Frederick Gwatkin, C.B., D.S.O., M.C., Indian Army, Military Adviser-in-Chief, Indian States Forces.
Shantidas Askuran, Esq., Member of the Council of State.
Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy, Esq., Member of the Legislative Council, Vice-Chancellor, Andhra University, Waltair, Madras.
Hugh Arbuthnot Inglis, Esq., Indian Police, Inspector-General of Police, United Provinces.
Ratanji Dinshaw Dalal, Esq., C.I.E., L.R.C.P. (Lond.), & D.P.H. (Lond.), Member of the Central Legislative Assembly.
Harold Matthew Glover, Esq., Indian Forest Service, Chief Conservator of Forests, Punjab.
Khan Bahadur Nawab Fazal Ali, O.B.E., Landlord and Member of the Legislative Assembly, Gujrat, Punjab.
Sidney Turner, Esq., C.B.E., F.I.A., Accountant-General and Controller of Pension Funds, India Office.
Rao Bahadur Tiruvadi Sambasivaiyer Venktaraman, C.I.E., Indian Agricultural Service, Sugarcane Expert, Imperial Sugarcane-breeding Station, Coimbatore.
Khan Bahadur Kavasji Hormusji Katrak, O.B.E., Merchant and Landlord, Sind.
Chunilal Bhaichand Mehta, Esq., Merchant, Bombay.
George Bond Morton, Esq., O.B.E., Partner, Messrs. Bird & Co., Calcutta, Bengal.
Raghunath Purshottam Paranjpye, Esq., Poona, Bombay.
Burma

U Maung Gyee, Barrister-at-Law. Counsellor to the Governor of Burma.
Colonies, Protectorates, etc.

Chalinor Grenville Alabaster, Esq., O.B.E., Colonial Legal Service, Attorney-General, Hong Kong.
John Curtois Howard, Esq., Colonial Legal Service, Chief Justice, Ceylon.
George Ernest London, Esq., C.M.G., Colonial Administrative Service, Colonial Secretary, Gold Coast.
Walter Kingsbury Moore, Esq., C.B.E. For public services in the Bahama Islands.
Gilbert Cochrane Wainwright, Esq., O.B.E. For public services in Jamaica.


=== The Most Honourable Order of the Bath ===


==== Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) ====
Field-Marshal Sir John Greer Dill, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., Colonel, The Lancashire Regiment
Sir Frank Edward Smith, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.Sc., LL.D., Controller of Telecommunications Equipment. For services to the Ministry of Aircraft Production and to the Ministry of Supply.


==== Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) ====
Vice-Admiral Sir Wilbraham Tennyson Randle Ford, K.B.E., C.B.
Vice-Admiral Ralph Leatham, C.B.
Lieutenant-General the Honourable Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, C.B., C.S.I., D.S.O., M.C., late Irish Guards, Colonel, 3/2nd Punjab Regiment.
Lieutenant-General Thomas Sheridan Riddell-Webster, C.B., D.S.O., late The Cameronians (Scottish Rifles).
Lieutenant-General Bernard Charles Tolver Paget, C.B., D.S.O., M.C., late The Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry.
Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Albert Blamey, Kt., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., Australian Military Forces.
Honorary Colonel John Cavendish, Viscount Cobham, C.B., T.D., President, Territorial Army Association of the County of Worcester.
Air Marshal Arthur William Tedder, C.B.
Sir (Crawfurd) Wilfrid Griffin Eady, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., chairman, Board of Customs and Excise.
Sir Henry Leon French, K.B.E., C.B., Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Food.


==== Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) ====
Military Division

Rear-Admiral Cyril Gordon Sedgwick (Retired).
Rear-Admiral Francis Hugh Walter (Retired).
Rear-Admiral Cosmo Moray Graham (Retired).
Rear-Admiral Douglas Adams Budgen (Retired).
Engineer Rear-Admiral Frederick Richard Gordon Turner, O.B.E.
Temporary Surgeon Rear-Admiral Gordon Gordon-Taylor, O.B.E., M.S., M.B., F.R.C.S.
Colonel Commandant (Acting Major-General) Robert Grice Sturges, Royal Marines.
Lieutenant-General Alexander Hood, C.B.E., M.D., K.H.P., late Royal Army Medical Corps.
Lieutenant General Sir Wilfrid Gordon Lindsell, K.B.E., D.S.O., M.C., Colonel Commandant, Royal Artillery.
Major-General Malcolm Neynoe MacLeod, D.S.O., M.C., Colonel Commandant, Royal Engineers.
Major-General Richard Talbot Snowden-Smith, C.B.E., M.I.Mech.E., late Royal Army Service Corps.
Major-General Arthur Harold Loughborough, O.B.E., late Royal Artillery.
Major-General Robert Hall Allen, M.C., late Royal Artillery.
Major-General Gordon Nevil Macready, C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., M.C., late Royal Engineers.
Major-General William Wyndham Green, D.S.O., M.C., late Royal Artillery.
Major-General (acting Lieutenant-General) Henry Beresford Dennitts Willcox, D.S.O., M.C., late The East Lancashire Regiment.
Major-General (acting Lieutenant-General) Edmund Charles Acton Schreiber, D.S.O., late Royal Artillery.
Major-General Kenneth Marten Body, C.M.G., O.B.E., Royal Army Ordnance Corps.
Chaplain-General to the Forces the Reverend Charles Douglas Symons, M.C., M.A., D.D., K.H.C., Royal Army Chaplains' Department.
Major-General Kenneth Morley Loch, M.C., late Royal Artillery.
Colonel (temporary Major-General) John Noble Kennedy, M.C., late Royal Artillery.
Colonel (local Brigadier) Stewart Graham Menzies, D.S.O., M.C., retired pay, late The Life Guards.
Major-General Roland Dening, M.V.O., M.C., Indian Army.
Major-General Henry Finnis, M.C., Indian Army.
Major-General John Fagan Henslowe Nugent, D.S.O., Indian Army.
Major-General (temporary Lieutenant-General) Henry Douglas Wynter, C.M.G., D.S.O., Australian Military Forces.
Air Vice Marshal George Brindley Aufrere Baker, M.C.
Air Vice Marshal Wilfred Ashton McClaughry, D.S.O., M.C., D.F.C.
Air Vice Marshal Lionel Douglas Dalzell McKean, O.B.E.
Air Vice Marshal Charles Edward Hastings Medhurst, O.B.E., M.C.
Air Vice Marshal John Cotesworth Slessor, D.S.O., M.C.
Acting Air Vice Marshal Leslie Norman Hollinghurst, O.B.E., D.F.C.
Acting Air Vice Marshal Hugh Pughe Lloyd, C.B.E., M.C., D.F.C.
Air Commodore William Alec Coryton, M.V.O., D.F.C.
Air Commodore Hugh Leedham, O.B.E.
Air Commodore Robert Parker Musgrave Whitham, O.B.E., M.C.
Air Commodore William Dowling Bostock, O.B.E., Royal Australian Air Force.
Civil Division

Honorary Brigadier-General Sir Norman Archibald Orr-Ewing, Bt., D.S.O., D.L., chairman, Territorial Army Association of the County of Stirling.
Honorary Colonel Henry Evan Pateshall Pateshall, D.S.O., D.L., chairman, Territorial Army Association of the County of Hereford.
Brevet Colonel MacDonald Barkley, D.L., chairman, Territorial Army Association of the County of Huntingdon.
Ernest Gold, Esq., D.S.O., O.B.E., F.R.S., deputy director of the Meteorological Office.
Eric St John Bamford, Esq., C.M.G., Principal Assistant Secretary and Controller of Administration, Ministry of Information.
Edward Gordon Bearn, Esq., C.B.E., Under-Secretary and Controller of Health Insurance and Pensions, Ministry of Health.
William Guy Nott-Bower, Esq., C.B.E., Deputy Under-Secretary for Mines.
William Vincent Bradford, Esq., Secretary, and Member of the Board of Inland Revenue.
Norman Craven Brook, Esq., Principal Assistant Secretary, Privy Council Office, and Personal Assistant to the Lord President of the council.
Charles Glyn Evans, Esq., Principal Assistant Secretary, Air Ministry.
Edwin Charles Jubb, Esq., O.B.E., Director of Navy Contracts, Admiralty.
Guy William Lambert, Esq., Assistant Under-Secretary of State, War Office.
Rupert Churchill Gelderd-Somervell, Esq., Under-Secretary, Board of Trade.
Charles John Stewart, Esq., O.B.E., F.R.Ae.S., Director-General of Production of Engines and Aircraft Equipment, Ministry of Aircraft Production.


=== Order of Merit (OM) ===
Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens, K.C.I.E., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., President of the Royal Academy.


=== Order of the Star of India ===


==== Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI) ====
Edward Richard John Ratcliffe Cousins, Esq., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Adviser to His Excellency the Governor of Bihar.
Eric Cecil Ansorge, Esq., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, late Adviser to His Excellency Governor of Orissa.
Eric Conran-Smith, Esq., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Secretary to the Government of India in the Home Department.
Harold George Dennehy, Esq., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Chief Secretary to the Government of Assam.
William Scott Brown, Esq., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Secretary to the Government of Madras in the Finance Department.
Maharaj Mahdhata Singh, Major, Prime Minister, Bikaner State, Rajputana.


=== Order of St Michael and St George ===


==== Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) ====
Sir Arthur Frederick Richards, K.C.M.G., Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief of the Island of Jamaica.
Sir Archibald John Kerr Clark Kerr, K.C.M.G., His Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Republic of China.


==== Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) ====
Sir Albert Henry Self, C.B., K.B.E., Director-General, British Air Commission, Washington.
David Taylor Monteath, Esq., C.B., C.V.O., O.B.E., lately acting Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Burma Office.
Arthur James Dawe, Esq., C.M.G., O.B.E., Assistant Under-Secretary of State, Colonial Office.
Vincent Golcalves Glenday, Esq., C.M.G., O.B.E., Governor and Commander-in-Chief, Somaliland Protectorate.
Sir Josiah Crosby, K.B.E., C.I.E., until recently His Majesty's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Bangkok.
Eugen Millington-Drake, Esq., C.M.G., until recently His Majesty's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Montevideo.
Honorary KCMG

His Highness Hasan Nuruddin Iskander II, Sultan of the Maldives.


==== Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) ====
Hubert Miles Gladwyn Jebb, Esq., Foreign Policy Adviser, Ministry of Economic Warfare.
David Hume Lyal, Esq., M.B.E., Director, Department of Overseas Trade.
Thomas Michael Burke, Esq. For public services in the State of Victoria.
Stephen Lewis Holmes, Esq., M.C., Assistant Secretary, Dominions Office.
John Hubert Preston, Esq., M.C., lately a Member of the Commission of Government, Newfoundland.
Thomas George Wilson, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., a prominent gynaecologist in the State of South Australia.
James Baxter, Esq., Financial Adviser to the Governor of Burma.
George Neil Farquhar, Esq., M.C., Colonial Administrative Service, Financial Secretary, Gold Coast.
Dugan Homfray Hampshire, Esq. For public services in the Federated Malay States.
William Leslie Heape, Esq., Colonial Administrative Service, Colonial Secretary, Bahamas.
Stephen Oswald Vere Hodge, Esq., Colonial Administrative Service, Provincial Commissioner, Kenya.
Theo Hoskyns-Abrahall, Esq., Colonial Administrative Service, Deputy Chief Secretary, Nigeria.
Alec Seath Kirkbride, Esq., O.B.E., M.C., Colonial Administrative Service, British Resident, Trans-Jordan.
Major Granville St John Orde Browne, Esq., O.B.E., Labour Adviser to the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
John Clark Stronach, Esq., Director of Public Works, Kenya.
Leslie Tester, Esq., M.C., Colonial Administrative Service, Financial Secretary, Kenya.
Arthur John Wakefield, Esq., Inspector-General of Agriculture for the West Indies, and Agricultural Adviser to the Comptroller for Development and Welfare in the West Indies.
George Henry Webster, Esq., O.B.E., Colonial Postal Service, Postmaster-General, Palestine.
Hyman Weisberg, Esq., Colonial Administrative Service, Financial Secretary, Straits Settlements.
Nevile Montagu Butler, Esq., C.V.O., Head of the North American Department, Foreign Office.
Victor Frederick William Cavendish-Bentinck, Esq., Head of the Dominions Intelligence Department, Foreign Office.
Arthur Byres Hutcheon, Esq., O.B.E., Head of the Consular Department, Foreign Office.
Thomas Ifor Rees, Esq., His Majesty's Consul-General at Mexico City.
Harry Chapman Sinderson, Esq., O.B.E., M.V.O., Professor of Medicine, Royal College of Medicine, Iraq.
Captain Herbert Bardsley Taylor, R.N. For services rendered to the Foreign Office.
George Gordon Medlicott Vereker, Esq., M.C., until recently His Majesty's Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Helsingfors.


=== Order of the Indian Empire ===


==== Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE) ====
Claude Henry Gidney, Esq., C.S.I., C.I.E., Indian Political Service, Resident at Hyderabad.
Tennant Sloan, Esq., C.S.I., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Adviser to His Excellency the Governor of the United Provinces.
Lieutenant-General Donald Kenneth McLeod, C.B., D.S.O., Indian Army, General Officer Commanding the Army in Burma.
John Anderson Thorne, Esq., C.S.I., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Secretary to the Governor-General (Public).
Frederick Hale Puckle, Esq., C.S.I., C.I.E., Indian Civil Service, Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Information and Broadcasting.
John Charles Walton, Esq., C.B., M.C., lately Assistant Under-Secretary of State for India.
Sir George Riddoch Campbell, lately Shipping Controller for India and Representative of the Ministry of War Transport in India, Burma and Ceylon.


==== Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) ====
Sonti Venkata Ramamurty, Esq., Indian Civil Service, Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras.
Ewen Moore Gawne, Esq., Indian Civil Service, Member, Board of Revenue, Madras.
Colonel (acting Major-General) Rob McGregor Macdonald Lockhart, M.C., Secretary, Military Department, India Office, and lately Director of Staff Duties, General Headquarters, India.
Rana Shri Ranjitsinhji Gambhirsinhji, Thakor of Jambughoda.
Zahid Husain, Esq., Indian Audit and Accounts Service, Additional Financial Adviser (Supply), Military Finance Department, Government of India.
Charles Vanne Salusbury, Esq., Indian Civil Service, Commissioner, Ambala Division, Punjab.
George Christian Laughton, Esq., Agent and General Manager, Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway Company, Bombay.
Robert William Target, Esq., Deputy Director-General, Department of Supply, Government of India.
Balchandra Krishna Gokhale, Esq., Indian Civil Service, Officiating Commissioner, Bhagalpur Division, Bihar.
Colonel (Temporary Brigadier) Roger Crofton, M.C., Indian Army, Director of Armaments, General Headquarters, India.
Colonel (Temporary Brigadier) Keith de Lorentz Young, M.C., Indian Army, Commandant, Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun.
Colonel (Temporary Brigadier) Cyril Maton Periam Durnford, Indian Army, Brigadier, General Staff, Northern Command, India.
Archibald Gifford Scott, Esq., Indian Police, Officiating Inspector-General of Police, Central Provinces and Berar.
Harnam Das Bhanot, Esq., Indian Civil Service, Secretary to the Government of the Punjab in the Finance Department.
Ronald Leslie Walker, Esq., Indian Civil Service, Secretary to the Government of Bengal in the Finance Department.
Joseph Richard Harrison, Esq., Chief Mining Engineer, Railway Board, Calcutta.
James Currie MacDougall, Esq., Indian Agricultural Service, Director of Agriculture, Central Provinces and Berar.
Satis Chandra Majumdar, Esq., Chief Engineer, Communication and Works Department, Irrigation Branch, Bengal.
Vaduvur Shrinivas Sundaram, Esq., Indian Audit and Accounts Service, Accountant-General, Madras (on leave).
Lieutenant-Colonel Madan Gopal Bhandari, Indian Medical Service, Inspector of Prisons, Bombay.
Colonel Arthur Frank Friend Thomas, Deputy Controller-General of Inspection, Department of Supply, Government of India.
Leonard Burges Gilbert, Esq., Indian Service of Engineers, Chief Engineer, Public Works Department (Buildings and Roads), United Provinces.
Gerald Lacey, Esq., Indian Service of Engineers, Chief Engineer, Irrigation Branch, United Provinces.
Lieutenant-Colonel William Elliot Randal Dimond, L.R.C.P. & S., D.P.H. (Dub.), Indian Medical Service, lately Officiating Inspector-General of Civil Hospitals, North-West Frontier Province.
Major Henry Mortimer Poulton, Indian Political Service, Political Agent, Bundelkhand, Central India.
Lancelot Cecil Lepel Griffin, Indian Political Service, Political Agent, Orissa States.
Francis Everard Sharp, Esq., Indian Police, Deputy Inspector-General of Police, Criminal Investigation Department, Bombay.
Reginald Norman Marsh-Smith, Esq., Indian Police, Inspector-General of A.R.P. and Civic Guard, United Provinces.
Lieutenant-Colonel Martin Melvin Cruickshank, Indian Medical Service, Chief Medical Officer and Civil Surgeon, Delhi, and lately Superintendent, Government General Hospital, Madras.
William Christopher Wordsworth, Esq., Indian Education Service (retired), Member of the Bengal Legislative Assembly.
John Wilfred Nicholson, Esq., Indian Forest Service, Conservator of Forests, Orissa.
Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Hay, M.B., D.P.H., D.T.M. & H., Indian Medical Service, Deputy Director-General, Indian Medical Service.
Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Henry Harty, M.B., M.R.C.S., Indian Medical Service, Civil Surgeon and Superintendent, B. J. Medical School, and Superintendent, Mental Hospital, Ahmedabad, Bombay.
George Herbert Baxter, Esq., Secretary, Financial Department, India Office.
Waris Ameer Ali, Esq., Indian Civil Service (retired), Honorary War Services Liaison Officer in the Office of the High Commission for India, London.
Rai Bahadir Dinanath, Barrister-at Law, Prime Minister, Indore State, Central India.
James Jones, Esq., of Messrs James Finlay and Company, chairman, Indian Tea Association.
Sri Krishna, Esq., PhD, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., F.N.I., Biochemist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
Roger Thomas, Esq., managing director, Sind Land Development Company, Sind.


=== Royal Victorian Order ===


==== Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) ====
Brigadier-General Sir Smith Hill Child, Bt., K.C.V.O., C.B, C.M.G., D.S.O.


==== Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) ====
Lieutenant-Colonel The Honourable Piers Walter Legh, C.M.G., C.I.E., C.V.O., O.B.E.


==== Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) ====
Ronald Clive Wallace Burn, Esq.
John Francis Gore, Esq., T.D.


==== Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) ====
At this time the two lowest classes of the Royal Victorian Order were ""Member (fourth class)"" and ""Member (fifth class)"", both with post-nominals MVO. ""Member (fourth class)"" was renamed ""Lieutenant"" (LVO) from the 1985 New Year Honours onwards.

Fourth Class
George Alfred Titman, O.B.E., M.V.O.
Fifth Class
John Davidson, Esq.
Marjorie Lewis Martin, Mrs Heagarty.
Herbert Allen Smith, Esq.


=== Order of the British Empire ===


==== Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) ====
Admiral Bertram Sackville Thesiger, C.B., C.M.G. (Retired).
Vice-Admiral Raymond Fitzmaurice, D.S.O. (Retired).
Lieutenant-General Lionel Vivian Bond, C.B., retired pay, Colonel Commandant, Royal Engineers.
Major-General John Palairet Scobell, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., retired pay, late The Royal Norfolk Regiment.
Major-General (acting Lieutenant-General) Arthur Francis Smith, C.B., D.S.O., M.C., late Coldstream Guards.
Major-General Bernard Cyril Freyberg, V.C., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., LL.D., New Zealand Military Forces.


==== Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) ====
Thomas Henderson, Chief Engineer, SS Empire Bond, O.B.E
Lieutenant-Colonel Daya Ram Thapar, M.D., D.T.M. and H., Indian Medical Service, Indian Army


==== Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) ====
S. G. Karmarkar, Royal Indian Naval Reserve


== References =="
New York Cosmos (1970–1985),"The New York Cosmos (simply the Cosmos in 1977–1978) were an American professional soccer club based in New York City and its suburbs. The team played home games in three stadiums around New York, including Yankee Stadium in the Bronx, before moving in 1977 to Giants Stadium in nearby East Rutherford, New Jersey, where the club remained for the rest of its history. 
Founded in December 1970, the team competed in the North American Soccer League (NASL) until 1984 and was the strongest franchise in that league, both competitively and financially – based largely around its backing by Warner Communications President Steve Ross, which enabled it to sign internationally famous stars of the day such as the Brazilian forward Pelé, Italian striker Giorgio Chinaglia, the West German sweeper Franz Beckenbauer, and famous Brazilian rightback Carlos Alberto Torres. The acquisition of these foreign players, particularly Pelé, made the Cosmos into what journalist Gavin Newsham called ""the most glamorous team in world football"", and contributed to the development of soccer across the United States, a country where it had previously been largely ignored.
As the Cosmos declined following Pelé's retirement, so did the NASL. Attendances fell, the league's television deal was lost, and it finally folded in 1985 after playing its last season in 1984. The Cosmos attempted to continue operations in the Major Indoor Soccer League, but attendances were so low that the club withdrew without completing a season. The team attempted an independent schedule in 1985, but also canceled that because of low attendance, and the Cosmos folded. Former club employee Peppe Pinton assumed the trademarks and property of the club when it was dissolved, in part because nobody else thought they had any value at that point.  Pinton put the trophies, uniforms, and equipment into storage and operated a New Jersey day camp for children under the name ""Cosmos Soccer Camp"".
Attempts were made to revive the Cosmos name during the 1990s and 2000s, most notably as a Major League Soccer (MLS) club. Pinton refused to sell the name and image rights, believing that MLS would not honor the club's heritage. Following the revival of several former NASL names in MLS, Pinton sold the rights for $2 million to an international, English-based consortium in August 2009. That group ultimately chose not to join MLS, and the new Cosmos team played parts of five seasons in second- and third-tier leagues before suspending operations.


== History ==


=== Creation and naming ===

The club was founded in December 1970 by Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegun, renowned executives at Atlantic Records, along with eight other executives from Atlantic's parent company Warner Communications, including CEO Steve Ross, president Jay Emmett, and Warner Bros. studio head Ted Ashley, each of whom put up one-tenth of the $350,000 NASL expansion fee. After several months of mounting financial losses, Emmett convinced Ross that the company should take on the financial burden.  The ten investors sold the club to their employer Warner Communications for one dollar, and Ross threw the conglomerate's weight behind the Cosmos.  Emmett later said of the move ""(the Cosmos) was an entertainment vehicle, (Warner) was an entertainment company."" 
The team's first recruit was the Englishman Clive Toye, a former sportswriter who had moved to the United States in 1967 to become general manager of the short-lived Baltimore Bays; he was given the same post in New York. Toye sought to convey the new team's ambitions within its name, and reasoned that he could outdo the ""Metropolitans"" label referenced by the then-nine-year-old New York Mets baseball team by calling his team the ""Cosmos"", shortened from ""Cosmopolitans"". However, the owners preferred other possible names: the Erteguns wished to use the name originally suggested by Nesuhi, the ""New York Blues""; and another part of the ownership group wanted to adopt the name ""New York Lovers"". Toye then staged a rigged ""name the team"" contest, receiving 3,000 entries and selecting one that just happened to match his pre-determined winner. Two NYC teachers, Meyer Diller and Al Capelli, from Martin Van Buren High School in Queens, entered the contest and submitted the name ""Cosmos"". The two physical education teachers had independently used Toye's method of deriving it from ""cosmopolitan"". The two men were awarded a trip to Europe as a prize. The team name was officially unveiled on February 4, 1971.


=== North American Soccer League ===
The New York Cosmos entered the 1968-founded North American Soccer League (NASL) in 1970 and made their field debut in the league's fourth season in 1971. The first roster signing of the club was Gordon Bradley, an English professional who had moved to North America in 1963 and played for the New York Generals in 1968. He was made player-coach, a position he would hold until 1975. Bradley's team finished second in its division in its first year, playing at Yankee Stadium, home of the New York Yankees baseball team and the New York Giants football team. Randy Horton, from Bermuda, was named the league's Rookie of the Year after scoring 16 goals and 37 points, the most by any New York player. In 1972, the team moved to Hofstra Stadium where they won their first league title with a 2–1 victory over the St. Louis Stars. Horton was the league's top scorer and Most Valuable Player, with 9 goals and 22 points from the 14 regular-season games and two post-season matches. The Cosmos reached the play-offs once more in 1973, but were knocked out at the semi-final stage. Bradley coached the United States national team for six games during 1973—picking himself in one, despite not being an American citizen—but lost them all. Before the 1974 season, the Cosmos moved again, settling at Downing Stadium on Randall's Island. In their first year at their new base, they finished bottom of their division. Horton top scored for the Cosmos in every season before he was traded in 1975 to the Washington Diplomats.


==== Arrival of Pelé, Giorgio Chinaglia and the Cosmos' peak ====
It was during the 1975 season that the Cosmos acquired the Brazilian star Pelé, whom they had been attempting to sign since the team was created. Ross had apparently not heard of him before getting involved in soccer, but agreed to finance the transfer when Toye compared the Brazilian's popularity to that of the Pope. Pelé joined the Cosmos on June 10, 1975, on a salary of $1.4 million per year, an enormous wage for an athlete at that time. A number of contracts—only one of which mentioned soccer—were set up for Pelé to ensure that he paid the lowest amount of tax possible, including one as a ""recording artist"" with Warner subsidiary Atlantic Records. ""We owned him lock, stock and barrel,"" Toye retrospectively boasted. They also signed Mike Dillon in 1975.

The Pelé deal was later described by Gavin Newsham, an English writer, as ""the transfer coup of the century"". His arrival turned the Cosmos from a motley crew of foreigners, semi-professionals and students into a huge commercial presence. The club's groundsman, on hearing that the Brazilian's début for New York was to be broadcast on CBS, spray-painted the pitch green to disguise how little grass was on it: the match, against the Dallas Tornado, was broadcast to 22 countries and covered by more than 300 journalists from all over the world.
Although New York finished third at season end, it was still too low a placing to reach the post-season. Bradley was replaced for the 1976 season by another Englishman, Ken Furphy, who paired Pelé up front with Italian international forward Giorgio Chinaglia, a new arrival from S.S. Lazio. He had been so popular at Lazio that when his move to New York was announced, supporters ""threatened to throw themselves beneath the wheels of the plane"". By contrast to most of the overseas stars bought by NASL teams, Chinaglia was signed in his prime. He played for the Cosmos for the rest of their history, scoring a record number of goals and points not only for the Cosmos, but for the entire league. He shared an unusual personal bond with the club's ultimate controller, Ross, and was therefore treated differently from the other players, including Pelé.

Crowds rose with the arrival of these and other European and South American international players, resulting in a move back to Yankee Stadium for the 1976 season. With numerous foreign stars arriving at the Cosmos, the team's competitive performance improved, as New York reached the play-offs at the end of the season, but lost in the divisional championship match to the Tampa Bay Rowdies. The Cosmos relocated again before the 1977 season, to the newly constructed Giants Stadium in New Jersey, and at the same time dropped the prefix ""New York"" and played simply as ""the Cosmos"", without a geographical name. The city name was restored in 1979.
Bradley returned as coach for the 1977 season in place of the dismissed Furphy, but was removed after half of the season to become the club's vice-president of player personnel. South African-born former Italy international Eddie Firmani took his place. Pelé played his last professional match on October 1, 1977, in front of a capacity crowd at Giants Stadium: in an exhibition match between New York and his former club Santos, Pelé appeared for both sides, playing one half for each. The Cosmos won the game 2–1. Pelé's compatriot, former Brazil captain Carlos Alberto was signed in 1977, at the same time as Franz Beckenbauer, who had captained the 1974 FIFA World Cup-winning West Germany national team. On the field, New York won three out of four championships, in 1977, 1978 and 1980. A playoff game against the Fort Lauderdale Strikers in 1977 drew a crowd of 77,691, a record for American club soccer. The team's average attendances, regularly over 40,000 during the late 1970s, were the biggest in the league; this helped it to become regarded as the league's ""marquee club"", both commercially and competitively. Firmani was fired in 1979; he claimed, after falling out with Chinaglia. His assistant, Ray Klivecka, replaced him, becoming the team's first American-born coach. He lasted a season before himself being replaced by Júlio Mazzei.
On Pelé's farewell tour in 1977, the Cosmos made history by becoming the first Western professional sports team to play in China.: 154  They drew their opening match with the Chinese national team 1-1, and lost the second game 2-1 despite Pelé scoring a free kick.


==== Decline of the Cosmos and the NASL ====

After the retirement of Pelé in 1977, much of the progress that American soccer had made during his stay was lost; there was no star at the same level to replace him as the NASL's headline act. After enduring briefly during the late 1970s, attendances dropped after 1980. The sport's popularity fell and the media lost interest. The deal with broadcaster ABC to broadcast NASL matches was also lost in 1980, and the 1981 Soccer Bowl was only shown on tape delay. All of the franchises quickly became unprofitable, and a salary cap enforced before the 1984 season only delayed the inevitable. The league folded at the end of 1984, following the loss of most of its franchises.
The Cosmos had financial problems of their own, on top of those affecting the league in general. Much of the Cosmos' ability to attract the well-known overseas players it had acquired was due to the financial resources of parent company Warner Communications. In the early 1980s, Warner was the target of a hostile takeover bid by Australian media magnate Rupert Murdoch; although this attempt did not succeed, Warner sold off several of its assets, among them Atari and Global Soccer, Inc., the subsidiary that operated the Cosmos. Chinaglia bought Global Soccer, and thus controlled the team. His group did not have the capital necessary to keep all of the players signed on expensive contracts by Warner, which resulted in many of the stars being sold. The club won its last title in 1982, and by the last season of the NASL, 1984, had missed the play-offs for the first time since 1975. The precipitous decline of the Cosmos after the 1983 season became for many fans and the media proof positive of the grave condition of the whole NASL.


=== Major Indoor Soccer League, demise and youth soccer ===
Following the collapse of the NASL, the team competed in the Major Indoor Soccer League during the 1984–85 season, with Klivecka briefly returning as coach, but withdrew after 33 games due to low attendance. The organization tried to operate as an independent team in 1985, but could not finish a single season and the club finally folded.
Former club employee Peppe Pinton, who started with the Cosmos as Giorgio Chinaglia's personal assistant and was promoted to General Manager when Chinaglia assumed control, ended up with the club's assets largely because he was the only one at the time who felt they had any value. Pinton put the trophies, uniforms, and equipment into storage and took over the club's day camp for children at Ramapo College in Mahwah, New Jersey changing the name from ""Pele Soccer Camps"" to ""Cosmos Soccer Camp"".


=== New Cosmos team ===

Since the original New York Cosmos club's demise in 1985, there had been attempts to revive it. With the rise of Major League Soccer (MLS), various New York area entities—including two different ownership groups from the Metrostars/New York Red Bulls—lobbied Pinton for the acquisition of the Cosmos name. Pinton refused to sell to an MLS team, believing that the league would not acknowledge the Cosmos' legacy. However, when old NASL names such as the San Jose Earthquakes, Seattle Sounders, Portland Timbers and Vancouver Whitecaps were revived as MLS franchises, he reconsidered. He sold the Cosmos name and brand to English businessman Paul Kemsley in 2009, whose group announced a new team with the Cosmos' name in August 2010. 
Kemsley put the original club's trophies on display in the new club's office in SoHo. He and the other owners initially intended to become an MLS expansion franchise, but ultimately turned down the invitation to apply. Kemsley's team instead joined the new second-tier incarnation of the North American Soccer League, starting play in its 2013 Fall season.  It played for the next four seasons before the league folded.  The Cosmos then joined the third-tier National Independent Soccer Association (NISA), but played only half a season before going on hiatus.


== Cultural impact and influence on U.S. soccer ==

When Pelé arrived at the Cosmos in 1975, American soccer was, in Newsham's phrase, ""dying a slow, painful and largely unnoticed death"". The sport was not taken seriously by the bulk of the American media, and was of little interest to the public. Matches were often played in front of almost-empty stands, receiving modest press coverage. The signing of Pelé by the Cosmos transformed soccer across the country almost immediately, lending credibility not only to the Cosmos, but also to the NASL and soccer in general. Within days of the Brazilian's arrival, the increased media attention had caused the Cosmos' office staff to increase from five people to more than 50. Soccer became seen as a viable alternative to more traditional ""American"" sports such as basketball, baseball and American football. The Cosmos, in particular, became an internationally famous club – ""the most glamorous team in world football"", in Newsham's words, or ""soccer demigods"" in those of ESPN writer David Hirshey.

The Cosmos, as the flagship team of the NASL, embodied what Hirshey labeled the ""nexus of soccer and showbiz"", and became Warner Communications' most culturally visible asset. After Pelé signed for New York, many other European and South American stars joined NASL teams; the Los Angeles Aztecs, for example, signed George Best and Johan Cruyff in 1976 and 1979 respectively. Cosmos road trips, described by traveling secretary Steve Marshall as ""like traveling with the Rolling Stones"", saw the team pack out each stadium it visited, while at home, the team attracted numerous high-profile supporters. While soccer had previously been largely ignored by the American press, the Cosmos and other NASL teams now became regular fixtures on the back pages.
However, just as Pelé had kick-started the development of soccer in the U.S., his retirement in 1977 would mark the start of a decline. With nobody of the same stature to personify the sport, the popularity that had been built up nosedived just as quickly as it had appeared. The league's television deal with ABC was lost at the end of 1980 and a salary cap, enforced before the 1984 season, caused many of the remaining overseas stars—lured to America by fat pay packets—to return to the European and South American leagues. The NASL collapsed abruptly in late 1984, and was not replaced by a new professional soccer league until Major League Soccer's first season in 1996.
A feature-length documentary about the Cosmos, called Once in a Lifetime: The Extraordinary Story of the New York Cosmos, was released in theaters in 2006. The film, narrated by Matt Dillon, featured interviews with many of the players and personalities involved with the team.
On several occassions since the team's folding, the Cosmos have been the inspiration for fashion lines.  In 2010, the new owners of the trademarks partnered with Umbro to create a line of fashion clothing based on the Pelé-era Cosmos. This was followed in 2011 with a second ""Blackout"" line of Cosmos clothing, this time in all-black with monochromatic black logos, supposedly inspired by the New York City blackout of 1977.  In February 2025, Admiral Sportswear announced it had partnered with the owners of the Cosmos brand to launch a new fashion line, based around the original club's Ralph Lauren-designed 1979 uniform.


== Uniforms and crest ==
For the team's initial uniform Cosmos general manager Clive Toye chose the green and yellow of the Brazil national team as part of his strategy to lure Pelé, one of that country's star players, to the United States. The club's initial uniform was all green with yellow trim, with the colors reversed on the road uniform. Coincidentally, the colors were the same as those of the previous New York NASL team, the New York Generals, which had folded after the 1968 season. 
When Pelé did come on board in 1975, the uniform was changed to all-white, resembling those of his club in Brazil, Santos FC. The green and yellow elements were relegated to the trim. The green shirt was concurrently matched with white shorts to become the new away uniform. 
For the post-Pelé era, the Cosmos intended to retire the green color with him and make the team colors navy blue, gold, and white.  The club explained in its press release that green was being dropped in part because ""(i)t had been felt for some time that green uniforms against the playing surface of the field presented visual problems for both the players and for television.""  The NASL determined that the Cosmos hadn't provided the required one year's notice of the color change, so the league forced them to play the 1978 season in white and green.
The Cosmos officially unveiled their new color scheme in 1979 with uniforms designed by New York native and fashion designer Ralph Lauren; the home uniform remained all-white, with navy and gold trim replacing the green trim of the previous outfit. The new away uniform featured navy shirts and shorts with yellow trim, paired with unusual yellow-and-navy hooped socks, which were later replaced with plain navy blue ones.
In 1981, the navy was lightened to royal blue, and the Cosmos kept that royal blue/gold/white color scheme through the last four years of the organization's existence.
The artist commissioned by Toye to design the team's logo was Wayland Moore, a sports artist from Atlanta who had already worked on the logo, uniform and program covers of that city's soccer team, the Chiefs. Moore attempted to create a design that was simple, recognizable and inclusive of New York's many nationalities. The three colored ""blades"" surrounding the soccer ball in the center represent movement and reference the logo of club ownership at Atlantic Records. The  logo font originally used was chosen simply because it was easily legible on the uniform. The text on the logo was shortened to ""Cosmos"" in 1977, concurrently with the team's dropping of the ""New York"" label. The city name was restored two years later, but the badge remained unchanged.


=== Uniform evolution ===


=== Uniform suppliers ===
Uniform suppliers used by the team:


=== Theme song ===

Ahmet Ertegun used his connections to recruit Atlantic Records artists the Average White Band to create a theme song for the Cosmos. The resulting ""The Cosmos Theme"" was written by band members Alan Gorrie and Steve Ferrone, and recorded by the band under the pseudonym ""The Cosmic Highlanders"".
Team management originally wanted to use ""We Are the Champions"" by Queen as the club's theme, but were convinced to use The Cosmos Theme in part by the cheerleaders, who enjoyed dancing to it.
The Cosmos Theme was played extensively at Giants Stadium, and on television broadcasts of Cosmos games.


== Stadiums ==

The Cosmos' first home stadium was Yankee Stadium, home to both the New York Yankees baseball team and the New York Giants football team, where they played throughout the 1971 season. Attendances during the club's first year averaged at 4,517, less than 7% of the stadium's capacity, which was at that time 65,010. The Cosmos therefore moved before the 1972 season to the 15,000-seater Hofstra Stadium, on the campus of the namesake university 25 miles (40 km) east of metropolitan New York. After two seasons of continuing low crowds at this out-of-town location, the Cosmos moved again, relocating to the 22,500-capacity Downing Stadium before the 1974 season. It was at Downing Stadium that attendances started to rise significantly, buoyed by the arrival of stars such as Pelé, who arrived in 1975. For the Brazilian's first match, the stadium was full; ""there must have been another 50,000 turned away"", coach Gordon Bradley later claimed.
These larger attendances necessitated another move, which occurred in 1976, when the Cosmos returned to Yankee Stadium. This time the team averaged 18,227 fans over the course of the season, over four times the average 1971 gate. The team then moved yet again before the 1977 season, to the newly built Giants Stadium, where attendances skyrocketed; crowds peaked at an average of 47,856 during 1978. The Cosmos remained at Giants Stadium for the rest of their time in the NASL. Attendances gradually fell as the league declined during the early 1980s, then finally slumped in 1984, when they dropped by more than half from the 1983 seasonal average.
The largest crowd to attend a Cosmos home game was set in 1977, when the Fort Lauderdale Strikers visited for a playoff match. The game was attended by 77,691 fans, which, at the time, was a record for American soccer. The lowest average attendance for a season was 3,578, in 1974. As of 2011, only Hofstra Stadium remains, now renamed James M. Shuart Stadium. Downing Stadium, the original Yankee Stadium and Giants Stadium were demolished in 2002, 2008 and 2010 respectively.
While playing indoor soccer, the Cosmos' home arenas were the Brendan Byrne Arena (now the Meadowlands Arena) and Madison Square Garden.


== Supporters ==
The Cosmos sought to maximize their fanbase by appealing to as wide a demographic as possible. The club's name and badge were designed to be inclusive of New York's many immigrant communities; the logo purposefully avoided the standard American red, white and blue. In this the Cosmos succeeded, attracting noticeable support from local Europeans, Middle-Easterners and South Americans. The association of the team with the city's high society in both social and sporting contexts led to it becoming very popular among celebrities, both American and international. ""We transcended everything, every culture, every socio-economic boundary,"" goalkeeper Shep Messing said in 2006. ""We were international, we were European, we were cool, we were Americans from the Bronx. We were everything to everybody.""


== Players ==

The New York Cosmos are famous for having fielded numerous well-known players, almost all of whom were from outside the United States: examples include Pelé, Franz Beckenbauer, Giorgio Chinaglia from S.S. Lazio and Carlos Alberto. American players of note include goalkeeper Shep Messing – who was notoriously sold after posing nude for a magazine in December 1974, then brought back two years later on Pelé's insistence. The Cosmos also fielded Werner Roth, a Yugoslavian-born U.S. international defender, from 1972 to 1979. A number of Cosmos players were named in the NASL all-star teams selected by the league at the end of each season. No NASL all-star from the Cosmos was born in the United States or Canada, where all of the league's teams were based; apart from Roth, both North Americans selected—Siegfried Stritzl and John Kerr—were born in Yugoslavia and Scotland respectively.


=== Retired numbers ===

10 –  Pelé (Forward, 1975–77)


== Club captains ==


== Head coaches ==
The New York Cosmos' first head coach was the English-American professional Gordon Bradley, who had played in the English Football League's lower divisions during the 1950s before moving to America in 1963. Bradley came out of retirement to become player-coach, a role he retained until his departure in 1975. Bradley's team won the league championship in 1972, but after it failed to reach the playoffs in both 1974 and 1975, he was dismissed. His replacement was another Englishman, Ken Furphy. His Cosmos succeeded in reaching the post-season, but lost the divisional championship game to Vancouver, prompting Furphy's own departure in favor of a return for Bradley, whose second spell lasted only half a season before he was promoted to an advisory role. Eddie Firmani, the South African-born former Italy forward, took over midway through the 1977 season. His star-studded team won two consecutive Soccer Bowls—1977 and 1978—but lost the National Conference championship game in 1979. Firmani lost his job after falling out with Giorgio Chinaglia, a favorite of the Cosmos hierarchy. His assistant, Ray Klivecka, who was born in Lithuania, became the team's first American head coach when he took Firmani's place midway through 1979.
Klivecka was replaced before the 1980 season by Brazilian coach Júlio Mazzei, who won the Cosmos' fourth title at the end of that campaign before being succeeded by two joint head coaches, Hennes Weisweiler & Yasin Özdenak, in 1980. This duo's team came second in the 1981 NASL before Mazzei returned in 1982 and won his second championship with the Cosmos during that year. Firmani returned in 1984, the NASL's final year, in which the Cosmos failed to make the playoffs. Firmani remained as the team entered the Major Indoor Soccer League for the 1984–85 season, but was fired in early December, halfway through the season, and replaced by Klivecka, who returned after two games under the caretaker management of goalkeeper Hubert Birkenmeier. Klivecka was retained until the team ceased competitive play.


== Honors ==

With five championships and seven first-place finishes, the Cosmos still rank as tied for the most successful franchise in the history of North American soccer.


== Friendly matches and world tour ==
New York Cosmos had many friendly matches in domestic and abroad. 


== See also ==

Soccer in New York City


== References ==


== Sources ==
Club captains
Brief history
Pele and NY Cosmos – Guardian Newspaper


== External links ==

Once in a Lifetime – The Extraordinary Story of the New York Cosmos"
Faked death,"A faked death, also called a staged death, is the act of an individual purposely deceiving other people into believing that the individual is dead, when the person is, in fact, still alive. The faking of one's own death by suicide is sometimes referred to as pseuicide or pseudocide. People who commit pseudocide can do so by leaving evidence, clues, or through other methods. Death hoaxes can also be created and spread solely by third-parties for various purposes.
Committing pseudocide may be done for a variety of reasons, such as to fraudulently collect insurance money, to evade pursuit, to escape from captivity, to arouse false sympathy, or as a practical joke.
While faking one's own death is not inherently illegal, it may be part of a fraudulent or illicit activity such as tax evasion, insurance fraud,: 12  or avoiding a criminal prosecution.


== History ==
Deaths have been faked since ancient times, but the rate increased significantly in the middle of the 19th century, when life insurance, and insurance fraud, became more common. 
In the late 20th century, advancements in technology began to make it increasingly more difficult to simply disappear after faking a death.  Such things as credit card purchases, social media, and mobile phone systems, among others, have made it harder to make a clean break with a past identity.  Widespread use of facial recognition tools can connect new identities to old social media accounts.  Other factors include a desire of fakers to observe the reactions of others to their deaths, which may prompt them to check websites for information about their disappearances, which in turn could lead to their discovery through Internet geolocation.: 30–31 


== Motivation ==
While some people fake their deaths as a prank or self-promotion effort, or to get a clean start, the most common motivations are money or a need to escape an abusive relationship. Men are more likely to fake their deaths than women.: 126–128, 213 
People who fake their deaths often feel like they are trapped in a desperate situation.  Because of this, an investigation may be triggered if the person disappears, no body is found, and the person is in significant financial difficulties.
Many people who fake their deaths intend for the change to be temporary, until a problem is resolved.: 188   


== Methods ==
People who fake their own deaths often do so by trying to pretend drowning, because it provides a plausible reason for the absence of a body.  However, drowned bodies usually appear within a few days of a death, and when no body appears, a faked death is suspected.


== Outcome ==
Although firm figures are impossible to identify, investigators can resolve nearly all of the cases they receive, and researchers believe that most people are caught.  Most people are caught quickly, within hours or days.  For example, Marcus Schrenker faked a plane crash to avoid prosecution and was captured two days later, after he sent an e-mail message to a friend about his plans.: 62 
Faking a death is not a victimless act.  The people who grieved what they believed was a real death are usually angry and sometimes see the offense as being unforgivable.  Accomplices, such as romantic partners and children, may be asked to commit crimes, such as filing false insurance claims or making false reports to the police, which can result in criminal charges.: 188–189   Those who are unaware that the death is fake may feel emotionally abused or manipulated.  Rather than being happy or relieved to discover that the faker is alive, they may be angry and refuse to have any further contact.: 135–136 


== On social media ==

False claims of death, including false claims of suicide, are not uncommon in social media accounts.  The people who do this are often trying to get an advantage for themselves, such as more attention or likes, and they lie about their deaths ""without thinking about the fact that there are people who would be upset, hurt or psychologically affected by the news of their death"".  It may be an intentional effort to manipulate other people's emotions or to see how people would react if they had died.  Online, people have claimed to be dead as a response to real or perceived mistreatment on social media, and posting news of their death, especially their suicide, is a way to punish the other users.
Examples of faked deaths on social media include BethAnn McLaughlin, a white woman who claimed to be Native American under another name on Twitter, and whose deception was uncovered after she faked her death during the COVID-19 pandemic.  Kaycee Nicole in 2001 represented not just a fake death on social media, but also a fake person; she was the fictional creation of a middle-aged woman, and one of the first internet hoaxes to pretend that a character was dying.


== Notable faked deaths ==


=== 1st century ===
Yohanan ben Zakkai faked his death to escape from the Roman army.: 27 


=== 14th century ===
Joan of Leeds was a nun who faked her death to escape from a convent.


=== 18th century ===
Timothy Dexter was an eccentric 18th-century New England businessman probably best known for his punctuationless book A Pickle for the Knowing Ones.  However, he is also known for having faked his own death to see how people would react. He paid his wife and members of his family with instructions to act. After the funeral he caned his wife for her poor acting by not looking sufficiently saddened at his passing.


=== 20th century ===
Grace Oakeshott, British women's rights activist, faked her death in 1907 to get out of her marriage. She lived the remainder of her life in New Zealand and died in 1929.
Violet Charlesworth, a British fraudster, faked her death in 1909 to escape payment of debts. She was sentenced to three years in prison and released in 1912.
C. J. De Garis, an Australian aviator and entrepreneur, faked his death in 1925 and became the subject on an eight-day nationwide search, before being spotted on a ship in New Zealand. He committed suicide in 1926.
Aleister Crowley, English occultist and author, faked his death in 1930 in Portugal aided by Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa, and then appeared three weeks later publicly in Berlin. Crowley actually died in 1947.
Alfred Rouse, an English murderer, set his own car on fire in 1930 with a different man inside, in an attempt to convince the police that Rouse had died in the vehicle. He was arrested and convicted, and executed in 1931. The identity of the victim remains unknown.
Aleksandr Uspensky, Russian government official, faked his own suicide in 1938 in an attempt to avoid capture by Soviet authority during the Great Purge. He was captured in 1939 and executed in 1940.
Ferdinand Waldo Demara, American fraudster, faked his death in 1942. He actually died in 1982.
Horst Kopkow, German SS major and war criminal, was declared dead by his MI6 handlers in January 1948. In reality he had been relocated to West Germany, where he died in 1996.
Juan Pujol García, Spanish spy, faked his death from malaria in Angola in 1949, with help from the British spy agency MI5. He lived the remainder of his life in Venezuela and died in 1988.
Lawrence Joseph Bader, an American salesperson, disappeared in 1957 and was presumed dead. He was found alive five years later assuming the identity of ""John 'Fritz' Johnson"", working as a local TV personality in Omaha, Nebraska. He either had amnesia of his life or was a hoaxer. He actually died in 1966, aged 39.
Ken Kesey, American novelist, faked his suicide in 1965. He died in 2001.
John Allen, a British criminal and murderer, faked his own death in 1966 to avoid prosecution for crimes he had committed. Allen actually died in 2015.
John Stonehouse, a British politician who in November 1974 faked his own suicide by drowning to escape financial difficulties and live with his mistress. One month later, he was discovered in Australia. Police there initially thought he might be Lord Lucan (who had disappeared only a few weeks earlier, after being suspected of murder) and jailed him. Sent back to Britain, he was convicted and sentenced to seven years in prison for fraud.
Jerry Balisok, an American professional wrestler, successfully convinced the FBI that he had died in 1978 in the Jonestown Massacre to avoid fraud charges, assuming the identity ""Ricky Allen Wetta"". A decade later, Wetta was arrested and convicted for attempted murder, at which point he was determined to be Balisok. Balisok actually died in 2013 while in prison for an unrelated crime.
Audrey Marie Hilley, an American murderer, jumped bail in 1979 and lived under the assumed identity of Robbi Hannon. In 1982, under a different alias, she announced the death of Hannon. She was captured and imprisoned, and died in 1987.
Robert Lenkiewicz, a British artist, had his death falsely announced to the newspapers in 1981. In reality he was in hiding with his friend Peregrine Eliot, 10th Earl of St Germans. Lenkiewicz later stated that he engineered the stunt because it was the closest he could get to knowing what it was like to be dead.
Sukumara Kurup, an Indian who faked his own death by placing the corpse of his murder victim in his car and setting it on fire in 1984. The face of victim was charred beforehand to prevent identification. He did it to collect the money insured on his name. The police identified the victim and his accomplices were put on trial. He evaded arrest and is in a fugitive list of Interpol and Kerala Police.
David Friedland, a former New Jersey senator, faked his own death via scuba-diving accident in 1985 while awaiting trial on racketeering charges.  In December 1987, he was arrested by officials in Maldives, where he had been working as a scuba dive master and had posed in scuba gear for a picture post card.  He eventually was returned to the United States and served nine years in prison. Friedland died in 2022.
Charles Peter Mule, a Louisiana policeman, was charged with 29 counts related to the rape and molestation of several young girls in 1988. After being released on bail, Mule left his truck alongside a bridge and sent a note to his police department. His claimed suicide was ruled inconclusive after police failed to find a corpse in the river, and a hiker reported to police that a man had opened fire on him without warning and whose description matched Mule's. After the case was profiled on the television show Unsolved Mysteries, Mule was captured.
Philip Sessarego, British author, faked his death by car bomb in Croatia in 1991 for unknown reasons, and lived under an assumed name for the next 17 years, with his own family only learning he was alive when he appeared in a 2001 TV interview. He died of an accidental poisoning in 2008.
Russell Causley, a British man, faked his death by jumping off a ferry off the coast of Guernsey in 1993 as part of an insurance scam. His scheme was soon uncovered and he was jailed for fraud; this led to the police re-opening an investigation into the disappearance of his partner Carole Packman, who Causley would be convicted of murdering in 1996.
Francisco Paesa, an agent of Centro Nacional de Inteligencia, the Spanish secret service, faked a fatal cardiac arrest in 1998 in Thailand, after having tricked Luis Roldán, known for being the general of the Spanish Civil Guard when a big scandal of corruption arose in 1993, into stealing all the money that Roldán had previously stolen in that case. He appeared in 2004. During these years, he opened an offshore company, which was exposed thanks to the leaking of the Panama Papers.
Friedrich Gulda, Austrian pianist, falsely announced his death in 1999 to create publicity for a following ""resurrection concert"". He died in 2000.


=== 21st century ===
John Darwin, a former teacher and prison officer from Hartlepool, England, faked his own death on 21 March 2002 by canoeing out to sea and disappearing. His ruse fell apart in 2006 when a simple Google search revealed a photo of him buying a house in Panama. Darwin and his wife, Anne, were arrested and charged with fraud, deception, and money laundering related to the life insurance payout of £250,000. They were each sentenced to more than six years in prison, and all their property sold, and all their money taken, including his pension, to repay.
Clayton Counts, American musician, reported himself dead on his website in 2007 as a prank. He actually died in 2016.
Samuel Israel III, an American hedge fund manager who was facing 22 years in prison for financial malfeasance and fraud, left his truck and a suicide note at a bridge in an attempted fake suicide in April 2008. Authorities suspected that his suicide was faked since, among other things, passersby reported that a car had picked someone up on the bridge from near Israel's abandoned car. Two years were added to Israel's sentence for obstruction of justice, which he is currently serving.: 1–12, 38–39 
Marcus Schrenker, a financial manager from Fishers, Indiana, US, was charged with defrauding clients, and in 2009 attempted to fake his own death in a plane crash to avoid prosecution. The plane crash was quickly discovered to be staged, and Schrenker was captured two days later, after he sent an e-mail message to a friend about his plans.: 62   In October 2010, after pleading guilty to state charges, Schrenker was sentenced to 10 years in prison and was fined $633,781.
Luke Rhinehart, American author, an email was sent out in August 2012 to 25 of Rhinehart's friends, informing them of his death. This was actually a hoax and a prank played by Rhinehart himself. The reactions of Rhinehart's 25 friends ranged from sorrow to gratitude and amusement.
Chandra Mohan Sharma, Indian activist, murdered a homeless man, placed the body in his own car, and set the car on fire, in an attempt at faking his death in 2014 to get out of his marriage. He was captured by police later that year.
Arkady Babchenko, a Russian journalist living in Ukraine who in 2018 faked his own assassination, which was widely reported in the international press, as part of a sting operation aimed at exposing an agent sent to kill him. Babchenko's appearance at a press conference the day after his ""death"" caused an international sensation.
Nicholas Alahverdian, an American child welfare advocate and convicted sex offender from Rhode Island, purported to have died in February 2020, was found alive by police in Scotland in January 2022.
Kim Avis, a busker and market trader from Inverness, Scotland and a local celebrity there. In 2019, he was reported dead in California but in the 2024 BBC Two documentary, Disclosure: Dead Man Running reporter and Inverness local Myles Bonnar uncovered evidence that Avis faked his death to evade charges of sexual assault.
Ziz LaSota, leader of the techno-rationalist vegan transgender Zizian cult, faked her death in 2022. LaSota was later arrested by police during a string of murders by the Zizians. 


== Conspiracy theories and false speculation ==
On occasion, when a prominent public figure such as a singer or political leader dies, there are rumors that the figure in question did not actually die, but faked their death. These theories are largely considered fringe theories. Among the suspected faked deaths include:

Adolf Hitler, dictator of Nazi Germany (1933–1945), has been speculated (including by writer Emil Ludwig) to have faked his death and escaped Berlin in mid-1945, the setting of his death as established by Western scholars. Hitler is claimed to have utilized established escape routes while leaving behind misleading evidence such as his dental remains (via dentures and a broken-off jawbone) as well as a body double.
Harold Holt, former Prime Minister of Australia, disappeared on the beach in 1967 with the consensus that he had drowned. Different theories emerged suggesting he had faked his death for any number of reasons, most famously that he was a Chinese spy who had been collected by a Chinese submarine, or that he feigned drowning to run away with his mistress.
American singer Elvis Presley died in August 1977. Rumors claimed that he faked his death and went into hiding. Many of these fans have claimed to sighted Elvis (whose face was well known) in various places around the world. The earliest known alleged sighting of Elvis after was at the Memphis International Airport where a man who resembled Elvis gave the name ""John Burrows"", which was the same name Elvis used when booking hotels. In 1978, Gail Brewer-Giorgio published a book titled Orion, a novel about a fictional Presley-like singer called ""Orion"", who in the story faked his death to escape the pressures of fame. According to Brewer-Giorgio, her publisher inexplicably had her novel recalled from stores which made her wonder if the real Elvis Presley faked his death. She then began an investigation and wrote another book The Most Incredible Elvis Presley Story Ever Told AKA Is Elvis Alive? where she claimed that Elvis was faking his death. In 2017, Elvis fans claimed to see the singer visit his home Graceland on his 82nd birthday.
Towards the end of the reign of Alexander I of Russia, Emperor of Russia (1801–1825), he was increasingly suspicious of those around him and was more religious.: 41  He then caught typhus and died. Russian legends claim that the Tsar faked his death and left for Siberia where he became a hermit and took on the name ""Feodor Kuzmich"". Such legends existed during Kuzmich's lifetime. When Kuzmich was on his deathbed in 1876, the priest there to perform the last rites on Kuzmich asked him if he was Tsar Alexander. Kuzmich replied with a vague sentence that did not answer the question. Historians are skeptical of the claim that Tsar Alexander I was Feodor Kuzmich.
After rapper Jarad Higgins, known as Juice WRLD, died from a drug overdose at the age of 21, many fans speculated that his lyrics suggested that he expected to die young and thus could have faked his death.  For example, in ""Legends"", he sings, ""What's the 27 club? We ain't making it past 21,"" referring to a group of famous artists who died at the age of 27 (e.g. Kurt Cobain, Amy Winehouse, Jim Morrison, Janis Joplin, and Jimi Hendrix).


== Pseudocides in fiction ==
Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare) – To avoid a forced marriage, Juliet drinks a potion that causes her to appear dead for 42 hours. This backfires when Romeo hears of her death, unaware she was going to wake up, and kills himself, leading to Juliet also killing herself.: 27 
In Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve's fairy tale Beauty and the Beast, Beauty's and her fairy mother's deaths were staged due to an evil fairy's plot to harm them and their family members, one of whom being the Prince she turned into a Beast for rejecting her marriage proposal.
In The Adventure of the Empty House, Sherlock Holmes re-appears to Dr. Watson several years after his presumed death grappling with Professor Moriarty at the Reichenbach Falls.  Holmes explains that he survived the fall where Moriarty did not, but had to remain ""officially"" dead while Moriarty's lieutenant, Sebastian Moran, was still at large. This event was loosely adapted by Steven Moffat for the 2010s television series Sherlock starring Benedict Cumberbatch and Martin Freeman in the episode ""The Reichenbach Fall"". Holmes is the subject of Jim Moriarty's work to undermine him in the public's view to drive Holmes to suicide. Moriarty instead kills himself and Holmes appears to kill himself to save his friends, but survives with the help of his brother Mycroft Holmes and returns to his work in the next episode, ""The Empty Hearse"".
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn – to escape both his drunken father and his strict legal guardian, the main character fakes his own murder.: 27 
The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin: 105 
Gone Girl (2014): In the bestselling book and film, the Dunne marriage is falling apart after the husband is discovered to be having an affair and the wife commits pseudocide and travels to the western U.S.: 27 
House, M.D.: Dr. Gregory House, the titular character of the television series, fakes his death in the series finale by switching dental records with a deceased patient. Gregory House, based on the character of Sherlock Holmes, commits pseudocide just as Holmes did in ""The Adventure of the Empty House"".
The Outsider (1953) by Richard Wright tells the story of Cross Damon, who survives a subway accident but leaves his coat on another man's severely disfigured corpse. Investigators assume it is Cross' body, and he takes the opportunity to escape his previous life.
In What About Bob? (1991), the title character, Bob Wiley (Bill Murray) is attempting to keep in touch with his psychiatrist Dr. Leo Marvin (Richard Dreyfuss) and poses as a detective to Dr. Marvin’s exchange staff to tell them that Bob committed suicide. While posing as a detective, Bob asks for postal information to Dr. Marvin’s residence in Lake Winnipesaukee.
Pretty Little Liars (2010): A high-school student fakes her death in order to rid herself of a stalker in the episode ""-A"". Mona Vanderwaal, another character, also attempted to fake her own murder.
Despicable Me 2 (2013): While Gru, Nefario and the girls are fighting the purple minions, Eduardo Perez reveals himself to be El Macho, a villain who faked his death by jumping out of a plane while standing on the back of a shark, having strapped two hundred and fifty pounds of dynamite to his chest, into the mouth of a volcano, which would end up killing both him and the shark.
Big Hero 6 (2014): When Hiro manages to knock off the supervillain's mask at a teleportation research on an island, he thought that the villain was Krei, but its true identity was revealed to be Professor Callaghan instead, who faked his death by revealing that he escaped from the burning building by using Hiro's microbots to shield himself from the flames which killed his student and Hiro's brother, Tadashi after rushing into the burning building to save him.
The Simpsons: Homer Simpson fakes his death to take a day off from work in the episode ""Mother Simpson"". In another episode, Krusty the Clown twice fakes his death in ""Bart the Fink"".
Grand Theft Auto V: This video game portrays a faked death.: 27   In the first mission ""Prologue"" Michael Townley (main protagonist) robbed a bank in North Yankton, then used a bullet hit squib to fake his death, and moved to Los Santos with a fake name ""Michael De Santa"", claiming to be in witness protection.
Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei: on the ending of the season 6 finale ""Ein Einsamer Sieg"" (English:  A Lonely Victory), Andre Fux was injured by the antagonist at sea.  Andre is later rescued by a fisherman, who agrees to keep the secret of his fake death, and begins a new life with a new family.  Fourteen years later, in the episode ""Auferstehung"" (Resurrection), Andre is reunited with Semir Gerkhan, his partner, who is still in the police. Semir learns that Andre's family had been killed. In the climactic scene, there is a car crash in the mountains.  Semir tries to save Andre, but Andre falls off a cliff and dies.  Before that, he gives Semir information about who killed Andre's family.
Kathy Beale in EastEnders faked her death for 10 years and made a return on the 30th anniversary in 2015.
Yakuza 6: Kazuma Kiryu faked his death to protect Haruka Sawamura and those around her and his friends. While under the radar, he helped Ichiban Kasuga in Yakuza: Like a Dragon by giving him the information he needed after a duel.
Who Killed Sara? – Appeared a few times.
In the James Bond film The Living Daylights, Bond fakes General Leonid Pushkin's death during a conference in Tangier, make to believe that General Georgi Koskov and Brad Whitaker's plan to assassinate Pushkin succeeded.
In the James Bond film Spectre, Bond's adoptive brother Franz Oberhauser faked being killed in an avalanche alongside his father. In doing so, he took up the alias of Ernst Stavro Blofeld.
Nora Prentiss, in which a man fakes his own death and is later charged with his own murder.
In the South Park episode, Marjorine, the main characters fakes Butters' death and have him disguised himself as the new girl, Marjorine, to try to steal a paper fortune teller from the girls.
In the Steven Universe episode A Single Pale Rose, it's revealed that Pink Diamond, with the assistance of her Pearl, faked her own shattering at the hands of her alter-ego, Rose Quartz, in order to make the other three Diamonds abandon the Earth colony. Her presumed shattering lead to a less prosperous second era in Homeworld, and the de-facto end of the Gem War, which would only truly conclude after Pink Diamond's son, Steven, reaches the Gem Homeworld.


== True-crime genre ==
Several books and television shows are dedicated to the theme of faked deaths.  These include the 2014 television show Nowhere to Hide on Investigation Discovery, hosted by private investigator Steve Rambam.: 43 


== See also ==
Brushy Bill Roberts – American man who claimed to be Billy the Kid (1879-1950)
Mock execution – Form of psychological torture
Cotard delusion – Delusion that one is dead or non-existentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Factitious disorder – Disease of mental health where symptoms are deliberately produced, feigned or exaggerated
Skiptrace – Process of locating a person's whereabouts


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Doug Richmond (1985). How to Disappear Completely and Never Be Found.
Elizabeth Greenwood (2016). Playing Dead: A Journey Through the World of Death Fraud. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1476739335."
Harvey Mansfield,"Harvey Claflin Mansfield Jr. (born March 21, 1932) is an American political philosopher. He was the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Government at Harvard University, where he taught from 1962 until his retirement in 2023. He has held Guggenheim and NEH Fellowships and has been a Fellow at the National Humanities Center. In 2004, he was awarded the National Humanities Medal by President George W. Bush and delivered the Jefferson Lecture in 2007. 
Mansfield is a scholar of political history, and was greatly influenced by Leo Strauss. He is also the Carol G. Simon Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution of Stanford University. Mansfield is notable for his generally conservative stance on political issues in his writings. At Harvard, he became one of the university's most prominent conservative figures. In 2023, he retired from teaching as one of the university's longest-serving faculty members.
His notable former students include: Mark Blitz, James Ceaser, Tom Cotton, Andrew Sullivan, Charles R. Kesler, Alan Keyes, William Kristol, Clifford Orwin, Paul Cantor, Mark Lilla, Francis Fukuyama, Sharon Krause, Bruno Maçães, and Shen Tong.


== Biography ==
Mansfield was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on March 21, 1932. His father, Harvey Mansfield Sr., had been editor of the American Political Science Review and was the Ruggles Professor Emeritus of Public Law and Government at Columbia University at the time of his death in 1988 at the age of 83.
Mansfield was educated at public schools before college. In 1949, he enrolled at Harvard University with a focus in studying government, receiving his Bachelor of Arts in 1953. As an undergraduate, he was a liberal who supported Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election. After graduating, Mansfield received a Fulbright Scholarship to study in England for a year. From 1954 to 1956, he served in the United States Army in Virginia and France. He returned to Harvard and received his Ph.D. in 1961. Mansfield initially began teaching at the University of California, Berkeley, for a few years before lecturing at Harvard. In 1969, he was appointed as a full professor and was chair of the university's government department from 1973 to 1976.
Mansfield was married to Delba Winthrop, with whom he co-translated and co-authored work on Tocqueville.


== Political philosophy ==


=== A Student's Guide to Political Philosophy ===
In his 2001 book A Student's Guide to Political Philosophy, Mansfield traces the history of political philosophy in ""the great books"" written by Plato, Aristotle, Locke, Rousseau, and others of the ""highest rank"" (1). He also finds political philosophy in practical politics, which Mansfield considers necessarily partisan, because it involves citizens ""arguing passionately pro and con with advocacy and denigration, accusation and defense"" (2). He argues that politics does not merely consist of liberal and conservative options, but rather, they are fundamentally opposed to each other, with each side defending its own interest as it attempts to appeal to the common good (2). Since such adversarial sides in a political dispute appeal to the common good, an observer of the dispute can use his capacity to reason to judge which side supplies the most compelling arguments. If such an observer is competent to be a judge, he or she may be thought of as a political philosopher, or as at least on the way to engaging in political philosophy (2–3).
Mansfield stresses the connection between politics and political philosophy, but he does not find political philosophy in political science, which for Mansfield is a rival to political philosophy and ""apes"" the natural sciences (3–5). From Mansfield's point of view, political science replaces words like ""good"", ""just"", and ""noble"" with other words like ""utility"" or ""preferences."" The terms are meant to be neutral, but as a result of the political scientist's purported change of role and perspective from judge to so‑called ""disinterested observer"", such a ""scientist"" is not able to determine whose arguments are the best, because he or she falls victim to relativism, which, according to Mansfield, is ""a sort of lazy dogmatism"" (4–5).
In his guide, Mansfield reminds students that political science rebelled from political philosophy in the seventeenth century and declared itself distinct and separate in the positivist movement of the late nineteenth century: thus, he argues in it that whereas ""Today political science is often said to be 'descriptive' or 'empirical,' concerned with facts; political philosophy is called 'normative' because it expresses values. But these terms merely repeat in more abstract form the difference between political science, which seeks agreement, and political philosophy, which seeks the best"" (6).
Furthermore, according to Mansfield, when people talk about the difference between political philosophy and political science, they are actually talking about two distinct kinds of political philosophy, one modern and the other ancient. The only way to understand modern political science and its ancient alternative fully, he stresses, is to enter the history of political philosophy, and to study the tradition handed down over the centuries: ""No one can count himself educated who does not have some acquaintance with this tradition. It informs you of the leading possibilities of human life, and by giving you a sense of what has been tried and what is now dominant, it tells you where we are now in a depth not available from any other source"" (7–8). Although modern political science feels no obligation to look at its roots, and might even denigrate the subject as if it could not be of any real significance, he says, ""our reasoning shows that the history of political philosophy is required for understanding its substance"" (7–8).


=== Taming the Prince ===
In his book Taming the Prince, Mansfield traces the modern doctrine of executive power to Niccolò Machiavelli.  He argues that executive power had to be tamed to become compatible with liberal constitutionalism.


== Political views ==


=== Western civilization ===
In response to multiculturalism on college campuses, Mansfield has defended the importance of preserving and teaching courses on Western civilization, even proposing a survey course that selects a dozen or so books that capture the principal themes.  Mansfield believes that understanding Western civilization is important because the books that explain it deal with problems associated with the human condition.
On May 8, 2007, Mansfield delivered the 36th Jefferson Lecture (""the highest honor the federal government bestows for distinguished intellectual and public achievement in the humanities"", according to the National Endowment for the Humanities, which sponsored the lecture). In his lecture, Mansfield suggests ""two improvements for today’s understanding of politics arising from the humanities ... first ... to recapture the notion of thumos in Plato, and Aristotle... [and] ...second ... the use of names—proper to literature and foreign to science"". This is a reference to his own philosophy, which forbids discounting the wisdom of the past simply because those who spoke it lived a long time ago.


=== The ""strong executive"" ===
Mansfield has argued that the President of the United States has ""extra-legal powers such as commanding the military, making treaties (and carrying on foreign policy), and pardoning the convicted, not to mention a veto of legislation"", observing that the U.S. Constitution does not ask the President to take an oath to execute the laws, but rather, to execute ""the office of the president, which is larger."" Referring to domestic surveillance, Mansfield notes:

Those arguing that the executive should be subject to checks and balances are wrong to say or imply that the president may be checked in the sense of stopped. The president can be held accountable and made responsible, but if he could be stopped, the Constitution would lack any sure means of emergency action.
He defends the separation of powers, arguing that ""the executive subordinated to the rule of law is in danger of being subordinate to the legislature.""


=== Gender roles and equality ===

In his 2006 book Manliness, Mansfield defended a moderately conservative understanding of gender roles, and bemoaned the loss of the virtue of manliness in a ""gender neutral"" society. In a New York Times interview, he defined the concept briefly as ""confidence in a situation of risk. A manly man has to know what he is doing."" He defines the idea in more concrete terms in the book. There, a manly man does not have to know what he is doing, but only has to act as though he does. Also in the book, Mansfield subjects the concept of manliness to a test in which he refers for support of his argument to such diverse authorities as Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Rudyard Kipling, Ernest Hemingway, and Naomi Wood. In his argument, manliness is ultimately related to assertiveness—""decisiveness without complete knowledge""—and its place in society is debated. In an interview with Bill Kristol, Mansfield said:

What I wrote was a modest defense of manliness. And the emphasis [is] on modest because manliness can be bad as well as good. Not everyone who takes risks deserves to have them turn out right and so manliness is, I think, responsible for a lot of evil. You can say that terrorists are manly, they’re willing to risk their lives and give their lives for a principle they believe in or a point they believe in.
Manliness was criticized by the philosopher and law scholar Martha Nussbaum in the June 22, 2006, issue of the New Republic. Nussbaum accuses Mansfield of misreading, or failing to read, many feminist and non-feminist texts, in addition to the ancient Greek and Roman classics he cites. She argues that his book is based on overt misogynistic assumptions that take a position of indifference towards violence against women. Mansfield asserts, she contends, that a woman can resist rape only with the aid of ""a certain ladylike modesty enabling her to take offense at unwanted encroachment.""
Concerning controversial comments by former President of Harvard, Lawrence Summers, about mental differences between men and women, Mansfield said that it is ""probably true"" that women ""innately have less capacity than men at the highest level of science .... It's common sense if you just look at who the top scientists are.""


=== LGBT rights ===
In 1993, Mansfield testified on behalf of Colorado's Amendment 2, which amended the state constitution to prevent gays, lesbians and bisexuals from pursuing legal claims of discrimination. In his testimony, he argued that being gay ""is not a life that makes for happiness,"" that homosexuality is ""shameful,"" and that by not being able to have children gay people were not ""socially responsible."" Nussbaum, who testified in the same trial against Amendment 2, later remarked that Mansfield's source for his claim that gay and lesbian people were unhappy was not contemporary social science research but the great books of the Western tradition (Plato, Tocqueville, Rousseau, etc.).


=== Grades and affirmative action ===
Mansfield has voiced criticism of grade inflation at Harvard University and claims it is due in part to affirmative action, but says he cannot show its causal effect. Critics have shown that grade inflation predates any significant presence of black students at Harvard. In November 1997, Mansfield  participated in a debate on affirmative action between Cornel West and Michael Sandel (arguing for affirmative action) with Ruth Wisse and himself (arguing against affirmative action). The debate attracted a ""massive audience"" of a thousand Harvard students, requiring its campus venue to be changed twice before it could take place in Harvard's Sanders Theater, prompting Professor Sandel to comment, ""This puts to rest the myth that this generation has a political apathy, and apathy to political debates."" In 2013, Mansfield, after hearing from a dean that ""the most frequent grade is an A,"" claimed to give students two grades: one for their transcript, and the one he thinks they deserve. He commented, ""I didn’t want my students to be punished by being the only ones to suffer for getting an accurate grade.""
In response to grade inflation, according to Harvard Crimson, Mansfield revived the ""ironic"" (or the ""inflated"") grade in 2006, in order to let his students know what they really deserved in his class without causing them harm by grading them lower than the other professors at Harvard: ""In Mansfield’s 'true and serious' grading system, 5 percent of students will receive A’s, and 15 percent will receive A-minuses. But Mansfield won’t share those marks with anyone other than his teaching fellows and students. ... By contrast, Mansfield’s 'ironic' grade—the only one that will appear on official transcripts—will follow average grade distribution in the College, with about a quarter of students receiving A’s and another quarter receiving A-minu[s]es""; in contrast, their privately received deserved ""real"" (lower) grades usually centered around a C or C-minus, earning him the nickname ""Harvey C-minus Mansfield."" ""This [grading] policy—meant to demonstrate the causes and effects of grade inflation—drew heat from students and faculty, and attracted national media attention."" Mansfield himself has joked that his middle initial ""C"" stands for compassion: ""That's what I lack when it comes to grading."" In an interview with the Hoover Institution, Mansfield claimed that college professors are too quick to label students as exceptional.


== Books ==
Statesmanship and Party Government: A Study of Burke and Bolingbroke. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.
The Spirit of Liberalism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.
Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979. Rpt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Thomas Jefferson: Selected Writings. Ed. and introd. Wheeling, IL: H. Davidson, 1979.
Selected Letters of Edmund Burke. Ed. with introd. entitled ""Burke's Theory of Political Practice"". Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Taming the Prince: The Ambivalence of Modern Executive Power. New York: The Free Press, 1989.
America's Constitutional Soul. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Machiavelli’s Virtue. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
A Student’s Guide to Political Philosophy. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2001.
Manliness. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
Tocqueville: A Very Short Introduction. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.


=== Translations ===
 
The Prince, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Introd. 2nd (corr.) ed. 1985; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. (Inc. glossary.)
Florentine Histories, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Ed. and introd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988. (Co-trans. and co-ed., Laura F. Banfield.)
Discourses on Livy, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Introd. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. (Co-trans., Nathan Tarcov.)
Democracy in America, by Alexis de Tocqueville. Introd. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. (Co-trans., Delba Winthrop.)


== Awards and honors ==
Guggenheim Fellowship (1970–71)
National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship (1974–75)
Member of the Council of the American Political Science Association (1980–82, 2004)
Fellow of the National Humanities Center (1982)
Member of the USIA's Board of Foreign Scholarships (1987–89)
Member of the National Council on the Humanities (1991–94)
Joseph R. Levenson Teaching Award (1993)
President of the New England Historical Association (1993–94)
Sidney Hook Memorial Award (2002)
National Humanities Medal (2004)
36th Jefferson Lecture for the National Endowment for the Humanities (2007)


== Media appearances ==
""Harvey Mansfield on the Neil Gorsuch Confirmation Hearings,"" Conversations with Bill Kristol, April 24, 2017.
""Harvey Mansfield on Donald Trump and Political Philosophy,"" Conversations with Bill Kristol, December 19, 2016.
""Harvey Mansfield on mysteries, Wodehouse, Wilson, Churchill, and Swift,"" Conversations with Bill Kristol, September 25, 2016.
""Harvey Mansfield on America's Constitutional Soul,"" Conversations with Bill Kristol, July 31, 2016.
""Harvey Mansfield on Manliness,"" Conversations with Bill Kristol, May 8, 2016.
""Harvey Mansfield on Alexis de Tocqueville's ""Democracy in America"" Conversations with Bill Kristol, June 15, 2019.


== See also ==
Democracy in America
Ellis Sandoz
Leo Strauss


== References ==


== External links ==

HarveyMansfield.org.  Website devoted to the work of Harvey Mansfield in a searchable format along with scholarly commentary, multimedia, biography, and other resources.
""Democracy in America"". Colloquium on their translation of the book Democracy in America, by Alexis de Tocqueville, presented by Harvey Mansfield and Delba Winthrop. March 30, 2001. Ashbrook Center, Ashland University, Ashland, Ohio.
""Dr. Harvey Mansfield, Author of Manliness"". Public lecture at the New Hampshire Institute of Politics, Saint Anselm College, Goffstown, New Hampshire. April 20, 2006. Accessed June 17, 2007. MP3 podcast.
Harvey Mansfield, William R. Kenan, Jr., Professor of Government Archived 2021-02-21 at the Wayback Machine. Faculty webpage. Department of Government, Harvard University.
""Harvey Mansfield"" NEH website for 2007 Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities by Harvey C. Mansfield.
Ifill, Gwen. ""Then and Now: Mansfield"" Archived 2013-12-23 at the Wayback Machine. Transcript of interview with Harvey Mansfield. Broadcast on The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, September 13, 2002. Accessed June 18, 2007. (Inc. links to streaming video and RealPlayer audio.)
Video of Stephen Colbert interviewing Harvey Mansfield about Mansfield's book Manliness on The Colbert Report, Comedy Central. Broadcast April 5, 2006. Accessed April 11, 2008. (Caption: ""Harvey Mansfield and Stephen collide in a perfect storm of man musk."")
Appearances on C-SPAN
In Depth interview with Mansfield, September 4, 2005
CV"
Coronation of Charles III and Camilla,"The coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms, took place on Saturday, 6 May 2023 at Westminster Abbey. Charles acceded to the throne on 8 September 2022 upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II. It was the first coronation held since that of Elizabeth II in 1953, nearly 70 years prior.
The ceremony was structured around an Anglican service of Holy Communion. It included Charles taking an oath, being anointed with holy oil, and receiving the coronation regalia, emphasising his spiritual role and secular responsibilities. Representatives of the Church of England and the British royal family declared their allegiance to him, and people throughout the Commonwealth realms were invited to do so. Camilla was crowned in a shorter and simpler ceremony. After the service, members of the royal family travelled to Buckingham Palace in a state procession and appeared on the palace's rear and front balconies. The service was altered from past British coronations to represent the multiple faiths, cultures, and communities of the United Kingdom, and was shorter than Elizabeth II's coronation. It had a peak UK television audience of 20.4 million, making it the most watched television broadcast of 2023, and attracted a global audience of two billion people across 125 countries.
The coronation elicited both celebrations and protest in the United Kingdom, with surveys carried out before the event suggesting that the British public was ambivalent towards the ceremony and its funding by taxpayers. The events in London and Windsor drew large crowds, but were also protested against by republican groups; 64 individuals were arrested on the day, which was criticised by the international advocacy group Human Rights Watch. The celebrations included street parties, volunteering, special commemorative church services, and a concert at Windsor Castle on 7 May. The response in the other Commonwealth realms was similarly mixed; while there were many celebrations, some government officials and indigenous groups took the opportunity to voice republican sentiments and call for reparatory justice. It was the first British coronation in the 21st century and the 40th to be held at Westminster Abbey since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066.


== Preparation ==


=== Background ===
Charles III became king immediately upon the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, at 15:10 BST on 8 September 2022. He was proclaimed king by the Accession Council on 10 September, which was followed by proclamations in other Commonwealth realms. Charles's wife Camilla became queen consort. During Elizabeth II's reign, planning meetings for Charles's coronation, code-named Operation Golden Orb, were held at least once a year, attended by representatives of the UK government, the Church of England, and Charles's staff.


=== Service and procession ===
The organisation of the coronation was the responsibility of the earl marshal, the Duke of Norfolk. A committee of privy counsellors arranged the event. In October 2022, the date of the coronation was announced as 6 May 2023, a choice made to ensure sufficient time to mourn the death of Elizabeth II before holding the ceremony.
A Coronation Claims Office was established within the Cabinet Office to handle claims to perform a historic or ceremonial role at the coronation, replacing the Court of Claims. The posts of Lord High Steward and Lord High Constable of England, which are now only named for coronations, were given to General Sir Gordon Messenger and Admiral Sir Tony Radakin, respectively.
The holy anointing oil used in the service was consecrated at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on 6 March 2023 by Patriarch Theophilos III of Jerusalem, under the supervision of Hosam Naoum, the Anglican archbishop of Jerusalem. It was based on the same formula as the oil used in the coronation of Elizabeth II, but without animal products such as civet.

Military dress rehearsals took place on 17, 18, and 19 April. The King and Queen, the Prince and Princess of Wales and their children, and the Princess Royal attended coronation rehearsals at Westminster Abbey on 3 May.
Westminster Abbey was closed to tourists and worshippers from 25 April for preparations, and did not re-open until 8 May. As at previous coronations, many attendees had an obscured view, as the abbey's nave was filled to capacity. However, on this occasion some television screens were installed in the nave to mitigate this.


=== Guests ===

The coronation was a state event funded by the British government, which also decided the guest list. Approximately 2,200 guests from 203 countries were invited. They included members of the British royal family, representatives from the Church of England and other British faith communities, prominent politicians from the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, and foreign heads of state.
The number of British political attendees was reduced significantly from 1953, when virtually the entire Parliament of the United Kingdom attended. Invitations were extended to 850 community and charity representatives, including 450 British Empire Medal recipients and 400 young persons, half of whom were nominated by the government. Following a tradition dating from 1189, fourteen barons of the Cinque Ports were also invited. Safety regulations at Westminster Abbey restricted the number of guests, as in contrast to earlier coronations no temporary stands were erected in the building.

In addition to the coronation, several dignitaries invited to the event also attended related gatherings hosted by Charles on 5 May in London. Several receptions were hosted by Charles on that day, including one for dignitaries from the Commonwealth realms at Buckingham Palace, and another reception at Marlborough House for all the leaders of the Commonwealth of Nations. In the evening, the King hosted a reception for foreign royalty and other overseas dignitaries at Buckingham Palace, and family members and guests also attended a reception at Oswald's.


=== Vestments and crowns ===
In a break with tradition, Charles's coronation vestments (ceremonial clothes) were largely reused from previous coronations instead of being newly made. While it is customary for the supertunica and robe royal to be reused, Charles also wore vestments used by George IV, George V, George VI, and Elizabeth II. Camilla similarly reused vestments, including Elizabeth II's robe of state, but also wore a new robe of estate featuring her cypher, bees, a beetle, and various plants and flowers. She also wore a new coronation gown, created by Bruce Oldfield and embroidered with wildflowers, the United Kingdom's floral emblems, her cypher, a pair of dogs, and her grandchildren's names.
St Edward's Crown, which was used to crown the King, was removed from the Tower of London in December 2022 for resizing. In February 2023 Queen Mary's Crown, which was used to crown the Queen, was also removed from display to be reset with Cullinan III, IV and V and for four of its eight detachable arches to be removed. The Crown of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother was not used, to avoid a potential diplomatic dispute with India; the crown contains the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which is claimed by India.
The dress code for peers without a role in the ceremony was originally lounge suits or parliamentary robes, rather than the coronets, coronation robes, and court dress traditionally worn. This was changed in the week before the coronation after protests, with peers allowed to wear coronation robes but not coronets. The general dress code for men was morning dress, a lounge suit, formal military uniform or national dress.


=== Art ===

The official photographer of the coronation was Hugo Burnand, who had previously been the official photographer for Charles and Camilla's wedding in 2005. Eileen Hogan was selected to paint the coronation ceremony, and Peter Kuhfeld and Paul Benney to paint the coronation portraits of Charles and Camilla respectively. Three alumni of The Royal Drawing School, Fraser Scarfe, Phoebe Stannard and Gideon Summerfield, were picked to document the procession.

Andrew Jamieson was commissioned to create the coronation invitation, which featured the couple's coats of arms, the floral emblems of the United Kingdom, and a Green Man amid other British wildflowers and wildlife. The coronation emblem was designed by Jony Ive with his creative collective LoveFrom, and depicts the floral emblems of the United Kingdom in the shape of St Edward's Crown. There are versions of the emblem in both English and Welsh.
The procession into the abbey was led by the Cross of Wales, a new processional cross commissioned by Charles to mark the centenary of the Church in Wales. It includes relics of the True Cross gifted to the King by Pope Francis.  The screen which concealed the King during his anointing was designed by iconographer Aidan Hart and embroidered by the Royal School of Needlework. It includes 56 leaves embroidered with the names of the members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
The Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, Simon Armitage, released a new poem, An Unexpected Guest, to mark the coronation. The poem follows a woman invited to attend the coronation in Westminster Abbey, and quotes Samuel Pepys' experience at the coronation of Charles II in 1661.
In a tradition dating back to the coronation of King Edward II in 1308, the official account of the event, the Coronation Roll, was presented to the King and Queen on 3 May 2024. The roll of hand-stitched paper is 21 metres long and contains 11,500 words, crafted by calligrapher Stephanie von Werthern-Gill and illustrated by Timothy Noad. The roll will be kept with its predecessors at The National Archives, but has been digitised and is accessible online.


=== Music ===
Twelve new pieces were commissioned for the service and used alongside older works, including several used at previous coronations.
Six of the new commissions were performed by the orchestra before the service — those by Judith Weir; Sir Karl Jenkins; a vocal piece by Sarah Class performed by Pretty Yende; Nigel Hess, Roderick Williams, and Shirley J. Thompson; Iain Farrington; and a new march by Patrick Doyle. New compositions by Roxanna Panufnik, Tarik O'Regan, and Andrew Lloyd Webber were part of the service, and Debbie Wiseman composed two related pieces, one of which was performed by the Ascension Choir.
Existing works by William Byrd, George Frideric Handel, William Boyce, Edward Elgar, Walford Davies, William Walton, Hubert Parry, and Ralph Vaughan Williams were included, as they had been at previous coronations. Six pieces were performed in new arrangements by John Rutter.
In tribute to the King's 64-year tenure as Prince of Wales the Kyrie was set in Welsh by Paul Mealor and was sung by Sir Bryn Terfel. Psalm 71 was chanted to in Greek by a Byzantine choir, which was included in the service in tribute to the King's father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who was born a prince of Greece.
The director of music for the coronation was Andrew Nethsingha, the organist and master of the choristers at the abbey. During the service, the organ was played by Peter Holder, and before the service by Matthew Jorysz. Before the service John Eliot Gardiner conducted the Monteverdi Choir and English Baroque Soloists. The main choir was a combination of the choirs of Westminster Abbey, the Chapel Royal, the octet from the Monteverdi Choir, Methodist College Belfast Girls' Choir and Truro Cathedral Girls' Choir. The orchestra players were drawn from the Philharmonia Orchestra, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, BBC National Orchestra of Wales, Regina Symphony Orchestra, English Chamber Orchestra, Scottish Chamber Orchestra, Royal Opera House Orchestra and Welsh National Opera Orchestra, which are all patronised by Charles. The orchestra, situated in the organ loft, was conducted by Antonio Pappano and led by Vasko Vasilev. The State Trumpeters of the Household Cavalry and the Fanfare Trumpeters of the Royal Air Force played the fanfares.

All eight of the massed bands in the coronation procession played the same music, keeping time with each other with the help of a radio broadcast click track – the first time such technology has been used on such a large-scale ceremonial event; previously bands would march to different pieces of music starting at different times. The tempo set was 108 beats per minute, slowed down from the regulation 116 beats per minute because of the size of the bands.
An official coronation album, which includes all music and spoken word from the pre-service and service was recorded and released by Decca Records after the ceremony.


=== Cost ===
As a state event, the event was paid for by the British government as well as Buckingham Palace through the Sovereign Grant and Privy Purse. Costs incurred by the Sovereign Grant for the Coronation came to £800,000 although that didn't include security and military costs which were paid by the government.  The Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport stated that it was ""unable to give costs, or a breakdown of funding"" until after the coronation, but unofficial estimates of £50 million to £250 million have been reported. In November 2024 the Department for Culture, Media and Sport released figures showing that it had spent just over £50 million in its role coordinating the event, while the Home Office paid £22 million in policing costs, totalling £72 million government spend on the Coronation.
The cost of the coronation was criticised by the campaign group Republic and the Scottish National Party MP Ronnie Cowan in light of the ongoing cost-of-living crisis in the United Kingdom. In comparison, Elizabeth II's coronation cost £912,000 in 1953, equating to £20.5 million in May 2023, while George VI's cost £454,000 in 1937, equating to £24.8 million in May 2023. George VI's coronation prior to the coronation of Charles III and Camilla was the most expensive in the last 300 years. The elevated expenses for Charles and Camilla's coronation has been partly attributed to the increased cost for security measures.


== Coronation service ==

The events of the coronation day included a procession from Buckingham Palace to Westminster Abbey, the coronation service itself, a procession back to Buckingham Palace, and an appearance by the King and Queen, with other members of the royal family, on the palace balcony for a flypast by the Royal Air Force.
The coronation was conducted by the Church of England and contained several distinct elements, which were structured around a service of Holy Communion. Charles and Camilla first proceeded into the abbey, then Charles was presented to the people and recognised as monarch. After this Charles took an oath stating that he will uphold the law and maintain the Church of England. He then was anointed with holy oil, invested with the coronation regalia, and crowned with St Edward's Crown. After this he was enthroned and received homage from Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and William, Prince of Wales, and the people were invited to swear allegiance. Camilla then was anointed, crowned, and enthroned. The King and Queen ended the service by taking Holy Communion, and processed out of the abbey.

Several public viewing spots of the procession were prepared. Tens of thousands of people from the UK and the rest of the world were estimated to have lined the procession route. Despite the forecast for rain, spectators started camping along the procession route days before the event. On the morning of the event, authorities announced the procession route had reached capacity at 8:29.


=== Procession to the abbey ===

On the day of the coronation Charles and Camilla travelled to Westminster Abbey in procession. They departed Buckingham Palace at 10:20 BST and went along The Mall, down Whitehall and along Parliament Street, and around the east and south sides of Parliament Square before reaching the Great West Door of Westminster Abbey, a distance of 1.42 miles (2.29 km). Charles and Camilla used the Diamond Jubilee State Coach, drawn by six Windsor Greys, and were accompanied by the Sovereign's Escort of the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment. A new carriage, in production since 2018, was intended to carry the monarch, but as it could not be completed in time the Diamond Jubilee Coach was used instead.


=== Procession into the abbey ===

The procession into the abbey was led by leaders and representatives from non-Christian religions, including the Baháʼí, Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, Jewish, Shia and Sunni Muslim, Sikh, and Zoroastrian communities. They were followed by leaders from different Christian denominations, including the Church of England. After this the flags of the Commonwealth realms were carried by representatives, accompanied by their governors general and prime ministers. The choir followed.
Charles and Camilla arrived shortly before 11:00 and formed their own procession. It was led by four peers carrying heraldic standards displaying the arms of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, followed by the King's Champion, Francis Dymoke, carrying the Royal Standard. The Lord High Constable of England and the Earl Marshal also took part. Charles and Camilla were each attended by four pages of honour, including Prince George of Wales and Camilla's grandsons. Camilla was also accompanied by two ladies in attendance: Annabel Elliot, her sister, and the Marchioness of Lansdowne. Unexpectedly the Prince and Princess of Wales and their two younger children arrived at the Abbey after the King, ""whose horses went a lot faster than they had in the practice"", and joined the procession after the King and Queen. The choir sang Hubert Parry's ""I was glad"", during which the King's Scholars of Westminster School sang ""Vivat Regina Camilla"" and ""Vivat Rex Carolus"" ('Long live Queen Camilla' and 'Long live King Charles').

After this the coronation regalia was carried in procession to the altar. At Charles's request, the sixth-century St Augustine Gospels was also carried in the procession.


=== Recognition ===

The service, conducted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, began with the King and Queen having a silent moment of prayer before seating themselves on their chairs of estate, made for the 1953 coronation. In a new element of the service, the King was welcomed by one of the Children of the Chapel, to which he replied that he came ""not to be served but to serve"". Paul Mealor's ""Coronation Kyrie"" was sung in Welsh by Sir Bryn Terfel. After this the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lady Elish Angiolini, Christopher Finney, and Baroness Amos stood facing east, south, west, and north and in turn asked the congregation to recognise Charles as king; the crowd replied ""God save King Charles!"" each time. Charles was then presented with a new Bible by the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.


=== Oath and accession declaration ===
The Archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged the existence of multiple faiths and beliefs in the United Kingdom. Charles then took the coronation oath, in which he swore to govern each of his countries according to their respective laws and customs, to administer law and justice with mercy, and to uphold Protestantism in the United Kingdom and protect the Church of England. Subsequently, he made the statutory accession declaration. Charles then signed a written form of the oath, before kneeling before the altar and saying a prayer.
The service of Holy Communion then continued. The Archbishop of Canterbury delivered the collect, and the epistle and gospel were read by the prime minister, Rishi Sunak, and the bishop of London, Sarah Mullally, respectively. This was followed by a sermon by the Archbishop of Canterbury.


=== Anointing ===
Charles removed his robe of state and was seated on the Coronation Chair. He then was anointed with holy oil by the Archbishop of Canterbury, using the ampulla and a medieval spoon, the latter the oldest part of the coronation regalia. The anointing emphasised the spiritual role of the sovereign. It was a private part of the service; as in 1953 it was not televised, and Charles was concealed by a screen. During this the choir sang the anthem Zadok the Priest.


=== Investment and crowning ===

In the next part of the service, Charles was presented with several items from the coronation regalia. The spurs, armills, Sword of State, and Sword of Offering were given to the King, who touched them with his hand, before they were removed again. During this, Psalm 71 was chanted in Greek by an Orthodox choir in tribute to the King's father, Prince Philip, who was born a prince of Greece. The King was invested with the stole royal, robe royal, and the Sovereign's Orb, and presented with the sovereign's ring, which he touched but did not wear. He was then invested with the glove, the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross, and the Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove.

The King then was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury, with the Archbishop and then the congregation chanting, ""God save the King!"". At the moment of crowning the church bells of the abbey rang, 21-gun salutes were fired at 13 locations around the United Kingdom and on deployed Royal Navy ships, and 62-gun salutes and a six-gun salvo were fired from the Tower of London and Horse Guards Parade.
Charles then received a blessing read by the following: Stephen Cottrell, Archbishop of York; Nikitas Loulias, the Greek Orthodox Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain; the Moderator of the Free Churches; the Secretary General of Churches Together in England; His Eminence Vincent Cardinal Nichols, Archbishop of Westminster; and the Archbishop of Canterbury, representing the Anglican, Greek Orthodox, Nonconformist, ecumenical, and Roman Catholic traditions respectively.


=== Enthronement and homage ===
Charles moved to the throne (originally made for George VI in 1937) and the Archbishop of Canterbury and William, Prince of Wales, offered him their fealty. The Archbishop of Canterbury then invited the people of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms to swear allegiance to the King, the first time this has occurred.


=== Coronation of the Queen ===

The next part of the service concerned Camilla. She was anointed in public view, thought to be the first time this has occurred, and then presented with the Queen Consort's Ring. The Queen then was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury using Queen Mary's Crown. Camilla then was presented with the Queen Consort's Sceptre with Cross and the Queen Consort's Rod with Dove (which, unlike other queens consort, she chose not to carry), before sitting on her own throne (originally made for Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 1937) beside the King.
This was the first coronation of a consort since that of Charles's grandmother Queen Elizabeth in 1937.


=== Holy Communion ===
The offertory followed, during which gifts of bread and wine were brought before the King and prayed over; the prayer was a translation from the Liber Regalis, which dates from c. 1382 and is one of the oldest sources for the English coronation service. Charles and Camilla then received Holy Communion from the Archbishop of Canterbury and the congregation recited the Lord's Prayer, before a final blessing.


=== End of the service ===
At the end of the service the King changed into the Imperial State Crown, during which the congregation sang Praise, my soul, the King of heaven. Charles and Camilla then proceeded to the west door of the abbey as the national anthem, ""God Save the King"", was sung. At the end of the procession the King received a greeting by governors-general of the realms and representatives from the Jewish, Hindu, Sikh, Muslim, and Buddhist faiths. The abbey bells rang a full peal of ""Cambridge Surprise Royal"".


=== State procession to Buckingham Palace ===

The second procession followed the same route as the first, but in reverse and on a larger scale. The King and Queen were carried in the Gold State Coach, drawn by eight Windsor Grey horses, with other members of the royal family in other vehicles, including the Australian State Coach, the Irish State Coach and the Scottish State Coach.
The armed forces of the United Kingdom, other countries of the Commonwealth, and the British Overseas Territories played a significant part. Over 5,000 members of the British Armed Forces and 400 Armed Forces personnel from at least 35 other Commonwealth countries were part of the two processions, and 1,000 lined the route. The Sovereign's Bodyguard, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and Royal Watermen also took part in the procession, and the Royal British Legion formed a Guard of Honour of 100 Standard Bearers in Parliament Square. The Princess Royal and the Commander of the Household Cavalry served as the Gold Stick-in-Waiting and Silver Stick-in-Waiting, respectively.


=== Balcony appearances ===
At Buckingham Palace, the King and Queen stood on the rear balcony and received a royal salute and three cheers from the armed forces, who were massed in the palace garden.

They later joined other members of the royal family on the front balcony to review a flypast by helicopters and the Red Arrows aerobatic team. A six-minute flypast of 68 aircraft was planned, but prevented by rain and low clouds. A grandstand was built in front of Buckingham Palace from which to watch the procession and flypast, with 3,800 seats offered to Armed Forces veterans, NHS and social care workers, and representatives of charities with links to the King and Queen. In addition, 354 uniformed cadet forces viewed the procession at Admiralty Arch.


== Public events and commemorations ==
Several Commonwealth countries held events and issued commemorative items to mark the coronation. Events, including themed parties and public viewings, were also privately organized in countries like the United States.


=== United Kingdom ===

In April 2023, Buckingham Palace revealed a new hashflag emoji depicting St Edward's Crown for use on Twitter. The King and Queen attended a celebratory pre-coronation reception at Westminster Hall on 2 May. They hosted coronation garden parties at the Buckingham Palace on 3 and 9 May, at Hillsborough Castle on 24 May and at the Palace of Holyroodhouse on 4 July. On 5 May, Charles, together with the Prince and Princess of Wales, greeted crowds at The Mall during a walkabout.
""Coronation Big Lunches"" and street parties were planned on 6–8 May people throughout the UK. More than 67,000 Coronation Big Lunch events took place, with local councils having approved the closure of 3,087 roads. Most street parties were scheduled for Sunday, 7 May. Eden Project Communities, which organised the nationwide community events, said that 13.4 million people across the country took part in a Coronation Big Lunch and raised £14.4 million for good causes. Queen Camilla had been Patron of The Big Lunch since 2013.
Coronation quiche was chosen by Charles and Camilla as the official dish of the Coronation Big Lunch. Coronation Trifle was the official pudding, it was created by Adam Handling and is made with Parkin, ginger custard and strawberry jelly. Pubs also remained open until 01:00 on the coronation weekend.

 Across the UK, local authorities spent over £3.8 million on events to mark the coronation.
The Coronation Concert was planned for 7 May to be held on the east lawn of Windsor Castle. In addition to performances by singers, musicians, and stage and screen actors, the show also featured a ""Coronation Choir"" composed of community choirs and amateur singers. During the concert, landmarks, areas of natural beauty, and street parties were featured. 5,000 pairs of free tickets were distributed by public ballot, and volunteers from the King and Queen's charities were also invited. Several musical performers reportedly turned down the palace's invitation to perform citing scheduling conflicts.

A public holiday was declared on 8 May to commemorate the coronation. On the same day, the Together Coalition, in partnership with The Scout Association, the Royal Voluntary Service, and various faith groups, organised the Big Help Out initiative to encourage volunteering and community service. An estimated 6 million took part in the initiative. The Royal Voluntary Service, of which Camilla is president, also launched the Coronation Champions Awards, which recognised 500 volunteers nominated by the public. The National Literacy Trust, of which Camilla is patron, announced the opening of 50 special primary school libraries to mark the coronation.
The Coronation Theatre was on display at Westminster Abbey from 8 to 13 May.The Tower of London explored the history of the Crown Jewels in a new exhibition to mark Coronation year, which opened to the public on 26 May. Between 14 July and 24 September 2023, outfits worn by the King and Queen at the Coronation were on display in the Ballroom as part of the summer opening of Buckingham Palace. Six pairs of Coronation Chairs were auctioned by Christie's and the sale raised funds for four charities chosen by the King and Queen.
The King and Queen, along with the Duke and Duchess of Rothesay, marked the coronation in Scotland by attending a national service of thanksgiving on 5 July. The Honours of Scotland were collected from Edinburgh Castle and taken to St Giles' Cathedral following a ""People's Procession"" involving 100 people that represented aspects of Scottish life. The King and Queen and the Duke and Duchess of Rothesay travelled from the Palace of Holyroodhouse to the cathedral in the ""Royal Procession"" along the Royal Mile. Following a service of thanksgiving at the cathedral where the King was presented with the Honours, a 21-gun salute from Edinburgh Castle and a fly past by the Red Arrows took place.
On his 75th birthday in November 2023, Charles launched the Coronation Food Project, an initiative aimed at tackling food poverty and insecurity by reducing food waste through redistribution.


==== Ecclesiastical initiatives ====
Twenty-eight days prior to the coronation of Charles III and Camilla, the Church of England established a period of prayer for them, and to this end, published a Book of Daily Prayers that included ""daily themes, reflections and prayers for use by individuals, churches or groups"".
Congregations of the Church of England held special commemorative services throughout the country on 6–7 May 2023.


==== Government initiatives ====

The government of the United Kingdom issued coronation medals to 400,000 individuals, including those involved in supporting the coronation, front line emergency and prison services workers, and members of the British Armed Forces. The medals are made of nickel silver and plated in nickel and feature an effigy of the King and Queen, on a red, white and blue ribbon.

The Transport for London announced several initiatives. The roundels used by the London Underground, the Overground, and the Elizabeth line were redesigned to include a crown for the coronation. Voice announcement were also replaced by announcements recorded by the King and Queen on 5 May, and were used on railway station and all Underground stations throughout the coronation weekend and bank holiday on Monday. The London North Eastern Railway also named its daily 11:00 passenger train from London King's Cross to Edinburgh Waverley the Carolean Express, starting on 6 May.
Natural England will mark the coronation with the creation of the King's Series of National Nature Reserves, which will see five major national nature reserves named every year for the next five years. A new Coronation Garden in Newtownabbey which features music, moving plants, bubbles and a large metal bandstand named in honour of Charles and Camilla was opened by the King and Queen on 24 May. In August, a government fund was launched to plant thousands of trees to mark the coronation and celebrate Charles' interest in the environment.
Government Art Collection commissioned leading British and British-based artists to create new artworks to mark the coronation, which will be on display at the National Archives from May to November 2025.


==== Memorabilia ====
The Royal Mint released a new collection of coins, including 50p and £5 coin depicting the King wearing the Tudor Crown.
Royal Mail issued four stamps to mark the King's coronation, as it did for the coronations of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II.  
The company also unveiled four specially decorated postboxes and applied a special postmark from 28 April to 10 May to celebrate the coronation.

The Royal Collection Trust released official coronation memorabilia to mark the occasion. In February 2023, Buckingham Palace announced it would temporarily relax the ""rules governing the commercial use of royal photographs and official insignia"" to allow other groups to produce coronation memorabilia.
Companies that have produced coronation memorabilia include Emma Bridgewater, Jan Constantine, Merrythought, and Royal Crown Derby. Greene King produced a special brew to mark the coronation and auctioned several unopened crates of a special brew created for the cancelled coronation of Edward VIII in 1937, with proceeds from the auction going to The Prince's Trust.


==== Crown Dependencies ====
A public holiday was declared on 8 May in Guernsey, the Isle of Man, and Jersey. As in the United Kingdom, Big Help Outs were also organised in all three Crown Dependencies on the day of the holiday.
The states of Guernsey planned events to celebrate the coronation from 5 to 8 May. A vigil was held on 5 May at Forest Methodist Church to reflect on the coronation's spiritual element. On 6 May, bells rang from Town Church, Vale, Forest, and St Pierre du Bois. A live broadcast of the coronation service was played on a large screen at the King George V Sports Ground (KGV), followed by a military parade from Fort George to the Model Yacht Pond. A 21-gun salute was fired at noon from Castle Cornet as part of the national salute. On 7 May, a Coronation Big Lunch was held at Saint Peter Port seafront, along with a service of thanksgiving at the Town Church. That evening the Coronation Concert was planned to be screened live at the KGV playing fields, and buildings including Castle Cornet and Fort Grey were illuminated in red, white, and blue in the evening.
In Jersey, on 6 May, Coronation Park hosted a large-screen broadcast of the coronation, musical entertainment, and activities. Licensed establishments were encouraged to open ahead of the ceremony's broadcast, and seventh category licensed establishments could apply for special extensions to stay open until 3 am on 7 May. On 7 May, the Coronation Big Lunch took place in Liberation Square, where a public screening of the coronation concert was also held.

The Isle of Man government organised three days of festivities from 6 to 8 May. A Coronation Event Fund was established to assist local authorities, community groups, and charities help finance celebrations. On 7 May, a Biosphere Bee Community Picnic took place, and the Legislative Buildings in Douglas was also lit up. A collection of 12 Isle of Man stamps featuring photos of Charles and Camilla, portraits of the King, and the royal cypher were also released in April 2023.  In keeping with the Manx tradition of giving two peregrine falcons to the Lord of Mann upon their coronation, the Isle of Man gifted Charles a wooden bowl adorned with two silver falcons made by local crafts people.


==== British Overseas Territories ====
A public holiday was declared in Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, and Gibraltar on 8 May.
Several events were planned in Bermuda. On 6 May, commemorative tree planting and the opening of a Coronation Garden, designed to reflect Prince Charles's work in support of the environment and sustainable farming, took place at Bermuda Botanical Gardens. On 7 May, a service of thanksgiving was held at the Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity, and on 8 May the Children's Reading Festival took place to recognise Camilla's commitment to literacy, particularly for young people.
Celebrations in the Falkland Islands included a children's fancy dress party, a live music and karaoke event for young adults, as well as the Big Lunch and the Big Help Out.
In Gibraltar, festivities took place on 3 May, including a parade of British Forces Gibraltar and essential services, garden and street parties, concerts, and a 21-gun salute performed by the Royal Gibraltar Regiment. A live screening of the event also took place at Grand Casemates Square.


=== Canada ===


==== Emblem and commemorative items ====

A Canadian coronation emblem was created by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, Fraser Herald of Arms, and registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority. It includes Charles III's royal cypher inside a ring of 13 triangular shapes, the number corresponding to Canada's provinces and territories. The circular arrangement symbolises inclusion and the Indigenous concept of equity and the natural world's cycles. The colour green is a reference to the King's commitment to the natural environment, while the white spaces may be viewed as a sunburst, symbolising innovation and new ideas.
A special edition of Canadian Geographic, which focused on Charles, was distributed and the Royal Canadian Mint produced several commemorative coins.
The Canadian Heritage Mint, a private mint, produced and sold coronation medallions designed by Susan Taylor, a former senior engraver at the Royal Canadian Mint, and approved by Charles. These came in two forms: One shows, on the obverse, the King, wearing the Imperial State Crown, next to his Royal Cypher and, on the reverse, the encircling words KING CHARLES III • CORONATION • 6TH MAY 2023 with St Edward's Crown at the centre of a wreath of six maple leaves. Each leaf represents a coronation of a Canadian monarch since Confederation: Victoria, Edward VII, George V, George VI, Elizabeth II, and Charles III. The second medallion features ultra-high relief effigies of Charles and Camilla, along with the coronation date, while maintaining a consistent arrangement of maple leaves encircling St Edward's Crown on the reverse. Of the single-effigy, 3,500 were produced from one-ounce of silver and 5,000 were rendered in bronze. Six hundred of the dual-effigy medallions were struck in five ounces of silver and 1,800 were made from eight ounces of bronze with an antique finish.


==== Federal initiatives ====

On 6 May, a televised national ceremony to mark the coronation of the king of Canada took place at the Sir John A. Macdonald Building in Ottawa. It featured speeches by Algonquin spiritual leader Albert Dumont and aerospace engineer Farah Alibay, and performances by the Eagle River Singers, Sabrina Benaim, Florence K, Inn Echo, and the Ottawa Regional Youth Choir. During the event, Dominic Laporte created a spray-paint artpiece thematically linked to flowers, as an homage to Charles's support for the natural environment. Several items were unveiled at the ceremony, including a new standard for the monarch, a heraldic crown incorporating distinctly Canadian elements, and a definitive stamp with an image of the King by Canada Post. It was also announced that an effigy of Charles would replace that of Elizabeth II on Canadian coinage and the Canadian twenty-dollar note. The ceremony concluded with a 21-gun salute and a performance by the Central Band of the Canadian Armed Forces on Parliament Hill.

Landmarks across Canada were illuminated emerald green on 6 and 7 May. Tours were offered at Rideau Hall, the official residence of the monarch and governor general of Canada, and the Central Band of the Canadian Armed Forces performed there, while members of the Governor General's Foot Guards performed changing of the guard ceremonies. Several Royal Canadian Legion branches hosted receptions. On 8 May the government announced a donation of $100,000 to the Nature Conservancy of Canada to mark the coronation.
The Department of Canadian Heritage provided $257,000 to the Royal Canadian Geographical Society to produce educational material for schools on the King's association with Indigenous peoples in Canada and his tours of the country, Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada approved the use of a special call sign in Canada for amateur radio operators to use from 5 May to 2 June.
The government will issue coronation medals to 30,000 Canadians who made significant contributions to the country or their local region. The medal was announced several days before the coronation, on 3 May, although the unveiling its design and its first conferral did not take place until 6 May 2024.


==== Provincial initiatives ====

Lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners organised events that included exhibitions, military parades, and tree plantings. The lieutenant governors of British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Saskatchewan hosted events at their respective Government Houses on the 5 or 6 May. Additional events were planned at the government houses of British Columbia, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan later in the year, including garden parties, the unveiling of a coronation pathway at Government House, British Columbia, and a debut musical performance composed for the coronation by Jeffery Straker at Government House, Saskatchewan. The Lieutenant Governor of Ontario hosted a panel on the coronation with the Empire Club of Canada on 2 May and opened the Lieutenant Governor's Suite at the Ontario Legislative Building to the public as a part of Doors Open Toronto on 27 and 28 May. An event was planned by the Lieutenant Governor of Alberta at the University of Alberta Botanic Garden, although was later cancelled due to the 2023 Alberta wildfires.

Other celebrations organised by provincial governments included events organised at the Saskatchewan Legislative Building on 5 May and the Manitoba Legislative Building on 6 May. The government of Ontario hosted a fair at Queen's Park in Toronto and offered free admission to provincially-owned attractions and 39 provincial parks on the date of the coronation. A program by the government of Newfoundland and Labrador to distribute eastern white pine seedlings from the Wooddale Provincial Tree Nursery to the public was launched on 6 May to honour Charles's focus on environmentalism.
Several coronation concerts were also organised. The Office of the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario initiated a six-part coronation concert series for long-term care homes from April to May. Several places hosted concerts during the coronation weekend, including the Cathedral Church of St James in Toronto, Christ Church Cathedral in Victoria, and Knox-Metropolitan United Church in Regina.


=== Australia ===
Celebrating Charles III's coronation as king of Australia, buildings and monuments across the country were illuminated in royal purple on 6 and 7 May. A flag notice was also issued, urging the display of the national flag, the Aboriginal flag, and Torres Strait Islander flag throughout the coronation weekend. On 7 May, the Australia's Federation Guard fired a 21-gun salute from the forecourt of Parliament House. The Royal Australian Air Force also planned a flypast of the forecourt that day, although it was cancelled due to inclement weather. The Federal Executive Council also made a $10,000 donation in the King's name to a charity working to conserve the western ground parrot, as an official ""coronation gift"" to Charles. On 9 May, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese delivered an address of congratulations in the House of Representatives, which was followed by an address from the Deputy Prime Minister Richard Marles and the Leader of the Opposition Peter Dutton.

Government Houses in Brisbane, Darwin, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney hosted open houses on 6 and 7 May, while Government House in Adelaide did the same on 21 May. A low level flypast also took place over Queensland's Government House on Coronation Day. Government Houses in Adelaide, Hobart, and Sydney also hosted garden parties and receptions during the coronation weekend, while a barbecue was held by the Governor-General of Australia at Government House, Canberra on 12 May. Government House, Melbourne held a reception later in the month on 29 May.
The Australian Monarchist League hosted several low-key events and screenings of the coronation on 5 and 6 May, including in Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney; but, opted not to organise street parties over concerns that republican protesters might disrupt them. The Australian Government was criticised by monarchists for not declaring a public holiday, or organising official government events to mark the coronation.


=== New Zealand ===
To celebrate the coronation of Charles III as king of New Zealand, a national event featuring performances was held at the Auckland Domain on 7 May. The New Zealand Defence Force performed a gun salute at Devonport and Point Jerningham in Wellington on the same day.
Trees That Count and the Department of Conservation initiated a tree planting campaign, with the New Zealand Government providing NZ$1 million to support the planting of 100,000 trees by local councils during the coronation weekend. The campaign was launched on the grounds of Parliament House, Wellington on 26 April, during a tree planting ceremony with various parliamentarians, including Prime Minister Chris Hipkins and Opposition Leader Christopher Luxon. Civic tree-planting events were held in several communities from 3 to 10 May.

NZ Post released commemorative coins and stamps on 3 May. An initiative to illuminate landmarks in purple also took place in Auckland, Hawera, and Wellington on 6 May. The chefs of Government House shared a Coronation Pie recipe to commemorate the occasion.
Several other public services and private groups also organised commemorative events. The New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts held a special exhibition to mark the coronation from 21 April to 21 May, featuring works from 68 artists and pieces belonging to the Royal New Zealand Navy. Libraries in South Taranaki hosted coronation events from 1 to 6 May. The Wellington Cathedral of St Paul held a coronation festival from 5 to 7 May.


=== Papua New Guinea ===
A ceremony was held at Sir Hubert Murray Stadium in Port Moresby on 6 May to commemorate Charles III's coronation as king of Papua New Guinea. The event was held simultaneously with the coronation ceremony in the United Kingdom. The ceremony included a parade by members of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force, Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary, Papua New Guinea Fire Services, Papua New Guinea Correctional Services and St John Ambulance, a live screening of the coronation, and various speeches and live musical performances, and a fireworks finale. Keynote speeches were also made by acting Governor-General Job Pomat and Prime Minister James Marape at the ceremony.


=== Solomon Islands ===
To celebrate Charles III's coronation as king of Solomon Islands, a wake-up call by drumbeaters, pan pipers and the Royal Solomon Islands Police Force band took place in Honiara on 6 May. A commemorative church service was held at the St Barnabas Provincial Cathedral to celebrate the coronation, which also included a cake-cutting ceremony. The service was attended by several ministers of the Crown, including Prime Minister Manasseh Sogavare. A public musical performance by One Drop Band was also held at the Unity Square, where a photographic slidehow of historic royal visits to Solomon Islands was also displayed.
From 5 to 12 May, the National Art Gallery held an exhibition displaying portraits, historical records, and visits by members of the royal family to Solomon Islands.


=== Antigua and Barbuda ===
Events to mark the coronation of Charles as king of Antigua and Barbuda took place in St. John's. On 7 May, a parade featuring the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force (ABDF), Girl Guides, Boy Scouts, Boys and Girls Brigades, The Duke of Edinburgh Award recipients, Seventh Day Adventist Pathfinder, and Cadet Corps marched from the Multipurpose Cultural Centre to Government House. There, a ceremony took place that included a bonfire and performances by the ABDF Band, Salvation Army Timbralists, and SDA Parthfinders Drum Corps. On 8 May, a service of Thanksgiving to mark the occasion took place at the St John's Pentecostal House of Restoration Ministries, where all national honourees of Antigua and Barbuda were invited to pray for the King and Queen.


=== Vanuatu ===
The Kastom people who worshipped Prince Philip on the Vanuatuan island of Tanna marked the coronation of his son. Events were organised in the villages of Yakel and Yaohnanen throughout 6 May, including a flag-raising ceremony of the Union Flag, and drinking and dancing. Around 5,000 to 6,000 people gathered to celebrate, with an additional 100 chiefs also attending.


== Coverage and ratings ==

The BBC provided the sole feed for the coronation in Ultra-high-definition HDR, a joint project by the BBC Research & Development and BBC Studios Events. Overall, the BBC used 7 outside broadcast trucks and over 100 HDR cameras for the coronation feed, and set up a temporary private 5G network along the Mall with a gigabit of uncontended wireless upload bandwidth for camera feeds. The BBC suspended the television licence fee for the coronation weekend so that venues could screen the coronation on 6 May, and the coronation concert the next day, without needing to buy a television licence. The Department for Culture, Media and Sport announced that the event would be shown on big screens across 57 locations in Britain, including in Hyde Park, Green Park and St James's Park.

Media outlets in Britain, Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand and the United States broadcast the coronation live. Several broadcasters in those countries provided coverage of the occasion throughout the coronation weekend.
The coronation was viewed by an average television audience of 18.8 million across 11 channels, with a peak television audience of 20.4 million in the United Kingdom, making it the most-watched broadcast of the year. This was, however, smaller than the television audience for Queen Elizabeth II's funeral the previous year, which averaged at 26.2 million viewers and peaked at 29.2 million. The BBC showed the coronation on BBC One, BBC Two with British Sign Language interpretation and the BBC News Channel, and its peak audience of 15.5 million was the largest of any broadcaster. ITV had an audience of 3.6 million people, with ITV3 carrying British Sign Language interpretation from 10:45 am to 1 pm, and a further 800,000 watched on Sky News and Sky Showcase.
Outside the United Kingdom, the ceremony was watched by over 3 million people in Australia, 7.6 million people in Canada, 1.2 million people in New Zealand, nearly 9 million people in France, over 4.8 million people in Germany, and 12 million people in the US.
According to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport's annual report, the coronation reached an estimated audience of 2 billion people across 125 countries.


== Reactions ==


=== Public opinion ===
Multiple public opinion surveys related to the coronation were conducted in the United Kingdom in the lead-up to the event. In a YouGov survey conducted in April 2023, 46 per cent of respondents stated they would watch the event on television; a similar poll conducted by Ipsos in May 2023 indicated that 40 per cent of British adults intended to watch the ceremony, with 29 per cent stating they had no plans to celebrate the event. Another YouGov surveys taken during that period found that 64 per cent of respondents did not care about the ceremony, ""very much"" or ""at all"", with 33 per cent caring ""a great deal"" or ""a fair amount"". A third YouGov survey found that 51 per cent of respondents believed that the coronation should not be financed by taxpayers.
YouGov also conducted a poll in Australia, where it found that 57 per cent of respondents expressed some interest in the coronation, with 14 per cent being very interested in the event. Among the respondents, 43 per cent expressed no interest in the coronation.
An Angus Reid Institute poll in Canada found that 59 per cent of respondents paid some attention to the coronation, with 9 per cent of respondents highly anticipating the event, 20 per cent of respondents stating they would likely watch the coronation, and 29 per cent planning to read about it. Among the respondents, 41 per cent expressed no interest in the coronation.


==== Post-coronation ====
A post-coronation poll conducted by Ipsos found that both Charles and William received higher public satisfaction ratings in the UK following the coronation. However, unlike earlier jubilees and royal events, support for the institution itself saw no boost as a result of the coronation, with 61 per cent of respondents stating that the event had no impact on their perception of the monarchy. Among the respondents, 19 per cent reported that the coronation had a positive impact on their perception of the institution, while another 19 per cent stated that the event had an adverse effect on their perception of the monarchy.


=== Protests ===

The British republican group Republic protested against the coronation in London; its chief executive, Graham Smith, called the ceremony a ""celebration of hereditary power and privilege"". The organisation anticipated an attendance of around 1,500–2,000 in Trafalgar Square, the focus of the London protests, with smaller groups of one to three people spread throughout the procession route. However, according to BBC News, the number of protestors was only in the hundreds. Republic encouraged protesters to wear yellow during the protest.
Pro–Scottish independence and republican marches took place in both Edinburgh and Glasgow on the day of the coronation. The group All Under One Banner marched in Glasgow, and the Radical Independence Campaign and Our Republic in Edinburgh. The latter group also promoted the Declaration of Calton Hill during its march.
The Welsh republican advocacy group Cymru Republic staged a protest on 6 May in Cardiff, with a march from the statue of Aneurin Bevan to Bute Park. Around 300 protesters took part.


==== Security arrangements ====

To manage disruptive protests and deter potential threats and criminal activities at the event, the police and security services from across the United Kingdom deployed a large number of physical barriers, armed officers, and police drones in London. Over 11,500 police officers were on duty on the day of the coronation, and units of the UK Counter Terrorism Defence Mechanism were also placed on standby. Extensive security planning had been ongoing for several years leading up to the coronation as part of Operation Golden Orb.
Republic had been engaged in consultations with the police in the months leading up to the event regarding their demonstration plans. They had been assured by the police until 5 May that there would be no complications with their protest.


==== Arrests ====
The Metropolitan Police stated that of the 64 arrests made on the day of the coronation, 52 were related to ""concerns people were going to disrupt the event, and arrests included to prevent a breach of the peace and conspiracy to cause a public nuisance""; the other 12 were made for other offences. Those arrested included individuals from Animal Rising, eight members from Just Stop Oil, and six members from Republic, including their chief executive, Graham Smith. An Australian bystander who was mistaken for a Just Stop Oil protester was also arrested.
The Metropolitan Police said that some arrests were due to plans by protesters to ""throw rape alarms"" in an attempt to startle horses in the parade, potentially injuring riders and spectators, something about which they had briefed Oliver Dowden, the deputy prime minister, in April 2023. Three members of the women's safety campaign group Night Stars were arrested for distributing rape alarms to women in Westminster, prompting criticism from the Green Party politician Caroline Russell.
Human Rights Watch described the arrests as alarming and something ""you would expect to see in Moscow not London"". On 8 May the Metropolitan Police apologised to six of the arrested protesters, including Smith, after a review found no proof that the protesters in question were going to engage in unlawful behaviour. The Metropolitan Police expressed ""regret"" over the arrest of Smith and the five other protesters. Smith indicated that he would not be willing to accept the apology, and that he would be considering legal action. The City of Westminster Council have requested an apology from the police for the arrest of the night voluntary workers.
The Home Affairs Committee was to hold an evidence session on the policing of the coronation and arrest of republican protesters on 17 May. The Metropolitan Police and Lincolnshire Police also submitted a voluntary complaint referral to the Independent Office for Police Conduct concerning the arrest of the Australian bystander on 17 May. The Mayor of London has also demanded answers from the Metropolitan Police over the arrests.


=== Reparatory demands ===
In the lead-up to the coronation, indigenous republican and reparations campaigners from 12 Commonwealth realms signed an open letter to Charles, asking him to formally apologise for the effects of British colonialism and to begin a ""process of reparatory justice"". The prime ministers of Belize, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, used the occasion to argue that Britain should apologise for the slave trade.
The use of the Cullinan diamonds in the coronation was controversial in South Africa. The ceremony prompted some South Africans to demand their return, following a petition on the same topic after the death of Queen Elizabeth II which attracted 8,000 signatures.


=== Republicanism ===
Marlene Malahoo Forte, the minister of legal and constitutional affairs of Jamaica, used the coronation to emphasise the Jamaican government's intention to transition to being a republic as early as 2024, and that the coronation had accelerated the government's plans for a referendum on the subject. A constitutional reform committee on the issue was set up earlier in 2023.
The prime ministers of Belize, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines voiced their desires for their respective countries to transition towards a republic. A constitutional commission to look into the issue was formed in November 2022 in Belize. In the lead-up to the coronation, the prime ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines also pledged to create constitutional commissions to look into the issue.
In the lead-up to the coronation, republicans in Australia criticised Prime Minister Anthony Albanese for attending the coronation, and he faced pressure from republicans to not partake in the oath of allegiance.


=== Reaction from international leaders ===
Leaders from around the world congratulated the King and Queen both before and after the event. Heads of state and heads of government that sent well wishes to Charles and Camilla include Chinese President Xi Jinping, French President Emmanuel Macron, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, Morocco's King Mohammed VI, Norway's King Harald V, Philippine President Bongbong Marcos Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong and US President Joe Biden. Well wishes were also sent from the president of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen, the president of the European Council Charles Michel, the president of the European Central Bank Christine Lagarde and the secretary general of NATO Jens Stoltenberg.


== See also ==

Canadian Coronation Contingent
Coronation of the British monarch
List of British coronations
List of people involved in coronations of the British monarch


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Blair, Claude, ed. (1998). The Crown Jewels: The History of the Coronation Regalia …. The Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-11-701359-9.


== External links ==

Official website
The Coronation at the Royal Family website
The Coronation of King Charles III at the website of the Church of England
The Coronation Roll at the website of the Government of the United Kingdom
The Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla at the website of the House of Commons Library
The Coronation Service – The Royal Family
Order of service and liturgy

Order of Service for the Coronation of Their Majesties King Charles III and Queen Camilla at the Royal Family website
The Authorised Liturgy for the Coronation Rite of His Majesty King Charles III at website of the Church of England
All the Bible verses in the Coronation at the website of the British and Foreign Bible Society
Government websites

Coronation at the website of the Government of the United Kingdom
Canadian celebrations of His Majesty King Charles III's Coronation at the website of the Government of Canada
The Coronation of His Majesty the King and Her Majesty The Queen Consort at the website of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (Australian Government)
Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla at the website of the Governor-General of New Zealand"
Stevie Ray Vaughan's musical instruments,"This is a list and description of the guitars and other equipment played by musician Stevie Ray Vaughan. Vaughan played a number of Fender Stratocasters throughout his career, one of which, a 1963 body and a 1962 (with a rosewood slab fingerboard) neck, became ""the most famous battered Strat in rock history."" He was notoriously hard on his guitars, and many of them required extensive periodic maintenance, as well as other equipment. He used a limited number of (mainly vintage) effect pedals, and favored Fender and Marshall amplification. 
In spite of being rough on his gear, it was reported Vaughan could hear even the slightest malfunction, even when, for instance, he was running 32 amplifiers into the mixing console for the recording of In Step.  His guitars were serviced by Charley Wirz of Charley's Guitar Shop in Dallas, Texas, and especially Rene Martinez, who worked in Wirz's shop for a while. Martinez also built guitars for Carlos Santana. His amplifiers were tuned and serviced by Cesar Diaz, also the guitar technician for Eric Clapton and Bob Dylan.


== Number One ==
Number One (also known as Vaughan's 'First Wife') was a  Fender Stratocaster used by Vaughan for most of his career; it was ""rebuilt more times than a custom Chevy."" Vaughan always claimed it was a 1959 model, since that date was written on the back of the pick-ups; Rene Martinez, who maintained the guitar since 1980, saw the year 1963 stamped in the body and 1962 on the neck. The guitar was given to him by Ray Hennig, owner of Ray & Shane Hennig's Heart of Texas Music store on South Lamar in Austin, Texas in 1973 and was his main performing instrument and companion. Vaughan used the guitar on all five of his studio albums and on Family Style. The distinctive cigarette burn on the headstock comes from an incident when Vaughan had left a burning cigarette tucked under the sixth string for too long while playing.
The article ""Supernova Strats"" by Dan Erlewine published in the February 1990 issue of Guitar Player magazine includes measurements of the specifications of several of Vaughan's guitars. All of Vaughan's guitars had a neck relief of approximately .012"" at the 7th and 9th frets, and leveled out through the remainder of the fingerboard. The fingerboard radius of ""Number One"" when new would have been 7.25"" like most Fender instruments made before the 1980s, but after refretting the fingerboard multiple times the radius evolved into a 9"" or 10"" radius in the upper registers. The guitar featured frets that measured 0.110"" wide by 0.055"" when new, similar to Dunlop 6100 fretwire. String height was measured to be 5/64"" on the high E string and 7/64"" on the low E string. Each string had three full winds for the best angle at the bone nut. It had a left-handed tremolo block, even though Vaughan was right-handed.


=== Neck ===
The original neck has a fairly thick D-shaped profile. It was not as sometimes stated a ""D"" width nut (D width was 17⁄8 inch – the standard width was B which is 15⁄8 – SRV's guitar had a standard B width of nominally 15⁄8). The nut width letter was stamped on the end of the neck on Fender guitars from March 1962. It had a curved rosewood fingerboard and was refretted so often that, after a while, it could not be refretted anymore. Martinez replaced it with the neck from ""Red"" (see below). This neck was destroyed when a piece of stage rigging fell on it. After Vaughan's death, the original neck was reinstalled on Number One, and both are now in the possession of Jimmie Vaughan.


=== Fender signature model ===

Vaughan collaborated with Fender for an Artist Signature model, based on Number One; already in the works at the time of Vaughan's death, his brother Jimmie asked for the process to be sped up and the guitar became available in 1992. To achieve the sound Vaughan wanted, builder Larry Brooks put 6000 windings on the pickups. Besides adding to the number of windings, the polarity of the middle pickup was reversed to eliminate hum. The signature Strat has an alder body with a maple neck and pau ferro fingerboard, and comes equipped with .010-.046 strings (lighter than Vaughan's); it was praised by Guitar Player for its neck and ""juicy tone"": ""the SRV is one of the coolest Strats we've ever played.""


== Yellow ==
Yellow was a 1959 Stratocaster formerly owned by Vanilla Fudge's lead guitarist, Vince Martell, who sold it to Charley Wirz. The body had been hollowed out to make room for ""a shitload of humbuckers,"" but Wirz fashioned a new pickguard in which he placed a single Fender Strat pickup in the neck position and painted the body yellow. Wirz gave the guitar to Vaughan in 1982; it is the guitar with the letters ""SRV"" on the pickguard under the strings.


== Red ==
In late 1983, Vaughan purchased a 1962 sunburst Fender Stratocaster from Charley's Guitar Shop, though he had it repainted by Fender in fiesta red as a custom color option, and simply named the guitar ""Red."" The guitar remained stock until 1986, when a left-handed neck was installed and ""SRV"" stickers were applied to the pickguard.  In 1989, the neck on ""Number One"" was unable to withstand more re-fret jobs, replacing it with the original neck from ""Red."" The next year, following a concert at the Garden State Arts Center in Holmdel, New Jersey, a stanchion fell onto Vaughan's rack of guitars, splitting the neck from ""Red"" that was installed on ""Number One."" The neck was replaced the next night.


== Hamiltone Guitars ==

Hamiltone (also known as ""Main"" or the ""Couldn't Stand the Weather"" guitar) was a custom Stratocaster-style guitar made for Vaughan by James Hamilton in Buffalo, NY. It was presented to Vaughan by James as a gift from ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons on April 29, 1984.
This guitar features a 2-piece maple body and a 3-piece ""neck-through body"" design. It also originally had EMG preamped pickups, but Vaughan didn't like the pickups in it. He was about to make next the music video for ""Couldn't Stand the Weather"", and didn't want to get Number One wet during filming, as that would have ruined the 1959 pickups, so he used the Hamiltone for filming. The EMG pickups and Gibson style amber top hat knobs were changed in June 1984.
The Hamiltone's fingerboard is ebony with a mother-of-pearl inlay that read ""Stevie Ray Vaughan"". The guitar was originally set to be made for Stevie in 1979, but the plan was dropped when Vaughan started using his middle name ""Ray""; he was only known as ""Stevie Vaughan"" at the time.
This guitar has been on display at a Guitar Center in Austin, TX since 2018 in celebration of his 64th birthday.


== Scotch ==

Scotch is a 1961 Fender Stratocaster used by Vaughan for the last five years of his life. He acquired this guitar in the fall of 1985, and it is said to have been bought in either Baltimore or ""The Boathouse"" in Norfolk, Virginia. It was to be a prize at one of Stevie's shows, but he bought the guitar instead and gave away another one of his guitars.
This guitar has a butterscotch colored finish with a non-original tiger-striped pickguard made by Rene Martinez, Vaughan's guitar tech. The tiger-striped pickguard resembled the same pickguard Buddy Guy had on his butter-colored guitar at the time.
Scotch was stock except for the tiger-striped pickguard where he added his famous ""SRV"" prismatic stickers.


== Charley ==
Charley was a white custom-made ""hardtail"" (non-tremolo, fixed bridge) ""Stratocaster-style"" guitar built by Charley Wirz, a friend of Vaughan's and owner of Charley's Guitar Shop in Dallas. Wirz built it in late 1983, and placed a neck plate on it engraved ""To Stevie Ray Vaughan, more in '84"". It had three Danelectro lipstick pickups. This guitar often was used during ""Life Without You"", which was itself said to be written as a tribute to Charley Wirz.


== Lenny ==
Lenny is a 1963 or 1964 Stratocaster, bought for Vaughan for his birthday by his wife, Lenora, and several friends because he didn't have the money to buy it. Originally 3-tone sunburst with a rosewood neck, it was later stripped down to a dark natural finish and re-fitted with a mid-'50s-style maple neck reportedly given to him by Billy Gibbons. Behind the bridge, on the lower bout of the guitar body is a unique inlay, thought to be originally from an early 1900s mandolin. The Fender Custom Shop has produced a limited-edition run of Lenny replicas since December 12, 2007, and they are sold by Guitar Center for $17,000. The guitar was mainly used for ""Lenny"".
In 2004, Lenny was put up for auction and was sold to Guitar Center for $623,500. It is on display at Guitar Center's Austin location on Anderson Lane.


== Guild acoustic ==
He played a Guild JF6512 on MTV Unplugged, and on ""Life By The Drop"" from the posthumous album The Sky Is Crying.


== Other guitar equipment ==


=== Strings ===
Vaughan was noted for playing extraordinarily thick strings, ""as thick as barbed wire,"" ""sometimes as extreme as a .018 through .074 set."" He was not picky on string brand, but favored GHS Nickel Rockers of heavy gauge, partly for tone and partly because his fretting and strumming were so strong he often snapped strings while playing. He changed around gauges often, depending on the condition of his fingers, but always favored, from high to low, .013, .015, .019, .028, .038, .058. Sometimes he used a slightly lighter high E string (.012 or .011). He always tuned down one half step.


=== Picks ===
Vaughan favored Fender Medium picks, and played with the round end of the pick, maintaining that the rounded end allowed for more string attack than the tip.


== Amplifiers ==

Vaughan used various amplifiers, mainly Fender and Marshall. On his choice of amp use, he stated that he used the ""Fenders for distortion and the Marshall for clarity"", in contrast to most guitarists utilizing both amps the other way around. He often used two amplifiers simultaneously, one more distorted than the other. 
The amplifiers he used on stage included:

Two ""Blackface"" Fender Super Reverbs
Marshall Club & Country combo amp with 2×12"" JBL speakers
Two 1964 ""Blackface"" Fender Vibroverb amplifiers (numbers five and six off production line), each with one 15"" speaker
From early on his career, beginning in 1979, Vaughan received technical assistance from César Díaz, who began by replacing and tweaking the output transformers on his amplifiers. Vaughan played so hard (especially on the low strings) and his heavy strings produced such ""non-standard frequencies"" that the amplifiers' vacuum tubes would occasionally spark and emit smoke, causing the need to buffer the input.
An oddity about Vaughan's usage was that he preferred the amplifier's dials to always have the same numbers (""Volume at 7, treble at 51⁄2, bass at 4""), and ""in order to avoid problems, [Díaz] would back off the volume control by unscrewing the knob and turning it back a bit so it would appear to be at the same level as before.""


=== Studio equipment ===
On Texas Flood, Vaughan borrowed a Howard Dumble amplifier from Jackson Browne, and he later bought a 150-watt Dumble Steel String Singer. Besides Dumble, he also used Mesa Boogie amplifiers and a Groove Tubes pre-amp. 
After he kicked his addictions, Vaughan became especially obsessed with the sound produced by his amplifiers. During the rehearsals for In Step in New York City, Díaz brought 32 amplifiers, as well as 200-watt Marshall 4×15"" bass cabinets. According to Díaz, ""the whole studio was taken up with amps—upstairs, downstairs, every room was filled with amps. So he would hit these notes, and the whole place would rattle.""


== Effects ==

Vaughan typically used an Ibanez Tube Screamer (various kinds—the TS-808, TS9, and TS10) and a Leslie revolving speaker. Occasionally he used a Fender Vibratone (aka. Leslie 16/18. A Leslie speaker especially designed for guitar), and a Fuzz Face and Octavia. His standard wah pedal was a Vox, sometimes two simultaneously. 


== See also ==
List of guitars


== References ==
Notes

Bibliography
Chappell, Jon (1999). The recording guitarist: a guide for home and studio. Hal Leonard. ISBN 978-0-7935-8704-9.
Gregory, Hugh (2003). Roadhouse blues: Stevie Ray Vaughan and Texas R&B. Hal Leonard. pp. 124–25. ISBN 978-0-87930-747-9.
Hurwitz, Tobias (1999). Guitar Shop -- Getting Your Sound: Handy Guide. Alfred Music. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-88284-956-0. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
Kitts, Jeff (1997). Guitar world presents Stevie Ray Vaughan: ... from the pages of Guitar World magazine. Hal Leonard. ISBN 978-0-7935-8080-4. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
Wheeler, Tom (2004). The Stratocaster chronicles: Fender, celebrating 50 years of the Fender Strat. Hal Leonard. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-634-05678-9.
Further reading
Dickerson, James (September 25, 2004). The fabulous Vaughan Brothers: Jimmie and Stevie Ray. Lanham: Taylor Trade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58979-116-9.
Everitt, Rich (September 2004). Falling stars: air crashes that filled rock and roll heaven. Atlanta: Harbor House. ISBN 978-1-891799-04-4.
Gill, Chris (August 18, 2010). ""Stevie Ray Vaughan: Lone Star Rising"". Guitar World. Future US.
Govenar, Alan (2008). Texas blues: the rise of a contemporary sound. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-605-6.


== External links ==
Ultimate Guitar - Stevie Ray Vaughan. Part 2: His Guitars"
South Park,"South Park is an American  animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone, and developed by Brian Graden for Comedy Central. The series revolves around four boys—Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick—and their exploits in and around the titular Colorado town. South Park also features many recurring characters. The series became infamous for its profanity and dark, surreal humor that satirizes a large range of subject matter.
Parker and Stone developed South Park from two animated short films, both titled The Spirit of Christmas, released in 1992 and 1995. The second short became one of the first viral Internet videos, leading to the series' production. The pilot episode was produced using cutout animation; the remainder of the series uses computer animation recalling the prior technique. Since the fourth season, episodes have generally been written and produced during the week preceding their broadcast, with Parker serving as the lead writer and director.
Since its debut on August 13, 1997, 328 episodes of South Park have been broadcast. It debuted with great success, consistently earning the highest ratings of any basic cable program. Subsequent ratings have varied, but it remains one of Comedy Central's longest-running programs. In August 2021, South Park was renewed through 2027, and a series of television specials was announced for Paramount+, the first two of which were released later that year. In October 2019, it was announced that WarnerMedia had acquired exclusive streaming rights to South Park starting in June 2020 for HBO Max. The series' twenty-seventh season will premiere on July 9, 2025.
South Park has received critical acclaim, and is included in various publications' lists of the greatest television shows. It has received numerous accolades, including five Primetime Emmy Awards and a Peabody Award. A theatrical film, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, was released in June 1999 to commercial and critical success, garnering an Academy Award nomination. In 2013, TV Guide ranked South Park the tenth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time.


== Premise ==


=== Setting and characters ===

South Park centers around four boys: Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick. The boys live in the fictional small town of South Park, located within the real-life South Park basin in the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado, approximately a one-hour drive from Denver. The town is also home to an assortment of other characters, including students, families, elementary school staff, and other various residents. Prominent settings include South Park Elementary, various neighborhoods and the surrounding mountain range, actual Colorado landmarks, and the businesses along the town's main street, all of which are based on the appearance of similar locations in Fairplay, Colorado. As one of the few television programs set in the Mountain West region that takes place outside the urban core of Denver, South Park frequently features the unique culture of the region, including cattle ranchers, Old West theme parks, snowy climates, mountaineering, Mormons, real-life Colorado locations such as Casa Bonita and Cave of the Winds, and many other regionally specific characteristics.
Stan is portrayed as an average American boy; however, he has many mishaps throughout the series. In the first 22 seasons, Stan lived in South Park, but in the episodes during and after season 22, Stan resided in Tegridy Farms. Kyle is Jewish, and his portrayal as one of the few such people in South Park is often dealt with satirically. Stan is modeled after Parker, while Kyle is modeled after Stone. They are best friends, and their friendship, symbolically intended to reflect Parker and Stone's friendship, is a common topic throughout the series. Cartman (as he is commonly referred to) is amoral and increasingly psychopathic, and is commonly portrayed as an antagonist. His staunch antisemitism has resulted in a progressive rivalry with Kyle. Kenny, who comes from a poor family, tightly wears his parka hood to the point where it obscures most of his face and muffles his speech. During the first five seasons, Kenny died in almost every episode before reappearing in the next with no definite explanation. He was killed off in the fifth season episode ""Kenny Dies"", before being reintroduced in the sixth season finale, ""Red Sleigh Down"". Since then, Kenny is depicted as dying sporadically. During the first 58 episodes, the children were in the third grade. During the fourth season, they entered the fourth grade, where they have remained ever since.
Plots are often set in motion by events, ranging from the fairly typical to the supernatural and extraordinary, which frequently happen in the town. The boys often act as the voice of reason when these events cause panic or incongruous behavior among the adult populace, who are customarily depicted as irrational, gullible, and prone to overreaction. They are frequently confused by the contradictory and hypocritical behavior of their parents and other adults, and often perceive them as having distorted views on morality and society.


=== Themes and style ===

Each episode opens with a tongue-in-cheek all persons fictitious disclaimer: ""All characters and events in this show—even those based on real people—are entirely fictional. All celebrity voices are impersonated.....poorly. The following program contains coarse language and due to its content it should not be viewed by anyone.""
South Park was the first weekly program to be rated TV-MA, and is generally intended for adult audiences. The boys and most other child characters use strong profanity, with only the most taboo words being bleeped during a typical broadcast. Parker and Stone perceive this as the manner in which real-life small boys speak when they are alone.
South Park commonly makes use of carnivalesque and absurdist techniques, numerous running gags, violence, sexual content, offhand pop-cultural references, and satirical portrayal of celebrities.
Early episodes tended to be shock value-oriented and featured more slapstick-style humor. While social satire had been used on the show occasionally earlier on, it became more prevalent as the series progressed, with the show retaining some of its focus on the boys' fondness of scatological humor in an attempt to remind adult viewers ""what it was like to be eight years old"". Parker and Stone also began further developing other characters by giving them larger roles in certain storylines, and began writing plots as parables based on religion, politics, and numerous other topics. This provided the opportunity for the show to spoof both extreme sides of contentious issues, while lampooning both liberal and conservative points of view. Rebecca Raphael described the show as ""an equal opportunity offender"", while Parker and Stone describe their main purpose as to ""be funny"" and ""make people laugh"", while stating that no particular topic or group of people be exempt from mockery and satire.
Parker and Stone insist that the show is still more about ""kids being kids"" and ""what it's like to be in [elementary school] in America"", stating that the introduction of a more satirical element to the series was the result of the two adding more of a ""moral center"" to the show so that it would rely less on simply being crude and shocking in an attempt to maintain an audience. While profane, Parker notes that there is still an ""underlying sweetness"" aspect to the child characters, and Time described the boys as ""sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence"". Usually, the boys or other characters pondered over what transpired during an episode and conveyed the important lesson taken from it with a short monologue. During earlier seasons, this speech commonly began with a variation of the phrase ""You know, I've learned something today..."".


== Development ==

Parker and Stone met in film class at the University of Colorado in 1992 and discovered a shared love of Monty Python, which they often cite as one of their primary inspirations. They created an animated short entitled The Spirit of Christmas. The film was created by animating construction paper cutouts with stop motion, and features prototypes of the main characters of South Park, including a character resembling Cartman but named ""Kenny"", an unnamed character resembling what is today Kenny, and two near-identical unnamed characters who resemble Stan and Kyle. Fox Broadcasting Company executive and mutual friend Brian Graden commissioned Parker and Stone to create a second short film as a video Christmas card. Created in 1995, the second The Spirit of Christmas short resembled the style of the later series more closely. To differentiate between the two homonymous shorts, the first short is often referred to as Jesus vs. Frosty, and the second short as Jesus vs. Santa. Graden sent copies of the video to several of his friends, and from there it was copied and distributed, including on the internet, where it became one of the first viral videos.
As Jesus vs. Santa became more popular, Parker and Stone began talks of developing the short into a television series about four children residing in a fictional Colorado town in the real-life South Park basin. Fox eagerly agreed to meet with the duo about the show's premise, having prided itself on edgier products such as Cops, The Simpsons, and The X-Files. However, during the meeting at the Fox office in Century City, disagreements between the two creators and the network began to arise, mainly over the latter's refusal to air a show that included a supporting talking stool character named Mr. Hankey. Some executives at 20th Century Fox Television (which was to produce the series) agreed with its then-sister network's stance on Mr. Hankey and repeatedly requested Parker and Stone to remove the character in order for the show to proceed. Refusing to meet their demands, the duo cut ties with Fox and its sister companies all together and began shopping the series somewhere else.
The two then entered negotiations with both MTV and Comedy Central. Parker preferred the show be produced by Comedy Central, fearing that MTV would turn it into a kids show. When Comedy Central executive Doug Herzog watched the short, he commissioned for it to be developed into a series. Parker and Stone assembled a small staff and spent three months creating the pilot episode ""Cartman Gets an Anal Probe"". South Park was in danger of being canceled before it even aired when the show fared poorly with test audiences, particularly with women. However, the shorts were still gaining more popularity over the Internet, and Comedy Central ordered a run of six episodes. South Park debuted with ""Cartman Gets an Anal Probe"" on August 13, 1997.


== Production ==
Except for the pilot episode, which was produced using cutout animation, all episodes of South Park are created with the use of software, primarily Autodesk Maya. As opposed to the pilot, which took three months to complete, and other animated sitcoms, which are traditionally hand-drawn by companies in South Korea in a process that takes roughly eight to nine months, individual episodes of South Park take significantly less time to produce. Using computers as an animation method, the show's production staff were able to generate an episode in about three weeks during the first seasons. Now, with a staff of about 70 people, episodes are typically completed in one week, with some in as little as three to four days. Nearly the entire production of an episode is accomplished within one set of offices, which were originally at a complex in  Westwood, Los Angeles, California and are now part of South Park Studios in Culver City, California. Parker and Stone have been the show's executive producers throughout its entire history. Debbie Liebling, who was Senior Vice President of original programming and development for Comedy Central, also served as an executive producer during the show's first five seasons, coordinating the show's production efforts between South Park Studios and Comedy Central's headquarters in New York City. During its early stages, finished episodes of South Park were hastily recorded to D-2 to be sent to Comedy Central for airing in just a few days' time. Each episode used to cost $250,000.


=== Writing ===

Scripts are not written before a season begins. Production of an episode begins on a Thursday, with the show's writing consultants brainstorming with Parker and Stone. Former staff writers include Pam Brady, who has since written scripts for the films Hot Rod, Hamlet 2 and Team America: World Police (with Parker and Stone), and Nancy Pimental, who served as co-host of Win Ben Stein's Money and wrote the film The Sweetest Thing after her tenure with the show during its first three seasons. Television producer and writer Norman Lear, an idol of both Parker and Stone, served as a guest writing consultant for the season seven (2003) episodes ""Cancelled"" and ""I'm a Little Bit Country"". During the 12th and 13th seasons, Saturday Night Live actor and writer Bill Hader served as a creative consultant and co-producer.
After exchanging ideas, Parker will write a script, and from there the entire team of animators, editors, technicians, and sound engineers will each typically work 100–120 hours in the ensuing week. Since the show's fourth season (2000), Parker has assumed most of the show's directorial duties, while Stone relinquished his share of the directing to focus on handling the coordination and business aspects of the production. On Wednesday, a completed episode is sent to Comedy Central's headquarters via satellite uplink, sometimes just a few hours before its air time of 10 PM Eastern Time.
Parker and Stone state that subjecting themselves to a one-week deadline creates more spontaneity amongst themselves in the creative process, which they feel results in a funnier show. The schedule also allows South Park to both stay more topical and respond more quickly to specific current events than other satiric animated shows. One of the earliest examples of this was in the season four (2000) episode ""Quintuplets 2000"", which references the United States Border Patrol's raid of a house during the Elián González affair, an event which occurred only four days before the episode originally aired. The season nine (2005) episode ""Best Friends Forever"" references the Terri Schiavo case, and originally aired in the midst of the controversy and less than 12 hours before she died. A scene in the season seven (2003) finale ""It's Christmas in Canada"" references the discovery of dictator Saddam Hussein in a ""spider hole"" and his subsequent capture, which happened a mere three days prior to the episode airing. The season 12 (2008) episode ""About Last Night..."" revolves around Barack Obama's victory in the 2008 presidential election, and aired less than 24 hours after Obama was declared the winner, using segments of dialogue from Obama's real victory speech.
On October 16, 2013, the show failed to meet their production deadline for the first time ever, after a power outage on October 15 at the production studio prevented the episode, season 17's ""Goth Kids 3: Dawn of the Posers"", from being finished in time. The episode was rescheduled to air a week later on October 23, 2013.


=== Animation ===

The show's style of animation is inspired by the paper cut-out cartoons made by Terry Gilliam for Monty Python's Flying Circus, of which Parker and Stone have been lifelong fans. Construction paper and traditional stop motion cutout animation techniques were used in the original animated shorts and in the pilot episode. Subsequent episodes have been produced by computer animation, providing a similar look to the originals while requiring a fraction of the time to produce. Before computer artists begin animating an episode, a series of animatics drawn in Toon Boom are provided by the show's storyboard artists.
The characters and objects are composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary and secondary colors. Most child characters are the same size and shape, and are distinguished by their clothing, hair and skin colors, and headwear. Characters are mostly presented two-dimensionally and from only one angle. Their movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion, as they are purposely not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand-drawn characters. Occasionally, some non-fictional characters are depicted with photographic cutouts of their actual head and face in lieu of a face reminiscent of the show's traditional style. Canadians on the show are often portrayed in an even more minimalist fashion; they have simple beady eyes, and the top halves of their heads simply flap up and down when the characters speak.
When the show began using computers, the cardboard cutouts were scanned and re-drawn with CorelDRAW, then imported into PowerAnimator, which was used with SGI workstations to animate the characters. The workstations were linked to a 54-processor render farm that could render 10 to 15 shots an hour. Beginning with season five, the animators began using Maya instead of PowerAnimator. As of 2012, the studio ran a 120-processor render farm that can produce 30 or more shots an hour.
PowerAnimator and Maya are high-end programs mainly used for 3D computer graphics, while co-producer and former animation director Eric Stough notes that PowerAnimator was initially chosen because its features helped animators retain the show's ""homemade"" look. PowerAnimator was also used for making some of the show's visual effects, which are now created using Motion, a newer graphics program created by Apple, Inc. for their Mac OS X operating system. The show's visual quality has improved in recent seasons, though several other techniques are used to intentionally preserve the cheap cutout animation look.
A few episodes feature sections of live-action footage, while others have incorporated other styles of animation. Portions of the season eight (2004) premiere ""Good Times with Weapons"" are done in anime style, while the season 10 episode ""Make Love, Not Warcraft"" is done partly in machinima. The season 12 episode ""Major Boobage"", a homage to the 1981 animated film Heavy Metal, implements scenes accomplished with rotoscoping.


=== Voice cast ===

Parker and Stone voice most of the male South Park characters. Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her death in November 1999. Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman, with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season (2003). She was replaced by April Stewart, who, along with Marshall, continues to voice most of the female characters. Bergman was originally listed in the credits under the alias Shannen Cassidy to protect her reputation as the voice of several Disney and other kid-friendly characters. Stewart was originally credited under the name Gracie Lazar, while Schneider was sometimes credited under her rock opera performance pseudonym Blue Girl.
Other voice actors and members of South Park's production staff have voiced minor characters for various episodes, while a few staff members voice recurring characters. Supervising producer Jennifer Howell voices student Bebe Stevens; co-producer and storyboard artist Adrien Beard voices Tolkien Black, who was the school's only African-American student until the introduction of Nichole in ""Cartman Finds Love""; writing consultant Vernon Chatman voices an anthropomorphic towel named Towelie; and production supervisor John Hansen voices Mr. Slave, the former gay lover of Mr. Garrison. Throughout the show's run, the voices for toddler and kindergarten characters have been provided by various small children of the show's production staff.
When voicing child characters, the voice actors speak within their normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection. The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader.
Isaac Hayes voiced the character of Chef, an African-American, soul-singing cafeteria worker who was one of the few adults the boys consistently trusted. Hayes agreed to voice the character after being among Parker and Stone's ideal candidates, which also included Lou Rawls and Barry White. Hayes, who lived and hosted a radio show in New York during his tenure with South Park, recorded his dialogue on a digital audio tape while a director gave directions over the phone, after which the tape would be shipped to the show's production studio in California. After Hayes left the show in early 2006, the character of Chef was killed off in the season 10 (2006) premiere ""The Return of Chef"".


==== Guest stars ====

Celebrities who are depicted on the show are usually impersonated, though some celebrities do their own voices for the show. Celebrities who have voiced themselves include Michael Buffer, Brent Musburger, Jay Leno, Robert Smith, and the bands Radiohead and Korn.
Comedy team Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four (2000) episode ""Cherokee Hair Tampons"", which was the duo's first collaborative effort in 20 years. Malcolm McDowell appears in live-action sequences as the narrator of the season four episode ""Pip"".
Jennifer Aniston, Richard Belzer, Natasha Henstridge, Norman Lear, and Peter Serafinowicz have guest starred as other speaking characters. During South Park's earliest seasons, several high-profile celebrities inquired about guest-starring on the show. As a joke, Parker and Stone responded by offering low-profile, non-speaking roles, most of which were accepted; George Clooney provided the barks for Stan's dog Sparky in the season one (1997) episode ""Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride"", Leno provided the meows for Cartman's cat in the season one finale ""Cartman's Mom Is a Dirty Slut"", and Henry Winkler voiced the various growls and grunts of a kid-eating monster in the season two (1998) episode ""City on the Edge of Forever"". Jerry Seinfeld offered to lend his voice for the Thanksgiving episode ""Starvin' Marvin"", but declined to appear when he was only offered a role as ""Turkey #2"".


=== Music ===

Parker says that the varying uses of music are of utmost importance to South Park. Several characters often play or sing songs in order to change or influence a group's behavior, or to educate, motivate, or indoctrinate others. The show also frequently features scenes in which its characters have disapproving reactions to the performances of certain popular musicians.
Adam Berry, the show's original score composer, used sound synthesis to simulate a small orchestra, and frequently alluded to existing famous pieces of music. Berry also used signature acoustic guitar and mandolin cues as leitmotifs for the show's establishing shots. After Berry left in 2001, Jamie Dunlap and Scott Nickoley of the Los Angeles-based Mad City Production Studios provided the show's original music for the next seven seasons. Since 2008, Dunlap has been credited as the show's sole score composer. Dunlap's contributions to the show are one of the few that are not achieved at the show's own production offices. Dunlap reads a script, creates a score using digital audio software, and then e-mails the audio file to South Park Studios, where it is edited to fit with the completed episode.
In addition to singing in an effort to explain something to the children, Chef would also sing about things relevant to what had transpired in the plot. These songs were original compositions written by Parker, and they were performed by Hayes in the same sexually suggestive R&B style he had used during his own music career. The band DVDA, which consists of Parker and Stone, along with show staff members Bruce Howell and D.A. Young, performed the music for these compositions and, until the character's death on the show, were listed as ""Chef's Band"" in the closing credits.
Rick James, Elton John, Meat Loaf, Joe Strummer, Ozzy Osbourne, Primus, Rancid, and Ween all guest starred and briefly performed in the season two (1998) episode ""Chef Aid"". Korn debuted their single ""Falling Away from Me"" as guest stars on the season three (1999) episode ""Korn's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery"".


==== Main theme ====
The show's theme song was a musical score performed by the band Primus, with the lyrics alternately sung by the band's lead singer, Les Claypool, and the show's four central characters during the opening title sequence. Kenny's muffled lines are altered after every few seasons. His lines are usually sexually explicit in nature, such as his original lines, ""I like girls with big fat titties, I like girls with deep vaginas"".
The original unaired opening composition was originally slower and had a length of 40 seconds. It was deemed too long for the opening sequence. So Parker and Stone sped it up for the show's opening, having Claypool re-record his vocals. The instrumental version of the original composition is often played during the show's closing credits.
The opening song played in the first four seasons (and the end credits in all seasons) has a folk rock instrumentation with bass guitar, trumpets and rhythmic drums. Its beat is fast in the opening and leisurely in the closing credits. It is in the minor key and it features a tritone or a diminished fifth, creating a melodic dissonance, which captures the show's surrealistic nature. In the latter parts of seasons 4 and 5, the opening tune has an electro funk arrangement with pop qualities. Seasons 6–9 have a sprightly bluegrass instrumentation with a usage of banjo and is set in the major key. For the later seasons, the arrangement is electro rock with a breakbeat influence, which feature electric guitars backed up by synthesized, groovy drumbeats.
The opening theme song has been remixed three times during the course of the series, including a remix performed by Paul Robb. In 2006, the theme music was remixed with the song ""Whamola"" by Colonel Les Claypool's Fearless Flying Frog Brigade, from the album Purple Onion.


== Episodes ==


== Distribution ==


=== International ===
South Park is broadcast internationally in several countries and territories, including India, New Zealand, and several countries throughout Europe and Latin America on channels that are subsidiaries of Comedy Central and Paramount Media Networks, both subsidiaries of Paramount. In distribution deals with Comedy Central, other independent networks also broadcast the series in other international markets. In Australia, the show is broadcast on The Comedy Channel, Comedy Central and free-to-air channel SBS Viceland (before 2009), while new episodes aired on SBS. The program also airs free-to-air in Australia on 10 Shake, a sister network to Comedy Central through Paramount. The series is broadcast uncensored in Canada in English on The Comedy Network and, later, Much. The series was formerly broadcast on Global. South Park also airs in Irish on TG4 in Ireland, STV in Scotland, Comedy Central and MTV in the UK (previously on Sky One, Channel 4, VIVA and 5Star), B92 in Serbia, and on Game One and NRJ 12 in France. In September 2020, SBS, which aired South Park in Australia since 1997, removed South Park from its television line-up, though reruns could air on SBS Viceland.


=== Syndication ===
Broadcast syndication rights to South Park were acquired by Debmar-Mercury and Tribune Entertainment in 2003 and 2004 respectively. Episodes further edited for content began running in syndication on September 19, 2005, and were aired in the United States with the TV-14 rating. 20th Television replaced Tribune as co-distributor in early 2008. By the time its run in syndication ended in 2015, it aired in 90 percent of the television markets across the United States and Canada, where it generated an estimated US$25 million a year in advertising revenue. In 2019, CBS Television Distribution (the syndication arm of ViacomCBS, now known as Paramount Global), took over the full distribution rights following the acquisition of 21st Century Fox (parent of 20th Television) by The Walt Disney Company (who had employed Debmar-Mercury founder Mort Marcus as the head of their syndication division), distributing the show in syndication. In 2021, South Park Studios struck a deal with ViacomCBS, which allows the show to be renewed all the way up to season 30 and 14 additional films, enough to carry the show to at least 2027.


=== Home media ===

Complete seasons of South Park have been regularly released in their entirety on DVD since 2002, with season twenty-six being the most recently released. Several other themed DVD compilations have been released by Rhino Entertainment and Comedy Central, while the three-episode Imaginationland story arc was reissued straight-to-DVD as a full-length feature in 2008. Blu-ray releases started in 2008 with the release of season twelve. Subsequent seasons have been released in this format alongside the longer-running DVD releases. The first eleven seasons were released on Blu-ray for the first time in December 2017.


=== Streaming ===
In March 2008, Comedy Central made every episode of South Park available for free full-length on-demand legal streaming on the official South Park Studios website. From March 2008 until December 2013, new episodes were added to the site the day following their debut, and an uncensored version was posted the following day. The episode stayed up for the remainder of the week, then taken down, and added to the site three weeks later.
Within a week, the site served more than a million streams of full episodes, and the number grew to 55 million by October 2008. Legal issues prevent the U.S. content from being accessible outside the United States, so local servers have been set up in other countries. In September 2009, a South Park Studios website with streaming episodes was launched in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In Canada, episodes were available for streaming from The Comedy Network's website, though due to digital rights restrictions, they are no longer available.
In April 2010, the season five episode ""Super Best Friends"" and the season fourteen episodes ""200"" and ""201"" were removed from the site; additionally, these episodes no longer air in reruns and are only available exclusively on DVD and Blu-ray. These episodes remain unavailable following the 2014 purchase by Hulu.
In July 2014, it was announced that Hulu had signed a three-year deal purchasing exclusive online streaming rights to the South Park for a reported $80 million. Following the announcement every episode remained available for free on the South Park Studios website, using the Hulu player. As of September 2014, following the premiere of the eighteenth season, only 30 select episodes would be featured for free viewing at a time on a rotating basis on the website, with new episodes being available for an entire month starting the day following their original airings. The entire series was available on Hulu by this point.
As of July 2015, all episodes of South Park are available for streaming in Canada on the service CraveTV, which first consisted of seasons 1–18. Subsequent seasons were released the following July.
In early October 2019, industry rumors suggested that the streaming rights for South Park were being offered to various services, creating an intense bidding war that was estimated to be as high as US$500 million. HBO and South Park Digital Studios announced that HBO had secured a multi-year deal for the exclusive streaming rights for South Park on their HBO Max service starting June 24, 2020. While the terms of the deal were not disclosed, Variety reported the deal fell between US$500 million and US$550 million. Beginning with season 25 in 2022, HBO Max posts new episodes the next day after their Comedy Central airing. Once that deal expires in 2025, Paramount+ will become the exclusive streaming home. In addition, the season 27 episodes would stream first on Paramount+ before hitting HBO Max. Though season 27 would have originally aired in 2024, the season was delayed due to what Parker and Stone claimed to be uncertainties about the 2024 United States presidential election (mainly the exhaustion of humor set around Donald Trump), along with the proposed merger of Skydance Media and Paramount Global.
In February 2023, Warner Bros. Discovery filed a lawsuit which claimed that Paramount breached its exclusivity contract with HBO Max by airing South Park on its own streaming platform.


=== Re-rendered episodes ===
From its debut in 1997 to the season twelve finale in 2008 the series had been originally produced in standard definition, with a 4:3 aspect ratio. In 2009, the series switched to being produced in 16:9 high definition 1080p with the beginning of the thirteenth season. Since this, all twelve seasons originally produced in standard definition have been remastered by South Park Studios, being fully re-rendered in high definition. The aspect ratio of these episodes were also converted from 4:3 to 16:9 as well. The re-rendered versions were also released on Blu-ray. Several of the re-rendered episodes from the earlier seasons have their original uncensored audio tracks; they had previously been released in censored form.
The fifth-season episode ""Super Best Friends"", which was pulled from syndication and online streams following the controversy surrounding episode ""201"", was not released alongside the rest of the season when it was released in HD on iTunes in 2011. The episode was later re-rendered and made available for the Blu-ray release of the season that was released on December 5, 2017. The episode is presented in its original presentation, without Muhammad's image being obscured as in later episodes of the series.


== Reception ==


=== Ratings ===
When South Park debuted, it was a huge ratings success for Comedy Central and is seen as being largely responsible for the success of the channel, with Herzog crediting it for putting the network ""on the map"".
The show's first episode, ""Cartman Gets an Anal Probe"", earned a Nielsen rating of 1.3 (980,000 viewers), at the time considered high for a cable program. The show instantly generated buzz among television viewers, and mass viewing parties began assembling on college campuses. By the time the eighth episode, ""Starvin' Marvin"", aired—three months after the show debuted—ratings and viewership had tripled, and South Park was already the most successful show in Comedy Central's history. When the tenth episode ""Damien"" aired the following February, viewership increased another 33 percent. The episode earned a 6.4 rating, which at the time was over 10 times the average rating earned by a cable show aired in prime time. The ratings peaked with the second episode of season two, ""Cartman's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut"", which aired on April 22, 1998. The episode earned an 8.2 rating (6.2 million viewers) and, at the time, set a record as the highest-rated non-sports show in basic cable history. During the spring of 1998, eight of the ten highest-rated shows on basic cable were South Park episodes. South Park's second season would average a 5.8 rating (12.5 million viewers) which was a lower rating due to Comedy Central's households being much higher.
The success of South Park prompted more cable companies to carry Comedy Central and led it to its becoming one of the fastest-growing cable channels. The number of households that had Comedy Central jumped from 9.1 million in 1997 to 50 million in June 1998. When the show debuted, the most Comedy Central had earned for a 30-second commercial was US$7,500. Within a year, advertisers were paying an average of US$40,000 for 30 seconds of advertising time during airings of South Park in its second season, while some paid as much as US$80,000.
By the third season (1999), the series' ratings began to decrease. The third-season premiere episode drew 3.4 million viewers, a dramatic drop from the 5.5 million of the previous season's premiere. Stone and Parker attributed this drop in the show's ratings to the media hype that surrounded the show in the previous year, adding that the third season ratings reflected the show's ""true"" fan base. Regardless the viewership stayed consistent with an average rating being between 3.0 (8 million viewers) to a 5.5 (17.5 million viewers). The show's ratings dropped further in its fourth season (2000), with episodes averaging just above 1.5 million viewers (though the season premiere would get 22.1 million viewers due to the hype caused by the movie). The ratings eventually increased, and seasons five through nine consistently averaged about 3 million viewers per episode. Season 8's episode ""Goobacks"" would have South Park's viewership peak at 30 million viewers. Seasons 10 to 12 would average 5 million viewers. Though its viewership is lower than it was at the height of its popularity in its earliest seasons, South Park remains one of the highest-rated series on Comedy Central. The season 14 (2010) premiere gained 3.7 million viewers, the show's highest-rated season premiere since 1998. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that ""perhaps unsurprisingly, South Park ... is most popular in Colorado"". Subsequent seasons saw substantially lower ratings, with season 25 averaging 0.65 million viewers an episode.


=== Recognitions and awards ===
In 2004, Channel 4 voted South Park the third-greatest cartoon of all time. In 2007, Time magazine included the show on its list of the ""100 Best TV Shows of All Time"", proclaiming it as ""America's best source of rapid-fire satire for [the past] decade"". The same year, Rolling Stone declared it to be the funniest show on television since its debut 10 years prior. In 2008, South Park was named the 12th-greatest TV show of the past 25 years by Entertainment Weekly, while AOL declared it as having the ""most astute"" characters of any show in history when naming it the 16th-best television comedy series of all time. In 2011, South Park was voted number one in the 25 Greatest Animated TV Series poll by Entertainment Weekly. The character of Cartman ranked 10th on TV Guide's 2002 list of the ""Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters"", 198th on VH1's ""200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons"", 19th on Bravo's ""100 Greatest TV Characters"" television special in 2004, and second on MSNBC's 2005 list of TV's scariest characters behind Mr. Burns from The Simpsons. In 2006, Comedy Central received a Peabody Award for South Park's ""stringent social commentary"" and ""undeniably fearless lampooning of all that is self-important and hypocritical in American life"". In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked South Park at number 63 among the ""101 Best-Written Shows Ever"". Also in 2013, TV Guide listed the show at number 10 among the ""60 Greatest Cartoons of All Time"". In 2019, the series was ranked 42nd on The Guardian newspaper's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century.
South Park won the CableACE Award for Best Animated Series in 1997, the last year the awards were given out. In 1998, South Park was nominated for the Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Primetime or Late Night Television Program. It was also nominated for the 1998 GLAAD Award for Outstanding TV – Individual Episode for ""Big Gay Al's Big Gay Boat Ride"".
South Park has been nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program eighteen times (1998, 2000, 2002, 2004–2011, 2013–2018 and 2021). The show has won the award for Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming Less Than One Hour) four times, for the 2005 episode ""Best Friends Forever"", the 2006 episode ""Make Love, Not Warcraft"", the 2009 episode ""Margaritaville"", and the 2012 episode ""Raising the Bar"". The ""Imaginationland"" trilogy of episodes won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming One Hour or More) in 2008.


=== Criticism ===
The show's frequent depiction of taboo subject matter, general toilet humor, accessibility to younger viewers, disregard for conservative sensibilities, negative depiction of liberal causes, and portrayal of religion for comic effect have generated controversy and debate over the course of its run.
As the series became popular, students in two schools were barred from wearing South Park-related T-shirts, and the headmaster of a UK public school asked parents not to let their children watch the programme after eight- and nine-year-old children voted the South Park character Cartman as their favorite personality in a 1999 poll. Parker and Stone assert that the show is not meant to be viewed by young children, and the show is certified with TV ratings that indicate its intention for mature audiences. In 1999, they went on record to cancel the release of the Game Boy Color game based on the series, as Parker and Stone determined that a game based on an adult animated series would be inappropriate for a console whose core demographic consisted of children.
Parents Television Council founder L. Brent Bozell III and Action for Children's Television founder Peggy Charren have both condemned the show, with the latter claiming it is ""dangerous to the democracy"". Several other activist groups have protested the show's parodies of Christianity and portrayal of Jesus Christ. Stone has stated that parents who disapprove of South Park for its portrayal of how kids behave are upset because they ""have an idyllic vision of what kids are like"", adding ""[kids] don't have any kind of social tact or etiquette, they're just complete little raging bastards"".


==== Controversies ====

The show further lampooned the controversy surrounding its use of profanity, as well as the media attention surrounding the network show Chicago Hope's singular use of the word shit, with the season five premiere ""It Hits the Fan"", in which the word shit is said 162 times without being bleeped for censorship purposes, while also appearing uncensored in written form. In the days following the show's original airing, 5,000 disapproving e-mails were sent to Comedy Central. Despite its 43 uncensored uses of the racial slur nigger, the season 11 episode ""With Apologies to Jesse Jackson"" generated relatively little controversy, as most in the black community and the NAACP praised the episode for its context and its comedic way of conveying other races' perceptions of how black people feel when hearing the word.
Specific controversies regarding the show have included an April Fools' Day prank played on its viewers in 1998, its depiction of the Virgin Mary in the season nine (2005) finale ""Bloody Mary"" that angered several Catholics, its depiction of Steve Irwin with a stingray barb stuck in his chest in the episode ""Hell on Earth 2006"", which originally aired less than two months after Irwin was killed in the same fashion, Comedy Central's censorship of the depiction of Muhammad in the season 10 episode ""Cartoon Wars Part II"" in the wake of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and consistent mockery of the concept of climate change by using climate change denialist talking points.
The season nine (2005) episode ""Trapped in the Closet"" denounces Scientology as nothing more than ""a big fat global scam"", while freely divulging church information that Scientology normally only reveals to members who make significant monetary contributions to the church. The episode also ambiguously parodies the rumors involving the sexual orientation of Scientologist Tom Cruise, who allegedly demanded any further reruns of the episode be canceled. Isaac Hayes, a Scientologist, later quit South Park because of his objection to the episode.
The season fourteen episodes ""200"" and ""201"" were mired in controversy for satirizing issues surrounding the depiction of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. The website for the organization Revolution Muslim, a New York-based radical Muslim organization, posted an entry that included a warning to creators Parker and Stone that they risk violent retribution for their depictions of Muhammad. It said that they ""will probably wind up like Theo van Gogh for airing this show"". The posting provided the addresses to Comedy Central in New York and the production company in Los Angeles. The author of the post, Zachary Adam Chesser (whose alias is Abu Talhah al-Amrikee), said it was meant to serve as a warning to Parker and Stone, not a threat, and that providing the addresses was meant to give people the opportunity to protest.
Despite Chesser's claims that the website entry was a warning, several media outlets and observers interpreted it as a threat. Comedy Central censored the episode's broadcast in response, by bleeping out several speeches and covering Mohammed's appearances with a giant ""censored"" label. Support for the episode has come in the form of Everybody Draw Mohammed Day, a movement started on Facebook that encourages people to draw Muhammad on May 20. The ""200"" episode, which also depicted the Buddha snorting cocaine, prompted the government of Sri Lanka to ban the series outright.
Due to many taboo topics in China—such as Dalai Lama, Winnie the Pooh, labor camps, freedom of speech and cannabis culture—being involved in the season 23 (2019) episode ""Band in China"", South Park was entirely banned in China after the episode's broadcast. The series' Baidu Baike article, Baidu Tieba forum, Douban page, Zhihu page and Bilibili videos have been deleted or inaccessible to the public, all related keywords and topics have been prohibited from being searched and discussed on China-based search engines and social media sites including Baidu, QQ, Weibo and on WeChat public platforms. Parker and Stone issued a sarcastic apology in response.


== Legacy ==


=== Cultural ===
Commentary made in episodes has been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public, and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world within the framework of popular philosophical, theological, social, and political concepts. Since South Park debuted, college students have written term papers and doctoral theses analyzing the show, while Brooklyn College offers a course called ""South Park and Political Correctness"".
Soon after one of Kenny's trademark deaths on the show, other characters would typically shout ""Oh my God, they killed Kenny!"", followed by another yelling out ""You bastard(s)!""—these lines were usually said by the characters Stan and Kyle, respectively. The exclamation quickly became a popular catchphrase, while the running gag of Kenny's recurring deaths is one of the more recognized hallmarks among viewers of modern television. Cartman's exclamations of ""Respect my authori-tah!"" and ""Screw you guys ...I'm going home!"" became catchphrases as well, and during the show's earlier seasons, were highly popular in the lexicon of viewers. Cartman's eccentric intonation of ""Hey!"" was included in the 2002 edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Catchphrases.
In the season two episode ""Chef Aid"", attorney Johnnie Cochran uses what's called in the show the Chewbacca defense, which is a legal strategy that involves addressing plot holes related to Chewbacca in the film Return of the Jedi rather than discussing the trial at hand during a closing argument in a deliberate attempt to confuse jurors into thinking there is reasonable doubt. The term ""Chewbacca defense"" has been documented as being used by criminologists, forensic scientists, and political commentators in their various discussions of similar methods used in legal cases and public forums.
Another season two episode, ""Gnomes"", revolves around a group of ""underpants gnomes"" who, as their name suggests, run a corporation stealing people's underpants. When asked about their business model, various gnomes reply that theirs is a three-step process: Phase 1 is ""collect underpants"". Phase 3 is ""profit"". However, the gnomes are unable to explain what is to occur between the first and final steps, and ""Phase 2"" is accompanied by a large question mark on their corporate flow chart. Using ""????"" and ""PROFIT!"" as the last two steps in a process (usually jokingly) became a widely popular Internet meme because of this. Especially in the context of politics and economics, ""underpants gnomes"" has been used by some commentators to characterize a conspicuous gap of logic or planning.
When Sophie Rutschmann of the University of Strasbourg discovered a mutated gene that causes an adult fruit fly to die within two days after it is infected with certain bacteria, she named the gene kep1 in honor of Kenny. Similarly, when a mutated ortholog of KIAA1109 was also found for said species that inhibited their ability to stand upright, walk, and caused seizures, indicative of severe neurological defects, a different set of researchers named it Tweek in honor of Tweek.


=== Political ===

While some conservatives have condemned South Park for its vulgarity, a growing population of people who hold center-right political beliefs, including teenagers and young adults, have embraced the show for its tendency to mock liberal viewpoints and lampoon liberal celebrities and icons. Political commentator Andrew Sullivan dubbed the group South Park Republicans, or South Park conservatives. Sullivan averred that members of the group are ""extremely skeptical of political correctness but also are socially liberal on many issues"", though he says the phrase applied to them is meant to be more of a casual indication of beliefs than a strong partisan label. Brian C. Anderson describes the group as ""generally characterized by holding strong libertarian beliefs and rejecting more conservative social policy"", and notes that although the show makes ""wicked fun of conservatives"", it is ""at the forefront of a conservative revolt against liberal media"" and Hollywood's ""liberal hegemony"".
Parker and Stone reject the idea that the show has any underlying political position, and deny having a political agenda when creating an episode.
The two claim the show's higher proportion of instances lampooning liberal rather than conservative orthodoxies stems simply from their preference for making fun of liberals. While Stone has been quoted saying, ""I hate conservatives, but I really fucking hate liberals"", Stone and Parker have explained that their drive to lampoon a given target comes first from the target's insistence on telling other people how to behave. The duo explain that they regard liberals as having both delusions of entitlement to remain free from satire, and a propensity to enforce political correctness while patronizing the citizens of Middle America. Parker and Stone are uncomfortable with the idea of themselves or South Park being assigned any kind of partisan classification. Parker said he rejects the ""South Park Republican"" and ""South Park conservative"" labels, feeling that either tag implies that one only adheres to strictly conservative or liberal viewpoints. The duo has in the past reluctantly labeled themselves libertarians and fans of government gridlock. In 2006, they said that they were ""rooting for Hillary Clinton in 2008 simply because it would be weird to have her as president"".


== Franchise ==


== See also ==

South Park (Park County, Colorado)
South Park City


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Anderson, Brian C. (2005). South Park Conservatives: The Revolt Against Liberal Media Bias. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89526-019-2.
Broman, Per F.; Jacoby, Henry (2006). Arp, Robert (ed.). South Park and Philosophy: You Know, I Learned Something Today. The Blackwell Philosophy & Pop Culture Series. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-6160-2.
Cogan, Brian, ed. (2011). Deconstructing South Park: Critical Examinations of Animated Transgression. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-6745-8.
Hanley, Richard, ed. (2007). South Park and Philosophy: Bigger, Longer, and More Penetrating. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9613-4.
Johnson-Woods, Toni (2007). Blame Canada!: South Park and Popular Culture. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1731-2.
Mansour, David (2005). From Abba to Zoom: A Pop Culture Encyclopedia of the Late 20th Century. Kansas City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC. ISBN 0-7407-5118-2. OCLC 57316726.
Nye, Sean, ""From Punk to the Musical: South Park, Music, and the Cartoon Format"", in Music in Television: Channels of Listening, ed. James Deaville (London: Routledge, 2011): 143–64. ISBN 978-0415881357
Weinstock, Jeffrey Andrew; Fallows, Randall (2008). Taking South Park Seriously. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7566-9.


== External links ==

Official website
South Park at IMDb
South Park at TV Guide
South Park on Metacritic
South Park on Rotten Tomatoes
South Park at Don Markstein's Toonopedia
Johnny 2 Cozy, ""Four Hours of South Park Lore To Fall Asleep To,"" via YouTube.com, November 29, 2024. (Video compilation of literary criticism)
Ryan Parker (September 14, 2016). ""'South Park' History: Trey Parker, Matt Stone on Censors, Tom Cruise and Scientology's Role in Isaac Hayes Quitting"". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 21, 2022."
No. 73,"No 73, later retitled 7T3, is a British 1980s children's TV show produced by TVS for the ITV network. It was broadcast live on Saturday mornings and ran from 2 January 1982 to 27 March 1988. The show had an ensemble cast amongst others, Sandi Toksvig, Neil Buchanan, Patrick Doyle, Andrea Arnold, Kim Goody and Kate Copstick.
When TVS won the contract to provide ITV coverage for the South of England in 1980, the first thing they set up was a children's department. A team put together with a background in theatre and drama, soon decided to produce a Saturday morning show that differed from the usual Tiswas and Saturday Superstore formula: This show would feature actors in character as hosts, performing their own comedic storyline around the usual guests, music videos, competitions and cartoons. Much of the show was improvised and a whole week of rehearsals plus an extensive dress rehearsal on Friday preceded each live broadcast on Saturday morning.


== Timeline ==
The first two series were broadcast from Southampton to the TVS region only. From Series 3, production moved to TVS's studios in Maidstone (now the Maidstone Studios) and the show was broadcast nationwide.


=== Series 1 ===
Ethel Davis (Sandi Toksvig), an eccentric old lady who progressively got younger as the show went on, owned the house.
Harry Stern (Nick Staverson) was introduced as her bumbling nephew who aspired for international stardom. He ran a market stall with his dim-witted (and unseen) friend Trevor.
Dawn Lodge (Andrea Arnold), the roller-boot-wearing female lodger, worked at the local veterinary surgery - the local vet being internationally renowned zoo vet David Taylor, who would bring various animals to the house throughout the show's run for the requisite animal spot, which would mainly be presented with Dawn (or another character if Dawn was busy or absent).
Most eccentric of all, Patrick Doyle appeared as Percy Simmonds, inventor and love interest to Ethel. Percy invented the 2-in-1 Coffee Percolator and Film Projector from which the cartoons such as Disney, Looney Tunes or Roger Ramjet, or pre-filmed inserts would be shown, and the Two-Way Video Microwave Oven which would show video inserts or live linkups.
The house would also be visited each week by local children, in reality these were students in drama classes from local secondary schools. The children stopped appearing after Series 4.
Throughout the first half of the series, Ethel and Dawn would have caricatures sent to the from a ""secret admirer"". This admirer was revealed in Episode 4 to be Neil Buchanan, an artist (and former rock guitarist) who posted himself to the house through Red Star Parcels and would appear intermittently for the first couple of series to present art-based items.
Musical artists would appear as having slept in the lounge which they would use as a rehearsal space. Later in the episode, and during the closing credits, they would perform live. The first band to appear was The Q-Tips performing ""S.Y.S.L.J.F.M. (The Letter Song)""
Each episode ended with Ethel hosting the ""daring, dazzling, death-defyingly dull, devastatingly dangerous, delectable, delicatessible, divinely decadent"" Sandwich Quiz, a madcap-general knowledge game pitting two of that week's guests against each other, the winner of which would receive the Golden Loaf Trophy.


=== Series 2 ===
This series introduced Kim Goody to the show as a performer at the TVS Television Theatre in Gillingham, where Percy held a job as handyman. Ethel could link up to Gillingham from the house in Southampton via the Two-Way Video Microwave Oven.
Neighbours Martin and Hazel Edwards (Richard Addison and Jeannie Crowther) from No.75 also started to figure into the storyline, usually with Martin being at odds with Ethel, and Hazel being more sympathetic towards the neighbours. The pair would increasingly participate in items during the show and occasionally host the phone-in.
Local spiv Tony Deal (Nick Wilton) also made his first appearances in this series.


=== Series 3 ===
This series was the first to come from the Maidstone studios, requiring a change in the address and telephone numbers for viewers to interact with the show.
Percy Simmonds was replaced by a Scotsman called Alec Simmonds, also played by Patrick Doyle, allowing him to speak with his own accent. Viewers who wrote in noticing the resemblance between the two were told that Alec was Percy's Scottish cousin. There was another new semi-regular character called Fred the Postman (Tony Aitken) who embarked on an on-off relationship with Ethel throughout the next couple of series.
Neil also became a semi-regular in this series, regularly making the trip down from Liverpool before eventually moving into a caravan down the road from the house.
In this series, Ethel and the resident inventor, Tony English, created the Hover Cupboard and later tested it out at sea travelling from Southampton to Cowes on the Isle of Wight.
The series ended with Ethel going on holiday to France with Alec and Fred the Postman, while Harry and Kim went off on a tandem, and Martin and Hazel agreeing to look after the house while everyone was away. Alec would not return for the following series.


=== Series 4 ===
Eazi Target (Tony Hippolyte) – Ethel's friend from her days at the paper - became a semi-regular visitor to the house. Ethel ran in the local election to stand as an independent councillor, leading to Martin running against her, but both were beaten by Tony Deal.
Meanwhile, Dawn had her roller boots spray painted by Paul King (as per King's music video ""Love and Pride""). Former pentathlete Kathy Tayler also dropped by to present sports-related items.
Ethel reveals that she, Harry, Neil, Dawn and Hazel have been renovating the cellar under the stairs for use by bands to rehearse, with the bands' performances now taking place there rather than in the lounge or the back yard. The first artist to appear in the cellar was Nik Kershaw performing his then current single ""Dancing Girls"".
Episode 7 saw Ethel absent for the first time, leaving Dawn, Neil, Hazel and Kim to hold the fort, but also drafting in David ""Kid"" Jensen to help around the house and Tony Deal to keep everyone in order and host the Sandwich Quiz. The second time Ethel was away this series saw Dawn host the Sandwich Quiz.
This series saw former policeman Colin Daly, complete with a Sherlock Holmes-style deerstalker hat and his bloodhound Tracker,  hold the first of his Supersleuth competition over several episodes. Shaw Taylor also popped by to assist with the competition. The grand final was held in the lounge of No.73 during the final episode of Series 4 with the finalists answering questions delivered by Shaw about the happenings of that episode, with the 4 children who got the most correct answers in each age and gender categories (boy and girl, ages 11-13 and 14-16) winning the grand prize of a trip to New York.
Poet Roger McGough also made regular visits to compile the No.73 Novel Novel, a novella telling a story about Ethel. While Roger wrote the first and final chapters, he invited viewers throughout the series to write the following chapters which must contain exactly 73 words, with the best entry read out each week by Roger, one of the residents or one of the guests.
The series also saw the Matchbox competition to see who could fit the most individual items - except matches - into a matchbox. The winner somehow managed to fit 73 items into their matchbox and won 73 seconds to cram as many prizes from the kitchen as they could into a giant matchbox, including the Sandwich Quiz Golden Loaf trophy and the shirt Harry was wearing.
The series finale also saw Ethel at odds with her bank manager Frederick Crossfield (Michael Maynard), who sends bailiffs round to the house to repossess the furniture. The episode ended with Ethel, Harry, Dawn, Neil, Martin, Hazel and Fred barricading the front door.


=== Series 5 ===
Ethel turned the house into a bed and breakfast, leading to comedic storylines while getting the house up to standard, such as installing a sink in every room - including the cellar, and Harry leading the fire drills leading to Fred the Postman having several accidents.
Whenever Ethel was away in this and the following series, Neil would present the Sandwich Quiz, but renamed in honour of his Liverpudlian roots to The Chip Butty Quiz.
Colin Daly returned with the second Supersleuth competition, with the winners this time going to San Francisco. The final was held halfway through the series, with Daly appearing one more time towards the end of the series to show picture highlights of the trip. After this, Daly would move his Supersleuth competition over to Thames Television's magazine show Splash!
While Fred and Eazi left the series after failing to start a radio station in the backyard shed (aptly named ""Radio Shed""), Ethel fell in love with her most unlikely suitor yet, bank manager Frederick Crossfield. The courtship lasted two episodes, with the series finale leading up to the wedding and a cliffhanger. The finale had the most guests in any episode of the show - Five Star, Junior, King, Bucks Fizz, Jimmy Nail and Matthew Kelly, with The Redskins performing in the cellar.


=== Series 6 ===
It turned out the wedding between Ethel and Frederick was cancelled by mutual agreement at the very last moment.
There was no new Front Door Production in Series 6. Instead, Ethel put on a treasure hunt for Neil and Kim across three counties to win the box room key. Kim won, but ended up sharing the room with Dawn, while Neil bunked up with Harry. By the end of the series the two rivals had fallen in love. The series also saw Harry start a new job as a singing telegram, requiring him to wear all kinds of ridiculous outfits from gorilla suits to a Tarzan loincloth.
Tony Deal appeared for the final time in two memorable episodes, first on the run from the police, and then trying to lure the guest to No.75 with Martin Edwards. Papier-mâché headed performer Frank Sidebottom made his first appearance during this series; he would make several further appearances throughout the next couple of series. Another memorable episode saw Ethel, Harry, Kim, Hazel and Martin mount a truncated performance of The Pirates of Penzance throughout the house.
This series also saw the first outside broadcast episode coming from the Kent seaside town of Broadstairs. It was themed as a whodunnit guest starring Shaw Taylor in his Police 5 persona trying to catch a villain called The Jewelled Hand.


=== Series 7 ===
It was revealed in passing that Ethel had emigrated to Australia to live with her cousin, leaving Harry, Dawn, Neil and Kim collectively in charge. The Sandwich Quiz was replaced by the 'Duster Muster', the winner of which won the Golden Mop trophy while the loser had to clean the house on Saturday afternoon. There was also a new Front Door serial, spoofing The A-Team, called ""The Z-Team"".
Former Copy Cats cast member Andrew O'Connor moved in, while Scottish housekeeper Maisie McConachie (Kate Copstick) became the new resident klutz. The housemates were also joined by S.A.M.A.N.T.H.A. Telebug (voiced by Kate Copstick) who spent a lot of time trying to find a suitor among the appliances in the house. Martin also introduced his nerdy nephew Geoffrey (Nicolas Barnes) who got on with S.A.M.A.N.T.H.A., but none of these characters stuck around for the next series.
At the end of November the gang started introducing a line-up of children's programmes on Sunday morning, which developed into Sunday at 73 by January. This was a shorter, less elaborate version of the show, with fewer guests and more breaks for cartoons and The Adventures of Black Beauty.
On 7 March 1987, the day after the sinking of the Herald of Free Enterprise, when breaking off during an outside broadcast episode from Camber Sands for a news report on the disaster, a humorous caption read ""sea you later"", unwittingly giving the impression of callousness.
As the series progressed, the new and evil landlord J.C. Birch (Bill Stewart) started threatening to demolish not only No 73, but the entire neighbourhood and replace them with luxury flats.
The series finale saw the regulars preparing a birthday party for David Taylor, but the bathroom floor starts to collapse into the lounge while Neil takes a bath and a burst water main leads to Martin, who had been on the verge of a breakdown and had returned from a positive thinking course, taking a shower in the lounge as a result. S.A.M.A.N.T.H.A. also leaves the house to elope with Nigel the air dryer. Hazel sends Martin for building materials to fix the ceiling while the others hold David's birthday party in the kitchen, but Martin crashes the van into the front door.


=== Series 8 ===
Following the events from the previous series, the front door and window were boarded up, though the door was eventually restored. It is mentioned in passing that Martin and Hazel left No.75 and moved to Suffolk. The eccentric driving instructor Hamilton Dent (Richard Waites) would move into No.75 as a result. Harry premiered his latest and last film epic, ""From Flusher with Love"". The ""Duster Muster"" quiz was replaced with ""The Game"", which was a Pictionary-style game that saw two guests drawing items described on the cards given by one of the cast members acting as adjudicator, and two of the cast guessing what was being drawn within a time limit.
More new characters moved in, including slovenly Julian Callaghan, spoilt American Nadia De Lemeny and the acrobatic David Rubin (though David's stay at No.73 would come to an end in November). J.C. Birch sent his lawyer, James Squire (Chris Donat) to the house to deal with the residents, though he had a soft spot for Dawn and the pair embarked on a relationship which ended when Squire handed the housemates their eviction notice. Neil's Scouse friend Jo Connor also popped in from time to time. Harry also had a posh girlfriend called Philippa (Tessa Morton). Birch would finally sent a builder to carry out repairs on the house in the form of Rob ""The Builder"" Debenham, who turned out to be an out of work actor moonlighting as a builder. However, this wouldn't stop the deterioration of the house as the bathroom finally collapsed into the lounge, and Hamilton made a large hole in the stairs during an irate phone call with his mother, falling into the cellar as a result.
J.C. Birch finally saw fit to tear down the entire street for redevelopment and evict all from No.73 shortly after Christmas. They moved into a Wild West theme park in January, and from then on the show was renamed 7T3. This development saw the cast move into the saloon, with the numbers 7 and 3 painted on each saloon door, and a brass fixtures forming the shape of a 'T' when closed, hence the new title, and had them run around a mock Western town (in winter) with the same guests, items and storylines. In reality, this was an outdoor set built on the former netball courts at the Maidstone studios, with the saloon, reception, office and kitchen being interior sets. The musical artists now performed in the saloon.


== Front Door Productions ==
Front Door Productions was a fictional production company located in Maidstone, Kent and founded by Ethel Davis (Sandi Toksvig) in January 1985 to produce serials in five to six parts starring herself and all the regulars from the Saturday morning children's variety programme No 73. Local shop keeper Mr Pattels gave the residents of No 73 a special offer on developing their Super 8 home movies, and even went to the trouble of editing the scenes together. Ethel and the rest made all the costumes, built all the sets and played every part.
In reality of course, TVS Television provided the sets and costumes, while Sandi Toksvig and Nick Symons wrote the pun-infested scripts. The regulars did play every part though. There were five major Front Door Productions, all of which can only be described as 'spoofs'. Broadcast as part of No 73's Saturday morning line-up, the 1985 season featured three in a row, while the two following years only had one each.


=== ""The Sands Of Thyme"" ===
This first production starred Ethel (Sandi Toksvig), Harry (Nick Staverson), Dawn (Andrea Arnold) and Alec (Patrick Doyle). Originally broadcast near the end of the series 3.


=== ""Ricochet"" ===
(21 May 1984 - 9 June 1984) Series 4 saw the broadcast of a ""Spaghetti Western"" filmed at Frontier City, Hungerford. Harry played, among others, the title role ""Rick O Shea"". All other speaking parts were played by Ethel, Dawn and Fred the Postman (Tony Aitken). Shown in five parts.


=== ""Roman Around"" ===
(2 February 1985 - 9 March 1985) The 1985 series featured three different Front Door Productions. The first of which starred Ethel (Sandi Toksvig), Harry (Nick Staverson), Dawn (Andrea Arnold) and Neil (Neil Buchanan) in an epic set in 15c England (but filmed in Hever Castle, Kent). Between the four of them they played up to 34 different parts.


=== ""How many for dinner?"" ===
Having missed out of the first production, three other prominent members of the revolving No 73 cast joined Ethel in a 1920s murder mystery inspired by, if not exactly written by Agatha Christie. Ethel, Martin (Richard Addison), Hazel (Jeannie Crowther) and Fred (Tony Aitken) divided all speaking parts between them, though they started off with considerably fewer characters than the Roman production, and the cast-list predictably grew slimmer by the episode.


=== ""The Three Musketeers"" ===
(1 June 1985 – 29 June 1985) An extremely loose adaptation of the Alexandre Dumas novel, Ethel, Tony Deal (Nick Wilton) and Eazi (Tony Hippolyte) starred as the titular musketeers, Athos, Bathos and Pathos as well as every other character (though some of the horses were not portrayed by them).
This five-parter was shown over the last five episodes of the fifth series, and with three serials to one series, every cast member except for Kim Goody got a chance to show his or her versatility (and almost all of them had to play different sexes at one point or another).


=== ""The Z-Team"" ===
(20 September 1986 – 25 October 1986) Convicted as toddlers of a crime they did not commit, Corporal Tom ""Cannibal"" Stiff (Neil), Dimpleton 'Skates' Wreck (Dawn), Marginally Mental Murky (Kim) and Mr. P as B.A. Brat (Harry) are still on the run from the Parks Department. Police 5's Shaw Taylor appeared in the first and last chapter as kidnap victim of the evil Pirates (also played by Neil, Dawn, Kim and Harry). Both teams were hunted (for different reasons) by Agent Perkus (Martin) and social worker Mrs Goose (Hazel). In the finale it was revealed that Perkus and Goose were actually the parents of both the Z-Team and the Pirates.


=== ""From Flusher with love"" ===
(3 October 1987 – 7 November 1987) Written and directed by Harry and starring Dawn as a female spy called Janice Bond (agent 0073). This Bond took her orders from 'Erm' as opposed to 'M', who had a male secretary called Spendapenny. Gadgets were provided by 'Cue'. A love interest was provided in the form of American counterpart Aaron Dreck. Harry himself appeared as Tony Toogood.


== Transmissions ==


== References ==


== External links ==
No. 73 at IMDb
No. 73 at the BFI's Screenonline
No. 73 on Paul Morris' SatKids
No 73 on the BFI Film & TV Database"
Perth Freight Link,"The Perth Freight Link was a proposed $1.9 billion project in Perth, Western Australia to improve the road freight link between Kewdale and Fremantle Harbour. The project was announced by the state government in May 2014, but was cancelled following a change of government at the March 2017 state election.
The proposal included multiple stages: a five-kilometre (3.1 mi) extension of Roe Highway to Stock Road (Roe 8); a second stage linking Roe 8 to Stirling Highway, bypassing fourteen sets of traffic signals (Roe 9); and a final stage connecting into the Port of Fremantle. The plan included mandatory GPS tracking of all vehicles over an undisclosed size or weight with a charge per kilometre being applied for vehicles travelling along the route between Muchea and North Fremantle. The extension would have taken the highway from its current terminus at Kwinana Freeway approximately five kilometres (3.1 mi) further west through the Beeliar Wetlands to Stock Road, near Forrest Road in Coolbellup. The proposed route was along or within the vicinity of an existing road reserve in the Perth Metropolitan Region Scheme.
The project's environmental assessment by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) along with the approval of the development by WA Government Minister Albert Jacob was ruled invalid by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on 16 December 2015. On 30 March 2016 Greg McIntyre QC, acting for Corina Abraham, lodged writs in the Supreme Court of Western Australia, alleging that Minister of Aboriginal Affairs Peter Collier and the Department of Aboriginal Affairs cultural committee denied procedural fairness when it failed to consult her. On 24 August 2016 the Supreme Court dismissed Abraham's challenge. The Save Beeliar Wetlands group tried to challenge the highway in the High Court, but the court dismissed the challenge on 16 December 2016, saying there wasn't sufficient grounds for a challenge.
Construction began in late 2016, following the signing of the contract to build Roe 8 by the Liberal state government. Opposition to the project continued, with protests and a second senate inquiry. The freight link was an election issue in the 2017 state election. The McGowan Government scrapped the entire project after winning office.


== History ==


=== Background ===

Roe Highway was first proposed in 1955 by Gordon Stephenson as part of what was to become the Metropolitan Region Planning Scheme. The highway was intended to form the southern and eastern sections of a ring route around the Perth metropolitan area. In the 1950s, Stephenson planned for Roe Highway to continue westwards towards Fremantle, through South Fremantle along Marine Terrace and then north to connect with Stirling Highway and the Port of Fremantle. As part of the plan, in 1974 Stirling Highway was extended from its then terminus north of the Swan River southwards to Canning Highway. Over a period of approximately 20 years, Main Roads Western Australia procured land, and in 1985, Stirling Highway was extended southwards from Canning Highway to High Street (the western continuation of Leach Highway). The remaining 3 km strip of land south of High Street then became known as the Fremantle Eastern Bypass.
At the southern end of the proposed Fremantle Eastern Bypass, an 8 km east–west road reservation was proclaimed, and became known as Roe Highway stage 8. With a change of state governments in 2001, the planned Fremantle Eastern Bypass / Roe Highway stage 8 was cancelled, and the land reserved for the Fremantle Eastern Bypass portion was sold for housing. As part of the funding arrangement for Roe Highway stages 6 and 7, the federal government stipulated that the reservation for Roe Highway stage 8 itself was to be retained.
Following a change in state governments in September 2008, planning work commenced on an extension of the Roe Highway from Kwinana Freeway to Stock Road. Planning was also under way for an upgrade of High Street to dual carriageway between Stirling Highway and Carrington Street.


=== Project announced ===

The Perth Freight Link project was announced in May 2014, with joint funding between the state and federal governments. The announcement included plans for a toll on the route, which would only apply to trucks. In December 2014, the state government revealed that they planned to construct the Freight Link between early 2016 and 2019, and that the toll would apply on the 85-kilometre-long (53 mi) truck route between Muchea (north of Perth) and Fremantle, once the link was completed.
Uncertainty over the project's scope and time frame emerged in mid-2015. The intended route for the second stage, which was necessitated by the earlier sale of the Fremantle Eastern Bypass land that was previously planned to be used for the route, faced community opposition as it would require residential properties to be compulsorily acquired and demolished. As such, alternative routes for the second stage were considered by the government. The uncertainty over stage 2 remained for over a year. In September 2016, there still was not a decision on the stage's timing, nor its route, but a tunnel was considered by Barnett as the most likely option. A tunnel under White Gum Valley, Beaconsfield and Hilton was committed to on 15 January 2017.


=== Controversies ===
The project is controversial, and has been the subject of concern and protest from multiple community groups on various issues. The main areas of contention relate to environmental issues, as well as the cost and justification for the project.
The state government claims the project is needed to reduce congestion in Perth's south and enhance road safety, and would be required for any future port development in the vicinity. The necessity is disputed by opponents of the Freight Link, including the opposition Labor party and the Greens; McGowan has called it a ""road to nowhere"" and ""waste of money"". A 2015 report from Infrastructure Australia concluded that, while there would be economic benefit, the project was hurriedly prepared, and detailed assessments were not completed for alternatives. In 2016, a Senate inquiry unanimously denounced the Freight Link, and suggested the federal government redirect funding to a new outer harbour at Cockburn Sound proposed by the City of Kwinana.
The route of the Roe 8 section takes it through the Beeliar Wetlands, a habitat for the endangered Carnaby's black cockatoo. The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) approved the Roe Highway extension in 2013, following a review that included over 3,000 public submissions, and Environment Minister Albert Jacob confirmed his approval on 2 July 2015. Preliminary site works began on the project during November 2015, which drew protests with many people being given move-on orders preventing them from being in the area.
As well as environmental issues with the extension of Roe Highway, Stephen Marley, president of the Livestock and Rural Transport Association of Western Australia, expressed concern in December 2014 that the cost of the truck toll will be passed on to farmers, and in May 2015, Palmyra residents protested the proposed compulsory acquisition and demolition of their homes to make way for Stage 2 of the link. Local people are opposed to the proposed route through the Bibra Lake area, including the local indigenous people, who described the area as a birthing place, the ""King Edward Memorial Hospital for aboriginal people"". The WA Road Transport Association has been critical of the November 2015 decision to postpone stage two of the project, as ""Roe 8 alone delivers none of the productivity benefits promised by the full freight link to the port"". They would not support a toll if implemented before the link to the port was completed. Such a toll was a prospect put forward by Barnett that month, though this was contradicted by Transport Minister Dean Nalder.


=== Legal challenges ===
In September 2015 the group Save the Beeliar Wetlands took legal action against the EPA, arguing that the authority did not follow its own policies.
The project's environmental assessment by the EPA along with the approval of the development by WA Government Minister Albert Jacob was ruled invalid by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on 16 December 2015. The state government appealed, and the ruling was unanimously overturned by the Court of Appeal on 15 July 2016, as the EPA's policies were ""not mandatory considerations"". The Save Beeliar Wetlands group tried to challenge the highway in the High Court, but the court dismissed the challenge on 16 December 2016, saying there were not sufficient grounds for a challenge.
On 30 March 2016 Greg McIntyre QC, acting for Corina Abraham, lodged writs in the Supreme Court of Western Australia, alleging that Minister of Aboriginal Affairs Peter Collier and the Department of Aboriginal Affairs cultural committee denied procedural fairness when it failed to consult her. On 24 August 2016 the Supreme Court dismissed Abraham's challenge.


=== Commencement of construction works ===
The contract to build Roe 8 was approved and signed by state government in October 2016. There had been ongoing protests since construction activities commenced, including on 6 December 2016, the day after temporary fencing was erected.

A public Senate Committee hearing was held on 23 February 2017, regarding the Roe 8 project's alleged failure to adhere to Federal environmental conditions. State Environment Minister Albert Jacob denied the allegations.


=== State election and aftermath ===
During the 2017 state election, the incoming McGowan Government stated it intended to scrap the entire project. On 12 March, Main Roads and the contractors agreed to suspend work on the project.
As part of cancellation negotiations with the federal government, Roe Highway was instead curtailed to curve northwards to connect to Murdoch Drive. This has been criticised as allowing for the future construction of Roe 8. Despite the cancellation, funding provisions for the project remained in the federal budget until a change of government in 2022.


== Route ==
The Perth Freight Link was proposed to connect the terminus of Roe Highway (at the Kwinana Freeway) with the Port of Fremantle. In conjunction with existing highways and the Gateway WA and NorthLink WA projects, the Freight Link would have formed part of an 85-kilometre (53 mi) free-flowing route between Muchea and the port.


=== Stage 1 (Roe 8) ===
Section 1, also known as Roe 8, was to be a five-kilometre (3.1 mi) extension to Roe Highway, from the Kwinana Freeway to Stock Road, cutting through a portion of the Beeliar Wetlands.


=== Stage 2 (Roe 9) ===

Stage 2 (Roe 9) would have linked the Roe 8 extension to East Fremantle. The original route considered was via Stock Road, Leach Highway, and High Street, upgraded with grade-separated interchanges, bypassing fourteen sets of traffic signals. Following community opposition to the plan, which would require residential properties to be compulsorily acquired and the demolition of homes, alternative routes were considered by the government. As of November 2015, the second stage had been postponed indefinitely, due to the intricacies and costs involved. In January 2017 Premier Colin Barnett announced a tunnel from Stock Road to High Street in East Fremantle 3 km short of the port, including crossing of the Swan River. The tunnel plan was revealed to cost at least $5.8b by documents that Main Roads had fought to prevent being released under a Freedom of Information request. An additional $2.7b would be needed to cross the Swan River. This option would impact the suburbs of Leighton and Mosman Park and see an increase in truck traffic to the north through Cottesloe.


=== Stage 3 (Roe 10) ===
A third stage would have seen the link cross the Swan River and connect into the port. There were no proposals made for the design, cost, or timing of this final section.


=== Roe Highway widening ===
Another section involved upgrading Roe Highway between Tonkin Highway and Orrong Road, adding a third lane in each direction and constructing a new bridge across the freight railway.


== See also ==

Freeways in Australia
East West Link (A similar project proposed in Melbourne which was also cancelled due to a change in government)
WestConnex (A similar project currently under construction in Sydney)
Bunbury Outer Ring Road (A ring road around Bunbury currently under construction, also controversial for environmental reasons)


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Young, Emma (8 March 2017). ""No question too dumb: an idiot's guide to Roe 8 (and the alternative)"". WA Today. Fairfax Media. Archived from the original on 8 March 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017. Archived 10 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine"
Initiatives to prevent sexual violence,"As sexual violence affects all parts of society, the responses that arise to combat it are comprehensive, taking place on the individual, administrative, legal, and social levels. 


== Individual approaches ==


=== Programmes for perpetrators ===
There are few programmes outside of the criminal justice system which are targeting perpetrators of sexual violence,  generally aimed at men convicted of male-on-female sexual assault, who form a significant portion of criminal cases of sexual violence.  A common response of men who commit sexual violence is to deny both that they are responsible and that what they are doing is violent. These programs, found mainly in Industrialized nations, work with male perpetrators to make them admit responsibility and be publicly seen as responsible for their actions. One way of achieving this is for programmes that target male perpetrators of sexual violence to collaborate with support services for victims, which would potentially be a revictimization of rape victims and be a poor choice of action unless the rape perpetrator is highly contrite and apologetic, as well as with campaigns against sexual violence. 


==== Life-skills and other educational programmes ====
In recent years, several programmes for sexual and reproductive health promotion, particularly those promoting HIV prevention, have begun to introduce gender issues and to address the problem of sexual and physical violence. Two notable examples developed for Africa but used in many parts of the developing world include ""Stepping Stones"" and ""Men As Partners"". These programmes have been designed for use in peer groups of men and women and are delivered over several workshop sessions using participatory learning approaches. Their comprehensive approach helps men, who might otherwise be reluctant to attend programmes solely concerned with violence against women, participate and discuss a range of issues concerning violence. Furthermore, even if men are sometimes the perpetrators of sexual violence, the programmes are careful to avoid labelling them as such.
A review of the effect of the Stepping Stones programme in Africa and Asia found that the workshops helped the men participating take greater responsibility for their actions, relate better to others, have greater respect for women and communicate more effectively. As a result of the programme, reductions in violence against women have been reported in communities in Cambodia, the Gambia, South Africa, Uganda, Fiji, the United Republic of Tanzania and elsewhere. The evaluations to date, though, have generally used qualitative methods and further research is needed to adequately test the effectiveness of this programme.


=== Developmental approaches ===
Research has stressed the importance of encouraging nurturing, with better and more gender balanced parenting, to prevent sexual violence. At the same time, Schwartz has developed a prevention model that adopts a developmental approach, with interventions before birth, during childhood and in adolescence and young adulthood. In this model, the prenatal element would include discussions of parenting skills, the stereotyping of gender roles, stress, conflict and violence. In the early years of childhood, health providers would pursue these issues and introduce child sexual abuse and exposure to violence in the media to the list of discussion topics, as well as promoting the use of non-sexist educational materials. In later childhood, health promotion would include modelling behaviours and attitudes that avoid stereotyping, encouraging children to distinguish between good and bad touching, and enhancing their ability and confidence to take control over their own bodies. This intervention would allow room for talking about sexual aggression. During adolescence and young adulthood, discussions would cover myths about rape, how to set boundaries for sexual activity, and breaking the links between sex, violence and coercion. While Schwartz's model was designed for use in industrialized countries, some of the principles involved could be applicable to developing countries.


== Health care responses ==


=== Medico-legal services ===
In many countries, when sexual violence is reported, the health sector has the duty to collect medical and legal evidence to corroborate the accounts of the victims or to help in identifying the perpetrator. Research in Canada suggests that medico-legal documentation can increase the chance of a perpetrator being arrested, charged, or convicted. For instance, one study found that documented physical injury, particularly of the moderate to severe type, was associated with charges being filed, irrespective of the patient's income level or whether the patient knew the assailant, either as an acquaintance or an intimate partner. However, a study of women attending a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya, following rape, has highlighted the fact that in many countries rape victims are not examined by a gynaecologist or an experienced police examiner and that no standard protocols or guidelines exist on this matter.
The use of standard protocols and guidelines can significantly improve the quality of treatment and psychological support of victims, as well as the evidence that is collected. Comprehensive
protocols and guidelines for female victims of assault should include:

recording a full description of the incident, listing all the assembled evidence;
listing the gynecological and contraceptive history of the victim;
documenting in a standard way the results of a full physical examination;
assessment of the risk of pregnancy;
testing for and treating sexually transmitted diseases, including, where appropriate, testing for HIV;
providing emergency contraception and, where legal, counseling on abortion;
providing psychological support and referral.
In some countries, the protocol forms part of the procedure of a sexual assault evidence kit that includes instructions and containers for collecting evidence, appropriate legal forms and documents for recording histories. Examinations of rape victims are by their nature extremely stressful. The use of a video to explain the procedure before an examination has been shown significantly to reduce the stress involved.


=== Training for health care professionals ===
Issues concerning sexual violence need to be addressed in the training of all health service staff, including psychiatrists and counsellors, in basic training as well as in specialized postgraduate courses. Such training should, in the first place, give health care workers greater knowledge and awareness of sexual violence and make them more able to detect and handle cases of abuse in a sensitive but effective way. It should also help reduce instances of sexual abuse within the health sector, something that can be a significant, though generally unacknowledged, problem.
In the Philippines, the Task Force on Social Science and Reproductive Health, a body that includes doctors, nurses and social scientists and is supported by the Department of Health, has produced training modules for nursing and medical students on gender-based violence. The aims of this programme are:

to understand the roots of violence in the context of culture, gender and other social aspects;
to identify situations, within families or homes that are at a high risk for violence, where it would be appropriate to undertake;
primary interventions, in particular in collaboration with other professionals;
secondary interventions, including identifying victims of violence, understanding basic legal procedures and how to present evidence, referring and following up patients, and helping victims reintegrate into society.
These training modules are built into the curricula for both nursing and medical students. For the nursing curriculum, the eleven modules are spread over the four years of formal instruction, and for medical students over their final three years of practical training.


=== Prophylaxis for HIV infection ===

The possibility of transmission of HIV during rape is a major cause for concern, especially in countries with a high prevalence of HIV infection. The use of antiretroviral drugs following exposure to HIV is known in certain contexts to be reasonably effective. For instance, the administration of the antiretroviral drug zidovudine (AZT) to health workers following an occupational needle-stick exposure (puncturing the skin with a contaminated needle) has been shown to reduce the subsequent
risk of developing HIV infection by 81%. The average risk of HIV infection from a single act of unprotected vaginal sex with an infected
partner is relatively low (approximately 1.2 per 1000, from male to female, and around 0.5–1 per 1000 from female to male). This risk, in fact, is of a similar order to that from a needle-stick injury (around 3 per 1000), for which post exposure prophylaxis is now routine treatment. The average risk of HIV infection from unprotected anal sex is considerably higher, though, at around 5.30 per 1000. However, during rape, because of the force used, it is very much more likely that there will be macroscopic or microscopic tears to the vaginal mucosa, something that will greatly increase the probability of HIV transmission. There is no information about the feasibility or cost-effectiveness in resource-poor settings of routinely offering rape victims prophylaxis for
HIV.
Testing for HIV infection after rape is difficult in any case. In the immediate aftermath of an incident, many victims are not in a position fully to comprehend complicated information about HIV testing and risks. Ensuring proper follow-up is also difficult as many victims will not attend further scheduled visits for reasons that probably relate to their psychological coping following the assault.
The side-effects of antiretroviral treatment may also be significant, causing people to drop out from a course, though those who perceive themselves as being at high risk are much more likely to be compliant.
Despite the lack of knowledge about the effectiveness of HIV prophylaxis following rape, many organizations have recommended its use. For instance, medical aid schemes in high-income countries are increasingly including it in their care packages. Research is urgently needed in middleincome and low-income countries on the effectiveness of antiretroviral treatment after rape and how it could be included in patient care.


=== Centres providing comprehensive care to victims of sexual assault ===

Because of the shortage of doctors in many countries, specially trained nurses have been used in some places to assist victims of sexual assault. In Canada, nurses, known as sexual assault nurse examiners, are trained to provide comprehensive care to victims of sexual violence. These nurses refer clients to a physician when medical intervention is needed. In the province of Ontario, Canada, the first sexual assault care centre opened in 1984 and since then 26 others have been established. These centres provide or coordinate a wide range of services, including emergency medical care and medical follow-up, counseling, collecting forensic evidence of assault, legal support, and community consultation and education.
In South Africa, where the rate of sexual violence is among the highest in the world, Thuthuzela Care Centres (TCCs) employ a trans-disciplinary approach to dealing with the aftermath of an assault. They provide forensic as well as medical services to victims in the 72 hours following a rape. TCCs are credited with helping to reduce trial completion time for cases from two years to just over seven months, and for producing conviction rates of 84–89%. The TCC model has been held by the UN as a ""best practice model"" as a sexual violence support centre.
Centres that provide a range of services for victims of sexual assault, often located in places such as a hospital or police station, are being developed in many countries. For example, the One-Stop Crisis Centre is a unit in the Kuala Lumpur Hospital that provides coordinated inter-agency response to violence against women. Specialized centres such as these have the advantage of providing appropriately-trained and experienced staff. In some places, on the other hand, integrated centres exist providing services for victims of different forms of violence.


== Community-based efforts ==


=== Prevention programs ===
Several research based rape prevention programs have been tested and verified through scientific studies.  
The Men's Program, also known as the One in Four program, by John Foubert focuses on empathy toward rape survivors and intervention of sexual assault situations.  Men who participated in program committed 40 percent fewer acts of sexually coercive behavior and any sexual coercion committed was eight times less severe than a control group. Participants reported more success with intervention and a greater willingness to help as a bystander.
Bring in the Bystander by Victoria Banyard focuses on bystanders. The program includes a brief empathy induction component and a pledge to intervene in the future. Participants showed increased bystander efficacy, increased willingness to intervene as a bystander, and decreased rape myth acceptance.
MVP: Mentors in Violence Prevention by Jackson Katz also focuses on bystanders by encouraging men to be active bystanders. The program instructs participants through hypothetical scenarios. Outcomes reported in research literature include lower levels of sexism and increased belief that participants could prevent violence against women.
The Green Dot program by Dorothy Edwards also focuses on bystanders and instructs using both motivational speeches and peer education. Program participation is associated with reductions in rape myth acceptance and increased bystander intervention.


=== Community activism by men ===
Men's groups against domestic violence against women by men and rape of women by men can be found in Australia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean and Asia, and in many parts of North America and Europe. The underlying theory for this type of initiative is that men must as individuals take measures to reduce their use of violence. Typical activities include group discussions, education campaigns and rallies, work with violent men, and workshops in schools, prisons and workplaces. Actions are frequently conducted in collaboration with women's organizations that are involved in preventing violence against women and providing services to abused women.
In the United States alone, there are over 100 such men's groups, many of which focus specifically on sexual violence.  The Men Can Stop Rape group in Washington, DC, for instance, views masculinity as inherently violent and sexist and seeks to promote alternative forms of masculinity that foster non-violence and gender equality. Its recent activities have included conducting presentations in secondary schools, designing posters, producing a handbook for teachers and publishing a youth magazine.  Other groups, such as One in Four, focus on applying research based programs to sexual assault prevention on college campuses and in the military.


=== Legal and policy responses ===


==== Reporting and handling cases of sexual violence ====
Many countries have a system to encourage people to report incidents of sexual violence to the police and to improve the speed and sensitivity of the processing of cases by the courts. The specific mechanisms include dedicated domestic violence units, sexual crime units, gender training for the police and court officials, women-only police stations and courts for rape offences.
Problems are sometimes created by the unwillingness of medical experts to attend court. The reason for this is frequently that the court schedules are unpredictable, with cases often postponed at short notice and long waits for witnesses who are to give short testimonies. In South Africa, to counter this, the Directorate of Public Prosecutions has been training magistrates to interrupt proceedings in sexual violence cases when the medical expert arrives so that testimonies can be taken and witnesses cross-examined without delay.


=== Legal reform ===
Legal interventions that have been adopted in many places have included:

broadening the definition of rape;
reforming the rules on sentencing and on admissibility of evidence;
removing the requirements for victim's accounts to be corroborated.
In 1983, the Canadian laws on rape were reformed, in particular removing the requirement that accounts of rape be corroborated. Nonetheless, an evaluation has found that the prosecutors have tended to ignore this easing of the requirement for corroboration and that few cases go to court without forensic evidence.
Several countries in Asia, including the Philippines, have recently enacted legislation radically redefining rape and mandating state assistance to victims. The result has been a substantial increase in the number of reported cases. Campaigns to inform the general public of their legal rights must also take place if the reformed legislation is to be fully effective.
To ensure that irrelevant information was not admitted in court, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia drew up certain rules, which could serve as a useful model for effective laws and procedures elsewhere. Rule 96 of the Tribunal specifies that in cases of sexual assault there is no need for corroboration of the victim's testimony and that the earlier sexual history of the victim is not to be disclosed as evidence. The rule also deals with the possible claim by the accused that there was consent to the act, stating that consent as a defense shall not be allowed if the victim has been subjected to or threatened with physical or psychological violence, or detention, or has had reason to fear such violence or detention. Furthermore, consent shall not be allowed under the rule if the victim had good reason to believe that if he or she did not submit, another person might be so subjected, threatened or put in fear. Even where the claim of consent is allowed to proceed, the accused has to satisfy the court that the evidence for such a claim is relevant and credible, before this evidence can be presented. (See presumption of guilt.)
In many countries, judges hand out particularly short sentences for sexual violence. One way of overcoming this has been to introduce minimum sentencing for convictions for rape, unless there are extenuating circumstances.


=== International treaties ===
International treaties are important as they set standards for national legislation and provide a lever for local groups to campaign for legal reforms. Among the relevant treaties that relate to sexual violence and its prevention include:

the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979);
the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and its Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (2000);
the Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) and its supplemental Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (2000);
the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984).
A huge number of international agreements set norms and limits of behaviour, including behaviour in conflicts, that necessitate provisions in national legislation. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998), for instance, covers a broad spectrum of gender-specific crimes, including rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy and forced sterilization. It also includes certain forms of sexual violence that constitute a breach or serious violation of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, as well as other forms of sexual violence that are comparable in gravity to crimes against humanity. The inclusion of gender crimes in the definitions of the statute is an important historical development in international law.


== Actions to prevent other forms of sexual violence ==


=== Sexual trafficking ===
Initiatives to prevent the trafficking of people for sexual purposes have generally aimed to:

create economic programs in certain countries for women at risk of being trafficked;
provide information and raise awareness so that women at potential risk are aware of the danger of trafficking.
In addition, several government programs and nongovernmental organizations are developing services for the victims of trafficking. In Cyprus, the Aliens and Immigration Department approaches women entering the country to work in the entertainment or domestic service sectors. The Department advises the women on their rights and obligations and on available forms of protection against abuse, exploitation and procurement into prostitution. In the European Union and the United States, victims of trafficking willing to cooperate with the judicial system in prosecuting traffickers can receive temporary residence permits. In
Belgium and Italy, shelters have been set up for victims of trafficking. In Mumbai, India, an antitrafficking centre has been set up to facilitate the arrest and prosecution of offenders, and to provide assistance and information to trafficked women.


=== Genital cutting ===
Cutting of human genitals without medical need is viewed by some to be sexual violence.  Khafagi has argued that female circumcision (female genital cutting) should be understood from the perspective of those who perform them and that such knowledge can be used to design culturally appropriate interventions to prevent the practices. In the Kapchorwa district of Uganda, the REACH programme sought to enlist the support of elders in the community in detaching the practice of female circumcision from the cultural values it served.  Alternative activities were proposed to sustain original cultural ideals.  The United Nations Population Fund called the programme's reduction of female circumcision in the district a success.


=== Child marriage ===
Child marriage has a cultural basis and is often legal, so the task of achieving change is considerable. Simply outlawing early marriages will not, of itself, usually be sufficient to prevent the practice. In many countries the process of registering births is so irregular that age at first marriage may not be known. Approaches that address poverty, an important underlying factor in many such marriages, and those that stress educational goals, the health consequences of early childbirth and the rights of children are more likely to achieve results.


=== Rape during armed conflicts ===

The issue of sexual violence in armed conflicts has recently again been brought to the fore by organizations such as the Association of the Widows of the Genocide (AVEGA) and the Forum for African Women Educationalists. The former has supported war widows and rape victims in Rwanda and the latter has provided medical care and counselling to victims in Sierra Leone.
In 1995, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees released guidelines on the prevention of and response to sexual violence among refugee populations. These guidelines include provisions for:

the design and planning of camps, to reduce susceptibility to violence;
documenting cases;
educating and training staff to identify, respond to and prevent sexual violence;
medical care and other support services, including procedures to avoid further trauma to victims.
The guidelines also cover public awareness campaigns, educational activities and the setting up of women's groups to report and respond to violence. Based on work in Guinea and the United Republic of Tanzania, the International Rescue Committee has developed a programme to combat sexual violence in refugee communities. It includes the use of participatory methods to assess the prevalence of sexual and gender-based violence
in refugee populations, the training and deployment of community workers to identify cases and set up appropriate prevention systems, and measures for community leaders and other officials to prosecute perpetrators. The programme has been used in many places against sexual and gender-based violence, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, East Timor, Kenya, Sierra Leone and North Macedonia.


== See also ==
Anti-rape movement
Community accountability
Erin Merryn
Ni Putes Ni Soumises (Neither Whores Nor Submissives)
Outline of domestic violence
Rape crisis center
Sexual Abuse Prevention Network
Subway shirt
Women Power Line 1090


== References ==


== Further reading ==
""Violence Prevention."" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 7 June 2016. Web. 5 Apr. 2017.


== External links ==
(U.S. State of Arizona's) Sexual Violence Prevention and Education Program
(Swiss) Sexual Violence Prevention and Education English site"
Admeto,"Admeto, re di Tessaglia (""Admetus, King of Thessaly"", HWV 22) is a three-act opera written for the Royal Academy of Music with music composed by George Frideric Handel to an Italian-language libretto prepared by Nicola Francesco Haym. The story is partly based on Euripides' Alcestis. The opera's first performance was at the Haymarket Theatre in London on 31 January 1727. The original cast included Faustina Bordoni as Alcestis and Francesca Cuzzoni as Antigona, as Admeto was the second of the five operas that Handel composed to feature specifically these two prime donne of the day.
The opera was very successful at its first performances. However the presence of two prima donnas in the London operas had created factions of very partisan supporters of either one or the other ladies, and some performances were disrupted by hisses and loud cat calls by supporters of one of the star sopranos whenever the other one was singing, creating public scandal.


== Background ==

The German-born Handel, after spending some of his early career composing operas and other pieces in Italy, settled in London, where in 1711 he had brought Italian opera for the first time with his opera Rinaldo. A tremendous success, Rinaldo created a craze in London for Italian opera seria, a form focused overwhelmingly on solo arias for the star virtuoso singers. In 1719, Handel was appointed music director of an organisation called the Royal Academy of Music (unconnected with the present day London conservatoire), a company under royal charter to produce Italian operas in London. Handel was not only to compose operas for the company but hire the star singers, supervise the orchestra and musicians, and adapt operas from Italy for London performance.
Handel had composed numerous Italian operas for the academy, with varying degrees of success; some were enormously popular. The star soprano Francesca Cuzzoni had partnered with internationally renowned castrato Senesino as the leading performers in a long series of Italian operas by Handel and other composers for the academy, and to increase audience interest, the directors decided to import another celebrated singer from Italy, soprano Faustina Bordoni, so that the operas would have not one but two leading ladies onstage. This was a common practice in opera houses of the day in Italy; Cuzzoni and Faustina (as Bordoni was called) had appeared together in various European cities without incident.


== Roles ==


== Synopsis ==


=== Act 1 ===

Scene:Greece, in legendary times.
In a room of his palace, dominated by a statue of the god Apollo, King Admetus of Thessaly lies dying, tormented by terrible dreams. He is told by a courtier, Orindo, that his brother, Trasimede, is also in a bad way, obsessed with the portrait of a woman. The hero Hercules, on his never ending mission to perform glorious deeds to increase his fame, has come to pay a visit to his friend King Admetus. As her husband the king sleeps, his wife Alceste prays to Apollo to spare his life. The statue speaks and informs her that only if a close relative dies in his place will Admetus be permitted to continue to live. Alceste resolves to sacrifice her life for her husband.
Living in a nearby wood, disguised as shepherds, are Princess Antigona of Troy (which was burnt to the ground by Hercules) and her tutor Merapse. King Admetus had been betrothed to marry Antigona, but jilted her in favour of Alceste. This rejection of her is the reason, Antigona believes, why he is being punished with a mortal illness. She sends Merapse to the palace, instructing him to pretend that he is her father.
In the gardens of the palace, Alceste holds a dagger, preparing to die in her husband's place as she bids farewell to her grieving ladies-in-waiting, and then retires. Admetus, rejuvenated, enters with his friend Hercules, celebrating his recovery. Lamentations are heard from within and Admetus is horrified to see his wife's dead body. Admetus knows that Hercules once descended into the underworld and brought the hero Theseus back to the land of the living and asks him to do the same for Alceste, to which Hercules agrees.
Merapse returns to Antigona in the woods and tells her about Alceste's death and Admetus' recovery. They are glad that now there seems to be nothing in the way of Admetus making Antigona his wife, as he had promised. A hunting party approaches, led by Trasimede, who recognises Antigona as the woman whose portrait he carries about with him at all times, never ceasing to gaze at it. She insists, however, that he is mistaken; her name is Rosilda, she tells him, and the man with her is her father, called Fidalbo. Trasimede offers her a job at the palace, working as a gardener, which Antigona is glad to accept as she will be able to be close to Admetus that way and hopes to teach him a lesson.


=== Act 2 ===

The second act opens in Hades, where Alceste, tormented by the Furies, is chained to a rock. Hercules appears, fights with Cerberus the guard dog of hell, overcomes the Furies and breaks the fetters tying Alceste to the rock. She joyfully looks forward to being reunited with her husband.
Antigona is working at her new job as a gardener at the palace, where she has attracted the unwelcome attentions of the courtier Orindo, whom she spurns. Trasimede has lost interest in the portrait he was so obsessed with now he sees ""Rosilda"" who so closely resembles it, and tosses the portrait aside, whereupon Orindo picks it up. Antigona / ""Rosilda"" is not interested in anyone but King Admetus, however, and rejects Trasimede also.
Orindo takes the portrait to Admetus and tells him that Trasimede had not been honest when he had shown him another portrait of the Trojan princess he had been engaged to; Trasimede had obviously substituted a portrait of a far less attractive girl. Admetus is astonished by the resemblance of the portrait to his new gardener ""Rosilda""; she tells him that Princess Antigona is dead and asks him if she were still alive, would he marry her. Admetus gives no satisfactory answer, leaving ""Rosilda"" still very unhappy.
In the woods, Alceste, returned to life, is now disguised as a male soldier, worried that her husband, thinking her dead, may have fallen in love with someone else or even married another woman. When she sees the lovely ""Rosilda"" working in the palace gardens, she worries her fears were well-founded.


=== Act 3 ===
Trasimede, madly in love with ""Rosilda"", has abducted her. Merapse tells Admetus who ""Rosilda"" really is and that she still loves the king. Hercules, not wanting to give Alceste's disguise away, tells Admetus that he was unable to find her in Hades. It seems to Admetus that his duty is now to marry Antigona.
Trasimede, feeling guilty about abducting ""Rosilda"", has released her. When the disguised Alceste sees ""Rosilda"" sighing over a portrait of King Admetus, she snatches it from her hand. 
Admetus and Antigona make plans for their wedding, watched by the jealous Trasimede and Alceste in disguise. Trasimede decides to kill his brother but Alceste dashes his weapon from his hand, saving her husband's life. When Admetus realises Alceste has been restored to life, he is undecided as to the honourable course for him to take - should he return to his wife, whom he thought dead, or keep his pledge to Antigona? Antigona solves this dilemma for him by taking his hand and putting it in that of Alceste, telling the king to return to the woman who has now saved his life twice. Trasimede begs his brother for forgiveness, which is granted. Alceste rejoices once more in her husband's love.


== Musical features ==
The opening of the opera, with Admeto on his deathbed tormented by a ballet of demons representing his inner physical and mental agony, is very striking in its use of unusual harmonies, dissonance and chromaticism, followed by a dramatic accompanied recitative for the suffering king.  18th century musicologist Charles Burney wrote that he was ""told by persons who heard this opera performed when it first came out, that Senesino never sung or acted better, or more to the satisfaction of the public, than in this scene.""  The opening of Act Two, with an orchestral piece depicting Hercules rescuing Alceste in hell, is also very unusual for Handel operas of the period. Handel's music, according to Jonathan Keates, succeeds in making the character of the king ""a fully realised human figure.: 150  Handel, as in Alessandro, is careful to give his two leading ladies equal opportunity to shine in their arias, which are, in the opinion of Paul Henry Lang, music of ""surpassing"" quality.
The opera is scored for flute, two oboes, bassoon, two horns, strings and continuo (cello, lute, harpsichord).


== Reception and performance history ==

The opera was well-received and had nineteen performances in its initial run, a mark of success for those times.
Many audience members were extremely enthusiastic about the singers. One of Handel's most loyal supporters, Mary Delany, wrote to her sister that she had attended Admeto with a friend who ""was driven out of her senses"" by the singing of Faustina, Cuzzoni and Senesino. At the conclusion of one of Cuzzoni's arias at a performance of the original run, a man in the gallery called out ""Damn her: she has got a nest of nightingales in her belly"", while one aristocratic patron wrote in her programme beside Cuzzoni's name ""She is a devil of a singer"".
However, some members of the London audience had become fiercely partisan in favouring either Bordoni or Cuzzoni and disliking the other and at the performance of Admeto on 4 April 1727 with members of the royal family present, elements of the audience were extremely unruly, hissing and interrupting the performance with cat-calls when the ""rival"" to their favourite was performing, causing public scandal. Cuzzoni issued a public apology to the royal family through one of her supporters:

..Cuzzoni had been publicly told...she was to be hissed off the stage on Tuesday;  she was in such concern at this, that she had a great mind not to sing, but I...positively ordered her not to quit the stage, but let them do what they would...and she owns now that if she had not had that order she would have quitted the stage when they cat-called her to such a degree in one song, that she was not heard one note, which provoked the people that liked her so much, that they were not able to get the better of their resentment, but would not suffer the Faustina to speak afterwards.

This sort of disturbance continued however, climaxing that June in a performance at the academy of an opera by Giovanni Bononcini, Astianatte. With royalty again present in the person of the Princess of Wales, Cuzzoni and Faustina were onstage together and members of the audience who were supporters of one of the prima donnas were loudly protesting and hissing whenever the other one sang. Actual fist fights broke out in the audience between rival groups of ""fans"" and Cuzzoni and Faustina stopped singing, began trading insults and finally came to blows onstage and had to be dragged apart. The performance was abandoned, creating an enormous scandal reported gleefully in newspapers and pamphlets, satirized in John Gay's The Beggar's Opera of 1728, and tainting the entire reputation of Italian opera in London with disrepute in the eyes of many.
After the 19 performances in its first season, over the time from September 1727 to January 1732, the opera received 16 additional performances. Admeto was revived in 1754 and received 5 additional performances. The last, 6 April 1754, proved to be the last opera performance that Handel saw of his own operas in his lifetime. As with all Baroque opera seria, Admeto went unperformed for many years, but with the revival of interest in Baroque music and historically informed musical performance  since the 1960s,Admeto, like all Handel operas, receives performances at festivals and opera houses today. Among other performances, Admeto was produced at the Handel Festival, Halle in 2006, at the Göttingen International Handel Festival in 2009, at the Leipzig Opera in 2010, and was performed at the Theater an der Wien in 2014.
The Royal Academy of Music collapsed at the end of the 1728 - 29 season, partly due to the huge fees paid to the star singers, and Cuzzoni and Faustina both left London for engagements in continental Europe. Handel started a new opera company with a new prima donna, Anna Strada. One of Handel's librettists, Paolo Rolli, wrote in a letter (the original is in Italian) that Handel said that Strada ""sings better than the two who have left us, because one of them (Faustina) never pleased him at all and he would like to forget the other (Cuzzoni).""


== Recordings ==


=== Audio recording ===


=== Video recordings ===


== References ==
Notes

Sources
Dean, Winton (2006). Handel's Operas, 1726–1741. Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-268-2. The second of the two-volume definitive reference on the operas of Handel


== External links ==
Italian libretto
Admeto: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project"
Irrigation in Bolivia,"Bolivia’s government considers irrigated agriculture as a major contributor to ""better quality of life, rural and national development."" After a period of social unrest caused by the privatization of water supply in Cochabamba and La Paz, the government of Evo Morales is undertaking a major institutional reform in the water resources management and particularly in the irrigation sector, aimed at: (i) including indigenous and rural communities in decision making, (ii) integrating technical and traditional knowledge on water resources management and irrigation, (iii) granting and registering water rights, (iv) increasing efficiency of irrigation infrastructure, (v) enhancing water quality, and (v) promoting necessary investment and financial sustainability in the sector. Bolivia is the first country in Latin America with a ministry dedicated exclusively to integrated water resources management: the Water Ministry.


== Impacts of irrigated agriculture on rural development ==
Bolivia is one of the poorest countries in Latin America. In 2006 the annual income per capita reached to 1,153 dollars and almost 40% of the population lived in extreme poverty. In addition, Bolivia is one of the most unequal countries in the continent with a Gini coefficient of about 0.6 and 10% of the population obtaining over 40% of the total income and indigenous and rural populations in particular suffering the effects of social and economic marginalization. Real per capita income has barely changed over the past fifty years, while increasing in 350% in Brazil, 200% in Chile and 75% in Argentina. Poverty in rural areas stands at 83 percent, compared to 54 percent urban areas, and there is an even greater gap in terms of unsatisfied basic needs (91 percent versus 39 percent). Despite recent improvements in living conditions nationwide, benefits have continued to accrue disproportionately to urban areas.

During the 2000-2004 period agriculture contributed an average of 14% to GDP and employed 40% of the population. However, in the rural area agriculture employs up to 80% of the population. In 2001, the agricultural sector generated US$432 million and 30% of national exports. According to the Irrigation Vice-Ministry, the agricultural sector in the eastern part of Bolivia generated US$2,160 million exporting soya, sunflower and sugarcane products. The agricultural sector of the western part of Bolivia is mostly focused on subsistence agriculture and local markets.
In addition, frequent government changes over the last five years and social tensions have undermined progress in poverty reduction. The Government of President Morales—Bolivia’s first indigenous President—who came into power in January 2006, has prepared a Plan Nacional de Desarrollo: Bolivia Digna, Soberana, Productiva y Democrática para Vivir Bien (PND).
Irrigation is a major component of the PND since it ""plays a fundamental role in increasing agricultural production and diversification, rural employment, and food security in Bolivia"" . Particularly, and according to the Water Ministry, irrigation contributes to rural development since it (i) decreases climatic risks providing water for ensure production; (ii) increases food security and supply to local and national markets; (iii) increases productivity generating export capacity and agricultural revenue; (iv) intensifies land use; (v) generates income and reduces migration; (vi) allows diversification of crops including high value cops; and (vii) generates productive investment.


== Irrigation development ==


=== Irrigation infrastructure ===
Bolivia has approximately 226,500 irrigated hectares (ha) or about 11% of the total agricultural land 2,100,000 ha. There are about 5,000 irrigation systems in Bolivia, most of them located in the South and Southwestern areas (Valles and Altiplano). These irrigation systems consist of rudimentary web of canals supplied by rainfall with few regulatory schemes such as dams, which makes them very vulnerable to seasonality of rain. Overall efficiency of irrigation systems varies from 18 to 30% in traditional systems to 35-50% in improved systems.

Irrigation systems by Department, size and area

Source: Ministerio del Agua


=== Linkages with water resources ===

Irrigation accounts for 94% of water withdrawals or about 2,000 million cubic meters annually. Bolivia can be divided into three areas, which correspond to the eastern area (a tropical and subtropical region), the western area (the arid, semi arid and sub-humid dry region), and the Titicaca basin.
The hydrographic system consists of three large basins: the Amazon Basin which measures approximately 724,000 km2 and covers 66% of Bolivia’s territory; the closed (endorheic) basin, which measures 145,081 km2 or 13% of the territory; and the Rio Plata Basin, which covers 229,500 km2 or 21% of the nation’s territory.
The Amazon basin has a high flow of water and it is prone to floods. The quantity and quality of hydrological information is very poor.


=== Environmental impacts of irrigation ===
The main impacts of irrigated agriculture in Bolivia are soil erosion and pollution due to agricultural runoff. Nearly 41% of Bolivia’s national territory has lost its production capacity due to soil erosion. For example, in western regions of Oruro, Potosí and Tarija, close to 45,000 square kilometers have low soil productivity on account of erosion. The highland minifundios accelerate soil degradation processes. In the northern highlands, the production area of family agricultural production units is three to five hectares. Excess grazing and other agricultural activities have contributed to salinization and soil compression.
Agricultural runoff is one of the main contributors to water pollution in Bolivia, together with domestic municipal wastewater and dumping by industries and mines. The greatest percentage of the pollution load is due to diffuse dumping from agricultural and fishing activities and runoffs of urban areas. There are no regulations or controls over major dumping from non-specific sources, despite its volume and toxicity.


== History of the irrigation sector ==


=== Agricultural land past and present trends ===

The Spanish colonists, soon after their arrival in the central Andes in the 16th century, appropriated the best farmlands on the coasts and valleys and pushed the indigenous population to the more inhospitable highlands. The highlands had been grazing grounds for llamas and alpacas, but had not been used for agriculture because of their low productivity and high climatic risks. Under the new circumstances, the highlands became the center of Bolivia’s subsistence agriculture.
Traditionally Bolivia has been dependent on the mining sector as a source of fiscal revenue and foreign exchange, and directed few resources towards the agricultural sector. Following the 1985 economic reform, the government of Paz Estenssoro aimed at moving towards a distortion-free market economy that would attract private investment to the agricultural sector.  The World Bank considers that some of the reforms undertaken at that time were ill-informed, especially “the lack of constructive governmental intervention to provide needed public goods such as land titling, agricultural research and extension, and irrigation infrastructure.” As a result, the agricultural sector has lacked the underpinnings in both human and physical capital that facilitate development. The absence of new production and irrigation technologies left farmers with limited opportunities to raise their productivity and income discouraging investment.
In 1999 the total area equipped for irrigation added up to 128,240ha. The irrigated area has almost doubled since. More than 50% of the irrigated area is concentrated in the provinces of Cochabamba and La Paz in the center of the country.


=== Institutional development ===
During the 1990s, water management was characterized by a sectoral approach with multitude of actors and legal approaches and overlapping of responsibilities. The Ministry of Rural Affairs and Indigenous People, the National Water Authority at the time, together with the Inter-Institutional Committee, the National Office for Irrigation and Drainage, and the National Secretary for Rural Development contributed to the mosaic of institutions in charge of water resources management for irrigation at the national level.
In 1998, the government approved a Resolution establishing the Water Intendancy as the authority for granting water user rights. In 1999, two major concessions for water and sanitation were granted to the private sector in La Paz and Cochabamba. The increase of water tariffs and the consequent limitation of access to water were followed with social upraising in 2000. After what is known as the ""Water War,"" water user associations, national and municipal government, NGOs and international research organizations engaged on intense negotiations aimed at redefining public water policies. This process is known by the Project for Water Rights (Proyecto Derechos de Agua – PDA). Irrigation organizations worked with PDA in creating a national irrigation strategy combining both traditional irrigation practices with technical and scientific knowledge. This participatory process informed the 2004 Irrigation Law No.2878 among others.
Evo Morales administration is currently reforming the water institutional framework attributing competences to the newly created Environment and Water Resources Ministry as well as to municipalities and departments accordingly to the Decentralization Law No. 1654, and water users associations. The National Irrigation Plan has included as a challenge the still overlapping responsibilities of different institutions at the national and local level. (See institutional framework below)


== Legal and institutional framework ==


=== Legal framework ===
The 2004 Irrigation Law No. 2878 aims at managing irrigation water resources through a decentralized institutional framework as well as securing water user rights through registration. The Irrigation Law 2878 also transfers operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure to local farmers and establish participatory mechanisms to promote investment on irrigation systems. The previous law dated from 1906 and was considered obsolete.  through
The Irrigation Law specifically prohibits the transferring of water rights, hence the creation of water markets, and gives priority to collective users rights over individual users.
Users are granted water rights through registries or authorizations. Registries are granted to the indigenous and local families or communities and are aimed at securing water access for domestic or traditional agriculture use respectively. Authorizations are granted to other farmer organizations for agricultural or agro-forestry use for a maximum of 40 years.
The Irrigation Law recognizes the Water Ministry, previous Ministry for Agriculture and Campesino Issues, as the national water authority and created the National Irrigation Service (Servicio Nacional de Riego – SENARI) and the Local Irrigation Service (Servicio Departamental de Riego – SEDERI).


=== Institutional framework ===
The Environment and Water Resources Ministry, created in 2009, is responsible for: (i) planning, implementing, monitoring, evaluating, and funding irrigation plans and policies in close collaboration with SENARI;(ii) managing national and international funds aimed at irrigation development;(iii) promote technical assistance, capacity building and applied research and development in irrigation; and (iv) promote participative decentralization in irrigation development at the departmental, prefectural, municipal, local and river basin level as established in Law 2878. The Ministry for Rural Development, Agriculture and Environment share the same responsibilities than the Water Ministry.
The Vice-Ministry for Irrigation aims at: (i) guaranteeing sustainable water use for irrigation through a comprehensive system for granting water rights and permits (ii) promoting national and local investments, and (iii) strengthening institutional capacity through technical and financial support.
The Ministry of Development Planning, together with the Water Ministry and the Ministry for Rural Development, Agriculture and Environment aims at: (i) planning and supervising water management at the river basin level, (ii) designing and implementation of environmental standards for irrigation works, (iii) monitoring water quality and mitigating water pollution.
SENARI, under the Water Ministry, is responsible for planning and implementing water policies, granting water rights, conflict resolution, and coordinate with other water stakeholders and well as supervise SEDERI. SEDERIs, branches of SENARI at the level of departments, are responsible for proposing departmental irrigation strategies, supervising the Departmental Irrigation Service, promoting capacity building among water users, and updating the irrigation registry at the department level. There are currently seven SEDERIs in the departments of Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosi, Santa Cruz and Tarija.
There are multiple irrigation and water users associations at the local, regional, river basing and departmental level, comprising associations, cooperatives, committees and communities more or less formal. The government through the new Water Law is aiming at promoting registration of informal associations in the process of receiving water user rights. Irrigation associations are organized at the national level through the National Association of Irrigators and Local Water System, and at the Departmental level through Departmental Irrigation Units (Unidades Departamentales de Riego - UDR) and Departmental Irrigators Associations (Asociaciones Departamentales de Regantes - ADR).


=== Government strategy for the irrigation sector ===
Evo Morales’ administration is aiming at transforming the irrigation sector focusing on participatory decision-making and integrated water resources management at the river basin level with a strong emphasis on public investment.
In July 2007, Bolivia’s government approved a new National Irrigation Plan, called the ""new PRONAR"".
to be implemented from 2007 to 2030. The preceding National Irrigation program, also called PRONAR, was approved in 1996 and was implemented until 2005. The new PRONAR consist of five major components: (i)support agricultural and forestry production, (ii) support water resources management, (iii) strengthen institutional framework capacities, (iv)increase investment on irrigation and drainage infrastructure, and (v)integral technical assistance, capacity building and research. PRONAR aims at building irrigation infrastructure on 275,000 ha, benefiting 200,000 farmers, with a total investment of US$1.2 billion by 2030.


=== Key Legal Issues that Arise in Irrigation PPPs ===
There are a number of legal and commercial issues that will affect how these projects move forward and are structured.  Whilst some of the legal issues are not confined to irrigation PPPs they can take on a new dimension and complexity when applied to irrigation: Land ownership; water extraction; public sector counterpart. These will be key issues in a PPP as the private provider will want to ensure a steady revenue stream.
There are also the usual legal considerations that need to be checked when developing PPPs in any sector, such as legal restrictions on the type of PPP arrangement that can be entered into, relevant procurement rules for entering into PPPs, existence of restrictions on foreign investment, taxation and potential for tax holidays and the ability to assign rights such as security and step in rights to lenders.


== Water tariff and cost recovery ==
Farmers contribute to operational and maintenance costs of irrigation infrastructure both in cash and kind. The Water Ministry estimates that water users contribute with cash to cover maintenance costs in 45% irrigation systems. Irrigation systems such as Guadalupe and Pampa Redonda in Santa Cruz and Chiara in Cochabamba, a total of 10% of all irrigation systems, received any payment for operation costs.
For example, in Cochabamba users pay approximately US$4.1 application fee and US$9.6 registration fee. Users pay O&M costs through a day of work or a US$2.7 fine per day of work.


== Investment and financing ==
In irrigation, there is trend of increasing investment in irrigation, from 132.7 UDS millions
in 2001 invested in rural development (including irrigation) to 168.3 USD million in 2002.
A large part of these investments were made through Municipal governments building
systems and transferring them to the communities, though in most of the cases there is no
clarity about who actually finally owns those systems.
Regarding particular irrigation projects, PRONAR implemented 158 projects from 1996 to 2005, in seven out of the nine departments of Bolivia, investing US$20 million in close collaboration with the Inter American Development Bank, irrigation associations, and municipal governments.
Irrigation Investment by department and source

Source: Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios (2005)


== Possible climate change impacts on irrigated agriculture ==
Although specific impacts of Climate Change on irrigation in Bolivia are still unknown, phenomena such as a high intensity El Nino in the form of floods, droughts, frost and hail are generally expected to affect Bolivia. Natural disasters directly affect the country’s development, because it hurts its economic results, weaken its social well-being, cause capital losses, and damage the roads and energy and irrigation infrastructure. Such losses, in turn, influence economic indicators such as inflation and production, which in turn increase poverty
Floods and landslides in the rainy season affect a wide range of infrastructure. Landslides in 1997 and 1998 in the communities of Cotahuma, Mokotor, and the Kunii area, in the department of La Paz, caused 24 deaths and destroyed 264 homes. An unprecedented hail storm in 2002 also in La Paz caused 70 deaths and damage was estimated at more than US$70 million. Droughts often recur, their area of incidence is quite large, and they are a major cause of migration from the countryside to the cities.
In addition, increase of temperatures in the Andes and the melting of glaciers may increase seasonal runoff in the short term and increase agricultural dependency on annual rainfall in the medium and long term. For example, Bolivia’s Chacaltaya glacier, situated 20 km NE of the city of La Paz, has lost 82% of its surface area since 1982 and may completely melt by 2013.  (See Impacts of Glacier Retreat in the Andes:Documentary)


== External cooperation ==
The World Bank is currently undertaken a US 78.1 million Second Participatory Rural Investment Project with the objective of piloting the consolidation of institutional arrangements between the national, prefecture and municipal governments and civil society for sustainable management of sub-national public investment in irrigated agriculture, forestry and fishing with an emphasis on territorial development. The World Bank is also supporting with US$12.5 million the implementation of the National Plan for Sustainable Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (PRRES), thought the Bolivia Emergency Recovery and Disaster Management Project aimed at strengthening the national system for risk management and rehabilitation, reconstruction, and small mitigation works. These works will be financed in specific areas determined to have been particularly affected by El Nino in the past.
The Inter American Development Bank is currently financing a US$270,000 ""Evaluation and Design of Irrigation Project"" to evaluating the irrigation systems in operation. The IDB together with the GTZ provided technical and financial assistance to Bolivia’s government in the implementation of a National Irrigation Plan, PRONAR that finalized in 2005. This evaluation is the groundwork for further collaboration among IDB and the Bolivia’s government.


== Lessons learned from Bolivia’s PRONAR ==
The Water Ministry identified a number of lessons learned from the evaluation of PRONAR from 1996 to 2005. Some of the key aspects are:

Infrastructure With PRONAR infrastructure was designed based on irrigation water requirements and water availability. It is necessary to also incorporate social, hydrological and topographical data when designing irrigation infrastructure to avoid technical problems during implementation. It is also necessary having strong local institutions able to manage and monitor implementation of irrigations works.
Legal framework A well defined legal framework defining sectoral policy regarding public investment in private irrigation systems is crucial especially determining responsibility of operation and maintenance of public funded irrigation infrastructure.
Economic impact of irrigation investment Irrigated agriculture has a major economic impact when it is applied to high value crops and farmers have a connection with a local or national markets. The connection with local or national markets is determined by access to transportation.


== References =="
The Girl Who Died,"""The Girl Who Died"" is the fifth episode of the ninth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was first broadcast on BBC One on 17 October 2015, and was written by Jamie Mathieson and Steven Moffat and directed by Ed Bazalgette.
In the episode, the alien time traveller the Twelfth Doctor (Peter Capaldi) and his companion Clara (Jenna Coleman) have 24 hours to train a group of weak Viking villagers for a war against aliens called the Mire shortly after the Mire slaughtered all of the village's warriors and a woman called Ashildr (Maisie Williams) subsequently declared war.
The episode was watched by 6.56 million viewers and received highly positive reviews from critics, who praised the humour, the performances and the resolution to the Doctor's face.


== Plot ==
The Twelfth Doctor and Clara are taken to a village by some Vikings. The Doctor claims to be Odin, but the villagers are not fooled, as a figure also claiming to be Odin appears in the sky, offering to take the warriors to Valhalla. A squad of warriors in armoured suits materialise, shooting the Vikings with weapons that appear to disintegrate them. Clara and Ashildr, a woman from the village, are also struck. The squad soon disappears.

Clara and Ashildr find themselves on a spacecraft with the other Vikings. The men are killed and drained of their adrenaline and testosterone, while Clara and Ashildr meet Odin, the leader of the Mire species that pride themselves on their merciless conquests. Before Clara can stop her, Ashildr declares war on the Mire, and Odin grants them 24 hours to prepare. On Earth, Clara brings the Doctor up to speed. He recognises the villagers are too weak to fight, and devises a plan using Ashildr's storytelling skills and a supply of electric eels.
When the Mire arrive, they find the villagers celebrating. The Mire's confusion gives the Doctor time to stun them with electricity and pull one of the helmets off with an electromagnet. The Doctor modifies this and has Ashildr wear it, allowing her to envision an articulated puppet as a dragon, which is broadcast to the other Mire and scares them off. Odin vows to attack again, but the Doctor threatens to send video footage of the rout captured by Clara's phone to the universe unless they leave Earth. Odin and the Mire peacefully depart.
The village celebrates its victory until they find Ashildr died from the helmet's use. The Doctor is frustrated until he remembers why he took the form of Caecilius: to always save someone, no matter what. He ""breaks the rules"" and modifies two chips from the Mire's helmets, one of which he implants in Ashildr, and the other he gives to her father for later use. The chip rapidly regenerates Ashildr's body and she regains consciousness.
As they leave, the Doctor tells Clara he fears he gave Ashildr a fate worse than death as the chip will never fail, effectively making her immortal and alone. He provided the second chip in hope she would give it to one she cares for.


=== Continuity ===
After meeting the Vikings, the Doctor produces a yo-yo in an attempt to impress them with ""magic"". A former companion, Leela, believes a yo-yo is magical when the Fourth Doctor provides her one to play with (The Robots of Death, 1977). The Twelfth Doctor previously used one simply to test the gravity in 2014's ""Kill the Moon"", as did the Fourth Doctor in The Ark in Space (1975).
The Doctor is seen leafing through a book entitled ""2000 Year Diary"", an upgraded version of the 500 Year Diary belonging to the Second Doctor (The Power of the Daleks, 1966) and the Fourth Doctor in The Sontaran Experiment, and the 900 Year Diary of the Seventh Doctor (Doctor Who, 1996).
The Doctor's ability to ""speak baby"" is demonstrated again in this episode. It appeared previously in the Eleventh Doctor stories ""A Good Man Goes to War"" and ""Closing Time"".
As he is adapting a Mire helmet, the Doctor claims he is ""reversing the polarity of the neutron flow"", a phrase said many times in various ways during Doctor Who, beginning with the Third Doctor.
David Tennant and Catherine Tate appear in flashbacks as the Tenth Doctor and Donna Noble, respectively, in scenes from ""The Fires of Pompeii"" (2008) in which Peter Capaldi also starred. A flashback from ""Deep Breath"" (2014), the eighth series' opening episode, also appears as the Doctor finally understands why he chose his current face.
The Doctor says Ashildr is now a ""hybrid"", echoing a prophecy related by Davros in ""The Magician's Apprentice"" / ""The Witch's Familiar"" – two great warrior races, speculated to be the Time Lords and the Daleks, would merge to become a ""hybrid"". It now appears that, instead, it is  a merger between Vikings and the Mire.
At the end of the episode, the Doctor reflects on the potential consequences of his decision to save Ashildr, and possibly making her immortal, by saying ""time will tell, it always does"". This is a statement the Seventh Doctor uses at the end of Remembrance of the Daleks (1988), referring to his decision to destroy Davros and Skaro, and whether it was a 'good' decision.


=== Outside references ===
Odin's face appearing in the sky to talk to his disciples directly references a scene in Monty Python and the Holy Grail in which God does the same thing.
Clara suggests, and the Doctor agrees, that The Benny Hill Show's theme song Yakety Sax be used as the soundtrack for the video of Odin and the other Mire retreating from the dragon puppet. She plays a few seconds' clip with Yakety Sax's opening notes added.


== Production ==
Filming took place at Margam Castle, Castell Coch, Llanharan, and Marble Hall within Cardiff Town Hall.


=== Casting ===
Odin was originally to have been played by Brian Blessed, who had previously played King Yrcanos in 1986's Mindwarp, and had been offered the role of the Second Doctor in 1966. Blessed, however, was forced to pull out, and was replaced by David Schofield.


== Broadcast and reception ==
Doctor Who came second for the day with 4.63 million viewers in overnight ratings, an increase from the previous episode. Overall the episode had 6.56 million viewers, the highest figure of the series thus far, with a 28.1% share. It received an Appreciation Index score of 82.


=== Critical reception ===

The episode received very positive reviews from critics, with many praising the episode's humour, the resolution with regards to the Doctor's face, and the performances of Capaldi, Coleman and Williams. The episode also achieved a score of 95% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 19 reviews, with an average score of 8.1. The site's consensus reads ""With a stellar guest-star performance by Maisie Williams, ""The Girl Who Died"" sets thrillingly high stakes, while still maintaining the playful tone we've come to expect from Peter Capaldi's incarnation of Doctor Who"".
Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times awarded the episode a perfect five star rating, claiming that ""Jamie Mathieson and Steven Moffat invest a traditional formula with a twist of unpredictability and immortality"". He further went on to say that the episode ""taps into a very traditional vein but again slyly transcends it, and achieves that holy grail of TV drama – unpredictability"", also claiming that ""everything that is meant to be funny is funny and the sad moments are sad"", while praising the episode's direction as ""impeccable"". Scott Collura of IGN also lavished praise on the episode, awarding it a score of 8.8/10, deemed by the site as ""great"". He especially praised Capaldi's performance, labelling it ""big and touching"", while also enjoying ""the introduction of Maisie Williams' character"" and the episode's ""big thematic touches"". He summarised his review by stating ""Doctor Who continues its strong season with the much-anticipated arrival of Maisie Williams as 'The Girl Who Died.' While the revelation of who her character actually is may come as something of a letdown for longtime fans, the episode itself and its bigger thematic touches more than make up for that"". Catherine Gee of The Daily Telegraph also enjoyed the episode, calling it ""fast paced"" and claiming that it ""set up all the right ingredients for something big next week"". She also said ""The attack and battle sequence zipped through at speed. If it felt a little rushed it didn't hugely matter, as it was clearly setting up for a bigger second half"".
Alasdair Wilkins of The A.V. Club highly acclaimed the episode, awarding it a perfect ""A"" grade – the first of this series – and stated that ""the writing, the acting, the directing combine to create what is quite possibly the best episode yet of this Doctor's tenure"". He called the episode ""fantastically funny whenever it wants to be"", but also heavily praised the subplot of the Doctor's face, calling the reveal ""wonderfully simple"". He closed his review by labeling the episode ""a damn triumph. More than that, it's a triumph because it feels so resolutely like a Doctor Who episode"", and stated that the episode ""remembers that what motivates the Doctor's decisions are fundamentally the same emotions that we all feel, and that's what makes this such a brilliant hour of television"". Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy also praised the episode, calling it ""unlike anything you've seen before"". He called the episode ""fast-paced, with sharp, funny dialogue and some great clowning from Peter Capaldi"" and further praising Williams as ""nicely ethereal in the part, without ever overplaying the character's enigmatic nature"". He closed his review by saying ""while Doctor Who shouldn't be like this every week, the show's boundless variety has always been its biggest selling point, and it's refreshing to see 'The Girl Who Died' break the mould and dare to be entirely unpredictable and different"".
Kaite Welsh of IndieWire also acclaimed the episode, awarding it an A++ grade, the highest score available. She said that the episode marked the ""fifth stellar episode in a row"", and that it represented ""the show doing historical episodes as they're meant to be done. It's like 'Fires of Pompeii', 'Robot of Sherwood' and classic Third Doctor adventure 'The Time Warrior' all mixed into one—literally—electrifying episode"". Mark Rozeman of Paste Magazine also responded highly positively to the episode, awarding it a score of 9.6 and saying that it ""stands up remarkably as its own story"". They closed their review by stating ""As with the best Who adventures, it explores more complexities of time travel, whilst never losing a sense of whimsy and fun. It's another home run in a season that, so far, has a pretty great batting average"".


== In print ==

Pearson Education published a novelisation of this episode by Jane Rollason for students of English language reading on 19 July 2018.


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

""The Girl Who Died"" at the BBC Doctor Who homepage

""The Girl Who Died"" on Tardis Wiki, the Doctor Who Wiki
""The Girl Who Died"" at IMDb"
Excommunication,"Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit membership in a religious community or to restrict certain rights within it, in particular those of being in communion with other members of the congregation, and of receiving the sacraments.
It is practiced by all of the ancient churches (such as the Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodox churches and the Eastern Orthodox churches) as well as by other Christian denominations; however, it is also used more generally to refer to similar types of institutional religious exclusionary practices and shunning among other religious groups. The Amish have also been known to excommunicate members that were either seen or known for breaking rules, or questioning the church, a practice known as shunning. Jehovah's Witnesses use the term disfellowship to refer to their form of excommunication.
The word excommunication means putting a specific individual or group out of communion. In some denominations, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group. Excommunication may involve banishment, shunning, and shaming, depending on the group, the offense that caused excommunication, or the rules or norms of the religious community. The grave act is often revoked in response to manifest repentance.


== Bahá'í Faith ==

Excommunication among Bahá'ís is rare and generally not used for transgressions of community standards, intellectual dissent, or conversion to other religions. Instead, it is the most severe punishment, reserved for suppressing organized dissent that threatens the unity of believers. Covenant-breaker is a term used by Bahá'ís to refer to a person who has been excommunicated from the Bahá'í community for breaking the 'Covenant': actively promoting schism in the religion or otherwise opposing the legitimacy of the chain of succession of leadership.
Currently, the Universal House of Justice has the sole authority to declare a person a Covenant-breaker, and once identified, all Bahá'ís are expected to shun them, even if they are family members. According to 'Abdu'l Baha Covenant-breaking is a contagious disease. The Bahá'í writings forbid association with Covenant-breakers and Bahá'ís are urged to avoid their literature, thus providing an exception to the Bahá'í principle of independent investigation of truth. Most Bahá'ís are unaware of the small Bahá'í divisions that exist.


== Christianity ==
The purpose of excommunication is to exclude from the church those members who have behaviors or teachings contrary to the beliefs of a Christian community (heresy). It aims to protect members of the church from abuses and allow the offender to recognize their error and repent.


=== Catholic Church ===

Within the Catholic Church, there are differences between the discipline of the majority Latin Church regarding excommunication and that of the Eastern Catholic Churches.


==== Latin Church ====

Excommunication can be either latae sententiae (automatic, incurred at the moment of committing the offense for which canon law imposes that penalty) or ferendae sententiae (incurred only when imposed by a legitimate superior or declared as the sentence of an ecclesiastical court).

The Catholic Church teaches in the Council of Trent that ""excommunicated persons are not members of the Church, because they have been cut off by her sentence from the number of her children and belong not to her communion until they repent"".
In the papal bull Exsurge Domine (May 16, 1520), Pope Leo X condemned Luther's twenty-third proposition according to which ""excommunications are merely external punishments, nor do they deprive a man of the common spiritual prayers of the Church"". Pope Pius VI in Auctorem Fidei (August 28, 1794) condemned the notion which maintained that the effect of excommunication is only exterior because of its own nature it excludes only from exterior communion with the Church, as if, said the pope, excommunication were not a spiritual penalty binding in heaven and affecting souls. The excommunicated person, being excluded from the society of the Church, still bears the indelible mark of Baptism and is subject to the jurisdiction of the Church. They are excluded from engaging in certain activities. These activities are listed in Canon 1331 §1, and prohibit the individual from any ministerial participation in celebrating the sacrifice of the Eucharist or any other ceremonies of worship; celebrating or receiving the sacraments; or exercising any ecclesiastical offices, ministries, or functions.

Under current Catholic canon law, excommunicates remain bound by ecclesiastical obligations such as attending Mass, even though they are barred from receiving the Eucharist and from taking an active part in the liturgy (reading, bringing the offerings, etc.). ""Excommunicates lose rights, such as the right to the sacraments, but they are still bound to the obligations of the law; their rights are restored when they are reconciled through the remission of the penalty.""
These are the only effects for those who have incurred a latae sententiae excommunication. For instance, a priest may not refuse Communion publicly to those who are under an automatic excommunication, as long as it has not been officially declared to have been incurred by them, even if the priest knows that they have incurred it—although if the person's offence was a ""manifest grave sin"", then the priest is obliged to refuse their communion by canon 915. On the other hand, if the priest knows that excommunication has been imposed on someone or that an automatic excommunication has been declared (and is no longer merely an undeclared automatic excommunication), he is forbidden to administer Holy Communion to that person.
In the Catholic Church, excommunication is normally resolved by a declaration of repentance, profession of the Creed (if the offense involved heresy) and an Act of Faith, or renewal of obedience (if that was a relevant part of the offending act, i.e., an act of schism) by the excommunicated person and the lifting of the censure (absolution) by a priest or bishop empowered to do this. ""The absolution can be in the internal (private) forum only, or also in the external (public) forum, depending on whether scandal would be given if a person were privately absolved and yet publicly considered unrepentant.""


==== Eastern Catholic Churches ====

In the Eastern Catholic Churches, excommunication is imposed only by decree, never incurred automatically by latae sententiae excommunication. A distinction is made between minor and major excommunication. Those on whom minor excommunication has been imposed are excluded from receiving the Eucharist and can also be excluded from participating in the Divine Liturgy. They can even be excluded from entering a church when divine worship is being celebrated there. The decree of excommunication must indicate the precise effect of the excommunication and, if required, its duration.
Those under major excommunication are in addition forbidden to receive not only the Eucharist but also the other sacraments, to administer sacraments or sacramentals, to exercise any ecclesiastical offices, ministries, or functions whatsoever, and any such exercise by them is null and void. They are to be removed from participation in the Divine Liturgy and any public celebrations of divine worship. They are forbidden to make use of any privileges granted to them and cannot be given any dignity, office, ministry, or function in the church, they cannot receive any pension or emoluments associated with these dignities etc., and they are deprived of the right to vote or to be elected.


=== Eastern Orthodox Church ===
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the Eucharist. It is not expulsion from the churches. This can happen for such reasons as not having confessed within that year; excommunication can also be imposed as part of a penitential period. It is generally done with the goal of restoring the member to full communion. Before an excommunication of significant duration is imposed, the bishop is usually consulted. The Eastern Orthodox do have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing anathema, but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. As an example of this, the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, in its eleventh capitula, declared: ""If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.""


=== Lutheran churches ===
Although Lutheranism technically has an excommunication process, some denominations and congregations do not use it. In the Smalcald Articles Luther differentiates between the ""great"" and ""small"" excommunication. The ""small"" excommunication is simply barring an individual from the Lord's Supper and ""other fellowship in the church"". While the ""great"" excommunication excluded a person from both the church and political communities which he considered to be outside the authority of the church and only for civil leaders. A modern Lutheran practice is laid out in the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod's 1986 explanation to the Small Catechism, defined beginning at Questions No. 277–284, in ""The Office of Keys"".
Many Lutheran denominations operate under the premise that the entire congregation (as opposed to the pastor alone) must take appropriate steps for excommunication, and there are not always precise rules, to the point where individual congregations often set out rules for excommunicating laymen (as opposed to clergy). For example, churches may sometimes require that a vote must be taken at Sunday services; some congregations require that this vote be unanimous.
In the Church of Sweden and the Church of Denmark, excommunicated individuals are turned out from their parish in front of their congregation. They are not forbidden, however, to attend church and participate in other acts of devotion, although they are to sit in a place appointed by the priest (which was at a distance from others).
The Lutheran process, though rarely used, has created unusual situations in recent years due to its somewhat democratic excommunication process. One example was an effort to get serial killer Dennis Rader excommunicated from his denomination (the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America) by individuals who tried to ""lobby"" Rader's fellow church members into voting for his excommunication.


=== Anglican Communion ===


==== Church of England ====
The Church of England does not have any specific canons regarding how or why a member can be excommunicated, although it has a canon according to which ecclesiastical burial may be refused to someone ""declared excommunicate for some grievous and notorious crime and no man to testify to his repentance"".
The punishment of imprisonment for being excommunicated from the Church of England was removed from English law in 1963.
Historian Christopher Hill found that, in pre-revolutionary England, excommunication was common but fell into disrepute because it was applied unevenly and could be avoided on payment of fines.


==== Episcopal Church of the United States of America ====
The ECUSA is in the Anglican Communion, and shares many canons with the Church of England which would determine its policy on excommunication.


=== Reformed churches ===
In the Reformed Churches, excommunication has generally been seen as the culmination of church discipline, which is one of the three marks of the Church. The Westminster Confession of Faith sees it as the third step after ""admonition"" and ""suspension from the sacrament of the Lord's Supper for a season."" Yet, John Calvin argues in his Institutes of the Christian Religion that church censures do not ""consign those who are excommunicated to perpetual ruin and damnation"", but are designed to induce repentance, reconciliation and restoration to communion. Calvin notes, ""though ecclesiastical discipline does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church.""
At least one modern Reformed theologian argues that excommunication is not the final step in the disciplinary process. Jay E. Adams argues that in excommunication, the offender is still seen as a brother, but in the final step they become ""as the heathen and tax collector"" (Matthew 18:17). Adams writes, ""Nowhere in the Bible is excommunication (removal from the fellowship of the Lord's Table, according to Adams) equated with what happens in step 5; rather, step 5 is called 'removing from the midst, handing over to Satan,' and the like.""
Former Princeton president and theologian, Jonathan Edwards, addresses the notion of excommunication as ""removal from the fellowship of the Lord's Table"" in his treatise entitled ""The Nature and End of Excommunication"". Edwards argues:

""Particularly, we are forbidden such a degree of associating ourselves with (excommunicants), as there is in making them our guests at our tables, or in being their guests at their tables; as is manifest in the text, where we are commanded to have no company with them, no not to eat [...] That this respects not eating with them at the Lord's supper, but a common eating, is evident by the words, that the eating here forbidden, is one of the lowest degrees of keeping company, which are forbidden. Keep no company with such a one, saith the apostle, no not to eat – as much as to say, no not in so low a degree as to eat with him. But eating with him at the Lord's supper, is the very highest degree of visible Christian communion. Who can suppose that the apostle meant this: Take heed and have no company with a man, no not so much as in the highest degree of communion that you can have? Besides, the apostle mentions this eating as a way of keeping company which, however, they might hold with the heathen. He tells them, not to keep company with fornicators. Then he informs them, he means not with fornicators of this world, that is, the heathens; but, saith he, 'if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, etc. with such a one keep no company, no not to eat.' This makes it most apparent, that the apostle doth not mean eating at the Lord's table; for so, they might not keep company with the heathens, any more than with an excommunicated person"".


=== Methodism ===
In the Methodist Episcopal Church, individuals were able to be excommunicated following ""trial before a jury of his peers, and after having had the privilege of an appeal to a higher court"". Nevertheless, an excommunication could be lifted after sufficient penance.
John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Churches, excommunicated sixty-four members from the Newcastle Methodist society alone for the following reasons:

Two for cursing and swearing.
Two for habitual Sabbath-breaking.
Seventeen for drunkenness.
Two for retailing spiritous liquors.
Three for quarrelling and brawling.
One for beating his wife.
Three for habitual, wilful lying.
Four for railing and evil-speaking.
One for idleness and laziness. And,

Nine-and-twenty for lightness and carelessness.
The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, in its 2014 Discipline, includes ""homosexuality, lesbianism, bi-sexuality, bestiality, incest, fornication, adultery, and any attempt to alter one's gender by surgery"", as well as remarriage after divorce among its excommunicable offences.
The Evangelical Wesleyan Church, in its 2015 Discipline, states that ""Any member of our church who is accused of neglect of the means of grace or other duties required by the Word of God, the indulgence of sinful tempers, words or actions, the sowing of dissension, or any other violation of the order and discipline of the church, may, after proper labor and admonition, be censured, placed on probation, or expelled by the official board of the circuit of which he is a member. If he request a trial, however, within thirty dates of the final action of the official board, it shall be granted.""


=== Anabaptist tradition ===


==== Amish ====
Amish communities practice variations of excommunication known as ""shunning"". This practice may include isolation from community events or the cessation of all communication.


==== Mennonites ====
Mennonite communities use the ""ban"", separation and correction on baptized members that fall into sin. Separated members must be avoided or ""shunned"" until they repent and reform. Shunning must be done in the spirit of moderation and Christian charity; the aim is not to destroy but to reform the person.


==== Hutterites ====
Hutterite communities use a form of excommunication called ""the ban"" on baptized members that fall into sin repeatedly.


=== Baptists ===
For Baptists, excommunication is used as a last resort by denominations and churches for members who do not want to repent of beliefs or behavior at odds with the confession of faith of the community. The vote of community members, however, can restore a person who has been excluded.


=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) practices excommunication as a penalty for those who commit serious sins, i.e., actions that significantly impair the name or moral influence of the church or pose a threat to other people. In 2020, the church ceased using the term ""excommunication"" and instead refers to ""withdrawal of membership"". According to the church leadership General Handbook, the purposes of withdrawing membership or imposing membership restrictions are, (1) to help protect others; (2) to help a person access the redeeming power of Jesus Christ through repentance; and (3) to protect the integrity of the Church. The origins of LDS disciplinary procedures and excommunications are traced to a revelation Joseph Smith dictated on 9 February 1831, later canonized as Doctrine and Covenants, section 42 and codified in the General Handbook.
The LDS Church also practices the lesser sanctions of private counsel and caution and informal and formal membership restrictions. (Informal membership restrictions was formerly known as ""probation""; formal membership restrictions was formerly known as ""disfellowshipment"".)
Formal membership restrictions are used for serious sins that do not rise to the level of membership withdrawal. Formal membership restriction denies some privileges but does not include a loss of church membership. Once formal membership restrictions are in place, persons may not take the sacrament or enter church temples, nor may they offer public prayers or sermons. Such persons may continue to attend most church functions and are allowed to wear temple garments, pay tithes and offerings, and participate in church classes if their conduct is orderly. Formal membership restrictions typically lasts for one year, after which one may be reinstated as a member in good standing.
In the more grievous or recalcitrant cases, withdrawal of membership becomes a disciplinary option. Such an action is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious sins, including committing serious crimes such as murder, child abuse, and incest; committing adultery; involvement in or teaching of polygamy; involvement in homosexual conduct; apostasy; participation in an abortion; teaching false doctrine; or openly criticizing church leaders. The General Handbook states that formally joining another church constitutes apostasy and is worthy of membership withdrawal; however, merely attending another church does not constitute apostasy.
A withdrawal of membership can occur only after a formal church membership council. Formerly called a ""disciplinary council"" or a ""church court"", the councils were renamed to avoid focusing on guilt and instead to emphasize the availability of repentance.
The decision to withdraw the membership of a Melchizedek priesthood holder is generally the province of the leadership of a stake. In such a disciplinary council, the stake presidency and, sometimes in more difficult cases, the stake high council attend. It is possible to appeal a decision of a stake membership council to the church's First Presidency.
For females and for male members not initiated into the Melchizedek priesthood, a ward membership council is held. In such cases, a bishop determines whether withdrawal of membership or a lesser sanction is warranted. He does this in consultation with his two counselors, with the bishop making the final determination after prayer. The decision of a ward membership council can be appealed to the stake president.
The following list of variables serves as a general set of guidelines for when membership withdrawal or lesser action may be warranted, beginning with those more likely to result in severe sanction:

Violation of covenants: Covenants are made in conjunction with specific ordinances in the LDS Church. Violated covenants that might result in excommunication are usually those surrounding marriage covenants, temple covenants, and priesthood covenants.
Position of trust or authority: The person's position in the church hierarchy factors into the decision. It is considered more serious when a sin is committed by an area seventy; a stake, mission, or temple president; a bishop; a patriarch; or a full-time missionary.
Repetition: Repetition of a sin is more serious than a single instance.
Magnitude: How often, how many individuals were impacted, and who is aware of the sin factor into the decision.
Age, maturity, and experience: Those who are young in age, or immature in their understanding, are typically afforded leniency.
Interests of the innocent: How the discipline will impact innocent family members may be considered.
Time between transgression and confession: If the sin was committed in the distant past, and there has not been repetition, leniency may be considered.
Voluntary confession: If a person voluntarily confesses the sin, leniency is suggested.
Evidence of repentance: Sorrow for sin, and demonstrated commitment to repentance, as well as faith in Jesus Christ all play a role in determining the severity of discipline.
Notices of withdrawal of membership may be made public, especially in cases of apostasy, where members could be misled. However, the specific reasons for individual withdrawal of membership are typically kept confidential and are seldom made public by church leadership.
Those who have their membership withdrawn lose the right to partake of the sacrament. Such persons are permitted to attend church meetings but participation is limited: they cannot offer public prayers, preach sermons, and cannot enter temples. Such individuals are also prohibited from wearing or purchasing temple garments and from paying tithes. A person whose membership has been withdrawn may be re-baptized after a waiting period of at least one year and sincere repentance, as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders.
Some critics have charged that LDS Church leaders have used the threat of membership withdrawal to silence or punish church members and researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, who study or discuss controversial subjects, or who may be involved in disputes with local, stake leaders or general authorities; see, e.g., Brian Evenson, a former BYU professor and writer whose fiction came under criticism from BYU officials and LDS Leadership. Another notable case of excommunication from the LDS Church was the ""September Six"", a group of intellectuals and professors, five of whom were excommunicated and the sixth disfellowshipped. However, church policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for membership withdrawal, without influence from church headquarters. The church thus argues that this policy is evidence against any systematic persecution of scholars or dissenters. Data shows per-capita excommunication rates among the LDS Church have varied dramatically over the years, from a low of about 1 in 6,400 members in the early 1900s to one in 640 by the 1970s, an increase which has been speculatively attributed to ""informal guidance from above"" in enforcing the growing list of possible transgressions added to General Handbook editions over time.


=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===

Jehovah's Witnesses practice a form of excommunication, using the term ""disfellowshipping"", in cases where a member is believed to have unrepentantly committed one or more of several documented ""serious sins"".
When a member confesses to, or is accused of, a serious sin, a judicial committee of at least three elders is formed. This committee investigates the case and determines the magnitude of the sin committed. If the person is deemed guilty of a disfellowshipping offense, the committee then decides, on the basis of the person's attitude and ""works befitting repentance"".
Disfellowshipping is a severing of friendly relationships between all Jehovah's Witnesses and the disfellowshipped person. Interaction with extended family is typically restricted to a minimum, such as presence at the reading of wills and providing essential care for the elderly. Within a household, typical family contact may continue, but without spiritual fellowship such as family Bible study and religious discussions. Parents of disfellowshipped minors living in the family home may continue to attempt to convince the child about the group's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that this form of discipline encourages the disfellowshipped individual to conform to biblical standards and prevents the person from influencing other members of the congregation.
Along with breaches of the Witnesses' moral code, openly disagreeing with the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses is considered grounds for shunning. These persons are labeled as ""apostates"" and are described in Watch Tower Society literature as ""mentally diseased"". Descriptions of ""apostates"" appearing in the Witnesses literature have been the subject of investigation in the UK to determine if they violate religious hatred laws. Sociologist Andrew Holden claims many Witnesses who would otherwise defect because of disillusionment with the organization and its teachings, remain affiliated out of fear of being shunned and losing contact with friends and family members. Shunning employs what is known as relational aggression in psychological literature. When used by church members and member-spouse parents against excommunicant parents it contains elements of what psychologists call parental alienation. Extreme shunning may cause trauma to the shunned (and to their dependents) similar to what is studied in the psychology of torture.
Disassociation is a form of shunning where a member expresses verbally or in writing that they do not wish to be associated with Jehovah's Witnesses, rather than for having committed any specific 'sin'. Elders may also decide that an individual has disassociated, without any formal statement by the individual, by actions such as accepting a blood transfusion, or for joining another religious or military organization. Individuals who are deemed by the elders to have disassociated are given no right of appeal.
Each year, congregation elders are instructed to consider meeting with disfellowshipped individuals to determine changed circumstances and encourage them to pursue reinstatement. Reinstatement is not automatic after a certain time period, nor is there a minimum duration; disfellowshipped persons may talk to elders at any time but must apply in writing to be considered for reinstatement into the congregation. Elders consider each case individually, and are instructed to ensure ""that sufficient time has passed for the disfellowshipped person to prove that his profession of repentance is genuine"". A judicial committee meets with the individual to determine their repentance, and if this is established, the person is reinstated into the congregation and may participate with the congregation in their formal ministry (such as house-to-house preaching).
A Witness who has been formally reproved or reinstated cannot be appointed to any special privilege of service for at least one year. Serious sins involving child sex abuse permanently disqualify the sinner from appointment to any congregational privilege of service, regardless of whether the sinner was convicted of any secular crime.


=== Christadelphians ===
Similarly to many groups having their origins in the 1830s Restoration Movement, Christadelphians call their form of excommunication ""disfellowshipping"", though they do not practice ""shunning"". Disfellowshipping can occur for moral reasons, changing beliefs, or (in some ecclesias) for not attending communion (referred to as ""the emblems"" or ""the breaking of bread"").
In such cases, the person involved is usually required to discuss the issues. If they do not conform, the church ('meeting' or 'ecclesia') is recommended by the management committee (""Arranging Brethren"") to vote on disfellowshipping the person. These procedures were formulated 1863 onwards by early Christadelphians, and then in 1883 codified by Robert Roberts in A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (colloquially ""The Ecclesial Guide""). However Christadelphians justify and apply their practice not only from this document but also from passages such as the exclusion in 1Co.5 and recovery in 2Co.2.
Christadelphians typically avoid the term ""excommunication"" which many associate with the Catholic Church; and may feel the word carries implications they do not agree with, such as undue condemnation and punishment, as well as failing to recognise the remedial intention of the measure.

Behavioural cases. Many cases regarding moral issues tend to involve relational matters such as marriage outside the faith, divorce and remarriage (which is considered adultery in some circumstances by some ecclesias), or homosexuality. Reinstatement for moral issues is determined by the ecclesia's assessment of whether the individual has ""turned away"" from (ceased) the course of action considered immoral by the church. This can be complex when dealing with cases of divorce and subsequent remarriage, with different positions adopted by different ecclesias, but generally within the main ""Central"" grouping, such cases can be accommodated.
Doctrinal cases. Changes of belief on what Christadelphians call ""first principle"" doctrines are difficult to accommodate unless the individual agrees to not teach or spread them, since the body has a documented Statement of Faith which informally serves as a basis of ecclesial membership and interecclesial fellowship. Those who are disfellowshipped for reasons of differing belief rarely return, because they are expected to conform to an understanding with which they do not agree. Holding differing beliefs on fundamental matters is considered as error and apostasy, which can limit a person's salvation. However, in practice disfellowship for doctrinal reasons is now unusual.
In the case of adultery and divorce, the passage of time usually means a member can be restored if he or she wants to be. In the case of ongoing behaviour, cohabitation, homosexual activity, then the terms of the suspension have not been met.
The mechanics of ""refellowship"" follow the reverse of the original process; the individual makes an application to the ""ecclesia"", and the ""Arranging Brethren"" give a recommendation to the members who vote. If the ""Arranging Brethren"" judge that a vote may divide the ecclesia, or personally upset some members, they may seek to find a third party ecclesia which is willing to ""refellowship"" the member instead. According to the Ecclesial Guide a third party ecclesia may also take the initiative to ""refellowship"" another meeting's member. However this cannot be done unilaterally, as this would constitute heteronomy over the autonomy of the original ecclesia's members.


=== Society of Friends (Quakers) ===
Among many of the Society of Friends (Quakers) groups  one is read out of meeting for behaviour inconsistent with the sense of the meeting. In Britain a meeting may record a minute of disunity. However it is the responsibility of each meeting, quarterly meeting, and yearly meeting, to act with respect to their own members. For example, during the Vietnam War many Friends were concerned about Friend Richard Nixon's position on war which seemed at odds with their beliefs; however, it was the responsibility of Nixon's own meeting, the East Whittier Meeting of Whittier, California, to act if indeed that meeting felt the leading. They did not.
In 17th- and 18th-Century North America, before the founding of abolitionist societies, Friends who too forcefully tried to convince their coreligionists of the evils of slavery were read out of meeting. Benjamin Lay was read out of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting for this. During the American Revolution over 400 Friends were read out of meeting for their military participation or support.


=== Iglesia ni Cristo ===
Iglesia ni Cristo practices expulsion of members it deems to have gravely sinned or gone against the teachings and doctrines of the church. The Sanggunian, the church's council, has jurisdiction to expel members from the church. People expelled by the church are referred to as dismissed (Tagalog: tiwalag). Offenses that may be grounds for expulsion include marrying a non-member, having a romantic relationship with a non-member, becoming pregnant out of wedlock (unless the couple marries before the child is born) and most especially disagreeing with the church administration. An expelled member can be re-admitted by pledging obedience to the church administration and its rules, values and teachings.


== Unitarian Universalism ==
Unitarian Universalism, being a liberal religious group and a congregational denomination, has a wide diversity of opinions and sentiments. Nonetheless, Unitarian Universalists have had to deal with disruptive individuals. Congregations which had no policies on disruptive individuals have sometimes found themselves having to create such policies, up to (and including) expulsion.
By the late 1990s, several churches were using the West Shore UU Church's policy as a model. If someone is threatening, disruptive, or distracting from the appeal of the church to its membership, a church using this model has three recommended levels of response to the offending individual. While the first level involves dialogue between a committee or clergy member and the offender, the second and third levels involve expulsion, either from the church itself or a church activity.


== Buddhism ==

There is no direct equivalent to excommunication in Buddhism. However, in the Theravadan monastic community monks can be expelled from monasteries for heresy or other acts. In addition, monks have four vows, called the four defeats, which are abstaining from sexual intercourse, stealing, murder, and lying about spiritual gains (e.g., having special power or ability to perform miracles). If any one is broken, the monk is automatically a layman again and can never become a monk in his or her current life.
Most Japanese Buddhist sects hold ecclesiastical authority over their followers and have their own rules for expelling members of the sangha, lay or bishopric. The lay Japanese Buddhist organization Sōka Gakkai was expelled from the Nichiren Shoshu sect in 1991.


== Hinduism ==
Hinduism is too diverse to be seen as a homogenous and monolithic religion. It is often described an unorganised and syncretist religion with a conspicuous absence of any listed doctrines. There are multiple religious institutions (equivalent to Christian ecclesia) within Hinduism that teach slight variations of Dharma and Karma, hence Hinduism has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion, though a person may easily lose caste status through gramanya for a very wide variety of infringements of caste prohibitions. This may or may not be recoverable. However, some of the modern organised sects within Hinduism may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect.
In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even now) in South Asia, excommunication from one's caste (jāti or varna) used to be practiced (by the caste-councils) and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the person's caste status and even throwing him into the sphere of the untouchables or bhangi. In the 19th century, a Hindu faced excommunication for going abroad, since it was presumed he/she would be forced to break caste restrictions and, as a result, become polluted.
After excommunication, it would depend upon the caste-council whether they would accept any form of repentance (ritual or otherwise) or not. Such current examples of excommunication in Hinduism are often more political or social rather than religious, for example the excommunication of lower castes for refusing to work as scavengers in Tamil Nadu.
Another example of caste-related violence and discrimination occurred in the case of the Gupti Ismailis from the Hindu Kachhiya caste. Interestingly, Hindu members of this caste began prayers with the inclusion of the mantra “OM, by the command, in the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful” (om farmānjī bi’smi’l-lāh al-raḥmān al-raḥīm), but never found it objectionable or Islamic. However, in the early 1930s, after some conflict with caste members due to their profession of allegiance to the Ismaili Imam, this group, known as the Guptis, were excommunicated from the caste completely as they appeared to be breaking caste solidarity. This was also significant for the Gupti community as, for the first time, they could be identified as a distinct group based on their religious persuasion. Some of the more daring Guptis also abandoned their former practice of pious circumspection (taqiyya) as Hindus, claiming that since they had been excommunicated, the caste no longer had any jurisdiction over their actions.
An earlier example of excommunication in Hinduism is that of Shastri Yagnapurushdas, who voluntarily left and was later expelled from the Vadtal Gadi of the Swaminarayan Sampraday by the then Vadtal acharya in 1906. He went on to form his own institution, Bochasanwasi Swaminarayan Sanstha or BSS (now BAPS) claiming Gunatitanand Swami was the rightful spiritual successor to Swaminarayan.


== Sikhism ==
Patit is a Sikh term which is sometimes translated into English as apostate. It refers to a person who initiated into Sikh religion, but violated the religious rules of Sikhi. The Sikh Rehat Maryada (Code of Conduct), Section Six states the transgressions which cause a person to become a patit:

Dishonouring the hair;
Eating the meat of an animal slaughtered the Kutha way;
Cohabiting with a person other than one's spouse;
Using an intoxicant (such as smoking, drinking alcohol, using recreational drugs or tobacco)
These four kurahit causes of apostasy were first listed by Guru Gobind Singh in his 52 hukams (commandments).


== Islam ==

Since there has been no universally and univocally recognized religious authority among the many Islamic denominations that have emerged throughout history, papal excommunication has no exact equivalent in Islam, at least insofar as the attitudes of any conflicting religious authorities with regard to an individual or another sect are judged to be coordinate, not subordinate to one another. Nonetheless, condemning heterodoxy and punishing heretics through shunning and ostracism is comparable with the practice in non-Catholic Christian faiths.
Islamic theologians commonly employ two terms when describing measurements to be taken against schismatics and heresy: هَجْر (hajr, ""abandoning"") and تَكْفِير (takfīr, ""making or declaring to be a nonbeliever""). The former (هَجْر, hajr) signifies the act of abandoning somewhere (such as migration, as in the Islamic prophet's journey out of Mecca, which is called al-Hijra (""the (e)migration"")) or someone (used in the Qur'an in the case of disciplining a dissonant or disobedient wife or avoiding a harmful person). The latter (تَكْفِير, takfīr) means a definitive declaration that denounces a person as a kāfir (""infidel""). However, because such a charge would entail serious consequences for the accused, who would then be deemed to be a مُرْتَدّ (murtadd, ""a backslider; an apostate), less extreme denunciations, such as an accusation of بِدْعَة (bidʽah, ""[deviant] innovation; heresy"") followed by shunning and excommunication have historically preponderated over apostasy trials.
Takfīr has often been practiced through the courts. More recently, cases have taken place where individuals have been considered nonbelievers. These decisions followed lawsuits against individuals, mainly in response to their writings that some have viewed as anti-Islamic. The most famous cases are of Salman Rushdie, Nasr Abu Zayd, Nawal El-Saadawi, and of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. The repercussions of such cases have included divorce, since under traditional interpretations of Islamic law, Muslim women are not permitted to marry non-Muslim men.


== Judaism ==
Herem is the highest ecclesiastical censure in Judaism. It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Except for cases in the Charedi community, cherem stopped existing after The Enlightenment, when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the gentile nations in which they lived. A siruv order, equivalent to a contempt of court, issued by a Rabbinical court may also limit religious participation.
Rabbinical conferences of movements do expel members from time to time, but sometimes choose the lesser penalty of censuring the offending rabbi. Between 2010 and 2015, the Reform Jewish Central Conference of American Rabbis expelled six rabbis, the Orthodox Jewish Rabbinical Council of America expelled three, and the Conservative Jewish Rabbinical Assembly expelled one, suspended three, and caused one to resign without eligibility for reinstatement. While the CCAR and RCA were relatively shy about their reasons for expelling rabbis, the RA was more open about its reasons for kicking rabbis out. Reasons for expulsion from the three conferences include sexual misconduct, failure to comply with ethics investigations, setting up conversion groups without the conference's approval, stealing money from congregations, other financial misconduct, and getting arrested.
Judaism, like Unitarian Universalism, tends towards congregationalism, and so decisions to exclude from a community of worship often depend on the congregation. Congregational bylaws sometimes enable the board of a synagogue to ask individuals to leave or not to enter.


== See also ==
Banishment in the Bible
Disconnection
Excommunication of actors by the Catholic Church
Interdict
List of people excommunicated by the Catholic Church


== Notes ==


== References ==
Encyclopedia of American Religions, by J. Gordon Melton ISBN 0-8103-6904-4
Ludlow, Daniel H. ed, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Macmillan Publishing, 1992. 
Esau, Alvin J., ""The Courts and the Colonies: The Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes"", Univ of British Columbia Press, 2004. 
Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, Ostracism: A Social and Biological Phenomenon, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights, Gruter Institute Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, 1984.
Beck, Martha N., Leaving the Saints: How I Lost the Mormons and Found My Faith, Crown, 2005. 
Stammer, Larry B., ""Mormon Author Says He's Facing Excommunication"", Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles, CA.: 9 December 2004. p. A.34.
D'anna, Lynnette, ""Post-Mennonite Women Congregate to Address Abuse"", Herizons, 3/1/93.
Anonymous, ""Atlanta Mennonite congregation penalized over gays"", The Atlanta Journal the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta, GA: 2 January 1999. p. F.01.
Garrett, Ottie, Garrett Irene, True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated, Shunned, Horse Cave KY: Nue Leben, Inc., 1998. 
Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life, Harper San Francisco, 2003. 
Hostetler, John A. (1993), Amish Society, The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore. 
MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America 1683–1790, Herald Press: Kitchener & Scottdale. 
Scott, Stephen (1996), An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups, Good Books: Intercourse, Pennsylvania. 
Juhnke, James, Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890–1930, (The Mennonite Experience in America #3), Scottdale, PA, Herald Press, p. 393, 1989.


== External links ==

Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and Avoidance (from Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online)
Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights (Amish)
Catholic Encyclopaedia on excommunication
The two sides of excommunication Archived 15 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Jehovah's Witnesses press release regarding expulsion of child molesters"
Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point,"The Anishinaabemowin language belongs to the Central Algonquian language family, and is located in Kettle and Stony Point First Nation. This name variation stems from the relation between the name of the language and the name of the people speaking it, as Anishinaabemowin is spoken by the Anishinaabe. It is also a combination of Pottawatomi and Ojibway. There is a population of 936 people living in Kettle and Stony Point, and of those 936 less than 10 people are fluent speakers of the language. Kettle and Stony Point is located in Canada, in the province of Ontario and in the municipality of Lambton County.


== Name Variations for the Language ==
This language has a multitude of different names and spelling variations. Once such variation is Potawadami that belongs to the Central Algonquian language family located in Kettle and Stony Point. This spelling and name variation for the language is used by families on the reserve when passing on the teachings of the language to others.  Another variation is Potawatomi of the Central Algonquian language family. This spelling variation was discovered on the Ethnologue website and exists as the American spelling for the language. Other name and spelling variation for the language spoken in Kettle and Stony point are Ojibway, Ojibwe or Ojibwa. All these variations refer to the same language, as Anishinaabemowin is believed to be a dialect of Ojibway in the Algonquian language family. The different spelling variations listed above, Ojibwe and Ojibwa are gendered language terms and are spelling variations left behind by French missionaries who tried to document the language. As such Ojibwe is the male gendered term, and Ojibwa is the female gendered term. Another name variation for the language is Chippewa of the Algonquian language family. This variation is often used more in the United States and stems from the name of the people that speak the language Chippewas. The last variation of the language discovered is Ojibwemowin of the Central Algonquian language family. This variation is the languages name in Ojibway.


== Causes of Endangerment ==
There are a multitude of factors that have contributed to the endangered status of the Anishinaabemowin language in Kettle and Stony Point.


=== Conquest ===
This occurs when the conqueror's language replaces the indigenous languages of the conquered. This is the case for the Indigenous languages of Canada, especially the Anishinaabemowin language. When both the French and the English colonies conquered the continent of North America, government policies were erected to deal with the “Indian problem”. These policies were created in the attempt to force assimilation of the Indigenous people into the newly established dominant culture and language. This forced assimilation required that both Indigenous children and adults be only taught and speak the dominant language of English. Drastically impacting the number of fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point.


=== Economic Pressure ===
This occurs because the dominant culture controls the economy and can require the use of the dominant language for employment by subordinate linguistic groups. Indigenous people seeking employment and economic gain in Canada experience this problem everyday and it is a contributing factor to the state of the language use in Kettle and Stony Point. The dominant language in Kettle and Stony Point and surrounding areas is the language of English. Those seeking employment in Kettle and Stony Point are required to have a good understanding of the English language and a fundamental increase in the need to understand and speak English has occurred. The increase of acceptance and use of the English language directly impacted the number of Indigenous people continuing to learn and actively use their own first language.


=== Attitude ===
This factor directly pertains to what people think about their language and with regard to whether or not it is viewed as important to their culture. It is only years later that the true impacts of negative attitudes can be recognized on a language. This is doubly true for the Indigenous languages of Canada. This is in part because of Indigenous people who were forced to attend residential school and most likely have mixed feelings about their languages. Children were often strongly and sometimes violently discouraged from speaking their language of their heritage. The violent and negative attitudes demonstrated by their teachers towards their languages, is something that could have been absorbed and ingrained into the children of these schools. These children would have grown up with a negative and sometimes fearful attitude towards the use of their own heritage languages. These residential school survivors may not have then passed on their own languages to their children, for fear of how their children would be perceived and the treatment they may get for speaking their language. Creating a drastic decline in the number of fluent speakers in the community, as future children would have been raised to not value their heritage language. Nor would they have any understanding of the cultural significance of the language if their parents chose not to pass on their teachings. This is what happened to the Indigenous people of Kettle and Stony Point, resulting in their heritage language to become endangered.


== Language Vitality ==
This language was assessed using three UNESCO factors to determine the vitality of the language.


=== UNESCO Factor 1 – Intergenerational Language Transmission ===
According the UNESCO grading scale for the language to be considered safe and to receive a grading of 5, the language must be used by all ages and transmitted from one generation to the next. The grading table for this UNESCO factor can be viewed in Table 1. The Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony point is rated a 2, Severely Endangered. This language was assessed at this rating because transgenerational transmission of the language stopped occurring in the grandparent generation, the youngest fluent speaker is in their fifties. The language is mostly used when conversing with other fluent speakers or when conducting/ participating in ceremonies. The grade of 1 was also considered for this language but after assessment was determined to be inaccurate. The grade of 1 was considered because the language is used mostly by very few speakers, as there is less than ten fluent speakers left in Kettle and Stony Point. These fluent speakers are not just of the great-grandparent generation and up, so the language was determined be inadmissible for the rating of 1. Instead the language was assigned a rating of 2 because the youngest fluent speaker was determined to be in their fifties fitting into the grandparent generation.


=== UNESCO Factor 3: Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population ===
The proportion of speakers within a total population is a more significant indictor of language vitality. The UNESCO grading scale for factor 3: Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population can be found in Table 2. The rating for the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point in accordance with UNESCO factor 3 is 1, critically endangered. This rating was assessed based on the information provided on both the Kettle Point language website page and the 2016 Kettle Point 44, Indian Reserve Census Profile. There is less than ten fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point. This information was confirmed in the 2016 census, where only five out of the 1,011 responses indicated that their first language was an aboriginal language. This indicates that 0.49% of the population in Kettle and Stony Point speak the language. Allocating the rating of 1, critically endangered because very few people in Kettle and Stony Point speak the language.


=== UNESCO Factor 7: Governmental and Institutional Language Attitudes and Policies, including Official Status & Use ===
This factor reports the attitudes of those outside of the language community towards the relevant language. In accordance in the UNESCO scale for a language to achieve a rating of 5, equal support, the region or nation of the language would need to allow for the use of all languages in public domains. The grading scale for the seventh UNESCO factor can be located in Table 3. In accordance with this grading scale, the language of Anishinaabemowin in Kettle and Stony Point has been assessed with the rating of 4, differentiated support. This rating was determined based on the government policies in place to protect Indigenous languages in Canada. On June 21, 2019, The Indigenous Languages Act was passed and received Royal Assent. This bill protects indigenous people's rights to use, reclaim, revitalize, maintain and strength indigenous languages. Before this bill was passed, indigenous languages were not protected in Canada and were strongly discouraged from use. This means that while the Anishinaabemowin language is now protected by government policies, the use of the language is not considered prestigious by many. Therefore, the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point was scored a 4, as the language is protected by government policies, even though the use of the language is not prestigious, and the dominant language prevails in the public domain.


=== Overall Assessment ===
The overall assessment for the vitality of the Anishinaabemowin language at Kettle and Stony Point is endangered. This status was determined by weighing the outcomes of the factor assessments that were conducted. When analyzing the results of these assessments more weight was placed on the results of the Factor 7 valuation. This is because government policies and forced language assimilation were the main causes and consequences of endangerment for the Anishinaabemowin language of Kettle and Stony Point. With the Royal Assent of the Indigenous Language Act, indigenous languages are now being protected. Thus, allowing for language revitalizations to occur, as is the case at Kettle and Stony Point. While Factor 7 was directly related to a critical consequence of endangerment, it was not the only critical factor assessed. Factor 3 is also a critical factor, as the proportion of speakers in a population has a great importance for the continuation of a language. With less than ten fluent speakers and only .49% of the population speaking the language, the Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point is likely to go dormant in the next generation or two. The revitalization projects should ensure the language continuation with the establishment of more speakers. Therefore, the vitality status of the Anishinaabemowin Language of Kettle and Stony Point is endangered. With the possibility of an argument being made for critically endangered status, with the chance of dormancy in the next generation if revitalization does not work.


== Language Revitalization ==
Kettle and Stony Point First Nation Reserve has both short-term and long-term plans for language revitalization of Anishinaabemowin.


=== Short-term Revitalization Programs ===
The short-term plan or “Quick Wins” are to be carried out over a short time and are cost effective. These programs are the Unity Gathering and Storytelling. The Unity Gathering is an annual event that is intended to bring the people of the community together to share, teach and celebrate their culture. The Storytelling program is composed of events that are held in the hopes of passing on the traditions of Oral History and sharing. It also provides the opportunity for those in attendance to share their stories and hear the language. These two different programs are categorized as community-based programs by Lenore Grenoble and Lindsay Whaley because the language will be shared, taught and incorporated within the culture in a community setting.


=== Long-term Revitalization Programs ===
There are several long-term language revitalization plans for Anishinaabemowin in place at Kettle and Stony Point First Nations.


==== Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Head Start Day Care ====
The first long-term plan established was the Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point Head Start Day Care. The program statement for the daycare states that it was “committed to moving forward in reclaiming of the Ojibway language and providing optimal growth in all areas of the developmental stages”. This ideology is achieved through the embracement of the “Wheel of Learning” method, where Culture/Language is a main component. The program is not a total immersion program. Instead the children are encouraged to communicate in however they feel most comfortable, whether that be non-verbal or verbal in both English or Anishinaabemowin Both English and Anishinaabemowin are sproken by the children and the workers of the daycare. The children are also instructed in the Anishinaabemowin language by the workers. Therefore, the Head Start Day Care Program is classified as Grenoble and Whaley's partial-immersion or bilingual program.


==== Language Classes ====
The second long-term Anishinaabemowin language revitalization program at Kettle and Stony Point is language classes. There are language classes that are taught at the Kettle and Stony Point elementary school Hillside. These classes are taught to children attending the school as a second language. These classes are categorized as Grenoble and Whaley's “Foreign” Language program because they can be compared to studying a major European language in a North American classroom.
There are also language classes that are held at the Four Winds and the Cultural Resource Centre. These classes are not advertised online or on paper but instead through word of mouth. The structure of these classes are normally one teacher/fluent speaker and a maximum of eight students/learners. This style of teaching and learning can be classified as the master-apprentice program by Grenoble and Whaley. This is because the community has few fluent speakers and those speakers are paired with eager community members who are wanting to learn. These lessons are unstructured and taught without expert supervision. The fluent speakers have been holding these lessons for some years now, the lessons are getting more structured as the speakers gain more experience teaching.


=== Online Language Revitalization Programs ===
There are several online revitalization programs available for Anishinaabemowin. These programs can be found on a variety of websites and vary in both format and content. There is an interactive dictionary that can be located on kspcommunityculture.ca/language.html. This interactive dictionary provides the word in Anishinaabemowin and then the English translation and description follow. There is also an interactive play button that allows for the learner to hear how the word is pronounced in the language.
There is an online pilot program that is designed for daily language learning and practice called Anishinaabemowin Everyday. This pilot program is composed of online lessons that take roughly 15 minutes each to complete. The teaching methods utilized by this program are podcasts, flashcards, multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, drag-and-drop, and quizzes. The podcasts that are hosted by fluent speakers that discuss the language and pronounce phrases and words. The flashcards that are available contain phrases and words in the language to aid in studying. The options of multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, drag-and-drop and quizzes help the learner to test their knowledge and skills in the language. These two examples of some of the online resources available highlight Andras Knori's argument of the importance of the web to language revitalization. These programs are geared towards aiding “digital natives” in the learning of their language, as young people have never known a world without digital media learning.


== References =="
TNF inhibitor,"A TNF inhibitor is a pharmaceutical drug that suppresses the physiologic response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which is part of the inflammatory response. TNF is involved in autoimmune and immune-mediated disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, hidradenitis suppurativa and refractory asthma, so TNF inhibitors may be used in their treatment. The important side effects of TNF inhibitors include lymphomas, infections (especially reactivation of latent tuberculosis), congestive heart failure, demyelinating disease, a lupus-like syndrome, induction of auto-antibodies, injection site reactions, and systemic side effects.
The global market for TNF inhibitors in 2008 was US$13.5 billion, in 2009 US$22 billion, and in 2024 US$44 billion.


== Examples ==
Inhibition of TNF effects can be achieved with a monoclonal antibody such as infliximab, adalimumab, certolizumab pegol, and golimumab, or with a circulating receptor fusion protein such as etanercept.
While most clinically useful TNF inhibitors are monoclonal antibodies, some are simple molecules such as xanthine derivatives (e.g. pentoxifylline) and bupropion.
Thalidomide and its derivatives lenalidomide and pomalidomide are also active against TNF.
Several 5-HT2A agonist hallucinogens including (R)-DOI, TCB-2, LSD and LA-SS-Az have unexpectedly also been found to act as potent inhibitors of TNF, with DOI being the most active, showing TNF inhibition in the picomolar range, an order of magnitude more potent than its action as a hallucinogen.


== Medical uses ==


=== Rheumatoid arthritis ===
The role of TNF as a key player in the development of rheumatoid arthritis was originally demonstrated by Kollias and colleagues in proof of principle studies in transgenic animal models.
TNF levels have been shown to be raised in both the synovial fluid and synovium of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. This leads to local inflammation through the signalling of synovial cells to produce metalloproteinases and collagenase.
Clinical application of anti-TNF drugs in rheumatoid arthritis was demonstrated by Marc Feldmann and Ravinder N. Maini, who won the 2003 Lasker Award for their work. Anti-TNF compounds help eliminate abnormal B cell activity.
Therapy which combines certain anti-TNF agents such as etanercept with DMARDs such as methotrexate has been shown to be more effective at restoring quality of life to sufferers of rheumatoid arthritis than using either drug alone.


=== Skin disease ===
Clinical trials regarding the effectiveness of these drugs on hidradenitis suppurativa are ongoing.
The National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) has issued guidelines for the treatment of severe psoriasis using the anti-TNF drugs etanercept and adalimumab as well as the anti-IL12/23 biological treatment ustekinumab. In cases where more conventional systemic treatments such as psoralen combined with ultraviolet A treatment (PUVA), methotrexate, and ciclosporin have failed or can not be tolerated, these newer biological agents may be prescribed. Infliximab may be used to treat severe plaque psoriasis if aforementioned treatments fail or can not be tolerated.


=== Gastrointestinal disease ===
In 2010 The National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the UK issued guidelines for the treatment of severe Crohn's Disease with infliximab and adalimumab.


=== Cancer ===
Anti-TNF therapy has shown only modest effects in cancer therapy. Treatment of renal cell carcinoma with infliximab resulted in prolonged disease stabilization in certain patients. Etanercept was tested for treating patients with breast cancer and ovarian cancer showing prolonged disease stabilization in certain patients via downregulation of IL-6 and CCL2. On the other hand, adding infliximab or etanercept to gemcitabine for treating patients with advanced pancreatic cancer was not associated with differences in efficacy when compared with placebo.


== Side effects ==


=== Cancer ===
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration continues to receive reports of a rare cancer of white blood cells (known as hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma or HSTCL), primarily in adolescents and young adults being treated for Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis with TNF blockers, as well as with azathioprine, and/or mercaptopurine.


=== Opportunistic infections ===
TNF inhibitors put patients at increased risk of certain opportunistic infections. The FDA has warned about the risk of infection from two bacterial pathogens, Legionella and Listeria. People taking TNF blockers are at increased risk for developing serious infections that may lead to hospitalization or death due to certain bacterial, mycobacterial, fungal, viral, and parasitic opportunistic pathogens.


==== Tuberculosis ====
In patients with latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, active tuberculosis (TB) may develop soon after the initiation of treatment with infliximab. Before prescribing a TNF inhibitor, physicians should screen patients for latent tuberculosis. The anti-TNF monoclonal antibody biologics infliximab, golimumab, certolizumab and adalimumab, and the fusion protein etanercept, which are all currently approved by the FDA for human use, have warnings which state that patients should be evaluated for latent TB infection, and if it is detected, preventive treatment should be initiated prior to starting therapy with these medications.


==== Fungal infections ====
The FDA issued a warning on September 4, 2008, that patients on TNF inhibitors are at increased risk of opportunistic fungal infections such as pulmonary and disseminated histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, and blastomycosis. They encourage clinicians to consider empiric antifungal therapy in certain circumstances to all patients at risk until the pathogen is identified. A recent review showed that anti-TNFα agents associate with increased infection risks for both endemic and opportunistic invasive fungal infections, particularly when given late in the overall course of treatment of the underlying disease, and in young patients receiving concomitant cytotoxic or augmented immunosuppressive therapy.


=== Multiple sclerosis and demyelinating disorders ===
In 1999 a randomized control trial was conducted testing a TNF-alpha inhibitor prototype, Lenercept, for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the patients in the study who received the drug had significantly more exacerbations and earlier exacerbations of their disease than those who did not.
Case reports have also come out suggesting the possibility that anti-TNF-alpha agents not only may worsen, but may cause new-onset Multiple Sclerosis or other demyelinating disorders in some patients. A 2018 case report described an Italian man with plaque psoriasis who developed MS after starting entanercept. Their literature review at that time identified 34 other cases of demyelinating disease developing after the initiation of an anti-TNF drug. Thus, anti-TNF-alpha drugs are contraindicated in patients with MS, and the American Academy of Dermatology recommends avoiding their use in those with a first degree relative with MS.
Several other monoclonal antibodies like adalimumab, pembrolizumab, nivolumab, and infliximab have been reported to trigger MS as an adverse event.
The risk of anti-TNF-associated demyelination is not associated with genetic variants of multiple sclerosis. In some studies, there were clinical differences to multiple sclerosis as 70% of the patients with anti-TNF-induced demyelination. The symptoms of demyelination do not resolve with corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin or plasma exchange, and is not clear whether MS therapies are effective in anti-TNF-induced demyelination.


=== Paradoxical psoriasis ===
Despite their good safety profile, one of the common adverse events and side effects associated with TNF-α inhibitors is the occurrence of paradoxical psoriasis. Paradoxical psoriasis is defined as the development of psoriatic lesions or as an exacerbation of pre-existent psoriatic lesions, in patients with or without a prior history of psoriasis, while undergoing treatment with TNF-α inhibitors, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept for their underlying inflammatory disease. The first case of paradoxical psoriasis induced by TNF-α inhibitors was reported in a patient suffering from inflammatory bowel disease. Subsequently, an increasing number of cases were reported in IBD cohorts and in patients suffering from other chronic immune-mediated inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. This increase was positively correlated with the increasing use of TNF-α inhibitors. The rates of paradoxical psoriasis reported across observational studies range from 2% to 5%, with higher rates observed in female patients. The time to onset from induction therapy can range anywhere from a few days to a few months; with the most common clinical presentations being pustular psoriasis, plaque psoriasis and guttate psoriasis, with nail and scalp involvement. Moreover, some patients may experience more than one type of lesion and/or have lesions across multiple locations.


== Anti-TNF agents in nature ==
TNF or its effects are inhibited by several natural compounds, including curcumin (a compound present in turmeric), and catechins (in green tea). Cannabidiol and Echinacea purpurea also seem to have anti-inflammatory properties through inhibition of TNF-α production, although this effect may be mediated through cannabinoid CB1 or CB2 receptor-independent effects.
5-HT2A receptor agonists have also been shown to have potent inhibitory effects on TNF-α, including psilocybin found in many species of mushrooms.
Thymoquinone, a compound found in the flower Nigella sativa, has been studied for possible TNF-α inhibition and related benefits for autoimmune disorder treatment.


== History ==
Early experiments associated TNF with the pathogenesis of bacterial sepsis. Thus, the first preclinical studies using polyclonal antibodies against TNF-alpha were performed in animal models of sepsis in 1985 and showed that anti-TNF antibodies protected mice from sepsis.  However, subsequent clinical trials in patients with sepsis showed no significant benefit. It wasn't until 1991 that studies in a transgenic mouse model of overexpressed human TNF provided the pre-clinical rationale for a causal role of TNF in the development of polyarthritis and that anti-TNF treatments could be effective against human arthritides. This was later confirmed in clinical trials and led to the development of the first biological therapies for rheumatoid arthritis.


== References =="
Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier,"Hazelwood School District et al. v. Kuhlmeier et al., 484 U.S. 260 (1988), was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States which held, in a 5–3 decision, that student speech in a school-sponsored student newspaper at a public high school could be censored by school officials without a violation of First Amendment rights if the school's actions were ""reasonably related"" to a legitimate pedagogical concern.
The case concerned the censorship of two articles in The Spectrum, the student newspaper of Hazelwood East High School in St. Louis County, Missouri, 1983. When the school principal removed an article concerning divorce and another concerning teen pregnancy, the student journalists sued, claiming that their First Amendment rights had been violated. A lower court sided with the school, but its decision was overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, which sided with the students and found that the paper was a ""public forum"" comparable to speech outside an educational setting. The Supreme Court reversed, noting that the paper was established by school officials as a limited forum for the purpose of a supervised journalism class, and could be censored even though similar speech in an off-campus or independent student newspaper would be protected. 
The case, and the earlier Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969), are considered landmark decisions for defining the right of expression for students in public schools. While subsequent court rulings have varied on when Kuhlmeier applies, the case remains a strong precedent in the regulation of student speech. However, the state statutes protecting student free expression, enacted by 17 states as of March 23, 2023, most in response to the limitations of Kuhlmeier, typically adopt the more protective Tinker precedent.


== Background ==


=== Facts of the case ===
The case concerned The Spectrum, a student newspaper published as part of a Journalism II class at Hazelwood East High School in St. Louis County, Missouri. The Spectrum was published roughly every three weeks during the 1982–1983 school year. About 4,500 copies were distributed to students and community members. The cost of printing the paper, as well as supplies, textbooks, and a portion of the academic advisor's salary, were furnished by the district's board of education, supplemented by newspaper sales. For that school year, the board supplied $4,668 in printing costs, and Howard Emerson, the adviser to the journalism class, submitted page proofs of the May 13 issue of the newspaper to principal Robert Eugene Reynolds for approval, a practice that was customary at the time. Reynolds objected to two of the stories scheduled to run. One was about teen pregnancy, containing interviews with three students who had been pregnant. The story used false names to keep the girls' identities a secret, but Reynolds was concerned that the students would still be identifiable from the text. He was also concerned that the references to sexual activity and birth control were inappropriate for younger students at the school. The second story was about divorce and featured an interview with a student whose parents were divorced, in which she complained that her father ""wasn't spending enough time with my mom, my sister, and I ... was always out of town on business or out late playing cards with the guys ... always argued about everything"". Reynolds, unaware that the girl's name would also be changed, argued that her family should have been given an opportunity to respond within the story or to object to its publication.
Reynolds did not believe there was time to make changes because, if there were any delays in publication, the newspaper would not be published before the end of the school year. After consulting with his supervisors, he opted to publish a four-page newspaper instead of a six-page one, omitting the pages containing the two stories in question. Cutting two pages removed a total of seven articles from the paper. Reynolds did not tell the students about the decision, and they did not find out about it until the paper was delivered to the school.
In response, editor Cathy Kuhlmeier and reporters Leslie Smart and Leanne Tippett filed suit in January 1984 with the aid of the American Civil Liberties Union. Kuhlmeier later said that the idea for the pieces had come from old issues of The Spectrum and that she had been looking to update them.


=== Legal precedent ===
Until the 1960s, administrative review of student publications was considered routine at both the high school and collegiate level. However, with the rise of the counterculture of the 1960s, student publications began to explore social issues with greater fervor, focusing on the Vietnam War, the civil rights movement, sexual orientation, and other topics considered controversial at the time.
In 1969, the U.S. Supreme Court held in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (393 U.S. 503) that students' freedom of expression is protected under the First Amendment. Following that precedent, at least 125 cases in lower courts across the country were decided in favor of student expression and against administrative censorship. Whenever an instance of censorship involved action by a government employee, such as a school principal or a college dean, the courts held that First Amendment safeguards applied. Under the Tinker precedent, courts recognized student newspapers as public forums in which expression could be restricted only if administrators could prove that substantial disruption of school activities was imminent. Two subsequent cases—Healy v. James, 408 U.S. 169 (1972), and Papish v. University of Missouri Curators, 410 U.S. 670 (1973)—expanded the First Amendment rights of students on college campuses, but did not strongly define the status of student newspapers as public forums.
By the 1980s, however, with the end of the student protest era, school administrators sought to reassert their authority. The first case in the new trend, Bethel School District v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675 (1986), involved a high school student who was disciplined for delivering a speech containing sexual innuendos, even though they were not obscene or disruptive in a legal sense. Overturning lower court rulings, the Supreme Court held that the Tinker precedent did not apply because the penalties imposed by the school were unrelated to the student's political viewpoint.


=== Lower court decisions ===
The Kuhlmeier case was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri. The students sought a declaration that their First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment rights had been violated by undue actions of a public official, as well as injunctive relief and monetary damages. After a bench trial, the district court denied the injunction and monetary damages. In May 1985, it ruled that no violation of First Amendment rights had occurred, and held that school officials may restrict student speech in activities that ""are an integral part of the school's educational function"" as long as the restriction has ""a substantial and reasonable basis"".
The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit reversed the district court's decision in January 1986. It held that The Spectrum was not only part of the school program, but also a public forum. The newspaper was ""intended to be and operated as a conduit for student viewpoint"", the appeals court found, and as a public forum, it could not be censored unless ""necessary to avoid material and substantial interference with school work or discipline ... or the rights of others "".


== Supreme Court ruling ==
The Supreme Court granted certiorari in January 1987, and the case was argued on October 13, 1987. On January 13, 1988, the court handed down its decision, overturning the circuit court in a 5-3 ruling. Its majority opinion set a precedent that school-sponsored activities, including student newspapers and drama productions, are not normally protected from administrative censorship under the First Amendment.


=== Majority opinion ===

The majority of the justices held that the school principal was entitled to censor the articles. The majority opinion, written by Associate Justice Byron White, stated that officials had never intended the school paper to be a public forum, as underground publications were in past cases. White went on to say that educators do not infringe on First Amendment rights when exercising control over student speech in school-sponsored activities, ""so long as their actions are reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns"". The court established that the student publication could be regulated by school officials, and that they ""reserved the forum for its intended purpose, as a supervised learning experience for journalism students"".

A school need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with its basic educational mission, even though the government could not . ... (Judicial action to protect students' rights is justified) only when the decision to censor a school-sponsored publication, theatrical production or other vehicle of student expression has no valid educational purpose.
The decision overrode the precedent set in the Tinker case, which had permitted censorship of student speech only if it violated the rights of other students or threatened to cause a campus disruption. The majority opinion in Kuhlmeier held that this case was different. The majority opinion said that school administrators are not required to tolerate speech that is contrary to the school's academic mission, and continued:

The question [of] whether the First Amendment requires a school to tolerate particular student speech—the question we addressed in Tinker—is different from the question whether the First Amendment requires a school affirmatively to promote particular student speech. The former question addresses educators' ability to silence students' personal expression that happens to occur on the school premises. The latter question concerns educators' authority over school sponsored publications, theatrical productions, and other expressive activities that students, parents, and members of the public might reasonably perceive to bear the imprimatur of the school.
In a footnote, the court clarified that the ruling did not necessarily apply at the collegiate level.


=== Dissenting opinion ===

Associate Justice William J. Brennan Jr. wrote a dissenting opinion, in which he was joined by Associate Justices Thurgood Marshall and Harry Blackmun, who often took liberal positions on First Amendment issues. In his opinion, Brennan expressed concern about the message the majority ruling would send to students, writing:

The young men and women of Hazelwood East expected a civics lesson, but not the one the Court teaches them today ... Such unthinking contempt for individual rights is intolerable from any state official. It is particularly insidious from (a school principal) to whom the public entrusts the task of inculcating in its youth an appreciation for the cherished democratic liberties that our constitution guarantees.


== Legacy ==
The case established the standard that school personnel must meet to limit students' freedom of expression in secondary schools. As representatives of the state, school administrators can censor, restrain, or refuse to publish school-sponsored student expression if it interferes with the requirements of school discipline, interferes with students' rights, interferes with academic propriety, generates health or welfare concerns, or is deemed obscene or vulgar. This extends to theatrical productions, public speeches in an assembly environment, and publications produced as part of curricular activity, such as a student newspaper. The Supreme Court majority termed these reasons ""legitimate pedagogical concerns"".
This standard does not, however, apply to personal or non-school-sponsored communication, such as off-campus publications, unless that communication interferes with school discipline or the rights of others. The Kuhlmeier case established student newspapers as ""limited public forums"". This means schools may exercise prior restraint regarding the ""style and content"" of a student newspaper so long as their action is ""not unreasonable"", whereas there previously had to be compelling evidence to warrant censorship. Separate cases also established what constituted school activities, such as in-class parties and art created by students at the behest of teachers.
In response to the ruling, some students created web-based publications not subsidized by the school. Some individual states have also responded with laws designating student newspapers as public forums and offering them greater First Amendment protection. Experts from the Student Press Law Center say the case has meant that fewer lawsuits regarding student censorship make it to court.
In conjunction with the 25th anniversary of the Court's decision in 2013, the Student Press Law Center launched a nationwide censorship awareness campaign, ""Cure Hazelwood,"" that ignited ""New Voices"" reform movements across the country, seeking to enact state legislation affording students enhanced press freedoms.


=== Subsequent jurisprudence ===
Federal appeals courts have been divided on whether the Kuhlmeier case applies to college newspapers, a question the Supreme Court left open. Courts have also been split on viewpoint-based expression in schools, such as religious expression.
A 1989 case, Alabama Student Party v. Student Government Assn. (867 F.2d 1344), held that campus newspapers that are part of a curriculum might not enjoy First Amendment protection. In 2001, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled in Kincaid v. Gibson (236 F. 3d 342) that Kuhlmeier did not apply at the college level, and that a student publication could not be censored if the censorship was not viewpoint-neutral. Subsequently, Dean v. Utica dealt with what defines a ""legitimate pedagogical concern"", and the court found that a school had censored speech wantonly.
A 2005 U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit decision, Hosty v. Carter (412 U.S. 731), however, held that Kuhlmeier did apply to subsidized student media at the college level. That ruling, though controversial, found that there was ""no sharp difference between high school and college newspapers"", noting that some college newspapers are financially subsidized or produced by journalism classes. The 2007 decision Morse v. Frederick (551 U.S. 393) found that the First Amendment did not protect student speech that could be ""reasonably viewed as promoting drug use"".


== See also ==

Desilets v. Clearview Regional Board of Education, 647 A.2d. 150 (N.J. 1994)
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District
Hazelwood School District v. United States
Censorship of student media in the United States
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 484
Student Press Law Center


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== Sources ===
Alexander, Kern; Alexander, Klinton (2011), American College and University Law: Policy and Perspectives, London, United Kingdom: Routledge, ISBN 978-1283038935, OCLC 732807640
Belmas, Genelle; Overbeck, Wayne (2009), Major Principles of Media Law: 2010 Edition, Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Publishing, ISBN 978-0495567684, OCLC 313635152
Blokhuis, J.C.; Feldman, Jonathan; van Geel, Tyll; Imber, Michael (2013), Education Law, London, United Kingdom: Routledge, ISBN 978-0415622813, OCLC 42080199
Bloomfield, David C. (2007), American Public Education Law Primer, New York City, New York: Peter Lang Publishing, ISBN 978-0820479484, OCLC 80360483
Hanson, Ralph E. (2007), Mass Communication: Living in a Media World: Second Edition, Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, ISBN 978-0872894846, OCLC 473730416
Parker, Richard (2003), Free Speech On Trial: Communication Perspectives on Landmark Supreme Court Decisions, Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, ISBN 978-0817350253, OCLC 427509620
Russo, Charles J. (2009), Encyclopedia of Education Law, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, ISBN 978-1412940795, OCLC 185031300


== External links ==
Text of Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260 (1988) is available from: Cornell  CourtListener  Google Scholar  Justia  Library of Congress  Oyez (oral argument audio) 
Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier: A complete guide to the decision
First Amendment Rights Diagram (shows whether Hazelwood or Tinker standard is applicable)
State student free expression laws and regulations
The Supreme Court on ""Hazelwood"": A Reversal on Regulation of Student Expression Archived October 7, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
Much information on the case including the arguments
Research resources
Student Press Law Center white paper on the case
First Amendment Library entry on Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier"
TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp.,"TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., 509 U.S. 443 (1993), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States, which upheld the decision of the West Virginia state court awarding $19,000 in compensatory damages and $10 million in punitive damages to the plaintiff. Although multiple justices recognized that the punitive damages were 526 times the compensatory damages, the Court held a ""general concern of reasonableness"" should guide courts in determining constitutionally acceptable damages under the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.


== Background ==
TXO Production Corp., a subsidiary of USX, approached Alliance Resources Corp. in 1984 following a recommendation to recover oil and gas under the Blevins Tract by their geologists. TXO offered to pay Alliance $20/acre in cash, 22% of oil and gas revenues in royalties, and all development costs for the site, an offer which Alliance accepted on April 2, 1985. Alliance agreed to return this payment if TXO's attorney determined that ""title had failed."" TXO's attorneys then discovered a 1958 deed awarding coal recovery rights under the Blevins Tract from Tug Fork Land Company to a series of owners, culminating in the Virginia Crews Coal Company. Interviews with all holders of that deed confirmed that only coal rights were awarded, while the grantor reserved rights to oil and gas. TXO first attempted to make the original holder of the deed state that the 1958 deed might have included the oil and gas rights in question by presenting a pre-written affidavit, which he refused to sign. TXO then paid Virginia Crews $6,000 to convey its interest in the site to TXO, without informing Alliance.


== Trial court decision ==
TXO originally filed a complaint against Alliance to remove a cloud on title on the oil and gas rights for the site. When this was decided in Alliance's favor, Alliance filed a counterclaim for slander of title that went before a jury. Alliance argued that TXO knew Alliance had a good title, that TXO had acted in bad faith to renegotiate the agreement, that the amount of royalties TXO had attempted to reduce was substantial, and that TXO had engaged in similar activities elsewhere. The jury awarded Alliance $19,000 in compensatory damages, based on their costs to defend against TXO's original complaint, and $10 million in punitive damages.


== Appeals ==


=== West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals ===
On appeal, the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals upheld the judgment. TXO argued that no cause of action for slander of title existed or had been established, that West Virginia Rules of Evidence had been violated by introducing testimony of lawyers involved in litigation against TXO elsewhere, and that the award of $10 million violated the Due Process Clause, citing Pacific Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Haslip, 499 U.S. 1. Alliance argued that this constitutional objection had been waived, that TXO's misconduct was particularly egregious, and that the award was not excessive. The Court's decision relied heavily on their previous decision in Garnes v. Fleming Landfill, Inc., which was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court but remanded to the W.V. Supreme Court of Appeals after the Haslip decision. In this decision, they set forth seven standards for future determination of punitive damages: the relation between the punitive and actual damages, the reprehensibility and time involvement of the defendant's conduct, any potential profit the defendant earned from their conduct, the amount of compensatory damages, the wealth of the defendant, the costs of litigation, and any other civil or criminal sanctions already imposed for the same conduct.
The Court stated that ""The type of fraudulent action intentionally undertaken by TXO in this case could potentially cause millions of dollars in damages to other victims. As for the reprehensibility of TXO's conduct, we can say no more than we have already said, and we believe the jury's verdict says more than we could say in an opinion twice this length. Just as important, an award of this magnitude is necessary to discourage TXO from continuing its pattern and practice of fraud, trickery and deceit."" Further, the Court stated that because TXO was not a ""really stupid"" negligent defendant, but a ""really mean"" intentional wrongdoer, they got what they deserved. This statement was widely criticized by commentators.


=== Supreme Court ===


==== Plurality ====
The Supreme Court of the United States then granted certiorari and, in the 1993 decision, upheld the Court of Appeals' judgment. Both parties attempted to establish a test for punitive damages, with TXO favoring a ""heightened scrutiny"" standard and Alliance favoring a ""rational basis"" standard. The Court was not persuaded by either argument, with Justice Stevens' decision reiterating a statement made in the Haslip decision: ""We need not, and indeed we cannot, draw a mathematical bright line between the constitutionally acceptable and the constitutionally unacceptable that would fit every case. We can say, however, that [a] general concer[n] of reasonableness . . . properly enter[s] into the constitutional calculus."" 499 U. S., at 18. Referring to Haslip once again, Stevens said that ""it is with this concern for reasonableness in mind that we turn to petitioner's argument that the punitive award in this case was so ""grossly excessive"" as to violate the substantive component of the Due Process Clause."" The plurality determined that the only relevant constitutional question was whether the award was accomplished with procedural fairness. In upholding the original ruling, the plurality determined that the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals was correct in its application of the Garnes case to determine the ""reasonableness"" of the award.


==== Concurrence ====
Justice Kennedy's concurrence agreed that the West Virginia courts had followed due process requirements. However, he argued that the alternative ""reasonableness"" standard proposed by the plurality was flawed, as determining whether an award is ""grossly excessive"" requires some basis for determination. Without a baseline to compare against, the proposed standard would not impose any practical limits on jury excess. Thus, he suggested that the inquiries for future appeals should focus on whether the jury was motivated by ""bias, passion, or prejudice"" rather than a concern for deterrence and retribution, disregarding the size of the award. If a rational jury provided the same information that was presented at trial could reasonably reach the same verdict and punitive damages award, Kennedy would uphold it against a substantive due process argument.
Justice Scalia concurred separately, joined by Justice Thomas, disagreeing with the plurality's reasoning on substantive due process. Unlike Kennedy, he believed that the size of an award cannot raise a substantive due process argument. As constitutional literalists, they did not find a substantive right to not be subjected to excessive fines in the 5th or 14th Amendments. Scalia noted that the Haslip decision had indicated that a 4 to 1 ratio between punitive and compensatory damages was close to the line, and that the 526-to-1 ratio in TXO would - if applied consistently - dispose of the vast majority of due process challenges to punitive damages. Indeed, after the Haslip decision, lower courts throughout the country had attempted to adhere to the 4-to-1 ratio rule implied by it.


==== Dissent ====
Justice O'Connor, joined by Justices White and Souter, dissented from the plurality, calling the ""no-mathematical-bright-line"" decision a ""cop-out"" and quoting Justice Potter Stewart's famous statement ""I know it when I see it"" for comparison. She had been the lone dissenter in the Haslip case, and argued that the guidance to the jury and the post-trial review were both less sufficient in TXO than they had been in Haslip. Like Kennedy, O'Connor was concerned that a jury with the power to issue such large awards could be influenced by bias, passion, or prejudice, especially when not given proper instructions. She also called for a comparison of this award to others upheld against other defendants in West Virginia, and to other similar torts in all jurisdictions. She found that the punitive damages award in TXO was twenty times greater than the largest amount ever handed out in West Virginia, ten times larger than the largest award for slander of title in any jurisdiction, and several times larger than the combined civil and criminal penalties for similar offenses. Further, she pointed out that the amount TXO stood to gain from their fraudulent actions was not mentioned to the jury, calling it ""an after-the-fact rationalization invented by counsel to defend this startling award on appeal."" She also criticized the majority for not providing any guidance to lower courts, and instead focusing on the specifics of the TXO case. Finally, she pointed out that the three largest awards ever upheld in West Virginia were against out-of-state defendants like TXO.


== Effects ==
As demonstrated by the divided opinions (a 3-justice plurality opinion joined in part by Kennedy, two separate concurrences, and a 3-justice dissent), TXO did not provide a tidy solution to any of the issues that were involved. Six justices agreed that TXO's behavior justified the significant fine, but a different set of 6 justices also found that the current standard for determining appropriate punitive damages is flawed, in one way or another.
The TXO decision was cited by mass media in claims that Americans are overly litigious and intensified calls for legislative tort reform in America. The American Tort Reform Association, which filed an amicus brief on behalf of TXO, claimed that punitive damage awards have grown too large in both size and frequency. Other groups representing American business and medicine claimed that such awards are unfair and adversely impact their international competitiveness, while consumer groups and plaintiffs' attorneys argue that these large awards are necessary for consumer and public protection.
The decision was also cited in claims that judicial regulation of punitive damages is inconsistent and should be replaced by national legislation. Although the TXO case involves a single large award, it has been cited by a number of lower courts in rejecting Due Process Clause arguments against multiple punitive damage awards, e.g. asbestos injury claims, even if the total amount awarded exceeds the defendant's ability to pay. Just a year later, the Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants case and its surrounding publicity amplified those calls for tort reform.


== See also ==
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 509
List of United States Supreme Court cases


== References ==


== External links ==
Text of TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., 509 U.S. 443 (1993) is available from: Findlaw  Justia"
Javanese literature,"Javanese literature is, generally speaking, literature from Java and, more specifically, from areas where Javanese is spoken. However, similar with other literary traditions, Javanese language works were and not necessarily produced only in Java, but also in Sunda, Madura, Bali, Lombok, Southern Sumatra (especially around Palembang) and Suriname. This article only deals with Javanese written literature and not with oral literature and Javanese theatre such as wayang.


== Overview ==
The Javanese language is an Austronesian language and heavily influenced principally by Sanskrit in its earliest written stage. Later on it has undergone additional influences from mainly Arabic, Dutch, and Malay/Indonesian. Beginning in the 9th century, texts in Javanese language using a Brahmic derived script were written. The oldest written text in Javanese is the so-called Inscription of Sukabumi which is dated March 25, 804. Although this is not a piece of literature, this inscription is often mentioned as the starting point of Javanese literature.
The Dutch scholar Theodore Pigeaud divides the history of Javanese literature in four major periods:


=== Pre-Islamic period ===
The first era is a pre-Islamic period of about six centuries, beginning about 900 AD, up to about 1500 AD: the traditional date of the victory of Islam over pre-Islamic belief in the East Javanese kingdom of Majapahit. Javanese texts indubitably written in the pre-Islamic period have been preserved for posterity mainly in eighteenth and nineteenth century Balinese manuscripts. The idiom is called Old Javanese. In Java the original Javanese tradition of literature was interrupted and all but cut off by the rise of Islam.
There is a relatively rich body of pre-Islamic Javanese literature (see List of Old Javanese literary works). Among Old Javanese texts, a chronological distinction can be made between works of authors living in the period of suzerainty of the Kadiri Kings (up to about 1200 AD) and their predecessors, on the one side, and books written in the subsequent Singosari Majapahit period on the other. Almost all Old Javanese texts were written in East Java, mainly in districts situated in the basin of the river Brantas. The few exceptions are some very old texts probably written in the tenth century in Central Java in the district of Mataram, in the basin of the rivers Opak and Praga. In addition, for some texts, it is doubtful whether a given text in the Old Javanese language was written in Java or in Bali.
In the pre-Islamic period Indian culture was a most important factor in the development of Javanese literature. During some centuries, perhaps up to the twelfth century, Indian literary influence was dominant in all respects. Afterwards indigenous Javanese concepts came gradually to the fore. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Javanese authors wrote some books containing ideas and mythic speculations which seem pre-eminently autochthonous Javanese. At that time an amalgamation of imported elements of Indian culture and native Javanese concepts was effected in literature.


=== Javano-Balinese period ===
The second era of the chronological scheme is a Javano-Balinese period of about fourteenth centuries, beginning about 1500 AD and lasting up to the present time. Javano-Balinese literature is written in the Javano-Balinese literary idiom. Since the thirteenth century, or even earlier, the island of Bali seems to have been brought gradually within the sphere of influence of East Javanese Kings, and in the fourteenth century the dynasty of Majapahit ruled the country. According to Javanese historical tradition, about 1500 AD the last Majapahit King, ousted from his Royal residence by Muslim insurgents, fled eastwards and found a refuge in Bali. There may be some truth in this tradition. Anyway, the Balinese rulers did not embrace Islam, and in Bali Old Javanese literature was preserved and cherished. In the course of time at the Courts of the sixteenth and seventeenth century South Balinese
Kings of Gèlgèl of Klungkung, Old Javanese letters developed into a Javano-Balinese literature with characteristic features of its own. Indigenous Balinese mythical and historical traditions were introduced, and a new style of prosody, well suited to the structure of the Balinese and Javanese languages, was cultivated.
Side by side with Javano-Balinese literature, and stimulated by it, a purely Balinese literature developed. Before the period of Javanese cultural and political domination in Bali, since the thirteenth century, an Old Balinese literary idiom had been in use at the Courts of native Balinese rulers. Like Old Javanese, Old Balinese had developed under the influence of Indian culture. After an interval of about five centuries, the period of Javanese domination, the native Balinese language was used again as a medium of literary activity. Probably this was in the seventeenth or the eighteenth century. Balinese language and literature of the second flourishing period, which endures up to the present time, are strongly influenced by Old Javanese and Javano-Balinese. In some cases it is difficult to decide whether a given text should be registered as belonging to Javano-Balinese or to Balinese literature.
It is very difficult to establish any kind of chronological order in the mass of Javano-Balinese literature, because scarcely any text is dated. In some cases older texts belonging to the Gèlgèl period can be distinguished from younger texts belonging to the subsequent eighteenth and nineteenth century Klungkung reigns by the growing prominence of Balinese forms and vocabulary in the latter texts.
Javano-Balinese literature developed out of Old Javanese letters and Balinese tradition. No foreign influence was in evidence except Islam. Though the ruling classes of Bali, the Courts and the clergy, adhered to ancestral religious concepts and ritual, somehow Javanese Islamic literature penetrated into mercantile middle-class communities in the country, and a small Muslim Javano-Balinese literature developed. Its exact chronology is unknown, but its relationship with seventeenth and eighteenth century Javanese Pasisir literature or the following era is indubitable.


=== Islamic era or Javanese Pesisir literature ===
The third era of the chronological scheme introduced in the present Synopsis is the era of Javanese Pesisir literature of about three centuries, beginning about 1500 AD. So it coincides with the first half of the era of Javano-Balinese literature. Texts belonging to the era of the scheme were written in the literary idioms of East Java, Madura and the North Coast districts. Pesisir is a Javanese word meaning 'coast' or 'costal line'.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Islam was in the ascendant in Java. Political power devolved from the inland Court of Majapahit to Muslim dynasts ruling in various maritime districts and trading centers on the North Coast. In these districts, from Surabaya and Gresik in the east up to Cirebon and Banten in the west, a rejuvenated Javanese literature developed under the influence of Islam.
In the period of Pesisir culture authors were very active in writing books on all subjects belonging to the sphere of Muslim Javanese civilization. Far from ignoring pre-Islamic literature, however, they assimilated many elements of Old Javanese culture. The result was an amalgam of Muslim and pre-Islamic culture, in several respects showing survivals of ancient indigenous Javanese concepts.
The three centres of Pesisir literature in Java were Surabaya (with Gresik), Demak (with Japara) and Cérbon (with Banten). East Javanese Pesisir texts came first, for in East Java Muslim religious influence first became an important element in civilization.
Starting from Java, Islamic Pesisir culture spread to some other islands of which the coasts are washed by the Java sea. The most important outlying cultural provinces were Lombok and Palémbang. In the island of Lombok a remarkable Islamic Javano-Balinese literature came into existence. The texts contain reminiscences of indigenous Sasak culture. The native Sasak language developed into a medium of literary activity side by side with the Javano-Balinese idiom.
Probably for centuries, even in the pre-Islamic period, the district of Palémbang in South Sumatra was ruled by dynasts of Javanese extraction. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Javanese Pesisir literature was cultivated at Court. In the nineteenth century Javanese cultural influence in Palémbang declined in consequence of the fall of the dynasty. Malay took the place of Javanese.
The important oversea expansions of Javanese Pesisir literature, both eastwards and westwards, started from East Java. Minor expansions, of Javanese Pesisir culture took their course from Banten and from Central Javanese maritime towns. The districts affected by them, Lampung in South Sumatra by Banten, and Bañjar Masin in Borneo by Central Java, did not produce Javanese literary texts of any importance, however.
In, Javanese Pesisir literature, the influence of Islamic culture was strong. Islam first reached Java by the intermediary of Malay literature, Malay being the medium of the interinsular commerce which brought Muslim traders from India to the Archipelago. Asa result, Pesisir literature contains borrowings, from Malay and from Arabic, the sacred language of Islam, but also, from other continental languages, in the first place Persian, which was the universal Islamic medium in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.


=== Renaissance of classical literature ===
The fourth era of the chronological scheme is the period of the renaissance of classical Javanese literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Literature belonging to this era was written in the Surakarta and Yogyakarta idioms. The cultural centre was the Court of the inland Central Javanese Kings in Kartasura, Surakarta and Yogyakarta. The fame of the Surakarta authors, called pujanggas, spread all over Java, and their style was much imitated. In consequence in the nineteenth century Surakarta renaissance literature was considered as the Javanese literature par excellence, and works of authors belonging to the preceding Pasisir era fell into oblivion or were disregarded. The Surakarta Court idiom with its rigid rules of class distinction in vocabulary (the so-called manners of speech, krama and ngoko etc.) was accepted almost everywhere as exemplary.
Probably in the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century Pasisir literature was already on the decline in consequence of economic and political retrogression in the mercantile towns on the North Coast where the authors and their patrons lived. One by one the maritime districts were vanquished by the forces of the despotic Kings of inland Mataram. Their over-sea trade, the source of their prosperity, receded as a result of the rise of Batavia.
The Central Javanese, renaissance culture of the nineteenth century was the successor of seventeenth and eighteenth century Pasisir civilization, which in its time formed a cultural link between maritime districts along the coasts of Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok. The differences between the two are geographical and ideological. Geographically, seventeenth and eighteenth century Javanese Pasisir culture was interinsular. But then it was mainly confined to the maritime districts of the islands. It was not in all respects unified, using different languages and idioms. Nineteenth-century Central Javanese pujangga culture, on the other hand, was national Javanese. Belonging to the interior of the country, and using the mannered Court idiom of Surakarta and Yogyakarta, it was unified to a high degree.
Ideologically the difference between Pasisir and pujangga literature consists in their origin and development. In the Pasisir literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth century, on the one hand, the principal concern was religion. It superseded the culture of the preceding non-Islamic period, in the meantime retaining several features of pre-Islamic civilization. Its origin was middle-class. In the Central Javanese civilization of the nineteenth century, on the other hand, Muslim religion was taken for granted. The pujanggas were mostly interested in the remains of pre-Islamic belletristic literature. Their books were meant to be reading-matter for gentlemen.
Eighteenth and nineteenth century renaissance authors were masters in adapting the products of former periods of literature, as far as known to them. Some Old Javanese epic kakawins were turned into modern Javanese poems. Historical, romantic and theatrical literature flourished. The wayang theatre became the favourite pastime at Court, and plays were composed by Kings and princes,.
Originating from the interior of the country, Surakarta renaissance literature lacked stimulating contacts with foreign cultures oversea, like its predecessor in Central Java, Pasisir literature, had. Neither international Islam nor interinsular Malay literature were appreciated at Court. Javano-Balinese letters, which in the eighteenth century were flourishing in Bali, were unknown in Central Java.
Eighteenth and nineteenth century renaissance literature was heavily indebted to eighteenth century Pasisir literature, especially of the Central and East Javanese maritime districts. After a long period of dynastic troubles and internal wars, which were detrimental to the mercantile towns on the seacoast, peace was finally restored in Central and East Java in the middle of the eighteenth century. Probably since that time traffic by prao on the river Bengawan was instrumental in establishing contacts between Surakarta and Gresik, the ancient centre of the decaying East Javanese Pasisir culture. It is a fact that the Surakarta scholars' knowledge of the admired Old Javanese kakawins was second-hand. Manuscripts written in Pasisir districts were intermediaries. The superior Balinese codices of Old Javanese texts were not available in Central Java.
In the nineteenth century Surakarta authors were stimulated by the presence of three European scholars: Winter, Gericke and Wilkens, who were studying Javanese language and literature in Central Java. Through their intermediary some knowledge of European culture spread at Court. The Bible was translated into Javanese.
The second half of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century were the period of development of Surakarta renaissance letters into a common Javanese belletristic literature characterized by its predilection for the wayang theatre and wayang plays. In consequence of the maintenance of peace and order in the interior of the country and an unprecedented increase of traffic by means of the railways, Surakarta (and, in a minor degree, also Yogyakarta) Court culture developed into a common spiritual sphere of the priyayi class, the gentlefolk of Java. Probably never before the nineteenth century such a sense of cultural unity was prevalent among the members of the well-educated classes in the interior of the country. Henceforth the Court culture radiating from Surakarta and Yogyakarta was considered by educated people as the only genuine Javanese civilization.
Notwithstanding the early nineteenth century contacts of Surakarta authors with Dutch scholars, the modern European novel and short story did not begin to develop in Javanese literature before the second or third decade of the twentieth century. Apparently for a long time the appeal of the well-known phantastic wayang play literature was stronger than the interest in new fiction dealing with problems of modern times.
In all periods of history conservatism and a tendency to retrospection and mythography have been characteristic features of Javanese literature. Its endurance for many centuries, adapting elements of foreign cultures, Indian and Islamic, but not superseded by them, is, remarkable. Apparently cultural conservatism upheld Javanese authors and scholars in the critical periods when foreign ideologies were introduced into their national society. It remains to be seen whether in times to come Javanese conservatism will prove strong enough to adapt and integrate foreign elements with the same success as it did in the past.
Anyway, Javanese cultural conservatism seems a valuable asset in the amalgam of modern Indonesian civilization which is developing in the twentieth century. The present Synopsis of Javanese literature up to about 1900 is not the place to discuss modern developments at any length, however.


== See also ==
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
Hinduism in Java
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan
Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian
Kunjarakarna Dharmakathana
Sumanasantaka
Bhomantaka


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
(in Dutch) Cornelis Christiaan Berg, 1928, Kidung Sundayana : (Kidung Sunda C) : voor schoolgebruik uitgegeven, en voorzien van aanteekeningen, een woordenlijstje en een inleiding tot de studie van het Oud-Javaansch. Soerakarta: De Bliksem.
(in English) George Quinn, 1992, The novel in Javanese : aspects of its social and literary character. Leiden: KITLV Press. ISBN 90-6718-033-5
(in English) The. Pigeaud, 1967-1970 Literature of Java :Catalogue raisonne of Javanese : Catalogue raisonne of Javanese manuscripts in the library of the University of Leiden and other public collections in the Netherlands The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff.
(in Javanese) Raden Mas Ngabehi Poerbatjaraka, 1952, Kapustakan Djawi. Djakarta: Djambatan
(in Indonesian) Raden Mas Ngabehi Poerbatjaraka & Tardjan Hadidjaja, 1952, Kapustakan Djawi. Djakarta: Djambatan
(in English) J.J. Ras, 1979, Javanese literature since independence. An anthology. The Hague: Uitgeverij Nijhoff, VKI 88, ISBN 90-247-2309-4
(in English) P.J. Zoetmulder, 1974, Kalangwan. A Survey of Old Javanese Literature. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-1674-8


== Further reading ==
Florida, Nancy K. (1995) Writing the past, inscribing the future: history as prophecy in colonial Java  Durham, N.C. Duke University Press,"
Eglinton East LRT,"The Eglinton East LRT (EELRT), formerly known as the Scarborough Malvern LRT, is a proposed light rail line in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The line would be entirely within the district of Scarborough. It was originally part of Transit City, a 2007 plan to develop new light rail lines along several priority transit corridors in the city.
Unlike Line 5 Eglinton, which is a Metrolinx project, the EELRT is a City of Toronto project. As of 2022, the plan was that the EELRT be designed and operated as a distinct service from Line 5 Eglinton; both would terminate at Kennedy station with no connecting track. As of November 2023, the estimated cost of the EELRT was $4.65 billion, with construction expected to occur between 2027 and 2034.


== History ==


=== Transit City initial proposal ===

The Scarborough Malvern LRT was part of Toronto mayor David Miller's Transit City proposal announced on 16 March 2007, to be operated by the Toronto Transit Commission. This shorter 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) line was envisioned to terminate at Sheppard Avenue East and Morningside Avenue, where it would interchange with the proposed Sheppard East LRT. In 2008, the Scarborough Malvern LRT was included in Metrolinx's regional transportation plan The Big Move within that plan's 25-year horizon. In 2009, the initial design for the Scarborough Malvern LRT was completed.: 11  The design cut off west of Midland Avenue, leaving the question open for later design phases of how the line would interface with Kennedy station and whether the line would be an extension of Line 5 or a distinct service. The line was expected to cost approximately $1.26 billion, including vehicles, property, escalation and an apportioned cost of the maintenance and storage facilities. With construction originally scheduled to begin in 2014, the line was expected to open in 2019 as the last of the seven Transit City lines.
The Scarborough Malvern LRT was approved by Toronto City Council on 30 September 2009, and the environmental assessment received a notice to proceed from the Government of Ontario on 15 December 2009. After a change in municipal leadership, it was cancelled by Mayor Rob Ford on 1 December 2010, when he announced the cancellation of the entire Transit City initiative. While LRT lines on Sheppard East, Finch West, and Eglinton were revived through a new agreement between the City of Toronto and Metrolinx, the Scarborough Malvern LRT was not included.


=== Revival as Crosstown extension ===
In 2016, the city council directed staff to resurrect and update the 2009 plan for the Scarborough Malvern LRT. The project was renamed the Eglinton East LRT. Until 2021, the city considered making the EELRT an eastward extension of Line 5 Eglinton.: 11, 12 
In 2016, to complement the Scarborough Subway Extension (SSE), the planned extension of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth to Scarborough Town Centre, the City of Toronto drafted a plan to extend Line 5 Eglinton farther east into Scarborough to terminate at the University of Toronto Scarborough campus. On 20 January 2016, Toronto City Council approved revisions to the Scarborough subway plan that would include reviving much of the original plan for the Scarborough Malvern LRT as a 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) eastern extension of Line 5 Eglinton to University of Toronto Scarborough, rebranded as ""Crosstown East"", and later renamed  ""Eglinton East"" in 2017. The extension would add 18 new stops east of Kennedy station and serve an estimated 43,400 additional riders per day (a ridership similar to that of the Line 4 Sheppard subway). The extension was expected to serve ""neighbourhood improvement areas"" (often low-income areas) such as Eglinton East, Scarborough Junction, Morningside, Scarborough Village and West Hill. 
In November 2017, the project was mostly unfunded, with the cost estimated at $1.6 to $1.7 billion, with an estimated completion date of 2023. At a November 2017 public meeting, city staff presented the possibility of extending the Eglinton East LRT by six stops to Malvern Town Centre. The Malvern extension would be 4.2 to 4.7 kilometres (2.6 to 2.9 mi) long. The extension to Malvern Town Centre would have seven stops: at Pan Am Drive, Sheppard/Morningside, Brenyon Way, Murison Boulevard, Sheppard/Neilson, Wickson Trail, and Malvern Town Centre.
In April 2019, Ontario premier Doug Ford, brother of Rob Ford, announced a plan for Toronto rapid transit that included the Eglinton West LRT (a westward extension of Line 5 Eglinton), the Scarborough Subway Extension of Line 2, the Yonge North Extension of Line 1 and the Ontario Line. The Eglinton East LRT was noticeably not included and was left off the accompanying map.
By October 2020, the City of Toronto and the TTC were in the process of implementing bus-only lanes from Kennedy station to the University of Toronto Scarborough campus via Eglinton Avenue, Kingston Road and Morningside Avenue as part of the RapidTO bus rapid transit scheme, which approximates the route of the Eglinton East LRT. The lanes were anticipated to be fully installed and operational by that November. As well as ""red carpet"" bus lanes, bus stops were also consolidated to approximately the same configuration and frequency of proposed LRT stations, with certain lower-order curbside stops – such as those at Huntington Avenue, Brimley Road, Oswego/Barbados Roads and Torrance Avenue – being removed entirely.
In December 2020, the City of Toronto announced changes to the Eglinton East LRT proposal. The tunnel portal at Kennedy station would be extended eastwards to Huntington Avenue due to changes in the Scarborough Subway Extension project, which involved modifying the depth of the tunnel as well as adding a third subway track for service improvements. A station at Midland Avenue was moved underground as a result. A new maintenance and storage facility north of the University of Toronto Scarborough was added to the plan as a result of the Sheppard East LRT cancellation. Originally, both the Eglinton East LRT and the Sheppard East LRT were to have shared a maintenance and storage facility at Conlins Road east of Sheppard and Morningside. The other aspects of the project remained the same, including a tunnel under Kingston Road and Morningside Avenue due to traffic congestion at the Kingston/Lawrence and Morningside area.
In December 2020, the council directed staff to study the entire original route to Malvern Town Centre and begin a high-level design. Since the province had agreed to fully fund the Scarborough Subway Extension, Mayor John Tory requested in 2021 that the $1.2 billion the city had accumulated for that project be redirected to the Eglinton East line.


=== Standalone line ===
By 2022, city planning staff had concluded a through-service connection at Kennedy station was not feasible as an EELRT tunnel would be only 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) above the SSE tunnel at Kennedy station, and the SSE tunnel structure would not be strong enough to safely support an EELRT tunnel above it.: 24  Thus, city staff proposed a ""distinct-service concept"" for the EELRT. Doing so would result in lower construction costs, a shorter construction period, fewer private property impacts and design flexibility. With this flexibility, the EELRT would not need to conform to Line 5's technology, operations, and maintenance requirements. The city could choose another type of light-rail vehicle and would use the Conlins Yard as the line's maintenance and storage facility. Previously considered tunnels between Kennedy station and Midland Avenue and under Kingston Road would be replaced by surface alignments.: 1, 2, 9  The line could also be extended farther to the under-construction terminus of the Line 2 Scarborough extension at Sheppard Avenue and McCowan Road.
By May 2022, the estimated cost of the EELRT is $3.9 billion, with an expected opening in the early to mid-2030s. A July 2022 TTC report and a May 2023 city presentation referred to the proposed EELRT as Line 7 and gave the line a mint green colour.: 24 : 15 
By the end of 2023, the high-level design was expected to be completed, along with a draft of the environmental project report (EPR) and the start of the transit project assessment process (TPAP). Public consultation began in May 2023.
During the 2023 Toronto mayoral by-election, the topic of a future EELRT connecting to Pan Am Sports Centre and the University of Toronto Scarborough, and later to Sheppard–McCowan, was frequently discussed by candidates.
In November 2023, the project design was ten percent complete, and the total revised cost of the project was $4.65 billion. At the time, the province (through Metrolinx) was considering extending Line 4 Sheppard east of Don Mills station with the potential of overlapping the EELRT route along Sheppard Avenue. Thus, in case of overlap, city planners proposed to adjust the EELRT alignment. There was also the possibility that the preferred site for the EELRT maintenance and storage facility at Sheppard Avenue and Conlins Road might not be available. Thus, city planners would look at other potential sites as a contingency.
By May 2024, the City of Toronto had completed the 10-percent design and started a Transit and Rail Project Assessment Process, a streamlined environmental assessment that could take up to 185 days to complete. The project team recommended against a request by city council to add an extra stop at Morningside Park because of the steep slope along Morningside Avenue at the park entrance.: 4, 15, 19 


== Route ==

The EELRT line would run for 18 kilometres (11 mi), with 27 new proposed stops between Kennedy station and two termini, one at Sheppard Avenue East and McCowan Road and the other at Malvern Town Centre.
The southern terminus of the line would be at Kennedy station at Kennedy Road and Eglinton Avenue, with connections to Line 2 Bloor–Danforth, Line 5 Eglinton, and the Stouffville GO Line. The EELRT platform would be located on the east side of the Stouffville line and on the south side of Eglinton Avenue within its own off-street, ground-level station building. There would be a pedestrian tunnel connecting the EELRT station to the Line 5 concourse. From Kennedy station, the line would enter a reserved centre median on Eglinton Avenue before crossing Midland Avenue.: 42, 44 
Running east on Eglinton Avenue East, the EELRT would pass Eglinton GO Station while continuing to Kingston Road. Just west of the Eglinton/Kingston stop, there would be a turnback and train storage track.: 46, 49, 51  Turning northeast on Kingston Road, the line would pass Guildwood GO Station. Between the Lawrence and Kingston/Morningside stops, there would be a storage track. The line would turn north on Morningside Avenue.: 53 
Along Morningside Avenue, the line would jog through the University of Toronto Scarborough campus (UTSC) after passing the Ellesmere stop and turning east on Ellesmere Road. The university is planning a new street on campus (dubbed New Military Trail) that would be located northeast of the existing Military Trail. The EELRT would follow this new street from Ellesmere Road back to Morningside Avenue. UTSC would have two LRT stops: the UTSC stop with the southbound platform on Ellesmere Road and the northbound platform on New Military Trail, and the Pan Am Sports Centre stop on the south side of its namesake. There are plans for a new bus terminal and connections to the planned Durham–Scarborough bus rapid transit.: 59 
After leaving UTSC, the line would continue north until Sheppard Avenue, where the Scarborough Malvern LRT would have originally met the cancelled Sheppard East LRT. The EELRT would then continue west on Sheppard Avenue to Neilson Road, where it would split into two branches. The first branch would travel north along Neilson Road and terminate at Malvern Town Centre.: 15 
The second branch would proceed further west from Neilson Road along the alignment of the cancelled Sheppard East LRT to McCowan Road. There, this branch would connect with Line 2 again, where the future terminus of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth at McCowan Road and Sheppard Avenue would be located. The EELRT would terminate on Sheppard Avenue on the east side of McCowan Road. There would be an underground pedestrian path to the station's planned bus terminal as well as to Line 2. A project map indicates that two tail tracks for the EELRT would extend to the west side of McCowan Road. As a later project, Line 4 Sheppard could be extended from Don Mills station to Line 2's new eastern terminus (also along the alignment of the cancelled Sheppard East LRT).: 71 
The EELRT tracks would be located in centre-of-street reserved lanes. There would be four road lanes separate from the LRT lanes along Eglinton Avenue East, Kingston Road, Morningside Avenue (north of Ellesmere Road) and Sheppard Avenue. There would be two road lanes along Morningside Avenue (south of Ellesmere Road) and along Neilson Road.: 29, 34, 37 


== Operations ==
The EELRT would use trains 50 metres (160 ft) long or less and use its own distinct vehicles (i.e. different from those used on Line 5 Eglinton) in order to better adapt to the line's conditions: no running in tunnels, shorter trains and platforms, and a better ability to climb grades to avoid expensive road infrastructure changes.: 8, 9  Light-rail vehicles would need to handle grades in excess of 6 percent, such as along Morningside Avenue, and be able to make sharp, 90-degree turns at street intersections. The maximum speed would be 80 km/h (50 mph) on an exclusive right-of-way and 60 km/h (37 mph) on a semi-exclusive right-of-way.: 8  
Trains would operate every four to five minutes during peak periods.: 17  The EELRT would operate as three branches:: 21 

Branch A would run between Kennedy and Sheppard–McCowan stations.
Branch B would run between Kennedy and UTSC stations.
Branch C would run between Sheppard–McCowan and Malvern Town Centre stations.
There would also be a short non-revenue branch on Sheppard Avenue from Morningside Avenue east to Conlins Road to provide access to a proposed maintenance and storage facility.: 6, 7 


== Proposed stops ==

There would be 27 stops spaced 400 metres (1,300 ft) to 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) apart for an average of 670 metres (2,200 ft).: 32  All LRT platforms are 50 metres (160 ft) long. Unless otherwise noted below, all centre platforms are 15.5 metres (51 ft) wide, and all side platforms are 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide. With far-side platforms, an LRT train must cross a signalized intersection to reach the platform. Parallel platforms are two side platforms that face each other.: 4–6 
The proposed stops from north to south would be:: 3–6 


== See also ==
Line 5 Eglinton
Line 6 Finch West
Toronto streetcar system
Toronto subway


== References ==


== External links ==
City of Toronto EELRT project page
Official TTC site"
Sweet About Me,"""Sweet About Me"" is a song by Australian singer-songwriter Gabriella Cilmi from her debut album, Lessons to Be Learned (2008). The song was released as the album's second single on 10 March 2008 in the United Kingdom and on 24 March 2008 in Australia. One month later, it topped the Australian ARIA Singles Chart and stayed there for five non-consecutive weeks.
""Sweet About Me"" also became a hit in Europe, reaching number one in the Netherlands and Norway and becoming a top-five hit in eight other countries. In the UK, the song reached number six and was the most-played track of 2009 according to PRS for Music. The song won the Grand Prix during the 46th Sopot International Song Festival in 2009. A 2010 mix of ""Sweet About Me"" was included on Cilmi's second album, Ten, released in March 2010.


== Background ==

Recording of Lessons to Be Learned, the parent album of ""Sweet About Me,"" began in Melbourne, Australia, when Gabriella Cilmi was thirteen years-old. Cilmi then re-located to London, England in 2007 to launch her musical career and complete the recording of ""Sweet About Me"". The song was co-written by Cilmi in collaboration with its producers Xenomania, who are critically acclaimed for their work with Girls Aloud, Sugababes and Kylie Minogue. ""Sweet About Me"" was written after Cilmi was pillaging a Parisian record store for inspiration. Cilmi was listening to early psychedelic music around the time when she wrote the song. Lyrically, Cilmi said that the song is saying, ""We're all going to make mistakes, so we might as well have fun while we're making them."" Cilmi explained ""Sweet About Me"" to Bob Henderson of Gay Times, ""['Sweet About Me' is about] nothing being what it seems. This might sound cheesy as well, but just because I'm young doesn't mean I don't understand what's going on.""
Described as a ""soulful pop song"" by contemporary critics, Cilmi revealed to Pete Lewis of Blues & Soul that the ""fun"" inspiration in ""Sweet About Me"" originated from her mother's love for 1970s British glam-rock bands, Sweet and T. Rex. During the recording of ""Sweet About Me"", Cilmi thought there was something ""amazing"" about the song. Speaking to WalesOnline she said, ""I thought it was like a nursery rhyme, the way it got stuck in your head."" Cilmi, who is influenced by rock bands Led Zeppelin and Kings of Leon, said she had to make a pop-sounding record to appeal to as many people as possible. Speaking to music website, The Digital Fix, Cilmi explained how she worked together with Brian Higgins on ""Sweet About Me"":

Even though we came from two totally different backgrounds, when we worked together it just gelled. When it came to our differences I guess we both kind of compromised and came to a decision in the middle.


== Composition ==

""Sweet About Me"" is a pop and swing jazz song. It utilizes a subtle electro beat, derived from rocksteady grooves interspersed with layered pop production, and ""retro-sounding"" contemporary themes. The song has received different lyrical interpretations from critics. A writer from Contactmusic.com felt the song refers to making trouble and getting away with it, Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that the song sounds lyrically bitter, namely in the line. ""When you're playing with desire, don't come running to my place when it burns like fire boy'. According to Cilmi the lyrics are representative of having fun while making your mistakes, and learning from them along the way. ""Sweet About Me"" is written in the time signature of common time, with a beat rate of 132 beats per minute.
Cilmi uses a sweet and coarse vocal delivery which has been deemed as a misleading contrast between her mature sound and young age. Her vocal performance on the song is similar to that of a group act rather than that of a solo artist. She claims that the track's sound was a product of Xenomania's pop music experience and her lyrical ideas. While the song was being crafted she was influenced by rock bands Kings of Leon and Jet, ""I wrote with [Xenomania] who are totally different to me and came from a totally different musical background, they had worked with a lot of pop acts before and at the time I was listening to a lot of Jet and Kings of Leon, so when both our ideas met we came up with something pretty good."" Musically, the song has been compared to Amy Winehouse's 2007 single, ""Rehab"", for their similar composition, soul and swing musical influences.
There are two versions of the song: the album version and the radio edit. The first verse is cut in half in the radio edit and the song opens up with the lyrics: ""Oh, watching me hanging by a string this time"" followed by ""Oh, easily climax of a perfect lie"". In the album version, there is a repetition of the first line followed by the line: ""Don't, easily a smile worth a hundred lies""; the radio edit omits these two lines before going into the pre-chorus.


== Critical reception ==

Nick Levine from Digital Spy positively reviewed ""Sweet About Me,"" giving it four out of five stars. Levine comended Xenomania's production on the track, calling it ""authentic"" and ""fresh"". He also praised Gabriella Cilmi's vocals on the song, ""Most impressive of all is Cilmi's voice, which manages to be sweet and coarse all at the same time, much like a drizzling of honey on a slice of toast."" Jake Taylor of Sputnikmusic deemed ""Sweet About Me"" as one of the best songs released by an Australian artist on debut. He wrote, ""A lot of songs focus on the chorus as the returning point for the listener's attention, but 'Sweet About Me' dumps that for a well rounded mix of brilliant singing and layered pop production on all levels."" Contactmusic.com complimented ""Sweet About Me"" saying it brings a little fun back to pop. The song received a four-out-of-five star rating from Fraser McAlpine of the BBC, who compared Cilmi to British singers Amy Winehouse and Duffy, ""Perky song, this. Well suited to grabbing your attention even in the middle of the sudden run of post-[Amy Winehouse] soul sirens, largely because it swings a bit, and seems to have some spark of its own, rather than stiffly wearing its '60s influences like a pair of slightly-too-small cuban heeled boots [similar to that of Duffy]."" Mark Reid of The New Zealand Herald described the track as ""incredibly catchy"". The song was classed as an obvious highlight on Lessons to Be Learned by Colin Polonowski of The Digital Fix. Andrew Cock of The Dwarf said that ""Sweet About Me"" is as catchy as ever and will continue to receive wide public acclaim. Cock noted, ""At times this song seems so sweet it oozes honey, feeling deliberately boppy."" Cilmi's vocal performance on the song was praised by Paul Cashmere of Undercover FM, ""From the sultry opening notes of the debut single 'Sweet About Me', the world will quickly come to know it's uncovered a major new vocal talent in Gabriella Cilmi.""
Elisabeth Vincentelli from Time Out ranked ""Sweet About Me"" as the best song of 2008. Vincentelli wrote, ""Production team Xenomania crafted a typically ace tune for this 17-year-old Aussie, and her unassumingly sexy delivery brought it all home."" ""Sweet About Me"" was nominated in the category 'Most Performed Work' at the Ivor Novello Awards. The song won 'Single of the Year' at the 2008 ARIA Awards.


== Chart performance ==
On 14 April, the song topped the ARIA Singles Chart and is certified platinum for sales of 70,000 copies. It reached number one again on 19 May, where it sat for four weeks, while her debut album reached number two on the albums chart. This makes her the youngest Australian artist to reach the top of the charts, beating out Australian Idol winner Casey Donovan by just nineteen days. On 27 October 2008, ""Sweet About Me"" re-entered the Australian chart at number seventeen. The song would ultimately become the third highest-selling single of 2008 in Australia.
On 9 March 2008, ""Sweet About Me"" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 68, rising to its peak position of number six on 21 June 2008 in its fifteenth week on the run. On 20 July, months after its release, the song reached number two on the UK Airplay Chart. On 2 August, the song managed to return to the Top Ten by climbing five spots from number twelve to number seven. However, the following week, the song fell back to number twelve, then eventually dropped out of the top 40 six weeks later. It re-entered the top forty on 5 October rising from number 65 to number thirty-eight. The song spent thirty-seven consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart before finally dropping out on 23 November. Cilmi recorded a performance of the song for a Christmas revival of the axed music show Top of the Pops, which aired on Christmas Day 2008 on BBC One. ""Sweet About Me"" became the UK's 26th best-selling single of 2008.


== Track listings and formats ==
German CD single

""Sweet About Me"" (radio edit)
""Sweet About Me"" (Sunship Vocal Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Matthew Herbert's Savoury Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Ashley Beedle Vocal Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Truth & Soul Mix)
UK and Australian CD single

""Sweet About Me"" (radio edit)
""Echo Beach""
""This Game""
UK re-release CD single

""Sweet About Me"" (radio edit)
""Sweet About Me"" (Robbie Rivera Remix)
iTunes remix and live EP

""Sweet About Me"" (Sunship Vocal Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Matthew Herbert's Savoury Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Ashley Beedle Vocal Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Truth & Soul Mix)
""Sweet About Me"" (Later with Jools Holland)


== Personnel ==
Produced by Brian Higgins and Xenomania
Mixed by Jeremy Wheatley, assisted by Richard Edgeler
Vocals: Gabriella Cilmi
Keyboards: Brian Higgins, Tim Larcombe, Tim Powell
Drums: Marc Parnell
Guitars: Nick Coler, Jason Resch
Bass: Kieran Jones
Cello: Nick Squires
Vibes and xylophone: Brian Higgins, Nick Coler
Harmonica: Mark Feltham
Programmed by Tim Powell and Brian Higgins


== Charts ==


== Certifications ==


== Release history ==


== See also ==
List of number-one singles in Australia in 2008
List of number-one hits in Norway


== References ==


== External links ==
""Gabriella Cilmi - Sweet About Me (Live at V Festival)"" on YouTube
""Sweet About Me (Live at The BRIT Awards Launch Party, 2009)"" on YouTube
""Sweet About Me (Ronnie Scott's Live Session)"" on YouTube
Review of ""Sweet About Me"" on Unreality Music
Acoustic version performed by Cilmi on Norwegian radio channel P3
Sweet about me on Spotify"
Northern crested newt,"The northern crested newt, great crested newt or warty newt (Triturus cristatus) is a newt species native to Great Britain, northern and central continental Europe and parts of Western Siberia. It is a large newt, with females growing up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long. Its back and sides are dark brown, while the belly is yellow to orange with dark blotches. Males develop a conspicuous jagged crest on their back and tail during the breeding season.
The northern crested newt spends most of the year on land, mainly in forested areas in lowlands. It moves to aquatic breeding sites, mainly larger fish-free ponds, in spring. Males court females with a ritualised display and deposit a spermatophore on the ground, which the female then picks up with her cloaca. After fertilisation, a female lays around 200 eggs, folding them into water plants. The larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into terrestrial juveniles (efts). Both larvae and land-dwelling newts mainly feed on different invertebrates.
Several of the northern crested newt's former subspecies are now recognised as separate species in the genus Triturus. Its closest relative is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus). It sometimes forms hybrids with some of its relatives, including the marbled newt (T. marmoratus). Although today the most widespread Triturus species, the northern crested newt was probably confined to small refugial areas in the Carpathians during the Last Glacial Maximum.
While the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as Least Concern species, populations of the northern crested newt have been declining. The main threat is habitat destruction, for example, through urban sprawl. The species is listed as a European Protected Species.


== Taxonomy ==
The northern crested newt was described as Triton cristatus by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768. As Linnaeus had already used the name Triton for a genus of sea snails ten years before, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque introduced the new genus name Triturus in 1815, with T. cristatus as type species.
Over 40 scientific names introduced over time are now considered as synonyms, including Lacertus aquatilis, a nomen oblitum published four years before Laurenti's species name. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus) female were mistakenly described as distinct species Triton blasii, and the reverse hybrids as Triton trouessarti.
T. cristatus was long considered as a single species, the ""crested newt"", with several subspecies. Substantial genetic differences between these subspecies were, however, noted and eventually led to their recognition as full species, often collectively referred to as ""T. cristatus species complex"". There are now seven accepted species of crested newts, of which the northern crested newt is the most widespread.


== Description ==

The northern crested newt is a relatively large newt species. Males usually reach 13.5 cm (5.3 in) total length, while females grow up to 16 cm (6.3 in). Rare individuals of 20 cm (7.9 in) have been recorded. Other crested newt species are more stockily built; only the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus) is more slender.: 342 : 12–15  Body shape is correlated with skeletal build: The northern crested newt has 15 rib-bearing vertebrae, only the Danube crested newt has more (16–17), while the other, more stocky Triturus species have 14 or less.
The newts have rough skin, and are dark brown on the back and sides, with black spots and heavy white stippling on the flanks. The female has a yellow line running along the lower tail edge. The throat is mixed yellow–black with fine white stippling, the belly yellow to orange with dark, irregular blotches.: 342 
During the aquatic breeding season, males develop crest up to 1.5 cm (0.59 in) high, which runs along the back and tail but is interrupted at the tail base. It is heavily indented on the back but smoother on the tail. Also during breeding season, the male's cloaca swells and it has a blue–white flash running along the sides of the tail. Females do not develop a crest.: 342 : 12–15 


== Range ==
The northern crested newt is the most widespread and northerly crested newt species. The northern edge of its range runs from Great Britain through southern Fennoscandia to the Republic of Karelia in Russia; the southern margin runs through central France, southwest Romania, Moldavia and Ukraine, heading from there into central Russia and through the Ural Mountains. The eastern extent of the great crested newt's range reaches into Western Siberia, running from the Perm Krai to the Kurgan Oblast.
In western France, the species co-occurs and sometimes hybridises (see section Evolution below) with the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus). In southeast Europe, its range borders that of the Italian crested newt (T. carnifex), the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus),  the Macedonian crested newt (T. macedonicus) and the Balkan crested newt (T. ivanbureschi).


== Habitat ==

Outside of the breeding season, northern crested newts are mainly forest-dwellers. They prefer deciduous woodlands or groves, but conifer woods are also accepted, especially in the far northern and southern ranges. In the absence of forests, other cover-rich habitats, as for example hedgerows, scrub, swampy meadows, or quarries, can be inhabited.: 47–48,76 
Preferred aquatic breeding sites are stagnant, mid- to large-sized, unshaded water bodies with abundant underwater vegetation but without fish (which prey on larvae). Typical examples are larger ponds, which need not be of natural origin; indeed, most ponds inhabited in the United Kingdom are human-made.: 48  Examples of other suitable secondary habitats are ditches, channels, gravel pit lakes, or garden ponds. Other newts that can sometimes be found in the same breeding sites are the smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), the palmate newt (L. helveticus), the Carpathian newt (L. montadoni), the alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris) and the marbled newt (Triturus marmoratus).: 44–48 
The northern crested newt is generally a lowland species but has been found up to 1,750 m (5,740 ft) in the Alps.: 343 


== Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny ==


=== Hybridization ===
In certain areas of France, the northern crested newt and the marbled newt overlap, and hybrids are present. As the northern crested newt's population grows, and marbled newt population struggles, these hybrids have been shown to possess good qualities of both. They have more fecundity than the two newts however have a hard time keeping their eggs alive.


== Life cycle and behaviour ==
Like other newts, T. cristatus develops in the water as a larva and returns to the water each year for breeding. Adults spend around seven months of the year on land. After larval development in the first year, juveniles pass another year or two before reaching maturity; in the north and at higher elevations, this can take longer. The larval and juvenile stages are the riskiest for the newts, while survival is higher in adults. Once the risky stages passed, adult newts usually have a lifespan of seven to nine years, although individuals have reached 17 years in the wild.: 98–99 
Adult newts begin moving to their breeding sites in spring when temperatures stay above 4–5 °C (39–41 °F), usually in March.: 44  In the aquatic phase, crested newts are mostly nocturnal and, compared to smaller newt species, usually prefer the deeper parts of a water body, where they hide under vegetation. As with other newts, they have to occasionally move to the surface to breathe air. The aquatic phase serves not only for reproduction, but also offers more abundant prey, and immature crested newts frequently return to the water in spring even if they do not breed.: 52–58 
During the terrestrial phase, the newts use hiding places such as logs, bark, planks, stone walls, or small mammal burrows; several individuals may occupy such refuges at the same time. Since the newts generally stay very close to their aquatic breeding sites, the quality of the surrounding terrestrial habitat largely determines whether an otherwise suitable water body will be colonised.: 47–48,76  Great crested newts may also climb vegetation during their terrestrial phase, although the exact function of this behaviour is not known at present.
The juvenile efts often disperse to new breeding sites, while the adults in general move back to the same breeding sites each year. The newts do not migrate very far: they may cover around 100 metres (110 yd) in one night and rarely disperse much farther than one kilometre (0.62 mi). Over most of their range, they hibernate in winter, using mainly subterranean hiding places, where many individuals will often congregate.: 73–78 


=== Diet and predators ===
Northern crested newts feed mainly on invertebrates. During the land phase, prey include earthworms and other annelids, different insects and their larvae, woodlice, and snails and slugs. During the breeding season, they prey on various aquatic invertebrates (such as molluscs [particularly small bivalves], microcrustaceans, and insects), and also tadpoles and juveniles of other amphibians such as the common frog or common toad, and smaller newts (including conspecifics).: 58–59  Larvae, depending on their size, eat small invertebrates and tadpoles, and also smaller larvae of their own species.
The larvae are themselves eaten by various animals such as carnivorous invertebrates and water birds, and are especially vulnerable to predatory fish. Adults generally avoid predators through their hidden lifestyle but are sometimes eaten by herons and other birds, snakes such as the grass snake, and mammals such as shrews, badgers and hedgehogs.: 78  They secrete the poison tetrodotoxin from their skin, albeit much less than for example the North American Pacific newts (Taricha). The bright yellow or orange underside of crested newts is a warning coloration which can be presented in case of perceived danger. In such a posture, the newts typically roll up and secrete a milky substance.: 79 


=== Courtship and reproduction ===

Northern crested newts, like their relatives in the genus Triturus, perform a complex courtship display, where the male attracts a female through specific body movements and waves pheromones to her. The males are territorial and use small patches of clear ground as leks, or courtship arenas. When successful, they guide the female over a spermatophore they deposit on the ground, which she then takes up with her cloaca.: 80–89 
The eggs are fertilised internally, and the female deposits them individually, usually folding them into leaves of aquatic plants. A female takes around five minutes for the deposition of one egg. They usually lay around 200 eggs per season. Embryos are usually light-coloured, 1.8–2 mm in diameter with a 6 mm jelly capsule, which distinguishes them from eggs of other co-existing newt species that are smaller and darker-coloured. A genetic particularity shared with other Triturus species causes 50% of the embryos to die.: 61–62 
Larvae hatch after two to five weeks, depending on temperature. As in all salamanders and newts, forelimbs develop first, followed later by the back legs. Unlike smaller newts, crested newt larvae are mostly nektonic, swimming freely in the water column. Just before the transition to land, the larvae resorb their external gills; they can at this stage reach a size of 7 centimetres (2.8 in). Metamorphosis into terrestrial efts takes place two to four months after hatching, again depending on temperature. Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4%. In unfavourable conditions, larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water, although this seems to be less common than in the small-bodied newts.: 64–71 


== Evolution ==

The northern crested newt sometimes hybridises with other crested newt species where their ranges meet, but overall, the different species are reproductively isolated. In a case study in the Netherlands, genes of the introduced Italian crested newt (T. carnifex) were found to introgress into the gene pool of the native northern crested newt. The closest relative of the northern crested newt, according to molecular phylogenetic analyses, is the Danube crested newt (T. dobrogicus).
In western France, the northern crested newt's range overlaps with that of the marbled newt (T. marmoratus), but the two species in general prefer different habitats. When they do occur in the same breeding ponds, they can form hybrids, which have intermediate characteristics. Hybrids resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt female are much rarer due to increased mortality of the larvae and consist only of males. In the reverse cross, males have lower survival rates than females. Overall, viability is reduced in these hybrids and they rarely backcross with their parent species. Hybrids made up 3–7% of the adult populations in different studies.
Little genetic variation was found over most of the species' range, except in the Carpathians. This suggests that the Carpathians was a refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum. The northern crested newt then expanded its range north-, east- and westwards when the climate rewarmed.


== Threats and conservation ==

The northern crested newt is listed as species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, but populations are declining. It is rare in some parts of its range and listed in several national red lists.
The major reason for decline is habitat destruction through urban and agricultural development, affecting the aquatic breeding sites as well as the land habitats. Their limited dispersal makes the newts especially vulnerable to fragmentation, i.e. the loss of connections for exchange between suitable habitats. Other threats include the introduction of fish and crayfish into breeding ponds, collection for the pet trade in its eastern range, warmer and wetter winters due to global warming,: 110  genetic pollution through hybridisation with other, introduced crested newt species, the use of road salt, and potentially the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans.
The northern crested newt is listed in Berne Convention Appendix II as ""strictly protected"". It is also included in Annex II (species requiring designation of special areas of conservation) and IV (species in need of strict protection) of the EU habitats and species directive, as a European Protected Species. As required by these frameworks, its capture, disturbance, killing or trade, as well as the destruction of its habitats, are prohibited in most European countries. The EU habitats directive is also the basis for the Natura 2000 protected areas, several of which have been designated specifically to protect the northern crested newt.
Preservation of natural water bodies, reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use, control or eradication of introduced predatory fish, and the connection of habitats through sufficiently wide corridors of uncultivated land are seen as effective conservation actions. A network of aquatic habitats in proximity is important to sustain populations, and the creation of new breeding ponds is in general very effective as they are rapidly colonised when other habitats are nearby. In some cases, entire populations have been moved when threatened by development projects, but such translocations need to be carefully planned to be successful.: 118–133 
Strict protection of the northern crested newt in the United Kingdom has created conflicts with local development projects, but the species is also seen as a flagship species, whose conservation also benefits a range of other amphibians. Government agencies have issued specific guidelines for the mitigation of development impacts.


== References =="
Deterministic finite automaton,"In the theory of computation, a branch of theoretical computer science, a deterministic finite automaton (DFA)—also known as deterministic finite acceptor (DFA), deterministic finite-state machine (DFSM), or deterministic finite-state automaton (DFSA)—is a finite-state machine that accepts or rejects a given string of symbols, by running through a state sequence uniquely determined by the string. Deterministic refers to the uniqueness of the computation run. In search of the simplest models to capture finite-state machines, Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts were among the first researchers to introduce a concept similar to finite automata in 1943.
The figure illustrates a deterministic finite automaton using a state diagram. In this example automaton, there are three states: S0, S1, and S2 (denoted graphically by circles). The automaton takes a finite sequence of 0s and 1s as input. For each state, there is a transition arrow leading out to a next state for both 0 and 1. Upon reading a symbol, a DFA jumps deterministically from one state to another by following the transition arrow. For example, if the automaton is currently in state S0 and the current input symbol is 1, then it deterministically jumps to state S1. A DFA has a start state (denoted graphically by an arrow coming in from nowhere) where computations begin, and a set of accept states (denoted graphically by a double circle) which help define when a computation is successful.
A DFA is defined as an abstract mathematical concept, but is often implemented in hardware and software for solving various specific problems such as lexical analysis and pattern matching. For example, a DFA can model software that decides whether or not online user input such as email addresses are syntactically valid.
DFAs have been generalized to nondeterministic finite automata (NFA) which may have several arrows of the same label starting from a state. Using the powerset construction method, every NFA can be translated to a DFA that recognizes the same language. DFAs, and NFAs as well, recognize exactly the set of regular languages.


== Formal definition ==
A deterministic finite automaton M is a 5-tuple, (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F), consisting of

a finite set of states Q
a finite set of input symbols called the alphabet Σ
a transition function δ : Q × Σ → Q
an initial (or start) state 
  
    
      
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q_{0}\in Q}
  

a set of accepting (or final) states 
  
    
      
        F
        ⊆
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle F\subseteq Q}
  

Let w = a1a2...an be a string over the alphabet Σ. The automaton M accepts the string w if a sequence of states, r0, r1, ..., rn, exists in Q with the following conditions:

r0 = q0
ri+1 = δ(ri, ai+1), for i = 0, ..., n − 1

  
    
      
        
          r
          
            n
          
        
        ∈
        F
      
    
    {\displaystyle r_{n}\in F}
  
.
In words, the first condition says that the machine starts in the start state q0. The second condition says that given each character of string w, the machine will transition from state to state according to the transition function δ. The last condition says that the machine accepts w if the last input of w causes the machine to halt in one of the accepting states. Otherwise, it is said that the automaton rejects the string. The set of strings that M accepts is the language recognized by M and this language is denoted by L(M).
A deterministic finite automaton without accept states and without a starting state is known as a transition system or semiautomaton.
For more comprehensive introduction of the formal definition see automata theory.


== Example ==
The following example is of a DFA M, with a binary alphabet, which requires that the input contains an even number of 0s.

M = (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) where

Q = {S1, S2}
Σ = {0, 1}
q0 = S1
F = {S1} and
δ is defined by the following state transition table:

The state S1 represents that there has been an even number of 0s in the input so far, while S2 signifies an odd number. A 1 in the input does not change the state of the automaton. When the input ends, the state will show whether the input contained an even number of 0s or not. If the input did contain an even number of 0s, M will finish in state S1, an accepting state, so the input string will be accepted.
The language recognized by M is the regular language given by the regular expression (1*) (0 (1*) 0 (1*))*, where * is the Kleene star, e.g., 1* denotes any number (possibly zero) of consecutive ones.


== Variations ==


=== Complete and incomplete ===
According to the above definition, deterministic finite automata are always complete: they define from each state a transition for each input symbol.
While this is the most common definition, some authors use the term deterministic finite automaton for a slightly different notion: an automaton that defines at most one transition for each state and each input symbol; the transition function is allowed to be partial. When no transition is defined, such an automaton halts.


=== Local automata ===
A local automaton is a DFA, not necessarily complete, for which all edges with the same label lead to a single vertex.  Local automata accept the class of local languages, those for which membership of a word in the language is determined by a ""sliding window"" of length two on the word.
A Myhill graph over an alphabet A is a directed graph with vertex set A and subsets of vertices labelled ""start"" and ""finish"".  The language accepted by a Myhill graph is the set of directed paths from a start vertex to a finish vertex: the graph thus acts as an automaton. The class of languages accepted by Myhill graphs is the class of local languages.


=== Randomness ===
When the start state and accept states are ignored, a DFA of n states and an alphabet of size k can be seen as a digraph of n vertices in which all vertices have k out-arcs labeled 1, ..., k (a k-out digraph). It is known that when k ≥ 2 is a fixed integer, with high probability, the largest strongly connected component (SCC) in such a k-out digraph chosen uniformly at random is of linear size and it can be reached by all vertices. It has also been proven that if k is allowed to increase as n increases, then the whole digraph has a phase transition for strong connectivity similar to Erdős–Rényi model for connectivity.
In a random DFA, the maximum number of vertices reachable from one vertex is very close to the number of vertices in the largest SCC with high probability. This is also true for the largest induced sub-digraph of minimum in-degree one, which can be seen as a directed version of 1-core.


== Closure properties ==

If DFAs recognize the languages that are obtained by applying an operation on the DFA recognizable languages then DFAs are said to be closed under the operation. The DFAs are closed under the following operations.

For each operation, an optimal construction with respect to the number of states has been determined in state complexity research.
Since DFAs are equivalent to nondeterministic finite automata (NFA), these closures may also be proved using closure properties of NFA.


== As a transition monoid ==
A run of a given DFA can be seen as a sequence of compositions of a very general formulation of the transition function with itself. Here we construct that function.
For a given input symbol 
  
    
      
        a
        ∈
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle a\in \Sigma }
  
, one may construct a transition function 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        :
        Q
        →
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}:Q\rightarrow Q}
  
 by defining 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        (
        q
        )
        =
        δ
        (
        q
        ,
        a
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}(q)=\delta (q,a)}
  
 for all 
  
    
      
        q
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q\in Q}
  
.  (This trick is called currying.) From this perspective, 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}}
  
 ""acts"" on a state in Q to yield another state.  One may then consider the result of function composition repeatedly applied to the various functions 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{a}}
  
, 
  
    
      
        
          δ
          
            b
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta _{b}}
  
, and so on.  Given a pair of letters 
  
    
      
        a
        ,
        b
        ∈
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle a,b\in \Sigma }
  
, one may define a new function 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                δ
                ^
              
            
          
          
            a
            b
          
        
        =
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        ∘
        
          δ
          
            b
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}_{ab}=\delta _{a}\circ \delta _{b}}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        ∘
      
    
    {\displaystyle \circ }
  
 denotes function composition.
Clearly, this process may be recursively continued, giving the following recursive definition of 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        :
        Q
        ×
        
          Σ
          
            ⋆
          
        
        →
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}:Q\times \Sigma ^{\star }\rightarrow Q}
  
:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        (
        q
        ,
        ϵ
        )
        =
        q
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}(q,\epsilon )=q}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        ϵ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \epsilon }
  
 is the empty string and

  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        (
        q
        ,
        w
        a
        )
        =
        
          δ
          
            a
          
        
        (
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
        (
        q
        ,
        w
        )
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}(q,wa)=\delta _{a}({\widehat {\delta }}(q,w))}
  
, where 
  
    
      
        w
        ∈
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
        ,
        a
        ∈
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle w\in \Sigma ^{*},a\in \Sigma }
  
 and 
  
    
      
        q
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q\in Q}
  
.

  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}}
  
  is defined for all words 
  
    
      
        w
        ∈
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle w\in \Sigma ^{*}}
  
.  A run of the DFA is a sequence of compositions of 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}}
  
 with itself.
Repeated function composition forms a monoid. For the transition functions, this monoid is known as the transition monoid, or sometimes the transformation semigroup. The construction can also be reversed: given a 
  
    
      
        
          
            
              δ
              ^
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\widehat {\delta }}}
  
, one can reconstruct a 
  
    
      
        δ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta }
  
, and so the two descriptions are equivalent.


== Advantages and disadvantages ==
DFAs are one of the most practical models of computation, since there is a trivial linear time, constant-space, online algorithm to simulate a DFA on a stream of input. Also, there are efficient algorithms to find a DFA recognizing:

the complement of the language recognized by a given DFA.
the union/intersection of the languages recognized by two given DFAs.
Because DFAs can be reduced to a canonical form (minimal DFAs), there are also efficient algorithms to determine:

whether a DFA accepts any strings (Emptiness Problem)
whether a DFA accepts all strings (Universality Problem)
whether two DFAs recognize the same language (Equality Problem)
whether the language recognized by a DFA is included in the language recognized by a second DFA (Inclusion Problem)
the DFA with a minimum number of states for a particular regular language (Minimization Problem)
DFAs are equivalent in computing power to nondeterministic finite automata (NFAs). This is because, firstly any DFA is also an NFA, so an NFA can do what a DFA can do. Also, given an NFA, using the powerset construction one can build a DFA that recognizes the same language as the NFA, although the DFA could have exponentially larger number of states than the NFA. However, even though NFAs are computationally equivalent to DFAs, the above-mentioned problems are not necessarily solved efficiently also for NFAs. The non-universality problem for NFAs is PSPACE complete since there are small NFAs with shortest rejecting word in exponential size. A DFA is universal if and only if all states are final states, but this does not hold for NFAs. The Equality, Inclusion and Minimization Problems are also PSPACE complete since they require forming the complement of an NFA which results in an exponential blow up of size.
On the other hand, finite-state automata are of strictly limited power in the languages they can recognize; many simple languages, including any problem that requires more than constant space to solve, cannot be recognized by a DFA. The classic example of a simply described language that no DFA can recognize is bracket or Dyck language, i.e., the language that consists of properly paired brackets such as word ""(()())"". Intuitively, no DFA can recognize the Dyck language because DFAs are not capable of counting: a DFA-like automaton needs to have a state to represent any possible number of ""currently open"" parentheses, meaning it would need an unbounded number of states. Another simpler example is the language consisting of strings of the form anbn for some finite but arbitrary number of a's, followed by an equal number of b's.


== DFA identification from labeled words ==

Given a set of positive words 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
        ⊂
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}\subset \Sigma ^{*}}
  
 and a set of negative words 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
        ⊂
        
          Σ
          
            ∗
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}\subset \Sigma ^{*}}
  
 one can construct a DFA that accepts all words from 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and rejects all words from 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
: this problem is called DFA identification (synthesis, learning).
While some DFA can be constructed in linear time, the problem of identifying a DFA with the minimal number of states is NP-complete.
The first algorithm for minimal DFA identification has been proposed by Trakhtenbrot and Barzdin and is called the TB-algorithm.
However, the TB-algorithm assumes that all words from 
  
    
      
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Sigma }
  
 up to a given length are contained in either 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
        ∪
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}\cup S^{-}}
  
.
Later, K. Lang proposed an extension of the TB-algorithm that does not use any assumptions about 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
, the Traxbar algorithm.
However, Traxbar does not guarantee the minimality of the constructed DFA.
In his work E.M. Gold also proposed a heuristic algorithm for minimal DFA identification.
Gold's algorithm assumes that 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
 contain a characteristic set of the regular language; otherwise, the constructed DFA will be inconsistent either with 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 or 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
.
Other notable DFA identification algorithms include the RPNI algorithm, the Blue-Fringe evidence-driven state-merging algorithm, 
and Windowed-EDSM.
Another research direction is the application of evolutionary algorithms: the smart state labeling evolutionary algorithm allowed to solve a modified DFA identification problem in which the training data (sets 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
) is noisy in the sense that some words are attributed to wrong classes.
Yet another step forward is due to application of SAT solvers by Marjin J. H. Heule and S. Verwer: the minimal DFA identification problem is reduced to deciding the satisfiability of a Boolean formula. The main idea is to build an augmented prefix-tree acceptor (a trie containing all input words with corresponding labels) based on the input sets and reduce the problem of finding a DFA with 
  
    
      
        C
      
    
    {\displaystyle C}
  
 states to coloring the tree vertices with 
  
    
      
        C
      
    
    {\displaystyle C}
  
 states in such a way that when vertices with one color are merged to one state, the generated automaton is deterministic and complies with 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            +
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{+}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          S
          
            −
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S^{-}}
  
.
Though this approach allows finding the minimal DFA, it suffers from exponential blow-up of execution time when the size of input data increases.
Therefore, Heule and Verwer's initial algorithm has later been augmented with making several steps of the EDSM algorithm prior to SAT solver execution: the DFASAT algorithm.
This allows reducing the search space of the problem, but leads to loss of the minimality guarantee.
Another way of reducing the search space has been proposed by Ulyantsev et al. by means of new symmetry breaking predicates based on the breadth-first search algorithm:
the sought DFA's states are constrained to be numbered according to the BFS algorithm launched from the initial state. This approach reduces the search space by 
  
    
      
        C
        !
      
    
    {\displaystyle C!}
  
 by eliminating isomorphic automata.


== Equivalent models ==


=== Read-only right-moving Turing machines ===
Read-only right-moving Turing machines are a particular type of Turing machine that only moves right; these
are almost exactly equivalent to DFAs.
The definition based on a singly infinite tape is a 7-tuple

  
    
      
        M
        =
        ⟨
        Q
        ,
        Γ
        ,
        b
        ,
        Σ
        ,
        δ
        ,
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        ,
        F
        ⟩
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle M=\langle Q,\Gamma ,b,\Sigma ,\delta ,q_{0},F\rangle ,}
  

where

  
    
      
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q}
  
 is a finite set of states;

  
    
      
        Γ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma }
  
 is a finite set of the tape alphabet/symbols;

  
    
      
        b
        ∈
        Γ
      
    
    {\displaystyle b\in \Gamma }
  
 is the blank symbol (the only symbol allowed to occur on the tape infinitely often at any step during the computation);

  
    
      
        Σ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Sigma }
  
, a subset of 
  
    
      
        Γ
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma }
  
 not including b, is the set of input symbols;

  
    
      
        δ
        :
        Q
        ×
        Γ
        →
        Q
        ×
        Γ
        ×
        {
        R
        }
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta :Q\times \Gamma \to Q\times \Gamma \times \{R\}}
  
 is a function called the transition function, R is a right movement (a right shift);

  
    
      
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        ∈
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle q_{0}\in Q}
  
 is the initial state;

  
    
      
        F
        ⊆
        Q
      
    
    {\displaystyle F\subseteq Q}
  
 is the set of final or accepting states.
The machine always accepts a regular language. There must exist at least one element of the set F (a HALT state) for the language to be nonempty.


==== Example of a 3-state, 2-symbol read-only Turing machine ====

  
    
      
        Q
        =
        {
        A
        ,
        B
        ,
        C
        ,
        
          HALT
        
        }
        ;
      
    
    {\displaystyle Q=\{A,B,C,{\text{HALT}}\};}
  

  
    
      
        Γ
        =
        {
        0
        ,
        1
        }
        ;
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Gamma =\{0,1\};}
  

  
    
      
        b
        =
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle b=0}
  
, ""blank"";

  
    
      
        Σ
        =
        ∅
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Sigma =\varnothing }
  
, empty set;

  
    
      
        δ
        =
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta =}
  
 see state-table above;

  
    
      
        
          q
          
            0
          
        
        =
        A
      
    
    {\displaystyle q_{0}=A}
  
, initial state;

  
    
      
        F
        =
      
    
    {\displaystyle F=}
  
 the one element set of final states: 
  
    
      
        {
        
          HALT
        
        }
      
    
    {\displaystyle \{{\text{HALT}}\}}
  
.


== See also ==


== Notes ==


== References ==
Hopcroft, John E.; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (1979). Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02988-X. (accessible to patrons with print disabilities)
Hopcroft, John E.; Motwani, Rajeev; Ullman, Jeffrey D. (2006) [1979]. Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-45536-3.
Lawson, Mark V. (2004). Finite automata. Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 1-58488-255-7. Zbl 1086.68074.
McCulloch, W. S.; Pitts, W. (1943). ""A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity"". Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics. 5 (4): 115–133. doi:10.1007/BF02478259. PMID 2185863.
Rabin, M. O.; Scott, D. (1959). ""Finite automata and their decision problems"". IBM J. Res. Dev. 3 (2): 114–125. doi:10.1147/rd.32.0114.
Sakarovitch, Jacques (2009). Elements of automata theory. Translated from the French by Reuben Thomas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84425-3. Zbl 1188.68177.


=== Further reading ===
Sipser, Michael (1997). Introduction to the Theory of Computation (1st ed.). PWS Publishing. ISBN 978-0-534-94728-6. (accessible to patrons with print disabilities) — 1.1: ""Finite Automata"" pp. 31–47. 4.1: ""Decidable Languages - Decidable Problems Concerning Regular Languages""  pp. 152–155. 4.4: DFA can accept only regular language"
Civil defense Geiger counters,"Geiger counter is a colloquial name for any hand-held radiation measuring device in civil defense, but most civil defense devices were ion-chamber radiological survey meters capable of measuring only high levels of radiation that would be present after a major nuclear event.
Most Geiger and ion-chamber survey meters were issued by governmental civil defense organizations in several countries from the 1950s in the midst of the Cold War in an effort to help prepare citizens for a nuclear attack.
Many of these same instruments are still in use today by some states, Texas amongst them, under the jurisdiction of the Texas Bureau of Radiation Control. They are regularly maintained, calibrated and deployed to fire departments and other emergency services.


== US models ==

CD Counters came in a variety of different models, each with specific capabilities.  Each of these models has an analog meter from 1 to 5, with 1/10 tick marks.  Thus, at X10, the meter reads from 1 to 50.
CD meters were produced by a number of different firms under contract. Victoreen, Lionel, Electro Neutronics, Nuclear Measurements, Chatham Electronics, International Pump and Machine Works, Universal Atomics, Anton Electronic Laboratories; Landers, Frary, & Clark; El Tronics, Jordan, and Nuclear Chicago are among the many manufacturers contracted.
Regardless of producer, most counters exhibit the same basic physical characteristics, albeit with slight variations between some production runs: a yellow case with black knobs and meter bezels. Most US meters had a ""CD"" sticker on the side of the case.


== True Geiger counters ==
These are instruments which use the Geiger principle of detection.


=== Type CD V-700 ===

The CD V-700 is a Geiger counter employing a probe equipped with a Geiger–Müller tube manufactured by several companies under contract to US federal civil defense agencies in the 1950s and 1960s. This unit is quite sensitive and can be used to measure low levels of gamma radiation and detect beta radiation.  In cases of high-radiation fields, the Geiger tube can saturate, causing the meter to read a very low level of radiation (close to 0 R/h) hence the necessity of the companion ion-chamber survey meters.


=== Type CD V-718 ===
The CD V-718 is a variation of the US military-issue AN/VDR-2 RADIAC made by Nuclear Research Corporation, located in the US State of New Jersey. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) purchased a quantity of CD V-718s in the 1990s as a supplement to and partial replacement for the older meters in the inventory. The CD V-718 differs from the military AN/VDR-2 primarily by being painted bright ""civil defense"" yellow instead of olive green and being graduated in Röntgens rather than Grays. A much more modern and sophisticated device than earlier CD meters and equipped with a probe containing two Geiger-Mueller tubes of differing sensitivities, the CD V-718 can cover a much wider range of radiation levels than the earlier Geiger counters and ion-chamber survey meters combined (from .001mR/h to 10,000 R/h). As a result of its military heritage, the CD-V-718 is far more rugged than earlier CD meters, and can easily be mounted in vehicles.


== Ion-chamber survey meters ==
These are instruments using the ionisation chamber principle.
If the meter on any of the ion chamber devices is observed to respond at all to a radiation source, evacuation of the area should be considered. No legally exempt source of gamma radiation would be expected to cause any visible deflection of the meter on its most sensitive setting, so it might be assumed that such a radiation field could be dangerous. Such a meter would not be expected to detect the presence of radiation except the very high levels that might be found in the event of a nuclear weapon detonation or a major release of radioactive material as from a nuclear reactor meltdown. The CD V ion chamber units are now all approaching 50 years old at a minimum and that they contain parts that are sensitive to moisture, so relatively frequent calibration and inspection by an accredited and properly equipped facility is required to ensure reliable and accurate function.


=== Type CD V-710 ===
The CD V-710 was another high range survey meter, however, unlike the CD V-720, CD V-715, and CD V-717 its scale is only 0-50 R/H (0-0.5, 0–5, and 0-50) making it more of a mid range meter, however it is still far too high to respond to any exempt sources.  The CD V-710 was made in 5 different versions from 1955 to at least 1958, the model 1 was produced by El-Tronics, models 2 and 4 were produced by Jorden Electronics, and models 3 and 5 were produced by Victoreen Instruments, models 1-3 were metal, and 4 and 5 were plastic.  All versions of the CD V-710 use a combination of D batteries and obsolete 22.5 volt B batteries.  By 1959, 170,750 were procured, however the model was ultimately superseded by the CD V-715 and in September 1985 FEMA issued instructions that remaining CD V-710s should be disposed of as obsolete.


=== Type CD V-715 ===

By far the most common US civil defense meter on the market today. This is a simple ion chamber radiological survey meter, specifically designed for high-radiation fields for which Geiger counters will give incorrect readings (see above). Survey meters do not read alpha or beta radiation. They work by radiation penetrating the case of the unit and the enclosed ionization chamber to produce a visible reading between 0.1 R/h and 500 R/h (× 0.1, × 1, × 10, and × 100 scales). The CDV-715 ion chamber controls a subminiature type 5886 tube, but no 22.5 volt batteries are necessary for the B circuit of this tube. A transistor oscillator coupled to a step-up transformer furnishes the necessary B current for the tube, with necessary rectifier diodes and filter capacitors.  The entire unit is thus powered by a single 1.5 volt D cell.


=== Type CD V-717 ===

Similar to the CD V-715, this unit reads from 0.1R/h to 500R/h. It is also a survey meter with an ionization chamber, however this unit's chamber is detachable for hanging outside your shelter or basement. When used, the ionization chamber would be inserted into a yellow anti-contamination bag, tied off, and hung outside a bomb shelter to measure radioactivity levels from a safe distance. An extension coaxial cord, typically stored inside the unit, is then run from the outdoor chamber to the indoor meter. The coaxial spool is used to prop the meter up for reading. This would allow those hiding to wait until outside radiation levels have fallen to a ""safe"" level before emerging. When using the extension cable, the accuracy of the meter can be slightly reduced to plus or minus 20%.


=== Type CD V-720 ===

Similar to the CD V-715, the CD V-720 is a fixed-position ionization chamber survey meter. Unlike any other survey meter, however, this unit has a movable beta shield on the bottom of the unit for detecting high levels of beta radiation. When slid to the open position, beta particles are allowed to directly penetrate the ionization chamber. With the beta shield closed, only gamma rays can penetrate both the shield and ionization chamber. This meter reads from 1 R/h to 500 R/h (×1, ×10 and ×100 scales). The CD V-720 was produced in 4 models (1, 2, 3, and 3A), Chatham made the model 1, Landeds Fray and Clark made the model 3 (along with Victoreen Instruments), and Victoreen Instruments made all other models. All but the Victoreen model 3 and model 3A used a combination of D and 22.5 volt B batteries, while the Victoreen models 3 and 3A just used 2 D batteries. By 1962 113,231 had been procured, but in September 1985 FEMA declared all models except the Victoreen model 3 and model 3A obsolete.


=== Kearny fallout meter ===

Another meter of note is the Kearny fallout meter.  The plans for this meter were published in Appendix C of Nuclear War Survival Skills by Cresson Kearny from research performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.   It was designed to be able to be constructed from household materials by someone with moderate mechanical ability on the eve of an attack.  The plans are presented in a newspaper printable format.


== British civil defense instruments ==
The United States manufactured approximately 500,000 Geiger counters.  Britain manufactured about 20,000 of each of its major types, and is second after the U.S.  Some instruments were also manufactured by other countries in smaller numbers.
The American instruments dating from the Kennedy administration era were designed to use low voltage transistor electronics, and the batteries are still available today. However, most British civil defence instruments retained until 1982 or later were manufactured from 1953 to 1957, and required high voltage batteries which became obsolete after portable valve radios were superseded by transistor ones.
All British civil defence instruments were jointly designed by the Home Office and the Ministry of Defence, and were also a military issue.


=== Contamination Meter No. 1 ===

The first large scale British civil defence issue was the Geiger–Müller counter Meter, Contamination, No. 1 set — stock number ""5CG0012"", of 1953. It had 0–10 mR/hour range with external probe and headphones. This was designed to use two 150 volt batteries, although later they were fitted with a vibrator power pack which used four 1.35 volt mercury cells or, alternatively, a mains electricity power pack. Many of these units remained in service until the 1980s.  There was also a Mk. 2 model which used rubber connectors and cable for the probe unit, compared to the Plessey connectors of the Mk.1.
This used cold-cathode valves and very high impedance circuitry throughout to extend useful battery life as long as possible with the existing technology.


=== Radiac Survey Meter ===

The British ""Radiac Survey Meter No. 2"" dates from 1953 to 1956, and required now-obsolete 15 and 30 volt high voltage batteries and a 1.5 volt standard cell, the latter used to power the valve heater filaments and meter illumination bulb. There was also a training unit, which measured 0–300 mR/h, and ran on four 30 volt batteries plus one 1.5 V cell for the filaments. This meter used a large Geiger–Müller tube, as opposed to the ionisation chamber of the RSM No. 2.
These meters were favoured, as they had been tested on fallout in Australia after Operation Buffalo nuclear tests, and were retained until 1982 by commissioning a manufacturer to regularly produce special production runs of the obsolete batteries.
The UK's Royal Observer Corps (ROC) initially used the RSM No. 2 as its prime radiation detector until it was replaced by the specially designed ""Fixed Survey Meter"", which used the same obsolete high voltage batteries as the RSM. The ROC retained the RSM No. 2 for use during external ""post-attack"" mobile monitoring surveys.


=== PDRM82 ===

Built by Plessey Controls, the Portable Dose Rate Meter (PDRM) 82 began to be issued in 1982 for civil defence, mainly the Royal Observer corps, with rollout completed in 1985. The model is lightweight and water resistant, with an LCD display and a plastic case, along with miniature Geiger tube (shielded against beta particles), on a single, EMP-hardened, PCB. The PDRM was able to measure radiation dose rate in the range of 0.1 to 300 centiGrays. It was designed by Plessey to use three standard 1.5 volt cells, and is microprocessor controlled with digital readout. The instruments were contained in an orange polycarbonate case. It gave more accurate readings than previous models and due to the dry 'c'-cell torch batteries could be operated for up to 400 hours. 
For use by the Royal Observer Corps, the instrument was also provided in the fixed version designated the PDRM82(F). The fixed version had an external coaxial socket mounted on its rear that accepted a cable from the above ground ionisation detector under a green polycarbonate dome. For training purposes, timed simulated readings could be fed to the meter from an EPROM.


=== Quartz fiber dosimeter chargers ===

The 1958–1959 ""Quartz Fibre Dosimeter Chargers, No. 1 and 2"" were retained until the early 1990s, as they incorporate a simple, handle-driven generator and do not require batteries at all. A later British civil defence dosimeter charger was developed by R. A. Stephen Ltd and manufactured from 1967 to 1988, and uses a single 1.5 volt cell.  It is similar to American dosimeter chargers.


== See also ==
Dosimeter
Operational instruments of the Royal Observer Corps
Royal Observer Corps


== References ==


== External links ==
https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/civil-defense/index.html ORAU Museum of Radiation and Radioactivity Civil Defense Instrumentation
https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/radiac/index.html ORAU Museum of Radiation and Radioactivity Radiac instruments for civil defense or military fallout use
http://www.radmeters4u.com Information on Civil Defense Radiation Survey Meters
Kearny Fallout Meter construction instructions
https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/civil-defense/cdv-instruments/cdv-700-check-sources.html Museum of Radiation and Radioactivity CD V-700 Check Sources
https://web.archive.org/web/20131206142617/http://www.civildefensemuseum.com/ Online civil defense museum"
Refractive index,"In optics, the refractive index (or refraction index) of an optical medium is the ratio of the apparent speed of light in the air or vacuum to the speed in the medium. The refractive index determines how much the path of light is bent, or refracted, when entering a material. This is described by Snell's law of refraction, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2, where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction, respectively, of a ray crossing the interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2. The refractive indices also determine the amount of light that is reflected when reaching the interface, as well as the critical angle for total internal reflection, their intensity (Fresnel equations) and Brewster's angle.
The refractive index, 
  
    
      
        n
      
    
    {\displaystyle n}
  
, can be seen as the factor by which the speed and the wavelength of the radiation are reduced with respect to their vacuum values: the speed of light in a medium is v = c/n, and similarly the wavelength in that medium is λ = λ0/n, where λ0 is the wavelength of that light in vacuum. This implies that vacuum has a refractive index of 1, and assumes that the frequency (f = v/λ) of the wave is not affected by the refractive index.
The refractive index may vary with wavelength. This causes white light to split into constituent colors when refracted. This is called dispersion. This effect can be observed in prisms and rainbows, and as chromatic aberration in lenses. Light propagation in absorbing materials can be described using a complex-valued refractive index. The imaginary part then handles the attenuation, while the real part accounts for refraction. For most materials the refractive index changes with wavelength by several percent across the visible spectrum. Consequently, refractive indices for materials reported using a single value for n must specify the wavelength used in the measurement.
The concept of refractive index applies across the full electromagnetic spectrum, from X-rays to radio waves. It can also be applied to wave phenomena such as sound. In this case, the speed of sound is used instead of that of light, and a reference medium other than vacuum must be chosen. Refraction also occurs in oceans when light passes into the halocline where salinity has impacted the density of the water column.
For lenses (such as eye glasses), a lens made from a high refractive index material will be thinner, and hence lighter, than a conventional lens with a lower refractive index.  Such lenses are generally more expensive to manufacture than conventional ones.


== Definition ==
The relative refractive index of an optical medium 2 with respect to another reference medium 1 (n21) is given by the ratio of speed of light in medium 1 to that in medium 2. This can be expressed as follows:

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            21
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              v
              
                1
              
            
            
              v
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{21}={\frac {v_{1}}{v_{2}}}.}
  

If the reference medium 1 is vacuum, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered with respect to vacuum. It is simply represented as n2 and is called the absolute refractive index of medium 2.
The absolute refractive index n of an optical medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, c = 299792458 m/s, and the phase velocity v of light in the medium,

  
    
      
        n
        =
        
          
            
              c
            
            v
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n={\frac {\mathrm {c} }{v}}.}
  

Since c is constant, n is inversely proportional to v:

  
    
      
        n
        ∝
        
          
            1
            v
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n\propto {\frac {1}{v}}.}
  

The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests or the phase of the wave moves, which may be different from the group velocity, the speed at which the pulse of light or the envelope of the wave moves. Historically air at a standardized pressure and temperature has been common as a reference medium.


== History ==

Thomas Young was presumably the person who first used, and invented, the name ""index of refraction"", in 1807.
At the same time he changed this value of refractive power into a single number, instead of the traditional ratio of two numbers. The ratio had the disadvantage of different appearances. Newton, who called it the ""proportion of the sines of incidence and refraction"", wrote it as a ratio of two numbers, like ""529 to 396"" (or ""nearly 4 to 3""; for water).  Hauksbee, who called it the ""ratio of refraction"", wrote it as a ratio with a fixed numerator, like ""10000 to 7451.9"" (for urine). Hutton wrote it as a ratio with a fixed denominator, like 1.3358 to 1 (water).
Young did not use a symbol for the index of refraction, in 1807. In the later years, others started using different symbols: n, m, and µ. The symbol n gradually prevailed.


== Typical values ==

Refractive index also varies with wavelength of the light as given by Cauchy's equation.  The most general form of this equation is

  
    
      
        n
        (
        λ
        )
        =
        A
        +
        
          
            B
            
              λ
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            C
            
              λ
              
                4
              
            
          
        
        +
        ⋯
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n(\lambda )=A+{\frac {B}{\lambda ^{2}}}+{\frac {C}{\lambda ^{4}}}+\cdots ,}
  

where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, and A, B, C, etc.,  are coefficients that can be determined for a material by fitting the equation to measured refractive indices at known wavelengths. The coefficients are usually quoted for λ as the vacuum wavelength in micrometres.
Usually, it is sufficient to use a two-term form of the equation:

  
    
      
        n
        (
        λ
        )
        =
        A
        +
        
          
            B
            
              λ
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n(\lambda )=A+{\frac {B}{\lambda ^{2}}},}
  

where the coefficients A and B are determined specifically for this form of the equation.

For visible light most transparent media have refractive indices between 1 and 2. A few examples are given in the adjacent table. These values are measured at the yellow doublet D-line of sodium, with a wavelength of 589 nanometers, as is conventionally done. Gases at atmospheric pressure have refractive indices close to 1 because of their low density. Almost all solids and liquids have refractive indices above 1.3, with aerogel as the clear exception. Aerogel is a very low density solid that can be produced with refractive index in the range from 1.002 to 1.265. Moissanite lies at the other end of the range with a refractive index as high as 2.65. Most plastics have refractive indices in the range from 1.3 to 1.7, but some high-refractive-index polymers can have values as high as 1.76.
For infrared light refractive indices can be considerably higher. Germanium is transparent in the wavelength region from 2 to 14 μm and has a refractive index of about 4. A type of new materials termed ""topological insulators"", was recently found which have high refractive index of up to 6 in the near to mid infrared frequency range. Moreover, topological insulators are transparent when they have nanoscale thickness. These properties are potentially important for applications in infrared optics.


=== Refractive index below unity ===
According to the theory of relativity, no information can travel faster than the speed of light in vacuum, but this does not mean that the refractive index cannot be less than 1. The refractive index measures the phase velocity of light, which does not carry information. The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests of the wave move and can be faster than the speed of light in vacuum, and thereby give a refractive index below 1. This can occur close to resonance frequencies, for absorbing media, in plasmas, and for X-rays. In the X-ray regime the refractive indices are lower than but very close to 1 (exceptions close to some resonance frequencies).
As an example, water has a refractive index of 0.99999974 = 1 − 2.6×10−7 for X-ray radiation at a photon energy of 30 keV (0.04 nm wavelength).
An example of a plasma with an index of refraction less than unity is Earth's ionosphere.  Since the refractive index of the ionosphere (a plasma), is less than unity, electromagnetic waves propagating through the plasma are bent ""away from the normal"" (see Geometric optics) allowing the radio wave to be refracted back toward earth, thus enabling long-distance radio communications.  See also Radio Propagation and Skywave.


=== Negative refractive index ===

Recent research has also demonstrated the ""existence"" of materials with a negative refractive index, which can occur if permittivity and permeability have simultaneous negative values. This can be achieved with periodically constructed metamaterials. The resulting negative refraction (i.e., a reversal of Snell's law) offers the possibility of the superlens and other new phenomena to be actively developed by means of metamaterials.


== Microscopic explanation ==

At the atomic scale, an electromagnetic wave's phase velocity is slowed in a material because the electric field creates a disturbance in the charges of each atom (primarily the electrons) proportional to the electric susceptibility of the medium. (Similarly, the magnetic field creates a disturbance proportional to the magnetic susceptibility.) As the electromagnetic fields oscillate in the wave, the charges in the material will be ""shaken"" back and forth at the same frequency.: 67  The charges thus radiate their own electromagnetic wave that is at the same frequency, but usually with a phase delay, as the charges may move out of phase with the force driving them (see sinusoidally driven harmonic oscillator). The light wave traveling in the medium is the macroscopic superposition (sum) of all such contributions in the material: the original wave plus the waves radiated by all the moving charges. This wave is typically a wave with the same frequency but shorter wavelength than the original, leading to a slowing of the wave's phase velocity. Most of the radiation from oscillating material charges will modify the incoming wave, changing its velocity. However, some net energy will be radiated in other directions or even at other frequencies (see scattering).
Depending on the relative phase of the original driving wave and the waves radiated by the charge motion, there are several possibilities:

If the electrons emit a light wave which is 90° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the total light wave to travel slower. This is the normal refraction of transparent materials like glass or water, and corresponds to a refractive index which is real and greater than 1.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is 270° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the wave to travel faster. This is called ""anomalous refraction"", and is observed close to absorption lines (typically in infrared spectra), with X-rays in ordinary materials, and with radio waves in Earth's ionosphere. It corresponds to a permittivity less than 1, which causes the refractive index to be also less than unity and the phase velocity of light greater than the speed of light in vacuum c (note that the signal velocity is still less than c, as discussed above). If the response is sufficiently strong and out-of-phase, the result is a negative value of permittivity and imaginary index of refraction, as observed in metals or plasma.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is 180° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will destructively interfere with the original light to reduce the total light intensity. This is light absorption in opaque materials and corresponds to an imaginary refractive index.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is in phase with the light wave shaking them, it will amplify the light wave. This is rare, but occurs in lasers due to stimulated emission. It corresponds to an imaginary index of refraction, with the opposite sign to that of absorption.
For most materials at visible-light frequencies, the phase is somewhere between 90° and 180°, corresponding to a combination of both refraction and absorption.


== Dispersion ==

The refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength (and frequency) of light. This is called dispersion and causes prisms and rainbows to divide white light into its constituent spectral colors. As the refractive index varies with wavelength, so will the refraction angle as light goes from one material to another. Dispersion also causes the focal length of lenses to be wavelength dependent. This is a type of chromatic aberration, which often needs to be corrected for in imaging systems. In regions of the spectrum where the material does not absorb light, the refractive index tends to decrease with increasing wavelength, and thus increase with frequency. This is called ""normal dispersion"", in contrast to ""anomalous dispersion"", where the refractive index increases with wavelength. For visible light normal dispersion means that the refractive index is higher for blue light than for red.
For optics in the visual range, the amount of dispersion of a lens material is often quantified by the Abbe number:

  
    
      
        V
        =
        
          
            
              
                n
                
                  
                    y
                    e
                    l
                    l
                    o
                    w
                  
                
              
              −
              1
            
            
              
                n
                
                  
                    b
                    l
                    u
                    e
                  
                
              
              −
              
                n
                
                  
                    r
                    e
                    d
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle V={\frac {n_{\mathrm {yellow} }-1}{n_{\mathrm {blue} }-n_{\mathrm {red} }}}.}
  

For a more accurate description of the wavelength dependence of the refractive index, the Sellmeier equation can be used. It is an empirical formula that works well in describing dispersion. Sellmeier coefficients are often quoted instead of the refractive index in tables.


=== Principal refractive index wavelength ambiguity ===
Because of dispersion, it is usually important to specify the vacuum wavelength of light for which a refractive index is measured. Typically, measurements are done at various well-defined spectral emission lines.
Manufacturers of optical glass in general define principal index of refraction at yellow spectral line of helium (587.56 nm) and alternatively at a green spectral line of mercury (546.07 nm), called d and e lines respectively. Abbe number is defined for both and denoted Vd and Ve. The spectral data provided by glass manufacturers is also often more precise for these two wavelengths.
Both, d and e spectral lines are singlets and thus are suitable to perform a very precise measurements, such as spectral goniometric method.
In practical applications, measurements of refractive index are performed on various refractometers, such as Abbe refractometer. Measurement accuracy of such typical commercial devices is in the order of 0.0002. Refractometers usually measure refractive index nD, defined for sodium doublet D (589.29 nm), which is actually a midpoint between two adjacent yellow spectral lines of sodium. Yellow spectral lines of helium (d) and sodium (D) are 1.73 nm apart, which can be considered negligible for typical refractometers, but can cause confusion and lead to errors if accuracy is critical.
All three typical principle refractive indices definitions can be found depending on application and region, so a proper subscript should be used to avoid ambiguity.


== Complex refractive index ==

When light passes through a medium, some part of it will always be absorbed. This can be conveniently taken into account by defining a complex refractive index,

  
    
      
        
          
            n
            _
          
        
        =
        n
        −
        i
        κ
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\underline {n}}=n-i\kappa .}
  

The real and imaginary part of this refractive index are not independent, and are connected through the Kramers–Kronig relations, i.e. the complex refractive index is a linear response function, ensuring causality.  Here, the real part n is the refractive index and indicates the phase velocity, while the imaginary part κ is called the extinction coefficient: 36  indicates the amount of attenuation when the electromagnetic wave propagates through the material.: 128  It is related to the absorption coefficient, 
  
    
      
        
          α
          
            abs
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{abs}}}
  
, through:: 41 

  
    
      
        
          α
          
            abs
          
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          
            
              2
              ω
              κ
              (
              ω
              )
            
            c
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{abs}}(\omega )={\frac {2\omega \kappa (\omega )}{c}}}
  

These values depend upon the frequency of the light used in the measurement.
That κ corresponds to absorption can be seen by inserting this refractive index into the expression for electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave traveling in the x-direction. This can be done by relating the complex wave number k to the complex refractive index n through k = 2πn/λ0, with λ0 being the vacuum wavelength; this can be inserted into the plane wave expression for a wave travelling in the x-direction as:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  E
                
                (
                x
                ,
                t
                )
              
              
                
                =
                Re
                
                
                  [
                  
                    
                      
                        E
                      
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      e
                      
                        i
                        (
                        
                          
                            k
                            _
                          
                        
                        x
                        −
                        ω
                        t
                        )
                      
                    
                  
                  ]
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                Re
                
                
                  [
                  
                    
                      
                        E
                      
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      e
                      
                        i
                        (
                        2
                        π
                        (
                        n
                        +
                        i
                        κ
                        )
                        x
                        
                          /
                        
                        
                          λ
                          
                            0
                          
                        
                        −
                        ω
                        t
                        )
                      
                    
                  
                  ]
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  e
                  
                    −
                    2
                    π
                    κ
                    x
                    
                      /
                    
                    
                      λ
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                  
                
                Re
                
                
                  [
                  
                    
                      
                        E
                      
                      
                        0
                      
                    
                    
                      e
                      
                        i
                        (
                        k
                        x
                        −
                        ω
                        t
                        )
                      
                    
                  
                  ]
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {E} (x,t)&=\operatorname {Re} \!\left[\mathbf {E} _{0}e^{i({\underline {k}}x-\omega t)}\right]\\&=\operatorname {Re} \!\left[\mathbf {E} _{0}e^{i(2\pi (n+i\kappa )x/\lambda _{0}-\omega t)}\right]\\&=e^{-2\pi \kappa x/\lambda _{0}}\operatorname {Re} \!\left[\mathbf {E} _{0}e^{i(kx-\omega t)}\right].\end{aligned}}}
  

Here we see that κ gives an exponential decay, as expected from the Beer–Lambert law. Since intensity is proportional to the square of the electric field, intensity will depend on the depth into the material as

  
    
      
        I
        (
        x
        )
        =
        
          I
          
            0
          
        
        
          e
          
            −
            4
            π
            κ
            x
            
              /
            
            
              λ
              
                0
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}e^{-4\pi \kappa x/\lambda _{0}}.}
  

and thus the absorption coefficient is α = 4πκ/λ0,: 128  and the penetration depth (the distance after which the intensity is reduced by a factor of 1/e) is δp = 1/α = λ0/4πκ.
Both n and κ are dependent on the frequency. In most circumstances κ > 0 (light is absorbed) or κ = 0 (light travels forever without loss). In special situations, especially in the gain medium of lasers, it is also possible that κ < 0, corresponding to an amplification of the light.
An alternative convention uses n = n + iκ instead of n = n − iκ, but where κ > 0 still corresponds to loss. Therefore, these two conventions are inconsistent and should not be confused. The difference is related to defining sinusoidal time dependence as Re[exp(−iωt)] versus Re[exp(+iωt)]. See Mathematical descriptions of opacity.
Dielectric loss and non-zero DC conductivity in materials cause absorption. Good dielectric materials such as glass have extremely low DC conductivity, and at low frequencies the dielectric loss is also negligible, resulting in almost no absorption. However, at higher frequencies (such as visible light), dielectric loss may increase absorption significantly, reducing the material's transparency to these frequencies.
The real n, and imaginary κ, parts of the complex refractive index are related through the Kramers–Kronig relations. In 1986, A.R. Forouhi and I. Bloomer deduced an equation describing κ as a function of photon energy, E, applicable to amorphous materials. Forouhi and Bloomer then applied the Kramers–Kronig relation to derive the corresponding equation for n as a function of E. The same formalism was applied to crystalline materials by Forouhi and Bloomer in 1988.
The refractive index and extinction coefficient, n and κ, are typically measured from quantities that depend on them, such as reflectance, R, or transmittance, T, or ellipsometric parameters, ψ and δ. The determination of n and κ from such measured quantities will involve developing a theoretical expression for R or T, or ψ and δ in terms of a valid physical model for n and κ. By fitting the theoretical model to the measured R or T, or ψ and δ using regression analysis, n and κ can be deduced.


=== X-ray and extreme UV ===
For X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation the complex refractive index deviates only slightly from unity and usually has a real part smaller than 1. It is therefore normally written as n = 1 − δ + iβ (or n = 1 − δ − iβ with the alternative convention mentioned above). Far above the atomic resonance frequency delta can be given by

  
    
      
        δ
        =
        
          
            
              
                r
                
                  0
                
              
              
                λ
                
                  2
                
              
              
                n
                
                  
                    e
                  
                
              
            
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \delta ={\frac {r_{0}\lambda ^{2}n_{\mathrm {e} }}{2\pi }}}
  

where r0 is the classical electron radius, λ is the X-ray wavelength, and ne is the electron density. One may assume the electron density is simply the number of electrons per atom Z multiplied by the atomic density, but more accurate calculation of the refractive index requires replacing Z with the complex atomic form factor 
  
    
      
        f
        =
        Z
        +
        
          f
          ′
        
        +
        i
        
          f
          ″
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle f=Z+f'+if''}
  
. It follows that

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                δ
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        r
                        
                          0
                        
                      
                      
                        λ
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      2
                      π
                    
                  
                
                (
                Z
                +
                
                  f
                  ′
                
                )
                
                  n
                  
                    atom
                  
                
              
            
            
              
                β
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        r
                        
                          0
                        
                      
                      
                        λ
                        
                          2
                        
                      
                    
                    
                      2
                      π
                    
                  
                
                
                  f
                  ″
                
                
                  n
                  
                    atom
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\delta &={\frac {r_{0}\lambda ^{2}}{2\pi }}(Z+f')n_{\text{atom}}\\\beta &={\frac {r_{0}\lambda ^{2}}{2\pi }}f''n_{\text{atom}}\end{aligned}}}
  

with δ and β typically of the order of 10−5 and 10−6.


== Relations to other quantities ==


=== Optical path length ===

Optical path length (OPL) is the product of the geometric length d of the path light follows through a system, and the index of refraction of the medium through which it propagates,

  
    
      
        OPL
      
      =
      n
      d
      .
    
    {\text{OPL}}=nd.
  

This is an important concept in optics because it determines the phase of the light and governs interference and diffraction of light as it propagates. According to Fermat's principle, light rays can be characterized as those curves that optimize the optical path length.: 68–69 


=== Refraction ===

When light moves from one medium to another, it changes direction, i.e. it is refracted. If it moves from a medium with refractive index n1 to one with refractive index n2, with an incidence angle to the surface normal of θ1, the refraction angle θ2 can be calculated from Snell's law:

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            1
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          θ
          
            1
          
        
        =
        
          n
          
            2
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          θ
          
            2
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{1}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{2}.}
  

When light enters a material with higher refractive index, the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards the surface.


=== Total internal reflection ===

If there is no angle θ2 fulfilling Snell's law, i.e.,

  
    
      
        
          
            
              n
              
                1
              
            
            
              n
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          θ
          
            1
          
        
        >
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {n_{1}}{n_{2}}}\sin \theta _{1}>1,}
  

the light cannot be transmitted and will instead undergo total internal reflection.: 49–50  This occurs only when going to a less optically dense material, i.e., one with lower refractive index. To get total internal reflection the angles of incidence θ1 must be larger than the critical angle

  
    
      
        
          θ
          
            
              c
            
          
        
        =
        arcsin
        
        
          (
          
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              
                n
                
                  1
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \theta _{\mathrm {c} }=\arcsin \!\left({\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\right)\!.}
  


=== Reflectivity ===
Apart from the transmitted light there is also a reflected part. The reflection angle is equal to the incidence angle, and the amount of light that is reflected is determined by the reflectivity of the surface. The reflectivity can be calculated from the refractive index and the incidence angle with the Fresnel equations, which for normal incidence reduces to: 44 

  
    
      
        
          R
          
            0
          
        
        =
        
          
            |
            
              
                
                  
                    n
                    
                      1
                    
                  
                  −
                  
                    n
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
                
                  
                    n
                    
                      1
                    
                  
                  +
                  
                    n
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
              
            
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle R_{0}=\left|{\frac {n_{1}-n_{2}}{n_{1}+n_{2}}}\right|^{2}\!.}
  

For common glass in air, n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5, and thus about 4% of the incident power is reflected. At other incidence angles the reflectivity will also depend on the polarization of the incoming light. At a certain angle called Brewster's angle, p-polarized light (light with the electric field in the plane of incidence) will be totally transmitted. Brewster's angle can be calculated from the two refractive indices of the interface as : 245 

  
    
      
        
          θ
          
            
              B
            
          
        
        =
        arctan
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              
                n
                
                  1
                
              
            
          
          )
        
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \theta _{\mathsf {B}}=\arctan \left({\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\right)~.}
  


=== Lenses ===

The focal length of a lens is determined by its refractive index n and the radii of curvature R1 and R2 of its surfaces. The power of a thin lens in air is given by the simplified version of the Lensmaker's formula:

  
    
      
        
          
            1
            f
          
        
        =
        (
        n
        −
        1
        )
        
          [
          
            
              
                1
                
                  R
                  
                    1
                  
                
              
            
            −
            
              
                1
                
                  R
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
          
          ]
        
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}=(n-1)\left[{\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right]\ ,}
  

where f is the focal length of the lens.


=== Microscope resolution ===
The resolution of a good optical microscope is mainly determined by the numerical aperture (ANum) of its objective lens. The numerical aperture in turn is determined by the refractive index n of the medium filling the space between the sample and the lens and the half collection angle of light θ according to Carlsson (2007):: 6 

  
    
      
        
          A
          
            
              N
              u
              m
            
          
        
        =
        n
        sin
        ⁡
        θ
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle A_{\mathrm {Num} }=n\sin \theta ~.}
  

For this reason oil immersion is commonly used to obtain high resolution in microscopy. In this technique the objective is dipped into a drop of high refractive index immersion oil on the sample under study.: 14 


=== Relative permittivity and permeability ===
The refractive index of electromagnetic radiation equals

  
    
      
        n
        =
        
          
            
              ε
              
                
                  r
                
              
            
            
              μ
              
                
                  r
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n={\sqrt {\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}},}
  

where εr is the material's relative permittivity, and μr is its relative permeability.: 229  The refractive index is used for optics in Fresnel equations and Snell's law; while the relative permittivity and permeability are used in Maxwell's equations and electronics. Most naturally occurring materials are non-magnetic at optical frequencies, that is μr is very close to 1, therefore n is approximately √εr. In this particular case, the complex relative permittivity εr, with real and imaginary parts εr and ɛ̃r, and the complex refractive index n, with real and imaginary parts n and κ (the latter called the ""extinction coefficient""), follow the relation

  
    
      
        
          
            
              ε
              _
            
          
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        =
        
          ε
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        +
        i
        
          
            
              
                ε
                ~
              
            
          
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              n
              _
            
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        (
        n
        +
        i
        κ
        
          )
          
            2
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }=\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }+i{\tilde {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }={\underline {n}}^{2}=(n+i\kappa )^{2},}
  

and their components are related by:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  ε
                  
                    
                      r
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  n
                  
                    2
                  
                
                −
                
                  κ
                  
                    2
                  
                
                
                ,
              
            
            
              
                
                  
                    
                      
                        ε
                        ~
                      
                    
                  
                  
                    
                      r
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                2
                n
                κ
                
                ,
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }&=n^{2}-\kappa ^{2}\,,\\{\tilde {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }&=2n\kappa \,,\end{aligned}}}
  

and:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                n
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          |
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              ε
                              _
                            
                          
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          |
                        
                        +
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      2
                    
                  
                
                ,
              
            
            
              
                κ
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          |
                        
                        
                          
                            
                              ε
                              _
                            
                          
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          |
                        
                        −
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      2
                    
                  
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}n&={\sqrt {\frac {|{\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }|+\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}{2}}},\\\kappa &={\sqrt {\frac {|{\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }|-\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}{2}}}.\end{aligned}}}
  

where 
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        
          
            
              ε
              _
            
          
          
            
              r
            
          
        
        
          |
        
        =
        
          
            
              ε
              
                
                  r
                
              
              
                2
              
            
            +
            
              
                
                  
                    ε
                    ~
                  
                
              
              
                
                  r
                
              
              
                2
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |{\underline {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }|={\sqrt {\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }^{2}+{\tilde {\varepsilon }}_{\mathrm {r} }^{2}}}}
  
 is the complex modulus.


=== Wave impedance ===

The wave impedance of a plane electromagnetic wave in a non-conductive medium is given by

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                Z
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      μ
                      ε
                    
                  
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          μ
                          
                            
                              0
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          μ
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              0
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          ε
                          
                            
                              r
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        μ
                        
                          
                            0
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        ε
                        
                          
                            0
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                
                  
                    
                      
                        μ
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        ε
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  Z
                  
                    0
                  
                
                
                  
                    
                      
                        μ
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                      
                        ε
                        
                          
                            r
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  Z
                  
                    0
                  
                
                
                  
                    
                      μ
                      
                        
                          r
                        
                      
                    
                    n
                  
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}Z&={\sqrt {\frac {\mu }{\varepsilon }}}={\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {0} }\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {0} }\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}}}={\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {0} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {0} }}}}{\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}}}\\&=Z_{0}{\sqrt {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{\varepsilon _{\mathrm {r} }}}}\\&=Z_{0}{\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {r} }}{n}}\end{aligned}}}
  

where Z0 is the vacuum wave impedance, μ and ε are the absolute permeability and permittivity of the medium, εr is the material's relative permittivity, and μr is its relative permeability.
In non-magnetic media (that is, in materials with μr = 1), 
  
    
      
        Z
        =
        
          
            
              Z
              
                0
              
            
            n
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Z={Z_{0} \over n}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        n
        =
        
          
            
              Z
              
                0
              
            
            Z
          
        
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n={Z_{0} \over Z}\,.}
  

Thus refractive index in a non-magnetic media is the ratio of the vacuum wave impedance to the wave impedance of the medium.
The reflectivity R0 between two media can thus be expressed both by the wave impedances and the refractive indices as

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  R
                  
                    0
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    |
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            n
                            
                              1
                            
                          
                          −
                          
                            n
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            n
                            
                              1
                            
                          
                          +
                          
                            n
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    |
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    |
                    
                      
                        
                          
                            Z
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                          −
                          
                            Z
                            
                              1
                            
                          
                        
                        
                          
                            Z
                            
                              2
                            
                          
                          +
                          
                            Z
                            
                              1
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    |
                  
                  
                    2
                  
                
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R_{0}&=\left|{\frac {n_{1}-n_{2}}{n_{1}+n_{2}}}\right|^{2}\\&=\left|{\frac {Z_{2}-Z_{1}}{Z_{2}+Z_{1}}}\right|^{2}\,.\end{aligned}}}
  


=== Density ===

In general, it is assumed that the refractive index of a glass increases with its density. However, there does not exist an overall linear relationship between the refractive index and the density for all silicate and borosilicate glasses. A relatively high refractive index and low density can be obtained with glasses containing light metal oxides such as Li2O and MgO, while the opposite trend is observed with glasses containing PbO and BaO as seen in the diagram at the right.
Many oils (such as olive oil) and ethanol are examples of liquids that are more refractive, but less dense, than water, contrary to the general correlation between density and refractive index.
For air, n - 1 is proportional to the density of the gas as long as the chemical composition does not change. This means that it is also proportional to the pressure and inversely proportional to the temperature for ideal gases. For liquids the same observation can be made as for gases, for instance, the refractive index in alkanes increases nearly perfectly linear with the density. On the other hand, for carboxylic acids, the density decreases with increasing number of C-atoms within the homologeous series. The simple explanation of this finding is that it is not density, but the molar concentration of the chromophore that counts. In homologeous series, this is the excitation of the C-H-bonding. August Beer must have intuitively known that when he gave Hans H. Landolt in 1862 the tip to investigate the refractive index of compounds of homologeous series. While Landolt did not find this relationship, since, at this time dispersion theory was in its infancy, he had the idea of molar refractivity which can even be assigned to single atoms. Based on this concept, the refractive indices of organic materials can be calculated.


=== Bandgap ===

The optical refractive index of a semiconductor tends to increase as the bandgap energy decreases. Many attempts have been made to model this relationship beginning with T. S. Moses in 1949. Empirical models can match experimental data over a wide range of materials and yet fail for important cases like InSb, PbS, and Ge.  
This negative correlation between refractive index and bandgap energy, along with a negative correlation between bandgap and temperature, means that many semiconductors exhibit a positive correlation between refractive index and temperature. This is the opposite of most materials, where the refractive index decreases with temperature as a result of a decreasing material density.


=== Group index ===

Sometimes, a ""group velocity refractive index"", usually called the group index is defined:

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            
              g
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              c
            
            
              v
              
                
                  g
                
              
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {g} }={\frac {\mathrm {c} }{v_{\mathrm {g} }}},}
  

where vg is the group velocity. This value should not be confused with n, which is always defined with respect to the phase velocity. When the dispersion is small, the group velocity can be linked to the phase velocity by the relation: 22 

  
    
      
        
          v
          
            
              g
            
          
        
        =
        v
        −
        λ
        
          
            
              
                d
              
              v
            
            
              
                d
              
              λ
            
          
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {g} }=v-\lambda {\frac {\mathrm {d} v}{\mathrm {d} \lambda }},}
  

where λ is the wavelength in the medium. In this case the group index can thus be written in terms of the wavelength dependence of the refractive index as

  
    
      
        
          n
          
            
              g
            
          
        
        =
        
          
            n
            
              1
              +
              
                
                  λ
                  n
                
              
              
                
                  
                    
                      d
                    
                    n
                  
                  
                    
                      d
                    
                    λ
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {g} }={\frac {n}{1+{\frac {\lambda }{n}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} n}{\mathrm {d} \lambda }}}}.}
  

When the refractive index of a medium is known as a function of the vacuum wavelength (instead of the wavelength in the medium), the corresponding expressions for the group velocity and index are (for all values of dispersion)

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                
                  v
                  
                    
                      g
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  c
                
                
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      n
                      −
                      
                        λ
                        
                          0
                        
                      
                      
                        
                          
                            
                              d
                            
                            n
                          
                          
                            
                              d
                            
                            
                              λ
                              
                                0
                              
                            
                          
                        
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                  
                    −
                    1
                  
                
                
                ,
              
            
            
              
                
                  n
                  
                    
                      g
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                n
                −
                
                  λ
                  
                    0
                  
                
                
                  
                    
                      
                        d
                      
                      n
                    
                    
                      
                        d
                      
                      
                        λ
                        
                          0
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
                ,
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}v_{\mathrm {g} }&=\mathrm {c} \!\left(n-\lambda _{0}{\frac {\mathrm {d} n}{\mathrm {d} \lambda _{0}}}\right)^{-1}\!,\\n_{\mathrm {g} }&=n-\lambda _{0}{\frac {\mathrm {d} n}{\mathrm {d} \lambda _{0}}},\end{aligned}}}
  

where λ0 is the wavelength in vacuum.


=== Velocity, momentum, and polarizability ===
As shown in the Fizeau experiment, when light is transmitted through a moving medium, its speed relative to an observer traveling with speed v in the same direction as the light is:

  
    
      
        
          
            
              
                V
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      c
                    
                    n
                  
                
                +
                
                  
                    
                      v
                      
                        (
                        
                          1
                          −
                          
                            
                              1
                              
                                n
                                
                                  2
                                
                              
                            
                          
                        
                        )
                      
                    
                    
                      1
                      +
                      
                        
                          v
                          
                            c
                            n
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                
              
            
            
              
              
                
                ≈
                
                  
                    
                      c
                    
                    n
                  
                
                +
                v
                
                  (
                  
                    1
                    −
                    
                      
                        1
                        
                          n
                          
                            2
                          
                        
                      
                    
                  
                  )
                
                
                .
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V&={\frac {\mathrm {c} }{n}}+{\frac {v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)}{1+{\frac {v}{cn}}}}\\&\approx {\frac {\mathrm {c} }{n}}+v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)\,.\end{aligned}}}
  

The momentum of photons in a medium of refractive index n is a complex and controversial issue with two different values having different physical interpretations.
The refractive index of a substance can be related to its polarizability with the Lorentz–Lorenz equation or to the molar refractivities of its constituents by the Gladstone–Dale relation.


=== Refractivity ===
In atmospheric applications, refractivity is defined as  N = n – 1, often rescaled as either N = 106 (n – 1) or N = 108 (n – 1); the multiplication factors are used because the refractive index for air, n deviates from unity by at most a few parts per ten thousand.
Molar refractivity, on the other hand, is a measure of the total polarizability of a mole of a substance and can be calculated from the refractive index as

  
    
      
        A
        =
        
          
            M
            ρ
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              −
              1
            
            
              
                n
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              2
            
          
        
         
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle A={\frac {M}{\rho }}\cdot {\frac {n^{2}-1}{n^{2}+2}}\ ,}
  

where ρ is the density, and M is the molar mass.: 93 


== Nonscalar, nonlinear, or nonhomogeneous refraction ==
So far, we have assumed that refraction is given by linear equations involving a spatially constant, scalar refractive index. These assumptions can break down in different ways, to be described in the following subsections.


=== Birefringence ===

In some materials, the refractive index depends on the polarization and propagation direction of the light. This is called birefringence or optical anisotropy.
In the simplest form, uniaxial birefringence, there is only one special direction in the material. This axis is known as the optical axis of the material.: 230  Light with linear polarization perpendicular to this axis will experience an ordinary refractive index no while light polarized in parallel will experience an extraordinary refractive index ne.: 236  The birefringence of the material is the difference between these indices of refraction, Δn = ne − no.: 237  Light propagating in the direction of the optical axis will not be affected by the birefringence since the refractive index will be no independent of polarization. For other propagation directions the light will split into two linearly polarized beams. For light traveling perpendicularly to the optical axis the beams will have the same direction.: 233  This can be used to change the polarization direction of linearly polarized light or to convert between linear, circular, and elliptical polarizations with waveplates.: 237 
Many crystals are naturally birefringent, but isotropic materials such as plastics and glass can also often be made birefringent by introducing a preferred direction through, e.g., an external force or electric field. This effect is called photoelasticity, and can be used to reveal stresses in structures. The birefringent material is placed between crossed polarizers. A change in birefringence alters the polarization and thereby the fraction of light that is transmitted through the second polarizer.
In the more general case of trirefringent materials described by the field of crystal optics, the dielectric constant is a rank-2 tensor (a 3 by 3 matrix). In this case the propagation of light cannot simply be described by refractive indices except for polarizations along principal axes.


=== Nonlinearity ===

The strong electric field of high intensity light (such as the output of a laser) may cause a medium's refractive index to vary as the light passes through it, giving rise to nonlinear optics.: 502  If the index varies quadratically with the field (linearly with the intensity), it is called the optical Kerr effect and causes phenomena such as self-focusing and self-phase modulation.: 264  If the index varies linearly with the field (a nontrivial linear coefficient is only possible in materials that do not possess inversion symmetry), it is known as the Pockels effect.: 265 


=== Inhomogeneity ===

If the refractive index of a medium is not constant but varies gradually with the position, the material is known as a gradient-index (GRIN) medium and is described by gradient index optics.: 273  Light traveling through such a medium can be bent or focused, and this effect can be exploited to produce lenses, some optical fibers, and other devices. Introducing GRIN elements in the design of an optical system can greatly simplify the system, reducing the number of elements by as much as a third while maintaining overall performance.: 276  The crystalline lens of the human eye is an example of a GRIN lens with a refractive index varying from about 1.406 in the inner core to approximately 1.386 at the less dense cortex.: 203  Some common mirages are caused by a spatially varying refractive index of air.


== Refractive index measurement ==


=== Homogeneous media ===

The refractive index of liquids or solids can be measured with refractometers. They typically measure some angle of refraction or the critical angle for total internal reflection. The first laboratory refractometers sold commercially were developed by Ernst Abbe in the late 19th century.
The same principles are still used today. In this instrument, a thin layer of the liquid to be measured is placed between two prisms. Light is shone through the liquid at incidence angles all the way up to 90°, i.e., light rays parallel to the surface. The second prism should have an index of refraction higher than that of the liquid, so that light only enters the prism at angles smaller than the critical angle for total reflection. This angle can then be measured either by looking through a telescope, or with a digital photodetector placed in the focal plane of a lens. The refractive index n of the liquid can then be calculated from the maximum transmission angle θ as n = nG sin θ, where nG is the refractive index of the prism.

This type of device is commonly used in chemical laboratories for identification of substances and for quality control. Handheld variants are used in agriculture by, e.g., wine makers to determine sugar content in grape juice, and inline process refractometers are used in, e.g., chemical and pharmaceutical industry for process control.
In gemology, a different type of refractometer is used to measure the index of refraction and birefringence of gemstones. The gem is placed on a high refractive index prism and illuminated from below. A high refractive index contact liquid is used to achieve optical contact between the gem and the prism. At small incidence angles most of the light will be transmitted into the gem, but at high angles total internal reflection will occur in the prism. The critical angle is normally measured by looking through a telescope.


=== Refractive index variations ===

Unstained biological structures appear mostly transparent under bright-field microscopy as most cellular structures do not attenuate appreciable quantities of light. Nevertheless, the variation in the materials that constitute these structures also corresponds to a variation in the refractive index.  The following techniques convert such variation into measurable amplitude differences:
To measure the spatial variation of the refractive index in a sample phase-contrast imaging methods are used. These methods measure the variations in phase of the light wave exiting the sample. The phase is proportional to the optical path length the light ray has traversed, and thus gives a measure of the integral of the refractive index along the ray path. The phase cannot be measured directly at optical or higher frequencies, and therefore needs to be converted into intensity by interference with a reference beam. In the visual spectrum this is done using Zernike phase-contrast microscopy, differential interference contrast microscopy (DIC), or interferometry.
Zernike phase-contrast microscopy introduces a phase shift to the low spatial frequency components of the image with a phase-shifting annulus in the Fourier plane of the sample, so that high-spatial-frequency parts of the image can interfere with the low-frequency reference beam. In DIC the illumination is split up into two beams that are given different polarizations, are phase shifted differently, and are shifted transversely with slightly different amounts. After the specimen, the two parts are made to interfere, giving an image of the derivative of the optical path length in the direction of the difference in the transverse shift. In interferometry the illumination is split up into two beams by a partially reflective mirror. One of the beams is let through the sample before they are combined to interfere and give a direct image of the phase shifts. If the optical path length variations are more than a wavelength the image will contain fringes.
There exist several phase-contrast X-ray imaging techniques to determine 2D or 3D spatial distribution of refractive index of samples in the X-ray regime.


== Applications ==
The refractive index is an important property of the components of any optical instrument. It determines the focusing power of lenses, the dispersive power of prisms, the reflectivity of lens coatings, and the light-guiding nature of optical fiber. Since the refractive index is a fundamental physical property of a substance, it is often used to identify a particular substance, confirm its purity, or measure its concentration. The refractive index is used to measure solids, liquids, and gases. It can be used, for example, to measure the concentration of a solute in an aqueous solution. It can also be used as a useful tool to differentiate between different types of gemstone, due to the unique chatoyance each individual stone displays. A refractometer is the instrument used to measure the refractive index. For a solution of sugar, the refractive index can be used to determine the sugar content (see Brix).


== See also ==


== Footnotes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

NIST calculator for determining the refractive index of air
Dielectric materials
Science World
Filmetrics' online database Free database of refractive index and absorption coefficient information
RefractiveIndex.INFO Refractive index database featuring online plotting and parameterisation of data
LUXPOP Archived 2013-09-07 at the Wayback Machine Thin film and bulk index of refraction and photonics calculations
The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II Ch. 32: Refractive Index of Dense Materials"
303rd Air Refueling Squadron,"The 303rd Air Refueling Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to the 499th Air Refueling Wing at Kindley Air Force Base, Bermuda, where it was inactivated on 15 June 1963.
The squadron's first predecessor was active as the 303rd Transport Squadron, an airlift element of the India-China Wing, Air Transport Command.  The 303rd flew missions over the Hump before being disbanded when Air Transport Command abandoned the traditional squadron and group organization for its operations in the China Burma India Theater.
The second predecessor of the squadron was the 483rd Bombardment Squadron, a very heavy Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber squadron that, after training in the United States, moved to Tinian and engaged in the strategic bombing campaign against Japan from Tinian, earning two Distinguished Unit Citations for its combat actions.  It then moved to the Philippines, where it was inactivated in 1946.
The unit's third predecessor is the 303rd Air Refueling Squadron, which served during the Cold War to support Strategic Air Command bombers.  For most of its active life, the squadron operated from a forward base in the middle Atlantic to support reflex deployments and maintained readiness to support Emergency War Order missions.
In 1985, the United States Air Force consolidated three squadrons, but they have not been active since the consolidation.


== History ==


=== Flying the Hump ===

The 303rd Transport Squadron was activated in India in June 1943 at Mohanbari Airport, India, where it was assigned to the 30th Transport Group.  The squadron drew its cadre from the 6th Transport Squadron.  It operated Douglas C-47 Skytrain and Curtiss C-46 Commando transports in the China-Burma-India theater for the India-China Wing, Air Transport Command.  It flew supplies, equipment and personnel over the Hump from the Assam Valley of India to airfields in southeast China, primarily to support Fourteenth Air Force combat operations.   It was a short-lived organization for it was disbanded in December 1943 and replaced, along with other elements of the 30th Transport Group, by Station 9, India-China Wing, Air Transport Command.


=== B-29 Superfortress operations against Japan ===


==== Organization and training ====
The second 483rd Bombardment Squadron was activated at Dalhart Army Air Field, Texas in March 1944 as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress very heavy bombardment squadron, drawing its initial cadre from the 9th Bombardment Group.  It moved to Harvard Army Air Field, Nebraska the following day, where the squadron began training with Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses on 1 July until B-29s became available.
The squadron's ground echelon sailed from the Seattle Port of Embarkation for the Pacific on 14 November.  The air echelon staged through Hamilton Field and Mather Field, California with its B-29s.


==== Combat Operations ====

The squadron arrived at its combat station, North Field, Tinian in the Mariana Islands on 24 December 1944.  Three days later, it began flying training missions, including an attack on Moen Airfield in January.  It flew its first combat mission on 24 January 1945 against targets on Iwo Jima and the Truk Islands.  It began operations flying high altitude daylight missions, engaging in the strategic bombing campaign against Japan.  On 10 February, it flew a strike on the Nakajima Aircraft Company factory at Ota, for which it was awarded a Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC).  The 505th Group lost eight B-29s on the mission, but most were lost due to operational problems, rather than enemy action. However, The results of high altitude B-29 raids on Japan were disappointing.  From 19 January, no mission had been able to bomb visually, and radar bombing results were generally unsatisfactory.  Low altitude night area attacks with incendiaries promised better results, for XXI Bomber Command.  The switch in tactics began with the launch of a raid against Tokyo on 9 March 1945.
The squadron conducted area raids with incendiaries until August 1945.  During April 1945, the squadron was diverted from the strategic campaign against Japan to support Operation Iceberg, the invasion of Okinawa.  It struck Miyazaki Airfield and Kanoya Airfield, bases from which kamikaze attacks were being launched.  These bases were located on Kyushu, only 300 miles from Okinawa.  The attacks directly impacted kamikaze launches, but also forced the Japanese military to retain fighter aircraft to defend the Japanese Special Attack Units that otherwise might have been used to challenge air superiority over Okinawa.
The squadron also conducted aerial mining operations against Japanese shipping.  The 505th was the only group in XXI Bomber Command to carry out these missions, which began on 27 March. On 17 June, the squadron concentrated its efforts on the mining campaign.  It received a second DUC for mining the Shimonoseki Strait and harbors in the Inland Sea between 17 June and 1 July 1945.   The squadron flew its last mission on the night of 14 and 15 August 1945.  Following V-J Day  its B-29s carried relief supplies to Allied prisoner of war camps.  It also flew show of force flights and conducted bomb damage assessment flights over Japan.  It moved to Clark Field in the Philippines in March 1946, and was inactivated there on 15 June 1946.


=== Strategic Air Command ===
The 303rd Air Refueling Squadron was activated in April 1951 at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona and assigned to the 303rd Bombardment Group, but attached to the 303rd Bombardment Wing.  it was nominally a KB-29 Superfortress unit, but never became operational and was inactivated seven months later.
The squadron was activated again in February 1953, again at Davis Monthan, where it was assigned to the 303rd Bombardment Wing and equipped with Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighters.  The following month the wing's first Boeing B-47 Stratojets arrived and the squadron trained to refuel these jet bombers.  The squadron deployed with the wing to RAF Greenham Common from 4 March to 28 April 1954, moving to RAF Fairford until 5 June 1954, when Greenham Common's runway was closed for repair.  During the deployment with the wing, the squadron's aircraft also served as transports, carrying extra air crew, support personnel, and spare parts.  In November 1954, it participated in Operation Green Point, which tested the 303rd Wing's air refueling capability. From February through April 1955, the squadron deployed to a Harmon Air Force Base in Operation Sand Truck.
SAC had begun to include refueling in its war plans,  and decided to deploy its KC-97s to forward locations, placing them ahead of the faster B-47 Stratojets they would refuel.  In February 1956, the squadron moved from Davis-Monthan to Kindley Air Force Base, Bermuda and was assigned to Second Air Force.  At Kindley, it received administrative and logistic support from the 1604th Air Base Wing of Military Air Transport Service,  which also supported additional KC-97s deployed to Kindley on temporary rotations.  It supported B-47 Stratojets deploying to Europe and Morocco on Operation Reflex and provided forward refueling in the event of war. While stationed at Kindley the squadron was assigned to several headquarters located in the United States.  The 303rd performed supported SAC and USAF operations on a worldwide basis until it was inactivated in 1963.


== Lineage ==
303rd Transport Squadron

Constituted as 303rd Transport Squadron, c. 4 June 1943
Activated on 21 June 1943
Disbanded on 1 December 1943
Reconstituted 19 September 1985 and consolidated with the 483rd Bombardment Squadron and the 303rd Air Refueling Squadron as 303rd Air Refueling Squadron (remained inactive)
483rd Bombardment Squadron

Constituted as 483rd Bombardment Squadron, Very Heavy on 28 Feb 1944
Activated on 11 Mar 1944
Inactivated on 30 Jun 1946
Consolidated on 19 September 1985 with the 303rd Transport Squadron and the 303rd Air Refueling Squadron as 303rd Air Refueling Squadron (remained inactive)
303rd Air Refueling Squadron

Constituted as 303rd Air Refueling Squadron, Medium on 4 April 1951
Activated on 4 September 1951
Inactivated 8 April 1952
Activated on 18 February 1953
Inactivated on 15 June 1963
Consolidated on 19 September 1985 with the 483rd Bombardment Squadron and the 303rd Transport Squadron as the 303rd Air Refueling Squadron, Heavy (remained inactive)


=== Assignments ===
30th Transport Group, 21 June 1943 – 1 December 1943
505th Bombardment Group, 11 March 1944 – 30 June 1946
303rd Bombardment Group, 4 April 1951 – 8 April 1952 (attached to 303rd Bombardment Wing)
303rd Bombardment Wing, 18 February 1953 (detached 19 April – 2 June 1955)
Second Air Force, 1 February 1956
38th Air Division, 1 January 1959
823rd Air Division, 1 October 1959
19th Bombardment Wing, 1 November 1959
4050th Air Refueling Wing, 1 April 1961
499th Air Refueling Wing, 1 January–15 June 1963


=== Stations ===
Mohanbari Airport, Assam, India, 21 June 1943 – 1 December 1943
Dalhart Army Air Field, Texas, 11 March 1944
Harvard Army Air Field, Nebraska, 12 March 1944 – 6 November 1944
North Field, Tinian, Mariana Islands, 24 December 1944 – 5 March 1946
Clark Field, Luzon, Philippines, 14 March 1946 – 30 June 1946
Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, 4 April 1951 – 8 April 1952
Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, 18 February 1953
Kindley Air Force Base, Bermuda, 6 February 1956 – 15 June 1963


=== Aircraft ===
Douglas C-47 Skytrain, 1943
Curtiss C-46 Commando, 1943
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, 1944
Boeing B-29 Superfortress, 1944–1946
KB-29 Superfortress, 1951–1952
Boeing KC-97F Stratofreighter, 1953-1956
Boeing KC-97G Stratofreighter, 1956–1959; 1959–1963


=== Awards and campaigns ===


== Notes ==
Explanatory notes

Citations


== Bibliography ==
 This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency

Craven, Wesley F; Cate, James L, eds. (1953). The Army Air Forces in World War II (PDF). Vol. V, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. LCCN 48003657. OCLC 704158. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Cate, James L.; Olson, James C. (1953). ""Strategic Bombardment from  Pacific Bases, Chapter 17, Precision Bombardment Campaign"". In Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James L. (eds.). The Army Air Forces in World War II (PDF). Vol. V, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. LCCN 48003657. OCLC 704158. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Cate, James L.; Olson, James C. (1953). ""Strategic Bombardment from Pacific Bases, Chapter 19, Urban Area Attacks"". In Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James L. (eds.). The Army Air Forces in World War II (PDF). Vol. V, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. LCCN 48003657. OCLC 704158. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1983) [1961]. Air Force Combat Units of World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-02-1. LCCN 61060979. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982) [1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-405-12194-6. LCCN 70605402. OCLC 72556. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016.
Mueller, Robert (1989). Air Force Bases, Vol. I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982 (PDF). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-53-6. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977 (PDF). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-12-9. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Smith, Richard K. (1998). Seventy-Five Years of Inflight Refueling: Highlights, 1923-1998 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums Program. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0160497797. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
""AF Pamphlet 900-2, Unit Decorations, Awards and Campaign Participation Credits"" (PDF). Washington, DC: Department of the Air Force Index. 15 June 1971. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2015. Retrieved 17 July 2024. (renumbered AF Pamphlet 36-2801, Vol. I)"
USS Tolovana,"USS Tolovana (AO-64) was a Cimarron-class fleet oiler acquired by the U.S. Navy during World War II. She served her country primarily in the Pacific Ocean Theatre of Operations, and provided petroleum products where needed to combat ships. For performing this dangerous task in combat areas, she was awarded one battle star during World War II, two during the Korean War, and thirteen campaign stars and the Navy Unit Commendation during the Vietnam War.
Tolovana was laid down on 5 June 1944 under a Maritime Commission contract (MC hull 730) at Sparrows Point, Maryland, by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation; launched on 6 January 1945; sponsored by Mrs. Richard M. Bissell Jr.; acquired by the Navy on 24 February 1945; and commissioned that same day.


== World War II Pacific Theatre operations ==
Following shakedown training in Chesapeake Bay and repairs at the Norfolk Navy Yard, Tolovana put to sea on 25 March bound ultimately for the western Pacific. En route, she stopped at Houston, Texas, from 30 March to 2 April; loaded diesel oil; and continued on her way. The oiler transited the Panama Canal on 6 April and, after further repairs at Balboa, Panama, resumed her voyage west.
On 23 April, she reached Pearl Harbor and reported for duty with the Service Force, Pacific Fleet. After completing voyage repairs and loading aviation gasoline, Tolovana stood out of Pearl Harbor on 28 April. On 9 May, she entered the lagoon at Ulithi Atoll in the Western Carolines and reported for duty with Service Squadron 10. Three days later, she returned to sea bound via Kossol Roads in the Palaus to Leyte Gulf. Tolovana discharged the aviation gasoline portion of her cargo at Kossol Roads on 14 and 15 May and transferred her diesel oil to gasoline oilers at San Pedro Bay, Leyte, between 17 and 31 May.


== Dangerous operations ==
Since her tanks had not been contaminated with fuel oil and gasoline constituted the commodity in greatest need at Okinawa, Tolovana was earmarked for duty shuttling it between Ulithi and the combat area which was considered too dangerous for merchant tankers. She returned to Ulithi from Leyte on 2 June and loaded her first full cargo of gasoline. For the remainder of the war, the oiler steamed back and forth between Ulithi and the Ryukyus delivering aviation and automobile gasoline to the tank farm on Okinawa. She experienced frequent air attacks but suffered no combat damage.


== End-of-war activity ==
When the war ended in mid-August, Tolovana was at Okinawa. During the immediate postwar period, she continued to make the Okinawa-Ulithi gasoline shuttle in support of occupation forces. Later that fall, she widened her sphere of operations to include such ports as Jinsen, Korea; and Yokosuka, Japan.


== Supporting atomic testing at Bikini ==
In May 1946, she moved to the Marshall Islands to support Operation Crossroads, the atomic bomb tests conducted at Bikini Atoll. She remained in that area until 17 June when she headed back to the United States. Tolovana reached Long Beach, California, on 6 July and entered the naval shipyard for her first overhaul since commissioning.


== North Pacific operations ==
On 22 September, the ship emerged from the naval shipyard revitalized and began two years of duty along the western coast of North America. During the greater part of that period, Tolovana provided logistics support for bases in Alaska and in the Aleutians chain. She made frequent calls at Adak, Attu, Kodiak, and Anchorage, Alaska, while operating from Seattle, Washington, and periodically returned to California ports for visits and overhauls. She also made a voyage apiece to Guam and to Pearl Harbor during the period.


== Transfer to East Coast operations ==
In August 1948, Tolovana bade farewell to the cold waters of Alaska and headed via the Panama Canal to Bremerhaven, Germany, where she stopped over for five days in mid-September. The oiler returned to the west coast late in October, reaching Long Beach, California, on the 19th, and resumed logistics support missions along the western seaboard and in the Aleutian Islands.
During the ensuing years, she continued such duty. However, her sphere of operations widened to include ports in the western Pacific, in the Indian Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. Frequently, she called at such ports as Ras Tanura in Saudi Arabia to take on petroleum products directly from the producers and then carry them to American bases in Japan and the Philippines.


== On loan to the MSTS ==
In August 1949, the Naval Transport Service - with which she had been serving since December 1949 - was reconstituted as the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS). When transferred to the new organization, ships like Tolovana ceased to be commissioned ships in the Navy, though they continued to perform their familiar logistics support function for the Navy as well as for the other services.


== Korean War operations ==
The outbreak of war in Korea during the summer of 1950 increased Navy requirements for oilers engaged in direct support of the combat fleet. Thus, they were recalled from MSTS' general logistics operations and converted to perform such missions. Tolovana entered Mare Island Naval Shipyard on 15 February 1951; emerged ready for duty just over three months later; and, on 24 May, was recommissioned. However, the oiler did not deploy immediately to the combat zone. Instead, she resumed operations off the west coast until early July when she made a voyage to Guam. On 24 July, Tolovana departed Guam and shaped a course for Pearl Harbor where she arrived on 8 August. She spent the remainder of the month there, preparing to deploy to the Far East and the Korean combat zone.
On 1 September, the oiler stood out of Pearl Harbor and headed west. Just under two weeks later, she arrived in Sasebo, Japan, and reported for duty with Task Force (TF) 77. Between 20 September and 18 December, Tolovana provided logistic support for the carriers of TF 77 and their supporting forces as well as for United Nations units operating ashore at Chosen, Songjin, and Wonsan. On 18 December, the ship returned briefly to Sasebo and departed the same day on a voyage to Okinawa, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, during which she provided support for American forces at Okinawa and for those engaged in the Taiwan Strait patrols. Tolovana returned to Sasebo on 31 January 1952 and resumed her support role refueling and replenishing units of TF 77 operating off the Korean coast.


== Supplying the Trust Territories ==
On 18 March, the oiler returned to Japan at Yokosuka and, after two days of preparations, sailed for the west coast of the United States. She arrived in San Pedro, California, on 1 April and began two months of training operations. On 7 June, Tolovana put to sea bound for the Trust Territories in the central Pacific where, for the next six months, she delivered fuel and supplies from Pearl Harbor to the mid-Pacific islands: Midway Island, Eniwetok, and Kwajalein. She stopped at Hawaii on 12 December for the last time before returning to the west coast. The next day, the ship shaped a course for Long Beach, California, and entered the port on the 19th.


== Vietnam operations ==
Over the next six years, Tolovana deployed annually to the western Pacific. In each case, she departed the west coast during the summer months and returned in December or January. Her duties normally consisted of logistics missions in support of TF 77 and of the Taiwan Strait patrol. However, during the first of these six tours, she was called upon to join in Operation Passage to Freedom - the evacuation of French and loyal Vietnamese from Haiphong in communist North Vietnam to South Vietnam following the collapse of French rule in Indochina.
The remaining five deployments to the Far East involved routine logistic support for units assigned to TF 77 and to the Taiwan Strait patrol. When not cruising Asiatic waters, Tolovana punctuated training operations off the California coast with upkeep and periodic overhauls.
In January 1960, Tolovana returned to the U.S. West Coast completing the last in her series of six, regular summer-fall deployments to the Far East. This, however, did not signal an end to such duty but rather to its regularity. In fact, over the next four years, she completed five tours of duty in Asian waters. During the second of this series, she was called upon to support those units of the fleet sent to Southeast Asia late in March 1961 to bolster the resolve of pro-western forces in Laos crumbling in the face of a major push on the part of Pathet Lao guerillas supported by North Vietnamese regulars. Though American resolve lessened the probability of a complete collapse of the anticommunist faction in Laos, the crisis did not die away until after Tolovana left the Far East in May to return home. She began her next tour of duty in the western Pacific in October 1961 and returned to the United States in February 1962.


== Supporting Operation Dominic nuclear testing ==
The following summer, the oiler participated in ""Operation Dominic"", a nuclear test conducted at Christmas Island May to July 1962.


== Continued Vietnam War operations ==

After another relatively routine assignment with the U.S. 7th Fleet between October 1962 and April 1963, Tolovana entered a decade in which her service mirrored the increasingly more direct involvement of United States forces in the Vietnam War. During that period, she made eight deployments to the western Pacific; and, on each, her crew members qualified for combat campaign ribbons. During the first of this series of tours, American presence remained small, and Tolovana spent comparatively little time in support of the operations there. However, by the time of her next cruise to the western Pacific - July to November 1965 - America's buildup had begun in earnest. From that point on, she concentrated upon replenishing ships in the combat zone, returning briefly to Subic Bay in the Philippines or to Yokosuka or Sasebo in Japan to refill her tanks.
The fact that Tolovana never came under enemy fire did not diminish her effectiveness. She contributed to the success of underway replenishment operations - pioneered by the Navy during World War II - which, in turn, enabled American warships to remain in action for extended periods of time and bring the full weight of their naval might to bear on the struggle.


== Routine operations, Far East liberty ==
On the other hand, there were breaks in the routine. She called at various liberty ports in the Far East such as Hong Kong; Bangkok, Thailand; Yokosuka and Sasebo in Japan; and Kaohsiung, Taiwan. During the 1967 and 1968 deployment, she was ordered north to provide logistics support for ships of Operation Formation Star which answered the call of USS Pueblo, captured on the high seas in violation of international law by forces of the North Korean Navy. However, the major change in routine came between the deployments when she returned to the west coast for upkeep, training, repairs, and periodic overhauls.
Her eighth and last wartime deployment came in September 1972, and she was still in the western Pacific in January 1973 when American involvement drew to a close. The oiler remained in the Far East until the following May and then departed Subic Bay to return to Long Beach where she arrived on the 24th. After three months in port at Long Beach, Tolovana resumed local operations in the southern California operating area until July 1974 when she stood out of San Diego, California, for the last western Pacific cruise of her career. That assignment continued until January 1975 at which time she returned to San Diego. Between 31 March and 1 April, the veteran oiler made the transit from San Diego to Mare Island Naval Shipyard.


== Final decommissioning ==
On 15 April 1975, Tolovana was decommissioned, and her name was struck from the Navy List that same day. She was sold for scrapping, 16 October 1975, to Levin Metals Corp. under contract # (MA-8100) for $1.5M.


== Awards ==
Tolovana earned one battle star during World War II, two battle stars for the Korean War, and 12 battle stars and the Navy Unit Commendation for service off Vietnam.
For World War II:

Okinawa Gunto operation
For Korean War :

UN Summer-Fall Offensive
Second Korean Winter
For Vietnam War:

Vietnam Defense Campaign
Vietnamese Counteroffensive
Vietnamese Counteroffensive - Phase II
Vietnamese Counteroffensive - Phase III
Tet Counteroffensive
Vietnamese Counteroffensive - Phase IV
Vietnamese Counteroffensive - Phase VI
Tet 69/Counteroffensive
Vietnam Winter-Spring
Sanctuary Counteroffensive
Vietnamese Counteroffensive - Phase VII
Consolidation I
Vietnam Ceasefire


== References ==
 This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.


== External links ==
history.navy.mil: USS Tolovana
Photo gallery of Tolovana at NavSource Naval History
USS Tolovana Website.
Wildenberg, Thomas (1996). Gray Steel and Black Oil: Fast Tankers and Replenishment at Sea in the U.S. Navy, 1912-1995. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. Retrieved 28 April 2009."
Quid pro quo,"Quid pro quo (Latin: ""something for something"") is a Latin phrase used in English to mean an exchange of goods or services, in which one transfer is contingent upon the other; ""a favor for a favor"". Phrases with similar meanings include: ""give and take"", ""tit for tat"", ""you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours"", ""this for that,"" and ""one hand washes the other"". Other languages use other phrases for the same purpose.


== Origins ==
The Latin phrase quid pro quo originally implied that something had been substituted, meaning ""something for something"" as in I gave you sugar for salt. Early usage by English speakers followed the original Latin meaning, with occurrences in the 1530s where the term referred to substituting one medicine for another, whether unintentionally or fraudulently. By the end of the same century, quid pro quo evolved into a more current use to describe equivalent exchanges. 
In 1654, the expression quid pro quo was used to generally refer to something done for personal gain or with the expectation of reciprocity in the text The Reign of King Charles: An History Disposed into Annalls, with a somewhat positive connotation. It refers to the covenant with Christ as something ""that prove not a nudum pactum, a naked contract, without quid pro quo."" Believers in Christ have to do their part in return, namely ""foresake the devil and all his works"".
Quid pro quo would go on to be used, by English speakers in legal and diplomatic contexts, as an exchange of equally valued goods or services and continues to be today.
The Latin phrase corresponding to the English usage of quid pro quo is do ut des (Latin for ""I give, so that you may give""). Other languages continue to use do ut des for this purpose, while quid pro quo (or its equivalent qui pro quo, as widely used in Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese) still keeps its original meaning of something being unwittingly mistaken, or erroneously told or understood, instead of something else.


== Legal meanings ==


=== Common law ===
In common law, quid pro quo indicates that an item or a service has been traded in return for something of value, usually when the propriety or equity of the transaction is in question. A contract must involve consideration: that is, the exchange of something of value for something else of value. For example, when buying an item of clothing or a gallon of milk, a pre-determined amount of money is exchanged for the product the customer is purchasing; therefore, they have received something but have given up something of equal value in return.


=== United Kingdom ===
In the United Kingdom, the one-sidedness of a contract is covered by the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and various revisions and amendments to it; a clause can be held void or the entire contract void if it is deemed unfair (that is to say, one-sided and not a quid pro quo); however, this is a civil law and not a common law matter.
Political donors must be resident in the UK. There are fixed limits to how much they may donate (£5000 in any single donation), and it must be recorded in the House of Commons Register of Members' Interests or at the House of Commons Library; the quid pro quo is strictly not allowed, that a donor can by his donation have some personal gain. This is overseen by the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards. There are also prohibitions on donations being given in the six weeks before the election for which it is being campaigned. It is also illegal for donors to support party political broadcasts, which are tightly regulated, free to air, and scheduled and allotted to the various parties according to a formula agreed by Parliament and enacted with the Communications Act 2003.


=== United States ===
In the United States, if an exchange appears excessively one sided, courts in some jurisdictions may question whether a quid pro quo did actually exist and the contract may be held void. In cases of ""quid pro quo"" business contracts, the term takes on a negative connotation because major corporations may cross ethical boundaries in order to enter into these very valuable, mutually beneficial, agreements with other major big businesses. In these deals, large sums of money are often at play and can consequently lead to  promises of exclusive partnerships indefinitely or promises of distortion of economic reports.
In the U.S., lobbyists are legally entitled to support candidates that hold positions with which the donors agree, or which will benefit the donors. Such conduct becomes bribery only when there is an identifiable exchange between the contribution and official acts, previous or subsequent, and the term quid pro quo denotes such an exchange.
In terms of criminal law, quid pro quo tends to get used as a euphemism for crimes such as extortion and bribery.


==== Sexual harassment ====
In United States labor law, workplace sexual harassment can take two forms; either ""quid pro quo"" harassment or hostile work environment harassment.  ""Quid pro quo"" harassment takes place when a supervisor requires sex, sexual favors, or sexual contact from an employee/job candidate as a condition of their employment. Only supervisors who have the authority to make tangible employment actions (i.e. hire, fire, promote, etc.), can commit ""quid pro quo"" harassment. The supervising harasser must have ""immediate (or successively higher) authority over the employee."" The power dynamic between a supervisor and subordinate/job candidate is such that a supervisor could use their position of authority to extract sexual relations based on the subordinate/job candidate's need for employment. Co-workers and non-decision making supervisors cannot engage in ""quid pro quo"" harassment with other employees, but an employer could potentially be liable for the behavior of these employees under a hostile work environment claim.  The harassing employee's status as a supervisor is significant because if the individual is found to be a supervisor then the employing company can be held vicariously liable for the actions of that supervisor.  Under Agency law, the employer is held responsible for the actions of the supervisor because they were in a position of power within the company at the time of the harassment.
To establish a prima facie case of ""quid pro quo"" harassment, the plaintiff must prove that they were subjected to ""unwelcome sexual conduct"", that submission to such conduct was explicitly or implicitly a term of their employment, and submission to or rejection of this conduct was used as a basis for an employment decision, as follows:

Unwelcome Sexual Conduct: a court will look at the employee's conduct to determine whether the supervisor's sexual advances were unwelcome.  In Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, the Court opined that voluntary sex between an employee and supervisor does not establish proof that a supervisor's sexual advances were welcome. The Court also stated that evidence of the subordinate employee's provocative dress and publicly expressed sexual fantasies can be introduced as evidence if relevant.
Term of Employment: a term or condition of employment means that the subordinate/job candidate must acquiesce to the sexual advances of the supervisor in order to maintain/be hired for the job. In essence, the sexual harassment becomes a part of their job. For example, a supervisor promises an employee a raise if they go out on a date with the supervisor, or tells an employee they will be fired if the employee doesn't sleep with them.
Tangible Employment Action: a tangible employment action must take place as a result of the employee's submission or refusal of supervisor's advances. In Burlington Industries, Inc. v. Ellerth, the Court stated that tangible employment action amounted to  ""a significant change in employment status, such as hiring, firing, failing to promote, reassignment with significantly different responsibilities, or a decision causing a significant change in benefits.""  It is important to note that only supervisors can make tangible employment actions, since they have the company's authority to do so. The Court also held that unfulfilled threats by a supervisor of an adverse employment decision are not sufficient to establish a ""Quid pro quo,"" but were relevant for the purposes of a hostile work environment claim. Additionally, the Supreme Court has held that constructive dismissal can count as a tangible employment action (thus allowing a quid pro quo sexual harassment claim) if the actions taken by a supervisor created a situation where a ""reasonable person ... would have felt compelled to resign.""
Once the plaintiff has established these three factors, the employer can not assert an affirmative defense (such as the employer had a sexual harassment policy in place to prevent and properly respond to issues of sexual harassment), but can only dispute whether the unwelcome conduct did not in fact take place, the employee was not a supervisor, and that there was no tangible employment action involved.
Although these terms are popular among lawyers and scholars, neither ""hostile work environment"" nor ""quid pro quo"" are found in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits employers from discriminating on the basis of race, sex, color, national origin, and religion.  The Supreme Court noted in Burlington Industries, Inc. v. Ellerth that these terms are useful in differentiating between cases where threats of harassment are ""carried out and those where they are not or absent altogether,"" but otherwise these terms serve a limited purpose.  Therefore, sexual harassment can take place by a supervisor, and an employer can be potentially liable, even if that supervisor's behavior does not fall within the criteria of a ""Quid pro quo"" harassment claim.


==== Donald Trump impeachment inquiry ====

Quid pro quo was frequently mentioned during the first impeachment inquiry into U.S. president Donald Trump, in reference to the charge that his request for an investigation of Hunter Biden was a precondition for the delivery of congressionally authorized military aid during a call with Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy.


== Other meanings ==
For languages that come from Latin, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and French, quid pro quo is used to define a misunderstanding or blunder made by the substituting of one thing for another. The Oxford English Dictionary describes this alternative definition in English as ""now rare"". The Vocabolario Treccani (an authoritative dictionary published by the Encyclopedia Treccani), under the entry ""qui pro quo"", states that the latter expression probably derives from the Latin used in late medieval pharmaceutical compilations. This can be clearly seen from the work appearing precisely under this title, ""Tractatus quid pro quo,"" (Treatise on what substitutes for what) in the medical collection headed up by Mesue cum expositione Mondini super Canones universales... (Venice: per Joannem & Gregorium de gregorijs fratres, 1497), folios 334r-335r. Some examples of what could be used in place of what in this list are: Pro uva passa dactili ('in place of raisins, [use] dates'); Pro mirto sumac ('in place of myrtle, [use] sumac'); Pro fenugreco semen lini ('in place of fenugreek, [use] flaxseed'), etc. This list was an essential resource in the medieval apothecary, especially for occasions when certain essential medicinal substances were not available.
Satirist Ambrose Bierce defined political influence as ""a visionary quo given in exchange for a substantial quid"", making a pun on quid as a form of currency.


== See also ==


== Notes =="
Swaminarayan,"Swaminarayan (IAST: Svāmīnārāyaṇa; 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, was a yogi and ascetic believed by followers to be a manifestation of Krishna or the highest manifestation of Purushottama, around whom the Swaminarayan Sampradaya developed.
In 1800, he was initiated into the Uddhava sampradaya by his guru, Swami Ramanand, and was given the name Sahajanand Swami. Despite opposition, in 1802, Ramanand handed over the leadership of the Uddhava Sampradaya to him before his death. According to the Swaminarayan tradition, Sahajanand Swami became known as Swaminarayan, and the Uddhava Sampradaya became known as the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, after a gathering in which he taught the Swaminarayan Mantra to his followers.
He emphasized ""moral, personal, and social betterment,"" and ahimsa. He is also remembered within the sect for undertaking reforms for women and the poor, and performing large-scale non-violent yajñas (fire sacrifices).
During his lifetime, Swaminarayan institutionalized his charisma and beliefs in various ways. He built six mandirs to facilitate devotional worship of God by his followers, and encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition, including the Shikshapatri, which he wrote in 1826. In 1826, through a legal document titled the Lekh, Swaminarayan created two dioceses, the Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal Gadi) and Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad Gadi), with a hereditary leadership of acharyas and their wives, beginning with two of his nephews whom he formally adopted, who were authorized to install statues of deities in temples and to initiate ascetics.


== Biography ==


=== Childhood as Ghanshyam ===

Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 (Chaitra Sud 9, Samvat 1837) in Chhapaiya, a village near Ayodhya, then under the Nawab of Oudh, in present-day Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Born into the Brahmin or priestly caste of Sarvariya, Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati Pande (mother, also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi). The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami, celebrating the birth of Rama. The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of the waxing moon in the month of Chaitra (March–April), is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers. This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers.
Swaminarayan had an elder brother, Rampratap Pande, and a younger brother, Ichcharam Pande. He is said to have mastered the scriptures, including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata by the age of seven.


=== Travels as Nilkanth Varni ===

After the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 (Ashadh Sud 10, Samvat 1849) at the age of 11. He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey.  Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram, or hermitage, that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Pancaratra. To find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:

What is Jiva?
What is Ishvara?
What is Maya?
What is Brahman?
What is Parabrahman?
While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga (eightfold yoga) in a span of nine months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi. In Nepal, it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness. As a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned. Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath, Rameswaram, Nashik, Dwarka, and Pandharpur.
In 1799, after a seven-year journey, Nilkanth's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami, a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami. Muktanand Swami, who was 22 years older than Nilkanth, answered the five questions to Nilkanth's satisfaction. Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami, whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat. He later claimed in the Vachnamrut that during this period, he took up a severe penance to eliminate his mother's flesh and blood from his body so that the sign of his physical attachment to family, was completely removed.


=== Leadership as Sahajanand Swami ===

According to the sect, Nilkanth's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha-tattvas (five eternal elements), together with his mental and physical discipline, inspired senior swamis of Ramanand Swami.
Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800, and with it was granted the names Sahajanand Swami and Narayan Muni to signify his new status.
At the age of 21, Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the Uddhava Sampradaya by Ramanand Swami, prior to his death. His sucessessional was initially opposed by some members of the group who split off, but was soon accepted as the leader of the satsang and as a manifestation of god. The Uddhava Sampradaya henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity, Krishna or Narayana. Krishna was considered by him his own ishtadevata. In contrast with the Vaishnava sect known as the Radha-vallabha Sampradaya, he had a more puritanical approach, rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery. While being a worshipper of Krishna, Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in Krishnology in favor of worship in the mood of majesty, alike to earlier Vaishnava teachers, Ramanuja and Yamunacharya.


=== Manifestation belief ===
According to Swaminarayan-tradition, Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering, in Faneni, a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami. He gave his followers a new mantra, known as the Swaminarayan mantra, to repeat in their rituals: Swaminarayan. When chanting this mantra, some devotees went into samadhi, and claimed that they could see their personal gods.
As early as 1804, Swaminarayan, who was reported to have performed miracles, was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple and paramahamsa, Nishkulanand Swami. This work, the Yama Danda, was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect. Swaminarayan himself is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God in a meeting with Reginald Heber, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, in 1825.: 81 
Some of Swaminarayan's followers believe he was an incarnation of Krishna. The images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna have coincided in the liturgy of the sect. The story of the birth of Swaminarayan parallels that of Krishna's birth from the scripture Bhagavata Purana. Most of his followers believe that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or Purushottama Narayana - the Supreme Being and superior to other avatars.
The belief of many followers that their founder was the incarnation of the Supreme God has also drawn criticism. According to Professor Raymond B. Williams, Swaminarayan was criticized because he received large gifts from his followers and dressed and traveled as a Maharaja even though he had taken the vows of renunciation of the world. Swaminarayan responded that he accepts gifts for the emancipation of his followers.


=== Teaching ===
Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life. Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation, Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots. He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples. Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat, alcohol or drugs, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals.  Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes. Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple. He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation: dharma, bhakti (devotion), gnana (knowledge) and vairagya (detachment). Doctrinally, Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja and was critical of Adi Shankara's concept of Advaita, or monistic non-dualism. Swaminarayan's ontology maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form. Swaminarayan's philosophy asserts that Parabrahman and Aksharabrahman are two distinct eternal realities.


=== Relations with other religions and the British Government ===

Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions, sometimes meeting prominent leaders. His followers cut across religious boundaries, including people of Muslim and Parsi backgrounds. Swaminarayan's personal attendants included Khoja Muslims. In Kathiawad, many Muslims wore kanthi necklaces given by Swaminarayan. He also had a meeting with Reginald Heber, Lord Bishop of Calcutta and a leader of Christians in India at the time. Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses and carrying Matchlocks and swords. Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him (fifty horses and fifty muskets) and mentioned that it was humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies, his being the smaller contingent. As a result of the meeting, both leaders gained mutual respect for one another.
Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the government of the ruling East India Company. The first temple he built, in Ahmedabad, was built on 2,000 hectares (5,000 acres) of land given by the company government. The company officers gave it a 101-gun salute when it was opened. It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of Krishna. In 1830, Swaminarayan had a meeting with Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay (1827 to 1830). According to Malcolm, Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a region that was considered lawless. During the meeting with Malcolm, Swaminarayan gave him a copy of the Shikshapatri. This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford.
It has been observed that the Pax Britannica in Gujarat went hand-in-hand with the Pax Swaminarayan, as both were significant in ending the violent and chaotic period Gujarat had experienced in the years before. Many of the social reforms and values that Swaminarayan preached were highly regarded by the ruling British government.


=== Relations with local Kathi rulers ===
Swaminarayan maintained a close relationship with the Kathi rulers of Kathiawad, earning him the title ""Kathiya Bhagwan"" (the god revered by Kathis) due to his adoption of their attire, dialect, and customs. The Kathis served as key allies, offering him protection against opposition from local religious figures. Manilal Bhalaja observes that the Kathis left their homes to safeguard Swaminarayan. Additionally, they provided him with refuge during a period of concealment. The Kathis also played a significant role in resolving conflicts during Swaminarayan's temple construction, often facing interference from princely states. A notable instance occurred when Voldan Dhadhal, a Kathi chieftain of Refada, intervened to counter opposition from Thakor Wajesinhji, the ruler of Bhavnagar state, ensuring the successful completion of Gopinathji Mandir of Gadhada.


=== Temples and ascetics ===

Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several Hindu temples and he had built six huge temples by himself and installed the idols of various deities such as Radha Krishna, Nara-Narayana, Laksmi Narayana, Gopinath, Radha Ramana, and Madanamohana. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna.: 81  Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals. Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers. He conducted the festivals of Vasant Panchami, Holi, and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas.
The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822, with the land for construction given by the Company Government. Following a request of devotees from Bhuj, Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand to build a temple there. Construction commenced in 1822, and the temple was built within a year. A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824, a temple in Dholera in 1826, a temple in Junagadh in 1828 and a temple in Gadhada, also in 1828. By the time of his death, Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli, Dholka and Jetalpur.
From early on, ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan sect. They contribute towards growth and development of the movement, encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life. Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramahamsas in a single night. Paramahamsa is a title of honour sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramahamsas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect. Prominent paramahamsas included Muktanand Swami, Gopalanand Swami, Brahmanand Swami, Gunatitanand Swami, Premanand Swami, Nishkulanand Swami, and Nityanand Swami.


=== Ahmedabad and Vadtal Gadi ===
Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas or preceptors, as his successors. He established two gadis (seats of leadership). One seat was established at Ahmedabad (Nar Narayan Dev Gadi) and the other one at Vadtal (Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi) on 21 November 1825. Swaminarayan appointed an acharya to each of these gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. These acharyas came from his immediate family after sending representatives to search them out in Uttar Pradesh. He formally adopted a son each from his two brothers and appointed them  to the office of acharya. Ayodhyaprasad, the son of Swaminarayan's elder brother Rampratap, and Raghuvira, the son of his younger brother Ichcharam, were appointed acharyas of the Ahmedabad Gadi and the Vadtal (Kheda district) Gadi respectively. Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family. The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhag Lekh. Swaminarayan stated to all the devotees and saints to obey both the Acharyas and Gopalanand Swami who was considered as the main pillar and chief ascetic for the sampradaya.
The current acharya of the Ahmedabad Gadi is Koshalendraprasad Pande and Ajendraprasad Pande, of the Vadtal Gadi.


=== Death ===

In 1830, Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure. He later died on 1 June 1830 (Jeth sud 10, Samvat 1886), and it is believed by followers that, at the time of his death, Swaminarayan left Earth for Akshardham, his abode. He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in Gadhada.


== Social views ==


=== Women ===
Swaminarayan insisted that education was the inherent right of all people, including women, despite considerable criticism from those in his own contemporary society who ""loathed the uplift of lower caste women"". At that time, influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase during Swaminarayan's time, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects. Members of the sect consider Swaminarayan a pioneer of education of females in India.
According to the author Raymond Brady Williams, ""Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women's rights without personal involvement with women"". To counter the practice of sati (self-immolation by a widow on her husband's funeral pyre), Swaminarayan argued that, as human life was given by God, it could be taken only by God, and that sati had no Vedic sanction. He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide. Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide, calling infanticide a sin. For calling a halt to these prevailing practices, Swaminarayan's ""contemporaries naturally saw in him a pioneer of a reformed and purified Hinduism, and Swaminarayan Hinduism an 'ingrazi dharma' or British religion.""
Professor David Harman observed that Swaminarayan ""criticized the popular shakta cults and 'gosai' and 'nath' ascetics for the contemptuous and instrumental way in which they viewed and treated women. These cults were often responsible for gross sexual abuse of women."" Hardiman added that Swaminarayan's view towards women was not in line with this type of misogyny and was rooted in his desire to prevent ill-treatment of women along with promoting celibacy for ascetics. Swaminarayan ""forbade all sadhus and sadhvis (that is, male and female ascetics) of his sect from having any contact whatsoever with members of the opposite sex."" This strict precept was one he likely internalized ""after travelling as an ascetic throughout India [when] he was reported to vomit if approached by even the shadow of a woman"". To help his male ascetic followers maintain their vow of celibacy, Swaminarayan taught “the woman who attracts attention is made up of bones, blood vessels, spittle, blood, mucus and feces; she is simply a collection of these things, and there is nothing to be attractive.
Members of the faith are defensive of the fact that some practices seem to restrict women and make gender equality in leadership impossible. They are only permitted to enter special sections of the temple reserved for women or have to go to separate women's temples. As with practices of niddah in Orthodox Judaism, concepts of pollution associated with the menstrual cycle lead to the exclusion of women from the temples and daily worship during the affected time. Swaminarayan also directed male devotees not to listen to religious discourses given by women.
In the case of widows, Swaminarayan directed those who could not follow the path of chastity to remarry. For those who could, he lay down strict rules which included them being under the control of male members of the family. This may seem regressive, however, it gave them ""a respected and secure place in the social order"" of the time.  Swaminarayan restricted widows ""to live always under the control of male members of their family and prohibited them from receiving instruction in any science from any man excepting their nearest relations.""


=== Caste system and the poor ===

After assuming the leadership of the sampradaya, Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water. He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor. Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought.
Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system, allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him. A political officer in Gujarat, Mr. Williamson reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had ""destroyed the yoke of caste."" He instructed his paramahamsas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants. Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status. Swaminarayan would eat along with the lower Rajput and Khati castes but not any lower. He allowed dalits and lower caste people to visit places of worship. However, Dalits - those outside of the caste system - were formally excluded from Swaminarayan temples. Members of a lower caste are prohibited from wearing a full sect mark (tilak chandlo) on their forehead. Even now, however, for the vast majority of Gujarat's lower-caste, Untouchable and tribal population, the sect is out of bounds.
Reginald Heber, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, noted that disciples of Swaminarayan cut across all castes, and even included Muslims. He writes ""they all pray to one God with no difference of castes. They live as if they were brothers."" Furthermore, in a meeting with Swaminarayan, he noted that ""[Swaminarayan] did not regard the subject as of much importance, but that he wished not to give offense (to ancient Hindu system); that people might eat separately or together in this world, but that above ""oopur"" pointing to heaven, those distinctions would cease."" Swaminarayan worked thus to dispel the myth that moksha (salvation) was not attainable by everyone. He taught that the soul is neither male nor female, nor yoked to any specific caste.


=== Animal sacrifices and yajnas ===
Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices.  To solve this problem, Swaminarayan conducted several large-scale yajnas involving priests from Varanasi. Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large-scale yajnas. Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption, codifying the conduct in the Shikshapatri.


== Scriptures ==

Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts. He held the Bhagavata Purana in high authority. However, there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan sect. Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut. Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, the Muktanand Kavya, the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani.


=== Shikshapatri ===

Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri on 11 February 1826. While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available, it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow. A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma, it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses, outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well-disciplined and moral life. The oldest copy of this text is preserved at the Bodleian Library of Oxford University and it is one of the very few presented by Sahajanand Swami himself. Acharya Tejendraprasad of Ahmedabad has indicated in a letter that he is not aware of any copy from the hand of Sahajanand older than this text. Swaminarayan in various places of Shikshapatri describes Krishna as the greatest entity.


=== Vachanamrut ===

The Vachanamrut (IAST: Vacanāmṛta, lit. ""immortalising ambrosia in the form of words"") is a sacred Hindu text consisting of 273 religious discourses delivered by Swaminarayan from 1819 to 1829 CE and is considered the principal theological text within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.: 6  Compiled by four of his senior disciples, Swaminarayan edited and approved the scripture. As followers believe Swaminarayan to be Parabrahman, or God, the Vachanamrut is considered a direct revelation from God and thus the most precise interpretation of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and other important Hindu scriptures.: 13–14, 45 : 173  This scripture is read by followers regularly and discourses are conducted daily in Swaminarayan temples around the world.: 21–27 


=== Satsangi Jeevan ===

Satsangi Jeevan is the authorised biography of Swaminarayan. The book contains information on the life and teachings of Swaminarayan. It is written by Shatanand Swami and completed in Vikram Samvat 1885. Swaminarayan decided to make Gadhada his permanent residence on the insistence of Dada Khachar and his sisters. Swaminarayan instructed Shatanand Swami to write a book on his life and pastimes.
To enable Shatanand Swami to write from His childhood, Swaminarayan had blessed Shatanand Swami with Sanjay Drishti - special power to see the entire past right from His childhood.
Once written by Shatanand Swami, this book was verified and authenticated by Swaminarayan. He was much pleased to read the book. Swaminarayan then asked his disciples to do Katha of Satsangi Jeevan.


== Legacy ==


=== Schisms ===
Decades after his death, several divisions occurred with different understandings of succession. This included the establishment of Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS), the founder of which left the Vadtal Gadi in 1905, and Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan, the founder of which left the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s. The followers of BAPS hold Gunatitanand Swami as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan, asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest. Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given administrative leadership of the sect while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan. The current spiritual and administrative leader of BAPS is Mahant Swami Maharaj. The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold Gopalanand Swami as the successor to Swaminarayan. The current leader of this sect is Purushottampriyadasji Maharaj.


=== Growth ===

According to the biographer Raymond Williams, when Swaminarayan died, he had a following of 1.8 million people. In 2001, Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents, and the congregation was recorded to be five million, the majority in the homeland of Gujarat. The newspaper Indian Express estimated members of the Swaminarayan sect of Hinduism to number over 20 million (2 crore) worldwide in 2007.


=== Reception ===
The manifestation belief and Swaminarayan's teachings were criticized by Hindu reformist leader Dayananda Saraswati (1824–1883). He questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as the Supreme Being and was disapproving towards the idea that visions of Swaminarayan could form a path to attaining perfection. Accused of deviating from the Vedas, his followers were criticised for the illegal collection of wealth and the ""practice of frauds and tricks."" In the views of Dayananda, published as early as 1875, it was a ""historical fact"" that Swaminarayan decorated himself as Narayana in order to gain followers.
In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi in the letter to his nephew, expressed that Swaminarayan's values didn't align perfectly with his interpretation of Vaishnavism and the love taught by Swaminarayana was all about sentimentalism. According to Gandhi, Swaminarayan had not grasped the essence of non-violence. In 1924, Gandhi applauded efforts of Swaminaryan and added that ""what was accomplished in Gujarat by one person, Sahajanand [Swaminarayan], could not be accomplished by the power of the State"".


== See also ==
Akshar-Purushottam Darshan


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Sources ==
Printed sources

Web-sources


== Further reading ==
Heber, Reginald (1828). Narrative of a Journey Through the Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta To Bombay, Volume 2.
Killingley, Dermot (2003). ""Hinduism"". In Ridgeon, Lloyd V. J. (ed.). Major world religions: from their origins to the present. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-415-29796-7."
Pelléas et Mélisande (opera),"Pelléas et Mélisande (Pelléas and Mélisande) is an opera in five acts with music by Claude Debussy. The French libretto was adapted from Maurice Maeterlinck's symbolist play of the same name. It premiered at the Salle Favart in Paris by the Opéra-Comique on 30 April 1902; Jean Périer was Pelléas and Mary Garden was Mélisande, conducted by André Messager, who was instrumental in getting the Opéra-Comique to stage the work. It is the only opera Debussy ever completed.
The plot concerns a love triangle. Prince Golaud finds Mélisande, a mysterious young woman, lost in a forest. He marries her and brings her back to the castle of his grandfather, King Arkel of Allemonde. Here Mélisande becomes increasingly attached to Golaud's younger half-brother Pelléas, arousing Golaud's jealousy. Golaud goes to excessive lengths to find out the truth about Pelléas and Mélisande's relationship, even forcing his own child, Yniold, to spy on the couple. Pelléas decides to leave the castle but arranges to meet Mélisande one last time and the two finally confess their love for one another. Golaud, who has been eavesdropping, rushes out and kills Pelléas. Mélisande dies shortly after, having given birth to a daughter, with Golaud still begging her to tell him ""the truth.""
Pelléas et Mélisande has remained regularly staged and recorded throughout the 20th- and into the 21st-century.


== Composition history ==


=== Debussy's ideal of opera ===
Looking back in 1902, Debussy explained the protracted genesis of his only finished opera: ""For a long time I had been striving to write music for the theatre, but the form in which I wanted it to be was so unusual that after several attempts I had given up on the idea."" There were many false starts before Pelléas et Mélisande. In the 1880s the young composer had toyed with several opera projects (Diane au Bois, Axël) before accepting a libretto on the theme of El Cid, entitled Rodrigue et Chimène, from the poet and Wagner aficionado Catulle Mendès.
At this point, Debussy too was a devotee of Wagner's music, but—eager to please his father—he was probably more swayed by Mendès' promise of a performance at the Paris Opéra and the money and reputation this would bring. Mendès' libretto, with its conventional plot, offered rather less encouragement to his creative abilities. In the words of critic Victor Lederer, ""Desperate to sink his teeth into a project of substance, the young composer accepted the type of old-fashioned libretto he dreaded, filled with howlers and lusty choruses of soldiers calling for wine."" Debussy's letters and conversations with friends reveal his increasing frustration with the Mendès libretto, and the composer's enthusiasm for the Wagnerian aesthetic was also waning. In a letter of January 1892, he wrote, ""My life is hardship and misery thanks to this opera. Everything about it is wrong for me."" And to Paul Dukas, he confessed that Rodrigue was ""totally at odds with all that I dream about, demanding a type of music that is alien to me.""
Debussy was already formulating a new conception of opera. In a letter to Ernest Guiraud in 1890 he wrote: ""The ideal would be two associated dreams. No time, no place. No big scene [...] Music in opera is far too predominant. Too much singing and the musical settings are too cumbersome [...] My idea is of a short libretto with mobile scenes. No discussion or arguments between the characters whom I see at the mercy of life or destiny."" It was only when Debussy discovered the new symbolist plays of Maurice Maeterlinck that he found a form of drama that answered his ideal requirements for a libretto.


=== Finding the right libretto ===

Maeterlinck's plays were tremendously popular with the avant-garde in the Paris of the 1890s. They were anti-naturalistic in content and style, forsaking external drama for a symbolic expression of the inner life of the characters. Debussy had seen a production of Maeterlinck's first play La princesse Maleine and, in 1891, he applied for permission to set it but Maeterlinck had already promised it to Vincent d'Indy.

Debussy's interest shifted to Pelléas et Mélisande, which he had read some time between its publication in May 1892 and its first performance at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens on 17 May 1893, which he attended. Pelléas was a work that fascinated many other musicians of the time: both Gabriel Fauré and Jean Sibelius composed incidental music for the play, and Arnold Schoenberg wrote a tone poem on the theme. Debussy found in it the ideal opera libretto for which he had been searching. In a 1902 article, ""Pourquoi j'ai écrit Pelléas"" (Why I wrote Pelléas), Debussy explained the appeal of the work: ""The drama of Pelléas which, despite its dream-like atmosphere, contains far more humanity than those so-called 'real-life documents', seemed to suit my intentions admirably. In it there is an evocative language whose sensitivity could be extended into music and into the orchestral backcloth.""
Debussy abandoned work on Rodrigue and Chimène and he approached Maeterlinck in August 1893 via his friend, the poet Henri de Régnier for permission to set Pelléas. By the time Maeterlinck granted it Debussy had already started work on the love scene in act 4, a first version of which was completed in draft by early September.  In November, Debussy made a trip to Belgium, where he played excerpts from his work in progress to the famous violinist Eugène Ysaÿe in Brussels before visiting Maeterlinck at his home in Ghent. Debussy described the playwright as being initially as shy as a ""girl meeting an eligible young man"", but the two soon warmed to each other. Maeterlinck authorised Debussy to make whatever cuts in the play he wanted. He also admitted to the composer that he knew nothing about music.


=== Composition ===
Debussy decided to remove four scenes from the play (act 1 scene 1, act 2 scene 4, act 3 scene 1, act 5 scene 1), significantly reducing the role of the serving-women to one silent appearance in the last act. He also cut back on the elaborate descriptions that Maeterlinck was fond of. Debussy's method of composition was fairly systematic; he worked on only one act at a time but not necessarily in chronological order. The first scene that he wrote was act 4 scene 4, the climactic love scene between Pelléas and Mélisande.
Debussy finished the short score of the opera (without detailed orchestration) on 17 August 1895. He did not go on to produce the full score needed for rehearsals until the Opéra-Comique accepted the work in 1898. At this point he added the full orchestration, finished the vocal score, and made several revisions. It is this version that went into rehearsals in January 1902.


== Putting Pelléas on stage ==


=== Finding a venue ===
Debussy spent years trying to find a suitable venue for the premiere of Pelléas et Mélisande, realising he would have difficulties getting such an innovative work staged. As he confided to his friend Camille Mauclair in 1895: ""It is no slight work. I should like to find a place for it, but you know I am badly received everywhere."" He told Mauclair that he had contemplated asking the wealthy aesthete Robert de Montesquiou to have it performed at his Pavillon des Muses, but nothing came of this. Meanwhile, Debussy refused all requests for permission to present extracts from the opera in concert. He wrote: ""if this work has any merit, it is above all in the connection between its scenic and musical movement"".
The composer and conductor André Messager was a great admirer of Debussy's music and had heard him play extracts from the opera. When Messager became chief conductor of the Opéra-Comique theatre in 1898, his enthusiastic recommendations prompted Albert Carré, the head of the opera house, to visit Debussy and hear the work played on the piano at two sessions, in May 1898 and April 1901. On the strength of this, Carré accepted the work for the Opéra-Comique and on 3 May 1901 gave Debussy a written promise to perform the opera the following season.


=== The matter with Maeterlinck ===

Maeterlinck wanted the role of Mélisande to go to his longtime companion Georgette Leblanc, who later claimed that Debussy had had several rehearsals with her and was ""thrilled with my interpretation"". However, she was persona non grata with Albert Carré—her performance as Carmen had been regarded as outrageous—and privately Debussy told a friend: ""not only does she sing out of tune, she speaks out of tune"".
Carré was keen on a new Scottish singer, Mary Garden, who had captivated the Parisian public when she had taken over the lead role in Gustave Charpentier's Louise shortly after its premiere in 1900. Debussy was reluctant at first but he later recalled how impressed he was when he heard her sing: ""That was the gentle voice that I had heard in my inmost being, with its hesitantly tender and captivating charm, such that I had barely dared to hope for.""
Maeterlinck claimed that he only learned of Garden's casting when it was announced in the press at the end of December 1901. He was furious and took legal action to prevent the opera from going ahead. When this failed—as it was bound to do, since he had given Debussy his written authorisation to stage the opera as he saw fit in 1895—he told Leblanc that he was going to give Debussy ""a few whacks to teach him some manners."" He went to Debussy's home, where he threatened the composer. Madame Debussy intervened; the composer calmly remained seated. On 13 April 1902, about two weeks before the premiere, Le Figaro published a letter from Maeterlinck in which he dissociated himself the opera as ""a work that is strange and hostile to me [...] I can only wish for its immediate and decided failure."" Maeterlinck finally saw the opera in 1920, two years after Debussy's death. He later confessed: ""In this affair I was entirely wrong and he was a thousand times right.""


=== Rehearsals ===
Rehearsals for Pelléas et Mélisande began on 13 January 1902 and lasted for 15 weeks. Debussy was present for most of them. Mélisande was not the only role which caused casting problems: the child (Blondin) who was to play Yniold was not chosen until very later in the day and proved incapable of singing the part competently. Yniold's main scene (act 4 scene 3) was cut and only reinstated in later performances, when the role was given to a woman. In the course of rehearsals it was discovered that the stage machinery of the Opéra-Comique was unable to cope with the scene changes and Debussy had rapidly to compose orchestral interludes to cover them, music which (according to Orledge) ""proved the most expansive and obviously Wagnerian in the opera."" Many of the orchestra and cast were hostile to Debussy's innovative work and, in the words of Roger Nichols, ""may not have taken altogether kindly to the composer's injunction, reported by Mary Garden, to 'forget, please, that you are singers'."" The dress rehearsal took place on the afternoon of Monday, 28 April and was a rowdy affair. Someone—in Mary Garden's view, Maeterlinck—distributed a salacious parody of the libretto. The audience also laughed at Yniold's repetition of the phrase ""petit père"" (little father) and at Garden's Scottish accent: it appears she pronounced courage as curages, meaning ""the dirt that gets stuck in drains"". The censor, Henri Roujon, asked Debussy to make a number of cuts before the premiere, including Yniold's reference to Pelléas and Mélisande being ""near the bed"". Debussy agreed but kept the libretto unaltered in the published score.


=== Premiere ===

Pelléas et Mélisande received its first performance at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 30 April 1902 with André Messager conducting. The sets were designed in the Pre-Raphaelite style by Lucien Jusseaume and Eugène Ronsin. The premiere received a warmer reception than the dress rehearsal because a group of Debussy aficionados counterbalanced the Opéra-Comique's regular subscribers, who found the work so objectionable. Messager described the reaction: ""[It was] certainly not a triumph, but no longer the disaster of two days before...From the second performance onwards, the public remained calm and above all curious to hear this work everyone was talking about...The little group of admirers, Conservatoire pupils and students for the most part, grew day by day...""
Critical reaction was mixed. Some accused the music of being ""sickly and practically lifeless"" and of sounding ""like the noise of a squeaky door or a piece of furniture being moved about, or a child crying in the distance."" Camille Saint-Saëns, a relentless opponent of Debussy's music, claimed he had abandoned his customary summer holidays so he could stay in Paris and ""say nasty things about Pelléas."" But others — especially the younger generation of composers, students and aesthetes — were highly enthusiastic. Debussy's friend Paul Dukas lauded the opera, Romain Rolland described it as ""one of the three or four outstanding achievements in French musical history"", and Vincent d'Indy wrote an extensive review which compared the work to Wagner and early-17th-century Italian opera. D'Indy found Pelléas moving, too: ""The composer has in fact simply felt and expressed the human feelings and human sufferings in human terms, despite the outward appearance the characters present of living in a dream."" The opera won a ""cult following"" among young aesthetes, and the writer Jean Lorrain satirised the Pelléastres who aped the costumes and hairstyles of Mary Garden and the rest of the cast.


== Performance history ==
The initial run lasted for 14 performances, making a profit for the Opéra-Comique. It became a staple part in the repertory of the theatre, reaching its hundredth performance there on 25 January 1913. In 1908, Maggie Teyte took over the role of Mélisande from Mary Garden. She described Debussy's reaction on learning her nationality: ""Une autre anglaise—Mon Dieu"" (Another Englishwoman—my God). Teyte also wrote about the composer's perfectionist character and his relations with the cast:

As a teacher he was pedantic—that's the only word. Really pedantic ... There was a core of anger and bitterness in him—I often think he was rather like Golaud in Pelléas and yet he wasn't. He was—it's in all his music—a very sensual man. No one seemed to like him. Jean Périer, who played Pelléas to my Mélisande, went white with anger if you mentioned the name of Debussy...
Debussy's perfectionism—plus his dislike of the attendant publicity—was one of the reasons why he rarely attended performances of Pelléas et Mélisande. However, he did supervise the first foreign production of the opera, which appeared at the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels on 9 January 1907. This was followed by foreign premieres in Frankfurt on 19 April of the same year, New York City at the Manhattan Opera House on 19 February 1908, and at La Scala, Milan, with Arturo Toscanini conducting on 2 April 1908. It first appeared in the United Kingdom at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, on 21 May 1909.
In the years following World War I, the popularity of Pelléas et Mélisande began to fade somewhat. As Roger Nichols writes, ""[The] two qualities of being escapist and easily caricatured meant that in the brittle, post-war Parisian climate Pelléas could be written off as no longer relevant."" The situation was the same abroad and in 1940 the English critic Edward J. Dent observed that ""Pelléas et Mélisande seems to have fallen completely into oblivion."" However, the Canadian premiere was given that same year at the Montreal Festivals under the baton of Wilfrid Pelletier. Interest was further revived by the famous production which debuted at the Opéra-Comique on 22 May 1942 under the baton of Roger Désormière with Jacques Jansen and Irène Joachim in the title roles. The couple became ""the Pelléas and Mélisande for a whole generation of opera-goers, last appearing together at the Opéra-Comique in 1955.""

The Australian premiere was a student production at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music in June 1950, conducted by Eugene Goossens, with Renee Goossens (no relation) as Mélisande. The first professional staging in Australia was in June 1977, with the Victorian State Opera under Richard Divall.
In December 1962 (for the Debussy birth centenary) the Opéra-Comique gave several performances conducted by Manuel Rosenthal and directed by Pierre Bertin using the original Jusseaume-Ronsin sets from the 1902 premiere production. Notable later productions include those with set designs by Jean Cocteau (first performed in Metz in 1963), and the 1969 Covent Garden production conducted by Pierre Boulez. Boulez's rejection of the tradition of Pelléas conducting caused controversy among critics who accused him of ""Wagnerising"" Debussy, to which Boulez responded that the work was indeed heavily influenced by Wagner's Parsifal. Boulez returned to conduct Pelléas in an acclaimed production by the German director Peter Stein for the Welsh National Opera in 1992. Modern productions have frequently re-imagined Maeterlinck's setting, often moving the time period to the present day or other time period; for instance, the 1985 Opéra National de Lyon production set the opera during the Edwardian era. This production was considered a launching point for French baritone François Le Roux, whom critics have called the ""finest Pelléas of his generation.""
In 1983, Marius Constant compiled a 20-minute ""Symphonie"" based on the opera.


== Roles ==


== Instrumentation ==
The score calls for:

3 flutes (one doubles piccolo), 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 clarinets, 3 bassoons
4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba
timpani, cymbals, triangle, glockenspiel, bell
2 harps
strings


== Synopsis ==


=== Act 1 ===
Scene 1: A forest
Prince Golaud, grandson of King Arkel of Allemonde, has become lost while hunting in the forest. He discovers a frightened, weeping girl sitting by a spring in which a crown is visible. She reveals her name is Mélisande but nothing else about her origins and refuses to let Golaud retrieve her crown from the water. Golaud persuades her to come with him before the forest gets dark.

Scene 2: A room in the castle
Six months have passed. Geneviève, the mother of the princes Golaud and Pelléas, reads a letter to the aged and nearly blind King Arkel. It was sent by Golaud to his brother Pelléas. In it Golaud reveals that he has married Mélisande, although he knows no more about her than on the day they first met. Golaud fears that Arkel will be angry with him and tells Pelléas to find how he reacts to the news. If the old man is favourable then Pelléas should light a lamp from the tower facing the sea on the third day; if Golaud does not see the lamp shining, he will sail on and never return home. Arkel had planned to marry the widowed Golaud to Princess Ursule in order to put an end to ""long wars and ancient hatreds"", but he bows to fate and accepts Golaud's marriage to Mélisande. Pelléas enters, weeping. He has received a letter from his friend Marcellus, who is on his deathbed, and wants to travel to say goodbye to him. Arkel thinks Pelléas should wait for the return of Golaud, and also reminds Pelléas of his own father, lying sick in bed in the castle. Geneviève tells Pelléas not to forget to light the lamp for Golaud.
Scene 3: Before the castle
Geneviève and Mélisande walk in the castle grounds. Mélisande remarks how dark the surrounding gardens and forest are. Pelléas arrives. They look out to sea and notice a large ship departing and a lighthouse shining, Mélisande foretells that it will sink. Night falls. Geneviève goes off to look after Yniold, Golaud's young son by his previous marriage. Pelléas attempts to take Melisande's hand to help her down the steep path but she refuses saying that she is holding flowers. He tells her he might have to go away tomorrow. Mélisande asks him why.


=== Act 2 ===

Scene 1: A well in the park
It is a hot summer day. Pelléas has led Mélisande to one of his favourite spots, the ""Blind Men's Well"". People used to believe it possessed miraculous powers to cure blindness but since the old king's eyesight started to fail, they no longer come there. Mélisande lies down on the marble rim of the well and tries to see to the bottom. Her hair loosens and falls into the water. Pelléas notices how extraordinarily long it is. He remembers that Golaud first met Mélisande beside a spring and asks if he tried to kiss her at that time but she does not answer. Mélisande plays with the ring Golaud gave her, throwing it up into the air until it slips from her fingers into the well. Pelléas tells her not to be concerned but she is not reassured. He also notes that the clock was striking twelve as the ring dropped into the well. Mélisande asks him what she should tell Golaud. He replies, ""the truth.""
Scene 2: A room in the castle
Golaud is lying in bed with Mélisande at the bedside. He is wounded, having fallen from his horse while hunting. The horse suddenly bolted for no reason as the clock struck twelve. Mélisande bursts into tears and says she feels ill and unhappy in the castle. She wants to go away with Golaud. He asks her the reason for her unhappiness but she refuses to say. When he asks her if the problem is Pelléas, she replies that he is not the cause but she does not think he likes her. Golaud tells her not to worry: Pelléas can behave oddly and he is still very young. Mélisande complains about the gloominess of the castle, today was the first time she saw the sky. Golaud says that she is too old to be crying for such reasons and takes her hands to comfort her and notices the wedding ring is missing. Golaud becomes furious, Mélisande claims she dropped it in a cave by the sea where she went to collect shells with little Yniold. Golaud orders her to go and search for it at once before the tide comes in, even though night has fallen. When Mélisande replies that she is afraid to go alone, Golaud tells her to take Pelléas along with her.
Scene 3: Before a cave
Pelléas and Mélisande make their way down to the cave in pitch darkness. Mélisande is frightened to enter, but Pelléas tells her she will need to describe the place to Golaud to prove she has been there. The moon comes out lighting the cave and reveals three beggars sleeping in the cave. Pelléas explains there is a famine in the land. He decides they should come back another day.


=== Act 3 ===

Scene 1: One of the towers of the castle
Mélisande is at the tower window, singing a song (Mes longs cheveux) as she combs her hair. Pelléas appears and asks her to lean out so he can kiss her hand as he is going away the next day. He cannot reach her hand but her long hair tumbles down from the window and he kisses and caresses it instead. Pelléas playfully ties Mélisande's hair to a willow tree in spite of her protests that someone might see them. A flock of doves takes flight. Mélisande panics when she hears Golaud's footsteps approaching. Golaud dismisses Pelléas and Mélisande as nothing but a pair of children and leads Pelléas away.
Scene 2: The vaults of the castle
Golaud leads Pelléas down to the castle vaults, which contain the dungeons and a stagnant pool which has ""the scent of death"". He tells Pelléas to lean over and look into the chasm while he holds him safely. Pelléas finds the atmosphere stifling and they leave.
Scene 3: A terrace at the entrance of the vaults
Pelléas is relieved to breathe fresh air again. It is noon. He sees Geneviève and Mélisande at a window in the tower. Golaud tells Pelléas that there must be no repeat of the ""childish game"" between him and Mélisande last night. Mélisande is pregnant and the least shock might disturb her health. It is not the first time he has noticed there might be something between Pelléas and Mélisande but Pelléas should avoid her as much as possible without making this look too obvious.
Scene 4: Before the castle
Golaud sits with his little son, Yniold, in the darkness before dawn and questions him about Pelléas and Mélisande. The boy reveals little that Golaud wants to know since he is too innocent to understand what he is asking. He says that Pelléas and Mélisande often quarrel about the door and that they have told Yniold he will one day be as big as his father. Golaud is puzzled when learning that they (Pelléas and Mélisande) never send Yniold away because they are afraid when he is not there and keep on crying in the dark. He admits that he once saw Pelléas and Mélisande kiss ""when it was raining"". Golaud lifts his son on his shoulders to spy on Pelléas and Mélisande through the window but Yniold says that they are doing nothing other than looking at the light. He threatens to scream unless Golaud lets him down again. Golaud leads him away.


=== Act 4 ===
Scene 1: A room in the castle
Pelléas tells Mélisande that his father is getting better and has asked him to leave on his travels. He arranges a last meeting with Mélisande by the Blind Men's Well in the park.

Scene 2: The same
Arkel tells Mélisande how he felt sorry for her when she first came to the castle ""with the strange, bewildered look of someone constantly awaiting a calamity"". But now that is going to change and Mélisande will ""open the door to a new era that I foresee"". He asks her to kiss him. Golaud bursts in with blood on his forehead — he claims it was caused by a thorn hedge. When Mélisande tries to wipe the blood away, he angrily orders her not to touch him and demands his sword. He says that another peasant has died of starvation. Golaud notices Mélisande is trembling and tells her he is not going to kill her with the sword. He mocks the ""great innocence"" Arkel says he sees in Mélisande's eyes. He commands her to close them or ""I will shut them for a long time."" He tells Mélisande that she disgusts him and drags her around the room by her hair. When Golaud leaves, Arkel asks if he is drunk. Mélisande simply replies that he does not love her any more. Arkel comments: ""If I were God, I would have pity on the hearts of men"".
Scene 3: A well in the park
Yniold tries to lift a boulder to free his golden ball, which is trapped between it and some rocks. As darkness falls, he hears a flock of sheep suddenly stop bleating. A shepherd explains that they have turned onto a path that doesn't lead back to the sheepfold, but does not answer when Yniold asks where they will sleep. Yniold goes off to find someone to talk to.
Scene 4: The same
Pelléas arrives alone at the well. He is worried that he has become deeply involved with Mélisande and fears the consequences. He knows he must leave but first, he wants to see Mélisande one last time and tell her things he has kept to himself. Mélisande arrives. She was able to slip out without Golaud's noticing. At first she is distant but when Pelléas tells her he is going away she becomes more affectionate. After admitting his love for her, Mélisande confesses that she has loved him since she first saw him. Pelléas hears the servants shutting the castle gates for the night. Now they are locked out, but Mélisande says that it is for the better. Pelléas is resigned to fate too. After the two kiss, Mélisande hears something moving in the shadows. It is Golaud, who has been watching the couple from behind a tree. Golaud strikes down a defenseless Pelléas with his sword and kills him. Mélisande is also wounded but she flees into the woods saying to a dying Pelléas that she does not have courage.


=== Act 5 ===

A bedroom in the castle
Mélisande sleeps in a sick bed after giving birth to her child. The doctor assures Golaud that despite her wound, her condition is not serious. Overcome with guilt, Golaud claims he has been killed for no reason. Pelléas and Mélisande merely kissed ""like a brother and sister"". Mélisande wakes and asks for a window to be opened so she can see the sunset. Golaud asks the doctor and Arkel to leave the room so he can speak with Mélisande alone. He blames himself for everything and begs Mélisande's forgiveness. Golaud presses Mélisande to confess her forbidden love for Pelléas. She maintains her innocence despite Golaud's increasingly desperate pleas to her, to tell the truth. Arkel and the doctor return. Arkel tells Golaud to stop before he kills Mélisande, but he replies, ""I have already killed her."" Arkel hands Mélisande her newborn baby girl but she is too weak to lift the child in her arms and remarks that the baby does not cry and that she will live a sad existence. The room fills with serving women, although no one can tell who has summoned them. Mélisande quietly dies. At the moment of death, the serving women fall to their knees while tearfully mourns Mélisande. Arkel comforts the grief-stricken Golaud.


== Character of the work ==


=== An innovative libretto ===
Rather than engaging a librettist to adapt the original play for him (as was customary), Debussy chose to set the text directly, making only a number of cuts. Maeterlinck's play was in prose rather than verse. Russian composers, notably Mussorgsky (whom Debussy admired), had experimented with setting prose opera libretti in the 1860s, but this was highly unusual in France (or Italy or Germany). Debussy's example influenced many later composers who edited their own libretti from existing prose plays, e.g. Richard Strauss' Salome, Alban Berg's Wozzeck and Bernd Alois Zimmermann's Die Soldaten.
The nature of the libretto Debussy chose to set contributes to the most famous feature of the opera: the almost complete absence of arias or set pieces. There are only two reasonably lengthy passages for soloists: Geneviève's reading of the letter in act 1 and Mélisande's song from the tower in act 3 (which would probably have been set to music in a spoken performance of Maeterlinck's play in any case). Instead, Debussy set the text one note to a syllable in a ""continuous, fluid 'cantilena', somewhere between chant and recitative"".


=== Debussy, Wagner and French tradition ===
Pelléas reveals Debussy's deeply ambivalent attitude to the works of the German composer Richard Wagner. As Donald Grout writes: ""it is customary, and in the main correct, to regard Pelléas et Mélisande as a monument to French operatic reaction to Wagner"". Wagner had revolutionised 19th-century opera by his insistence on making his stage works more dramatic, by his increased use of the orchestra, his abolition of the traditional distinction between aria and recitative in favour of what he termed ""endless melody"", and by his use of leitmotifs, recurring musical themes associated with characters or ideas. Wagner was a highly controversial figure in France. Despised by the conservative musical establishment, he was a cult figure in ""avant-garde"" circles, particularly among literary groups such as the Symbolists, who saw parallels between Wagner's concept of the leitmotif and their use of the symbol. The young Debussy joined in this enthusiasm for Wagner's music, making a pilgrimage to the Bayreuth Festival in 1888 to see Parsifal and Die Meistersinger and returning in 1889 to see Tristan und Isolde. Yet that same year he confessed to his friend Ernest Guiraud his need to escape Wagner's influence.
Debussy was well aware of the dangers of imitating Wagner too closely. Several French composers had tried to write their own Wagnerian music dramas, including Emmanuel Chabrier (Gwendoline) and Ernest Chausson (Le roi Arthus). Debussy was far from impressed by the results: ""We are bound to admit that nothing was ever more dreary than the neo-Wagnerian school in which the French genius had lost its way among the sham Wotans in Hessian boots and the Tristans in velvet jackets."" Debussy strove to avoid excessive Wagnerian influence on Pelléas from the start. The love scene was the first music he composed but he scrapped his early drafts for being too conventional and because ""worst of all, the ghost of old Klingsor, alias R.Wagner, kept appearing.""
However, Debussy took several features from Wagner, including the use of leitmotifs, though these are ""rather the 'idea-leitmotifs' of the more mature Wagner of Tristan than the 'character-leitmotifs' of his earlier music-dramas."" Debussy referred to what he felt were Wagner's more obvious leitmotifs as a ""box of tricks"" (boîte à trucs) and claimed there was ""no guiding thread in Pelléás"" as ""the characters are not subjected to the slavery of the leitmotif."" Yet, as Debussy admitted privately, there are themes associated with each of the three main characters in Pelléas.
The continuous use of the orchestra is another feature of Wagnerian music drama, yet the way Debussy writes for the orchestra is completely different from Tristan, for example. In Grout's words, ""In most places the music is no more than an iridescent veil covering the text."" The emphasis is on quietness, subtlety and allowing the words of the libretto to be heard. Debussy's use of declamation is un-Wagnerian as he felt Wagnerian melody was unsuited to the French language. Instead, he stays close to the rhythms of natural speech, making Pelléas part of a tradition which goes back to the French Baroque tragédies en musique of Rameau and Lully as well as the experiments of the very founders of opera, Peri and Caccini.
Like Tristan the subject of Pelléas is a love triangle set in a vaguely Medieval world. Unlike the protagonists of Tristan, the characters rarely seem to understand or be able to articulate their own feelings. The deliberate vagueness of the story is paralleled by the elusiveness of Debussy's music.


== Subsequent opera projects ==
Pelléas was to be Debussy's only completed opera. For this reason it has sometimes been compared to Beethoven's Fidelio. As Hugh Macdonald writes: ""Both operas were much-loved only children of doting creators who put so much into their making that there could be no second child to follow after."" This was not for want of trying on Debussy's part, and he worked hard to create a successor. Details of several opera projects survive. The most substantial surviving musical sketches are for two works based on short stories by Edgar Allan Poe: Le diable dans le beffroi and La chute de la maison Usher.

Debussy also planned a version of Shakespeare's As You Like It with a libretto by Paul-Jean Toulet, but the poet's opium addiction meant he was too lazy to write the text. Two other projects suggest Debussy intended to challenge German composers on their own ground. Orphée-Roi (King Orpheus) was to be a riposte to Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice which Debussy considered to ""treat only the anecdotal, lachrymose aspect of the subject"". But, according to Victor Lederer, for ""shock value, neither [As You Like It nor Orphée] tops the Tristan project of 1907 [...] According to Léon Vallas, one of Debussy's early biographers, its 'episodic character... would have been related to the tales of chivalry, and diametrically opposed to the Germanic conception of Wagner.' That Debussy entertained, if only for a few weeks, the idea of writing an opera based on the Tristan legend is quite incredible. He knew Wagner's colossal Tristan und Isolde as well as anyone, and his confidence must have been great indeed if he felt up to treating the subject."" However, nothing came of any of these schemes, partly because the rectal cancer which afflicted Debussy from 1909 meant that he found it increasingly hard to concentrate on sustained creative work. Pelléas would remain a unique opera.


== Recordings ==

The earliest recording of Pelléas et Mélisande is a 1904 Gramophone & Typewriter disc recording of Mary Garden singing the passage ""Mes longs cheveux"", with Debussy accompanying her on the piano. The first recording of extended excerpts from the opera was made by the Grand Orchestre Symphonique du Grammophone under conductor Piero Coppola in 1924 and remade with the electrical process for improved sound in 1927. The 1942 recording conducted by Roger Désormière, the first note-complete version, is considered a reference by most critics.


== References ==
Notes

Sources

Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). ""Pelléas et Mélisande, 30 April 1902"". L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian).
Branger, Jean-Christophe (2012). Sylvie Douche; Denis Herlin (eds.). Pelléas et Mélisande cent ans après: études et documents (in French). Lyon: Symétrie. ISBN 978-2-914373-85-2.
Debussy, Claude (2005). François Lesure; Denis Herlin (eds.). Correspondance (1872–1918) (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 2-07-077255-1.
Holmes, Paul (1991). Debussy. Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780711917521.
Jensen, Eric Frederick (2014). Debussy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973005-6.
Macdonald, Hugh (in English), booklet notes to the 1992 Deutsche Grammophon recording of Pelléas et Mélisande (conducted by Claudio Abbado) Others by Jürgen Maehder and Annette Kreutziger-Herr (in German), and Myriam Chimènes (in French)
Nichols, Roger; Langham Smith, Richard, eds. (1989). Claude Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande. Cambridge Opera Handbooks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31446-1.
Nichols, Roger (1992). Debussy Remembered. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-15358-5.
Nichols, Roger (2008). The Life of Debussy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57887-5.
Orledge, Robert (1982). Debussy and the Theatre. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22807-7.
Tresize, Simon, ed. (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Debussy. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65478-5.
Walsh, Stephen (2018). Debussy, A Painter in Sound. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-33016-4.


== Further reading ==
Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001. ISBN 0-14-029312-4


== External links ==
 Media related to Pelléas et Mélisande (opera) at Wikimedia Commons
 The full text of Pelléas and Melisande at Wikisource

 Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande: A Guide to the Opera with Musical Examples from the Score at Project Gutenberg, a contemporaneous analysis
Full Vocal Score with notes
Pelléas et Mélisande (Debussy): Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
Synopsis"
Padiham,"Padiham ( PAD-i-əm) is a market town and civil parish on the River Calder, in the Borough of Burnley in Lancashire, England. It is located north west of Burnley, and north east of the towns of Clayton le Moors and Great Harwood. It is edged by the foothills of Pendle Hill to the north-west and north-east. The United Kingdom Census 2011 gave a parish population of 10,098, estimated in 2019 at 10,138.


== History ==
Early forms of the name include ""Padingham"", with the last element probably from the Old English word hām, meaning home and ing in this sense meaning ""of the"". Its first is generally thought to be a personal name: Bede listed Padda as one of the priests who assisted Bishop Wilfrid in the late 7th century.
No prehistoric or Roman sites have been found in the built-up area. Padiham, though a name of Anglo-Saxon origin, is not recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book. Padiham was never a separate manor, its lands largely being held by copyhold tenants of the Manor of Ightenhill, a part of the Honour of Clitheroe. In 1258 there was a single free tenant, one Gilbert de Padiham. The Lord of Clitheroe had established a water-powered corn mill here by 1311. It remained for centuries as a market town, where produce from Pendleside was bought and sold. The town expanded and was redeveloped during the Industrial Revolution. The centre is now a conservation area.
Padiham's population peaked around 1921 at about 14,000, declining to 10,000 in the early 1960s and 8,998 at the time of the 2001 census. This reflected how people were moving to the south of England in search of work, after the decline in the traditional cotton, coal and engineering manufacturing industries.
Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip first visited Burnley, Nelson and the old Mullard valve factory at Simonstone near Padiham on their post-Coronation tour of Lancashire in 1955.


== Governance ==
Padiham, once a township in the parish of Whalley, became a civil parish in 1866. An urban district covered the town from 1894 until 1974, but over this time, some rural areas mainly to the north became a new civil parish, Northtown, as part of Burnley Rural District. The Padiham Green area, hitherto part of Hapton, joined Padiham, with another small area following in 1935. Since 1974 Padiham has formed part of the Borough of Burnley. Initially part of an unparished area, a new Padiham civil parish was formed in late 2001, covering a similar area to the old urban district. A Town Council was instituted in 2002. Further boundary changes in 2004 saw the parish gain more territory in the south from Hapton.
Councillors for Padiham on Burnley Borough Council are elected to the Gawthorpe Ward, which covers most of Padiham, but not Gawthorpe Hall, with southern and eastern areas covered by Hapton with Park Ward. The two wards each elect three councillors, John Harbour and Alun Lewis of the Labour Party and Karen Ingham (Conservative) currently serving Gawthorpe and Joanne Broughton, Alan Hosker, and Jamie McGowan, all of the Conservatives in Hapton with Park. The parish is represented on Lancashire County Council as part of the Padiham & Burnley West division, represented since 2017 by Alan Hosker. The Parliamentary Constituency, Burnley, is currently represented by Oliver Ryan for the Labour Party.


== Demography ==
According to the United Kingdom Census 2011, the parish had a population of 10,098, an increase from 8,998 in the 2001 census. The town forms part of a wider urban area, which had a population of 149,796 in 2001. A similar but larger, Burnley Built-up area defined in the 2011 census had a population of 149,422.
The racial composition of the town in 2011 was 98.1% White (96.6% White British), 1.1% Asian, 0.1% Black, 0.5% Mixed and 0.1% Other. The largest religious groups were Christian (70.0%) and Muslim (0.6%). 68.3% of adults between the ages of 16 and 74 were classed as economically active and in work.


== Economy ==
In the 19th century, Padiham's industry was based on coal-mining and weaving. Helm Mill on Factory Lane was the first mill built in 1807. By 1906 there were twenty cotton mills though the best preserved, now converted into flats, is Victoria Mill in Ightenhill Street, built in 1852–1853 and extended in 1873. Many cotton workers belonged to the Padiham Weavers' Association, whose membership peaked in 1907 at over 6,000.
Industrial development was helped by proximity to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, about 2 miles (3.2 km) to the south. By 1848, Padiham had many coal pits around the town, including two large collieries and a number of smaller workings. Availability of coal and water nearby helped to boost the cotton industry. Industry benefited further from the arrival of the railway at Hapton in 1840 and Padiham itself in 1877. The last pit closed about 1870, although mining continued in areas outside the town into the 1950s, and open cast mining took place in the 1960s east of the town close to Gawthorpe Hall, north of the River Calder off Grove Lane.
Since the 1960s, the remaining cotton mills have continued a decline that began in the 1930s. So too has Padiham's role as a manufacturing base since the 1990s. The town's last major employer in the sector, Baxi, closed its factory in March 2007, with a loss of 500 jobs. A modern business park, Shuttleworth Mead, opened in 2001 on the western edge of the town where Padiham Power Station had stood until 1993. The business park has been supported by £2.2 million from the European Regional Development Fund and £2 million from the North West Development Agency. Tenants include Supanet, an internet service provider (ISP) and Graham & Brown, a wall coverings company.
In 2007 Fort Vale Engineering developed a new purpose-built factory, where the old Mullard/Philips site at Calder Vale Park, Simonstone had closed in 2004. Fort Vale Engineering employs some 280 local people and has brought business to other local employers.


== Landmarks ==
There are five significant mansions in the local area: Huntroyde Hall, dating from 1576, and Simonstone Hall, dating from 1660, in nearby Simonstone, are still privately owned. Gawthorpe Hall was donated to the National Trust in 1970, but is jointly managed with Lancashire County Council under a 99-year lease. Gawthorpe is in the Ightenhill district. 
The National Trust also runs an office and a tearoom in the courtyard of the property. Gawthorpe was owned by the Shuttleworth family, which held Shuttleworth Hall near Hapton from the 12th century. The current building dates from 1639 and is still a working farm. Read Hall and Park is in the nearby village of Read, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of Padiham on the A671.

St Leonard's Parish Church dates from 1866 to 1869 and is a Grade II listed building. It occupies the site of earlier churches dating back to 1451 or earlier. The original churchyard was smaller in extent than today, being expanded to the northern edge in 1835.
Padiham Town Hall in Burnley Road, built in 1938 to designs by Bradshaw Gass & Hope, is a Grade II listed building.
Padiham Memorial Park at the top of Church Street, was designed by Thomas Mawson, a prolific landscape designer. It was officially opened in 1921 as a memorial to those of the town who gave their lives in the First World War. It now commemorates victims of the Second World War as well.
The park covers 12 acres (4.9 ha) on two sites divided by the River Calder. The upper section is mainly formal, dominated by Knight Hill House, currently used as an Age UK (formerly Age Concern) day centre, and has a rose garden, lawns and two memorials. The lower section, off Park Street, has two bowling greens, tennis courts, skate park and Padiham Leisure Centre. The park is a Green Flag award winner. The park still had remains of some Second World War air raid shelters in 2008.

Another locally listed building is the former Padiham Building Society headquarters. A detached building over two storeys with large underground vault on Burnley Road, constructed between 1955-1958 and officially opened in 1959. The building was recently renovated by local businessman Liam Veitch and converted into individual office spaces.
Padiham War Memorial itself is at the main park entrance in Blackburn Road. There is a second memorial at All Saints' with St John the Baptist off the A671, Padiham Road, opposite the George IV pub. A local man, Thomas Clayton, funded the park in his will; public subscription provided additional money for the park's many features.
Near the war memorial, the Air Crash Memorial recalls several local young people killed on 3 July 1970, when a Dan Air de Havilland Comet deviated from its course and crashed into the high ground of the Montseny Range in north-eastern Spain – see: Dan-Air Flight 1903. The aircraft, destroyed on impact and by subsequent ground fire, contained three flight crew, four cabin crew and 105 passengers, all of whom died. It was the airline's first fatal accident involving fare-paying passengers. The tour operator, Clarksons Holidays, was at the time Britain's largest package holiday company.
Several other buildings in the area are also of historic interest. Hargrove can be seen from a public footpath off the Padiham by-pass just north of the town and the 1950s council housing estate north of Windermere Road. For over 400 years it was the home of the Webster family of yeoman farmers. The house is probably 17th century and part of the Huntroyed estate. Coal from a local outcrop heated the house for many years. Stockbridge House in Victoria Road was occupied by the Holts, a farming family, in 1802 and has a Jacobean chimney. High Whitaker Farm is north-east of Hargrove, accessible by public footpath from Higham Road and from Grove Lane. The building is 16th century and said to have been used to hide Catholics during the reign of Henry VIII. Other houses of note are Priddy Bank Farm and Foulds House Farm, both off Sabden Road, and Arbory Lodge on Arbory Drive.


== Media ==
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter and the local relay TV transmitter located in the Forest of Pendle.
Local radio stations are BBC Radio Lancashire, Heart North West, Smooth North West, Central Radio North West, Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire and Capital Manchester and Lancashire (formerly 2BR).
The town is served by the local newspapers, Burnley Express and Lancashire Telegraph.
Between 1994 and 1996 three series of the BBC One comedy drama series All Quiet on the Preston Front was filmed in the town as the show's fictional setting of Roker Bridge.


== Transport ==


=== Rail ===
Padiham railway station was on a branch line (known as the Great Harwood loop) of the East Lancashire Line from Burnley to Blackburn. It opened in 1877, but was closed on 2 December 1957 and the station later demolished. The line was retained for deliveries of coal to Padiham Power Station until that closed in 1993. The nearest railway station now is at Hapton, about 2 miles (3.2 km) south. The old line was converted into a footpath/bridleway/cycleway called Padiham Greenway, completed in June 2010.


=== Buses ===
The town is served by Burnley Bus Company services from Accrington, Burnley, Nelson, Colne and beyond, and by a Blackburn Bus Company service 152 from Burnley, Blackburn and Preston.


=== Road ===
Junctions 8 and 10 of the M65 are both some 2 miles (3 km) from the town centre. Junction 8 of the M65 also gives access to the A56 dual carriageway leading to the M66 and access to the Manchester motorway network.


=== Air ===
The nearest airport, Manchester, is 50 minutes' drive. The best route by public transport is via Blackburn, then train. It takes some 2¼ hours.


== Historic maps ==
The 1845 map (1) shows the town of Padiham in the early days of the Lancashire cotton industry in Victorian times, with three mills marked. Most of the town at that stage was north of the river. The top left-hand corner shows part of the Huntroyde Demesne. The River Calder, on the right of the map, flows to the north, having been diverted in the early 19th century from its original route, away from Gawthorpe Hall (shown in pink), because of pollution. In the 1960s the river was re-routed to its original course to accommodate open-cast coal mining.
The 1890 Ordnance Survey map (2) shows the cotton-industry growth of the cotton industry in the later 19th century. The 1–25,000 scale OS map (3) is a partial extract from the two maps indicated. Several historic locations shown include Read Hall (A2) and Read (B2); Martholme, just east of Martholme Viaduct (A3); Simonstone and Simonstone Hall (C3); Huntroyd and grounds (D1–D2); Padiham Power Station (D3) with the connecting line for fuel; post-war housing north of the town off Slade Lane (E2); High Whitaker (F1); the River Calder on the old course from Gawthore Hall and grounds (F2); Pendle Hall (G1); Ightenhill Manor House (G2); and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Burnley (J1). The railway line through Padiham also appears.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Notable people ==
Bill Blackadder (1899–1977), professional footballer
William Blezard (1921–2003), composer born in Padiham, who worked with Joyce Grenfell and others
Thomas Birtwistle (1833–1912), trade unionist involved in Padiham weavers' strikes in 1859
Richard Bradshaw (fl. 1900s) footballer born in Padiham, played for Blackpool F.C.
Maurice Green (1906–1987), editor of The Financial Times and The Daily Telegraph, was born in Padiham.
Cyril Harrison (1901–1980), managing director of English Sewing Cotton Company, was educated at Padiham Wesleyan School.
Harry Hastie (fl. 1920), footballer
Harry Hill (1916–2009), born in Padiham, was a bronze medallist at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. Too poor to get to London any other way, Hill cycled the 200 miles from Sheffield on the bike he used in the Olympics.
Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baronet (1804–1877), husband of Janet Kay-Shuttleworth of Gawthorpe Hall, founded teacher training and independent school inspection in England and what is now the University of St Mark & St John.
Ughtred Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baron Shuttleworth (1844–1939), Liberal politician, son of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth. Under-Secretary of State for India and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster under William Gladstone in 1886 and Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty under Gladstone and Lord Rosebery in 1892–1895. He inherited Gawthorpe on his mother's death in 1872.
Charles Kay-Shuttleworth, 5th Baron Shuttleworth (born 1948), Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire for 1997
John Starkie (1830–1888), landowner at Ashton Hall, Thurnham, Lancashire
Le Gendre Starkie (1799–1865) and Le Gendre Starkie (1828–1899), landowners at Huntroyde
William Thompson (1866–1920), cricketer
Alfred Tysoe (1874–1901), Padiham-born athlete and winner of two gold medals in the 800m and 5,000m team races at the 1900 Olympic Games
Andy Payton (born 1967), professional footballer, nicknamed the Padiham Predator.


== Freedom of the Town ==
The following have received the Freedom of the Town of Padiham.


=== Individuals ===
Robert ""Bob"" Clark: 29 June 2021.


== See also ==


== References ==
Notes

Citations


== External links ==

Burnley Borough Council
Church of England Parish of Padiham and Hapton
Padiham Town Council
Visit Padiham
Padiham Urban District Council archive catalogue
Padiham Heritage Appraisal 2015

Map sources for Padiham"
List of rescissions of Article V Convention applications,"Article V of the United States Constitution provides that the legislatures of the several states may apply to Congress for a convention to propose amendments to the Constitution. Left unclear, however, is whether a state's legislature which has applied to Congress for such a convention may later change its sentiment and rescind such application.
If the purpose of Article V is to give state legislators power over a recalcitrant Congress—and if state lawmakers may indeed limit their applications by specific subject matter—it is possible that, if the question were ever put before them, federal courts would hold that a rescission of a previous application is likewise valid, in order to give more meaningful effect to the power which Article V confers upon state legislators.


== Recent activities ==
The legislatures of some states which, at various times, have made application to Congress for the calling of an Article V amendatory convention, have later rescinded such petitions. During the period between 1988 and 2024, it is known that lawmakers in 26 states adopted legislation to rescind previous legislative measures to apply for such a convention. Perhaps there were others in addition to the 26 which are confirmed and listed below. Remaining unclear from the language of Article V—and subject to debate—is whether an application, once made by a state legislature, may be subsequently revoked by that state's legislature.
From 2008 to 2024 in 13 of those very same 26 states, lawmakers changed their minds yet again—back in the direction of favoring that an Article V amendatory convention in fact be called.


== List of state legislative rescissions (1988–2025) ==
What follows is a listing of states whose legislatures are confirmed to have approved resolutions and memorials rescinding previous resolutions and memorials applying for an Article V amendatory convention. These known rescissions from 27 states have been officially received by at least one of the two houses of Congress and were, at a minimum, summarized in the Congressional Record and referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in either house of Congress.  Again, the list below, covering 1988 to present, might not be all-inclusive:

Alabama rescinding in 1988 (both House Joint Resolution No. 26 [POM-311, Volume 135 Congressional Record, page 20052 and POM-434, Volume 136 Congressional Record, page 4663] as well as House Joint Resolution No. 182 [POM-433, Volume 136 Congressional Record, page 4663]); but in 2011, Alabama legislators approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 100, reprising Alabama's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Alabama's 1975 and 1976 applications for the same thing had been repealed by Alabama's two rescissions in 1988; and in 2015, Alabama lawmakers further applied for a convention relative to fiscal restraints on the federal government, limiting the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limiting the terms of office of federal officials—including members of Congress (House Joint Resolution No. 112); most recently, Alabama legislators adopted in 2018, House Joint Resolution No. 23 proposing a federal constitutional amendment that limits the number of terms of office a person may serve as a Member of the United States House of Representatives and as a Member of the United States Senate;
Florida rescinding in 1988 (Senate Memorial No. 302) [POM-549, Volume 134 Congressional Record, page 15363]; but in 2010, Florida legislators approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 10, reprising Florida's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Florida's 1976 application for the same thing had been repealed by Florida's 1988 rescission; four years later in 2014, Florida lawmakers again applied for a convention relative to an amendment requiring that the federal budget be balanced (Senate Memorial No. 658); not stopping there, 2014 Florida legislators also applied for a convention relative to amendments that would place fiscal restraints upon the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office of federal officials—including members of Congress (Senate Memorial No. 476); as well as applying, likewise in 2014, for a convention for an amendment to require that legislation in Congress contain only one subject and that the one subject must be clearly expressed in the measure's title (House Memorial No. 261); and in 2016, Florida lawmakers further applied for a convention relative to term limits on Members of Congress (House Memorial No. 417);
Nevada Assembly members attempted a structurally-flawed, one-house rescission in 1989 with their adoption of Assembly Resolution No. 20 (""FILE NUMBER 157"") [POM-181, Volume 135 Congressional Record, page 14573] issuing the unusual instruction to the Nevada Assembly's Chief Clerk to ""...draw a black border around the portion of the 1979 Assembly Journal whereby the Assembly passed Senate Joint Resolution No. 8 and write across the face thereof: 'Expunged by order of the Assembly this 24th day of June, 1989...'""; but, in 2017, Nevada lawmakers succeeded in a proper, two-house, umbrella-style rescission with their adoption of Senate Joint Resolution No. 10 (see below);
Louisiana rescinding in 1990 (House Concurrent Resolution No. 218) [POM-288, Volume 138 Congressional Record, page 669]; but in 2008, Louisiana lawmakers again applied for a convention—to place into the Constitution the statutory Posse Comitatus Act originally enacted by Congress in 1878 (House Concurrent Resolution No. 38); and a separate entreat three years later, in 2011, for a convention relative to an amendment requiring that a majority of state legislatures approve any increase in the federal government's debt (House Concurrent Resolution No. 87); and three years after that, in 2014, Louisiana legislators approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 70, reprising Louisiana's plural applications for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Louisiana's plural applications during the 1970s for the same thing had been among the casualties of Louisiana's umbrella-rescission in 1990; most recently, in 2016, the Louisiana Legislature applied for a convention ""...for the purpose of proposing amendments to limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, impose fiscal restraints upon its activities, and limit the terms of office that may be served by its officials and by members of Congress"" (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 52);
Idaho rescinding in 1999 (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 129) [POM-410, Volume 146 Congressional Record, pages 1449–1450];
Oregon rescinding in 1999 (Senate Joint Memorial No. 9) [POM-393, Volume 146 Congressional Record, page 95];
North Dakota rescinding in 2001 (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4028) [POM-8, Volume 147 Congressional Record, page 5905]; but a decade later, in 2011, North Dakota lawmakers submitted to Congress two applications—one asking for a convention relative to an amendment requiring that a majority of the state legislatures approve any increase in the federal government's debt (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4007); and a separate request for a convention relative to an amendment which would negate concerns about a ""runaway"" Article V Convention (House Concurrent Resolution No. 3048); in 2013, during North Dakota's 63rd Legislative Assembly, Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4016 was offered (""A concurrent resolution to rescind an application made by the Sixty‑second Legislative Assembly to the Congress of the United States to call a convention pursuant to the terms of Article V of the United States Constitution for proposing an amendment to the Constitution"") which—had it passed—would have rescinded the aforementioned House Concurrent Resolution No. 3048 from 2011; on February 27, 2013, S.C.R. No. 4016 ""was declared lost"" on a voice vote; and in 2015, North Dakota legislators approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 3015, reprising North Dakota's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after North Dakota's 1975 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of North Dakota's umbrella-rescission in 2001; and in 2017, North Dakota lawmakers approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 3006, applying for a convention for an amendment that would place fiscal restraints upon the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office of federal officials, including members of Congress;
Utah rescinding in 2001 (House Joint Resolution No. 15) [POM-197, Volume 147 Congressional Record, page 19025]; but in 2015, Utah lawmakers approved House Joint Resolution No. 7, reprising Utah's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Utah's 1979 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of Utah's umbrella-rescission in 2001; and in 2019, Utah lawmakers approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 9, again applying for a convention relative to fiscal restraints on the federal government, limiting the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limiting the terms of office of federal officials, including members of Congress;
Arizona rescinding in 2003 (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 1022) [POM-125, Volume 149 Congressional Record, page 12844]; but in 2017, Arizona legislators approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2013, reprising Arizona's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Arizona's 1977 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of Arizona's umbrella-rescission in 2003; and, likewise in 2017, Arizona lawmakers further applied for a convention relative to an amendment placing fiscal restraints on the federal government, limiting the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limiting the terms of office of federal officials—including members of Congress (House Concurrent Resolution No. 2010);
Georgia rescinding in 2004 (House Resolution No. 1343) [Memorial 349, Volume 150 Congressional Record, page 11124]; but in 2014, Georgia legislators approved Senate Resolution No. 371, reprising Georgia's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Georgia's 1976 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of Georgia's umbrella-rescission in 2004; and, likewise in 2014, Georgia lawmakers further applied for a convention to propose amendments that would impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for federal officials—including members of Congress (Senate Resolution No. 736);
South Carolina rescinding in 2004 (""H. 3400"") [POM-187, Volume 160 Congressional Record, page S367, soft-cover preliminary edition] Note: It took nearly a full decade for South Carolina's 2004 rescission to officially find its way onto the pages of the Congressional Record, together with referral to committee in each body; in 2022, South Carolina lawmakers approved ""H. 3205"" applying for a convention relative to fiscal restraints on the federal government, limiting the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limiting the terms of office of federal officials, including members of Congress;
Virginia rescinding in 2004 (House Joint Resolution No. 194) [POM-218, Volume 160 Congressional Record, page S2238, soft-cover preliminary edition] Note: It took a full decade for Virginia's 2004 rescission to officially find its verbatim text on the pages of the Congressional Record, together with referral to the Judiciary Committee in the United States Senate;
Montana rescinding in 2007 (House Joint Resolution No. 38) [POM-146, Volume 153 Congressional Record, page 17881];
Oklahoma rescinding in 2009 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 11) [POM-253, Volume 160 Congressional Record, page S3667, soft-cover preliminary edition] Note: It took five years for Oklahoma's 2009 rescission to officially find its verbatim text on the pages of the Congressional Record, together with referral to the Judiciary Committee in the United States Senate; furthermore, in 2016, Oklahoma lawmakers again applied for a convention relative to a combination of: (1) Balanced Budget Amendment; and (2) Fiscal restraints on the federal government, limiting the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limiting the terms of office of federal officials, including members of Congress (Senate Joint Resolution No. 4); thus, Oklahoma lawmakers went on record once again on the topic of a balanced budget amendment after Oklahoma's 1976 application for a balanced budget amendment had been among the casualties of Oklahoma's umbrella-rescission in 2009;
Wyoming rescinding in 2009 (Enrolled Joint Resolution No. 3, previously designated as House Joint Resolution No. 0007) [Memorial 33, Volume 155 Congressional Record, page 10426]; but in 2017, Wyoming lawmakers approved House Enrolled Joint Resolution No. 2, reprising Wyoming's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Wyoming's 1977 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of Wyoming's umbrella-rescission in 2009;
New Hampshire rescinding in 2010 (House Concurrent Resolution No. 28) [Memorial 357, Volume 156 Congressional Record, page 14480]; but in 2012, New Hampshire lawmakers approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 40, reprising New Hampshire's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after New Hampshire's 1979 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of New Hampshire's umbrella-rescission in 2010;
South Dakota rescinding in 2010 (House Bill No. 1135) [POM-252, Volume 160 Congressional Record, page S3667, soft-cover preliminary edition] Note: It took four years for South Dakota's 2010 rescission to officially find its verbatim text on the pages of the Congressional Record, together with referral to the Judiciary Committee in the United States Senate; furthermore, in 2015, South Dakota lawmakers approved House Joint Resolution No. 1001, reprising South Dakota's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after South Dakota's 1979 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of South Dakota's umbrella-rescission in 2010;
Tennessee rescinding in 2010 (House Joint Resolution No. 30) [Memorial 405 and Memorial 406, Volume 156 Congressional Record, page 19370]; but, in 2014, Tennessee legislators approved House Joint Resolution No. 548, reprising Tennessee's application for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment to the federal Constitution—thus going on record once again on that specific topic after Tennessee's 1977 application for the same thing had been among the casualties of Tennessee's 2010 umbrella-rescission; and in 2016, Tennessee lawmakers further applied for a convention relative to fiscal restraints on the federal government, limiting the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limiting the terms of office of federal officials, including members of Congress (Senate Joint Resolution No. 67);
Delaware rescinding in 2016 (House Concurrent Resolution No. 60) [POM-200, Volume 162 Congressional Record, page S5277, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Maryland rescinding in 2017 (both House Joint Resolution No. 2 and Senate Joint Resolution No. 2) [POM-102 as well as POM-103, Volume 163 Congressional Record, pages S5112 and S5113, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Nevada rescinding in 2017 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 10—""FILE NUMBER 22"") [POM-64, Volume 163 Congressional Record, pages S4055-S4056, soft-cover preliminary edition];
New Mexico rescinding in 2017 (House Joint Resolution No. 10) [POM-96, POM-99 and POM-100, Volume 163 Congressional Record, pages S5110, S5111 and S5112, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Texas rescinding in 2017 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 38) all Article V Convention applications adopted prior to the year 2017—with the singular exception of that convention application approved by Texas lawmakers during the year 1977 on the topic of a federal Balanced Budget Amendment [POM-130, Volume 163 Congressional Record, pages S6847-S6848, soft-cover preliminary edition and POM-131, Volume 163 Congressional Record, pages S6922-S6923, soft-cover preliminary edition]; and
South Dakota rescinding in 2019 (House Joint Resolution No. 1004) three prior Article V Convention applications (from years 1907, 1909 and 1971) which were overlooked in South Dakota's 2010 umbrella rescission (House Bill No. 1135), referenced above [2019 H.J.R. No. 1004 was designated as POM-45, Volume 165 Congressional Record, page S2610, soft-cover preliminary edition and as POM-56, Volume 165 Congressional Record, page S2813, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Colorado rescinding in 2021 (House Joint Resolution No. 21-1006) [POM-17, Volume 167 Congressional Record, page S4517, soft-cover preliminary edition];
New Jersey rescinding in 2021 (Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 161) [POM-108, Volume 168 Congressional Record, page S495, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Illinois rescinding in 2022 (Senate Joint Resolution No. 54) [POM-244, Volume 168 Congressional Record, page S6694, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Oregon rescinding in 2023 (House Bill No. 3625 and House Joint Memorial No. 3) taking a non-traditional approach of rescinding prior Article V Convention applications from Oregon lawmakers both in the form of a State law as well as in the form of a memorial or resolution to Congress.  Due to poor wording within House Joint Memorial No. 3, it has only been received by the U.S. House of Representatives and not at all by the U.S. Senate.  [Memorial ""ML-63"" in Volume 169 of the Congressional Record at page H4463, soft-cover preliminary edition];
New York rescinding in 2024 (Senate [Concurrent] Resolution No. 1460) [POM-177, Volume 170 Congressional Record, page S6434, soft-cover preliminary edition];
Washington rescinding in 2025 (Senate Joint Memorial No. 8008).


== Unsuccessful efforts to rescind prior Article V Convention applications (2009–2017) ==
From 2011 to 2017, unsuccessful measures to rescind previous convention calls were known to have been introduced in 10 states as follows:


=== 2009 ===
Arkansas - House Concurrent Resolution No. 1022 (""to rescind the previous application by the General Assembly to the Congress of the United States that it call a Constitutional Convention to Propose an Amendment to the Constitution to balance the public debt"") which went down to defeat in the Arkansas House of Representatives on April 3, 2009, with a record vote of 35 yeas, 52 nays and 13 not voting.


=== 2011 ===
Kansas – Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 1601 (""rescinding the action of the legislature of the state of Kansas petitioning congress to call a convention for the purpose of proposing amendments to the constitution of the United States"");
Massachusetts – Senate No. 00788 (""An Act to rescind all previous calls for a federal constitutional convention"");
North Carolina – House Joint Resolution No. 935 (""to repeal past joint resolutions of the North Carolina General Assembly calling for a federal constitutional convention because of concerns that such a constitutional convention could not be limited""); and
Texas – House Joint Resolution No. 123 (""rescinding the 1899 application of the 26th Texas Legislature to the United States Congress to call an unrestricted convention under Article V of the United States Constitution"").


=== 2012 ===
Missouri – Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 18 (""...the Missouri General Assembly hereby repeals, rescinds, cancels, renders null and void and supersedes any and all existing applications to the Congress of the United States for a constitutional convention under Article V of the Constitution of the United States for any purpose, whether limited or general""); and
New Jersey – Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 46 (""rescinding all applications previously transmitted by the New Jersey Legislature to the Congress of the United States calling for a convention for the purpose of proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States"").


=== 2013 ===
Missouri – House Concurrent Resolution No. 23 (""Proposes to rescind Missouri's call for a constitutional convention for the purposes of adopting a balanced budget amendment"");
North Carolina – House Joint Resolution No. 374 [""A Joint Resolution (I) rescinding all extant applications by the General Assembly heretofore made during any session thereof to the Congress of the United States of America to call a convention pursuant to the terms of Article V of the United States Constitution for proposing one or more amendments to that Constitution, (II) urging the Legislatures of other states to do the same, and (III) directing that copies of this resolution be sent to specified persons""] which was unanimously approved by the North Carolina House of Representatives on May 13, 2013, only to die in the Committee on Rules and Operations of the North Carolina Senate;
North Dakota – Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4016 (""A concurrent resolution to rescind an application made by the Sixty-second Legislative Assembly to the Congress of the United States to call a convention pursuant to the terms of Article V of the United States Constitution for proposing an amendment to the Constitution"") which, on February 27, 2013, was ""declared lost on a voice vote"" in the North Dakota Senate; and
Texas – House Joint Resolution No. 101 (""Rescinding the application of the 26th Texas Legislature made in the year 1899 to the United States Congress to call an unrestricted national convention, pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution, for proposing undisclosed amendments to that Constitution""); as well as Senate Joint Resolution No. 53 (""Rescinding every application made at any time by the Legislature of the State of Texas to the United States Congress to call a national convention, pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution, for proposing any amendment or amendments to that Constitution"").


=== 2014 ===
New Jersey – Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 17 (""rescinds all applications previously transmitted by the New Jersey Legislature to Congress calling for constitutional convention""); and Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 107 likewise (""rescinds all applications previously transmitted by the New Jersey Legislature to Congress calling for constitutional convention"").


=== 2015 ===
Florida – House Memorial No. 1129 (""A memorial to the Congress of the United States, urging Congress to repeal and nullify all existing applications by the Florida Legislature that call for a constitutional convention"");
New Hampshire – House Concurrent Resolution No. 1 (""Rescinding all requests by the New Hampshire legislature for a federal constitutional convention"");
North Carolina – House Joint Resolution No. 132 [""A Joint Resolution (I) rescinding all extant applications by the General Assembly heretofore made during any session thereof to the Congress of the United States of America to call a convention pursuant to the terms of Article V of the United States Constitution for proposing one or more amendments to that Constitution (II) urging the legislatures of other states to do the same, and (III) directing that copies of this resolution be sent to specified persons""] as well as Senate Bill No. 528 (""an Act rescinding all extant applications by the General Assembly heretofore made during any session thereof to the Congress of the United States of America to call a convention pursuant to the terms of Article V of the United States Constitution for proposing one or more amendments to that Constitution and directing that copies of this Act be sent to specified persons""); and
Texas – House Joint Resolution No. 144 (""rescinding the 1899 application of the 26th Texas Legislature to the United States Congress to call an unrestricted national convention under Article V of the United States Constitution for proposing undisclosed amendments to that Constitution"").


=== 2017 ===
Vermont - Joint Resolution Senate No. 17 (""rescinding the [Vermont] General Assembly’s request, contained in 2014 Acts and Resolves No. R-454, for Congress to convene a U.S. Constitutional Convention [to reverse the U.S. Supreme Court's 2010 decision in the case of Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission]""). The Vermont Senate adopted ""J.R.S. 17"" on April 6, 2017; it was then referred to the Committee on Government Operations in the Vermont House of Representatives.


== Incomplete state legislative actions in favor of calling an Article V Convention (2010–2020) ==


=== 2010 ===
During the 2010 state legislative season, there was at least one state in which it is known that Article V amendatory convention applications were approved by one chamber of that state's bicameral legislature. On June 9, 2010, the Louisiana House of Representatives approved ten concurrent resolutions requesting that Congress call separate Article V conventions on various subject matters. Aside from referring all ten of them to its Finance Committee—where they all died—the Louisiana Senate did not take further action on these concurrent resolutions:

House Concurrent Resolution No. 57 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a presidential line item veto for appropriation bills"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 59 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a requirement that bills be confined to a single object and a prohibition on amendments that are not germane to the bill as introduced"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 62 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a requirement for a supermajority vote to levy a new tax, increase an existing tax, or repeal an existing tax exemption"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 63 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding term limits for members of congress"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 64 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a limitation on the authority of congress to pass legislation pursuant to the general welfare clause in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 65 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a requirement to reduce the federal debt through annual appropriations"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 66 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding an overall spending limitation on the federal budget"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 67 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a limitation on the authority of congress to pass legislation pursuant to the necessary and proper clause in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution"");
House Concurrent Resolution No. 68 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose a balanced budget amendment"") (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 70, which was adopted by both chambers of the Louisiana Legislature, during its 2014 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and
House Concurrent Resolution No. 69 (""Applies to congress to call a convention pursuant to Article V of the U.S. Constitution to propose an amendment regarding a limitation on the authority of congress to pass legislation pursuant to the commerce clause in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution"").


=== 2011 ===
During the 2011 state legislative season, there were at least five states in which it is known that Article V amendatory convention applications were approved by one chamber of bicameral legislatures. While there may be other examples, the known five are:

Florida whose Senate on April 28, 2011, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4 (""urging Congress to call a convention for the purpose of proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States to achieve and maintain a balanced federal budget""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Florida House of Representatives; but during the previous year of 2010, Florida lawmakers had already approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 10 doing virtually the same thing as 2011's S.C.R. No. 4;
Kentucky whose Senate on February 22, 2011, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 134 (""urge Congress to call an Article V Convention for the purpose of proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States requiring a balanced federal budget""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on Elections, Constitutional Amendments, and Intergovernmental Affairs of the Kentucky House of Representatives;
South Carolina whose House of Representatives on February 3, 2011, approved a Joint Resolution designated as ""H. 3074"" (""to request appropriate action by the Congress of the United States, on its own action by consent of two-thirds of both houses or on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, to propose an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to require that the total of all federal appropriations may not exceed the total of all estimated federal revenues in any fiscal year, with certain exceptions""); this joint resolution then died in the Judiciary Committee of the South Carolina Senate. On February 16, 2011, South Carolina's House of Representatives likewise approved a Concurrent Resolution designated as ""H. 3507"" (""to make application to the Congress of the United States to call a constitutional convention pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution for the purpose of proposing a constitutional amendment that permits the repeal of any federal law or regulation by vote of two-thirds of the state legislatures""); this concurrent resolution likewise died in the Judiciary Committee of the South Carolina Senate;
Texas whose Senate on February 23, 2011, approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 1 (""urging the Congress of the United States to propose and submit to the states for ratification a federal balanced budget amendment to the Constitution of the United States and, in the event that Congress does not submit such an amendment on or before December 31, 2011, applying to Congress to call a convention for the specific and exclusive purpose of proposing an amendment to that constitution to provide, in the absence of a national emergency and on a two-thirds vote of Congress, for a federal balanced budget and requesting that the legislatures of each of the several states that compose  [sic] the United States apply to Congress to call a convention to propose such an amendment""); the joint resolution then died in the Select Committee on State Sovereignty of the Texas House of Representatives; but during their 1977 Regular Session, Texas lawmakers had already approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 31 doing virtually the same thing as 2011's S.J.R. No. 1; and
Virginia whose House of Delegates on January 25, 2011, approved House Joint Resolution No. 542 (""making application to the Congress of the United States to call an amendment convention pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution for the purpose of proposing a constitutional amendment that permits the repeal of any federal law or regulation by vote of two-thirds of the state legislatures""); H.J.R. No. 542 then died in the Committee on Privileges and Elections of the Virginia Senate. On February 23, 2011, Virginia's House of Delegates likewise approved House Joint Resolution No. 852 (""memorializing the Congress of the United States to adopt legislation requiring a balanced federal budget and to call a convention for the purpose of amending the Constitution to provide a balanced budget requirement"") and H.J.R. No. 852 then died in the Committee on Rules of the Virginia Senate.


=== 2012 ===
During the 2012 state legislative season, it is known that in five states Article V amendatory convention applications were approved by one chamber of a bicameral legislature. While it is possible that there were others, the five known examples are:

Arizona whose Senate on February 27, 2012, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 1005 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention for proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to provide that an increase in the Federal debt requires approval from a majority of the legislatures of the separate states""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on Appropriations of the Arizona House of Representatives;
Georgia whose Senate on March 7, 2012, approved Senate Resolution No. 673 (""making renewed application to the Congress of the United States to call for a convention for the purpose of proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States; and for other purposes""); the resolution then died in the Committee on Governmental Affairs of the Georgia House of Representatives (refer, however, to Senate Resolution No. 371, which was adopted by both chambers of the Georgia General Assembly, during its 2014 session, which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Hawaii whose House of Representatives on April 5, 2012, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 114 (""Applying to Congress to call a National Constitutional Convention pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on Public Safety, Government Operations, and Military Affairs as well as in the Committee on Judiciary and Labor of the Hawaii Senate; had it also been approved by the Hawaii Senate, H.C.R. No. 114 would have constituted the very first time in the entire history of Hawaii statehood that Hawaii would have made application for an Article V convention; as approved by the Hawaii House of Representatives, H.C.R. No. 114 contained four suggested distinct amendments to the Federal Constitution for Article V amendatory convention delegates to consider: (1) ""A declaration of the constitutionality of the federal Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, including the individual mandate requiring the purchase of health insurance""; (2) ""An amendment to Article I, Section 5, to prohibit the supermajority cloture requirement under Rule 22 of the United States Senate for ending floor debates and filibusters, to facilitate a more reasonable voting standard for cloture""; (3) ""An amendment abolishing the electoral college established under Article II, Section 1, and providing for the direct election of the United States President and Vice President by voters""; and (4) ""An amendment to Article II, Section 2, Clause 2, to require that Senate confirmations of appointments of officers of the United States be made by a simple majority vote within sixty days of the nomination"";
New Hampshire whose Senate on February 8, 2012, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 1 (""urging Congress to call a convention for the sole purpose of proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States""); S.C.R. No. 1 was relative to altering the present means of proposing amendments to the Federal Constitution; this concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on State-Federal Relations and Veterans Affairs of the New Hampshire House of Representatives; and
Oklahoma whose Senate on March 12, 2012, approved Senate Bill No. 1903 (""An Act relating to the United States Constitution; stating legislative findings; setting forth application for amendments convention for specific purpose; limiting convention to proposal for amendment to United States Constitution to require state legislative approval for increase in federal debt; providing that application continue for certain period; and directing distribution by Secretary of State""); the bill then died in the Judiciary Committee of the Oklahoma House of Representatives.
Likewise during the 2012 state legislative season, there was one state in which an alleged Article V Convention so-called ""application"" was approved by only one chamber of a bicameral legislature. That was:

Colorado whose House of Representatives on January 19, 2012, approved House Resolution No. 12-1003 (""concerning an Application under Article V of the United States Constitution to the Congress of the United States to call a Convention for Proposing an Amendment to the United States Constitution to Repeal the 'Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act'."" [Congressional Public Law No. 111-148]). Colorado's H.R. No. 12-1003, upon closer inspection, is structurally flawed inasmuch as that resolution resolves only that the ""...House of Representatives of the Sixty-eighth General Assembly..."" applies for an Article V Convention. Validity as an actual Article V application requires that both chambers of the bicameral Colorado General Assembly so resolve. On its face a strictly unicameral instrument, H.R. No. 12-1003 was never even transmitted to the Colorado Senate for that body's consideration. On July 18, 2012, the Colorado House of Representatives' H.R. No. 12-1003 was officially received by the United States House of Representatives, was designated by the U.S. House as Memorial No. 252, and was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in that body (See 158 Congressional Record, page H5009, soft-cover preliminary edition).


=== 2013 ===
During the 2013 state legislative season, Article V amendatory convention applications received the approval of one chamber of bicameral state legislatures. While it is possible that there were others, the three known examples are:

Indiana whose Senate on February 26, 2013, approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 18 (""requesting Congress to call a constitutional convention for the purpose of proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States concerning limitation of the commerce and taxing powers of Congress""); the joint resolution was then referred to the Committee on the Judiciary of the Indiana House of Representatives and died in that Committee;
Minnesota whose Senate on May 2, 2013, approved Senate File No. 17 (""resolution requesting Congress to propose a constitutional amendment and, if Congress does not propose an amendment, applying to Congress to call a constitutional convention to propose an amendment clarifying the rights protected under the Constitution are the rights of natural persons and not the rights of artificial entities and that spending money to influence elections is not speech under the First Amendment""); the resolution was then transmitted to the Minnesota House of Representatives where, supposedly, it was to be placed on the House's Calendar for May 10, 2013; but nothing happened; on March 4, 2014, S.F. No. 17 was reported from committee back to the full Minnesota House of Representatives and briefly occupied the status of ""second reading""; S.F. No. 17 was then placed on the House's calendar for April 30, 2014, but, again, nothing happened; it was then placed on the House's calendar for May 15, 2014—again, nothing happened—and S.F. No. 17 was then ""returned to General Register"" with no further progress having occurred; and
South Carolina whose House of Representatives on April 17, 2013, approved ""H. 3862"" (""To make Application by the State of South Carolina under Article V of the United States Constitution for a Balanced Budget Amendment Convention of the several States of the United States""); the concurrent resolution was then referred to the Committee on Finance in the South Carolina Senate with no further progress having occurred.


=== 2014 ===
During the 2014 state legislative season, Article V Convention applications received the approval of one chamber of bicameral state legislatures. While it is possible that there were others, the seven known examples are:

Alabama whose House of Representatives on February 13, 2014, approved House Joint Resolution No. 49 (""Making Application for a Convention of the States under Article V of the United States Constitution to propose certain amendments relating to the Federal Government""); H.J.R. No. 49, which pertains to ""...proposing amendments that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials"", was referred to the Rules Committee in the Alabama Senate where it died; (refer, however, to House Joint Resolution No. 112, which was approved by both chambers of the Alabama Legislature, during its 2015 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and whose House of Representatives on April 2, 2014, likewise approved House Joint Resolution No. 192 (""Urging Congress to call a Convention for the purpose of proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States""); H.J.R. No. 192, relative to defining marriage as a union of one man and one woman, likewise died in the Alabama Senate's Committee on Rules;
Arizona whose House of Representatives on February 25, 2014, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2017 (""Applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention for proposing an Amendment to the Constitution of the United States to require that the Congress adopt a Balanced Federal Budget""); H.C.R. No. 2017 then died in the Committee on Government and Environment, in the Committee on the Judiciary, and in the Committee on Rules of the Arizona Senate (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 2013, which was adopted by both chambers of the Arizona Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and whose House of Representatives on March 12, 2014, likewise approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2027 (""Applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention for proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States"") which called for a federal constitutional amendment to impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for officials of the federal government; H.C.R. No. 2027 likewise died in the same three committees of the Arizona Senate (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 2010, which was adopted by both chambers of the Arizona Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Florida whose House of Representatives on March 26, 2014, approved House Memorial No. 81 (""A memorial to the Congress of the United States, applying to Congress to call a convention for the sole purpose of proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States that would limit the consecutive terms of office which a member of the United States Senate or the United States House of Representatives may serve""); the House Memorial then died in the Committee on the Judiciary of the Florida Senate; (refer, however, to House Memorial No. 417, which was adopted by both chambers of the Florida Legislature, during its 2016 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Georgia whose House of Representatives on February 20, 2014, approved House Resolution No. 1215 (""Applying for a convention of the states under Article V of the United States Constitution; and for other purposes""); the House Resolution was then referred to the Committee on Rules in the Georgia Senate where it died (refer, however, to Senate Resolution No. 736, which was likewise adopted by both chambers of the Georgia General Assembly in 2014, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Maryland whose Senate on April 7, 2014, the final day of the 2014 legislative session, approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 6 (""FOR the purpose of applying to the U.S. Congress for an amendments convention called under Article V of the U.S. Constitution, on the application of the legislatures of two–thirds of the several states, to propose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that affirms every citizen’s freedom to vote and restores free and fair elections in America; and generally relating to an application to Congress for a convention to propose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution""); the joint resolution made no further progress—not even to be transmitted to the Maryland House of Delegates for possible concurrence;
Tennessee whose Senate on March 6, 2014, approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 493 (""A RESOLUTION to make application to the Congress of the United States pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution to call a constitutional convention for the sole purpose of proposing a balanced budget amendment""); the joint resolution then died in the Committee on State Government of the Tennessee House of Representatives (refer, however, to House Joint Resolution No. 548, which was likewise approved by both chambers of the Tennessee General Assembly in 2014, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and
Wisconsin whose ""lower"" chamber, the Assembly, on February 18, 2014, approved Assembly Joint Resolution No. 81 (""Relating to: application to Congress under the provisions of Article V of the Constitution of the United States for a convention for proposing amendments relating to a balanced budget""); the joint resolution was referred to the Committee on Government Operations, Public Works, and Telecommunications in the Wisconsin Senate, where it died.


=== 2015 ===
During the 2015 state legislative season, it is known that Article V Convention applications received the approval of one chamber of the following 16 bicameral state legislatures:

Arizona whose House of Representatives on February 12, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2003 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention for proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States"") ""limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress""; the concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on Rules of the Arizona Senate (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 2010, which was adopted by both chambers of the Arizona Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Arkansas whose House of Representatives on March 6, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. 1003 (""appl[ying] to Congress, under the provisions of Article V of the Constitution of the United States, for the calling of a convention of the states limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress""); the joint resolution then died in the Committee on State Agencies and Governmental Affairs of the Arkansas Senate;
Connecticut whose House of Representatives on May 30, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. 64 (""Petitioning Congress to Convene an Article V Convention to Overturn the United States Supreme Court's Decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission""); the joint resolution then died in the Connecticut Senate;
Delaware whose Senate on March 25, 2015, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 6 (""Calling for an Article V Convention to amend the United States Constitution""); the desired federal constitutional amendment would over-turn the 2010 United States Supreme Court decision in the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission; the concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on House Administration of the Delaware House of Representatives;
Hawaii whose House of Representatives on March 17, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 53 (""requesting the United States Congress to convene a constitutional convention to propose a constitutional amendment to overturn the United States Supreme Court's decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Committee on Judiciary and Labor of the Hawaii Senate;
Iowa whose House of Representatives on March 19, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. 8 (""applying for an Article V convention to propose amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints, and limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and requesting Congress to similarly propose such amendments""); the joint resolution then died in the Committee on State Government in the Iowa Senate;
Louisiana whose House of Representatives on May 6, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2 (""To apply to the United States Congress, under the provisions of Article V of the Constitution of the United States, for the calling of a convention of the states limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of congress""); the concurrent resolution then died in the ""Judiciary B"" Committee of the Louisiana Senate (refer, however, to Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 52, which was approved by both chambers of the Louisiana Legislature, during its 2016 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Maryland whose Senate on April 8, 2015, approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 (""FOR the purpose of applying to the U.S. Congress for an amendments convention called under Article V of the U.S. Constitution, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, to propose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that affirms every citizen's individual right to vote, reserves inalienable political rights to natural persons, and authorizes regulation of campaign contributions and electioneering expenditures; and generally relating to an application to Congress for a convention to propose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution""); the joint resolution was then amended in the Maryland House of Delegates; the Maryland Senate on April 13, 2015, refused to concur in the changes made to S.J.R. No. 2 by the Maryland House of Delegates and requested the appointment of a conference committee to adjust the differences between the two legislative chambers; a conference committee was appointed, but appears to have not taken action; the 2015 session of the Maryland General Assembly concluded on that same date and the joint resolution thusly died;
Missouri whose Senate on April 22, 2015, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 21 (""applies to Congress for the calling of a convention to propose certain amendments to the United States Constitution which place limits on the federal government"") which had been combined with S.C.R. No. 19 and with S.C.R. No. 23; one floor amendment to S.C.R. No. 21 was adopted in the full Senate; S.C.R. No. 21 then went to the Missouri House of Representatives for consideration, where it was favorably discharged from both the Committee on Government Efficiency as well as the Select Committee on General Laws; S.C.R. No. 21 was placed on the House's calendar for May 15, 2015, but nothing happened with it (refer, however, Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4, which was adopted by both chambers of the Missouri General Assembly, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and whose Senate on April 22, 2015, likewise approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 24 (""urges Congress to call an Article V Convention for the purpose of proposing amendments to the United States Constitution"") relative to over-turning the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in the 2010 case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission""; S.C.R. No. 24 then went to the Missouri House of Representatives for consideration, where it was favorably discharged from both the Committee on Energy and the Environment as well as the Select Committee on Utilities; and while favorably discharged from both of those committees, S.C.R. No. 24 was never placed upon the calendar of the Missouri House of Representatives;
New Hampshire whose House of Representatives on March 4, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2 (""A Resolution applying to Congress to hold a convention for amendments"") which ""...address concerns raised by the decision of the United States Supreme Court in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 558 U.S. 310 (2010)...""; on April 9, 2015, the concurrent resolution was received by the New Hampshire Senate, but H.C.R. No. 2 was ""Not Introduced, Pursuant to Rule 3-26, MF, Lacking necessary 2/3 vote, Div. 13Y-11N"" according to the New Hampshire General Court's website;
New Mexico whose House of Representatives on March 17, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. 19 (""applying for a convention of the states under Article V of the United States Constitution"") for amendments that would ""...impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government and limit the terms of office for its officials and for Members of Congress""; the joint resolution then died in the Rules Committee of the New Mexico Senate;
North Dakota whose House of Representatives on February 17, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 3014 (""appl[ying] to Congress, under the provisions of Article V of the Constitution of the United States, for the calling of a convention of the states limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress"") by a vote of 63 yeas and 29 nays; H.C.R. No. 3014 then went down to defeat in the North Dakota Senate on March 24, 2015, with a vote of only 15 yeas and 31 nays (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 3006, which was adopted by both chambers of the North Dakota Legislative Assembly, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); whose House of Representatives on February 17, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 3016 (""direct[ing] the Congress of the United States to call a convention of the states for the purpose of proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to provide states a process to countermand or repeal any law or ruling and to provide a method for the states to appoint delegates to the amendment convention"") by a vote of 59 yeas and 32 nays; H.C.R. No. 3016 then went down to defeat on March 24, 2015, in the North Dakota Senate with the words ""Engrossed HCR 3016 was declared lost on a voice vote"" appearing in the Journal of the North Dakota Senate for that day's proceedings; and whose House of Representatives on February 17, 2015, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 3017 (""direct[ing] the Congress of the United States to call a convention of the states limited to proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States providing states a process to collectively countermand or repeal any law or ruling by the Congress, the President, or other regulatory body"") by a vote of 56 yeas and 35 nays; H.C.R. No. 3017 then went down to defeat in the North Dakota Senate on March 24, 2015, with a vote of only 16 yeas and 30 nays;
Oklahoma whose House of Representatives on March 11, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. 1018 (""calling for a convention to propose a balanced budget amendment pursuant to the provisions of Article V of the United States Constitution; making application pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution; directing distribution; and providing scope of application""); the joint resolution then died in the Rules Committee of the Oklahoma Senate (refer, however, to Senate Joint Resolution No. 4, which was adopted by both chambers of the Oklahoma Legislature, during its 2016 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Texas whose House of Representatives on May 14, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. 77 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention under Article V of the United States Constitution for the limited purpose of proposing one or more amendments to the constitution to impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, to limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and to limit the terms of office of federal officials and members of Congress""); H.J.R. No. 77 then died in the Committee on State Affairs of the Texas Senate (refer, however, to Senate Joint Resolution No. 2, which was adopted by both chambers of the Texas Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and whose House of Representatives on May 8, 2015, likewise approved House Joint Resolution No. 79 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention under Article V of the United States Constitution for the limited purpose of proposing an amendment to the constitution to provide for a federal balanced budget""); H.J.R. No. 79 then likewise died in the Committee on State Affairs of the Texas Senate (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 31, which was adopted by both chambers of the Texas Legislature, during its 1977 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
West Virginia whose Senate on March 12, 2015, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 13 (""urging the Congress of the United States to propose a balanced budget amendment to the United States Constitution and applying to the Congress, pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution, to call a convention for proposing a balanced budget amendment""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Judiciary Committee of the West Virginia House of Delegates; (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 36, which was approved by both chambers of the West Virginia Legislature, during its 2016 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and
Wyoming whose House of Representatives on January 28, 2015, approved House Joint Resolution No. ""HJ0004"" (""petitioning Congress to call a convention to propose amendments to the Constitution of the United States to require a balanced federal budget""); the joint resolution then went down to defeat in the Wyoming Senate on March 3, 2015, with only 7 yeas and 22 nays (refer, however, to House Joint Resolution No. 2, which was adopted by both chambers of the Wyoming Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing).


=== 2016 ===
During the 2016 state legislative season, it is known that Article V Convention applications received the approval of one chamber of the following 10 bicameral state legislatures:

Arizona whose House of Representatives on February 18, 2016, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2010 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a Convention for proposing Amendments to the Constitution of the United States [limited to proposing amendments that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress]""); H.C.R. No. 2010 then died in the Rules Committee of the Arizona Senate (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 2010, which was adopted by both chambers of the Arizona Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing); and whose House of Representatives on February 25, 2016, likewise approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 2014 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention for proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to require that the Congress adopt a Balanced Federal Budget""); on April 28, 2016, H.C.R. No. 2014, with amendments, was approved by the Arizona Senate, thus necessitating concurrence by the Arizona House of Representatives; on May 4, 2016, according to the Arizona Legislature's website, the following action in the House, by a vote of only 6 ayes and a whopping 50 nays, failed: ""VAC EMER RFE 2/3 VOTE""; the website goes on to declare: ""FINAL DISPOSITION: Failed in House on Final Passage"" (refer, however, to House Concurrent Resolution No. 2013, which was adopted by both chambers of the Arizona Legislature, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
Missouri whose House of Representatives on April 21, 2016, approved House Concurrent Resolution No. 57 (""an application to Congress for the calling of an Article V convention of states to propose certain amendments to the United States Constitution which places limits on the federal government""); the concurrent resolution then went to the Missouri Senate where—after being favorably discharged from the Committee on Senate Rules, Joint Rules, Resolutions, and Ethics—it was ""taken up"" on May 11, 2016, but, according to the Missouri General Assembly's website, fell victim to ""Motion withdrawn - Motion to adopt HCR withdrawn"" (refer, however, to Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4, which was adopted by both chambers of the Missouri General Assembly, during its 2017 session, and which accomplishes basically the same thing);
New Hampshire whose Senate on March 24, 2016, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 3 (""applying to the United States Congress to convene a limited convention for the exclusive purpose of proposing amendments to the federal Constitution concerning election reform that do not abrogate or amend the first amendment to the federal Constitution""); S.C.R. No. 3 then went to the New Hampshire House of Representatives for consideration; there, after having been favorably discharged from the Committee on State-Federal Relations and Veterans Affairs, a motion was made on May 11, 2016, in the full House, to ""Lay on Table"" which motion carried with 148 yeas and 129 nays; S.C.R. No. 3 was declared to have ""Died on Table"" as of July 27, 2016, according to the New Hampshire General Court's website; and whose Senate likewise on March 24, 2016, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 4 (""applying for an Article V convention to propose an amendment to the Constitution of the United States that imposes fiscal restraints on the federal government""); S.C.R. No. 4 met a similar fate in the New Hampshire House of Representatives and was likewise pronounced to have ""Died on Table"" as of July 27, 2016;
New Mexico whose House of Representatives on January 28, 2016, approved House Joint Resolution No. 9 (""for the calling of a convention of the states limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government and limit the terms of office for its officials and for Members of Congress""); the joint resolution then went to the New Mexico Senate where it was referred to the Rules Committee; that committee favorably discharged H.J.R. No. 9 on February 13, 2016; however, in the full Senate, the joint resolution was ""Postponed Indefinitely"", according to the New Mexico Legislature's website;
South Dakota whose House of Representatives on February 24, 2016, approved House Joint Resolution No. 1002 (""to apply for a Convention of the States under Article V of the United States Constitution"") ""limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials and members of Congress""; the joint resolution then died in the Committee on Taxation of the South Dakota Senate;
Utah whose House of Representatives on March 1, 2016, approved House Joint Resolution No. 8 (""for the calling of a convention of the states limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress""); H.J.R. No. 8 then died in the Committee on Business and Labor in the Utah Senate; and whose House of Representatives on March 7, 2016, likewise approved House Joint Resolution No. 18 (""to call a convention to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives and to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States Senate""); H.J.R. No. 18 received no further consideration in the Utah Senate than to be referred to its Rules Committee;
Virginia whose House of Delegates on February 16, 2016, approved House Joint Resolution No. 3 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call an amendment convention of the states pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress""); H.J.R. No. 3 was then referred to the Committee on Rules of the Virginia Senate; and whose House of Delegates likewise on February 16, 2016, approved House Joint Resolution No. 90 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call an amendment convention pursuant to Article V of the United States Constitution for the purpose of proposing an amendment to the United States Constitution that pertains to the subject of balancing the federal budget""); H.J.R. No. 90 was likewise referred to the Committee on Rules of the Virginia Senate;
Washington whose House of Representatives on February 17, 2016, approved House Joint Memorial No. 4000 (""petition[ing] the United States Congress to call a Convention for the purpose of proposing Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America as soon as two-thirds of the several states have applied for a Convention"") ""to address concerns such as those raised by the decision of the United States Supreme Court in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)""; the joint memorial then went to the Senate of the State of Washington for consideration; there, it was referred on February 19, 2016, to the Committee on Government Operations and Security; on the State of Washington Legislature's website, it next shows the curious entry for March 10, 2016: ""By resolution, returned to House Rules Committee for third reading""; and
West Virginia whose Senate on February 23, 2016, approved Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 10 (""urging Congress [to] call a convention of the states, under the authority reserved to the states in Article V of the United States Constitution, limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints on the federal government, limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government and limit the terms of office for its officials and for members of Congress""); the concurrent resolution then died in the Judiciary Committee of the West Virginia House of Delegates.


=== 2017 ===
During the 2017 state legislative season, it is known that Article V Convention applications received the approval of one chamber of the following four bicameral state legislatures:

Iowa whose House of Representatives on March 15, 2017, approved House Joint Resolution No. 12 (""A joint resolution calling for an Article V convention in order to propose amendments to the Constitution of the United States that impose fiscal restraints, and limit the power and jurisdiction of the federal government, and requesting Congress to similarly propose such amendments""); the joint resolution was then referred to the Committee on State Government in the Iowa Senate;
North Carolina whose Senate on April 26, 2017, approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 36 (""A Joint Resolution applying to Congress for an Article V Convention of the states with the purpose of proposing amendments to the United States Constitution""); the joint resolution was then referred to the Committee on Rules, Calendar, and Operations of the House of the North Carolina House of Representatives;
Utah whose House of Representatives on February 27, 2017, approved House Joint Resolution No. 12 (""applies to Congress to call a convention for proposing amendments to the United States Constitution in accordance with Article V of the Constitution and limits the scope of the convention to establishing a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate""); the joint resolution then died in the Utah Senate; and
Wyoming whose House of Representatives on January 19, 2017, approved House Joint Resolution No. ""0003"" (""requesting Congress to call a convention for the purpose of proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to require that every law enacted by Congress shall embrace only one subject, which shall be clearly expressed in its title""); the joint resolution then died in the Wyoming Senate.
Likewise during the 2017 state legislative season, there was one state in which an alleged Article V Convention so-called ""application"" was approved by only one chamber of a bicameral legislature. That was:

Hawaii whose House of Representatives on April 6, 2017, approved House Resolution No. 25 (""Urging the United States Congress to Restore Free and Fair Elections by Applying for a Convention to Propose Amendments to the United States Constitution."") Hawaii's H.R. No. 25, upon closer inspection, is structurally flawed inasmuch as that resolution is strictly unicameral. As such, it was never even transmitted to the Hawaii Senate for that body's consideration, despite H.R. No. 25's laughable and presumptuous inclusion—in its first ""resolving clause""—of the wording ""...the Senate concurring..."" as the Hawaii House of Representatives, claiming to be the full Legislature, supposedly ""...submit[ed] an application to the United States Congress to restore free and fair elections as described herein..."". Adding further hilarity, H.R. No. 25, in its second ""resolving clause"", self-identifies as a ""Concurrent Resolution"" when, of course, it is a strictly unicameral—NOT bicameral—resolution. Of course, validity as an actual Article V application requires that both chambers of the bicameral Hawaii Legislature so resolve. On August 2, 2017, the Hawaii House of Representatives' H.R. No. 25 was officially received by the United States Senate, was designated by the U.S. Senate as ""POM-79"", and was referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in that body (See 163 Congressional Record, page S4764, soft-cover preliminary edition).


=== 2018 ===
During the 2018 state legislative season, it is known that there were four Article V Convention applications which received the approval of just one chamber of the following bicameral state legislatures:

Arizona whose House of Representatives, on February 26, 2018, adopted House Concurrent Resolution No. 2024 (""applying to the Congress of the United States to call a convention for proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to set term limits for United States Representatives and United States Senators"") which then died in the Arizona Senate;
Hawaii whose Senate on April 5, 2018, adopted Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 76 (""requesting Congress to convene a limited national convention under Article V for the exclusive purpose of proposing an amendment to the United States Constitution that will limit the influence of money in our electoral process""); the concurrent resolution was then jointly referred to the Judiciary Committee as well as to the Finance Committee of the Hawaii House of Representatives, whereupon it died;
Maryland whose House of Delegates, on March 13, 2018, adopted House Joint Resolution No. 11 (""applying to the U.S. Congress for an amendments convention called under Article V of the U.S. Constitution, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, to propose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that authorizes regulation of contributions and expenditures intended to influence elections; and generally relating to an application to Congress for a convention to propose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution"") which then died in the Maryland Senate; and
Mississippi whose House of Representatives on March 22, 2018, adopted House Concurrent Resolution No. 56 (""A Concurrent Resolution applying to the United States Congress to call a Convention of the States under the provisions of Article V of the United States Constitution"") which received no further consideration in the Mississippi Senate than to be referred to that body's Rules Committee, whereupon it died.


=== 2019 ===
During the 2019 state legislative season, it is known that there were three Article V Convention applications which received the approval of just one chamber of the following bicameral state legislatures:

Georgia whose Senate, on March 7, 2019, adopted Senate Resolution No. 237 (""Requesting that the United States Congress call a convention under Article V of the Constitution of the United States limited to proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives and to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States Senate; and for other purposes"") which received no further consideration in the House of Representatives than to be referred to that body's Committee on Rules, whereupon it died;
Hawaii whose Senate, on April 1, 2019, adopted Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 131 (""REQUESTING CONGRESS TO CONVENE A LIMITED NATIONAL CONVENTION UNDER ARTICLE V OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION FOR THE EXCLUSIVE PURPOSE OF PROPOSING AN AMENDMENT TO THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION THAT WILL LIMIT THE INFLUENCE OF MONEY IN THE ELECTORAL PROCESS"") which received no further consideration than to be referred both to the Committee on Finance and to the Committee on the Judiciary in the Hawaii House of Representatives, whereupon it died; and
West Virginia whose House of Delegates on March 8, 2019, adopted House Concurrent Resolution No. 61 (""Applying to and urging Congress to call a convention of the states, under the authority reserved to the states in Article V of the United States Constitution, limited to proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States and to limit the terms of office that a person may be elected as a Member of the United States House of Representatives and to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a Member of the United States Senate"") which ran out of time for consideration in the Senate.


=== 2020 ===
During the 2020 state legislative season, it is known that there was one Article V Convention application which received the approval of just one chamber of the following bicameral state legislature:

Louisiana whose House of Representatives, on May 18, 2020, adopted House Concurrent Resolution No. 28 (""to memorialize the United States Congress to call a convention of states for the purpose of proposing amendments to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States House of Representatives and to set a limit on the number of terms that a person may be elected as a member of the United States Senate"") which was voted down on the floor of the full Louisiana Senate with a tally of 16 yeas and 18 nays on May 31, 2020.


== Attempts to limit or restrict delegates attending an Article V Convention ==
The last time that a proposed Federal law was introduced in Congress to establish procedures for—and to impose limitations and restrictions upon—delegates attending an Article V amendatory convention was in 1991 when United States Senator Orrin Hatch of Utah offered the bill S. 214 (""Constitutional Convention Implementation Act of 1991"") during the 102nd Congress. Senator Hatch's proposed Federal legislation received no further consideration than to be referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in the United States Senate on January 15, 1991.
Noting that, for more than two decades, Congress has demonstrated no interest in clarifying, via Federal statute, the limitations and restrictions of an Article V amendatory convention—and deeming it proper to take matters into their own hands—lawmakers in exactly half of the 50 states have offered legislation in recent years to impose, in state law, limitations and restrictions upon delegates (from those specific states) who would be participating in a national Article V Convention. While there might be others, the following are known examples from 25 states:


=== 2011 ===
Hawaii in which Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 86 was introduced (""Providing for the appointment of convention delegates to the convention to propose amendments to the U.S. Constitution"") and which—had it been approved—would have resolved that Hawaii's delegates ""...consider themselves an extension of the [Hawaii] Legislature.""; the concurrent resolution died in the Hawaii Senate's Committee on Judiciary and Labor as well as in its Committee on Ways and Means;
Illinois in which Senate Bill No. 2204 was introduced (""Creates the No Runaway Convention and Single Amendment Limitation Act. Provides that no delegate from Illinois to a Convention has the authority to vote to consider or approve any proposed amendment to the United States Constitution other than the amendment authorized in the Madison Amendment (an Amendment concerning fiscal discipline, legislative transparency, and unfunded mandates.) Sets forth the provisions of the Madison Amendment. Sets forth the oath and duties of an Illinois delegate""); on February 10, 2011, the bill was referred to the Illinois Senate's Committee on Assignments; on March 2, 2011, it was re-referred to the Committee on Executive; on March 17, 2011, the Committee on Executive postponed the bill; on March 18, 2011, the bill was re-referred to the Committee on Assignments; the bill made no further progress;
New Mexico in which House Bill No. 121 was introduced (""Relating to the United States Constitution; Providing for Participation in a Constitutional Convention to Consider only one Subject; Providing a Penalty""); the bill was referred to—and died in—the Consumer and Public Affairs Committee of the New Mexico House of Representatives; and
Tennessee in which both House Bill No. 1704 and Senate Bill No. 1473 were introduced (""An Act amend[ing] Tennessee Code Annotated, relative to limiting the authority of delegates to Article V Amendment Conventions""); H.B. No. 1704 died in the Committee on State and Local Government in the Tennessee House of Representatives; while S.B. No. 1473 died in the Committee on State and Local Government of the Tennessee Senate.


=== 2012 ===
Idaho in which Senate Bill No. 1362 was introduced (""relating to an application of the State of Idaho under Article V of the United States Constitution for a convention for proposing amendments to the United States Constitution; providing legislative intent; amending Title 67, Idaho Code, by the addition of a new Chapter 93, Title 67, Idaho Code, to define terms, to provide for the instruction to, scope and limitation of authority of, and compensation of said delegates, to provide duties of the Secretary of State and to provide a citation""); this bill was defeated, on a roll-call vote, on the floor of the Idaho Senate on March 14, 2012, with a vote of 13 yeas and 21 nays;
New Hampshire in which Senate Bill No. 356 was introduced (""An Act limiting the authority of delegates to Article V amendment conventions""); this bill was approved by the New Hampshire Senate on February 8, 2012; the bill was subsequently approved, with amendment, by the New Hampshire House of Representatives on May 15, 2012; on June 6, 2012, both bodies adopted the conference committee report adjusting the differences between the two chambers. However, the bill was then vetoed by the Governor; on June 27, 2012, the New Hampshire Senate voted to override the Governor's veto, but—on that same day—the House of Representatives was not able to muster the super-majority vote necessary for overriding that veto;
South Dakota in which House Bill No. 1222 was introduced (""An Act to limit the authority of South Dakota delegates to an Article V convention to amend the United States Constitution, to prohibit any delegate from exceeding such authority, and to provide certain penalties therefor""); the bill died in the Committee on Local Government in the South Dakota House of Representatives;
Tennessee in which both House Bill No. 3707 and Senate Bill No. 3695 were introduced (""An Act to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 3, relative to limiting the authority of delegates to an Article V Amendment Convention""); H.B. No. 3707 died in the Judiciary Committee of the Tennessee House of Representatives; while S.B. No. 3695 died in the Judiciary Committee of the Tennessee Senate;
Utah in which House Bill No. 404 was introduced (""...enacts Title 36, Chapter 28, Convention for Proposing Amendments to the United States Constitution Act""); the bill was publicly numbered and distributed on March 6, 2012, and referred that same day to the Rules Committee of the Utah House of Representatives where it died; and
Virginia in which House Bill No. 619 was introduced (""A Bill to amend the Code of Virginia by adding in Chapter 2 of Title 24.2 an article numbered 4.1, consisting of a section numbered 24.2-216.1, relating to a convention to amend the United States Constitution; selection and participation of Virginia delegates""); the bill died in the Committee on Privileges and Elections in the Virginia House of Delegates.


=== 2013 ===
Idaho in which Senate Bill No. 1075 was introduced (""Relating to an Application of the State of Idaho under Article V of the United States Constitution for a Convention for Proposing Amendments to the United States Constitution; Providing Legislative Intent; Amending Title 34, Idaho Code, by the Addition of a new Chapter 16, Title 34, Idaho Code, to Define Terms, to Provide for the Appointment of Delegates to the Convention, to Provide for the Instruction to, Scope and Limitation of Authority of, and Compensation of said Delegates, To Provide Duties of the Secretary of State and to Provide a Citation""); the bill died in the State Affairs Committee of the Idaho Senate;
Indiana in which Senate Bill No. 224 was not only introduced, but was actually enacted into state law (""Describes the duties of delegates and alternate delegates to a convention called under Article V of the Constitution of the United States. Provides that a vote cast by a delegate or an alternate delegate that is outside the scope of the instructions given by the general assembly is void. Provides that a delegate or alternate delegate who votes or attempts to vote outside the scope of the instructions given by the general assembly forfeits the delegate's appointment by virtue of that vote or attempt to vote. Provides that the call by the general assembly for an Article V convention is withdrawn if all delegates and alternate delegates vote or attempt to vote outside the scope of the instructions given by the general assembly. Provides that a delegate or alternate delegate who knowingly or intentionally votes or attempts to vote outside the scope of the instructions commits a Class D felony. Establishes an advisory group to evaluate whether a delegate or an alternate delegate has acted outside the scope of instructions""); the bill passed both houses of the Indiana General Assembly and was signed into law by the Governor of Indiana on May 7, 2013; it is now ""Public Law 182""; as well as Senate Bill No. 225 which likewise became state law (""Provides for the appointment of delegates and alternate delegates by the General Assembly to a convention called for proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States called for by the states under Article V of the Constitution of the United States. Establishes the qualifications of delegates and alternate delegates""); the bill passed both houses of the Indiana General Assembly and was signed into law by the Governor of Indiana on May 7, 2013; it is now ""Public Law 183"";
New Mexico in which House Bill No. 156 was introduced (""Relating to Constitutional Conventions; providing guidelines for delegates from New Mexico to an Article 5 Constitutional Convention; providing penalties; declaring an emergency"") as well as House Bill No. 363 (""Relating to limitations on authority of New Mexico delegates to a 'convention for proposing amendments' [Article V, United States of America Constitution]; declaring an emergency""); both bills died in the Committee on Voters and Elections of the New Mexico House of Representatives;
North Dakota in which House Concurrent Resolution No. 3039 was introduced (""A concurrent resolution to create and enact a new section to article IV of the Constitution of North Dakota, relating to consideration by the legislative assembly of amendments to the United States Constitution""); the concurrent resolution was adopted by the North Dakota House of Representatives on March 21, 2013, but was later defeated in the North Dakota Senate on April 4, 2013, by a lopsided vote of only 4 yeas and 41 nays; and
Oklahoma in which House Bill No. 1530 was introduced (""An Act relating to statutes and reports; providing for delegates to a federal constitutional convention; defining terms; prohibiting delegates from performing certain acts; providing for recall for a violation; requiring delegates to take an oath; specifying oath; requiring the Legislature to perform certain duties; providing criminal penalty for violation of oath; providing for codification; providing an effective date; and declaring an emergency""); the bill never received floor consideration in the Oklahoma House of Representatives.


=== 2014 ===
Alabama in which Senate Bill No. 199 was introduced (""Relating to Article V Conventions; to establish duties for appointed delegates and alternate delegates; to require the Legislature, by joint resolution, to adopt instructions to delegates; to provide that a vote outside the scope of the instructions is void; to provide criminal penalties for exceeding the scope of instructions from the Legislature; and in connection therewith would have as its purpose or effect the requirement of a new or increased expenditure of local funds within the meaning of Amendment 621 of the Constitution of Alabama of 1901, now appearing as Section 111.05 of the Official Recompilation of the Constitution of Alabama of 1901, as amended"") as well as Senate Bill No. 200 (""Relating to Article V Conventions; to provide for the qualifications and appointment of delegates and alternate delegates to represent this state at an Article V Convention; to provide for the recall of a delegate; to provide for the reimbursement for certain expenses; to require delegates and alternate delegates to execute an oath; and to provide for the filing of the oath with the Secretary of State""); neither bill received floor consideration in the Alabama Senate;
Alaska in which House Bill No. 310 was introduced (""An Act relating to the selection and duties of delegates to a United States constitutional convention""); on April 4, 2014, the Alaska House of Representatives approved H.B. No. 310 by a vote of 23 yeas and 14 nays; the bill then died in the Alaska Senate;
Arizona in which House Bill No. 2397 was introduced (""AN ACT Amending Title 16, Chapter 4, Article 14, Arizona Revised Statutes, by adding Section 16‑712; relating to constitutional conventions""); H.B. No. 2397 was approved by the Arizona House of Representatives on February 24, 2014, by a vote of 36 yeas and 23 nays; H.B. No. 2397 then died in the Arizona Senate; as well as House Bill No. 2433 (""AN ACT Amending Title 1, Arizona Revised Statutes, by adding Chapter 7; relating to state convention for proposing amendments""); and Senate Bill No. 1360 (""AN ACT Amending Title 1, Arizona Revised Statutes, by adding Chapter 7; relating to Constitutional Conventions""); neither H.B. No. 2433 nor S.B. No. 1360 received floor consideration in their respective houses of origin;
Florida in which House Bill No. 609 was introduced (""A bill to be entitled An act relating to Article V constitutional conventions; creating s. 11.93, F.S.; providing a short title; creating s. 11.931, F.S.; providing for applicability; creating s. 11.932, F.S.; providing definitions; creating s. 11.933, F.S.; establishing qualifications of delegates and alternate delegates to an Article V constitutional convention; creating s. 11.9331, F.S.; providing for the appointment of delegates by the Legislature; creating s. 11.9332, F.S.; requiring majority vote approval in each chamber for the appointment of delegates; creating s. 11.9333, F.S.; authorizing the Legislature to recall a delegate and fill a vacancy; authorizing the Governor to call a special legislative session to fill a vacancy; creating s. 11.9334, F.S.; establishing a legislative method for appointments and recalls; creating s. 11.9335, F.S.; providing for the reimbursement of delegates and alternate delegates for per diem and travel expenses; creating s. 11.9336, F.S.; requiring delegates and alternate delegates to execute a written oath of responsibilities; creating s. 11.9337, F.S.; providing for the filing of delegates' oaths and the issuance of commissions; creating s. 11.934, F.S.; providing for instructions to delegates and alternate delegates; creating s. 11.9341, F.S.; establishing duties of alternate delegates; creating s. 11.9342, F.S.; establishing circumstances under which a convention vote is declared void; creating s. 11.9343, F.S.; providing circumstances under which a delegate or alternate delegate's appointment is forfeited; creating s. 11.9344, F.S.; establishing circumstances under which the application to call an Article V convention ceases to be a continuing application and is deemed to have no effect; creating s. 11.9345, F.S.; providing penalties for a delegate or alternate delegate who votes or attempts to vote outside the scope of the Legislature's instructions or the limits of the call for a constitutional convention; creating ss. 11.935, 11.9351, and 11.9352, F.S.; establishing a delegate advisory group, its membership, duties, and responsibilities; providing an effective date""); which was approved by the Florida House of Representatives on April 11, 2014, and then approved by the Florida Senate on April 25, 2014; H.B. No. 609 was signed into law by Florida's Governor on June 2, 2014; and Senate Bill No. 1008 (""An act relating to Article V constitutional conventions; creating s. 11.93, F.S.; providing a short title; creating s. 11.931, F.S.; providing for applicability; creating s. 11.932, F.S.; providing definitions; creating s. 11.933, F.S.; establishing qualifications of delegates and alternate delegates to an Article V constitutional convention; creating s. 11.9331, F.S.; providing for the appointment of delegates by the Legislature; creating s. 11.9332, F.S.; requiring majority vote approval in each chamber for the appointment of delegates; creating s. 11.9333, F.S.; authorizing the Legislature to recall a delegate and fill a vacancy; authorizing the Governor to call a special legislative session to fill a vacancy; creating s. 11.9334, F.S.; establishing a legislative method for appointments and recalls; creating s. 11.9335, F.S.; providing for the reimbursement of delegates and alternate delegates for per diem and travel expenses; creating s. 11.9336, F.S.; requiring delegates and alternate delegates to execute a written oath of responsibilities; creating s. 11.9337, F.S.; providing for the filing of delegates’ oaths and the issuance of commissions; creating s. 11.934, F.S.; providing for instructions to delegates and alternate delegates; creating s. 11.9341, F.S.; establishing duties of alternate delegates; creating s. 11.9342, F.S.; establishing circumstances under which a convention vote is declared void; creating s. 11.9343, F.S.; providing circumstances under which a delegate or alternate delegate’s appointment is forfeited; creating s. 11.9344, F.S.; establishing circumstances under which the application to call an Article V convention ceases to be a continuing application and is deemed to have no effect; creating s. 11.9345, F.S.; providing penalties for a delegate or alternate delegate who votes or attempts to vote outside the scope of the Legislature’s instructions or the limits of the call for a constitutional convention; creating ss. 11.935, 11.9351, and 11.9352, F.S.; establishing a delegate advisory group, its membership, duties, and responsibilities; providing an effective date"");
Georgia in which House Bill No. 929 was introduced (""A BILL to be entitled an Act to amend Chapter 1 of Title 50 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, relating to general provisions regarding state government, so as to provide definitions; to provide for the method of selecting delegates and alternate delegates to an Article V convention; to provide for the qualifications of delegates and alternate delegates; to provide for the recall of delegates and alternate delegates; to provide for oaths; to provide for expenses; to provide for related matters; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes""); and House Bill No. 930 (""A BILL to be entitled an Act to amend Chapter 1 of Title 50 of the O.C.G.A., relating to general provisions regarding state government; to provide that the General Assembly shall adopt standards and instructions for Article V convention delegates; to provide for the revocation of a resolution calling for an Article V convention under certain circumstances; to prohibit certain votes by delegates and alternate delegates; to provide for penalties; to provide for an advisory group and its composition, powers, duties, and procedures; to provide for related matters; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes""); H.B. No. 930 was approved by the Georgia House of Representatives on March 3, 2014, with a vote of 115 yeas and 62 nays; the Georgia Senate on March 20, 2014, approved H.B. No. 930 with a vote of 42 yeas and 10 nays (as amended); on that same day of March 20, 2014, the Georgia House of Representatives concurred in the Senate's amendment; H.B. No. 930 was signed into law by Georgia's Governor on April 15, 2014; as well as Senate Bill No. 206 (""A BILL to be entitled an Act to amend Chapter 6 of Title 28 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, relating to interstate cooperation, so as to provide for delegations from the State of Georgia to certain conventions called by the Congress of the United States for proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States pursuant to Article V of said constitution; to provide an effective date; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes"") which, after passing the Georgia Senate on March 7, 2013, was approved by the Georgia House of Representatives on almost a year later on February 20, 2014, with a vote of 102 yeas, 68 nays, and 3 not voting; S.B. No. 206 was signed into law by Georgia's Governor on April 29, 2014;
Idaho in which Senate Bill No. 1289 was introduced (""Relating to an Application of the State of Idaho under Article V of the United States Constitution for a Convention for Proposing Amendments to the United States Constitution; Providing legislative intent; Amending Title 34, Idaho Code, by the addition of a new Chapter 6, Title 34, Idaho Code, to define terms, to provide for the Appointment of Delegates to the Convention, to provide for the instruction to, scope and limitation of authority of, and compensation of said delegates, to provide duties of the Secretary of State and to provide a citation"");
Kansas in which Senate Bill No. 431 was introduced (""AN ACT concerning a convention under article V of the constitution of the United States; prescribing appointment and qualifications of delegates; duties and responsibilities thereof; instruction for delegates by the legislature; creating a joint committee of correspondence"");
Kentucky in which House Bill No. 449 was introduced (""AN ACT related to calling an Article V convention""); and House Bill No. 450 (""AN ACT related to appointment of delegates to United States Constitution convention"");
Michigan in which House Bill No. 5380 was introduced (""A bill to provide for the appointment of article V convention delegates; to provide the powers and duties of those delegates; and to provide for the duties of certain state governmental officials""); although the bill was passed by both houses of the Michigan Legislature, it was later VETOED by Michigan's Governor on December 30, 2014;
Missouri in which House Bill No. 2036 was introduced (""To amend chapter 21, RSMo, by adding thereto six new sections relating to the Article V convention act"");
Mississippi in which House Bill No. 536 was introduced (""An Act to Provide a Procedure Relating to a Convention Called for Proposing Amendments to the United States Constitution; to Provide that the Delegates shall be Appointed by the Legislature; to Require Delegates be Residents of the State of Mississippi; to place Certain Conditions on the Delegates; to provide for the Removal of a Delegate who Votes in Violation of the Conditions; to Provide a Penalty for Willful Violations by a Delegate; to Establish the Article V Convention Delegate Advisory Group and set forth its Powers and Duties; and for Related Purposes""); as well as House Bill No. 664 (""An Act To Restrict The Work Of Delegates Appointed By The Legislature To A Constitutional Convention Called Under Article V Of The United States Constitution To Those Amendments Authorized In Legislative Instructions; To Require The Recall Of Any Delegate Voting To Consider Or Approve An Unauthorized Amendment; And For Related Purposes""); along with Senate Bill No. 2700 (""An Act to Create the Article V Convention Faithless Delegate Act; to Provide a Procedure Relating to a Convention called for Proposing Amendments to the United States Constitution; to Provide that the Delegates shall be Appointed by the Legislature; to Require Delegates be Residents of the State of Mississippi; to place certain conditions on the Delegates; to Provide for the Removal of a Delegate who votes in Violation of the Conditions; to Provide a penalty for willful violations by a Delegate; and for related purposes""); joined by Senate Bill No. 2705 (""An Act To Create The Article V Convention Faithless Delegate Act; To Provide A Procedure Relating To A Convention Called For Proposing Amendments To The United States Constitution; To Provide That The Delegates Shall Be Appointed By The Legislature; To Require Delegates Be Residents Of The State Of Mississippi; To Place Certain Conditions On The Delegates; To Provide For The Removal Of A Delegate Who Votes In Violation Of The Conditions; To Provide A Penalty For Willful Violations By A Delegate; And For Related Purposes""); and Senate Bill No. 2788 (""An Act Prescribed to Define the Duties of Delegates and Alternate Delegates to a Convention Called Under Article V of the Constitution of the United States; Provide that a Vote Cast by a Delegate or an Alternate Delegate that is Outside the Scope of the Instructions Given by the Legislature is Void; Provide that a Delegate or Alternate Delegate who Votes or Attempts to Vote Outside the Scope of the Instructions Given by the Legislature Forfeits the Delegates Appointment by Virtue of the Vote or Attempt to Vote; Provide that the Call by the Legislature for an Article V Convention is Withdrawn if all Delegates and Alternate Delegates Vote or Attempt to Vote Outside the Scope of the Instructions Given by the Legislature; Provide that a Delegate or Alternate Delegate who Knowingly or Intentionally Votes or Attempts to Vote Outside the Scope of the Instructions Commits Crime. Establish an Advisory Group to Evaluate Whether a Delegate or an Alternate Delegate has Acted Outside the Scope of Instruction; and for Related Purposes"");
Oklahoma in which House Joint Resolution No. 1083 was introduced (""A Joint Resolution urging Congress to propose a balanced budget amendment; making application for a Constitutional Convention limited to proposing a balanced budget amendment; explaining purpose and scope of application; limiting authorization of delegates, representatives or participants to the Convention; prohibiting delegates from voting on unauthorized amendments; requiring delegates to take oath; providing penalty for violation of oath; providing that application is a continuing application that supersedes prior applications; and providing for distribution""); and House Bill No. 1530 (""An Act relating to statutes and reports; providing for delegates to a federal constitutional convention; defining terms; prohibiting delegates from performing certain acts; providing for recall for a violation; requiring delegates to take an oath; specifying oath; requiring the Legislature to perform certain duties; providing criminal penalty for violation of oath; providing for codification; providing an effective date; and declaring an emergency""); as well as Senate Joint Resolution No. 61 (""A Joint Resolution urging Congress to propose a balanced budget amendment; making application for a Constitutional Convention limited to proposing a balanced budget amendment; explaining purpose and scope of application; limiting authorization of delegates, representatives or participants to the Convention; prohibiting delegates from voting on unauthorized amendments; requiring delegates to take oath; providing penalty for violation of oath; providing that application is a continuing application that supersedes prior applications; and directing distribution"");
South Dakota in which House Bill No. 1136 was introduced (""FOR AN ACT ENTITLED, An Act to limit the authority of delegates to a limited Article V convention to vote for unauthorized amendments contrary to legislative instructions and to provide a civil fine for the violation thereof""); on February 11, 2014, by a narrow vote of 33 yeas and 37 nays, H.B. No. 1136 was defeated in the South Dakota House of Representatives; the next day, a motion to reconsider that vote resulted again in defeat, but by the even narrower margin of 35 yeas and 35 nays;
Tennessee in which House Bill No. 1379 was introduced (""AN ACT to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 2 and Title 3, relative to relative to Article V conventions and delegates"") as well as Senate Bill No. 1394 (""AN ACT to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 3, relative to an Article V convention""); and Senate Bill No. 1432 (""AN ACT to amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 2 and Title 3, relative to relative to Article V conventions and delegates"") on February 24, 2014, the Tennessee Senate approved S.B. No. 1432 by a vote of 30 yeas and 1 nay; S.B. No. 1432 was then approved, as amended, by the Tennessee House of Representatives on April 16, 2014, by a vote of 77 yeas and 10 nays; on April 17, 2014, the Senate concurred in the House's amendment; S.B. No. 1432 was signed into law by Tennessee's Governor on May 22, 2014;
Utah in which House Bill No. 392 was introduced (""establishes requirements for a Utah delegate to a United States constitutional convention""); H.B. No. 392, as substituted, was approved by the Utah House of Representatives on March 6, 2014; the bill was then approved by the Utah Senate on March 12, 2014; on April 1, 2014, the Governor of Utah signed H.B. No. 392 into law;
Virginia in which House Bill No. 437 was introduced (""A BILL to amend the Code of Virginia by adding in Chapter 2 of Title 24.2 an article numbered 4.1, consisting of a section numbered 24.2-216.1, relating to a convention to amend the United States Constitution; selection and participation of Virginia delegates"") as well as Senate Bill No. 105 (""A Bill to amend the Code of Virginia by adding in Title 30 a chapter numbered 55, consisting of sections numbered 30-348, 30-349, and 30-350, relating to a convention to amend the United States Constitution; delegates""); House Bill No. 437 was defeated in the Virginia House of Delegates on February 6, 2014, by a vote of 40 yeas and 58 nays;
West Virginia in which House Bill No. 3029 was introduced (""A BILL to amend the Code of West Virginia, 1931, as amended, be amended by adding thereto a new article, designated §3-11A-1, §3-11A-2, §3-11A-3 and §3-11A-4, all relating to providing a procedure for West Virginia to select delegates to an Article V convention for proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America; definitions; delegate duties and responsibilities; and providing a felony criminal penalty for violation of a delegate's oath"");
Wisconsin in which Assembly Bill No. 635 was introduced (""An Act to create 13.176 of the statutes; relating to: appointing delegates for a convention under Article V of the United States Constitution""); on February 18, 2014, the bill was approved by the Assembly with a vote of 58 yeas, 38 nays, and 2 paired; the bill then died in the Wisconsin Senate; and
Wyoming in which ""House Bill No. 0027"" was introduced (""AN ACT relating to constitutional conventions; providing limits on the authority of delegates to a constitutional convention as specified; providing for penalties; providing for rules and regulations; and providing for an effective date"").


=== 2015 ===
Alabama in which Senate Bill No. 112 was introduced (""relating to Article V Conventions; to provide for the qualifications and appointment of delegates and alternate delegates to represent this state at an Article V Convention; to provide for the recall of a delegate; to provide for the reimbursement for certain expenses; to require delegates and alternate delegates to execute an oath; and to provide for filing of the oath with the Secretary of State"") and in which Senate Bill No. 372 was offered (""relating to Article V Conventions; to establish duties for appointed delegates and alternate delegates; to require the Legislature, by joint resolution, to adopt instructions to delegates; to provide that a vote outside the scope of the instructions is void; to provide criminal penalties for exceeding the scope of instructions form the Legislature; and in connection therewith would have as its purpose or effect the requirement of a new or increased expenditure of local funds within the meaning of Amendment 621 of the Constitution of Alabama of 1901, now appearing as Section 111.05 of the Official Recompilation of the Constitution of Alabama of 1901, as amended""); both bills were ""indefinitely postponed"" in the Alabama Senate;
South Dakota in which House Bill No. 1069 was introduced (""An Act to limit the authority of delegates to a limited Article V convention to vote for unauthorized amendments contrary to legislative instructions and to provide a civil fine for the violation thereof""); the bill was approved by the South Dakota House of Representatives on January 28, 2015, and went on to be passed by the South Dakota Senate on February 17, 2015; the Governor then signed H.B. No. 1069 into law on February 25, 2015.


=== 2016 ===
Alaska in which House Concurrent Resolution No. 4 was introduced (""relating to the duties of delegates selected by the legislature to attend a convention of the states called under art. V, Constitution of the United States, to consider a countermand amendment to the Constitution of the United States; establishing as a joint committee of the legislature the Delegate Credential Committee and relating to the duties of the committee; providing for an oath for delegates and alternates to a countermand amendment convention; providing for a chair and assistant chair of the state's countermand amendment delegation; providing for the duties of the chair and assistant chair; providing instructions for the selection of a convention president; and providing specific language for the countermand amendment on which the state's convention delegates are authorized by the legislature to vote to approve"") which was adopted by the Alaska House of Representatives on April 10, 2016; the concurrent resolution was then adopted by the Alaska Senate on April 15, 2016.


=== 2017 ===
Texas in which Senate Bill No. 21 was approved by the Texas Senate on February 28, 2017 (""relating to the qualifications, duties, and limitations of Texas delegates to a convention called under Article V of the United States Constitution; providing a criminal penalty""); and
Wyoming in which House Bill No. ""HB0050"" was approved by the Wyoming House of Representatives on January 20, 2017, and then approved by the Wyoming Senate on March 3, 2017—with the House concurring in some, but not all, amendments previously tacked on by the Senate (""relating to a convention for proposing amendments to the United States constitution; specifying limitations on delegates to a United States constitution Article V convention; providing penalties for violation of oath; clarifying state convention refers to a state ratifying convention; and providing for an effective date""); the bill is now designated as House Enrolled Act No. 123.


== Legislation offered in Congress to call an Article V Convention ==
In January 1975, during the 94th Congress, U.S. Congressman Jerry Pettis, a Republican from California, introduced House Concurrent Resolution No. 28, calling a convention to propose amendments to the Constitution. In H.Con.Res. 28, Pettis proposed that each state would be entitled to send as many delegates to the convention as it had Senators and Representatives in Congress and that such delegates would be selected in the manner designated by the legislature of each state. With Pettis' death, his colleague, Representative Norman F. Lent, a Republican from New York, introduced similar legislation, House Concurrent Resolution No. 340, during August 1977, for the consideration of the 95th Congress. Both the Pettis and Lent concurrent resolutions received no further consideration than to be referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in the U.S. House of Representatives.


== Other proposals for a Convention of the States ==
Employing a slightly different strategy not attempted previously, there was, in the years 2013 through 2016, a movement afoot within the legislatures of some states to invoke that provision of the United States Constitution which allows for interstate compacts (namely Article I, Section 10) to be utilized for setting uniform ground rules on the applying process for the calling of an Article V convention to propose an amendment to the Constitution which, if such an amendment were to be ratified, would require that the Federal budget be balanced.
From 2013 to 2016, bills are known to have been offered in a number of states that would, if passed, form such a ""Compact for America"".


=== 2013 ===
Arizona in which House Bill No. 2328 was introduced (""Amending Title 41, Chapter 2.1, Arizona Revised Statutes, by Adding Article 2; Relating to the Compact Regarding a Balanced Budget Amendment Under Article V of the United States Constitution"");
Connecticut in which Senate Bill No. 584 was introduced (""An Act Concerning the Compact for America; to require the state to enter into an agreement to adopt and ratify a balanced budget amendment under Article V of the United States Constitution""); and
New Mexico in which House Bill No. 241 was introduced (""Relating to the Constitution of the United States of America; Enacting the Compact with America; Declaring an Emergency"").
Taking yet another approach is the concept of a ""management study"" offered during 2013 in North Dakota (House Bill No. 1446) which a management study would be ""...related to the calling of a convention under article V of the United States Constitution, including concerns associated with a 'runaway' convention and methods through which states have addressed those concerns..."". Having passed the North Dakota House of Representatives on February 26, 2013, House Bill No. 1446 was defeated by a vote of 16 yeas and 31 nays in the North Dakota Senate.


=== 2014 ===
Alaska in which House Bill No. 284 was introduced (""An Act relating to an interstate compact on a balanced federal budget""); as well as Senate Bill No. 203 (""An Act relating to an interstate compact on a balanced federal budget"") H.B. No. 284 was approved by the Alaska House of Representatives on March 19, 2014, with a vote of 22 yeas and 12 nays; H.B. No. 284 was then approved by the Alaska Senate on April 17, 2014, with a vote of 14 yeas and 6 nays; H.B. No. 284 was signed into law by the Governor of Alaska on April 23, 2014;
Arizona in which House Bill No. 2305 was introduced (""Amending Title 41, Chapter 2.1, Arizona Revised Statutes, by adding Article 2; relating to the compact regarding a Balanced Budget Amendment under Article V of the United States Constitution"") on March 6, 2014, H.B. No. 2305 was approved by the Arizona House of Representatives with a vote of 32 yeas and 26 nays; the bill then died in the Arizona Senate;
Georgia in which House Bill No. 794 was introduced (""To amend Title 50 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, relating to state government, so as to adopt the Compact for a Balanced Budget and promote the proposal and ratification of a balanced budget amendment to the United States Constitution; to provide for powers, duties, and procedures relative to the Compact; to provide for related matters; to provide an effective date; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes""); H.B. No. 794 was approved by the Georgia House of Representatives on February 20, 2014, with a vote of 103 yeas, 63 nays, and 5 not voting; on March 18, 2014, H.B. No. 794 was approved by the Georgia Senate by a vote of 30 yeas and 25 nays; H.B. No. 794 was signed into law by Georgia's Governor on April 12, 2014; as well as Senate Bill No. 206 (""...to amend Chapter 6 of Title 28 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, relative to interstate cooperation, so as to provide for delegations from the State of Georgia to certain conventions called by the Congress of the United States for proposing amendments to the Constitution of the United States pursuant to Article V of said Constitution; to provide an effective date; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes."") which was approved by the Georgia Senate on March 7, 2013; the Georgia House of Representatives approved the bill nearly a full year later on February 20, 2014, with a vote of 102 yeas, 68 nays, and 3 not voting; S.B. No. 206 was signed into law by Georgia's Governor on April 29, 2014;
North Carolina in which House Resolution No. 1206 was introduced (""A House Resolution Establishing a House Select Committee to Study the Issue of Federalism and Abuses of Federal Authority, Including Whether North Carolina Should Apply to Congress for a Convention of the States Under Article V of the Constitution of the United States"") which was withdrawn from the calendar of the North Carolina House of Representatives on June 25, 2014, and then re-referred to the Committee on Rules, Calendar, and Operations of the House that same day; and
Oklahoma in which House Joint Resolution No. 1090 was introduced (""A Joint Resolution ratifying the Compact for America; stating declaration of policy purpose and intent; defining terms; providing for Compact membership and withdrawal; establishing a Compact Commission; stating duties and authority; providing for appointment of a Compact Administrator; providing for composition of the Commission; providing for funding; providing powers and duties of the Compact Administrator; requiring certain notice; providing for enforcement of Compact; providing for dissolution of the Commission and discharge of the Compact Administrator and members; providing effective date of Article IV of Compact; providing resolution applying for a Convention for proposing amendments to the United States Constitution; providing for delegate appointment, limitations and instructions; providing for recall; providing an oath; providing term of delegates; providing delegate authority; providing that violation of Compact requires delegate to forfeit appointment; providing for payment of delegate expenses; providing Convention rules; providing date and location of Convention; providing agenda for the Convention; providing procedure for delegate recognition; providing procedure for voting; designating a quorum; providing procedure for actions by the Convention; providing for transmittal of approved Balanced Budget Amendment; requiring open records and proceedings; providing for adjournment; providing prohibitions; providing ratification process; providing for construction, enforcement, venue, and severability; and providing effective date of Compact"").


=== 2015 ===
Alabama in which Senate Bill No. 414 was offered (""To adopt the Compact for a Balanced Budget; to facilitate the calling of an Article V constitutional convention with the intent of amending the United States Constitution to include a balanced budget requirement for Congress; to provide for membership and withdrawal of compact members; to establish a Compact Commission; to provide procedures for applying for an Article V constitutional convention; to specify qualifications and duties of convention delegates; to establish rules for the convention; and to provide for the venue of the convention"") which was approved on May 28, 2015, by the Alabama Senate; and while favorably reported out of the Committee on Constitution, Campaigns and Elections of the Alabama House of Representatives, S.B. No. 414 was never put to a vote of the full Alabama House of Representatives and, thus, died in the ""lower"" chamber; also introduced in 2015 were House Bill No. 42, House Bill No. 379 and Senate Bill No. 10, all three of which ended up ""indefinitely postponed"" in their chamber of origin;
Arizona in which House Bill No. 2326 was offered (""Amending Title 41, Chapter 2.1, Arizona Revised Statutes, by adding Article 2; relating to the Compact Regarding a Balanced Budget Amendment under Article V of the United States Constitution"") which was approved by the Arizona House of Representatives on February 24, 2015; the bill was then referred to the Rules Committee in the Arizona Senate where it died;


=== 2016 ===
Arizona in which House Bill No. 2457 was offered (""Amending Title 41, Chapter 2.1, Arizona Revised Statutes, by adding Article 2; relating to the Compact Regarding a Balanced Budget Amendment under Article V of the United States Constitution"") which was approved by the Arizona House of Representatives on February 18, 2016; the bill was then referred to the Rules Committee in the Arizona Senate where it died;
At the Federal level, House Concurrent Resolution No. 26 was introduced in the 114th Congress by U.S. Representative Paul Gosar of Arizona (""Effectuating the Compact for a Balanced Budget""). H.Con.Res. 26 has received no further consideration than to be referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in the U.S. House of Representatives on March 19, 2015.


== Congressional maintenance of Article V applications and rescissions ==
One issue of concern over the years has been official receipt by Congress of the applications, and of the rescissions, approved by state lawmakers. In some instances, the process went very smoothly with Congress—particularly the Senate—expeditiously providing readers of the Congressional Record with the full verbatim texts of such applications, or rescissions, which were then referred to committee. But in other cases, retransmitting to Congress the state legislative documents—in some instances multiple times—was necessary for those state documents to finally be entered word-for-word into the Congressional Record. South Carolina's above-mentioned H. 3400—approved in 2004—would be a prime example. It took nearly a full decade for that resolution of rescission to be entered into the Congressional Record and to be referred to the Committee on the Judiciary in both the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives. Virginia's 2004 House Joint Resolution No. 194 was similarly situated.
As an outgrowth of that frustration, on March 18, 2014, Senate Joint Memorial No. 104 was approved by the Idaho Legislature calling upon Congress to ""...maintain a record of the Article V applications of the states in a form that is open and accessible to the people of the United States."" On May 15, 2014, Idaho's S.J.M. No. 104 was designated as ""POM-231""; was referred to the U.S. Senate's Committee on the Judiciary; and was published verbatim in the U.S. Senate's portion of the Congressional Record.


== See also ==
List of state applications for an Article V Convention


== References ==

Paulsen, Michael (1993). ""A General Theory of Article V: The Constitutional Lessons of the Twenty-Seventh Amendment"". Yale Law Journal. 103 (3): 677–789. doi:10.2307/797083. JSTOR 797083.
Paulsen, Michael (2011). ""How to Count to Thirty-Four: The Constitutional Case for a Constitutional Convention"". Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy. 34: 837. SSRN 1856719.
Rogers, James (2007). ""The Other Way to Amend the Constitution: The Article V Constitutional Convention Amendment Process"" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy. 30: 1005.


== External links ==
Colorado House of Representatives' procedurally-improper House Resolution No. 12-1003"
Johnny Burnette,"John Joseph Burnette (March 25, 1934 – August 14, 1964) was an American singer and songwriter of rockabilly and pop music. In 1952, Johnny, his brother Dorsey Burnette, and their mutual friend Paul Burlison, formed the band that became known as the Rock and Roll Trio. His career was cut short on August 14, 1964, when he drowned following a boat accident, aged 30.
He is the father of 1980s rockabilly singer Rocky Burnette.


== Early life ==
Johnny Burnette was born to Willie May and Dorsey Burnett Sr. in Memphis, Tennessee, United States. (The ""e"" at the end of his name was added later.) Johnny grew up with his parents and Dorsey Jr. in a public housing project in the Lauderdale Courts area of Memphis, which from 1948 until 1954 was also the home of Gladys and Vernon Presley and their son, Elvis.
Johnny attended Blessed Sacrament School, and after graduating from eighth grade he went to Catholic High School, in Memphis. He showed an aptitude for sports, being on the school baseball team and playing linebacker on the football team. Both he and Dorsey were also keen amateur boxers and later became Golden Gloves champions. After leaving high school, Burnette tried his hand at becoming a professional boxer, but after one fight with a sixty-dollar purse and a broken nose, he decided to quit boxing. He went to work on barges traversing the Mississippi River, where Dorsey also worked. Johnny worked mainly as a deck hand; Dorsey worked as an oiler. After work, they would go back to Memphis and perform songs in local bars with a varying array of sidemen, including another former Golden Gloves champion, Paul Burlison, whom Dorsey had met at an amateur boxing tournament in Memphis in 1949.


== The Rock and Roll Trio ==
In 1952, the Burnette brothers and Burlison formed a group called the Rhythm Rangers. Johnny sang and played acoustic guitar, Dorsey played bass and Paul Burlison played lead guitar. For economic reasons, the three moved to New York in 1956 and managed to get an audition for Ted Mack's Original Amateur Hour. Winning the competition three times in a row gained them a place in the finals and a recording contract with Coral Records, and they renamed themselves the Rock and Roll Trio. They also gained a manager, the bandleader Henry Jerome, and a drummer, Tony Austin (a cousin of Carl Perkins).
Promotional appearances were arranged on Dick Clark's American Bandstand, Steve Allen's Tonight Show and Perry Como's Kraft Music Hall, together with a summer tour with Carl Perkins and Gene Vincent. On Sunday September 9, 1956, they appeared as finalists on the Original Amateur Hour at Madison Square Garden, singing ""Hound Dog"".  Despite this activity, the three singles this rock and roll trio had released over this period failed to reach any national hit parade. This might be due to a result of Elvis Presley who appeared on a CBS television program that was broadcast live from Los Angeles, CA at exactly the same time that this Burnette trio had performed on ABC televised ""Original Amateur Hour"" in New York. Furthermore, the CBS show that had broadcast Elvis in Los Angeles, had garnered an 82.6% share, or 60,710,000 viewers, whereas the ABC and NBC networks had garnered less than 5 million viewers each.
In order to cover their living expenses, the Trio was forced to go on the road, for what seemed to be an endless stream of one-night stands. This exhausting regime led to squabbles, which were exacerbated in Dorsey's case by Jerome's use of the name Johnny Burnette and the Rock and Roll Trio on records and live dates. Things finally came to a head at a gig in Niagara Falls in autumn 1956, when, as a result of a fight, Dorsey quit the group a week before they were to appear in Alan Freed's film Rock, Rock, Rock.
Johnny Black, the brother of Elvis's bassist Bill Black, was rapidly recruited to fill Dorsey's place. Despite the film appearance and three more single releases and one LP release, the group failed to achieve any chart success. The Rock and Roll Trio disbanded in autumn 1957.


== Success in California with Ricky Nelson ==
Now unemployed in Memphis, Burnette decided to try his luck in California. He and a friend, Joe Campbell, hitchhiked to the West Coast, where they joined Dorsey. With their past differences forgotten, the brothers attempted to resurrect the Rock and Roll Trio and sent for Paul Burlison. He joined them briefly but decided to return to Memphis and concentrate on his electrical business. Dorsey and Johnny continued with their songwriting, but Dorsey kept his day job as an electrician to pay the family expenses.
The Burnettes' brashness got them their first success in the music business in California. On arriving in Los Angeles, Joe Campbell bought a copy of ""A Map to the Stars"", which showed the location of the house of the teen idol Ricky Nelson. In an effort to get their songs to him, the Burnettes and Campbell decided to sit on the steps of his house until they could get a meeting with him. Their persistence worked, and Nelson was sufficiently impressed with their work that he eventually recorded several of their songs, including ""Believe What You Say"", ""It's Late"", ""Waitin' in School"", and ""Just a Little Too Much"", amongst others. Other Imperial Records artists, such as Roy Brown, benefited from their songwriting. The success of his recording of the brothers' ""Hip Shakin' Baby"" led to a recording contract with Imperial Records as a duo. While in California, they met Doyle Holly, who played bass guitar for a short time with the band. Holly went on to become the bass player for Buck Owens and the Buckaroos and to record as a solo artist.
As the Burnette Brothers, they released one single, for Imperial, ""Warm Love"" backed with ""My Honey"" (Imperial X5509), on May 5, 1958. It did not make the charts. After this failure, they continued to work together as songwriters but began to follow separate careers as performing artists. In 1961, however, Johnny and Dorsey released two instrumental singles, credited to the Texans, for two small labels, Infinity and Gothic: ""Green Grass of Texas"" backed with ""Bloody River"" (Infinity INX-001), released on February 20, 1961, and ""Rockin' Johnny Home"" backed with ""Ole Reb"" (Gothic GOX-001), released on May 29, 1961. Another instrumental, ""Lonely Island"" backed with""Green Hills"" (Liberty 55460), credited to the Shamrocks, was released by Liberty Records on June 6, 1962. ""Green Grass of Texas"" and ""Bloody River"" were to be re-released in February 1965 on the Vee Jay label (VJ 658), again credited to the Texans.


== Solo career ==


=== The Liberty years ===
In the fall of 1958, Johnny Burnette obtained a recording contract as a solo artist with Freedom Records, an offshoot of Liberty Records. He released three singles on this label: ""Kiss Me"" backed with ""I'm Restless"" (44001), released on September 11, 1958; ""Gumbo"" backed with ""Me and the Bear"" (44011), released on March 6, 1959; and ""Sweet Baby Doll"" backed with ""I'll Never Love Again"" (44017), released on June 24, 1959. All of these songs except ""Sweet Baby Doll"" were written by Burnette. None of these records were hits.
In mid-1959, the Freedom label was shut down, and Burnette moved to the parent Liberty label, under the direction of the producer Snuff Garrett. Liberty had better promotional capabilities than Freedom, so that Johnny's singles for Liberty stood a greater chance of succeeding. His first two singles for Liberty, ""Settin' the Woods on Fire"" backed with ""Kentucky Waltz"" (Liberty F-55222), released on November 10, 1959, and ""Patrick Henry"" backed with ""Don't Do It"" (Liberty F-55243), released on March 4, 1960, sold well regionally but were not national hits. However, his third single, ""Dreamin'"" backed with ""Cincinnati Fireball"" (Liberty F-55285), released on May 4, 1960, reached number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 5 in Britain. It sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA.
His fourth Liberty single, ""You're Sixteen"" (written by the Sherman Brothers) backed with ""I Beg Your Pardon"" (Liberty F-55285), released on October 5, 1960, did even better, reaching number 8 on the Hot 100 and number 3 in the UK Singles Chart, and earned another gold record for him. Burnette went back into the studio and under Snuff Garrett's direction recorded ""Little Boy Sad"". This was released on January 3, 1961, backed with ""(I Go) Down to the River"" (Liberty F-55298). Shortly after its release, Burnette was hospitalized with a ruptured appendix, which kept him bedridden for several weeks. He was unable to undertake many personal appearances to promote the new record, and it reached only number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 12 in Britain. Frustrated by this prolonged inactivity he tried to return to work too early, and he promptly collapsed. This meant that his fifth Liberty single, ""Big Big World"" backed with ""Ballad of the One Eyed Jacks"" (Liberty F-55318), released on March 30, 1961, received no promotion at all and reached only number 58 on the Hot 100.
His sixth Liberty single, ""I've Got a Lot of Things to Do"" backed with ""Girls"" (Liberty F-55345), released June 14, 1961, was handled differently from his previous records. In Britain, the upbeat side, ""Girls"", was promoted as the topside and reached number 23 in the UK chart in September 1961. In the United States it was flipped over with ""I've Got a Lot of Things to Do"" as the topside, but despite heavy promotion it failed to become a hit, peaking just outside the Hot 100 at number 109.
After recovering from his illness, Burnette returned to the road with a tour of Northern cities, culminating in a season at the Brooklyn Paramount Theatre, after which he undertook a tour of Australia with Connie Francis. Back in the limelight, his next release was scheduled to be a Carl Perkins song, ""Fools Like Me"", backed with ""Honestly I Do"" (Liberty 55377), but this was canceled in favor of ""God, Country and My Baby"" backed with ""Honestly I Do"" (Liberty 55379), which was released on September 27, 1961. It reached number 18 on the Hot 100, but was to be Burnette's last major American hit.
In 1962, Burnette toured Britain for the first time, with Gary U.S. Bonds and Gene McDaniels, where he made an appearance on the New Musical Express Poll Winners' Concert and several TV appearances. His next single ""Clown Shoes"" backed with ""The Way I Am"" (Liberty 55416) was released on January 26, 1962, but it failed to make the US Hot 100. It was more successful in Britain, where it reached number 35. ""Clown Shoes"" was written by P. J. Proby.
Burnette had two more single releases on Liberty Records. These were ""The Fool of the Year"" backed with ""The Poorest Boy in Town"" (Liberty 55448), which was released on April 13, 1962, and ""Damn the Defiant"" backed with ""Lonesome Waters"" (Liberty 55489), which was released on July 30, 1962. Neither of these singles was a hit, but ""Damn the Defiant"", a Johnny Horton–style naval saga, was Burnette's first self-penned A-side for Liberty, It was also his last single for the label.


=== The Chancellor stint ===
Burnette moved to Chancellor Records, which had had success with teen idols like Fabian Forte and Frankie Avalon. Chancellor released three singles by Burnette in 1962: ""I Wanna Thank Your Folks"" backed with ""The Giant"" (Chancellor C-1116), ""Tag Along"" backed with ""Party Girl"" (Chancellor C-1123) and ""Remember Me (I'm the One Who Loves You)"" backed with ""Time Is Not Enough"" (Chancellor C-1129). None of these singles were hits.


=== The Capitol sessions ===
Burnette moved on from Chancellor, briefly joining Dorsey on Reprise Records for one single, ""Hey Sue"" backed with ""It Don't Take Much"" (20153), before signing a one-year contract with Capitol Records in the summer of 1963. Johnny's first recording session was held on July 23, 1963, at the Capitol Tower with Jim Economides and Jimmie Haskell overseeing the proceedings. A number of tracks were recorded: ""It Isn't There"", ""Wish It Were Saturday Night"", ""I'll Give You Three Guesses"", ""All Week Long"" and ""Congratulations, You've Hurt Me Again"". Of these ""It Isn't There"" backed with ""Wish It Were Saturday Night"" (Capitol 5023) were issued on August 19, 1963, as his first American single. In Britain, the flipside was changed to ""All Week Long"", but neither single made the charts. On December 13, 1963, a second session was held, with the same two men in charge. Four more songs were recorded, of which ""The Opposite"" backed with ""You Taught Me the Way to Love You"" (Capitol 5114) was released as a single on January 20, 1964. Again it failed to find chart success. A third session was held on February 14, 1964, which produced four songs: ""Aunt Marie"", ""Two Feet in Front of Me"", ""If I Were An Artist"", and ""And Her Name Is Scarlett"". None of these songs were deemed fit for release and remained in the can for thirty years. A fourth session was held on March 16, 1964, which was overseen by David Gates, who later went on to fame with the band Bread. This session produced ""Sweet Suzie, I Think She Knows"" and ""It All Depends on Linda"", which was written by Bobby Bare. Of these songs, ""Sweet Suzie"" backed with ""Walkin' Talkin' Doll"", which had been held back from the December 1963 session, were released as Capitol single (Capitol 5176) on April 5, 1964. This single also failed to make the charts.


=== Sahara and Magic Lamp labels ===
When his Capitol contract ran out, Burnette decided to take charge of his own affairs on his own terms. He formed his own label Sahara and in July 1964 released the single ""Fountain of Love"" backed with ""What a Summer Day"" (Sahara 512). When he was informed that the name Sahara had already been taken, he renamed the label Magic Lamp and a different single, ""Bigger Man"" backed with ""Less Than a Heartbeat"" (Magic Lamp 515) was released.


== Death ==
On August 14, 1964, Burnette's unlit fishing boat was struck by an unaware cabin cruiser in Clear Lake, California.  The impact threw him off the boat, and he drowned. When he received the news, Dorsey Burnette called Paul Burlison, who flew out to comfort him and attend Johnny's funeral. The two men were to keep in touch until Dorsey's death of a heart attack in 1979. Johnny Burnette is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.


== Legacy ==
Burnette gained renewed prominence in 1973 thanks to Ringo Starr's version of ""You're Sixteen"". In addition, Burnette's original song was recognized by the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. One of his songs, ""Train Kept A-Rollin'"" by Tiny Bradshaw, would later be recorded by the Yardbirds, Aerosmith and Motörhead. Early British rock and roll power trio and proto punk garage band Johnny Kidd and the Pirates and psychobilly band The Meteors both covered ""Lonesome Train.""
The Cramps covered his song ""Tear it Up"", Poison Ivy heavily influenced by Burnette's raw guitar style and Lux Interior borrowing Burnette's vocal approach, and fellow rockabilly band Tav Falco's Panther Burns did a cover of ""You're Undecided"", both songs from Burnette's first album and again, heavily indebted to Burnette quivering, emotional vocal delivery.
The Beatles, with John Lennon on vocal, performed ""Lonesome Tears in My Eyes"" at the BBC on July 10, 1963, for broadcast airing on July 23, 1963. During the airing Lennon introduced the song, originally recorded by Johnny Burnette and the Rock 'n Roll Trio on July 3, 1956, and released in March 1957, joking, ""This is a Dorsey Burnette number, brother of Johnny Burnette, called 'Lonesome Tears in My Eyes', recorded on their very first LP in 1822!"" The song also influenced a later Beatles song, ""The Ballad of John and Yoko"" in that the outro guitar riff to that song was inspired by the corresponding intro guitar riff on ""Lonesome Tears in My Eyes"". This live in-studio recording of ""Lonesome Tears in My Eyes"" (including Lennon's spoken intro) was later included on the Beatles' 1994 two-CD set, Live at the BBC.


== Quotation ==
My brother Dorsey and I first got to know Elvis Presley when he went to Humes High and we went to the Catholic High... Elvis would tote his guitar on his back when he rode past on his motor-cycle on his way to school. He would see us and always wave.
NME, February 1961


== Discography ==


=== Studio albums ===


=== Compilation ===


=== Singles ===
Johnny Burnette and the Rock 'n' Roll Trio

The Johnny Burnette Trio

Johnny Burnette


== References ==


== Other sources ==
Johnny Burnette's Rock 'n' Roll Trio
RCS Artist Discography – Burnette, Johnny at archive.today (archived July 13, 2012) – for single releases 1954 to 1964, Infinity, Gothic and Vee Jay releases as the Texans, Liberty release as the Shamrocks
The Johnny & Dorsey Burnette Discography Archived September 14, 2016, at the Wayback Machine by Gilles Vignal and Marc Alesina – For recording session details, including demo sessions 1954 to 1964
Survey of American Popular Music by Frank Hoffmann – Dorsey and Johnny Burnette
""Rock Billy Boogie/Johnny Burnette Trio"" by Colin Escott (sleeve notes to Bear Family CD BCD 15474/AH) – general background details including original spelling of Burnette name, Dorsey Sr.'s 1939 purchase of Gene Autry guitars, boxing and 1949 meeting with Paul Burlison
""Johnny and Dorsey/The Burnette Brothers"" by Adam Komorowski (sleeve notes to Rockstar CD RSRCD 005) – early Freedom singles and possibility of Eddie Cochran's presence on Gumbo
That's The Way I Feel: The Complete Capitol Recordings – Johnny Burnette by Adam Komorowski (sleeve notes to Rockstar CD RSRCD 006) – details of Infinity, Gothic and Vee Jay singles, Reprise single, Capitol sessions and releases, Sahara and Magic Lamp releases, death and Dorsey's reunion with Paul Burlison
""You're Sixteen: The Best of Johnny Burnette"" by Dawn Eden (sleeve notes to Liberty CD 82–99997) – broken nose and sixty dollar boxing purse, details of first meeting at the home of Ricky Nelson, details of Liberty releases, Hot 100 and UK chart positions, UK/US switch of sides ""I've Got a Lot of Things to Do""/""Girls"", reference to P. J. Proby, Capitol, Sahara and Magic Lamp releases
Dreamin' Johnny Burnette – Johnny Burnette by N. E. Fulcanwright (sleeve notes to Beat Goes on CD BGOCD329) – For Johnny's ruptured appendix in 1961 and its consequences, Liberty release, Hot 100 and UK chart positions, UK/US switch of sides ""I've Got a Lot of Things to Do""/""Girls"", US tour and Australian tour with Connie Francis, UK 1962 tour, reference to P. J. Proby


== External links ==
Johnny Burnette article by Dr. Frank Hoffmann
Boxing record for Johnny Burnette from BoxRec (registration required)
Rockabilly.net
Rockabilly.nl"
I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For,"""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" is a song by Irish rock band U2. It is the second track from their 1987 album The Joshua Tree and was released as the album's second single in May 1987. The song was a hit, becoming the band's second consecutive number-one single on the US Billboard Hot 100 while peaking at number six on the UK Singles Chart.
The song originated from a demo the band recorded on which drummer Larry Mullen Jr. played a unique rhythm pattern. Like much of The Joshua Tree, the song was inspired by the group's interest in American music. ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" exhibits influences from gospel music and its lyrics describe spiritual yearning. Lead singer Bono's vocals are in high register and lead guitarist the Edge plays a chiming arpeggio. Adding to the gospel qualities of the song are choir-like backing vocals provided by the Edge and producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois.
""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" was critically acclaimed and received two nominations at the 30th Annual Grammy Awards in 1988, for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. It has subsequently become one of the group's most well-known songs and has been performed on many of their concert tours. The track has appeared on several of their compilations and concert films. Many critics and publications have ranked ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" among the greatest tracks in music history, including Rolling Stone which ranked the song at number 93 of its 2010 list of ""The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time"".


== Writing and recording ==
""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" originated from a demo variously titled ""The Weather Girls"" and ""Under the Weather"" that the band recorded during a jam session. Bassist Adam Clayton called the demo's melody ""a bit of a one-note groove"", while an unconvinced The Edge, the band's guitarist, compared it to ""'Eye of the Tiger' played by a reggae band"". However, the band liked the drum part played by drummer Larry Mullen Jr. Co-producer Daniel Lanois said, ""It was a very original beat from Larry. We always look for those beats that would qualify as a signature for the song. And that certainly was one of those. It had this tom-tom thing that he does and nobody ever understands. And we just didn't want to let go of that beat, it was so unique."" Lanois encouraged Mullen to continue developing the weird drum pattern beyond the demo. Mullen said the beat became even more unusual, and although Lanois eventually mixed most of the pattern out to just keep the basics, the rhythm became the root of ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"".

The group worked on the track at the studio they had set up at Danesmoate House in Dublin. Lanois compared the creation of the song to constructing a building, first laying down the drums as the foundation, then adding additional layers piece by piece, before finally ""putting in furniture"". Lead singer Bono was interested in the theme of spiritual doubt, which was fostered by Eno's love for gospel music, and by Bono's listening to songs by The Swan Silvertones, The Staple Singers, and Blind Willie Johnson. After the Edge wrote a chord sequence and played it on acoustic guitar ""with a lot of power in the strumming"", the group attempted to compose a suitable vocal melody, trying out a variety of ideas. During a jam session, Bono began singing a ""classic soul"" melody, and it was this addition that made the Edge hear the song's potential. At that point, he remembered a phrase he had written in a notebook that morning as a possible song title, ""I still haven't found what I'm looking for"". He suggests it was influenced by a line from the Bob Dylan song ""Idiot Wind"": ""You'll find out when you reach the top you're on the bottom"". He wrote the phrase on a piece of paper and handed it to Bono while he was singing. The Edge called the phrase's fit with the song ""like hand in glove"". From that point on, the song was the first piece played to visitors during the recording sessions.

As recording continued, a number of guitar overdubs were added, including an auto-pan effect and a chiming arpeggio to modernise the old-style ""gospel song"". While the Edge was improvising guitar parts one day, Bono heard a ""chrome bells"" guitar hook that he liked. It was added as a counter-melody to the song's ""muddy shoes"" guitar part, and it is this hook that the Edge plays during live performances of the song. Bono sang in the upper register of his range to add to the feeling of spiritual yearning; in the verses he hits a B-flat note, and an A-flat in the chorus. Background vocals were provided by the Edge, Lanois, and co-producer Brian Eno, their voices being multi-tracked. Lanois suggests that his and Eno's involvement in the track's creation helped their vocals. He stated, ""You're not going to get that sound of, 'Oh they brought in some soul singers' if you know what I mean. Our hearts and souls are already there. If we sing it'll sound more real."" Lanois also played a percussive guitar part, which is heard in the introduction. The song's writing was completed relatively early during the band's time at Danesmoate House. The mix took longer to complete, though, with most of the production team contributing. The final mix was completed by Lanois and the Edge in a home studio set up at Melbeach, a house purchased by the Edge. They mixed it on top of a previous Steve Lillywhite mix, which gave the song a phasing sound. The final version of the song is composed in the key of D-flat major.
Lanois says he is very attached to ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" and has, on occasion, joined U2 on stage to perform it. The original ""Weather Girls"" demo, re-titled ""Desert of Our Love"", was included with the 2007 remastered version of The Joshua Tree on a bonus disc of outtakes and B-sides.


== Release ==
Initially, ""Red Hill Mining Town"" was planned for release as the second single. However, Bono was unable to sing the song during pre-tour rehearsals and the band were reportedly unhappy with the video shot by Neil Jordan, so ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" became a late choice for the second single. The single was released in May 1987. On the US Billboard Hot 100, the song debuted at number 51 on 13 June 1987. After nearly 2 months on the chart, the song reached number one on 8 August 1987, becoming the band's second consecutive number-one hit in the United States. The song spent two weeks in the top spot, and remained on the chart for 17 weeks. On other Billboard charts, the song peaked at number 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart, and number two on the Album Rock Tracks chart. The song also topped the Irish Singles Chart, while peaking at number six on the Canadian RPM Top 100 and the UK Singles Chart. In New Zealand, the song peaked at number two on the RIANZ Top 40 Singles Chart, while reaching number six on the Dutch Top 40 and number 11 on the Swedish Singles Chart.


=== Music video ===
The accompanying music video for the song was filmed on Fremont Street in Las Vegas on 12 April 1987 following their Joshua Tree Tour concert in that city. It features the band members wandering around while the Edge plays an acoustic guitar. The music video was later re-released on The U218 Videos compilation DVD. Pat Christenson, president of Las Vegas's official event organization, credits the group's video with improving the city's image among musicians. ""The whole perception of Vegas changed with that video,"" Christenson said, adding, ""Now all the big names come here, some of them five, six times a year.""


=== B-sides ===
""Spanish Eyes"" was created early during The Joshua Tree sessions. It began as a recording made in Adam Clayton's house of Clayton, the Edge, and Larry Mullen Jr. playing around with several different elements. The piece evolved substantially over the course of an afternoon, but the cassette and its recording was subsequently lost and forgotten. The Edge found the cassette towards the end of the album sessions and played it to the rest of the group. The band realised that it was a good track, but did not have enough time to complete it prior to The Joshua Tree's release.
""Deep in the Heart"" stemmed from a three-chord piano piece Bono composed on the piano about the last time he had been in the family home on Cedarwood Road in Dublin, which his father had just sold. The memories of his time living there gave rise to many of the lyrical ideas on the song. The Edge and Adam Clayton reworked the piece extensively, with Bono later describing the finished result as ""an almost jazz-like improvisation on three chords"", also noting that ""the rhythm section turned it into a very special piece of music."" The song was recorded in a similar manner to the song ""4th of July"" from U2's 1984 album, The Unforgettable Fire; the Edge and Clayton were playing together in a room and unaware that they were being recorded on a 4-track cassette machine by the band's assistant, Marc Coleman.


== Reception ==
""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" received widespread critical acclaim. Hot Press journalist Bill Graham described the song as on the one-hand as a ""smart job of pop handwork, pretty standard American radio rock-ballad fare"" but that ""the band's rhythms are far more supple and cultivated than your average bouffant HM band of that period"". The Sunday Independent suggested that the song was proof the band could be commercially accessible without resorting to rock clichés. NME remarked that the song showed that the band cared about something, which made them ""special"". The Rocket noted that Bono's lyrics about needing personal spirituality resulted in a ""unique marriage of American gospel and Gaelic soul"" and that the ""human perspective he brings to this sentiment rings far truer than the rantings of, say, the born-again Bob Dylan"". 
Cash Box said that ""Typically drenched in Bono-esque pathos and Edge-guitar atmospherics, 'Still' has the power of spiritual conviction delivered from the perspective of the desert sojourn rather than the comfort of the Promised Land."" Several publications, including The Bergen Record and  The Boston Globe, called the track ""hypnotic"" and interpreted it as depicting the band on a spiritual quest. The song finished in 18th place on the ""Best Singles"" list from The Village Voice's 1987 Pazz & Jop critics' poll.


== Live performances ==
The song is U2's 9th most played live song, and has been played on every tour except for the eXPERIENCE+iNNOCENCE Tour in 2018. It was played at every date of The Joshua Tree and Lovetown Tours, typically early in the main set. It was played at most of the 1992 legs of the Zoo TV Tour, typically rounding out the main set or being played acoustically on the B-Stage mid set. For most of the 1993 Zooropa shows however, the song was dropped. It returned to be played at each of the PopMart Tour's 93 shows, usually being played midway through the set. On the Elevation Tour it initially was very rare, only appearing once over the first and second legs. However, it became a regular again on the 3rd leg, being played late in the main set replacing the song ""Mysterious Ways"", which was used in that spot on the previous two legs. It was played at the majority of both the Vertigo and U2 360° Tours, typically early-to-mid main set. It was used as the closing song at just under half of the shows on the Innocence + Experience Tour, rotating with ""One"" and ""40"".
Island Records commissioned New York choir director, Dennis Bell, to record a gospel version of the song, and Island intended to release it after U2's single. However, Island boss Chris Blackwell vetoed the plan. Bell subsequently formed his own label. While in Glasgow in late July 1987 during the Joshua Tree Tour, Rob Partridge of Island Records played the demo that Bell and his choir, the New Voices of Freedom, had made. In late September, U2 rehearsed with Bell's choir in Greater Calvary Baptist Church in Harlem for a performance together in a few days at U2's Madison Square Garden concert. The Edge's guitar was the only instrument that U2 brought to the church although Mullen borrowed a conga drum. The rehearsal was done with the church's audio system and footage was used in the Rattle and Hum motion picture. Several performances were made with a piano player; however, the version used in the film includes only Bono, the Edge, Mullen, and the choir. Audio from the Madison Square Garden performance appears on the accompanying album.
A live performance of the song appears in the concert films PopMart: Live from Mexico City, Vertigo 05: Live from Milan, Live from Paris and the most recent U2 360° at the Rose Bowl. The versions on the Mexico City and Milan concert films consist of just Bono's voice and the Edge's guitar until after the first chorus where the drum and bass parts kick in. Digital live versions were released through iTunes on the Love: Live from the Point Depot and U2.COMmunication albums.


== Legacy ==
""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" has been acclaimed by many critics and publications as one of the greatest songs of all time. In 2001, the song was ranked at number 120 on the RIAA's list of 365 ""Songs of the Century"" – a project intended to ""promote a better understanding of America's musical and cultural heritage"" – despite the group's Irish origins. In 2003, a special edition issue of Q, titled ""1001 Best Songs Ever"", placed ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" at number 148 on its list of the greatest songs. In 2005, Blender ranked the song at number 443 on its list of ""The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born"". In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the song 93rd on its list of ""The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time""; the song remained in that position on the magazine's 2010 version of the list, but was re-ranked to 321st on the 2021 version.  In 2022, New York Magazine's Vulture.com ranked the song at number four in its list of all 234 U2 songs.
Los Angeles Times critic Robert Hilburn called it U2's ""Let It Be"", in reference to the Beatles song. The staff of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" as one of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
The song was covered by Scottish band the Chimes in 1990 and was featured on their self-titled debut album. The rendition peaked at number six in both the United Kingdom and New Zealand charts. It also peaked into number twelve in the Netherlands chart.


== Track listing ==


== Personnel ==
U2

Bono – lead vocals
The Edge – guitars, backing vocals
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen Jr. – drums, percussion
Additional personnel

Brian Eno – production, mixing, backing vocals
Daniel Lanois – production, mixing, backing vocals, additional guitar, tambourine
Flood – recording
Dave Meegan – additional engineering
Pat McCarthy – recording assistance


== Charts ==


== Certifications ==


== The Chimes version ==

Scottish band the Chimes released a cover version of ""I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"" in May 1990 by CBS. It was released as the third single from their only album, The Chimes (1990), and reached No. 2 in Norway and No. 6 in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and New Zealand.


=== Critical reception ===
Stewart Mason from AllMusic described the song as ""gospel-tinged"", noting that it ""finds new levels of power in that overplayed song, and its inclusion makes perfect thematic and musical sense instead of being the desperate plea for chart attention it might have been in less capable hands."" Bill Coleman from Billboard declared it as the ""perfect cover version"", and a ""tasteful, contemporary R&B treatment of a pop favorite [that] may be this U.K. threesome's key to a stateside breakthrough. Multiformat exposure is well-deserved."" Dave Haynes from Calgary Herald complimented it as a ""sultry reworking"" and the ""most interesting cut"" of the album. Ernest Hardy from Cashbox viewed it as ""a moving cover"", that ""should be their entry into the big time.""
Chris Roberts from Melody Maker	wrote, ""I still don't realise it's that horrible U2 song because I'm enjoying it immensely. Somehow the Chimes, gradually evolving into the most consistent of Brit soul bands, have transformed the sub-Dylan turkey into a smoochy summery thing that claws into your spinal cord and hangs there like a first kiss, purring."" David Giles from Music Week stated, ""This is a luxurious cover which wraps a huge voice in a Soul II Soul style backing to heart-stirring effect."" Miranda Sawyer from Smash Hits noted Pauline Henry's ""remarkable voice"", describing the song as ""classy"" and ""a lovely, lazy Soul II Soul-style groover."" She added that it's ""the sort of tune that makes you think of sappy summer things. Warm sea, sandy shores, coasting about on your bike down leafy lanes.""


=== Track listing ===


=== Charts ===


== Scarlett Johansson and Bono duet version ==

In 2021, American actress Scarlett Johansson (under the role of Ash) and U2 frontman Bono (under the role of Clay Calloway) performed a duet of the song for the soundtrack of the American animated jukebox musical comedy film Sing 2. The film also features two other songs by U2, ""Where the Streets Have No Name"" (also from The Joshua Tree album) (performed by the cast, the same lineup also perform the Prince song ""Let's Go Crazy"" earlier in the film), ""Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of"" (performed by Johansson), and the original song ""Your Song Saved My Life"", which was released as the lead single from the soundtrack on 3 November 2021. The duet was released as the nineteenth and final track on the soundtrack album on 17 December 2021.


=== Charts ===


== See also ==
List of covers of U2 songs – I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For


== References ==
Footnotes

Bibliography


== External links ==
Lyrics on U2.com
U2 - I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For on YouTube"
Aeroelasticity,"Aeroelasticity is the branch of physics and engineering studying the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces occurring while an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. The study of aeroelasticity may be broadly classified into two fields: static aeroelasticity dealing with the static or steady state response of an elastic body to a fluid flow, and dynamic aeroelasticity dealing with the body's dynamic (typically vibrational) response.
Aircraft are prone to aeroelastic effects because they need to be lightweight while enduring large aerodynamic loads.  Aircraft are designed to avoid the following aeroelastic problems:

divergence where the aerodynamic forces increase the twist of a wing which further increases forces;
control reversal where control activation produces an opposite aerodynamic moment that reduces, or in extreme cases reverses, the control effectiveness; and
flutter which is uncontained vibration that can lead to the destruction of an aircraft.
Aeroelasticity problems can be prevented by adjusting the mass, stiffness or aerodynamics of structures which can be determined and verified through the use of calculations, ground vibration tests and flight flutter trials. Flutter of control surfaces is usually eliminated by the careful placement of mass balances.
The synthesis of aeroelasticity with thermodynamics is known as aerothermoelasticity, and its synthesis with control theory is known as aeroservoelasticity.


== History ==
The second failure of Samuel Langley's prototype plane on the Potomac was attributed to aeroelastic effects (specifically, torsional divergence). An early scientific work on the subject was George Bryan's Theory of the Stability of a Rigid Aeroplane published in 1906. Problems with torsional divergence plagued aircraft in the First World War and were solved largely by trial-and-error and ad hoc stiffening of the wing. The first recorded and documented case of flutter in an aircraft was that which occurred to a Handley Page O/400 bomber during a flight in 1916, when it suffered a violent tail oscillation, which caused extreme distortion of the rear fuselage and the elevators to move asymmetrically. Although the aircraft landed safely, in the subsequent investigation F. W. Lanchester was consulted. One of his recommendations was that left and right elevators should be rigidly connected by a stiff shaft, which was to subsequently become a design requirement. In addition, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) was asked to investigate the phenomenon theoretically, which was subsequently carried out by Leonard Bairstow and Arthur Fage.
In 1926, Hans Reissner published a theory of wing divergence, leading to much further theoretical research on the subject. The term aeroelasticity itself was coined by Harold Roxbee Cox and Alfred Pugsley at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), Farnborough in the early 1930s.
In the development of aeronautical engineering at Caltech, Theodore von Kármán started a course ""Elasticity applied to Aeronautics"". After teaching the course for one term, Kármán passed it over to Ernest Edwin Sechler, who developed aeroelasticity in that course and in publication of textbooks on the subject.
In 1947, Arthur Roderick Collar defined aeroelasticity as ""the study of the mutual interaction that takes place within the triangle of the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces acting on structural members exposed to an airstream, and the influence of this study on design"".


== Static aeroelasticity ==
In an aeroplane, two significant static aeroelastic effects may occur. Divergence is a phenomenon in which the elastic twist of the wing suddenly becomes theoretically infinite, typically causing the wing to fail. Control reversal is a phenomenon occurring only in wings with ailerons or other control surfaces, in which these control surfaces reverse their usual functionality (e.g., the rolling direction associated with a given aileron moment is reversed).


=== Divergence ===
Divergence occurs when a lifting surface deflects under aerodynamic load in a direction which further increases lift in a positive feedback loop. The increased lift deflects the structure further, which eventually brings the structure to the point of divergence. Unlike flutter, which is another aeroelastic problem, instead of irregular oscillations, divergence causes the lifting surface to move in the same direction and when it comes to point of divergence the structure deforms.


=== Control reversal ===

Control surface reversal is the loss (or reversal) of the expected response of a control surface, due to deformation of the main lifting surface. For simple models (e.g. single aileron on an Euler-Bernoulli beam), control reversal speeds can be derived analytically as for torsional divergence. Control reversal can be used to aerodynamic advantage, and forms part of the Kaman servo-flap rotor design.


== Dynamic aeroelasticity ==
Dynamic aeroelasticity studies the interactions among aerodynamic, elastic, and inertial forces. Examples of dynamic aeroelastic phenomena are:


=== Flutter ===
Flutter is a dynamic instability of an elastic structure in a fluid flow, caused by positive feedback between the body's deflection and the force exerted by the fluid flow. In a linear system, ""flutter point"" is the point at which the structure is undergoing simple harmonic motion—zero net damping—and so any further decrease in net damping will result in a self-oscillation and eventual failure. ""Net damping"" can be understood as the sum of the structure's natural positive damping and the negative damping of the aerodynamic force. Flutter can be classified into two types: hard flutter, in which the net damping decreases very suddenly, very close to the flutter point; and soft flutter, in which the net damping decreases gradually.
In water the mass ratio of the pitch inertia of the foil to that of the circumscribing cylinder of fluid is generally too low for binary flutter to occur, as shown by explicit solution of the simplest pitch and heave flutter stability determinant.

Structures exposed to aerodynamic forces—including wings and aerofoils, but also chimneys and bridges—are generally designed carefully within known parameters to avoid flutter. Blunt shapes, such as chimneys, can give off a continuous stream of vortices known as a Kármán vortex street, which can induce structural oscillations. Strakes are typically wrapped around chimneys to stop the formation of these vortices.
In complex structures where both the aerodynamics and the mechanical properties of the structure are not fully understood, flutter can be discounted only through detailed testing. Even changing the mass distribution of an aircraft or the stiffness of one component can induce flutter in an apparently unrelated aerodynamic component.  At its mildest, this can appear as a ""buzz"" in the aircraft structure, but at its most violent, it can develop uncontrollably with great speed and cause serious damage to the aircraft or lead to its destruction, as in Northwest Airlines Flight 2 in 1938, Braniff Flight 542 in 1959, or the prototypes for Finland's VL Myrsky fighter aircraft in the early 1940s. Famously, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was destroyed as a result of aeroelastic fluttering.


==== Aeroservoelasticity ====
In some cases, automatic control systems have been demonstrated to help prevent or limit flutter-related structural vibration.


==== Propeller whirl flutter ====
Propeller whirl flutter is a special case of flutter involving the aerodynamic and inertial effects of a rotating propeller and the stiffness of the supporting nacelle structure. Dynamic instability can occur involving pitch and yaw degrees of freedom of the propeller and the engine supports leading to an unstable precession of the propeller. Failure of the engine supports led to whirl flutter occurring on two Lockheed L-188 Electra aircraft, in 1959 on Braniff Flight 542 and again in 1960 on Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 710.


==== Transonic aeroelasticity ====
Flow is highly non-linear in the transonic regime, dominated by moving shock waves. Avoiding flutter is mission-critical for aircraft that fly through transonic Mach numbers. The role of shock waves was first analyzed by Holt Ashley. A phenomenon that impacts stability of aircraft known as ""transonic dip"", in which the flutter speed can get close to flight speed, was reported in May 1976 by Farmer and Hanson of the Langley Research Center.


=== Buffeting ===

Buffeting is a high-frequency instability, caused by airflow separation or shock wave oscillations from one object striking another. It is caused by a sudden impulse of load increasing. It is a random forced vibration. Generally it affects the tail unit of the aircraft structure due to air flow downstream of the wing.
The methods for buffet detection are:

Pressure coefficient diagram
Pressure divergence at trailing edge
Computing separation from trailing edge based on Mach number
Normal force fluctuating divergence


== Prediction and cure ==

In the period 1950–1970, AGARD developed the Manual on Aeroelasticity which details the processes used in solving and verifying aeroelastic problems along with standard examples that can be used to test numerical solutions.
Aeroelasticity involves not just the external aerodynamic loads and the way they change but also the structural, damping and mass characteristics of the aircraft. Prediction involves making a mathematical model of the aircraft as a series of masses connected by springs and dampers which are tuned to represent the dynamic characteristics of the aircraft structure. The model also includes details of applied aerodynamic forces and how they vary.
The model can be used to predict the flutter margin and, if necessary, test fixes to potential problems. Small carefully chosen changes to mass distribution and local structural stiffness can be very effective in solving aeroelastic problems.
Methods of predicting flutter in linear structures include the p-method, the k-method and the p-k method.
For nonlinear systems, flutter is usually interpreted as a limit cycle oscillation (LCO), and methods from the study of dynamical systems can be used to determine the speed at which flutter will occur.


== Media ==
These videos detail the Active Aeroelastic Wing two-phase NASA-Air Force flight research program to investigate the potential of aerodynamically twisting flexible wings to improve maneuverability of high-performance aircraft at transonic and supersonic speeds, with traditional control surfaces such as ailerons and leading-edge flaps used to induce the twist.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Notable aeroelastic failures ==
The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was destroyed as a result of aeroelastic flutter.
Propeller whirl flutter of the Lockheed L-188 Electra on Braniff Flight 542.
1931 Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 crash.
Body freedom flutter of the GAF Jindivik drone.


== See also ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Bisplinghoff, R. L., Ashley, H. and Halfman, H., Aeroelasticity. Dover Science, 1996, ISBN 0-486-69189-6, 880 p.
Maurice Biot & L. Arnold (1948) ""Low speed flutter and its physical interpretation"", Journal of Aeronautical Sciences 15: 232–6
Dowell, E. H., A Modern Course on Aeroelasticity. ISBN 90-286-0057-4.
Fung, Y. C., An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity. Dover, 1994, ISBN 978-0-486-67871-9.
Hodges, D. H. and Pierce, A., Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity, Cambridge, 2002, ISBN 978-0-521-80698-5.
Wright, J. R. and Cooper, J. E., Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity and Loads, Wiley 2007, ISBN 978-0-470-85840-0.
Hoque, M. E., ""Active Flutter Control"", LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany, 2010, ISBN 978-3-8383-6851-1.
Collar, A. R., ""The first fifty years of aeroelasticity"", Aerospace, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 12–20, 1978.
Garrick, I. E. and Reed W. H., ""Historical development of aircraft flutter"", Journal of Aircraft, vol. 18, pp. 897–912, Nov. 1981.
Patrick R. Veillette (Aug 23, 2018). ""Low-Speed Buffet: High-Altitude, Transonic Training Weakness Continues"". Business & Commercial Aviation. Aviation Week Network.


== External links ==

Aeroelasticity Branch – NASA Langley Research Center
DLR Institute of Aeroelasticity
National Aerospace Laboratory
The Aeroelasticity Group – Texas A&M University
NACA Technical Reports – NASA Langley Research Center
NASA Aeroelasticity Handbook"
Common buzzard,"The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is a medium-to-large bird of prey which has a large range. It is a member of the genus Buteo in the family Accipitridae. The species lives in most of Europe and extends its breeding range across much of the Palearctic as far as northwestern China (Tian Shan), far western Siberia and northwestern Mongolia. Over much of its range, it is a year-round resident. However, buzzards from the colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere as well as those that breed in the eastern part of their range typically migrate south for the northern winter, many journeying as far as South Africa.
The common buzzard is an opportunistic predator that can take a wide variety of prey, but it feeds mostly on small mammals, especially rodents such as voles. It typically hunts from a perch. Like most accipitrid birds of prey, it builds a nest, typically in trees in this species, and is a devoted parent to a relatively small brood of young. The common buzzard appears to be the most common diurnal raptor in Europe, as estimates of its total global population run well into the millions.


== Taxonomy ==
The first formal description of the common buzzard was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco buteo. The genus Buteo was introduced by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799 by tautonymy with the specific name of this species. The word buteo is Latin for a buzzard. It should not be confused with the Turkey vulture, which is sometimes called a buzzard in American English.
The Buteoninae subfamily originated from and is most diversified in the Americas, with occasional broader radiations that led to common buzzards and other Eurasian and African buzzards. The common buzzard is a member of the genus Buteo, a group of medium-sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings. The Buteo species of Eurasia and Africa are usually commonly referred to as ""buzzards"" while those in the Americas are called hawks. Under current classification, the genus includes approximately 28 species, the second most diverse of all extant accipitrid genera behind only Accipiter. DNA testing shows that the common buzzard is fairly closely related to the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) of North America, which occupies a similar ecological niche to the buzzard in that continent. The two species may belong to the same species complex. Three buzzards in Africa are likely closely related to the common buzzard based on genetic materials, the Mountain buzzard (Buteo oreophilus), Forest buzzards (Buteo trizonatus) and the Madagascar buzzard (Buteo brachypterus), to the point where it has been questioned whether they are sufficiently distinct to qualify as full species. However, the distinctiveness of these African buzzards has generally been supported. Genetic studies have further indicated that the modern buzzards of Eurasia and Africa are a relatively young group, showing that they diverged at about 300,000 years ago. Nonetheless, fossils dating earlier than 5 million year old (the late Miocene period) showed Buteo species were present in Europe much earlier than that would imply, although it cannot be stated to a certainty that these would have been related to the extant buzzards.


=== Subspecies and species splits ===

Some 16 subspecies have been described in the past and up to 11 are often considered valid, although some authorities accept as few as seven. Common buzzard subspecies fall into two groups.
The western buteo group is mainly resident or short-distance migrants and includes:

B. b. buteo: Ranges in Europe from the Atlantic islands, the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula (including Madeira Island, whose population was once considered a separate race, B. b. harterti) more or less continuously throughout Europe to Finland, Romania and Asia Minor. This highly individually variable race is described below. This is a relatively large and bulky race of buzzard. In males, the wing chord ranges from 350 to 418 mm (13.8 to 16.5 in) and the tail from 194 to 223 mm (7.6 to 8.8 in). In comparison, the larger female has a wing chord measuring 374 to 432 mm (14.7 to 17.0 in) and tail length of 193 to 236 mm (7.6 to 9.3 in). In both sexes, the tarsus measures 69 to 83 mm (2.7 to 3.3 in) in length. As illustrated by average body mass, sizes in the nominate race of common buzzard seem to confirm to Bergmann's rule, increasing to the north and decreasing closer to the Equator. In southern Norway, the mean weight of males was reportedly 740 g (1.63 lb), while that of females was 1,100 g (2.4 lb). British buzzards were of intermediate size, 214 males averaging 781 g (1.722 lb) and 261 females averaging 969 g (2.136 lb). Birds to the south in Spain were smaller, averaging 662 g (1.459 lb) in 22 males and 800 g (1.8 lb) in 30 females. Cramp and Simmons (1980) listed the mean body mass overall of nominate buzzards in Europe overall as 828 g (1.825 lb) in males and 1,052 g (2.319 lb) in females.

B. b. rothschildi: This proposed race is native to the Azores islands. It is generally considered a valid subspecies. This race differs from a typical intermediate of the nominate in being a darker, colder brown both above and below, closer to the darker individuals of the nominate. It averages smaller than most nominate buzzards. The wing chord of males ranges from 343 to 365 mm (13.5 to 14.4 in) while that of females ranges from 362 to 393 mm (14.3 to 15.5 in).
B. b. insularum: This race lives in the Canary Islands. Not all authorities consider this race suitably distinct, but others advocate it be retained as a full subspecies. It is typically of richer brown above and more heavily streaked below compared to nominate birds. It is similar in size to B. b. rothschildi and averages slightly smaller than the nominate race. Males have a reported wing chord of 352 to 390 mm (13.9 to 15.4 in) and females have a wing chord of 370 to 394 mm (14.6 to 15.5 in).
B. b. arrigonii: This race inhabits the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. It is generally considered a valid subspecies. The upper-side of these buzzards is an intermediate brown with very heavy streaking below, often covering the belly whereas most nominate buzzards show a whitish area the middle of the belly. Like most other insular races, this one is relatively small. Males possess a wing chord of 343 to 382 mm (13.5 to 15.0 in) while females have a wing chord of 353 to 390 mm (13.9 to 15.4 in).

The eastern vulpinus group includes:

B. b. vulpinus: The steppe buzzard breeds as far west as eastern Sweden, in the southern two-thirds of Finland, eastern Estonia, much of Belarus and Ukraine, eastward to the northern Caucacus, northern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, much of Russia to Altai and south-central Siberia, Tien Shan in China and western Mongolia. B. b. vulpinus is a long-distance migrant. It winters largely in much of eastern and southern Africa. Less frequently and often very discontinuously, steppe buzzards winter in the southern peninsulas of Europe, Arabia and southwestern India in addition to some parts of southeastern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. In the open country favoured on the wintering grounds, steppe buzzards are often seen perched on roadside telephone poles. It at one time was considered a separate species due to differences in size, form, colouring and behaviour (especially in regards to migratory behaviour) but is genetically indistinct from nominate buzzards. Furthermore, the steppe buzzard engages in extensive interbreeding with the nominate race, causing typical characteristics of the two races to mix. The zone of integration runs from Scandinavia through the European continent to the Black Sea, including any part of the overlapping ranges in Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, western Ukraine and eastern Romania. At times, the fertile hybrids of these two races have been erroneously proposed as races such as B. b. intermedius or B. b. zimmermannae. Intergrade buzzards are commonest where the grey-brown type of pale morphs of vulpinus are predominant. Steppe buzzards are usually distinctly smaller, with relatively longer wings and tail for their size, and thus often appear swifter and more agile in flight than nominate buzzards, whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier. Typically, their length is around 45 to 50 cm (18 to 20 in), while wingspan of males average 113 cm (44 in) and females average 122.7 cm (48 in). The wing chord is 335 to 377 mm (13.2 to 14.8 in) in males and 358 to 397 mm (14.1 to 15.6 in) in females. Tail length is 170 to 200 mm (6.7 to 7.9 in) in males and 175 to 209 mm (6.9 to 8.2 in) in females. Weights of birds from Russia can reportedly range from 560 to 675 g (1.235 to 1.488 lb) in males and 710 to 1,180 g (1.57 to 2.60 lb) in females. Weights of migrant birds appear to be lower than at other times of year for steppe buzzards. Two surveys of migrant buzzards during their huge spring movement in Eilat, Israel showed 420 birds averaged 579 g (1.276 lb) and 882 birds averaged 578 g (1.274 lb). In comparison, weights of wintering steppe buzzards was higher, averaging 725 g (1.598 lb) in 35 birds in the former Transvaal (South Africa) and 739 g (1.629 lb) in 160 birds in the Cape Province. Weights of birds from Zambia were similar.
B. b. menetriesi: This race is found in southern Crimea through the Caucasus to northern Iran and possibly into Turkey. This race has traditionally been listed as a resident race, but some sources consider it a migrant to eastern and southern Africa. Compared to the overlapping steppe buzzard subspecies, it is larger (roughly intermediate between the nominate race and vulpinus) and is duller in overall colour, being sandy below rather than rufous and lacking the bright rufous on the tail. Wing chord is 351 to 397 mm (13.8 to 15.6 in) in males and 372 to 413 mm (14.6 to 16.3 in) in females.
At one time, races of the common buzzard were thought to range as far in Asia as a breeding bird well into the Himalayas and as far east as northeastern China, Russia to the Sea of Okhotsk, and all the islands of the Kurile Islands and of Japan, despite both the Himalayan and eastern birds showing a natural gap in distribution from the next nearest breeding common buzzard. However, DNA testing has revealed that the buzzards of these populations probably belong to different species. Most authorities now accept these buzzards as full species: the eastern buzzard (Buteo japonicus; with three subspecies of its own) and the Himalayan buzzard (Buteo refectus). Buzzards found on the islands of Cape Verde off of the coast of western Africa, once referred to as the subspecies B. b. bannermani, and Socotra Island off of the northern peninsula of Arabia, once referred to as the rarely recognized subspecies B. b. socotrae, are now generally thought not to belong to the common buzzard. DNA testing has indicated that these insular buzzards are actually more closely related to the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus) than to the common buzzard. Subsequently, some researchers have advocated full species status for the Cape Verde population, but the placement of these buzzards is generally deemed unclear.


== Description ==

The common buzzard is a medium to large sized raptor that is highly variable in plumage. Most buzzards are distinctly round headed with a somewhat slender bill, relatively long wings that either reach or fall slightly short of the tail tip when perched, a fairly short tail, and somewhat short and mainly bare tarsi. They can appear fairly compact in overall appearance but may also appear large relative to other more common raptorial birds such as kestrels and sparrowhawks. The common buzzard measures between 40 and 58 cm (16 and 23 in) in length with a 109–140 cm (43–55 in) wingspan. Females average about 2–7% larger than males linearly and weigh about 15% more. Body mass can show considerable variation. Buzzards from Great Britain alone can vary from 427 to 1,183 g (0.941 to 2.608 lb) in males, while females there can range from 486 to 1,370 g (1.071 to 3.020 lb).

In Europe, most typical buzzards are dark brown above and on the upperside of the head and mantle, but can become paler and warmer brown with worn plumage. The flight feathers on perched European buzzards are always brown in the nominate subspecies (B. b. buteo). Usually the tail will usually be narrowly barred grey-brown and dark brown with a pale tip and a broad dark subterminal band but the tail in palest birds can show a varying amount a white and reduced subterminal band or even appear almost all white. In European buzzards, the underside coloring can be variable but most typically show a brown-streaked white throat with a somewhat darker chest. A pale U across breast is often present; followed by a pale line running down the belly which separates the dark areas on breast-side and flanks. These pale areas tend to have highly variable markings that tend to form irregular bars. Juvenile buzzards are quite similar to adult in the nominate race, being best told apart by having a paler eye, a narrower subterminal band on the tail and underside markings that appear as streaks rather than bars. Furthermore, juveniles may show variable creamy to rufous fringes to upperwing coverts but these also may not be present. Seen from below in flight, buzzards in Europe typically have a dark trailing edge to the wings. If seen from above, one of the best marks is their broad dark subterminal tail band. Flight feathers of typical European buzzards are largely greyish, the aforementioned dark wing linings at front with contrasting paler band along the median coverts. In flight, paler individuals tend to show dark carpal patches that can appears as blackish arches or commas but these may be indistinct in darker individuals or can appear light brownish or faded in paler individuals. Juvenile nominate buzzards are best told apart from adults in flight by the lack of a distinct subterminal band (instead showing fairly even barring throughout) and below by having less sharp and brownish rather than blackish trailing wing edge. Juvenile buzzards show streaking paler parts of under wing and body showing rather than barring as do adults. Beyond the typical mid-range brownish buzzard, birds in Europe can range from almost uniform black-brown above to mainly white. Extreme dark individuals may range from chocolate brown to blackish with almost no pale showing but a variable, faded U on the breast and with or without faint lighter brown throat streaks. Extreme pale birds are largely whitish with variable widely spaced streaks or arrowheads of light brown about the mid-chest and flanks and may or may not show dark feather-centres on the head, wing-coverts and sometimes all but part of mantle. Individuals can show nearly endless variation of colours and hues in between these extremes and the common buzzard is counted among the most variably plumage diurnal raptors for this reason. One study showed that this variation may actually be the result of diminished single-locus genetic diversity.

Beyond the nominate form (B. b. buteo) that occupies most of the common buzzard's European range, a second main, widely distributed subspecies is known as the steppe buzzard (B. b. vulpinus). The steppe buzzard race shows three main colour morphs, each of which can be predominant in a region of breeding range. It is more distinctly polymorphic rather than just individually very variable like the nominate race. This may be because, unlike the nominate buzzard, the steppe buzzard is highly migratory. Polymorphism has been linked with migratory behaviour. The most common type of steppe buzzard is the rufous morph which gives this subspecies its scientific name (vulpes is Latin for ""fox""). This morph comprises a majority of birds seen in passage east of the Mediterranean. Rufous morph buzzards are a paler grey-brown above than most nominate B. b. buteo. Compared to the nominate race, rufous vulpinus show a patterning not dissimilar but generally far more rufous-toned on head, the fringes to mantle wing coverts and, especially, on the tail and the underside. The head is grey-brown with rufous tinges usually while the tail is rufous and can vary from almost unmarked to thinly dark-barred with a subterminal band. The underside can be uniformly pale to dark rufous, barred heavily or lightly with rufous or with dusky barring, usually with darker individuals showing the U as in nominate but with a rufous hue. The pale morph of the steppe buzzard is commonest in the west of its subspecies range, predominantly seen in winter and migration at the various land bridge of the Mediterranean. As in the rufous morph, the pale morph vulpinus is grey-brown above but the tail is generally marked with thin dark bars and a subterminal band, only showing rufous near the tip. The underside in the pale morph is greyish-white with dark grey-brown or somewhat streaked head to chest and barred belly and chest, occasionally showing darker flanks that can be somewhat rufous. Dark morph vulpinus tend to be found in the east and southeast of the subspecies range and are easily outnumbered by rufous morph while largely using similar migration points. Dark morph individuals vary from grey-brown to much darker blackish-brown, and have a tail that is dark grey or somewhat mixed grey and rufous, is distinctly marked with dark barring and has a broad, black subterminal band. Dark morph vulpinus have a head and underside that is mostly uniform dark, from dark brown to blackish-brown to almost pure black. Rufous morph juveniles are often distinctly paler in ground colour (ranging even to creamy-grey) than adults with distinct barring below actually increased in pale morph type juvenile. Pale and rufous morph juveniles can only be distinguished from each other in extreme cases. Dark morph juveniles are more similar to adult dark morph vulpinus but often show a little whitish streaking below, and like all other races have lighter coloured eyes and more evenly barred tails than adults. Steppe buzzards tend to appear smaller and more agile in flight than nominate whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier. In flight, rufous morph vulpinus have their whole body and underwing varying from uniform to patterned rufous (if patterning present, it is variable, but can be on chest and often thighs, sometimes flanks, pale band across median coverts), while the under-tail usually paler rufous than above. Whitish flight feathers are more prominent than in nominate and more marked contrast with the bold dark brown band along the trailing edges. Markings of pale vulpinus as seen in flight are similar to rufous morph (such as paler wing markings) but more greyish both on wings and body. In dark morph vulpinus the broad black trailing edges and colour of body make whitish areas of inner wing stand out further with an often bolder and blacker carpal patch than in other morphs. As in nominate, juvenile vulpinus (rufous/pale) tend to have much less distinct trailing edges, general streaking on body and along median underwing coverts. Dark morph vulpinus resemble adult in flight more so than other morphs.


=== Similar species ===

The common buzzard is often confused with other raptors especially in flight or at a distance. Inexperienced and over-enthusiastic observers have even mistaken darker birds for the far larger and differently proportioned golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and also dark birds for western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) which also flies in a dihedral but is obviously relatively much longer and slenderer winged and tailed and with far different flying methods. Also buzzards may possibly be confused with dark or light morph booted eagles (Hieraeetus pennatus), which are similar in size, but the eagle flies on level, parallel-edged wings which usually appear broader, has a longer squarer tail, with no carpal patch in pale birds and all dark flight feathers but for whitish wedge on inner primaries in dark morph ones. Pale individuals are sometimes also mistaken with pale morph short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus) which are much larger with a considerably bigger head, longer wings (which are usually held evenly in flight rather than in a dihedral) and paler underwing lacking any carpal patch or dark wing lining. More serious identification concerns lie in other Buteo species and in flight with honey buzzards, which are quite different looking when seen perched at close range. The European honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus) is thought in engage in mimicry of more powerful raptors, in particular, juveniles may mimic the plumage of the more powerful common buzzard. While less individually variable in Europe, the honey buzzard is more extensive polymorphic on underparts than even the common buzzard. The most common morph of the adult European honey buzzard is heavily and rufous barred on the underside, quite different from the common buzzard, however the brownish juvenile much more resembles an intermediate common buzzard. Honey buzzards flap with distinctively slower and more even wing beats than common buzzard. The wings are also lifted higher on each upstroke, creating a more regular and mechanical effect, furthermore their wings are held slightly arched when soaring but not in a V. On the honey buzzard, the head appears smaller, the body thinner, the tail longer and the wings narrower and more parallel edged. The steppe buzzard race is particularly often mistaken for juvenile European honey buzzards, to the point where early observers of raptor migration in Israel considered distant individuals indistinguishable. However, when compared to a steppe buzzard, the honey buzzard has distinctly darker secondaries on the underwing with fewer and broader bars and more extensive black wing-tips (whole fingers) contrasting with a less extensively pale hand. Found in the same range as the steppe buzzard in some parts of southern Siberia as well as (with wintering steppes) in southwestern India, the Oriental honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus) is larger than both the European honey buzzard and the common buzzard. The oriental species is with more similar in body plan to common buzzards, being relatively broader winged, shorter tailed and more amply-headed (though the head is still relatively small) relative to the European honey buzzard, but all plumages lack carpal patches.
In much of Europe, the common buzzard is the only type of buzzard. However, the subarctic breeding rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) comes down to occupy much of the northern part of the continent during winter in the same haunts as the common buzzard. However, the rough-legged buzzard is typically larger and distinctly longer-winged with feathered legs, as well as having a white based tail with a broad subterminal band. Rough-legged buzzards have slower wing beats and hover far more frequently than do common buzzards. The carpal patch marking on the under-wing are also bolder and blacker on all paler forms of rough-legged hawk. Many pale morph rough-legged buzzards have a bold, blackish band across the belly against contrasting paler feathers, a feature which rarely appears in individual common buzzard. Usually the face also appears somewhat whitish in most pale morphs of rough-legged buzzards, which is true of only extremely pale common buzzards. Dark morph rough-legged buzzards are usually distinctly darker (ranging to almost blackish) than even extreme dark individuals of common buzzards in Europe and still have the distinct white-based tail and broad subterminal band of other roughlegs. In eastern Europe and much of the Asian range of common buzzards, the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus) may live alongside the common species. As in the steppe buzzard race, the long-legged buzzard has three main colour morphs that are more or less similar in hue. In both the steppe buzzard race and long-legged buzzard, the main colour is overall fairly rufous. More so than steppe buzzards, long-legged buzzards tend to have a distinctly paler head and neck compared to other feathers, and, more distinctly, a normally unbarred tail. Furthermore, the long-legged buzzard is usually a rather larger bird, often considered fairly eagle-like in appearance (although it does appear gracile and small-billed even compared to smaller true eagles), an effect enhanced by its longer tarsi, somewhat longer neck and relatively elongated wings. The flight style of the latter species is deeper, slower and more aquiline, with much more frequent hovering, showing a more protruding head and a slightly higher V held in a soar. The smaller North African and Arabian race of long-legged buzzard (B. r. cirtensis) is more similar in size and nearly all colour characteristics to steppe buzzard, extending to the heavily streaked juvenile plumage, in some cases such birds can be distinguished only by their proportions and flight patterns which remain unchanged. Hybridization with the latter race (B. r. cirtensis) and nominate common buzzards has been observed in the Strait of Gibraltar, a few such birds have been reported potentially in the southern Mediterranean due to mutually encroaching ranges, which are blurring possibly due to climate change.
Wintering steppe buzzards may live alongside mountain buzzards and especially with forest buzzard while wintering in Africa. The juveniles of steppe and forest buzzards are more or less indistinguishable and only told apart by proportions and flight style, the latter species being smaller, more compact, having a smaller bill, shorter legs and shorter and thinner wings than a steppe buzzard. However, size is not diagnostic unless side by side as the two buzzards overlap in this regard. Most reliable are the species wing proportions and their flight actions. Forest buzzard have more flexible wing beats interspersed with glides, additionally soaring on flatter wings and apparently never engage in hovering. Adult forest buzzards compared to the typical adult steppe buzzard (rufous morph) are also similar, but the forest typically has a whiter underside, sometimes mostly plain white, usually with heavy blotches or drop-shaped marks on abdomen, with barring on thighs, more narrow tear-shaped on chest and more spotted on leading edges of underwing, usually lacking marking on the white U across chest (which is otherwise similar but usually broader than that of vulpinus). In comparison, the mountain buzzard, which is more similar in size to the steppe buzzard and slightly larger than the forest buzzard, is usually duller brown above than a steppe buzzard and is more whitish below with distinctive heavy brown blotches from breasts to the belly, flanks and wing linings while juvenile mountain buzzard is buffy below with smaller and streakier markings. The steppe buzzard when compared to another African species, the red-necked buzzard (Buteo auguralis), which has red tail similar to vulpinus, is distinct in all other plumage aspects despite their similar size. The latter buzzard has a streaky rufous head and is white below with a contrasting bold dark chest in adult plumage and, in juvenile plumage, has heavy, dark blotches on the chest and flanks with pale wing-linings. Jackal and augur buzzards (Buteo rufofuscus & augur), also both rufous on the tail, are larger and bulkier than steppe buzzards and have several distinctive plumage characteristics, most notably both having their own striking, contrasting patterns of black-brown, rufous and cream.


== Distribution and habitat ==

The common buzzard is found throughout several islands in the eastern Atlantic islands, including the Canary Islands and Azores and almost throughout Europe. It is today found in Ireland and in nearly every part of Scotland, Wales and England. In mainland Europe, remarkably, there are no substantial gaps without breeding common buzzards from Portugal and Spain to Greece, Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine, though are present mainly only in the breeding season in much of the eastern half of the latter three countries. They are also present in all larger Mediterranean islands such as Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete. Further north in Scandinavia, they are found mainly in southeastern Norway (though also some points in southwestern Norway close to the coast and one section north of Trondheim), just over the southern half of Sweden and hugging over the Gulf of Bothnia to Finland where they live as a breeding species over nearly two-thirds of the land.
The common buzzard reaches its northern limits as a breeder in far eastern Finland and over the border to European Russia, continuing as a breeder over to the narrowest straits of the White Sea and nearly to the Kola Peninsula. In these northern quarters, the common buzzard is present typically only in summer but is a year-around resident of a hearty bit of southern Sweden and some of southern Norway. Outside of Europe, it is a resident of northern Turkey (largely close to the Black Sea) otherwise occurring mainly as a passage migrant or winter visitor in the remainder of Turkey, Georgia, sporadically but not rarely in Azerbaijan and Armenia, northern Iran (largely hugging the Caspian Sea) to northern Turkmenistan. Further north though its absent from either side of the northern Caspian Sea, the common buzzard is found in much of western Russia (though exclusively as a breeder) including all of the Central Federal District and the Volga Federal District, all but the northernmost parts of the Northwestern and Ural Federal Districts and nearly the southern half of the Siberian Federal District, its farthest easterly occurrence as a breeder. It also found in northern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, far northwestern China (Tien Shan) and northwestern Mongolia.
Non-breeding populations occur, either as migrants or wintering birds, in southwestern India, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt (northeastern), northern Tunisia (and far northwestern Algeria), northern Morocco, near the coasts of The Gambia, Senegal and far southwestern Mauritania and Ivory Coast (and bordering Burkina Faso). In eastern and central Africa, it is found in winter from southeastern Sudan, Eritrea, about two-thirds of Ethiopia, much of Kenya (though apparently absent from the northeast and northwest), Uganda, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and more or less the entirety of southern Africa from Angola across to Tanzania down the remainder of the continent (but for an apparent gap along the coast from southwestern Angola to northwestern South Africa).


=== Habitat ===
The common buzzard generally inhabits the interface of woodlands and open grounds; most typically the species lives in forest edge, small woods or shelterbelts with adjacent grassland, arables or other farmland. It acquits to open moorland as long as there is some trees for perch hunting and nesting use. The woods they inhabit may be coniferous, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and temperate deciduous forest with occasional preferences for the local dominant tree. It is absent from treeless tundra, as well as the Subarctic where the species almost entirely gives way to the rough-legged buzzard. The common buzzard is sporadic or rare in treeless steppe but can occasionally migrate through it (despite its name, the steppe buzzard subspecies breeds primarily in the wooded fringes of the steppe). The species may be found to some extent in both in mountainous or flat country. Although adaptable to and sometimes seen in wetlands and in coastal areas, buzzards are often considered more of an upland species and neither appear to be regularly attracted to or to strongly avoid bodies of waters in non-migratory times. Buzzards in well-wooded areas of eastern Poland largely used large, mature stands of trees that were more humid, richer and denser than prevalent in surrounding area, but showed preference for those within 30 to 90 m (98 to 295 ft) of openings. Mostly resident buzzards live in lowlands and foothills, but they can live in timbered ridges and uplands as well as rocky coasts, sometimes nesting on cliff ledges rather than trees. Buzzards may live from sea level to elevations of 2,000 m (6,600 ft), breeding mostly below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) but they can winter to an elevation of 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and migrates easily to 4,500 m (14,800 ft). In the mountainous Italian Apennines, buzzard nests were at a mean elevation of 1,399 m (4,590 ft) and were, relative to the surrounding area, further from human developed areas (i.e. roads) and nearer to valley bottoms in rugged, irregularly topographed places, especially ones that faced northeast. Common buzzards are fairly adaptable to agricultural lands but will show can show regional declines in apparent response to agriculture. Changes to more extensive agricultural practices were shown to reduce buzzard populations in western France where reduction of ""hedgerows, woodlots and grasslands areas"" caused a decline of buzzards and in Hampshire, England where more extensive grazing by free-range cattle and horses led to declines of buzzards, probably largely due to the seeming reduction of small mammal populations there. On the contrary, buzzards in central Poland adapted to removal of pine trees and reduction of rodent prey by changing nest sites and prey for a time with no strong change in their local numbers. Extensive urbanization seems to negatively affect buzzards, this species being generally less adaptable to urban areas than their New World counterparts, the red-tailed hawk. Although peri-urban areas can actually increase potential prey populations in a location at times, individual buzzard mortality, nest disturbances and nest site habitat degradation rises significantly in such areas. Common buzzards are fairly adaptive to rural areas as well as suburban areas with parks and large gardens, in addition to such areas if they're near farms.


== Behaviour ==

The common buzzard is a typical Buteo in much of its behaviour. It is most often seen either soaring at varying heights or perched prominently on tree tops, bare branches, telegraph poles, fence posts, rocks or ledges, or alternately well inside tree canopies. Buzzards will also stand and forage on the ground. In resident populations, it may spend more than half of its day inactively perched. Furthermore, it has been described a ""sluggish and not very bold"" bird of prey. It is a gifted soarer once aloft and can do so for extended periods but can appear laborious and heavy in level flight, more so nominate buzzards than steppe buzzards. Particularly in migration, as was recorded in the case of steppe buzzards' movement over Israel, buzzards readily adjust their direction, tail and wing placement and flying height to adjust for the surrounding environment and wind conditions. In Israel, migrant buzzards rarely soar all that high (maximum 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) above ground) due to the lack of mountain ridges that in other areas typically produce flyways; however tail-winds are significant and allow birds to cover a mean of 9.8 metres per second (22 miles per hour).


=== Migration ===

The common buzzard is aptly described as a partial migrant. The autumn and spring movements of buzzards are subject to extensive variation, even down to the individual level, based on a region's food resources, competition (both from other buzzards and other predators), extent of human disturbance and weather conditions. Short-distance movements are the norm for juveniles and some adults in autumn and winter, but more adults in central Europe and the British Isles remain on their year-around residence than do not. Even for first year juvenile buzzards dispersal may not take them very far. In England, 96% of first-years moved in winter to less than 100 km (62 mi) from their natal site. Southwestern Poland was recorded to be a fairly important wintering grounds for central European buzzards in early spring that apparently travelled from somewhat farther north, in winter average density was a locally high 2.12 individual per square kilometer. Habitat and prey availability seemed to be the primary drivers of habitat selection in fall for European buzzards. In northern Germany, buzzards were recorded to show preferences in fall for areas fairly distant from nesting site, with a large quantity of vole-holes and more widely dispersed perches. In Bulgaria, the mean wintering density was 0.34 individual per square kilometer, and buzzards showed a preference for agricultural over forested areas. Similar habitat preferences were recorded in northeastern Romania, where buzzard density was 0.334–0.539 individuals per square kilometer. The nominate buzzards of Scandinavia are somewhat more strongly migratory than most central European populations. However, birds from Sweden show some variation in migratory behaviours. A maximum of 41,000 individuals have been recorded at one of the main migration sites within southern Sweden in Falsterbo. In southern Sweden, winter movements and migration was studied via observation of buzzard colour. White individuals were substantially more common in southern Sweden rather than further north in their Swedish range. The southern population migrates earlier than intermediate to dark buzzards, in both adults and juveniles. A larger proportion of juveniles than of adults migrate in the southern population. Especially adults in the southern population are resident to a higher degree than more northerly breeders.
The entire population of the steppe buzzard is strongly migratory, covering substantial distances during migration. In no part of the range do steppe buzzards use the same summering and wintering grounds. Steppe buzzards are slightly gregarious in migration, and travel in variously sized flocks. This race migrates in September to October often from Asia Minor to the Cape of Africa in about a month but does not cross water, following around the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria rather than crossing the several kilometer wide gulf. Similarly, they will funnel along both sides of the Black Sea. Migratory behavior of steppe buzzards mirrors those of broad-winged & Swainson's hawks (Buteo platypterus & swainsoni) in every significant way as similar long-distance migrating Buteos, including trans-equatorial movements, avoidance of large bodies of waters and flocking behaviour. Migrating steppe buzzards will rise up with the morning thermals and can cover an average of hundreds of miles a day using the available currents along mountain ridges and other topographic features. The spring migration for steppe buzzards peaks around March–April, but the latest vulpinus arrive in their breeding grounds by late April or early May. Distances covered by migrating steppe buzzards in one way flights from northern Europe (i.e. Finland or Sweden) to southern Africa have ranged over 13,000 km (8,100 mi) within a season . For the steppe buzzards from eastern and northern Europe and western Russia (which compromise a majority of all steppe buzzards), peak migratory numbers occur in differing areas in autumn, when the largest recorded movements occurs through Asia Minor such as Turkey, than in spring, when the largest recorded movement are to the south in the Middle East, especially Israel. The two migratory movements barely differ overall until they reach the Middle East and east Africa, where the largest volume of migrants in autumn occurs at the southern part of the Red Sea, around Djibouti and Yemen, while the main volume in spring is in the northernmost strait, around Egypt and Israel. In autumn, numbers of steppe buzzards recorded in migration have ranged up to 32,000 (recorded 1971) in northwestern Turkey (Bosporus) and in northeastern Turkey (Black Sea) up to 205,000 (recorded 1976). Further down in migration, autumn numbers of up to 98,000 have been recorded in passage in Djibouti. Between 150,000 and nearly 466,000 Steppe Buzzard have been recorded migrating through Israel during spring, making this not only the most abundant migratory raptor here but one of the largest raptor migrations anywhere in the world. Migratory movements of southern Africa buzzards largely occur along the major mountain ranges, such as the Drakensberg and Lebombo Mountains. Wintering steppe buzzards occur far more irregularly in Transvaal than Cape region in winter. The onset of migratory movement for steppe buzzards back to the breeding grounds in southern Africa is mainly in March, peaking in the second week. Steppe buzzard molt their feathers rapidly upon arrival at wintering grounds and seems to split their flight feather molt between breeding ground in Eurasia and wintering ground in southern Africa, the molt pausing during migration. In last 50 years, it was recorded that nominate buzzards are typically migrating shorter distances and wintering further north, possibly in response to climate change, resulting in relatively smaller numbers of them at migration sites. They are also extending their breeding range possibly reducing/supplanting steppe buzzards.


=== Vocalizations ===
Resident populations of common buzzards tend to vocalize all year around, whereas migrants tend to vocalize only during the breeding season. Both nominate buzzards and steppe buzzards (and their numerous related subspecies within their types) tend to have similar voices. The main call of the species is a plaintive, far-carrying pee-yow or peee-oo, used as both contact call and more excitedly in aerial displays. Their call is sharper, more ringing when used in aggression, tends to be more drawn-out and wavering when chasing intruders, sharper, more yelping when as warning when approaching the nest or shorter and more explosive when called in alarm. Other variations of their vocal performances include a cat-like mew, uttered repeatedly on the wing or when perched, especially in display; a repeated mah has been recorded as uttered by pairs answering each other, further chuckles and croaks have also been recorded at nests. Juveniles can usually be distinguished by the discordant nature of their calls compared to those of adults.


== Dietary biology ==

The common buzzard is a generalist predator which hunts a wide variety of prey given the opportunity. Their prey spectrum extents to a wide variety of vertebrates including mammals, birds (from any age from eggs to adult birds), reptiles, amphibians and, rarely, fish, as well as to various invertebrates, mostly insects. Young animals are often attacked, largely the nidifugous young of various vertebrates. In total well over 300 prey species are known to be taken by common buzzards. Furthermore, prey size can vary from tiny beetles, caterpillars and ants to large adult grouse and rabbits up to nearly twice their body mass. Mean body mass of vertebrate prey was estimated at 179.6 g (6.34 oz) in Belarus. At times, they will also subsist partially on carrion, usually of dead mammals or fish. However, dietary studies have shown that they mostly prey upon small mammals, largely small rodents. Like many temperate zone raptorial birds of varied lineages, voles are an essential part of the common buzzard's diet. This bird's preference for the interface between woods and open areas frequently puts them in ideal vole habitat. Hunting in relatively open areas has been found to increase hunting success whereas more complete shrub cover lowered success. A majority of prey is taken by dropping from perch, and is normally taken on ground. Alternately, prey may be hunted in a low flight. This species tends not to hunt in a spectacular stoop but generally drops gently then gradually accelerate at bottom with wings held above the back. Sometimes, the buzzard also forages by random glides or soars over open country, wood edges or clearings. Perch hunting may be done preferentially but buzzards fairly regularly also hunt from a ground position when the habitat demands it. Outside the breeding season, as many 15–30 buzzards have been recorded foraging on ground in a single large field, especially juveniles. Normally the rarest foraging type is hovering. A study from Great Britain indicated that hovering does not seem to increase hunting success.


=== Mammals ===

A high diversity of rodents may be taken given the chance, as around 60 species of rodent have been recorded in the foods of common buzzards. It seems clear that voles are the most significant prey type for European buzzards. Nearly every study from the continent makes reference to the importance, in particular, of the two most numerous and widely distributed European voles: the 28.5 g (1.01 oz) common vole (Microtus arvalis) and the somewhat more northerly ranging 40 g (1.4 oz) field vole (Microtus agrestis). In southern Scotland, field voles were the best-represented species in pellets, accounting for 32.1% of 581 pellets. In southern Norway, field voles were again the main food in years with peak vole numbers, accounting for 40.8% of 179 prey items in 1985 and 24.7% of 332 prey items in 1994. Altogether, rodents amount to 67.6% and 58.4% of the foods in these respective peak vole years. However, in low vole population years, the contribution of rodents to the diet was minor. As far west as the Netherlands, common voles were the most regular prey, amounting to 19.6% of 6624 prey items in a very large study. Common voles were the main foods recorded in central Slovakia, accounting for 26.5% of 606 prey items. The common vole, or other related vole species at times, were the main foods as well in Ukraine (17.2% of 146 prey items) ranging east to Russia in the Privolshky Steppe Nature Reserve (41.8% of 74 prey items) and in Samara (21.4% of 183 prey items). Other records from Russia and Ukraine show voles ranging from slightly secondary prey to as much as 42.2% of the diet. In Belarus, voles, including Microtus species and 18.4 g (0.65 oz) bank voles (Myodes glareolus), accounted for 34.8% of the biomass on average in 1065 prey items from different study areas over 4 years. At least 12 species of the genus Microtus are known to be hunted by common buzzards and even this is probably conservative, moreover similar species like lemmings will be taken if available.
Other rodents are taken largely opportunistically rather than by preference. Several wood mice (Apodemus ssp.) are known to be taken quite frequently but given their preference for activity in deeper woods than the field-forest interfaces preferred, they are rarely more than secondary food items. An exception was in Samara where the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis), one of the largest of its genus at 28.4 g (1.00 oz), made up 20.9%, putting it just behind the common vole in importance. Similarly, tree squirrels are readily taken but rarely important in the foods of buzzards in Europe, as buzzards apparently prefer to avoid taking prey from trees nor do they possess the agility typically necessary to capture significant quantities of tree squirrels. All four ground squirrels that range (mostly) into eastern Europe are also known to be common buzzard prey but little quantitative analysis has gone into how significant such predator-prey relations are. Rodent prey taken have ranged in size from the 7.8 g (0.28 oz) Eurasian harvest mouse (Micromys minutus) to the non-native, 1,100 g (2.4 lb) muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus). Other rodents taken either seldom or in areas where the food habits of buzzards are spottily known include flying squirrels, marmots (presumably very young if taken alive), chipmunks, spiny rats, hamsters, mole-rats, gerbils, jirds and jerboas and occasionally hearty numbers of dormice, although these are nocturnal. Surprisingly little research has gone into the diets of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa, considering their numerous status there. However, it has been indicated that the main prey remains consist of rodents such as the four-striped grass mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio) and Cape mole-rats (Georychus capensis).
Other than rodents, two other groups of mammals can be counted as significant to the diet of common buzzards. One of these main prey types of import in the diets of common buzzards are leporids or lagomorphs, especially the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) where it is found in numbers in a wild or feral state. In all dietary studies from Scotland, rabbits were highly important to the buzzard's diet. In southern Scotland, rabbits constituted 40.8% of remains at nests and 21.6% of pellet contents, while lagomorphs (mainly rabbits but also some young hares) were present in 99% of remains in Moray, Scotland. The nutritional richness relative to the commonest prey elsewhere, such as voles, might account for the high productivity of buzzards here. For example, clutch sizes were twice as large on average where rabbits were common (Moray) than were where they were rare (Glen Urquhart). In northern Ireland, an area of interest because it is devoid of any native vole species, rabbits were again the main prey. Here, lagomorphs constituted 22.5% of prey items by number and 43.7% by biomass. While rabbits are non-native, albeit long-established, in the British Isles, in their native area of the Iberian peninsula, rabbits are similarly significant to the buzzard's diet. In Murcia, Spain, rabbits were the most common mammal in the diet, making up 16.8% of 167 prey items. In a large study from northeastern Spain, rabbits were dominant in the buzzard's foods, making up 66.5% of 598 prey items. In the Netherlands, European rabbits were second in number (19.1% of 6624 prey items) only to common voles and the largest contributor of biomass to nests (36.7%). Outside of these (at least historically) rabbit-rich areas, leverets of the common hare species found in Europe can be important supplemental prey. European hare (Lepus europaeus) were the fourth most important prey species in central Poland and the third most significant prey species in Stavropol Krai, Russia. Buzzards normally attack the young of European rabbits and hares. Most of the rabbits taken by buzzard variously been estimated from 159 to 550 g (5.6 to 19.4 oz), and infrequently up to 700 g (1.5 lb) in weight. Similarly, in different areas and the mean weight of brown hares taken in Finland was around 500 g (1.1 lb). One young mountain hares (Lepus timidus) taken in Norway was estimated to about 1,000 g (2.2 lb). However, common buzzards are known to kill adult rabbits at times. This can be supported by remains of relatively large-sized tarsus bones of the rabbit, up to 64mm in length.
The other significant mammalian prey type is insectivores, among which more than 20 species are known to be taken by this species, including nearly all the species of shrew, mole and hedgehog found in Europe. Moles are taken particularly often among this order, since as is the case with ""vole-holes"", buzzards probably tend to watch molehills in fields for activity and dive quickly from their perch when one of the subterranean mammals pops up. The most widely found mole in the buzzard's northern range is the 98 g (3.5 oz) European mole (Talpa europaea) and this is one of the more important non-rodent prey items for the species. This species was present in 55% of 101 remains in Glen Urquhart, Scotland and was the second most common prey species (18.6%) in 606 prey items in Slovakia. In Bari, Italy, the Roman mole (Talpa romana), of similar size to the European species, was the leading identified mammalian prey, making up 10.7% of the diet. The full-size range of insectivores may be taken by buzzards, ranging from the world's smallest mammal (by weight), the 1.8 g (0.063 oz) Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus) to arguably the heaviest insectivore, the 800 g (28 oz) European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Mammalian prey for common buzzards other than rodents, insectivores, and lagomorphs is rarely taken. Occasionally, some weasels such as least weasel (Mustela nivalis) and stoat (Mustela erminea) are taken, and remains of young pine martens (Martes martes) and adult european polecats (Mustela putorius) was found in buzzard nest. Numerous larger mammals, including medium-sized carnivores such as dogs, cats and foxes and various ungulates, are sometimes eaten as carrion by buzzards, mainly during lean winter months. Still-borns of deer are also visited with some frequency.


=== Birds ===

When attacking birds, common buzzards chiefly prey on nestlings and fledglings of small to medium-sized birds, largely passerines but also a variety of gamebirds, but sometimes also injured, sickly or unwary but healthy adults. While capable of overpowering birds larger than itself, the common buzzard is usually considered to lack the agility necessary to capture many adult birds, even gamebirds which would presumably be weaker fliers considering their relatively heavy bodies and small wings. The amount of fledgling and younger birds preyed upon relative to adults is variable, however. For example, in the Italian Alps, 72% of birds taken were fledglings or recently fledged juveniles, 19% were nestlings and 8% were adults. On the contrary, in southern Scotland, even though the buzzards were taking relatively large bird prey, largely red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica), 87% of birds taken were reportedly adults. In total, as in many raptorial birds that are far from bird-hunting specialists, birds are the most diverse group in the buzzard's prey spectrum due to the sheer number and diversity of birds, few raptors do not hunt them at least occasionally. Nearly 150 species of bird have been identified in the common buzzard's diet. In general, despite many that are taken, birds usually take a secondary position in the diet after mammals. In northern Scotland, birds were fairly numerous in the foods of buzzards. The most often recorded avian prey and 2nd and 3rd most frequent prey species (after only field voles) in Glen Urquhart, were 23.9 g (0.84 oz) chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and 18.4 g (0.65 oz) meadow pipits (Anthus pratensis), with the buzzards taking 195 fledglings of these species against only 90 adults. This differed from Moray where the most frequent avian prey and 2nd most frequent prey species behind the rabbit was the 480 g (17 oz) common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) and the buzzards took four times as many adults relative to fledglings.
Birds were the primary food for common buzzards in the Italian Alps, where they made up 46% of the diet against mammal which accounted for 29% in 146 prey items. The leading prey species here were 103 g (3.6 oz) Eurasian blackbirds (Turdus merula) and 160 g (5.6 oz) Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius), albeit largely fledglings were taken of both. Birds could also take the leading position in years with low vole populations in southern Norway, in particular thrushes, namely the blackbird, the 67.7 g (2.39 oz) song thrush (Turdus philomelos) and the 61 g (2.2 oz) redwing (Turdus iliacus), which were collectively 22.1% of 244 prey items in 1993. In southern Spain, birds were equal in number to mammals in the diet, both at 38.3%, but most remains were classified as ""unidentified medium-sized birds"", although the most often identified species of those that apparently could be determined were Eurasian jays and red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa). Similarly, in northern Ireland, birds were roughly equal in import to mammals but most were unidentified corvids. In Seversky Donets, Ukraine, birds and mammals both made up 39.3% of the foods of buzzards. Common buzzards may hunt nearly 80 species passerines and nearly all available gamebirds. Like many other largish raptors, gamebirds are attractive to hunt for buzzards due to their ground-dwelling habits. Buzzards were the most frequent predator in a study of juvenile pheasants in England, accounting for 4.3% of 725 deaths (against 3.2% by foxes, 0.7% by owls and 0.5% by other mammals). They also prey on a wide size range of birds, ranging down to Europe's smallest bird, the 5.2 g (0.18 oz) goldcrest (Regulus regulus). Very few individual birds hunted by buzzards weigh more than 500 g (1.1 lb). However, there have been some particularly large avian kills by buzzards, including any that weigh more or 1,000 g (2.2 lb), or about the largest average size of a buzzard, have including adults of mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), common raven (Corvus corax) and some of the larger gulls if ambushed on their nests. The largest avian kill by a buzzard, and possibly largest known overall for the species, was an adult female western capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) that weighed an estimated 1,985 g (4.376 lb). At times, buzzards will hunt the young of large birds such as herons and cranes. Other assorted avian prey has included a few species of waterfowl, most available pigeons and doves, cuckoos, swifts, grebes, rails, nearly 20 assorted shorebirds, tubenoses, hoopoes, bee-eaters and several types of woodpecker. Birds with more conspicuous or open nesting areas or habits are more likely to have fledglings or nestlings attacked, such as water birds, while those with more secluded or inaccessible nests, such as pigeons/doves and woodpeckers, adults are more likely to be hunted.


=== Reptiles and amphibians ===

The common buzzard may be the most regular avian predator of reptiles and amphibians in Europe apart from the sections where they are sympatric with the largely snake-eating short-toed eagle. In total, the prey spectrum of common buzzards include nearly 50 herpetological prey species. In studies from northern and southern Spain, the leading prey numerically were both reptilian, although in Biscay (northern Spain) the leading prey (19%) was classified as ""unidentified snakes"". In Murcia, the most numerous prey was the 77.2 g (2.72 oz) ocellated lizard (Timon lepidus), at 32.9%. In total, at Biscay and Murcia, reptiles accounted for 30.4% and 35.9% of the prey items, respectively. Findings were similar in a separate study from northeastern Spain, where reptiles amounted to 35.9% of prey. In Bari, Italy, reptiles were the main prey, making up almost exactly half of the biomass, led by the large green whip snake (Hierophis viridiflavus), at 24.2% of food mass. In Stavropol Krai, Russia, the 20 g (0.71 oz) sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) was the main prey at 23.7% of 55 prey items. The 16 g (0.56 oz) slowworm (Anguis fragilis), a legless lizard, became the most numerous prey for the buzzards of southern Norway in low vole years, amounting to 21.3% of 244 prey items in 1993 and were also common even in the peak vole year of 1994 (19% of 332 prey items). More or less any snake in Europe is potential prey and the buzzard has been known to be uncharacteristically bold in going after and overpowering large snakes such as rat snakes, ranging up to nearly 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in length, and healthy, large vipers despite the danger of being struck by such prey. However, in at least one case, the corpse of a female buzzard was found envenomed over the body of an adder that it had killed. In some parts of range, the common buzzard acquires the habit of taking many frogs and toads. This was the case in the Mogilev Region of Belarus where the 23 g (0.81 oz) moor frog (Rana arvalis) was the major prey (28.5%) over several years, followed by other frogs and toads amounting to 39.4% of the diet over the years. In central Scotland, the 46 g (1.6 oz) common toad (Bufo bufo) was the most numerous prey species, accounting for 21.7% of 263 prey items, while the common frog (Rana temporaria) made up a further 14.7% of the diet. Frogs made up about 10% of the diet in central Poland as well.


=== Invertebrates and other prey ===
When common buzzards feed on invertebrates, these are chiefly earthworms, beetles and caterpillars in Europe and largely seemed to be preyed on by juvenile buzzards with less refined hunting skills or in areas with mild winters and ample swarming or social insects. In most dietary studies, invertebrates are at best a minor supplemental contributor to the buzzard's diet. Nonetheless, roughly a dozen beetle species have found in the foods of buzzards from Ukraine alone. In winter in northeastern Spain, it was found that the buzzards switched largely from the vertebrate prey typically taken during spring and summer to a largely insect-based diet. Most of this prey was unidentified but the most frequently identified were European mantis (Mantis religiosa) and European mole cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa). In Ukraine, 30.8% of the food by number was found to be insects. Especially in winter quarters such as southern Africa, common buzzards are often attracted to swarming locusts and other orthopterans. In this way the steppe buzzard may mirror a similar long-distance migrant from the Americas, the Swainson's hawk, which feeds its young largely on nutritious vertebrates but switches to a largely insect-based once the reach their distant wintering grounds in South America. In Eritrea, 18 returning migrant steppe buzzards were seen to feed together on swarms of grasshoppers. For wintering steppe buzzards in Zimbabwe, one source went so far as to refer to them as primarily insectivorous, apparently being somewhat locally specialized to feeding on termites. Stomach contents in buzzards from Malawi apparently consisted largely of grasshoppers (alternately with lizards). Fish tend to be the rarest class of prey found in the common buzzard's foods. There are a couple cases of predation of fish detected in the Netherlands, while elsewhere they have been known to have fed upon eels and carp.


=== Interspecies predatory relationships ===

Common buzzards co-occur with dozens of other raptorial birds through their breeding, resident and wintering grounds. There may be many other birds that broadly overlap in prey selection to some extent. Furthermore, their preference for interfaces of forest and field is used heavily by many birds of prey. Some of the most similar species by diet are the common kestrel (Falco tinniculus), hen harrier (Circus cyaenus) and lesser spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), not to mention nearly every European species of owl, as all but two may locally prefer rodents such as voles in their diets. Diet overlap was found to be extensive between buzzards and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Poland, with 61.9% of prey selection overlapping by species although the dietary breadth of the fox was broader and more opportunistic. Both fox dens and buzzard roosts were found to be significantly closer to high vole areas relative to the overall environment here. The only other widely found European Buteo, the rough-legged buzzard, comes to winter extensively with common buzzards. It was found in southern Sweden, habitat, hunting and prey selection often overlapped considerably. Rough-legged buzzards appear to prefer slightly more open habitat and took slightly fewer wood mice than common buzzard. Roughlegs also hover much more frequently and are more given to hunting in high winds. The two buzzards are aggressive towards one another and excluded each other from winter feeding territories in similar ways to the way they exclude conspecifics. In northern Germany, the buffer of their habitat preferences apparently accounted for the lack of effect on each other's occupancy between the two buzzard species. Despite a broad range of overlap, very little is known about the ecology of common and long-legged buzzards where they co-exist. However, it can be inferred from the long-legged species preference for predation on differing prey, such as blind mole-rats, ground squirrels, hamsters and gerbils, from the voles usually preferred by the common species, that serious competition for food is unlikely.
A more direct negative effect has been found in buzzard's co-existence with northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). Despite the considerable discrepancy of the two species dietary habits, habitat selection in Europe is largely similar between buzzards and goshawks. Goshawks are slightly larger than buzzards and are more powerful, agile and generally more aggressive birds, and so they are considered dominant. In studies from Germany and Sweden, buzzards were found to be less disturbance sensitive than goshawks but were probably displaced into inferior nesting spots by the dominant goshawks. The exposure of buzzards to a dummy goshawk was found to decrease breeding success whereas there was no effect on breeding goshawks when they were exposed to a dummy buzzard. In many cases, in Germany and Sweden, goshawks displaced buzzards from their nests to take them over for themselves. In Poland, buzzards productivity was correlated to prey population variations, particularly voles which could vary from 10 to 80 per hectare, whereas goshawks were seemingly unaffected by prey variations; buzzards were found here to number 1.73 pair per 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi) against goshawk 1.63 pair per 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi). In contrast, the slightly larger counterpart of buzzards in North America, the red-tailed hawk (which is also slightly larger than American goshawks, the latter averaging smaller than European ones) are more similar in diet to goshawks there. Redtails are not invariably dominated by goshawks and are frequently able to outcompete them by virtue of greater dietary and habitat flexibility. Furthermore, red-tailed hawks are apparently equally capable of killing goshawks as goshawks are of killing them (killings are more one-sided in buzzard-goshawk interactions in favour of the latter). Other raptorial birds, including many of similar or mildly larger size than common buzzards themselves, may dominate or displace the buzzard, especially with aims to take over their nests. Species such as the black kite (Milvus migrans), booted eagle (Hieraeetus pennatus) and the lesser spotted eagle have been known to displace actively nesting buzzards, although in some cases the buzzards may attempt to defend themselves. The broad range of accipitrids that take over buzzard nests is somewhat unusual. More typically, common buzzards are victims of nest parasitism to owls and falcons, as neither of these other kinds of raptorial birds builds their own nests, but these may regularly take up occupancy on already abandoned or alternate nests rather than ones the buzzards are actively using. Even with birds not traditionally considered raptorial, such as common ravens, may compete for nesting sites with buzzards. In urban vicinities of southwestern England, it was found that peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) were harassing buzzards so persistently, in many cases resulting in injury or death for the buzzards, the attacks tending to peak during the falcon's breeding seasons and tend to be focused on subadult buzzards. Despite often being dominated in nesting site confrontations by even similarly sized raptors, buzzards appear to be bolder in direct competition over food with other raptors outside of the context of breeding, and has even been known to displace larger birds of prey such as red kites (Milvus milvus) and female buzzards may also dominate male goshawks (which are much smaller than the female goshawk) at disputed kills.

Common buzzards are occasionally threatened by predation by other raptorial birds. Northern goshawks have been known to have preyed upon buzzards in a few cases. Much larger raptors are known to have killed a few buzzards as well, including steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis) on migrating steppe buzzards in Israel. Further instances of predation on buzzards have involved golden, eastern imperial (Aquila heliaca), Bonelli's (Aquila fasciata) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Europe. Besides preying on adult buzzard, white-tailed eagles have been known to raise buzzards with their own young. These are most likely cases of eagles carrying off young buzzard nestlings with the intention of predation but, for unclear reasons, not killing them. Instead the mother eagle comes to brood the young buzzard. Despite the difference of the two species diets, white-tailed eagles are surprisingly successful at raising young buzzards (which are conspicuously much smaller than their own nestlings) to fledging. Studies in Lithuania of white-tailed eagle diets found that predation on common buzzards was more frequent than anticipated, with 36 buzzard remains found in 11 years of study of the summer diet of the white-tailed eagles. While nestling buzzards were multiple times more vulnerable to predation than adult buzzards in the Lithuanian data, the region's buzzards expelled considerable time and energy during the late nesting period trying to protect their nests. The most serious predator of common buzzards, however, is almost certainly the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo). This is a very large owl with a mean body mass about three to four times greater than that of a buzzard. The eagle-owl, despite often taking small mammals that broadly overlap with those selected by buzzards, is considered a ""super-predator"" that is a major threat to nearly all co-existing raptorial birds, capably destroying whole broods of other raptorial birds and dispatching adult raptors even as large as eagles. Due to their large numbers in edge habitats, common buzzards frequently feature heavily in the eagle-owl's diet. Eagle-owls, as will some other large owls, also readily expropriate the nests of buzzards. In the Czech Republic and in Luxembourg, the buzzard was the third and fifth most frequent prey species for eagle-owls, respectively. The reintroduction of eagle-owls to sections of Germany has been found to have a slight deleterious effect on the local occupancy of common buzzards. The only sparing factor is the temporal difference (the buzzard nesting later in the year than the eagle-owl) and buzzards may locally be able to avoid nesting near an active eagle-owl family. As the ecology of the wintering population is relatively little studied, a similar very large owl at the top of the avian food chain, the Verreaux's eagle-owl (Bubo lacteus), is the only known predator of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa. Despite not being known predators of buzzards, other large, vole-eating owls are known to displace or to be avoided by nesting buzzards, such as great grey owls (Strix nebulosa) and Ural owls (Strix uralensis). Unlike with large birds of prey, next to nothing is known of mammalian predators of common buzzards, despite up to several nestlings and fledglings being likely depredated by mammals.
Common buzzards themselves rarely present a threat to other raptorial birds but may occasionally kill a few of those of smaller size. The buzzard is a known predator of 237 g (8.4 oz) Eurasian sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), 184 g (6.5 oz) common kestrel and 152 g (5.4 oz) lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) . Perhaps surprisingly, given the nocturnal habits of this prey, the group of raptorial birds the buzzard is known to hunt most extensively is owls. Known owl prey has included 419 g (14.8 oz) Western barn owls (Tyto alba), 92 g (3.2 oz) European scops owls (Otus scops), 475 g (16.8 oz) tawny owls (Strix aluco), 169 g (6.0 oz) little owls (Athene noctua), 138 g (4.9 oz) boreal owls (Aegolius funereus), 286 g (10.1 oz) long-eared owls (Asio otus) and 355 g (12.5 oz) short-eared owls (Asio flammeus). Despite their relatively large size, tawny owls are known to avoid buzzards as there are several records of them preying upon the owls.


== Breeding ==


=== Nesting territories and density ===
Home ranges of common buzzards are generally 0.5 to 2 km2 (0.19 to 0.77 sq mi). The size of breeding territory seem to be generally correlated with food supply. In a German study, the range was 0.8 to 1.8 km2 (0.31 to 0.69 sq mi) with an average of 1.26 km2 (0.49 sq mi). Some of the lowest pair densities of common buzzards seem to come from Russia. For instance, in Kerzhenets Nature Reserve, the recorded density was 0.6 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) and the average distance of nearest neighbors was 3.8 km (2.4 mi). The Snowdonia region of northern Wales held a pair per 9.7 km2 (3.7 sq mi) with a mean nearest neighbor distance of 1.95 km (1.21 mi); in adjacent Migneint, pair occurrence was 7.2 km2 (2.8 sq mi), with a mean distance of 1.53 km (0.95 mi). In the Teno massif of the Canary Islands, the average density was estimated as 23 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), similar to that of a middling continental population. On another set of islands, on Crete the density of pairs was lower at 5.7 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi); here buzzards tend to have an irregular distribution, some in lower intensity harvest olive groves but their occurrence actually more common in agricultural than natural areas. In the Italian Alps, it was recorded in 1993–96 that there were from 28 to 30 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). In central Italy, density average was lower at 19.74 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). Higher density areas are known than those above. Two areas of the Midlands of England showed occupancies of 81 and 22 territorial pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). High buzzard densities there were associated with high proportions of unimproved pasture and mature woodland within the estimated territories. Similarly high densities of common buzzards were estimated in central Slovakia using two different methods, here indicating densities of 96 to 129 pairs per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). Despite claims from the study of the English midlands were the highest known territory density for the species, a number ranging from 32 to 51 pairs in wooded area of merely 22 km2 (8.5 sq mi) in Czech Republic seems to surely exceed even those densities. The Czech study hypothesized that fragmentation of forest in human management of lands for wild sheep and deer, creating exceptional concentrations of prey such as voles, and lack of appropriate habitat in surrounding regions for the exceptionally high density.
In the North-Estonian Neeruti landscape reserve (area 1250 ha), Marek Vahula found 9 populated nests in 1989 and 1990. One nest was found in 1982 and is apparently the oldest known nest that is still populated today.

Common buzzards maintain their territories through flight displays. In Europe, territorial behaviour generally starts in February. However, displays are not uncommon throughout year in resident pairs, especially by males, and can elicit similar displays by neighbors. In them, common buzzards generally engage in high circling, spiraling upward on slightly raised wings. Mutual high circling by pairs sometimes go on at length, especially during the period prior to or during breeding season. In mutual displays, a pair may follow each other at 10–50 m (33–164 ft) in level flight. During the mutual displays, the male may engage in exaggerated deep flapping or zig-zag tumbling, apparently in response to the female being too distant. Two or three pairs may circle together at times and as many as 14 individual adults have been recorded over established display sites. Sky-dancing by common buzzards have been recorded in spring and autumn, typically by male but sometimes by female, nearly always with much calling. Their sky-dances are of the rollercoaster type, with upward sweep until they start to stall, but sometimes embellished with loops or rolls at the top. Next in the sky-dance, they dive on more or less closed wings before spreading them and shooting up again, upward sweeps of up to 30 m (98 ft), with dive drops of up to at least 60 m (200 ft). These dances may be repeated in series of 10 to 20. In the climax of the sky dance, the undulations become progressive shallower, often slowing and terminating directly onto a perch. Various other aerial displays include low contour flight or weaving among trees, frequently with deep beats and exaggerated upstrokes which show underwing pattern to rivals perched below. Talon grappling and occasionally cartwheeling downward with feet interlocked has been recorded in buzzards and, as in many raptors, is likely the physical culmination of the aggressive territorial display, especially between males. Despite the highly territorial nature of buzzards and their devotion to a single mate and breeding ground each summer, there is one case of a polyandrous trio of buzzards nesting in the Canary Islands.


=== Nests ===
Common buzzards tend to build a bulky nest of sticks, twigs and often heather. Commonly, nests are up to 1 to 1.2 m (3 ft 3 in to 3 ft 11 in) across and 60 cm (24 in) deep. With reuse over years, the diameter can reach or exceed 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) and weight of nests can reach over 200 kg (440 lb). Active nests tend to be lined with greenery, most often this consists of broad-leafed foliage but sometimes also includes rush or seaweed locally. Nest height in trees is commonly 3 to 25 m (9.8 to 82.0 ft), usually by main trunk or main crutch of the tree. In Germany, trees used for nesting consisted mostly of red beeches (Fagus sylvatica) (in 337 cases), whereas a further 84 were in assorted oaks. Buzzards were recorded to nest almost exclusively in pines in Spain at a mean height of 14.5 m (48 ft). Trees are generally used for a nesting location but they will also utilize crags or bluffs if trees are unavailable. Buzzards in one English study were surprisingly partial to nesting on well-vegetated banks and due to the rich surrounding environment habitat and prey population, were actually more productive than nests located in other locations here. Furthermore, a few ground nests were recorded in high prey-level agricultural areas in the Netherlands. In the Italian Alps, 81% of 108 nests were on cliffs. The common buzzard generally lacks the propensity of its Nearctic counterpart, the red-tailed hawk, to occasionally nest on or near manmade structures (often in heavily urbanized areas) but in Spain some pairs recorded nesting along the perimeter of abandoned buildings. Pairs often have several nests but some pairs may use one over several consecutive years. Two to four alternate nests in a territory is typical for common buzzards, especially those breeding further north in their range.


=== Reproduction and eggs ===

The breeding season commences at differing times based on latitude. Common buzzard breeding seasons may fall as early as January to April but typically the breeding season is March to July in much of Palearctic. In the northern stretches of the range the breeding season may last into May–August. Mating usually occurs on or near the nest and lasts about 15 seconds, typically occurring several times a day. Eggs are usually laid in 2 to 3-day intervals. The clutch size can range from to 2 to 6, a relatively large clutch for an accipitrid. More northerly and westerly buzzard usually bear larger clutches, which average nearer 3, than those further east and south. In Spain, the average clutch size is about 2 to 2.3. From 4 locations in different parts of Europe, 43% had clutch size of 2, 41% had size of 3, clutches of 1 and 4 each constituted about 8%. Laying dates are remarkably constant throughout Great Britain. There are, however, highly significant differences in clutch size between British study areas. These do not follow any latitudinal gradient and it is likely that local factors such as habitat and prey availability are more important determinants of clutch size. The eggs are white in ground colour, rather round in shape with sporadic red to brown markings sometimes lightly showing. In the nominate race, egg size is 49.8–63.8 mm (1.96–2.51 in) in height by 39.1–48.2 mm (1.54–1.90 in) in diameter with an average of 55 mm × 44 mm (2.2 in × 1.7 in) in 600 eggs. In the race of vulpinus, egg height is 48–63 mm (1.9–2.5 in) by 39.2–47.5 mm (1.54–1.87 in) with an average of 54.2 mm × 42.8 mm (2.13 in × 1.69 in) in 303 eggs. Eggs are generally laid in late March to early April in extreme south, sometime in April in most of Europe, into May and possibly even early June in the extreme north. If eggs are lost to a predator (including humans) or fail in some other way, common buzzards do not usually lay replacement clutches but they have been recorded, even with 3 attempts of clutches by a single female. The female does most but not all of the incubating, doing so for a total of 33–35 days. The female remains at the nest brooding the young in the early stages with the male bringing all prey. At about 8–12 days, both the male and female will bring prey but the female continues to do all feeding until the young can tear up their own prey.


=== Development of young ===

Once hatching commences, it may take 48 hours for the chick to chip out. Hatching may take place over 3–7 days, with new hatchlings averaging about 45 g (1.6 oz) in body mass. Often the youngest nestling dies from starvation, especially in broods of three or more. In nestlings, the first down replaces by longer, coarser down at about 7 days of age with the first proper feathers appearing at 12 to 15 days. The young are nearly fully feathered rather than downy at about a month of age and can start to feed themselves as well. The first attempts to leave the nest are often at about 40–50 days, averaging usually 40–45 in nominate buzzards in Europe, but more quickly on average at 40–42 in vulpinus. Fledging occurs typically at 43–54 days but in extreme cases at as late 62 days. Sexual dimorphism is apparent in European fledglings, as females often scale about 1,000 g (2.2 lb) against 780 g (1.72 lb) in males. After leaving the nest, buzzards generally stay close by, but with migratory ones there is more definitive movement generally southbound. Full independence is generally sought 6 to 8 weeks after fledging. 1st year birds generally remain in wintering area for following summer but then return to near area of origin but then migrate south again without breeding. Radio-tracking suggests that most dispersal, even relatively early dispersals, by juvenile buzzards is undertaken independently rather than via exile by parents, as has been recorded in some other birds of prey. In common buzzards, generally speaking, siblings stay quite close to each other after dispersal from their parents and form something of a social group, although parents usually tolerate their presence on their territory until they are laying another clutch. However, the social group of siblings disbands at about a year of age. Juvenile buzzards are subordinate to adults during most encounters and tend to avoid direct confrontations and actively defended territories until they are of appropriate age (usually at least 2 years of age). This was the case as well for steppe buzzard juveniles wintering in southern Africa, although in some cases juveniles were able to successfully steal prey from adults there.


=== Breeding success rates ===
Numerous factors may weigh into the breeding success of common buzzards. Chiefly among these are prey populations, habitat, disturbance and persecution levels and innerspecies competition. In Germany, intra- and interspecific competition, plumage morph, laying date, precipitation levels and anthropogenic disturbances in the breeding territory, in declining order, were deemed to be the most significant bearers of breeding success. In an accompanying study, it was found that a mere 17% of adult birds of both sexes present in a German study area produced 50% of offspring, so breeding success may be lower than perceived and many adult buzzards for unknown causes may not attempt to breed at all. High breeding success was detected in Argyll, Scotland, due likely to hearty prey populations (rabbits) but also probably a lower local rate of persecution than elsewhere in the British isles. Here, the mean number of fledglings were 1.75 against 0.82–1.41 in other parts of Britain. It was found in the English Midlands that breeding success both by measure of clutch size and mean number of fledglings, was relatively high thanks again to high prey populations. Breeding success was lower farther from significant stands of trees in the Midlands and most nesting failures that could be determined occurred in the incubation stage, possibly in correlation with predation of eggs by corvids. More significant than even prey, late winter-early spring was found to be likely the primary driver of breeding success in buzzards from southern Norway. Here, even in peak vole years, nesting success could be considerably hampered by heavy snow at this crucial stage. In Norway, large clutches of 3+ were expected only in years with minimal snow cover, high vole populations and lighter rains in May–June. In the Italian Alps, the mean number of fledglings per pair was 1.07. 33.4% of nesting attempts were failures per a study in southwestern Germany, with an average of 1.06 of all nesting attempts and 1.61 for all successful attempt. In Germany, weather conditions and rodent populations seemed to be the primary drivers of nesting success. In Murcia part of Spain contrasted with Biscay to the north, higher levels of interspecific competition from booted eagles and northern goshawks did not appear to negatively affect breeding success due to more ample prey populations (rabbits again) in Murcia than in Biscay.
In the Westphalia area of Germany, it was found that intermediate colour morphs were more productive than those that were darker or lighter. For reasons that are not entirely clear, apparently fewer parasites were found to afflict broods of intermediate plumaged buzzard less so than dark and light phenotypes, in particular higher melanin levels somehow were found to be more inviting to parasitic organism that effect the health of the buzzard's offspring. The composition of habitat and its relation to human disturbance were important variables for the dark and light phenotypes but were less important to intermediate individuals. Thus selection pressures resulting from different factors did not vary much between sexes but varied between the three phenotypes in the population. Breeding success in areas with wild European rabbits was considerably effected by rabbit myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease, both of which have heavily depleted wild rabbit population. Breeding success in formerly rabbit-rich areas were recorded to decrease from as much as 2.6 to as little as 0.9 young per pair. Age of first breeding in several radio-tagged buzzards showed only a single male breeding as early as his 2nd summer (at about a year of age). Significantly more buzzards were found to start breeding at the 3 summer but breeding attempts can be individually erratic given the availability of habitat, food and mates. The mean life expectancy was estimated at 6.3 years in the late 1950s, but this was at a time of high persecution when humans were causing 50–80% of buzzard deaths. In a more modern context with regionally reduced persecution rates, the lifespan expected can be higher (possibly in excess of 10 years at times) but is still widely variable due to a wide variety of factors.


== Status ==

The common buzzard is one of the most numerous birds of prey in its range. Almost certainly, it is the most numerous diurnal bird of prey throughout Europe. Conservative estimates put the total population at no fewer than 700,000 pairs in Europe, which are more than twice the total estimates for the next four birds of prey estimated as most common: the Eurasian sparrowhawk (more than 340,000 pairs), the common kestrel (more than 330,000 pairs) and the northern goshawk (more than 160,000 pairs). Ferguson-Lees et al. roughly estimated that the total population of the common buzzard ranges to nearly 5 million pairs but at time was including the now split-off species of eastern and Himalayan buzzards in those numbers. These numbers may be excessive but the total population of common buzzards is certain to total well over seven figures. More recently, the IUCN estimated the common buzzard (sans the Himalayan and eastern subspecies) to number somewhere between 2.1 and 3.7 million birds, which would put this buzzard one of the most numerous of all accipitrid family members (estimates for Eurasian sparrowhawks, red-tailed hawks and northern goshawks also may range over 2 million). In 1991, other than their absence in Iceland, after having been extent as breeder by 1910, buzzards recolonized Ireland sometime in the 1950s and has increased by the 1990s to 26 pairs. Supplemental feeding has reportedly helped the Irish buzzard population to rebound, especially where rabbits have decreased. Most other countries have at least four figures of breeding pairs. As of the 1990s, other countries such as Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Poland, Sweden, Belarus and Ukraine all numbered pairs well into five figures, while Germany had an estimated 140,000 pairs and European Russian may have held 500,000 pairs. Between 44,000 and 61,000 pairs nested in Great Britain by 2001 with numbers gradually increasing after past persecution, habitat alteration and prey reductions, making it by far the most abundant diurnal raptor there. In Westphalia, Germany, population of buzzards was shown to nearly triple over the last few decades. The Westphalian buzzards are possibly benefiting from increasingly warmer mean climate, which in turn is increasing vulnerability of voles. However, the rate of increase was significantly greater in males than in females, in part because of reintroduced Eurasian eagle-owls to the region preying on nests (including the brooding mother), which may in turn put undue pressure on the local buzzard population.
At least 238 common buzzards killed through persecution were recovered in England from 1975 to 1989, largely through poisoning. Persecution did not significantly differ at any time due this span of years nor did the persecution rates decrease, nor did it when compared to rates of last survey of this in 1981. While some persecution persists in England, it is probably slightly less common today. The buzzard was found to be the most vulnerable raptor to power-line collision fatalities in Spain probably as it is one of the most common largish birds, and together with the common raven, it accounted for nearly a third of recorded electrocutions. Given its relative abundance, the common buzzard is held as an ideal bioindicator, as they are effected by a range of pesticide and metal contamination through pollution like other raptors but are largely resilient to these at the population levels. In turn, this allows biologists to study (and harvest if needed) the buzzards intensively and their environments without affecting their overall population. The lack of affect may be due to the buzzard's adaptability as well as its relatively short, terrestrially-based food chain, which exposes them to less risk of contamination and population depletions than raptors that prey more heavily on water-based prey (such as some large eagles) or other birds (such as falcons). Common buzzards are seldom vulnerable to egg-shell thinning from DDT as are other raptors but egg-shell thinning has been recorded. Other factors that negatively effect raptors have been studied in common buzzards are helminths, avipoxvirus and assorted other viruses.


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== General sources ===
Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999). Collins Bird Guide. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-219728-1.
Sinclair, Ian; Hockey, Phil; Tarboton, Warwick (2002). SASOL Birds of Southern Africa. Struik. ISBN 978-1-86872-721-6.


== External links ==

Steppe Buzzard species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Madeira Birds: Buzzard. Page about the controversial subspecies harterti. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) Archived 12 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
BirdLife species factsheet for Buteo buteo
""Buteo buteo"". Avibase. 
""Eurasian buzzard media"". Internet Bird Collection.
Common buzzard photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
Audio recordings of Common buzzard on Xeno-canto."
"Carterton, Oxfordshire","Carterton is a town in West Oxfordshire district in the county of Oxfordshire, England and is 4 miles (6.4 km) south-west of Witney. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 15,769.


== History ==
Much of what is now the northern part of the town was held by the Moleyns family from at least 1369, but in 1429 William Lord Moleyns was killed at the siege of Orléans and the land passed to the Hungerford family. During the medieval period the main road through Carterton was one of the most important in the country, taking trains of packhorses laden with Cotswold wool over Radcot Bridge and on to Southampton for export to the weaving centre of Europe.  In the 1770s the land was acquired by the Duke of Marlborough.
The pattern of the present settlement dates from 1894 when part of the estate was sold to Homesteads Limited whose director was William Carter. The land was divided into plots of 6 acres and sold for £20 an acre with bungalows costing from £120. Many of the settlers were retired soldiers and people moving from the towns. Carterton soon made its name in the market gardening world. Black grapes from Frenchester Nurseries and the famous Carterton tomatoes were sold at Covent Garden Market.
Carterton, which by the late 20th century was one of the largest towns in Oxfordshire, was founded soon after 1900 as a colony of smallholders, on agricultural land in the northern part of Black Bourton parish. The founder was William Carter of Branksome (Dorset), a speculator who, through his company Homesteads Ltd of London, bought estates in several counties, in order to establish smallholdings and attract people back to the land. In Oxfordshire he acquired from W. C. Arkell, in 1900, the 740-a. Rock farm north of Black Bourton village, part of an estate sold by the duke of Marlborough in 1894. By late 1902 there were 16 houses, and the following year the new settlement, already called Carterton, was included in a local trades directory.


=== Development from the Second World War ===
Carterton's later growth was closely related to the construction in 1937 of the nearby RAF Brize Norton airbase. This development profoundly altered the settlement's character as Brize Norton became the Royal Air Force's largest operating base. A small group of substantial two-storey houses for RAF personnel, called Brizewood, was built east of Swinbrook Road about 1938, and in the 1950s was expanded with uniform bungalows for American servicemen. By 1953 Carterton was a ""busy and expanding village"", and its rapid population increase was creating severe housing problems: in 1962 the plight of significant numbers of caravan dwellers prompted an article in the Lancet, though many residents took exception to the town's portrayal, and denied that the picture was typical. By then there were claimed to be more civilians than servicemen living in mobile homes, some of them single women, and the ""shack-like houses of the early settlers"", their ""meagre appearance [bearing] eloquen"" elsewhere on the ""busy village main street"". 
A few scattered ""Robin"" hangars, hastily built during the Second World War to allow aircraft to be housed away from the airfield itself, were converted to other uses during the same period, one on Alvescot Road surviving in the early 21st century as part of a motor repair garage. Rock Farm and its converted agricultural buildings, all stone-built, survived as a small group at the intersection of Lawton and Arkell Avenues, with William Wilkinson's pair of model labourers' cottages set back from the Alvescot road between modern housing.   In 1967 an ambitious scheme was launched for controlled expansion and for regeneration of the town centre, with a ring road (Upavon Way) to serve new housing, to divert traffic from the centre, and to contain future expansion. New RAF housing was to provide over 1,450 dwellings and private enterprise another 300, while local authorities were to provide shops and other much needed facilities around the central crossroads. A reduced scheme for the town centre was launched in 1975 after repeated delays and controversy, and Upavon Way was opened soon after.
By 1976 over 2,000 houses had been built since the 1960s, those on the large estates in the north-east mostly of uniform appearance with concrete exteriors, and 850 more were planned. Settlement by then spilled over the parish boundary into Brize Norton, though on the north there was no expansion beyond the parish boundary, and expansion south of Milestone Road was constrained by the airfield perimeter. A large transit hotel within the airfield precinct was built by the RAF in 1970 to serve military personnel and their families. The number of people in mobile homes still caused controversy in 1980, when there were almost 250 permanent or temporary pitches distributed among several sites, and in the early 1980s some sites were closed and replaced by council houses. Expansion in the town's eastern part, chiefly for housing, continued in the mid 1980s.  
By 1997 the town centre had been transformed: shops in a variety of styles lined the four broad main streets, interspersed with a few older buildings such as the Beehive Hotel and the former Emporium, and the crossroads was dominated by a tall domed tower built in 1996, surmounting new shops and offices. A large Co-operative Society supermarket of flamboyant design, on the site of the earlier building on Black Bourton Road, was erected in 1998, and in 2000 work began on a major expansion programme on the town's eastern edge, to include another 1,200 houses, a shopping centre, leisure facilities, and a new access road. A variety of early settlers' houses also survived scattered among the modern buildings, though by 2004 several had been recently demolished or were semiderelict and under threat from developers, prompting mounting local controversy.


== Public buildings and social provision ==

In the late 1960s a new police station was built on Burford Road for a staff of eight, together with six police houses, and the original police house was demolished. A war memorial erected at the crossroads about 1920 was moved to the new town hall on Alvescot Road which was completed in 1983. A reading room mentioned in 1917 was succeeded by a small library also in part of the former Emporium. Refreshment rooms were mentioned in 1924, the Beehive Hotel on Burford Road was opened in 1932, and the Golden Eagle (renamed the Olde Aviator in 1996) was opened in the former Emporium in 1954. 
Land for a recreation ground north of Alvescot Road was given by Carter in 1906, and football, cricket, tennis, and bowls clubs were formed around 1920, together with a choral society. From 1904 to the 1920s there was a resident physician, and in 1928 a solicitor visited once a week. Construction work on RAF Brize Norton began in 1935. Wartime saw the rapid growth of the base. An air raid destroyed 46 aircraft; the remainder were then dispersed round the village and one hangar which is now an Aldi supermarket on the Alvescot Road. From 1950 to 1965 the camp was to be the home of the USAF bomber wings. The RAF returned in 1965 and undertook a large building programme, making RAF Brize Norton its main air transport base in the country.  
Carterton Town Hall was built south of Alvescot Road in 1982–3. With the growth of the village, the small mission church at the central crossroads was replaced in 1963 by the church of St John the Evangelist. The link with the mother church of St. Mary's at Black Bourton was kept alive by the donation of one of the bells from the tower. This was made by H. Knight of Reading and is dated 1619.  
In the first decade of the 21st century, the new Shilton Park development in Northeast Carterton was built, providing a mix of housing for private ownership and social letting. The new St. John's Church of England primary school has been built at Shilton Park and construction of a local shopping centre is now complete. A new Memorial Garden has been built near the town to continue the public mourning seen at Royal Wootton Bassett as military repatriations for dead service personnel have now been routed to Brize Norton.


== Governance ==
The grandfather of Theo Walcott, Windell ""Joe"" Walcott (1926–2018), was council chairman between 2002 and 2006 and mayor of Carterton from 2000 to 2002. He was awarded an MBE in 2006 for his services to the community in Carterton and West Oxfordshire.


== Education ==
Carterton has one Secondary School:

Carterton Community College, 
Carterton has five primary schools:

Carterton Primary School,
Edith Moorhouse Primary School,
The Gateway Primary School,
St John the Evangelist Church of England Primary School and
St Joseph's Catholic Primary School.
St. John the Evangelist and St. Joseph's are voluntary controlled schools.  Carterton Community College is the town's secondary school.


== Media ==
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian. Television signals are received from the Oxford TV transmitter.  Local radio stations are BBC Radio Oxford on 95.2 FM, Heart South on 102.6 FM, Greatest Hits Radio South (formerly Jack FM) on 106.4 FM and Witney Radio, a community based station which broadcast to the town on 99.9 FM.  The town is served by the local newspapers, Oxford Times,Oxfordshire Guardian and Witney Gazette. 


== Amenities ==
Carterton has shops, four public houses. There is a public lending library in the town centre. it also has local shops as well as an Asda, Morrisons and Aldi.


=== Sport and leisure ===
Carterton has a Non-League football team Carterton F.C. who play at Kilkenny Lane. There is also a squash club, and a bowls club. There is also a leisure centre with swimming pool and numerous micro gyms


== Climate ==


== Notes ==


=== References ===


=== Further reading ===
Townley, Simon C. (ed.); Colvin, Christina; Cragoe, Carol; Ortenberg, Veronica; Peberdy, R.B.; Selwyn, Nesta; Williamson, Elizabeth (2006). A History of the County of Oxford. Victoria County History. Vol. 15: Carterton, Minster Lovell and Environs: Bampton Hundred (Part Three). Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer for the Institute of Historical Research. pp. 1–7, 101–112. ISBN 978-1-90435-606-6. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)


== External links ==

Carterton Community Website"
Tayshaneta microps,"Tayshaneta microps, synonym Neoleptoneta microps, is a rare species of spider in the family Leptonetidae known by the common name Government Canyon bat cave spider. It is endemic to Texas in the United States, where it is known to be found in two caves in Bexar County. It is one of two in its genus listed as endangered species in 2000. It is a troglobite, an animal which spends its entire life in caves. 


== Description ==
Tayshaneta microps has a hard light brown bristle bearing shell known as a carapace. Its legs are elongated and thin covered in hair-like structures called setae with few scattered spines. The abdomen is pale to yellow-brown and is also covered in setae.
The typical body length is 1.35mm(0.053 inches) which can be divided into subparts. The caraspace - hard outer shell - is typically 0.64mm (0.0252inches) long and 0.56mm (0.022 inches) wide. The abdomen of the Tayshaneta microps is approximately 0.7mm (0.0276 inches) and 0.54mm (0.0213inches) wide.


== Life history ==
Since Tayshaneta microps is a troglobite, it is difficult for scientists to capture and study them. The caves that these spiders reside in have more caves than entrances and ninety percent of them are closed off from human access. Therefore, scientists for the most part are unable to study these spiders.
According to Professor Joel Ledford of UC Davis, for the most part, there is no information currently available on Tayshaneta microps life history.


=== Development ===
Egg sacs for another related species only contained a few eggs. No information available yet on larval stage, nymph stage, adult stage.


=== Development growth rate ===
No information currently available.


=== Age and size at sexual maturity ===
No information currently available.


=== Reproductive cycle ===
No information currently available.


=== Timing of reproduction ===
No information currently available on number and size of offspring and sex ratio of offspring.


=== Offspring quality and quantity ===
No information currently available.


=== Age of dispersal ===
Tayshenata species live sedentary lives living mainly in webs for their whole life except for males who may sometimes leave upon maturity. They do not disperse far as they are known only from two caves.


=== Annual dormancy ===
No information currently available.


=== Age-specific mortality rates ===
No information currently available.


== Ecology ==


=== Diet ===
Due to the difficulty of viewing the species and their rarity the exact diet of the Government Canyon Bat Cave Spider is not known. However, it is believed that Taysheneta microps feed on the eggs, larvae, or other adult invertebrates living in the cave.


=== Behavior ===
As scientists have been unable to view many individuals in the Government Canyon Bat Cave species it has been challenging and rare to view their behavior. This is believed to be due to the species dwelling inside portions of the karst cave that are inaccessible to humans. What we do know from the few observed Government Canyon Bat Cave spiders and closely related species is the kind of webs they form and some base behavior. Taysheneta microps has been observed forming small sheet webs under material breakdown, decomposing biomass i.e. guano, and is thought to be mostly sedentary living in their webs their whole life


=== Habitat ===
Tayshenata microps lives in karst limestone caves and are an obligate species. The spiders can no longer have the ability to live in a drier environment so they have to live in the conditions the caves provide. These caves are high in humidity and maintain stable temperatures. The spiders will retreat to a deeper, more habitable portion of the cave in extreme conditions outside the cave.


=== Range ===
Taysheneta microps live two caves within Bexar County, Texas. The names of the caves are Government Canyon Bat Cave and Surprise Sink. The spiders may have been found in a third cave, the Madia cave, but the species identity was never confirmed. If these unidentified spiders were classified as Tayshenata microps, then the occupation range would extend to include the Helotes Karst cave region. Currently, the species has a range less than 100 km and global abundance has yet to be determined.


== Conservation ==


=== Population size ===
Population size estimates are currently unknown due to limited individuals and inaccessible cave locations. About ninety percent of caves in Bexar County are sealed from human entrance, preventing further research on Tayshaneta microps. Studies suggest that troglobites are neither rare nor associated with the stability issues of small populations. However, due to both the lack of information and access regarding Bexar County invertebrates, such concerns cannot be ruled out.


=== Past and current geographical distribution ===
Tayshaneta microps are known to live in two caves in the Government Canyon State Natural Area, Northern Bexar County, Texas. While the two individuals obtained from Surprise Sink share the reduced eyes of Tayshaneta microps, they have not yet been confirmed as members of the species. Lack of confirmation is due to immaturity and an absence of associated males. Despite numerous sampling efforts, no additional prior or current habitats have been identified


=== Major threats ===
The most widespread threats to Tayshaneta microps are urbanization, population growth and habitat loss. Such factors are amplified by the rapidly expanding city, San Antonio, in Bexar County, Texas. The growth of San Antonio, accompanied by its anthropogenic impacts, has posed many challenges for the species. For example, the karst topography occupied by Tayshaneta microps consists of brittle, limestone caves abundant with sinks, fractures, and fissures. Such environments remain vulnerable to slight movements, often induced by humans. Direct habitat loss often arrives in the form of rock quarrying and filling in cave entrances. These actions prompt the loss of permeability and movement routes for invertebrates. The following are examples of indirect habitat degradation: changing draining paths, displacing native plant and animal species, pollution from septic networks and run-off, and predation or competition via invasive species.
Fire ants present the most plausible nonnative threat to Tayshaneta microps. Despite no observations of the species being preyed upon, a negative correlation does exist between arthropod diversity and fire ant presence. Closely related arthropods in Travis and Williamson Counties, Texas, have been observed to fall prey to fire ants. Such evidence leads experts to believe that Bexar County invertebrates are similarly affected by fire ant competition and predation. Additionally, researchers suspect that Tayshaneta microps may exist in adjacent caves on privately owned land. Due to the regulations associated with land ownership, the preservation of potential arthropod habitats is dependent on consultations with landowners


=== Listing under the ESA ===
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) received a petition on January 16, 1992, to add Neoleptoneta microps to the List of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife. This petition included eight additional invertebrates of Bexar County. Dated January 9, 1992, the petition was submitted by the following groups: Patricia K. Cunningham of the Helotes Creek Association, the Balcones Canyonlands Conservation Coalition, the Texas Speleological Association, the Alamo Group of the Sierra Club, and the Texas Cave Management Association. All nine invertebrates were listed as endangered by the USFWS on December 26, 2000.


=== 5-year review ===
The USFWS began a 5-year status review of Neoleptoneta microps in 2021. Their endangered status has been maintained, receiving no further updates. After the Neoleptoneta genus was altered to include only seven species of central Mexico, the USFWS updated their taxonomic classification to Tayshaneta microps on November 26, 2021


=== Species status assessment ===
A species status assessment for Tayshaneta microps is not available at this time.


=== Recovery plan ===
The USFWS drafted a recovery plan for endangered karst invertebrates on September 12, 2011. The draft was later finalized on October 4, 2011. Conservation biologists developed many recommendations based on “karst faunal regions” (KFR's). KFRs are classified as distinct, protected cave areas to assist in the recovery of endangered karst invertebrates. In order to ensure a high probability of Tayshaneta microps’ long-term survival, biologists advocate for the protection of an “adequate quantity and quality” (90% chance of species survival over 100 years) of karst areas. The maintenance of KFRs calls for the elimination of the following: extensive human visitation, native plant and animal disturbance, invasive fire ants, and pollution. Additionally, the USFWS recommends the use of adaptive management actions to control both current and new threats. Due to limited information, recovery is also dependent on further research to establish new areas of Tayshaneta microps presence. Such research will work in tandem with outreach efforts to educate the public about endangered karst invertebrates. The USFWS estimates a timeframe of 20 years to accomplish the delisting of Tayshaneta microps if its recovery actions are sufficiently funded and implemented


== References ==


== External links ==

Ledford, Joel; Paquin, Pierre; Cokendolpher, James; Campbell, Josh; Griswold, Charles (23 January 2012). ""Systematics, conservation and morphology of the spider genus Tayshaneta (Araneae, Leptonetidae) in Central Texas Caves"". ZooKeys (167): 1–102. Bibcode:2012ZooK..167....1L. doi:10.3897/zookeys.167.1833. PMC 3272638. PMID 22363201.
Kulkarni, Siddharth; Hormiga, Gustavo (2021). ""Hooroo mates! Phylogenomic data suggest that the closest relatives of the iconic Tasmanian cave spider Hickmania troglodytes are in Australia and New Zealand, not in South America"". Invertebrate Systematics. 35 (8): 850–856. doi:10.1071/IS21030. S2CID 244137080.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrV8-gZUuGY"
Vermiculite,"Vermiculite is a hydrous phyllosilicate mineral which undergoes significant expansion when heated. Exfoliation occurs when the mineral is heated sufficiently; commercial furnaces can routinely produce this effect. Vermiculite forms by the weathering or hydrothermal alteration of biotite or phlogopite.
Large commercial vermiculite mines exist in the United States, Russia, South Africa, China, and Brazil.


== Occurrence ==
Vermiculite was first described in 1824 for an occurrence in Millbury, Massachusetts. Its name is from the Latin vermiculare, ""to breed worms"", for the manner in which it exfoliates when heated.
It typically occurs as an alteration product at the contact between felsic and mafic or ultramafic rocks such as pyroxenites and dunites. It also occurs in carbonatites and metamorphosed magnesium-rich limestone. Associated mineral phases include: corundum, apatite, serpentine, and talc. It occurs interlayered with chlorite, biotite and phlogopite.


== Structure ==
Vermiculite is a 2:1 clay, meaning it has two tetrahedral sheets for every one octahedral sheet. It is a limited-expansion clay with a medium shrink–swell capacity. Vermiculite has a high cation-exchange capacity (CEC) at 100–150 meq/100 g. Vermiculite clays are weathered micas in which the potassium ions between the molecular sheets are replaced by magnesium and iron ions.


== Commercial uses ==


=== Molded shapes ===
This process involves mixing exfoliated vermiculite with inorganic bonding agents such as sodium silicate, cement (specific quantities), and other compounds, such as those containing potassium, to produce an 'earth damp' mixture. This material is then hydraulically pressed into shape in a mold and then heat cured at temperatures up to 180 °C for up to 24 hours, depending upon the thickness of the moulded part. Such parts can withstand service temperatures of up to 1150 °C and are often used in the aluminium smelting industry as back-up insulation behind the carbon cathode in the pot cells which contain the molten mixture of cryolite and alumina. The moulded shapes and boards are used in:

Open fireplaces
High-temperature or refractory insulation
Acoustic panels
Fireproofing of structural steel and pipes


=== Calcium silicate boards ===
Exfoliated vermiculite is added to a calcium silicate slurry. This is then dewatered by pressing or by using one of the Fourdriner/Magnani/Hatschek processes to form a flat board which is then heat cured under pressure (typically 10–15 bar) for periods of up to 24 hours.


=== Brake linings ===
Finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite are being used in brake linings primarily for the automotive market. The properties of vermiculite that make it an appropriate choice for use in brake linings include its thermal resistance, ease of addition to other raw materials to achieve a homogeneous mix, and its shape and surface characteristics.


=== Roof and floor screeds and insulating concretes ===

Exfoliated vermiculite (typically the finer grades) can be added at site to Portland cement and other aggregates, rheological aids, and water to produce roof and floor concrete screeds (i.e. top layer screed coats) which are lightweight and insulating. In many cases, vermiculite-based roof screeds are used in conjunction with other insulation materials, such as polystyrene board, to form a total roofing system. A bituminous binder can also be used with exfoliated vermiculite to produce a dry, lightweight roof screed which has the advantages of low thermal conductivity, low moisture content, and ease of placement (by pouring from the bag and then tamping).


=== Soilless growing medium ===
Exfoliated vermiculite is combined with other materials such as peat or composted pine bark to produce soilless growing medium for the professional horticulturalist and for the home gardener. These mixes promote faster root growth and give quick anchorage to young roots. The mixture helps retain air, fertilizer, and moisture, releasing them as the plant requires them. These mixes were pioneered by Boodley and Sheldrake. Exfoliated vermiculite is also used as a growing medium for hydroponics.


=== Seed germination ===
Vermiculite, alone or mixed with soil or peat, is used to germinate seeds; very little watering is required. When vermiculite is used alone, seedlings should be fed with a weak fertilizer solution when the first true leaves appear, e.g. with one teaspoon of 5-10-5 soluble fertilizer per US gallon of water (1:768 ratio), gradually increased to one tablespoon (1:256 ratio) when transplanting.


=== Root crop storage ===
Pour vermiculite around bulbs placed in container. If clumps are dug, allow to dry for a few hours in the sun and then place in cartons or bushel baskets and cover with vermiculite. The absorptive power of vermiculite acts as a regulator that prevents mildew and moisture fluctuation during the storage period. It will not absorb moisture from the inside of stored tubers, but it does take up free water from the outside, preventing storage rot.


=== Soil conditioner ===
Where the native soil is heavy or sticky, gentle mixing of vermiculite as a soil conditioner—up to one-half the volume of the soil—is recommended. This creates air channels and allows the soil mix to breathe. Mixing vermiculite in flower and vegetable gardens or in potted plants will provide the necessary air to maintain vigorous plant growth. Where soils are sandy, mixing of vermiculite into the soil will allow the soil to hold the water and air needed for growth.


=== As loose-fill insulation ===
Exfoliated vermiculite treated with a water repellent is used to fill the pores and cavities of masonry construction and hollow blockwork to enhance fire ratings (e.g. Underwriters Laboratories Wall and Partition designs), thermal insulation, and acoustic performance. Expanded vermiculite has also been used as thermal insulation in the attics and walls of houses and in water heaters, fire safes, stoves, furnaces, and refrigerators.


=== Refractory/insulation gunning and castable mixes ===
Exfoliated vermiculite can be combined with high alumina (also known as calcium aluminate) cements and other aggregates such as expanded shale, clay, and slate or sodium silicate to produce refractory/insulation concretes and mortars. In the early days of their use, these products were batched at or very close to the place of installation. This continues to be the case in some limited circumstances; however, more and more use is being made of pre-batched, proprietary mixes. Mixes containing vermiculite are used in areas where strength and corrosion/abrasion resistance are of secondary importance, the most important factor being the insulation performance of the in-place refractory lining. These mixes are used in industries including iron/steel, cement, and hydrocarbon processing.


=== Fire protection ===

Vermiculite is used as an additive to fireproof wallboard.


=== High temperature coating ===
Vermiculite dispersions are typically either chemically or physically very finely delaminated vermiculite in a fluid medium. These dispersions can be used to make vermiculite 'paper' sheets by pouring them onto a piece of smooth, low surface-energy plastic, and allowing to dry. The resulting sheet can then be peeled off the plastic. Typical end-uses for vermiculite dispersions include inclusion in high temperature coatings or binders for construction materials, gaskets, specialty papers/textiles, oxidation-resistant coating on carbon based composites, and as barrier coatings for films.


=== Waste treatment ===
The cation exchange capacity (up to 1,000 milliequivalents per kg) of vermiculite allows it to be used in fluid purification processes for waste water, chemical processing, and the pollution-control of air in mines and gases in industrial processes. In addition to its ion exchange properties, exfoliated vermiculite can retain liquids within the inter-laminar voids of the individual particles, as well as between the particles themselves.


=== Others ===
As a packing material, valued for its high absorbency.
As a cooling substrate in blacksmithing.
As a substrate for various animals and/or a medium for incubation of eggs.
As a lightweight aggregate for plaster, proprietary concrete compounds, firestop mortar, and cementitious spray fireproofing: Exfoliated vermiculite is used in both hand and spray-applied general building plasters to improve coverage, ease of handling, adhesion to a wide variety of substrates, fire resistance, and resistance to chipping/cracking/shrinkage.
As a component of the interior fill for firestop pillows, along with graphite.
As a carrier for dry handling and slow release of agricultural chemicals.
As a hot topping: both exfoliated and crude vermiculite have been used for hot topping in the steel industry. When poured onto molten metal, crude vermiculite exfoliates immediately and forms an insulating layer, allowing the material to be transported to the next production process without losing too much heat.
Used to permit slow cooling of hot pieces in glassblowing, lampwork, steelwork, and glass beadmaking.
Used in in-ground swimming pools to provide a smooth pool base: Finer grades of exfoliated vermiculite plus Portland cement may be combined either on-site or in a factory premix to provide a base for swimming pool vinyl liners. These mixes are pumped into place using a rotor stator pump, or hand poured.
Used in commercial hand warmers.
Used in AGA cookers as insulation.
Used in explosives storage as a blast mitigant.
Used to absorb hazardous liquids for solid disposal.
Used in gas fireplaces to simulate embers.
Used as part of a substrate for cultivation of fungi.


== Commercial manufacture of exfoliated vermiculite ==

In 2014, South Africa, Brazil, the US, and China were the top producers of mined, concentrated and unexfoliated vermiculite, with about 90% world share. South Africa's production is decreasing, while Brazil's is significantly increasing.
While some end processors and exfoliators of vermiculite specialize, with proprietary products sold in a wide variety of industries, some have more varied end products, with less stringent technical requirements. Some vermiculite exfoliators blend with lower-cost perlite also. Vermiculite exfoliators have an international trade association called The Vermiculite Association to represent the industry's interests and to exchange information.


== Asbestos contamination ==
Although not all vermiculite contains asbestos, some products were made with vermiculite that contained asbestos until the early 1990s. Vermiculite mines throughout the world are now regularly tested for it and are supposed to sell products that contain no asbestos. The former vermiculite mine in Libby, Montana, did have tremolite asbestos as well as winchite and richterite (both fibrous amphiboles)—in fact, it was formed underground through essentially the same geologic processes as the contaminants.
Pure vermiculite does not contain asbestos and is non-toxic. Impure vermiculite may contain, apart from asbestos, also minor diopside or remnants of the precursor minerals biotite or phlogopite.


== Controversy over health risks ==
The largest and oldest vermiculite mine in the United States was started in the 1920s, at Libby, Montana, and the vermiculite was sold under the commercial name Zonolite. The Zonolite brand and the mine were acquired by the W. R. Grace and Company in 1963. Mining operations at the Libby site stopped in 1990 in response to asbestos contamination. While in operation, the Libby mine may have produced 80% of the world's supply of vermiculite.
The United States government estimates that vermiculite was used in more than 35 million homes, but does not recommend its removal. Nevertheless, homes or structures containing vermiculite or vermiculite insulation dating from before the mid-1990s—and especially those known to contain the ""Zonolite"" brand—may contain asbestos, and therefore may be a health concern.
An article published in The Salt Lake Tribune on December 3, 2006, reported that vermiculite and Zonolite had been found to contain asbestos, which had led to cancers such as those found in asbestos-related cases. The article stated that there had been a cover-up by W. R. Grace and Company and others regarding the health risks associated with vermiculite and that several sites in the Salt Lake Valley had been remediated by the EPA when they were shown to be contaminated with asbestos. W. R. Grace and Company has vigorously denied these charges.
The vermiculite deposit at the mine in Libby, Montana, was (and is) heavily contaminated with asbestos. Numerous people were knowingly exposed to the harmful dust of vermiculite that contained asbestos. Unfortunately, the mine had been operating since the 1920s, and environmental and industrial controls were virtually non-existent until the mine was purchased by the W. R. Grace and Company in 1963. Yet, knowing the human health risks, the mining company still continued to operate there until 1990. Consequently, many of the former miners and residents of Libby have been affected and continue to suffer health problems. Over 400 people in the town have died from asbestos-related disease due to contamination from vermiculite mining from nearby Zonolite Mountain, where soil samples were found to be loaded with fibrous tremolite (known to be a very hazardous form of asbestos), and countless others there who insulated their homes with Zonolite have succumbed to asbestos-related diseases, most of whom never were employed in environments where asbestos was an issue.
After a 1999 Seattle Post-Intelligencer story claimed that asbestos-related disease was common in the town, the EPA, in response to political pressure, made cleanup of the site a priority and called Libby the worst case of community-wide exposure to a toxic substance in U.S. history. The EPA has spent $120 million in Superfund money on cleanup. In October 2006, W. R. Grace and Company tried to appeal the fines ($54.5 million) levied on them from the EPA, but the Supreme Court rejected the appeal. The United States government pursued criminal charges against several former executives and managers of the mine for allegedly disregarding and covering up health risks to employees. They were also accused of wire fraud, and of obstructing the government's cleanup efforts. As of the indictment date, about 1,200 residents of the Libby area had been identified as suffering from some kind of asbestos-related abnormality. The case ended in acquittals on May 8, 2009. On June 17, 2009, the EPA issued a public health emergency in and near Libby, thereby allowing federal agencies to provide funding for health care, and for removal of contaminated insulation from affected homes.


== See also ==


== References ==


== External links ==

The Vermiculite Association
US Geological Survey Vermiculite Section
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Petition for writ of certiorari to U.S. Supreme Court (April 27, 2006)"
Background of the Winter War,"The background of the Winter War covers the period before the outbreak of the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union (1939–1940), which stretches from the Finnish Declaration of Independence in 1917 to the Soviet-Finnish negotiations in 1938–1939.
Before its independence, Finland had been an autonomous grand duchy within Imperial Russia. During the ensuing Finnish Civil War, the Red Guards, supported by the Russian Bolsheviks, were defeated. Fearful of Soviet designs, in the 1920s and the 1930s, the Finns were constantly attempting to align themselves with Scandinavian neutrality, particularly regarding to Sweden. Furthermore, the Finns engaged in secret military co-operation with Estonia in the 1930s.
During the late 1920s and the early 1930s, relations with the Soviet Union had normalized to a degree, but in 1938, the Soviets feared that Finland could be used as a springboard for an invasion and so started negotiations to conclude a military agreement. Meanwhile, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's revanchism to recover the territories of the Russian Empire that had been lost during its break up as result of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russian Civil War made Finland an obvious target.
The nature of the Soviet demands, which included the installation of Soviet military facilities on Finnish soil, made them go nowhere.
In August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in which Eastern Europe was divided into spheres of interest. Finland belonged to the Soviet sphere of interest. In September and October 1939, the Baltic states agreed to Soviet demands that included the establishment of Soviet military bases within those countries. Stalin then turned his sights on Finland, and was confident of control being gained without great effort.
The Soviet Union demanded territories on the Karelian Isthmus, the islands of the Gulf of Finland, a military base near the Finnish capital, and the destruction of all defensive fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Helsinki again refused, and the Red Army attacked on 30 November 1939. Simultaneously, Stalin set up a puppet government for the Finnish Democratic Republic, headed by the Finnish communist Otto Wille Kuusinen.


== Prewar Finland ==


=== First steps of republic ===

Finland had been the eastern part of the Swedish Empire for centuries until 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars, when the Russian Empire conquered and converted it to an autonomous buffer state in Russia to protect Saint Petersburg, the Russian capital. Finland enjoyed wide autonomy and its own Senate until the turn of the century, when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen central government and unify the Empire by Russification. The attempts ruined relations and increased the support of Finnish movements vying for self-determination.
The outbreak of the First World War gave Finland a window of opportunity to achieve independence. The Finns sought aid from both the German Empire and the Bolsheviks to that end, and on 6 December 1917, the Finnish Senate declared the country's independence. The new Bolshevik government was weak in Russia, and soon the Russian Civil War would break out. The Bolshevik leader, Vladimir Lenin, could spare no troops or attention for Finland, and so Soviet Russia recognised the new Finnish government just three weeks after it had declared its independence. In 1918, the Finns fought a short civil war in which the Bolshevik Red Guards were armed by 7,000 to 10,000 Russian troops stationed in Finland.
After the First World War, an intergovernmental organisation, the League of Nations, was founded, whose goals included preventing war through collective security and settling disputes between countries through negotiations and diplomacy. Finland joined the League in 1920.
In the 1920s and the 1930s, Finland was politically diverse. The Communist Party of Finland was declared illegal in 1931, and the far-right Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) had won up to 14 seats in the 200-seat Finnish Parliament. The middle ground, occupied by Conservatives, Liberals, Agrarians, and the Swedish People's Party, tended to cluster with the Social Democratic Party, whose leader, Väinö Tanner, was a strong proponent of the parliamentary system.
By the late 1930s, country had its export-oriented economy growing, had solved most of its ""right-wing problem"", and was preparing for the 1940 Summer Olympics.


=== Finnish–German relations ===

During the closing stages of the First World War, German-trained Finnish Jäger troops played a key role in the Finnish Civil War. The German Baltic Sea Division also intervened late in the civil war. Jäger troops were volunteers from German-influenced circles, such as university students. That participation in the Finnish struggle for independence created close ties with Germany, but after the German defeat, Scandinavian relations became more important and the main goal of Finland's foreign policy.
Finnish–German relations cooled after the National Socialist Party rose to power in Germany in 1933. Finns admired Imperial Germany, but not the radical and antidemocratic Nazi regime. Finnish conservatives did not accept the Nazis' state violence and antireligious policies. Still, there was sympathy for German aims to revise the Treaty of Versailles, but the official Finnish policy was reserved, especially after the German invasion of Czechoslovakia. Finland even recalled its ambassador for a short period.
Finnish Nazis and ultranationalist parties such as the Patriotic People's Movement achieved only minor support in several elections, especially in the aftermath of the failed Mäntsälä rebellion in 1932.


=== Finnish–Swedish relations ===

After Finland had achieved independence and ended the civil war, the other Scandinavian countries were the best candidates for a political alliance. Swedish–Finnish cooperation represented a rich vein of shared history in the culture of both nations, and the Swedish-speaking Finns had a common language with Sweden. During the civil war, however, Sweden briefly occupied Åland and then supported the local movement that wanted to secede from Finland and join the islands to Sweden. The dispute was resolved by the League of Nations in 1921, and the Åland Islands remained Finnish but were granted autonomy. Other obstacles to closer relations were the ongoing language strife on the status of the Swedish language in Finland. Sweden had also opposed the upper-class resistance movement against Russification. As a result, young Finnish men received their military training in Germany, which generated the movement. Nevertheless, relations had considerably improved before the Winter War.
Finland sought security guarantees from the League of Nations, but did not have high expectations. Sweden was one of the founding members of the League and so framed its military policies based on the League's principles of disarmament and sanctions. In the mid-1920s, the Finns established a special planning committee, the Erich Committee, which was named after its chairman, Rafael Erich, and had top politicians and officers aiming to explore possible military collaboration of Finland with other nations. The prime goal was co-operation with the Scandinavian countries, of which Sweden was the most important prospective partner.
The Finnish and Swedish militaries engaged in wide-ranging co-operation, but it was more focused on the exchange of information and defence planning for the Åland Islands than on military exercises or materiel. The Finnish objective was to commit the Swedes by establishing a military-political joint venture in the Åland Islands. If the Swedes were to undertake to assist Finland in fortifying the islands, an important and useful precedent might be set. The Government of Sweden was aware of the military co-operation, but carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy.


=== Secret military co-operation with Estonia ===

Finnish–Estonian relations were closest diplomatically after the Estonian War of Independence in the 1920s. Although they cooled afterwards, military relations remained close. The Finns considered their close relations with Estonia not to exclude the Scandinavian neutrality policy, but the military relations were top secret. The countries held joint military exercises, the central aim being to prevent the Soviet Baltic Fleet from freely using its strength in the Gulf of Finland against either country.
Estonia also sought public security guarantees and signed the Baltic Entente in 1934 with Latvia and Lithuania.


=== Relations with the United Kingdom and France ===
After the collapse of Imperial Germany in November 1918, the Finns sought new political partners. The United Kingdom had been a significant trading partner since the 18th century, and the Finns worked to improve their relations for the next two decades. In the 1930s Finland purchased Thornycroft torpedo boats from the United Kingdom and refrained from buying bomber aircraft from Germany because of British protests. They instead purchased modern Bristol Blenheims, which would serve successfully during the Winter War.
Relations with France were important after the First World War and in the 1920s as France played a leading role in the new European security arrangements. In the 1930s, France started to fear the rise of Germany and initiated a rapprochement with the Soviet Union, which strained Franco–Finnish relations. However, during the Winter War, France was one of the most important suppliers of military materiel.


=== Finnish defence plans ===
The Finnish Defence Forces called their military operation plan against the Soviet Union Venäjän keskitys (""Russian Concentration"") in the 1920s. In the last plan in 1934, the Finns saw two possible scenarios. In the VK1 scenario, the Soviets would mobilise all along their western border and deploy only limited forces against Finland. In that case, the Finns would make counterattacks across the border. The VK2 scenario envisaged a much more unfavourable situation. The main defense line would be on the Karelian Isthmus; the Finnish forces would repel Soviet attacks in favourable positions and destroy the enemy by counterattacks. In the Winter War, the VK2 scenario was flexible, with its basis proved to be correct, but the Finnish general staff badly underestimated the numerical superiority of the Red Army.
Finland had a limited defence budget after its independence, especially in the 1930s. Therefore, the Finnish Defence Forces lacked military materiel in almost all branches. Much of the military's materiel was outdated and proved to be unsuitable for the field during the Winter War. The material situation then improved but still lagged behind the more modern and well-equipped Red Army.


== Prewar Soviet Union ==
During  Stalin's Great Terror of 1937-1938 about 11 000  officers of the Red Army and Fleet, especially high-ranking, were repressed - fired for political reasons, imprisoned or executed, including execution of 2/3 of commanders of brigades, divisions, armies. At the same time, the Red Army increased in numbers from 1.5 million in 1937 to 3.3 million in 1939. This led to a situation where officers were promoted very quickly and often commanders in middle and higher-ranks positions did not have enough experience and sufficient competence. Later some of the repressed Red Army's officers were rehabilitated following the disastrous Winter War, as the Soviet leadership realised the Red Army needed skilled commanders.


== Finnish–Soviet relations ==


=== Diplomatic relations ===

The relationship between the Soviet Union and Finland had been tense from the legacy of the two periods of Russification at the turn of the century; the failed Finnish Civil War and incursions by groups of Finnish nationalists; and the Viena expedition in 1918 and the Aunus expedition of 1919 into Russian East Karelia.
On 14 October 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu, which confirmed the new Finnish–Soviet border as the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper. In addition, Finland received Petsamo, with its ice-free harbour on the Arctic Ocean. The treaty did not prevent the Finnish government from allowing volunteers to cross the border to support the East Karelian Uprising in 1921 or expatriate Finnish communists from causing disturbances in Finland. In 1923, both countries signed the Border Peace Agreement, which normalised the border.
In 1928, the Soviet Union began collectivization in Ingria. During the collectivization and the ethnic cleansing, the Soviets captured, killed and deported Ingrian peasants, which provoked widespread criticism by the Finnish media in 1930. Two years later, the nationalist Lapua Movement attempted to overthrow the Finnish government during the Mäntsälä rebellion.
Nevertheless, in the 1930s, the diplomatic climate between Finland and the Soviet Union gradually improved. In the 1920s, the Soviet Union had offered different non-aggression pacts with Finland, but they were all rejected. The offer was renewed as part of a series of agreements with countries on the Soviets' western border. In 1932, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Finland, which was reaffirmed in 1934 for ten years.
Relations between the two countries remained largely distant, however. Foreign trade in Finland was booming, but less than 1% was with the Soviet Union. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations and later accepted other ""progressive forces"" besides communist parties. That change in Soviet attitudes, as well as Finnish internal politics, enabled a short thaw in relations in 1937.


=== Stalin and protection of Leningrad ===
After the Russian Civil War, Joseph Stalin was disappointed at the Soviet Union's inability to foment a successful revolution in Finland and at the Bolsheviks struggle against national sentiments in the Soviet Union. In 1923, Stalin proclaimed that the main danger in national relations was Great Russian chauvinism. He started the policy of korenizatsiya (indigenisation) to promote national communist cadres for every nationality.
However, in 1937, Stalin encouraged Russian chauvinism, which implied Russians to be politically and culturally superior. The Soviet diplomacy turned towards the recovery of the territories of the Russian Empire. The Soviet Union used the Communist International to announce a doctrine in which bourgeoisie equalled fascism and that communism was the natural agency of the proletariat. In practice, this meant that anything other than communism would be considered anti-Soviet and fascist. The Soviet foreign policy was a mixture of the ideology of world revolution and the traditional concerns of Russian national security.
Under Stalinism, the Soviet agriculture production collapsed, which caused famines in 1932–1933. Official output numbers of industrial production were used as propaganda to portray the Soviet Union as an economic miracle. The propaganda also used cross-border comparisons with Finland to represent it as a ""vicious and reactionary Fascist clique"". Finnish Marshal Mannerheim and the leader of the Finnish Social Democrat Party leader, Väinö Tanner, were particular hate figures in propaganda. Stalin gained nearly-absolute power in 1935–1936, which left only the army as self-governing, but even that changed when its officers became the target of the Great Purge in 1937–1938.
In the late 1930s, the Soviet Union was no longer satisfied with the status quo in its relations with Finland. This came as a result of a change in Soviet foreign policy, which now pursued the aim of recovering the provinces of the Russian Empire that had been lost during the chaos of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russian Civil War. The Soviets considered that the empire had obtained an optimal balance of security and territory, and their thoughts were shaped by a historical precedent: the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, which was intended to protect Saint Petersburg from the Swedes. They used that precedent to demand the reacquisition of Finland, which would protect the Bolsheviks in Leningrad from the rising power of Germany.
In 1938, Sweden was no longer a major threat to Russia, but the Soviets had not forgotten the role that the Finnish-controlled Åland islands had played as a base of operations for the German Expeditionary Force helping the Whites during the Finnish Civil War.


== Finnish–Soviet negotiations ==


=== From 1938 to early 1939 ===

In April 1938, a junior diplomatic official, Boris Yartsev, contacted Finnish Foreign Minister Rudolf Holsti and Prime Minister Aimo Cajander and stated that the Soviets did not trust Germany and that war was considered to be possible between the two countries in which Germany might use Finland as a base for operations against the Soviet Union. The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border but would rather ""advance to meet the enemy"".
If Finland fought against Germany, the Soviet Union would offer all possible economic and military assistance. The Soviets would also accept the fortification of Åland islands but demanded ""positive guarantees"" on Finland's position.
The Finns assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality and that they would resist any armed incursion. Yartsev was not satisfied with the reply because of Finland's military weakness. He suggested that Finland could either cede or lease some islands in the Gulf of Finland along the seaward approaches to Leningrad, which Finland rejected. In the mid-1930s, the Soviet ambassador in Helsinki, Eric Assmus, and the Leningrad Bolshevik Party leader Andrei Zhdanov had presented a similar proposal.
Negotiations continued in autumn 1938. The Soviets reduced their demands: a Red Army operation was no longer an option, and the focus was shifted on securing the Gulf of Finland. The Soviets wanted to be informed of key elements of the Finnish–Estonian Gulf blockade, the secret military plan against the Baltic Fleet. Furthermore, Yartsev suggested for the Finns to fortify Suursaari Island but for the Soviets would take care of the island's defence. During the negotiations, Rudolf Holsti resigned as foreign minister but not because of the negotiations, and his place was taken by Eljas Erkko. Holsti was rather anti-German and so the resignation set off rumours that he had been forced to resign by a Finnish government that was sympathetic to the Germans, which were quickly quelled by the Finnish government.
The Finns attempted to appear impartial, and the interior ministry issued an order banning the far-right IKL. The ban was reversed by the Finnish courts as being unconstitutional. Many years later, the minister then in charge, Urho Kekkonen, admitted that it had been a simple gesture to suggest to Moscow that Finland did not harbour a German fifth column.
By the winter of 1939, the Soviets further reduced their demands and sent Boris Stein to negotiate. Stein and Erkko met five times. Erkko rejected the Soviet proposals by saying the Soviet demands would mean the end of Finnish neutrality and anger the Germans. When the chairman of the Finnish Defence Council, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, was informed of the negotiations, he said Finland should give up the Suursaari Islands since their defense would be impossible, but his arguments did not persuade the majority of the Finnish government. Stein departed Helsinki empty-handed on 6 April.
The Finns had many reasons to turn down the Soviet offer since they had started negotiations for a military co-operation with Sweden. The Finns had great hopes for the joint Finnish–Swedish defence of the Ålands islands and did not want to jeopardise their negotiations. In addition, the violent collectivisation, the Great Purge, the show trials and the executions in the Soviet Union had given the country a very bad reputation. Furthermore, most Finnish communist leaders in the Soviet Union had been executed during the purge and so the Soviets did not seem to be reliable.
The Soviet envoys sent to negotiate with Finns were officially of a relatively low rank, but as Väinö Tanner stated, the Finns assumed rightly that they represented some higher state organ of state, probably the Soviet secret police, the NKVD.


=== Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact ===

On 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Publicly, it was a non-aggression pact, but it included a secret protocol to divide Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania into spheres of interest, with Finland falling into the Soviet sphere.
In the immediate aftermath of the pact, the Scandinavian countries and Finland were relieved. The Germans and Soviets were now allies and so there was no German threat against the Soviet Union. However, shortly afterward, Germany invaded Poland and so Britain and France declared war against Germany. The Soviets then invaded Poland and requested for the Baltic states allow the establishment of Soviet military bases and the stationing of troops on their soil. The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum by signing the corresponding agreement in September, and Latvia and Lithuania followed suit in October.


=== Soviet demands in late 1939 ===

On 5 October, the Soviet Union invited Finland to negotiations in Moscow. The Finnish government did not hasten to comply, like the Estonian government earlier. Unlike the Baltic countries, the Finns started a gradual mobilisation under the guise of ""additional refresher training"". The Finnish government sent its ambassador in Stockholm, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, instead of its foreign minister, Eljas Erkko, to limit his powers as a negotiator. In Moscow, Paasikivi met Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and General Secretary Stalin.
The Soviets demanded for the frontier between the Soviet Union and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus to be moved westward to only 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of Viipuri, Finland's second-largest city, to the line between Koivisto and Lipola. In addition, the Finns would have to destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Finland also had to cede to the Soviet Union the islands of Suursaari, Tytärsaari and Koivisto in the Gulf of Finland. In the north, the Soviets demanded the Kalastajansaarento Peninsula. The Finns were to lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviets for 30 years and to permit the Soviets to establish a military base there. In exchange, the Soviets would cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia, an area twice as large as the territory demanded from the Finns.
The Soviet offer divided the Finnish government. Foreign Minister Eljas Erkko and Defence Minister Juho Niukkanen rejected the offer and were backed by President Kyösti Kallio. However, Paasikivi and Mannerheim, along with Väinö Tanner, who was later appointed as one of the Finnish negotiators, wanted to accept the Soviet offer.
The Finns counted on military assistance from Sweden, and Erkko took part in the Stockholm assembly of Scandinavian leaders on 19 October. There, Erkko privately met Swedish Foreign Minister Rickard Sandler, who assured him that he would persuade the Swedish government to assist Finland during a possible war. During the actual war, however, Sandler failed in that task and so resigned.
Finland was totally isolated by a German and Soviet blockade and attempted in October to obtain arms and ammunition in absolute secrecy by enlisting the German arms dealer Josef Veltjens.
On 31 October, Molotov announced the Soviet demands in public during a session of the Supreme Soviet. The Finns made two counteroffers: one on 23 October and another on 3 November. In both offers, Finland would cede the Terijoki area to the Soviet Union, which was far less than the Soviets had demanded. The Finnish delegation returned home on 13 November and  took for granted that negotiations would continue later.


== Beginning of war ==


=== Military preparations ===
The Soviet Union had started an intensive rearmament near the Finnish border in 1938 and 1939. Finnish students and volunteers had spent the late summer of 1939 improving the defensive structures across the Karelian Isthmus. On the Soviet side of the border, penal labour worked hard to add some density to sparse road and rail networks. In the summer of 1939, an important phase of Soviet planning occurred as told by Aleksandr Vasilevsky and Kirill Meretskov in their memoirs. The Supreme Council of War ordered the Commander of Leningrad Military District Merestkov to draft an invasion plan, instead of Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov. The plan was adopted in July. The necessary assault troop deployments and commands were not initiated until October 1939, but operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November. Stalin, however, was certain that the Finns would change their minds under Soviet pressure and cede the demanded territories.
The invasion plans were laid down by the Soviet General Staff under Boris Shaposhnikov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky. The Soviet timetable was clearly and rigidly defined, with little or no margin for error. The key date was 21 December, Stalin's 60th birthday. By then, the Finnish capital Helsinki would be ""freed of the Fascist oppression"". Andrei Zhdanov had already commissioned a celebratory piece from Dmitri Shostakovich, Suite on Finnish Themes, to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army would parade through Helsinki.
On 26 November, the Soviets staged the shelling of Mainila, an incident in which Soviet artillery shelled an area near the Russian village of Mainila and announced that a Finnish artillery attack had killed Soviet soldiers. The Soviet Union demanded that the Finns apologise for the incident and move their forces 20–25 km from the border. The Finns denied any responsibility for the attack, rejected the demands and called for a joint Finnish–Soviet commission to examine the incident. The Soviet Union claimed that the Finnish response was hostile and used it as an excuse to withdraw from the non-aggression pact.


=== Red Army assaults ===

On 30 November, Soviet forces invaded Finland with 27 divisions, totalling 630,000 men, bombed civilian boroughs of Helsinki and quickly reached the Mannerheim Line. The shelling of Mainila was a casus belli of the Soviet Union as it had withdrawn from non-aggression pacts on 28 November. Germany had staged a similar incident to have an excuse to start war against Poland. The Soviet Union would later use the Orzeł incident to challenge the neutrality of Estonia.
Later, the Finnish statesman Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack, without a declaration of war, violated three non-aggression pacts: the Treaty of Tartu of 1920; the Non-aggression Pact between Finland and the Soviet Union, which was signed 1932 and again in 1934; and the Charter of the League of Nations. The invasion was judged illegal by the League of Nations, which expelled the Soviet Union on December 14.
After the Soviet attack, Mannerheim was appointed as commander-in-chief of the Finnish Defence Forces. Furthermore, the Finnish government changed, with Risto Ryti appointed as new prime minister and Väinö Tanner as foreign minister.
On 1 December, the Soviet Union created a new government for Finland, to be called the Finnish Democratic Republic. It was a puppet regime headed by Otto Wille Kuusinen and became known as the ""Terijoki government"" since the village of Terijoki was the first place to be ""liberated"" by the Red Army. The puppet regime was unsuccessful, and it was quietly discarded during the winter of 1940.
Contrary to Soviet expectations, from the beginning of the conflict, nearly all working-class Finns stood behind the legal government. That national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the ""spirit of the Winter War"".

Also, many Soviet soldiers were repressed by the NKVD on fabricated cases ordered by the Kremlin. Repressions were carried out by shooting or the deportation to Siberia. Soldier's relatives were forbidden to mention the Stalin's terror, otherwise, according to Article 58, they had to write a denunciation on them.


== See also ==
Causes of World War II
Timeline of the Winter War
Background of the occupation and annexation of the Baltic states


== References ==


== Sources =="
Ordos campaign (1592),"The Ordos campaign of 1592, also called the Ningxia campaign (寧夏之役), Ningxia mutiny (寧夏兵變), or Pubei rebellion (哱拜之亂), was a rebellion of the garrison in Ningxia against their regional commanders. It took place in March 1592 in Ningxia, which was one of the nine military regions on the border of Ming China with Mongolia. The rebellion was led by Chinese officer Liu Dongyang and possibly Mongol general Pubei, who was serving in the Ming army. They successfully overthrew the commanding generals and took control of the city and its surrounding fortifications. The Ming army, led by Wei Xueceng, quickly regained control of the region and laid siege to the city in mid-May. The rebels had a sizable force of 20,000–30,000 soldiers, while the city's population was 300,000. In response, the Ming government gathered 40,000 soldiers, armed with hundreds of cannons, to suppress the rebellion. The siege lasted for several months, with neither side gaining the upper hand. The rebels attempted to gain support from the Mongol khans, but were unsuccessful. The stalemate was broken when the Ming army built a dam around the city, which, when filled with water, flooded the city and destroyed its castles. The defenders' morale was further weakened by a lack of food. On 20 October 1592, the city was finally captured and the rebel leaders were either killed or captured and executed.


== Background ==
After the settlement of relations between Ming China and the Mongol Altan Khan in 1571, and the resumption of Sino-Mongol trade, the Ming state's interactions with its northern neighbors were generally peaceful. The Mongols were not seen as a serious threat, although there were occasional armed clashes, sometimes involving tens of thousands of men. Ming troops also conducted raids into Mongolia and Manchuria, burning settlements, killing rebellious leaders, and seizing livestock. These actions were organized by Zhang Juzheng, who was the head of the Ming government from 1572 to 1582, and continued in the following years with the support of the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620). For example, in 1591, General Li Chengliang destroyed a Mongol camp during a raid, resulting in the deaths of 280 Mongols and the scattering of over a thousand. Despite the active defense of the empire's borders and military support from Zhang Juzheng and Wanli Emperor, the Ming armies guarding the northwest border were not in the best condition. Several minor rebellions occurred in the 1580s, mostly due to delays in the payment of wages and food.

At the end of the Jiajing Emperor's reign (r. 1521–1567), Pubei, a Mongol chieftain from Chahar, defected to the Chinese side with several hundred men from his household. His clan in Chahar had been causing unrest by constantly raiding their neighbors, leading to the execution of Pubei's father and older brother by the chieftain of their tribe. With no other choice, Pubei fled to Ming territory. Known for their exceptional skills in warfare, Pubei and his horsemen were able to cover 150–200 km on horseback in a day, ambush and disperse enemy camps, and plunder cattle. The Mongols feared his name and did not dare to attack Ming villages within a 150 km radius of Ningxia. Within ten years, Pubei became the regional military commissioner of Huamachi, a strategically important fortress in the northwestern borderlands southeast of Ningxia. He played a significant role in Ming raids against Mongol chieftains in and around Ordos. Despite some complaints from officials, Pubei was highly respected and honored by both Zhang Juzheng and the Wanli Emperor. In 1589, he was appointed regional vice commander of Ningxia, with his son Bo Cheng'en taking over his previous position. Pubei had a personal guard of 3,000 men at his disposal, a common practice among senior late Ming commanders. However, due to his advanced age (over 60 years old), Pubei wanted to step down from his new position and pass it on to his son. Grand coordinator in Ningxia, Dang Xin (党馨), protested, citing Pubei's power and potential danger.
Pubei and Bo Cheng'en's disputes with Dang Xin lasted for several years. Dang Xin consistently denied providing equipment and supplies to Pubei's soldiers, and even had Bo Cheng'en punished for kidnapping another officer's wife. He also arrested those who supported Pubei and Bo Cheng'en. Despite their complaints to Beijing, no resolution was reached. The soldiers and officers, left without resources, repeatedly protested and demanded payment for their services, as well as basic necessities such as food, clothing, and equipment. However, Dang Xin refused to comply for a long time. It was not until 1592 that he finally paid them a year's salary, but he still owed them three years' worth of payment, so the situation did not improve significantly. In February of that year, the government received yet another complaint against Dang Xin and decided to launch an investigation. Dang Xin managed to manipulate the situation by having his relative, Shi Jifang (石繼芳), appointed as the investigator.


== Rebellion ==
In late March 1592, the soldiers and officers who were owed money by Dang Xin became increasingly frustrated with his refusal to pay their salaries. Led by Chinese officer Liu Dongyang (劉東暘), they rose up and killed Dang Xin and Shi Jifang, and the military commander of the area was forced to commit suicide. Liu Dongyang was then appointed as their commander, with Pubei as chief strategist and Bo Cheng'en and Xu Chao (許朝), an experienced officer whose abilities are on par with Pubei's, as deputy commanders. Tu Wenxiu (土文秀), the son of one of Pubei's original Mongol loyalists, and Pubei's adopted son Bo Yun (継雲) served as the commander's assistants. The government believed that Pubei, due to his Mongol origins, was the mastermind behind the rebellion. The rebels successfully captured Ningxia and 47 surrounding forts, while the pro-government officers and their troops retreated in confusion. In an attempt to expand their control, Tu Wenxiu led 500 men to attack Pinglu, a city 200 km south of Ningxia, but the city was successfully defended by the local Ming commander Xiao Ruxun (蕭如薰). In late April, several thousand Mongols, led by Jorightu, joined the rebels and were welcomed in Ningxia. On 9 May, they launched another unsuccessful attack on Pinglu. The Mongols then withdrew, plundering the countryside.
The rebels demanded recognition from the government, threatening to form an alliance with the Ordos Mongols. Ningxia was a heavily fortified city with a population of 300,000 and an armed rebel force of 30,000 (or possibly 20,000). The city walls were six meters thick and nine meters high, and the rebels were skilled and experienced soldiers.
On 19 April, the Wanli Emperor was informed of the rebellion. He immediately summoned the Minister of War, Shi Xing (石星), and, upon the minister's suggestion, issued a decree to mobilize 7,000 soldiers from the garrisons in Xuanfu, Datong, and Shanxi. The Wanli Emperor also appointed several officers and officials to suppress the rebellion, including Ma Gui, a powerful general with his own guard. Additionally, Wei Xueceng (魏學曾), a military experienced official and commander-in-chief of the three border regions, was assigned to crush the rebellion. Wei Xueceng acted swiftly and effectively, securing the south bank of the Yellow River, capturing key points, and recapturing the surrounding border fortresses within a few weeks. The only remaining stronghold for the rebels was the city of Ningxia. The rebels slowed the Ming army's progress by ambushing roads and destroying government supplies. However, after reclaiming the region, Wei Xueceng declared that he did not have enough resources to take the city and took a passive approach. Despite the emperor and his advisors providing additional forces, Wei Xueceng still insisted on a peaceful resolution, citing concerns for the safety of civilians in Ningxia. This decision was criticized by some officials in Beijing, particularly Mei Guozhen (梅國楨), a censor with a military background. After discussing the situation with the supervising secretaries of the ministries and then with the ministers and censors, the emperor took a decisive stance, stating that the rebellion must be suppressed as quickly as possible, especially given the ongoing Japanese invasion of Korea.
Over the course of six weeks, the Ming forces laid siege to Ningxia while also facing occasional harassment from the Mongols. On 22 May, a group of one thousand rebels, led by Pubei's son Bo Chengchong (哱承寵), attempted to join forces with the Mongols. However, they were unable to reach their destination due to blocked roads and were forced to return to the city. The Ming's initial attack on 23 May was unsuccessful, and they tried again on 27 May, resulting in the deaths of approximately three thousand defenders, but the Ming's attempt to break through the northern gate was unsuccessful and caused heavy casualties among their own troops. After receiving news of the Mongols' arrival, the Ming forces withdrew, but resumed their attacks after three days and began constructing ramparts around the city in preparation for a prolonged siege. On 1 June, the rebels joined forces with two thousand Mongol cavalry and launched an attack on the besiegers, but were repelled by artillery fire. In mid-June, Wei Xueceng sent reinforcements to the passes north and east of the city, just in time for a group of 10,000 Mongols to appear 70 km north of Ningxia and another group of 2,000 to 3,000 to appear at Huamachi, southeast of the city. Both groups were driven back, but Wei felt that he did not have enough forces to both defend the border and launch a decisive attack on the city. When bad weather set in, he withdrew his troops from the city to nearby forts, which boosted the rebels' morale. The rebels attempted to persuade the Mongols to join forces against the Ming, but Jorightu remained skeptical of their plans to conquer the province together. In an effort to isolate the rebels, the Ming government offered gifts and trade to the Mongols, specifically to chieftain Curuke.
After the outbreak of the war in Korea in May, the emperor and government urged Wei to speed up the siege, but he continued to use delaying tactics. This caused criticism in Beijing, leading Mei Guozhen to suggest that Li Chengliang, the Count of Ningyuan, an experienced and respected veteran, be placed in charge of the counter-insurgency forces. Li Chengliang's sons, Li Rusong, Li Rubai, and Li Ruzhen, were also capable generals, and his other sons, Li Ruzhang and Li Rumei, as well as his cousin Li Ruwu, also served in the army. The family held significant influence in the northeast of the empire, specifically in Liaodong. However, they were disliked by officials due to their disregard for Confucian values and their association with Zhang Juzheng. Additionally, the position of military superintendent (tidu) was typically reserved for officials, and Li Chengliang was already retired and living in distant Liaodong. The officials viewed them as ""wolves"" who should not be trusted with such an important position. Despite this, the war party in the government supported Mei Guozhen. The emperor ultimately appointed Li Chengliang as military superintendent and Mei Guozhen as his assistant with the title of army inspecting censor for Ningxia. However, Li Chengliang declined the assignment, citing his advanced age and the Japanese invasion of Korea, which was adjacent to Liaodong. As a result, his son Li Rusong was given the positions of military superintendent of Ningxia and commander in Shaanxi.
In mid-July, Ming reinforcements led by censor Ye Mengxiong (葉夢熊) arrived at Ningxia. They brought with them four hundred cannons, ""fire carts"", and a thousand Miao warriors. The besiegers were divided into five divisions, with each division assigned to one of the major gates. There was also a mobile corps under the command of Ma Gui. Towards the end of July, the Ming army, which had approximately 40,000 troops in the city, launched an attack from all sides. However, the rebels were able to repel the attack, causing heavy losses for the Ming army. The following night, the rebels made a surprise attack through the north gate and clashed with Ma Gui's cavalry. Both sides suffered significant casualties, but the Ming artillery was able to drive the rebels back. After witnessing the rebels' failure, the Mongols refused to support them with an attack from the rear. On 30 July, Li Rusong and Mei Guozhen arrived with reinforcements from Liaodong, Xuanfu, Datong, and Shanxi. They also brought a large amount of equipment and supplies, including 30,000 uniforms. Li Rusong took command and began attacking the city day and night in early August. The rebels struggled to defend themselves and resorted to executing hostages. As the situation worsened, civilians in the city began to die from lack of food and disease. Some of the rebels started to lose their resolve. Even the Ming army was facing challenges due to a shortage of iron, wood, and skilled craftsmen needed to make and repair weapons.
Meanwhile, the Japanese were attacking Korea, and the emperor was disgusted by the pacifist stance of Wei Xueceng, who tried to appease the Mongols with titles and bribes and sought to negotiate with the rebels. In late August, he was arrested and taken to Beijing. The emperor then approved Shi Xing's plan to build ramparts around the city and flood the interior, including the city itself, with water from lakes and rivers located 15 km away. Wei Xueceng was replaced by Ye Mengxiong, who had previously written the treatise on warfare, Yunchou gangmu (運籌綱目), in 1562. In this treatise, he emphasized the importance of water in warfare. Meanwhile, in Korea, the Korean king fled to the northern border of his country at Uiju on the Yalu River and sought asylum in Ming Liaodong. In response, the Wanli Emperor sent a relief expeditionary force of 3,000 soldiers to Korea. In late August 1592, the Japanese defeated the Ming force near Pyongyang. The troops that were tied up in the northwest in Ningxia were urgently needed in the east in Korea.
Meanwhile, in Ningxia, as of 23 August, a 5.3 km long dam encircled the city. The rebels' attempt to establish contact with the Mongols failed when the Ming captured and executed Pubei's envoy, who was also his adopted son, along with 29 soldiers. However, the rebels were able to secure an alliance with the Mongol chieftain Bushugtu. Li Rusong then sent Ma Gui and Dong Yiyuan (董一元) to attack Bushugtu, and they successfully occupied the passes east of the city. The Mongols were repelled by the Ming forces. On 6 September, the water level in the city reached almost three meters, and the rebels' boat attack on the rampart failed. Inside the city, rebel officers resorted to eating horses, and civilians were forced to eat tree bark. On 7 September, a section of the dam collapsed, resulting in the execution of the responsible officer. The rebels attempted another assault but were once again repelled. The city's residents demanded the rebels' surrender, and on 17 September, Ma Gui also appealed to them to save lives. Despite this, the rebels made another attempt to break out on 22 September. On 25 September, 18,000 Mongols led by Jorightu were blocked north of the city. Li Rusong and Ma Gui launched a counterattack and successfully drove the Mongols back. The morale of the rebels began to decline. On 12 October, the water breached the northern gate, and the Ming soldiers were able to overcome the southern walls. The Ming promised the rebel leaders clemency if they killed their accomplices. As a result, before the fall of the city, Bo Cheng'en killed Liu Dongyang. The city was finally captured on 20 October 1592, and Pubei committed suicide. Bo Cheng'en surrendered and was executed, along with several other captured leaders.


== Aftermath ==
Ming commanders were promoted and honored—Li Rusong was promoted to supreme commander, while Ye Mengxiong became censor in chief of the right. A large part of the troops from Ningxia was sent to Korea, including Li Rusong, who was appointed supreme commander of the Eastern Expedition to chastise the Japanese. Wei Xueceng was (after the intervention of Li Rusong and Mei Guozhen with the emperor) released from prison and died in obscurity. On the northwestern frontier, more border markets were opened during the 1590s, and the Mongol raids subsequently lost strength and intensity.


== Notes ==


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== Works cited ==="
Into the Wild (novel),"Into the Wild is a fantasy novel about the lives of fictional cats, written by a team of authors using the pseudonym Erin Hunter. The novel was published by HarperCollins in Canada and the United States in January 2003, and in the United Kingdom in February 2003. It is the first novel in the Warriors series. The book has been published in paperback and e-book formats in twenty different languages. The story is about a young domestic cat named Rusty who leaves his human owners to join a group of forest-dwelling feral cats called ThunderClan, adopting a new name: Firepaw. He is trained to defend and hunt for the clan, becomes embroiled in a murder and betrayal within the clan, and, at the end of the book, receives his warrior name, Fireheart, after a battle with another clan. The novel is written from the perspective of Fireheart (previously known as Rusty for a short time, then, for most of the book, Firepaw).
The series began in 2003 when HarperCollins requested Victoria Holmes to write a book on feral cats. After creating one storyline Holmes brought in Kate Cary to finish writing the book as Holmes went behind the scenes to edit and supervise the details. Holmes has compared the style of the book to a different language as the books are written by three separate authors. She feels that Erin Hunter must have a consistent voice the entire series. The story uses a lexicon with words such as ""Twoleg"" substituted for ""human"" or ""new-leaf"" for ""spring"". The style has been compared to the Harry Potter series, J.R.R. Tolkien and Brian Jacques. Themes include family, loyalty, death, courage, and survival. Into the Wild was critically well received. Booklist believed the book would appeal to followers of Brian Jacques' Redwall series. Among other awards, it claimed third place in the 2006 Young Reader's Choice Awards program of the Pacific Northwest Library Association.


== Development and publication ==


=== Conception ===

In 2003, HarperCollins requested Victoria Holmes to create a fantasy series about feral cats, but, being more interested in dogs and not a reader of fantasy, she was less than enthusiastic. She ""couldn't imagine coming up with enough ideas"". Nonetheless, she worked with the concept, expanding the storyline with elements of war, politics, revenge, doomed love, and religious conflict. Although the original plan was a stand-alone novel, enough material was created for several books, and the publisher decided upon a six-volume series. Holmes then enlisted the help of another author, Kate Cary whom Holmes had previously edited for and knew she loved cats.
The first volume, Into the Wild, was written by Kate Cary under the pseudonym Erin Hunter, and completed in about three months. Holmes continued to act behind the scenes editing and supervising details. Afterwards, Holmes began to like the idea of using cats since she realized how they can be leading private lives without any humans realizing.


== Pseudonym ==
With four authors at the time Holmes decided to have a pseudonym since having four authors would place the books at different places at libraries, confusing and possibly scaring off potential readers. The last name Hunter was chosen since it put the books next to the similar Redwall series.


=== Publication history ===
Into the Wild was first published as a hardcover by HarperCollins on 9 January 2003 in Canada. The book was released on 21 January 2003 in the United States, and in February 2003 in the United Kingdom. Into the Wild was released as a paperback in the US on 6 January 2004. On 4 September 2007, the book was released as an eBook, and on Amazon's Kindle. The book was one of the first to be in HarperCollins' ""Browse Inside"" program where twenty percent of the novel is available online. For a limited time, the complete novel was also available online. The paperback version sold 150,637 copies in 2008.
The novel has been released and translated in twenty countries including Germany, Britain, France, Russia, Japan, Korea, China, Romania, Republic of Moldova, Czech Republic, Lithuania, Portugal, Hungary, Brazil, Norway and Greece.  In Germany, the book has also been released as an audiobook. The Chinese version was released on 31 October 2008, with a 3-D card of Firepaw.


== Plot ==

Into the Wild follows the integration of a house cat named Rusty into a group of feral cats living in a fictional forest inspired by the real world locales of New Forest, the woods about Loch Lomond, the Forest of Dean, and the Scottish Highlands. The group of cats are called ThunderClan, and share the fictional forest with three other groups of feral cats called RiverClan, WindClan, and ShadowClan.
The novel opens with a battle between ThunderClan and RiverClan over a territorial dispute. ThunderClan is outnumbered and forced to retreat. In the aftermath, ThunderClan's medicine cat Spottedleaf receives a prophecy from StarClan, the spirits of the cats' deceased ancestors, telling her that ""fire will save our Clan"", which she shares with ThunderClan's leader Bluestar.
When he ventures into the forest near his home, Rusty, a flame-coloured housecat, encounters Bluestar, ThunderClan apprentice Graypaw, and ThunderClan warrior Lionheart. They invite Rusty to join ThunderClan. However, due to Rusty's domesticated past, some members of the Clan are hostile towards Rusty upon his arrival in ThunderClan's camp. The hostility culminates in Rusty fighting one of ThunderClan's warriors, Longtail, losing his collar in the process. Bluestar then halts the fight and announces that Rusty has earned his apprentice name, Firepaw.  Shortly after, ThunderClan's deputy Redtail is revealed to have died, and Bluestar names Lionheart the new deputy of ThunderClan.
Firepaw forms a strong friendship with Graypaw and Ravenpaw, the latter of whom is the apprentice of Tigerclaw, an ambitious ThunderClan warrior who wishes to become Clan leader. Firepaw is assigned his first solo hunting mission, on which he encounters Yellowfang, the exiled ShadowClan medicine cat. They initially fight, but after Firepaw emerges victorious, he realizes that Yellowfang is starving, and quickly finds prey for her, eating some of what he caught himself after Yellowfang encourages him to do so. However, the two are discovered by a patrol led by Bluestar. Bluestar questions Firepaw and scolds him for feeding himself before his Clan. As punishment, Firepaw is tasked with taking care of Yellowfang, who becomes a prisoner of ThunderClan.
As Firepaw continues to train, he and Graypaw are invited to attend the Gathering, a peaceful meeting every full moon between all four Clans. When the Gathering begins, Brokenstar, the leader of ShadowClan, informs everyone that ShadowClan has driven out a Clan member who had murdered kittens. ThunderClan quickly returns to camp and confronts Yellowfang, but Bluestar orders that Yellowfang should not be harmed due to a lack of solid evidence.
A few days later, Bluestar, Tigerclaw, Ravenpaw, Firepaw, and Graypaw travel to the Moonstone, a sacred site. While they are gone, ShadowClan cats attack ThunderClan's camp, killing Lionheart. Tigerclaw is subsequently named deputy in his place. Shortly afterwards, Spottedleaf is murdered, and several ThunderClan kittens are abducted by ShadowClan. With the exception of Firepaw, Graypaw, and Ravenpaw, all of ThunderClan suspects the perpetrator of these events to be Yellowfang.
Firepaw learns from Ravenpaw that Tigerclaw is a traitor to ThunderClan, having murdered Redtail in hopes of becoming deputy in his place. Firepaw and Graypaw lead Ravenpaw to a new home in a barn away from ThunderClan territory in order to protect him from being killed by Tigerclaw for knowing too much incriminating information. Firepaw then successfully leads a rescue party with Yellowfang to rescue the abducted kittens from ShadowClan, which culminates in a battle where Brokenstar and his followers are exiled from ShadowClan. For their heroism in rescuing the kittens, Firepaw and Graypaw are promoted to warriors by Bluestar, who gives them their warrior names, Fireheart and Graystripe. Having proven that she is not helping ShadowClan, Yellowfang is accepted as ThunderClan's medicine cat, replacing the murdered Spottedleaf.


== Style ==

The style of the book has also been compared to the Redwall series by Brian Jacques. A reviewer for The Plain Dealer wrote that the book ""is patterned in the style of classics by J.R.R. Tolkien or Brian Jacques"". While School Library Journal recommended the book to Redwall fans, the reviewer still felt the style wasn't as elegant.


=== Lexicon ===
The book has a lexicon of special terminology. A Children's Literature review noted the words ""kittypet"" and ""twoleg"" which mean housecat and humans respectively. In the book, instead, of using ""said"", Cary uses the word ""mewed"". This was criticized with the reviewer writing ""that 'he mewed', 'she purred', and 'the warrior mewed', which pass for cat talk, grows old fast"". In response to a question at the Q&A section of the forum Holmes explained that the names come ""in two parts, either or both of which can reflect something about the cat's appearance, personality, or habits"". However, they must also be part of the world they know; Holmes originally gave Tigerclaw the name Hammerclaw until one of the editors pointed out the cats wouldn't know what a hammer is. For the names, Kate Cary says that she takes in inspiration for the names from ""sight, sounds and scents the cats would experience"". At the same time, more names become available as the cat's world becomes more diverse.


== Genres ==
Harper Collins originally requested that Holmes write a ""fantasy story on feral cats"". Though troubled on what to write about at first, Holmes realized she could add human themes and issues into the book such as ""war, politics, revenge, doomed love, religious conflict"". An interviewer has described the plot as ""Shakespearian: a mad leader, intra-clan betrayal, war, star-crossed lovers, death"". Reviews have also called the story an ""animal adventure"".
The novel was picked to be part of the young adult fantasy genre due to its increasing popularity. Cherith Baldry feels that the growth of the genre is due to the fact that ""fantasy is something very deeply rooted in the human mind, not just for children"". Fantasy stories are able to deal with human emotions helping readers to deal with them in the real world. Another Erin Hunter, Kate Cary felt that fantasy books such as Harry Potter ""is a sign of a deepening need for fantasy to brighten our lives"". She describes how as a child she was far less restricted than today's children whose days are structured and scheduled. Cary feels that fantasy stories help kids ""escape into the world of the imagination, because it's the only place they can be really free and un-judged"".


== Themes ==
Publishers Weekly noted that themes such as family, friendship and responsibility are also taught in the warrior code, the set of rules that the clans must follow. Holmes has said that one of her favorite things about writing the series is being able to add in themes that apply to us all such as family, loss, honor, bravery, death, loyalty, and following rules. Other themes include ""death and spirituality and family and relationships"". She also added in human themes such as ""starting at a new school (Rusty joining ThunderClan), falling in love with the wrong person (Graystripe and Silverstream) and being bullied by someone who should look after you (Tigerclaw bullying Ravenpaw)"". To a reviewer for Kirkus Reviews, the human theme of fitting in was easily found and applauded when Rusty succeeds.
Another theme found throughout the book is the hardship of life in the wild. Reviews have noted how the story does not cover up the hardships of clan life. School Library Journal commented on how the story describes the hardships and difficulties of a feral cat's life in detail and how there is no sugarcoating of the violence. Fantasy Book Review also wrote ""Erin Hunter does not spare the reader from the grim realities of living in the wild"". Kirkus Reviews noted that doing so shows how the clans are on the brink of survival.


== Critical reception ==
Into the Wild received generally positive reviews. Booklist thought the novel ""spine-tingling"" and noted that ""the cat characters are true to their feline nature, making this sure to appeal to fans of Clare Bell's long-popular Ratha's Creature (1983) and its sequels and also to followers of Brian Jacques' ongoing Redwall series."" Publishers Weekly praised the excitement and also added that the book would please any person who ""has ever wondered what dreams of grandeur may haunt the family cat"". The review also praised the world of the cats and themes put into the book. Although School Library Journal thought the book not as well written as the Redwall series, it did note that the novel presented an ""intriguing world with an intricate structure"". The review also felt that there was too many supporting characters, but ""there are standouts who give dimension to the tale"". The amount of violence was also noted in the review. Kirkus Reviews joked the book would have cat owners look at their pets nervously before writing how Hunter doesn't have ""any hint of sentimentality. Snapping bones, flowing blood, and sudden death abundantly demonstrate how these cats walk on the thin edge of survival"". The review noted how teens would see how hard it is for Firepaw to fit in. Washington Times notes the tension rising between Tigerclaw and Firepaw and praised the scene where Longtail challenges Firepaw's right to be in the clan.


=== Awards and recognitions ===
Into the Wild claimed third place in the 2006 Young Reader's Choice Awards of the Pacific Northwest Library Association. The novel was listed on Booklist's Top 10 fantasy books for youth in 2003, and was a Book Sense 76 Pick.


== References ==


== External links ==
The official Warriors website
The official forum"
"St Nicolas Church, North Stoneham","St Nicolas Church is an Anglican parish church at North Stoneham, Hampshire which originated before the 15th century and is known for its ""One Hand Clock"" which dates from the early 17th century, and also for various memorials to the famous.


== Location ==
The church is situated on Stoneham Lane, on the edge of the former Stoneham Park. Pevsner and Lloyd, in their Buildings of England: Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, described the setting: ""The church is in rural isolation on the edge of the former park, in the midst of a narrow but effective green belt between Eastleigh and Southampton"".


== History ==
The parish of North Stoneham can be traced back to the early 9th century when it was known as ""Stonam Abbatis"" or ""Abbots Stoneham"" and was attached to Hyde Abbey at Winchester. At this time, the parish extended from the River Itchen in the east towards Chilworth and Bassett Green in the west with its neighbouring parish, South Stoneham, to the south and east. Today, the parish is part of the combined parish of North Stoneham and Bassett, and St. Nicolas is one of three churches serving the parish, the others being St. Michael & All Angels, in Bassett Avenue, and All Saints in Winchester Road.
St. Nicolas is medieval in origin, and has probably been the site of a place of worship for 1,000 years. The church is a Grade II* listed building, and the listing states that the church was ""built on (the) site of a 13th-century Church and possibly a Saxon Chapel"".
According to Pevsner, the church was rebuilt at some time between 1590 and  1610 (about the time that the estate was sold to the Fleming family) in an ""interesting Gothic survival manner"", but incorporating older features (not necessarily from the previous church on the site). It was restored in 1826 by Thomas Hopper, and restored again (by George Bodley) in the late 19th century.
The new vestry was completed in 2008.


== Lych gate ==
The lych-gate was built in 1909 in memory of Emily Macarthur, the wife of James Macarthur, the then Bishop of Southampton. It was designed by Isle of Wight architect Percy Stone, and built of oak timber taken from HMS Thunderer which took part in the Battle of Trafalgar.


== The church exterior ==

Pevsner described the church as:an intriguing and problematical building, with a three-gabled east termination and a west tower, looking like a Devon church. Nave, chancel, and aisles continuing into chapels; a rectangle except for the tower and north porch.
The church has ashlar walling stepped buttresses, diagonally placed on the corners, comprising a high plinth with late moulded step. Set in the western wall, in the tower, is a 13th-century window of three lancets, the centre one higher. According to Pevsner, ""It was probably the east window of a church of some pretension"", which was re-used when the tower was built in the 16th century. The window has been dated from 1230.
The east window of the chancel is 15th-century in style, with three cinquefoiled lights with tracery. Pevsner described the east and west aisle windows as: ""three-light Perpendicular in arched frames, but differing in details and looking, for the most part, authentically medieval; all or some of them are probably re-used.""
The north and south aisle windows are late Gothic in character, from the 16th century, although they have been repaired several times, modern cusping being inserted. In the north aisle there are four windows, the eastern of two cinquefoiled lights with tracery under a pointed head, the next two square-headed, of three and four cinquefoiled lights respectively, and the fourth also square-headed, of three cinquefoiled lights. Between the third and fourth windows is a round-headed north doorway with a plain quarter-round moulding of uncertain but not ancient date; Pevsner described the porch as ""Elizabethan-looking"".
The south aisle windows are all square-headed, of three or four lights. The details of the windows are not uniform, the west window of the south aisle, and the four-light window in the north aisle, ""being of better style than the rest"".
The roof is in three sections with red tiles, finials and raised coping to the gables. The vestry, which was built in 2008, is situated at the south-west corner of the church.


=== The tower and bells ===
The tower is built of ashlar, in two tall stages, with plain double bell-openings in arched frames on three sides, battlements, and thin crocketed pinnacles, with an octagonal stair turret on the north-east corner, and dates from about 1600.

The church has a long history of bell ringing and the current ring of ten bells was once the lightest ten in the country. The ring is accommodated on two frames one above the other, with the lower frame partly made up of the 17th-century frame from the earliest recorded installation of bells in St. Nicolas. In his 1908 ""A History of the County of Hampshire"", William Page reported:""There are six bells by Taylor of Loughborough, 1893. The former ring was of three, by I H., 1651, Antony Bond, 1623, and a Salisbury founder, c. 1400."" Of the present bells, three were cast by Taylor in 1931 and the remaining seven in 1956.
In 2006, the parish launched an appeal to raise £15,000 in order to stabilise the bell-frame and improve the bell handling. The fund-raising activities included a Teddy bear parachute jump.


=== The clock ===
On the eastern face of the tower is the church clock, which has only one hand, pointing to the hour. The ""One Hand Clock"" was originally installed in the early 17th century; the movement is by William Monk (died 1753) of Berwick St. John and Donhead St Mary.
At the time the clock was installed, ""time was counted in hours, not minutes"".
The clock has had to be restarted a number of times in its history, the movement being renovated most recently in 1995, when members of the local Concorde Club, among others, helped to restore and maintain the clock by giving some ""time"", i.e. £2.50 per minute, the target being £150.


== The church interior ==
The church has a chancel 25 ft (7.6 m) long and 15 ft (4.6 m) wide, with a nave of 35 ft 9 in (10.9 m)  and aisles which run the full length of the nave and chancel, 11 ft 5 in (3.5 m) and 11 ft 2 in (3.4 m) wide respectively. The tower is 10 ft (3.0 m) by 9 ft 6 in (2.9 m).
The aisle walls are made of ashlar, mainly perpendicular in character. The east wall of the chancel is built of rubble, and is earlier than the ashlar walls of the aisles and chapels, believed to be part of the medieval church. The nave arcades, of three bays with octagonal pillars and arches of two chamfered orders, are probably 15th-century, while the two bays on either side of the chancel are of pseudo-Gothic character, and apparently of late 18th or early 19th-century date. Two of the pillars are Early English.
The organ is situated at the east end of the north chancel aisle and was originally manufactured in about 1935 by the Positive Organ Company of north-west London and renovated in 1974 and 1993.
The 15th-century font, which has an octagonal bowl of Purbeck marble on a modern stone stem, is under the east arch of the tower.


=== Windows ===
A series of heraldic windows (1826) by John Absalom Edwards of Winchester, under the supervision of the architect Thomas Hopper, illustrated the ancestry of the Fleming family, but were shattered by a bomb blast in the Second World War. The fragments have been reset in the windows.


=== The porch ===
For some time, the porch contained two First World War Roll of Honour memorial panels in lead, fashioned by the controversial artist, Eric Gill. They were removed from the Stoneham War Shrine and located in the church porch while renovations to the War Shrine were carried out. They were returned to the War Shrine when its renovations were completed in 2010.


== Memorials ==


=== Slavonian tomb-stone ===
On the chancel floor is a gravestone inscribed to Slavonian merchants. The tombstone is bluish limestone slab, 6 ft 8 in (2.0 m) by 3 ft 8 in (1.1 m) bearing a shield charged with a double-headed eagle surrounded by Gothic foliage; round the edge of the slab runs a marginal inscription with the evangelistic symbols at the four angles — ""Sepultura De La Schola De Sclavoni Año Dñi MCCCCLXXXXI"" (""The Burial Place of the Guild of Slavonians"").
The tomb originated in the 15th century when a fair was held at Winchester starting on St. Giles' Day in early September. The fair was held on St. Giles' Hill to the east of the city centre. At the time, this was the largest fair in Europe; for the sixteen days of the fair, all other trading at Southampton and at every place within seven leagues of Winchester was prohibited, and the Bishop of Winchester received the revenues normally due to the King.
Among the many foreigners who attended the fair were some who formed themselves into a guild — the ""Schola dei Sclavoni"" or Guild of Slavonians. Their business was so great that in 1491 they purchased a vault in North Stoneham church where they might inter any of their guild who should chance to die in England. The need for their vault soon arose, for in 1499 highwaymen attacked their trade convoy between Southampton and Winchester and killed two of their number.


=== The monument to Lord Hawke ===
In the south aisle there is an elaborate wall memorial to Admiral Lord Hawke, with a detailed depiction of the Battle of Quiberon Bay (20 November 1759). Lord Hawke was the First Lord of the Admiralty who lived at Swaythling House.  He died  in Sunbury-on-Thames in 1781 and although he had not lived in Swaythling for some time, he chose to be buried with his wife. His son the second baron, erected the magnificent memorial to him, carved in white marble, in 1783, the work of sculptor John Francis Moore. It includes a bas-relief of the painting of ""The Battle of Quiberon Bay"" by Dominic Serres, the Elder.
Over the weekend of 20 November 2009, the church was the focus of special events held to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the Battle.
In addition to the memorial to the admiral, the church has another to his wife, Catherine: ""the best Wife, the best Mother and the best of Friends"".


=== The Sir Thomas Fleming monument ===

At the east end of the south aisle, on the south side, is the monument to Sir Thomas Fleming, Lord Chief Justice, who was one of the judges at the trial of Guy Fawkes in 1605, and died in 1613. This memorial is known locally as ""the floating Flemings"", depicting Lord and Lady Fleming in their scarlet and blue court robes, lying on their sides, with kneeling figures of the six sons and two daughters who survived him. The inscription is in two panels on the base, and above the effigies are the arms of the Fleming and James families. The inscription reads:

In most Assvred Hope of A Blessed Resvrection, Here Lyeth Interred ye Bodie of Sir Thomas Flemyng, Knight, Lord Chief Jvstice of England; Great Was His Learning, Many Were His Virtves. He Always Feared God & God Still Blessed Him & ye Love & Favour Both of God & Man Was Daylie Upon Him. He Was In Especiall Grace & Favour With 2 Most Worthie & Virtvovs Princes Q. Elizabeth & King James. Many Offices and Dygnities Were Conferred Upon Him. He Was First Sargeant At Law, Then Recorder of London; Then Solicitor Generall to Both ye Said Princes. Then Lo: Chief Baron of ye Exchequer & after Lo: Chief Jvstice of England. All Which Places He Did Execvte With So Great Integrity, Justice & Discretion that Hys Lyfe Was Of All Good Men Desired, His Death Of All Lamented. He Was Borne at Newporte In ye Isle Of Wight, Brough Up In Learning & ye Studie Of ye Lawe. In ye 26 Yeare Of His Age He Was coopled in ye Blessed State of Matrimony To His Virtvovs Wife, ye La: Mary Fleming, With whom He Lived & Continewed In that Blessed Estate By ye Space Of 43 Yeares. Having By Her In that Tyme 15 Children, 8 Sonnes & 7 Davghters, Of Whom 2 Sonnes & 5 Davghters Died In His Life Time. And Afterwards In Ripeness of Age and Fulness of Happie yeares yt Is to Saie ye 7th Day of Avgvst 1613 in ye 69 Yeare Of His Age, He Left This Life For a Better, Leaving Also Behind Him Livinge Together With His Virtvovs Wife 6 Soones & 2 Davghters.
There are many other memorials to members of the Fleming family including a monument to John Fleming (died 1802), and a portrait tablet to John Willis Fleming (died 1844) by the Chilworth sculptor, Richard Cockle Lucas.


== The church today ==
Although situated in a rural area the church has a faithful congregation with regular Sunday morning and afternoon services.


=== Clergy ===
The clergy are shared between the three churches of the Parish: St Michael and All Angels, St Nicolas, and All Saints' Church, Bassett. The current Rector, the Reverend Sheena Williams, was invested by the Bishop of Southampton, the Right Reverend Dr Jonathan Frost, on 3 February 2017. Rev'd Williams grew up in Linlithgow, near Edinburgh. She gained a law degree from the University of Aberdeen and Pierre Mendès-France University in France. After feeling a call to ordained ministry she trained at STETS (Southern Theological Education and Training Scheme) in Salisbury before ordination in 2010. She served her title in the Parish of Swaythling, Southampton, before becoming Associate Priest in the Parish of Chandlers Ford. She is assisted by an Associate Pioneer minister, two Curates, two Honorary Assistant Clergy and two Licensed Lay Ministers. Together, they share the ministry to the three churches of the Parish: St Michael and All Angels, St. Nicolas and All Saints.


== Stoneham rectory ==
The 19th-century rectory, which stands on the opposite side of Stoneham lane, is a Grade II listed building. It is now part of an office complex, which until 2021 was an office for Mott MacDonald.
The former gateway to the rectory in Stoneham Lane is also listed, Grade II.


== References ==


== External links ==
Website of St Nicolas
St. Nicolas on Hampshire Churches website"
Guadeloupe woodpecker,"The Guadeloupe woodpecker (Melanerpes herminieri) or Tapeur is a species of bird in the woodpecker family Picidae belonging to the genus Melanerpes. Endemic to the Guadeloupe archipelago in the Lesser Antilles, it is a medium-sized forest woodpecker with entirely black plumage and red-to-purple reflections on its stomach. It lives mainly in the islands' tropical rainforest areas. The woodpecker has no sexual dimorphism. The species has adapted under the pressure of urbanization to more open forest environments. 
During the breeding season, the Guadeloupe woodpecker is solitary bird that nests in holes it digs with its beak in the trunk of dead trees—mainly coconut—where the female lays three to five eggs. The eggs are incubated for fifteen days before hatching, after which the adult female feeds the chicks in the nest for about a month. Juvenile birds stay with the parents for several months before becoming independent. Guadeloupe woodpeckers are mainly insectivorous, but they also feed on small vertebrates like tree frogs and Anolis marmoratus, as well as a variety of seasonal fruits.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker was long considered ""near-threatened"" according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to its endemism, predation of its eggs and nests by black rats, its relatively low numbers, and the specificities of the archipelago—island topography, habitat fragmentation, and urbanization. It was downgraded to an assessment of ""least concern"" in July 2019. While the Guadeloupe woodpecker seems relatively protected on the island Basse-Terre, the state of its populations on Grande-Terre—where there are risks of extinction—is much more of a problem. It has become an emblem of Guadeloupean fauna and is now commonly found in the Guadeloupe National Park.


== Taxonomy ==
Described in 1830 by René Primevère Lesson in the genus Picus, the Guadeloupe woodpecker was given its binomial name, Melanerpes herminieri, after the naturalist Félix Louis L'Herminier, who studied in Guadeloupe and wrote numerous works on birds. The name of the genus Melanerpes comes from the Greek melas meaning ""black"" and herpēs meaning ""climber"". In the local Guadeloupe Creole, it is called Tapeur or Tapé (""one who knocks""). It is also called Toto bwa or Toc-toc for its tapping noise.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker had been considered for some time to be in the monotypic genus Linneopicus before being classified in the genus Melanerpes. It may have evolved during the Pleistocene from the Puerto Rican woodpecker (M. portoricensis), which itself is derived phylogenetically from the red-headed woodpecker (M. erythrocephalus). The  phylogenetic position diagram of the genus Melanerpes is the least-known among the family Picidae, whose divergence into the subfamilies Jynginae, Picumninae, and Picinae—to which Melanerpes belongs—dates from 30 to 20 million years ago in the Oligocene or lower Miocene.


== Distribution and habitat ==
Since the extinction of the Guadeloupe parakeet (Psittacara labati) and the Guadeloupe amazon (Amazona violacea) in the 18th century (if they existed), the Guadeloupe woodpecker is the only bird species that is endemic to Guadeloupe, and is the only woodpecker species found in the Lesser Antilles. It, along with two species of forest bats and two species of frogs, is one of the archipelago's five endemic animal species.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker is present on the main island from sea level to the upper tree line, at around 1,000 m (39,000 in) altitude, but is historically more common on island of Basse-Terre, where it has a preference for the island's east coast, than on Grande-Terre. It is absent from the dependencies of Guadeloupe (Îles des Saintes, Marie-Galante, and La Désirade).
The Guadeloupe woodpecker, an exclusively stationary species, is found in a wide variety of forest types across the islands: it is most common in the tropical rainforest areas of Basse-Terre; in 1998, these rainforests had more than 70 percent of the population of the species in Guadeloupe, 5 percent were in deciduous areas, while the deciduous forests of Grande-Terre hosted about 20 percent, and the mangrove and swamp in the center of the archipelago held the remaining 5 percent.
In 2008, a study of Guadeloupean avifauna showed the presence of the Guadeloupe woodpecker in all zones of Guadeloupe National Park, where it prefers Côte-au-vent, the ombrophile massif on the eastern coast of the island, as well as the northwestern zone towards Deshaies north of the Côte-sous-le-vent. The species also seems to have colonized the Caribbean Mountains at the southern tip of Basse-Terre between 1998 and 2007. In 2008, Basse-Terre hosted three-quarters of the population of woodpeckers in the archipelago and Grande-Terre the other quarter. 
The Guadeloupe woodpecker is a territorial bird but not particularly aggressive towards other birds, with which it seldom interacts. The species needs a territory of between two and five hectares (4.9 and 12.4 acres) per pair to live, and even ten hectares (25 acres) at the southern tip of the more-arid Grande-Terre.


== Description ==

The Guadeloupe woodpecker is a medium-sized, robust woodpecker species measuring 26–28 cm (10–11 in) in length, and with a mass of 86–97 g (3.0–3.4 oz) in males and 69–78 g (2.4–2.8 oz) in females. It is distinct in its appearance within its genus, and unlike other species of Melanerpes, males and females do not present a marked sexual dimorphism in their plumage; they are entirely black with gradual reflections ranging from dark red to burgundy on the ventral plumage, dark blue on the back, and metallic blue on the wing tips. Males have a wingspan of 42.5 cm (16.7 in) compared with 40.5 cm (15.9 in) in females). The black coloration of the Guadeloupe woodpecker may be an advantage in drying feathers by exposure to the sun and fighting against humidity, and the black feathers may be resistant to abrasion, but no definitive explanation has been advanced by the scientific community. This woodpecker is solitary animal, a social behavioral trait that is often associated with plumage monomorphism.
The legs, which terminate in four toes in a zygodactyl arrangement, are gray-green to gray-blue and powerful, with highly developed talons. The talons are curved for gripping bark with the tip of the claw; this represents an adaptation to living on trunks and branches of trees. The eyes are 6 mm (0.24 in) in diameter (pupil 2 mm (0.079 in)) with dark brown irises. The beak is entirely black and is between 15 and 20 percent longer and more robust in males; this is the main criterion for recognizing the sex of individuals. The size of the female's beak is equal to that of her head while that of the male is distinctly longer.
As with all woodpeckers that are adapted to piercing wood, the nostrils on the culmen have small feathers to protect respiration and mucous glands to trap dust. The pterygoid protractor muscle, which is highly developed in woodpeckers, is important for adapting to shock absorption by uncoupling the beak, which can move laterally, from the skull to minimize the transmission of kinetic energy to the brain and eyes. There is also a specific pterygoid bone in Picidae compared to other birds. They have a specific cancellous tissue between the skull and the beak, with a displacement of the attachment of the greater horn of the hyoid bone to the quadrate bone, as well as a reinforced sternum and keel. These elements maximize energy dissipation and shock absorption for the bird during impact. The specific, long tongue of the Picidae is cylindrical and is about twice the size of its bill. The tongue is the result of an evolution of the hyoid apparatus with two parts; one bony at the end is equipped with small hooks, the other cartilaginous lengthens under the action of a branchiomandibular muscle that attaches to the branch of the mandible, split, anchoring on the anterior part at the base of the culmen, surrounding the skull from behind with its two branches, descending on either side of the spine, esophagus and larynx, which pushes the hyoid horns and tongue out of the beak.
Juvenile birds are similar to adults but have duller, dark brown plumage. The life expectancy of individuals is greater than five years and estimated to be between eight and ten years.


== Behavior ==


=== Food ===
The adult Guadeloupe woodpecker feeds mainly on termites, ants, larvae, myriapods, and arthropods—90 percent of which are collected when piercing dead wood— and fruits. Due to the difference in the size of their beaks, males preferentially seek their prey on large branches and dead trunks while females more frequently attach themselves to branches, especially those with small cross-sections. Scientific studies of a captive woodpecker have shown the tip of the bird's long tongue has horny, backward-facing, saliva-coated hooks that allow it to grasp and extract insects from deep holes in wood rather than ""harpooning"" them. 
It has been reported the Guadeloupe woodpecker may occasionally and opportunistically feed on a small lizards (Anolis marmoratus), which are also endemic to the archipelago. Female woodpeckers may occasionally consume crab carcasses during the breeding season to obtain the calcium necessary for the production of their eggshells. 
No precise studies of woodpecker feeding, such as identification and quantity of insects consumed, in adults could be made because of the speed of their prey consumption. During the nesting period, however, studies have shown the typical diet of nestlings—brought by the parents at a rate of five times per hour—mainly consists of large prey ranging from 20–40 mm (0.79–1.57 in) with an average of 20 mm (0.79 in). Although the Guadalupe woodpecker feeds its brood half as frequently as the Jamaican woodpecker, the prey brought in is two-to-four times larger because the species—unlike its Jamaican cousin, whose beak size is identical—does not swallow or regurgitate them but carries them in its beak. The chicks' diet mainly consists of insects of the class Orthoptera (44 percent, mainly grasshoppers of the species Tapalisca and cockroaches of the species Pelmatosilpha purpurascens), larvae (20 percent, mainly beetles—including Scarabaeidae and Buprestidae—and Diptera), tree frogs Eleutherodactylus martinicensis (11 percent), adult beetles (10.5 percent, from the families Curculionidae, Cerambycidae, and Scarabaeidae), Lepidoptera (6.5 percent), and gastropods (3.2 percent), as well as fruits, mainly from the genera Clusia (70 percent), Eugenia, and Myrcia (16 percent), as well as pieces of mango (Mangifera indica). Adults do not feed ants or termites to their chicks.
The birds' water intake comes from  sixteen species of seasonal fruits, the seeds and pits of which they spit out after eating the pulp, violently shaking their heads like all woodpeckers, they have rarely been observed drinking. Guadeloupe woodpeckers use anvils for cutting up large prey such as frogs and anolis, skinning insects, and cracking open seeds and hard fruits. These anvils are usually the tops of palmless coconut trees, which also provide food storage areas.


=== Breeding ===

The Guadaloupe woodpecker is solitary and does not congregate in colonies. It is an exclusive monogamist whose breeding season runs from January to August, with a peak from April to June - indicating a lack of competition in the bird's ecological niche. The breeding season is variable from pair to pair, and from year to year,  the determining factor being access to optimal food, which in Guadeloupe is dependent on rainfall. Studies have shown only 6–8 percent of nestling paternities are the result of relationships outside the established pair.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker generally nests 2–20 m (79–787 in) above the ground in holes in the trunks of trees the two parents dig together. They prefer to nest in dead coconut trees and less frequently in dead branches of deciduous trees. Nesting sites are chosen after several trials and tests according to the condition of the wood; the elaboration of a nest in a living tree is exceptional because it is more difficult to achieve. Digging a 30 cm (12 in) deep nest takes the parents about ten days but the nest is often used for over two years, depending on the condition of the wood.
The female lays three to five pure white, elliptical eggs that are on average 24.6 mm × 18.5 mm (0.97 in × 0.73 in) in size and weigh about 3.5 grams (0.12 oz). The pair takes turns incubating the eggs during the 15 days of incubation, which starts with the laying of the first egg and leads to asynchronous hatching. Only the male is responsible during the nights and when the chicks are small. A pair raises up to three young, and later-hatching  chicks usually do not survive to adulthood. In the darkness of the nest, the parents are assisted in feeding the chicks by a white triangle that is formed by the egg tooth and two white, greasy buttons at the corners of the chicks' bills.
Young birds leave the nest between 33 and 37 days after hatching, and live with their parents for several months, forming families that sometimes include birds from two successive nestings. It appears juvenile Guadeloupe woodpeckers stay with their parents longer than those of temperate zone woodpeckers because of the lack of a winter season that forces accelerated learning. This longer learning period increases the chances of a chick's survival but only about 10 percent of eggs will result in a young adult. The effective reproduction rate of the Guadeloupe woodpecker is unknown.


=== Flight and locomotion ===
The flight of the Guadeloupe woodpecker is straight, without undulations.  The species is unusual because it does not fly over water, which limits its movements between the two main islands of Guadeloupe and explains its endemism to the archipelago and its absence from the dependencies of Guadeloupe, where it has never been observed, heard, or identified by its nests.
Unlike some Caribbean woodpecker species, such as the Jamaican woodpecker and the Hispaniolan woodpecker, the Guadeloupe woodpecker does not practice flight hunting. Another characteristic of woodpeckers, in particular the Guadeloupe woodpecker, is its absence of location on or near the ground. It is most often found in the canopy, where it moves only between trees using its climbing-adapted zygodactyl toes, the second of which towards the rear is capable of moving to a lateral position to stabilize the grip on the trunk when climbing. Like all woodpeckers, it uses its short, powerful tail as a fulcrum on the trunk for upward propulsion.


=== Vocalizations and sounds ===

The Guadeloupe woodpecker makes eight vocalized and two unvocalized sounds:

Although they are identical in form, the female's sound is higher pitched. This dimorphism in the calls is one of the characteristics of the species; the other sounds cannot be used to distinguish between males and females;
""rarrrrr"", in a series of between three and eight notes; this is a sound of excitement of adults or juveniles;
""tsii"", along with a buzzing sound, is made by nestlings to beg for food;
""tsi-sii"" is emitted by chicks just before feeding;
""kay-kay-kay"" is emitted during territorial conflicts between adults;
""tra-tra-tra-tra"" informs of the arrival of an adult at the nest so the other will give way;
""tray-tray-tray-tray"" is made by adults calling the chicks or juveniles to locate them;
a mutual drumming sound is made by the pair near their nest;
the high-frequency drumming is the most perceptible and recognizable sound of the woodpecker; only males perform this medium-to-powerful roll of at least eleven beats performed in 1.3 s. This parade and territoriality drumming is very distinct from that resulting from predatory and nest-burrowing activities, which is both sexes perform six times more slowly.
The Guadeloupe woodpecker is the most-drumming species among the Caribbean and island Picidae. Its calls are the most raucous of those produced by members of the genus Melanerpes.


== Conservation ==


=== Status and threats ===

The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies the Guadeloupe woodpecker with a conservation status of least concern since the last assessment of the species in July 2019. Betweek 2004 and 2019, it was previously classified as near-threatened due to its uniqueness to the Guadeloupe archipelago and its relatively small population: about 10,330±1,000 pairs estimated in 1998, a number re-evaluated to 19,527±3,769 in 2007 due to a better counting methodology and definition of ecological units. The 2007 reassessment does not indicate a real increase in their population, which, according to the authors of the two studies, remained stable over the period under consideration. The reduction and fragmentation of its habitat due to human expansion and infrastructure are affecting the balance of its population, especially on Grande-Terre, where it is at risk of extinction. This is particularly the case in urbanized areas of Pointe-à-Pitre, Jarry, Grands Fonds and North Basse-Terre, which are expanding, allowing less movement of individuals between Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre through vegetation corridors. The species does not fly over non-wooded areas or bodies of water; this trait is increasingly splitting the population into two distinct groups with a moderate degree of genetic differentiation. The further reduction of island endemic bird populations may eventually lead to a bottleneck in their genetic diversity and a decline of the species due to excessive inbreeding  or even its disappearance from a territory.
The removal of dead wood, which is essential to the survival of the species' nesting and feeding, is an aggravating factor. On Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe woodpeckers are forced to nest in wooden poles of telephone and electricity lines, or in living coconut trees, both of which are difficult to excavate; the species has a less-than-20 percent success rate. The passage of hurricanes over the archipelago has a strong negative impact on bird populations, in particular that of the Guadeloupe woodpecker, which is strongly dependent on coconut trees. In September 1989, Hurricane Hugo caused a decrease in numbers, especially juveniles.


=== Predators ===
Another major threat to Guadeloupe woodpeckers is predation of their eggs by black rats, the only rodents with arboreal habits, which have a major negative impact on nesting - and competition for the same nesting sites. To a lesser extent, there is predation of adults by feral and domestic cats, and very occasionally by raccoons.  Mongooses do not appear to prey upon the woodpecker or its eggs.


=== Protection ===
Hunting of the Guadeloupe woodpecker has been banned since April 30, 1954. A ministerial decree of February 17, 1989, which was consolidated in 2013 and 2018, fully protected the Guadeloupe woodpecker  throughout the archipelago. Following the last studies on the species' population and habitat in 2007, ornithologists recommended the creation and maintenance of essential vegetation corridors in the center of the island and the installation of dead-coconut-tree sections on the Grande-Terre as artificial nesting boxes.


== Footnotes ==


== References ==


== Bibliography =="
Nocton Hall,"Nocton Hall is a historic Grade II listed building in the village of Nocton, in Lincolnshire, England. The plaque on the north face of the Hall (see below) indicates that the original building dates back to about 1530 but since then there have been two notable reconstructions. Several prominent people have been residents of the house the most notable being Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for a short time.
During the First World War, the house was used as a convalescent home for wounded American Officers. In the Second World War, the British Army used the house after which it was taken over by the RAF and an extensive hospital developed in the grounds. It reverted to private use in the 1980s. In 2004 there was a major fire that left the building in a derelict state. Options are currently being considered regarding the future of the building.


== Early history ==

The historic grounds upon which Nocton Hall stands previously contained both a house and priory. Nocton Priory was built in the 12th century and the house was constructed in the 16th century and coexisted with the priory. The remains of the priory still exist as earthworks and are located at least 0.6 miles (1 km) from the house. The house was called Nocton Manor and was the property of Thomas Wimbishe and subsequently the Towneley family. In the 1670s while Nocton belonged to Sir Charles Stanhope, his niece Elizabeth Delavel Livingston put on a performance of Il pastor fido for 300 people, an important example of country house drama performed by amateurs for a large audience.
This house was reconstructed by Sir William Ellis in the latter part of the 17th century by extending parts of the existing Towneley manor and was called Nocton Old Hall. In 1834 Nocton Old Hall was engulfed by fire and the current building was erected in 1841 by the 1st Earl of Ripon.
In 1996 before the recent fire, an examination of the house was made and some evidence was found that the 1841 building contained some parts of Nocton Old Hall. There is a plaque on the northern elevation of the building, near the front door (shown on the right) which indicates that the Earl and Countess of Ripon who reconstructed the current building in 1841 believed that it was founded in about 1530. The inscription is in Latin, but reads in translation:

This house was founded in about 1530 during the reign of Henry VIII. Enlarged in 1680 by Sir William Ellis. Then George Buckingham finally received it in 1780. Robert Earl of Buckingham's daughter married Frederick John, Earl of Ripon. Fire destroyed the house in about 1830 and another was built in the same place in 1841.
Nocton Hall, then the property of Thomas Wimbishe, was visited by Henry VIII and Catherine Howard in 1541 during the King's northern progress. Henry's fifth wife, Catherine, reputedly planted the great chestnut tree in the grounds at Nocton on 13 October 1541. The tree still stands today.


== Frederick and Sarah Robinson, 1st Earl and Countess of Ripon ==

Frederick John Robinson was born in 1782. His parents were Thomas Robinson, 2nd Baron Grantham and Lady Mary, daughter of the 2nd Earl of Hardwicke. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge University and was regarded as a very bright student.
Sarah, his wife was born in 1793 and was eleven years his junior. She was the only child of Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire who owned Nocton Old Hall. On his death in 1816 she inherited his property.
Frederick became Tory M.P. for Carlow borough in 1806 and for Ripon in 1807–27. He was secretary of state for the colonies in 1809, Lord of the Admiralty 1810–12, Privy Councillor in 1812, a Lord of the Treasury in 1812, Paymaster-General of the forces in 1812–17, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1823–27.
In 1827 he became Prime Minister after the death of Canning. He was appointed by the King who thought that because of his previous experience and competent performance he would be suitable. However, this was not the case and only five months later with his Government in chaos, he was asked to resign.
History has judged Frederick harshly because of this episode but there were very severe pressures on him at the time. There was a high level of discord between members of his own party which he found difficult to control. There was also a great deal of domestic pressure on him at the time which he found unbearable. His wife Sarah had proved to be an unsuitable partner for a high-ranking politician as she was prone to outburst of hysteria and hypochondria. There exist letters written by Sarah's step aunt Emily Eden which frequently describes her niece's strange behaviour. In 1826 she said:

I will not say anything about Sarah; she is too bad if she knows what she is about. Poor Mr. Robinson (Frederick) was summoned back from Wrest Park yesterday, where he had been amusing himself for three days. She sent him word she was dying, and when he arrived in the greatest haste yesterday, she was gone out airing. He was very cross, but too late.
The aunt also felt that Frederick had a nervous disposition and was completely dominated by the hysterical behaviour of his wife. It is these character traits that may have made him such an unsuitable Prime Minister even though he was a competent politician in lower offices. After he resigned as Prime Minister, one of his colleagues remarked that he was ""quite another man who sleeps at nights now, and laughs and talks as usual"".
The couple had only one child who survived to adulthood. This was George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon. On Frederick's death in 1859 he inherited Nocton Hall.


== George and Henrietta Robinson, 1st Marquess and Marchioness of Ripon ==

George Frederick Samuel Robinson was born in 1827 in 10 Downing Street when his father was Prime Minister. A large part of his childhood was spent at Nocton Hall where he obtained much of his education. He was a prolific reader which helped him obtain the knowledge he required.
In 1851 he married Henrietta Vyner who was his first cousin once removed. Henrietta was the daughter of Captain Henry Vyner of Newby Hall near Ripon.
In 1859 after his father's death he succeeded the title of Earl of Ripon. In November of the same year, he gained the title of his uncle, Earl de Grey as his uncle had no male heirs. He also inherited from Earl de Grey his ancestral home of Studley Royal in Yorkshire.
He was undersecretary for war in 1859–61 and for India in 1861–63. He became Prime Minister Lord Palmerston's secretary for war in 1863, and in 1866 was appointed secretary of state for India.
One of his most important position was as Viceroy of India in 1880 where he is said to have introduced liberal reforms. According to one historical account:
“He lit the torch that led ultimately to the political autonomy of the country"". According to the Quarterly Review Ripon had industriously scattered the germs of independence in India with the doctrine that ""the natives were entitled to rule, the English nothing more than interlopers; the time had arrived when India was entitled to ‘Home Rule’.
After he returned from India he spent more of his time at his other home Studley Royal and he decided to sell Nocton Hall in 1889. The buyer was a close friend of his George Hodgson, a very wealthy industrialist.


== Residents of Nocton Hall after the Robinsons ==

George Hodgson, a wealthy spinner from Bradford moved into the Hall in 1889 and remained there until his death in 1895. His son John inherited the property and in 1902 upon John's death, his grandson Norman took control of the Estate.
In 1917 after the United States' entry into the War the Hodgson family moved into Embsay House in the village so that the Hall could be turned into a convalescent home for American officers wounded in the War. The last of these officers left in 1919.
In 1919 the Hall was sold to William Dennis of the firm Messrs W.H. Dennis and Sons, Kirton. On his death in 1925 his son James Herbert Dennis came to live at the property. James was a farmer and he converted a large part of the Estate to growing potatoes. He even had a special steam locomotive manufactured for the haulage of his potatoes.
In 1940 with the outbreak of the Second World War it was taken over by the Army and was the home of 21st Casualty Clearing Station (CCS) Royal Army Medical Corps until it was deployed in North Africa in June 1942. Some time after this, it was taken over by the Air Ministry, the Hall and grounds remaining as the site of RAF Hospital Nocton Hall until its closure in 1983.
In the mid-1980s Torrie Richardson bought Nocton Hall, the surrounding wood, woodland, grassland, and cottages. Selling the cottages for redevelopment allowed him to develop Nocton Hall as a Residential Home. Nocton Hall Residential home ran a summer fête for the village on their lawn and employed many local people. Torrie's son, Gary, took control of the business in the early 1990s. The home ran into difficulty and closed in the mid-1990s, and was sold by the receivers to new owners, Leda Properties of Oxford. Leda also bought the RAF Hospital site from the Ministry of Defence.

While vacant there were many break-ins; fireplaces and the stair bannisters were stolen. It burnt down for a second time in the early hours of 24 October 2004, the fire reducing it to a shell. The investigation into the fire established that multiple fires had been set, but to date, no one has been charged with arson. Due to the extensive structural damage, it will now likely need to be rebuilt if the site is not redeveloped for another purpose. An adjacent geriatric nursing care two-storey building has also been severely damaged by vandals since it was left vacant.
In October 2009 Nocton Hall was included in the Victorian Society's list of the top ten endangered buildings in England and Wales. An investigation for BBC Look North established that Leda Properties intended to put forward new development plans in ""the near future"" for both the Hall and its associated gardens. As the Hall is Grade II listed and retains its major structural integrity the Society argued there was still a viable future for the building.


== Legacy ==
The local Nocton Social Club has been in continuous existence since 1946, incorporated within various generations of Nocton village halls.  In  2020, the most recent Village Hall was rebuilt Nocton Hub and the decision was made to re-brand the Nocton Social Club as a Community Pub, named the Ripon Arms, after the 1st Earl of Ripon.  The logo of the Ripon Arms, uses a stylised version of the 1st Earl's coat of arms and maintains the heritage link back to the Ripon's of Nocton Hall. 


== RAF Hospital Nocton Hall ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Urban Lincs Nocton Hall Forgotten Treasures gallery
Nocton Hall fire
BBC News: Fire hits grounds of stately home, 18 September 2005
BBC News: Stately home 'needs protection', 4 October 2005
Leda Properties, who own the Nocton Hall site
The Cottage Nursing Home (requires Flash) is nearby.
Historic England. ""Details from listed building database (1360561)"". National Heritage List for England.
Nocton Hall Site, The Hall on Google Earth"
Economy of Slovakia,"The economy of Slovakia is based upon Slovakia becoming an EU member state in 2004, and adopting the euro at the beginning of 2009. Its capital, Bratislava, is the largest financial centre in Slovakia. As of Q1 2018, the unemployment rate was 5.72%.
Whereas between 1970 and 1985 real incomes increased by about 50%, they fell in the 1990s. The gross domestic product only returned to its 1989 level in 2007.
Due to the Slovak GDP growing very strongly from 2000 until 2008 – e.g. 10.4% GDP growth in 2007 – the Slovak economy was referred to as the Tatra Tiger.


== History ==
Since the establishment of the Slovak Republic in January 1993, Slovakia has undergone a transition from a centrally planned economy to a free market economy, a process which some observers were to believe was slowed in the 1994–98 period due to the crony capitalism and other fiscal policies of Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar's government. While economic growth and other fundamentals improved steadily during Mečiar's term, public and private debt and trade deficits also rose, and privatization was uneven. Real annual GDP growth peaked at 6.5% in 1995 but declined to 1.3% in 1999.
Two governments of the ""liberal-conservative"" Prime Minister Mikuláš Dzurinda (1998–2006) pursued policies of macroeconomic stabilization and market-oriented structural reforms. Nearly the entire economy has now been privatized, and foreign investment has picked up. Economic growth exceeded expectations in the early 2000s, despite recession in key export markets. In 2001 policies of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform led to spiraling unemployment. Unemployment peaked at 19.2% (Eurostat regional indicators) in 2001. Solid domestic demand boosted economic growth to 4.1% in 2002. Strong export growth, in turn, pushed economic growth to a still-strong 4.2% in 2003 and 5.4% in 2004, despite a downturn in household consumption. Multiple reasons entailed a GDP growth of 6% in 2005. Headline consumer price inflation dropped from 26% in 1993 to an average rate of 7.5% in 2004, though this was boosted by hikes in subsidized utilities prices ahead of Slovakia's accession to the European Union. In July 2005, the inflation rate dropped to 2.0% and is projected at less than 3% in 2005 and 2.5% in 2006. In 2006, Slovakia reached the highest economic growth (8.9%) among the members of OECD and the third highest in the EU (just behind Estonia and Latvia). The country has had difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to only 54% in Eastern Slovakia.
About 10% of the Slovak labour force is expatriate in 2014. The country has one of the highest levels of long-term unemployment in Europe, with 7.1% of the labour force unemployed for more than a year in 2017.
99.9% of Slovak firms are small and medium-sized enterprises and they account for 73.3% of all jobs in the country. 


== Foreign investments ==
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Slovakia has increased dramatically. Cheap and skilled labor, a 19% flat tax rate for both businesses and individuals, no dividend taxes, a weak labor code, and a favorable geographical location are Slovakia's main advantages for foreign investors. FDI inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of, US$17.3 billion in 2006, or around $18,000 per capita by the end of 2006. The total inflow of FDI in 2006 was $2.54 billion. In October 2005 new investment stimuli introduced – more favorable conditions to IT and research centers, especially to be located in the east part of the country (where there is more unemployment), to bring more added value and not to be logistically demanding.
Origin of foreign investment 1996–2005 – the Netherlands 24.3%; Germany 19.4%, Austria 14.1%; Italy 7.5%, United States (8th largest investor) 4.0%. Top investors by companies: Deutsche Telekom (Germany), Neusiedler (Austria), Gaz de France (France), Gazprom (Russia), U.S.Steel (U.S.), MOL (Hungary), ENEL (Italy), E.ON (Germany).
Foreign investment sectors – industry 38.4%; banking and insurance 22.2%; wholesale and retail trade 13.1%; production of electricity, gas and water 10.5%; transport and telecommunications 9.2%.

Former minister (1998-2002) Brigita Schmögnerová explains that: ""There is still a consensus among leaders on social dumping. Since the enlargement of the European Union, foreign companies have been looking for the cheapest labour, but instead of joining forces, governments in the region compete to offer the lowest possible level of taxes. When Slovakia joined the European Union in 2004, it became the first OECD country to introduce a full flat tax rate of 19% on both corporate profits and income or consumer goods. The lack of tax progressivity leads to a sharp increase in inequality. Spending on health, education or housing is below the EU average.


== Services ==
Slovak service sector grew rapidly during the last 10 years and now employs about 69% of the population and contributes with over 61% to GDP. Slovakia's tourism has been rising in recent years, income has doubled from US$640 million in 2001 to US$1.2 billion in 2005.


== Industry ==
Slovakia became industrialized mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Heavy industry (including coal mining and the production of machinery and steel) was built for strategic reasons because Slovakia was less exposed to the military threat than the western parts of Czechoslovakia. After the end of the Cold War, the importance of industry, and especially of heavy industry, declined. In 2010, industry (including construction) accounted for 35.6% of GDP, compared with 49% in 1990. Nowadays, building on a long-standing tradition and a highly skilled labor force, main industries with potential of growth are following sectors: Automotive, Electronics, Mechanical engineering, Chemical engineering, Information technology.
The automotive sector is among the fastest growing sectors in Slovakia due to the recent large investments of Volkswagen (Bratislava), Peugeot (Trnava), Kia Motors (Žilina) and since 2018 also Jaguar Land Rover in Nitra. Passenger car production was 1,040,000 units in 2016, what makes Slovakia the largest automobile producer in produced cars per capita. Other big industrial companies include U.S. Steel (metallurgy), Slovnaft (oil industry), Samsung Electronics (electronics), Foxconn (electronics), Mondi SCP (paper), Slovalco (aluminum production), Hyundai Mobis (automotive), Continental Matador (automotive) and Whirlpool Corporation. In 2006, machinery accounted for more than a half of Slovakia's export.


=== Largest companies by revenue ===


=== Largest companies by profit ===


== GDP growth ==
The development of Slovakia's GDP according to the World Bank:

In 2007, Slovakia obtained the highest GDP growth among the members of OECD and the EU, with the record level of 14.3% in the fourth quarter. In 2014, GDP growth was 2.4% and in 2015 and 2016 Slovakia's economy grew 3.6% and 3.3% respectively.


== Agriculture ==
In 2016, agriculture accounted for 3.6% of GDP (compared to 6.9% in 1993) and occupied about 3.9% of the labor force (down from 10.2% in 1994). Over 40% of the land in Slovakia is cultivated. The southern part of Slovakia (bordering with Hungary) is known for its rich farmland. Growing wheat, rye, corn, potatoes, sugar beets, grains, fruits and sunflowers. Vineyards are concentrated in Little Carpathians, Tokaj, and other southern regions. The breeding of livestock, including pigs, cattle, sheep, and poultry is also important.
Slovakia produced in 2018:

1.9 million tons of wheat;
1.5 million tons of maize;
1.3 million tons of sugar beet (the beet is used to manufacture sugar and ethanol);
486 thousand tons of barley;
480 thousand tons of rapeseed;
201 thousand tons of sunflower seed;
169 thousand tons of potato;
104 thousand tons of soybean;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like grape (52 thousand tons).


== Information technology ==
In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Slovakia. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, Amazon, Johnson Controls, Swiss Re and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres in Bratislava and Košice (T-Systems, Cisco Systems, Ness, Deloitte). Slovak IT companies, including ESET, Sygic and Pixel Federation have headquarters in Bratislava.


== Innovation ==
According to a recent report by the European Commission, Slovakia (along with some other Central and Eastern European economies) is low on the list of EU states in terms of innovation (Slovakia ranks 22nd). Within the EU, it ranks next to last on knowledge creation and last for innovation and entrepreneurship. In the process of transition to a knowledge economy, it particularly lacks investment into education and a broader application of IT. The World Bank urges Slovakia to upgrade information infrastructure and reform the education system. The OECD states that a stronger product market competition would help.
In March 2006, the Slovak government introduced new measures to implement the Action Plan for R&D and Innovation. The program covers the period from 2006 to 2010. The RDA is expected to launch at least one call for the expression of interests related to this program each year. The annual budget for the program will be set by the RDA. The overall amount available for the program depends on annual national budget resources and is likely to vary from year to year. Following an increase of around 50% in budget resources, the RDA disposes of a total budget of €19.31 million in 2006.


== Labour ==
The minimum wage in Slovakia in 2023 is set at €700 per month, the average salary for 2021 was € 1211  per month, in the Bratislava region in 2021 the average salary was €1520 per month. As of June 2023 the unemployment rate stood at 6.2%.


== Statistics ==
Currency switch to the euro
Slovakia switched its currency from the Slovak crown (SK – slovenská koruna) to the Euro on 1 January 2009, at a rate of 30.1260 korunas to the euro.
Foreign trade


== Companies ==
In 2022, the sector  with the highest number of companies registered in Slovakia is Services with 227,424 companies followed by Retail Trade and Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate with 39,324 and 37,784 companies respectively.


== See also ==
Tatra Tiger
List of Slovak regions by GDP
List of Slovak companies
Economy of Europe


== References ==


== External links ==
OECD's Slovakia country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Slovakia
Economy of Slovakia from The World Factbook
Slovakia report (monitor 2005)
Slovakia report[unfit] (Index of Economic Freedom)
Slovakia in selected macro-economic numbers
Background note Slovakia (incl. economy)"
Supyire language,"Supyire, or Suppire, is a Senufo language spoken in the Sikasso Region of southeastern Mali and in adjoining regions of Ivory Coast. In their native language, the noun sùpyìré means both ""the people"" and ""the language spoken by the people"".


== Background ==
 The early existence of Supyire is unclear. During the time period in which the language developed, it has been hypothesized that there was little conflict in the region which resulted in a significant amount of separation between the ancestors of the Supyire and other cultures of the area. If individuals speaking a single language migrated to the region of present-day Mali and then broke off into small groups that had little connection, it would be expected that the languages would develop different characteristics over time. Recently, close contact with other tribes has resulted in a dictionary full of loan words that have been assimilated into everyday language. Education has affected cultural language in this area. Although few are literate, many children attend primary school where a mixture of languages can be presented. There is ongoing controversy over the use of ""mother tongues"" in schools. Current law states that primary schools educate in the mother tongue whereas secondary schools emphasize the use of a common language.
The language group of Senufo can be divided into northern, central, and southern branches, with Supyire being classified as the southernmost northern Senufo language. The Senufo language group, with approximately 2. 2 million speakers, extends from the southwest corner of Mali and covers a significant portion of the northern Ivory Coast. There are also isolated pockets of this language group in Burkina Faso and Ghana.  As a group, the Senufo people are considered to be one of the oldest ethnic groups of the Ivory Coast, having settled there in the early 17th century. It is hypothesized that the Senufo descended from the Kenedugu people, who ruled over Mali and Burkina Faso during the 17th century. It was this culture that established the village of Sikasso, which now stands as the cultural center for the Supyire people. Sikasso was the last city to fall into French control during their invasion of Mali in 1888. Mali existed under French Colonial rule as the nation of French Sudan. In 1958, French Sudan claimed autonomy and was renamed the Sudanese Republic. In 1960 the Sudanese Republic became the independent country of Mali.
As a group of people, the Supyire survive by cultivating the landscape. Individuals make a living off of the land, primarily by cultivating yams, millet, and sorghum, a tradition that has perpetuated through their ancestral history. With the integration of agricultural processes from neighboring cultures, bananas and manioc have also been successfully cultivated. Care of livestock, including chickens, sheep, goats, and guinea fowl, provides a significant source of nutrition. In this culture, wealth is correlated to the number and quality of livestock as opposed to money. Both hunting and fishing are also important, although to a much smaller degree. Although the Supyire have risen above the level of hunter-gatherer, their traditional mode of organization has not risen above the village level. In Supyire culture it is rare that any single person holds excessive power and there are only two traditional classes- the laborers and the farmers.
As a culture, the Supyire, and most Senufo groups, are most known for their artwork. Artisans in these communities are regarded to the highest degree. Most artwork consists of sculptures used to bring deities to life. Animal figures such as zebras, crocodiles, and giraffes are very common. Storytelling also plays a significant role in this culture and one of the first written documents of the Supyire was a story entitled ""Warthog’s Laughter Teeth"". The Senufo practice of female circumcision has made this culture recognizable on a worldwide level. The practice of female circumcision, done for cultural or religious reasons, is meant to mark a rite of passage as girls become women. In these cultures, men are also expected to go through various rites of passage. The predominant religion of the region is Muslim, although most ""bushmen"" tend to instead place their faith in human-like gods. Worshipping of deceased ancestors is also common.


== Phonology ==


=== Consonants ===

Supyire has a voicing distinction and contains a glottal stop, a common characteristic in African languages. However, it does not have labial–velar consonants.
Voiceless stops have particular limitations and are only used in three environments: word initial, such as tàcwɔ̀ (""fiancée""); medially in a stressed syllable, as in nupéé; or following a nasal, such as in kàntugo (""behind""). Moreover, almost every word-initial /ɡ/ is found in loanwords from either French or Bambara.
Although both voiceless and voiced fricatives are found, voiceless fricatives such as /f/ and /s/ are much more common than the voiced fricatives /v/, /z/, and /ʒ/.
There is no labial approximant.
In speech, /w/ does not come after a short stressed syllable.: p. 17 
Although Supyire contains nasal consonants, there is considerable debate over their phonemic status. According to a well-formulated hypothesis, the predecessor of Supyire had no nasal consonants but nasalized vowels did exist. Some linguists thus categorize nasal consonants as simple variants of the approximants that occur before nasal vowels.
Supyire is reported to have the rare uvular flap as an allophone of /ɡ/ in unstressed syllables.: p. 10  This parallels /d/ surfacing as [ɾ] in the same environment.: p. 10 


=== Vowels ===

Supyire has 12 vowels in total, with seven oral vowels and five nasal vowels (which are indicated by an n after the vowel). Two oral vowels, /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are not as well-established as the other five because the difference between /ɛ/ and /a/ is neutralized and, when speaking quickly, it is very difficult to distinguish between /ɑ/, a variant of /ɔ/, and /a/. It does appear that some speakers preferentially choose one pronunciation over the other, although some do use both pronunciations and some use a variant somewhere in the middle.
Vowel harmony is also important in the Supyire language. This is done by harmonizing unstressed vowels with the initial stressed vowel if they both belong to the same root or have the same suffix.


=== Syllables ===
Supyire has a noticeable syllable structure that includes no closed syllables. In Supyire, syllables are most often either CV or CVV although the pronouns u and uru both begin with a vowel. Supyire words also tend to have only one stressed syllable in every root. Stress is most often placed on the initial syllable of a root although many roots exist with no stress on the first syllable. Affixes and other grammatical sounds, such as those that indicate pronouns, do not have stress.


=== Tone ===
Supyire is tonal (common in African languages).
The language has four basic tones: high, low, strong mid, and weak mid. While the high and low tones are unremarkable, the two mid tones are only differentiated by differences in their behavior when referencing tone rules, and not by their pitch. These unusual mid tones are found in all northern Senufo languages but not in central Senufo languages, which only have three tones. 

high tone is indicated by an acute accent: á é ɛ́ í ó ɔ́ ú;
mid tone is indicated by no diacritic : a e ɛ i o ɔ u;
low tone is indicated by a grave accent : à è ɛ̀ ì ò ɔ̀ ù;
the other mid (high-low) is indicated by a circumflex : â ê ɛ̂ î ô ɔ̂ û.
Most vowels in the Supyire language contain a single tone although vowels may have two, or in extremely rare cases three, tones. Further, nasals that come before stops can only have one tone. Basic noun gender suffixes, imperfective verb suffixes, the causative verb suffix –g followed by a vowel, and the intransitive verb prefix N- are considered toneless.
It was noted that boys who spent their days herding cows communicated with each other strictly through whistled language, which only elaborated vowel length and pitch. These small pieces of information were enough to have conversations of considerable detail.


== Morphology ==


=== Class system ===
The noun class system of Supyire is similar to that of other languages in the Niger–Congo family. This system includes eight noun classes that are grouped into five noun genders. While there is noun class agreement between pronouns and their head nouns, there is no verb agreement. However, there is agreement between quantifiers (such as determiners and independent adjectives) and the head noun.
The gender system of Supyire does differ slightly from the gender systems of other similar languages. Bantu, also a subgroup of Niger–Congo languages, places different forms of the same word into varying gender classes. For example, the Swahili word for friend is rafiki and it is a class 9 noun. However, the plural form marafiki belongs to noun class 6. This confusion over noun class distinction does not occur in any Senufo language, Supyire included.
In Supyire, gender 1 is categorized as the ""human"" gender. Instead of classifying loan words by their definition, those who speak Supyire tend to classify loan words by their suffixes and thus most loan words, regardless of meaning, are placed into gender 1. More than half of the dictionary of gender one nouns is loan words. Nouns found in this category range from general human terms such as ceewe (""woman"") and pyà (""child"") to terms that describe relationships such as nafentu (""wife's father""). Also found in this category are terms that describe people such as ŋaŋa (""twin"") or cevoo (""friend""). Gender 1 also contains class terms and occupational terms such as ciiwe (""leather-worker""), tunntun (""blacksmith"") and sòròlashí (""soldier""). Supernatural entities are also categorized into the human gender. The word for god, kile, is categorized as a gender 1 noun. This gender also contains some ""higher"" animals and mass nouns such as dust and sand.
Gender 2 is typically described as the category that contains nouns that are ""big things"" while gender 3 contains nouns of ""small things"". Thus, gender 2 includes, for example, trees and tree parts such as cige (""tree""), logo (""shea tree""), and weŋe (""leaf""). Also included in gender 2 are large, immovable objects such as baga (""house, building""), caanga (""market"") and kacige (""bridge"") and most large animals. Gender 2 contains nouns that describe desires such as katege (""hunger"") and byaga (""thirst""). Gender 3 contains small animals such as lùpààn (""mosquito""). Gender 4 is known as the ""collectives"" category and contains mass nouns and abstract nouns. Some examples of mass nouns are pworo (""adobe"") and kyara (""meat""). Abstracts are used to convey emotional states and include words such as sícyere (""insanity"") and wyere (""cold""). The final category of noun gender 5 contains nouns for liquids. For example, this is the gender of sìnmε (""beer"") and jirimε (""milk""). 
In Supyire, gender is marked by suffixes. Basic gender suffixes in Supyire most often have the form –CV, seen in six of the eight classes. Suffixes in this instance are toneless. The first three gender systems include both singular and plural forms while gender 4 and 5 do not. For example, singular gender 1 nouns employ the suffix –wV, singular gender 2 nouns use –gV normally, singular gender 3 nouns employ –lV, gender 4 nouns use the basic suffix –rV, and gender 5 uses –mV as a suffix. Plural gender 1 nouns do not adhere so strictly to the rules and can vary in consonant usage. However, all end in –ii or –íí.


=== Verb morphology ===
Although Niger–Congo languages tend to have complicated verb morphology systems, Supyire does not follow this trend. There are only four types of affixes seen in the Supyire language- verb prefixes, imperfective aspect suffixes, the causative suffix, and the plural or intensive suffix. The language of Supyire also uses verb compounding, although the system is very basic. Supyire is both a prefixing and suffixing language. There are two verb prefixes used in Supyire- an intransitive prefix and a future prefix. The perfect and recent past do not have prefixes. The intransitive prefix is marked only by a toneless nasal, and only exists with verbs that begin with voiceless stops. The prefix depends on the location of the direct object in a sentence (see below, examples C and D). This is exemplified by the following:

Pi màha shya aní

Alternatively, the future prefix is used with verbs that apply a future time reference. In conjunction with certain verb prefixes, the auxiliaries sí and cáá are also used. It also differs from the first prefix in that it uses a distinct tone and it appears on all verbs, not just those beginning with voiceless stops. Just as with the intransitive prefix, the future prefix uses a nasal attached to a verb that is not preceded by a direct object. As an example:


=== Adjectives ===
Supyire does not include many adjectives, since most adjectives can be represented by the use of stative verbs instead. However, a small group of adjectives do exist. Adjectives are created in two ways in Supyire: either by compounding or by using derived adjectives.  The following are examples of adjectival roots and root compounding:

a. Root: -fu- (""hot"")
b. kafee-fu-go  (""hot wind"")


== Syntax ==


=== Sentence structure ===
Although almost all Niger–Congo languages have a sentence structure that follows the subject–verb–object pattern, Supyire and other Senufo languages do not follow in this way. Instead, these languages are verb-final and most often are subject–object–verb. The following examples provide evidence for this sentence structure:


== Number system ==
The number system of the Supyire people has short words (monomorphemic forms) for the numbers 1 through 5, 10, 20, 80, and 400.: p. 167  The numbers 6 through 9 are formed by combining the prefix baa–, meaning ""five,"" with the words for 1 through 4, or shortened versions of them.: p. 167  For example, the word for ""six"" is baa-nì, ""five and one."" The word for 80, ŋ`kùù, is formally and etymologically identical to the word for ""chicken""; this identity is inexplicable to native speakers of the language but may relate to a historical price for a chicken.: p. 167 
All Supyire numbers use gender 1, except for ""four hundred,"" which uses gender 3.: pp. 167–169 
As their traditional numbers are complex, the Supyire increasingly use the decimal system of the neighboring Bambara people. As is true in other languages in the region, numerals that refer to money (in this instance, the CFA franc) are counted in groups of five.: p. 169 


== See also ==
Senufo languages
Sucite language
Cebaara language


== Sources ==
Carlson, Robert. (1991). Of postpositions and word order in Senufo languages. Approaches to Grammaticalization, 2, 201-223.
Carlson, Robert. (1994). A grammar of Supyire. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
Comrie, Bernard, Matthews, Stephen, & Polinsky, Maria. (2003). Chapter 4: Africa and the Middle East. In The Atlas of Languages (pp. 72–89). London: Piers Spence.
Garber-Kompaore, Anne. (1987). A Tonal Analysis of Senufo: Sucite dialect . Dissertation Abstracts, 1. Retrieved December 1, 2008, from University of Illinois Web site:
Nurse, Derek, & Heine, Bernd. (2000).  African Languages. London: Cambridge University Press.
Pike, Kenneth. (1964). Tone Languages: A Technique . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Trudell, Barbara. (2007, September). Local community perspectives and language education in sub-Saharan African communities. International Journal of Educational Development, 27(5), 552-563.


== References ==


== External links ==
""Genitive focus in Supyire"" (PDF). (324 KB)
""Interroɡative pronouns in Supyire"" (PDF). (121 KB)
Resources in Supyiré from SIL Mali"
August R. Lindt,"Dr. August Rudolf Lindt (5 August 1905 – 14 April 2000), also known as Auguste R. Lindt, was a Swiss lawyer and diplomat. He served as Chairman of UNICEF in 1953 and as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from 1956 to 1960.


== Family ==
Lindt was born in Bern, Switzerland, the son of August Ludwig Lindt, a pharmacist and chocolate manufacturer, and Lina Rüfenacht. He was the nephew of Rudolf Lindt of Lindt & Sprüngli.
Lindt was married four times. Through his second marriage he was son-in-law to Major-General Lionel Charles Dunsterville, a life-long friend of Rudyard Kipling and inspiration for the character of Stalky in Kipling's Stalky & Co. His third marriage was to Ileana Maria Pociovălişteanu Bulova, widow of Arde Bulova, Chairman of the Bulova Watch Company.


== Character ==
As a result of Lindt's strong personality, his independence and extensive international experience, he is regarded as one of Switzerland's most important figures of the 20th century. His career, which extended far beyond mere diplomacy, was closely linked to contemporary Swiss and international history. His life was shaped by his moral courage and his commitment to freedom, democracy and human rights. The newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung described August R. Lindt as increasingly representing Switzerland's moral conscience.
Switzerland's humanitarian tradition was not always official policy, but it often grew out of resistance. Lindt managed to combine the two. His views were not always well received. For example, several Swiss politicians were outraged that, as a Swiss representative at the UN's International Conference on Human Rights in 1968, he morally condemned the apartheid system. As Commissioner General of the ICRC for the Nigeria-Biafra aid operation, he reported the Bührle company's arms deliveries to Nigeria to the Swiss Federal Council, which later led to the so-called Bührle scandal.
In 1987 he publicly campaigned against what he saw as the dismantling of the right to asylum, and in later life he warned against a hardening of political attitudes towards real refugees.


== Early career ==
In 1928 Lindt earned a Doctorate in Law from the University of Bern with a dissertation on Soviet corporate law. Later in life he received honorary doctorates from the Universities of Geneva and Wilmington, Delaware, United States.
Between 1928 and 1930, Lindt worked in banks in Paris and London, something he later said himself he was not at all suited, making numerous embarrassing mistakes and costing his employers dearly.
During Lindt's time in Paris, he met two Russian émigrés, André Galitzine and Boris Kaufman, and produced and financed their first film, an early social documentary short called Les Halles centralle (c. 1929). Kaufman went on to become a cinematographer who shot for Jean Vigo (L'Atalante) and helped introduce a neo-realistic style into American films, including On the Waterfront and 12 Angry Men. He won two Oscars.


== Journalism ==
Between 1932 and 1939, Lindt was based in London working as a foreign correspondent for Swiss, German and British newspapers. His work took him to Manchuria, Liberia, Palestine, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and Romania. During the winter of 1939–1940, he was a war correspondent with Finnish forces during the Russo-Finnish War. Lindt's experience of how a small population could resist a strong aggressor had a strong influence on his later advocacy of radical measures for Swiss resistance during the Second World War.
Whilst in England he met and married his second wife, Susannah Dunsterville, while she was a member of the Old Vic Theatre Company. The couple had three children.


== Second World War ==
Upon the outbreak of the Second World War Lindt joined the Swiss horse mounted cavalry as a corporal before in 1941 joining Swiss military intelligence for the rest of the war.


== Part in the Swiss Resistance Movement ==


=== Offiziersverschwörung (Officers' Conspiracy) ===
In 1940, following the fall of much of Europe, including France and the Netherlands, an ambiguous radio address by Swiss Federal President Marcel Pilet-Golaz was taken by many as signalling a potential weakening of the government and army's resolve in the face of what appeared to be an imminent Nazi invasion. This and other government broadcasts also appeared to reflect a growing impatience from conservatives with the slowness of the Swiss system and their desire for a more authoritarian style of government. Consequently, Corporal Lindt together with several officers gathered in secret and formulated a plan to, if necessary, take control of the army, ensuring it would continue to fight even if the government and the army leadership capitulated. They drew up a manifesto at the meeting which called for unconditional armed resistance and the renewal of Switzerland based on the following basic principles: military comradeship and discipline, the federal principle of democracy, the unconditional respect for the individual and the family, and the rejection of a totalitarian state.
However, whilst arranging a follow-up meeting, news of the Offiziersverschwörung and its intentions accidentally got out, and several members were arrested and imprisoned, initially suspected of being part of a defeatist organization and for high treason. Lindt, who had escaped arrest, made a direct appeal on the group's behalf to politician Hans Oprecht and through him to General Guisan, the commander of the Swiss army. He informed them of the group's true motivations and objectives. This directly led to the prisoners' sentences being reduced, and ultimately all were pardoned and reinstated to their previous positions. In an extraordinary final move, members of the group were given direct unfettered access to General Guisan, in spite of repeated calls for their dismissal from the Federal President Pilet-Golaz. As the officers' objectives were broadly in line with the majority of political and civilian opinion at the time, it has been questioned by historian Willi Gautschi whether the term coup as an objective of the group is really appropriate. Many members, including Lindt, continued to form and be part of other secret resistance groups protecting the principal of Switzerland's armed-neutrality, such as the Aktion Nationaler Widerstand.


=== Heer und Haus (Army and Home) ===
From 1941 to the end of the war, Lindt was head of the Civil Reconnaissance Service in the Heer und Haus division of the Swiss Army Command. Heer und Haus was conceived by intelligence operative Hans Hausamann and Lindt, using his background in journalism. The division was Switzerland's most important tool in building and strengthening the morale to defend and resist among the Swiss army and civilian population. It did this by developing and maintaining the bond of Swissness across a nation which included a German-speaking majority in the face of Aryan propaganda and Nazi aggression. Heer und Haus provided entertainment and sporting activities for soldiers and shows and festivals for civilians. Most importantly, there were weekly public lectures on the war, including the current military situation and the ongoing will to fight. Lecturers stated clearly that Hitler was the enemy and left people who attended the lectures to spread the word. In this way, an entire communications network pervaded the country completely free of the national press censorship. This was done in the full knowledge that anything written or published would be seized on by the Germans as a violation of Swiss-declared neutrality and justification in their eyes for an invasion.
Immediately after the war, Lindt made his first move into humanitarian work. He took part in organizing the Swiss donation for the benefit of shattered Europe and went to a devastated Berlin as a delegate for the International Red Cross (ICRC) to set up the committee's activities in the Soviet occupation zone.
In 1946 Lindt was appointed press and culture attaché posted to the Swiss embassy in London.


== Work for the United Nations and the UNHCR ==
From 1953 to 1956, Lindt was the Swiss Permanent Observer to the United Nations in New York. During this time he was Chairman of UNICEF and President of the United Nations Opium Conference.
In 1956 Lindt led the Swiss delegation for the International Atomic Energy Agency.
In 1956 he was appointed as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the second person to hold the office after Gerrit Jan van Heuven Goedhart, and served until 1960.
In his time as High Commissioner, Lindt and his office faced several international refugee crises, including large scale exoduses caused by the Hungarian Uprising in the first few months in his post and the ongoing Algerian War. These emerged alongside the High Commission's principal objective of resettling the 70,000 displaced people still living in 200 refugee camps across Europe following the war. Twenty-five per cent of the population of these Camps of Misery were children under 14. In addition to the camps in Europe, there were tens of thousands more people displaced as a result of the war in China and the Middle East. This was the most serious and embarrassing residual social and humanitarian problem of the Second World War. The worldwide publicity given the Hungarians drew international attention to the shameful conditions these stateless people were living.
In 1957 the General Assembly formally gave the UNHCR and Lindt a wider and more flexible role to address existing 'old' refugee problems but also 'new' current ones, and no longer just in Europe but worldwide. Finally, they gave his office due for redundancy the following year another five years.
The international satisfaction at the UNHCR and Lindt's pragmatic approach to the Hungarian crisis led to an outbreak of goodwill which was built upon with the declaration of 1959–1960 as United Nations World Refugee Year. The Year sought to encourage UN member states to continue to focus on the refugee problem, make additional financial contributions and to develop further humanitarian solutions for refugee settlement. It began in June 1959 with 52 countries participating, increasing to 72 countries and 6 territories by the end of 1959. However, clearing Europe's Camps of Misery took longer than many, including Lindt, had hoped and was not fully achieved until the mid-sixties.
The UNHCR under Lindt also began to take greater responsibility for refugees in the developing world and to de facto widen the UNHCR's refugee definition. Consequently, it received more recognition and support from governments such as the United States and Soviet Union for the role it could play in providing solutions across the globe.


== Later career ==
Lindt served as the ambassador of Switzerland to the United States from 1960 to 1962 in Washington during the Kennedy administration. He was then ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1966 to 1969.


=== Nigerian-Biafra War ===
In 1968 Lindt was seconded by the Swiss government to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) following their request for him to act as their commissioner-general during the Nigerian-Biafra Civil War. As a consequence of his experience and effectiveness at the UNHCR, he was given full control and responsibility for all aid operations, acting fully independently yet in the name of the ICRC. Initially deemed a great success including delivering nightly flights of relief supplies, ultimately there was culture clash between Lindt and the agency. ICRC felt Lindt excluded them from important decision making and was sometimes too radical in his methods, even driven by an obvious desire for effectiveness. His resolve to treat the Nigerian government and the Biafan authorities on an equal footing caused further widespread friction. Even though this and his strong enterprising personality was finally seen as being overall beneficial to the operation, it also contributed to an unfortunate hardening of the Nigerian government's attitude to the ICRC. As a result of this and other external factors, in the end, Lindt was arrested and expelled by the Nigerian government in 1969. The Nigerian discontent became focused on the personality of Lindt, described by some in the government as being too authoritarian and arrogant. This resulted in a lesson for the ICRC and other similar agencies which was the risk of associating an operation with a single individual. However, for Nigerian-Biafra the lesson came too late, and the ICRC were stripped of their role as operations controller in June 1969.
Upon his return to the Swiss Diplomatic Service Lindt was then appointed Swiss Ambassador to Mongolia, India and Nepal.
Between 1971 and 1977 Lindt was President of the Swiss international children's charity, known today as Enfants du Monde.
Lindt was an adviser to the President of Rwanda from 1972 to 1975.


== References ==


== Literature ==
Rolf Wilhelm (ed.): August R. Lindt: Patriot und Weltbürger. Haupt Verlag, Bern 2003, ISBN 978-3-258-06527-4."
List of marine protected areas of California,"There are both state and federal marine protected areas off the coast of California.


== Federal marine protected areas ==
California Coastal National Monument
Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary
Chumash Heritage National Marine Sanctuary
Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary
Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary


== State marine protected areas ==
Unless otherwise stated the source is the California Department of Fish and Wildlife. The list is ordered north to south with some imprecision around the San Francisco Bay and Channel Islands locations.

Pyramid Point State Marine Conservation Area, Del Norte County
Point St. George Reef Offshore State Marine Conservation Area, Del Norte County
Southwest Seal Rock Special Closure, Del Norte County
Castle Rock Special Closure, Del Norte County
False Klamath Rock Special Closure, Del Norte County
Reading Rock State Marine Conservation Area, Humboldt County
Reading Rock State Marine Reserve, Humboldt County
Samoa State Marine Conservation Area, Humboldt County
South Humboldt Bay State Marine Recreational Management Area, Humboldt County
Sugarloaf Island Special Closure, Humboldt County
South Cape Mendocino State Marine Reserve, Humboldt County
Steamboat Rock Special Closure, Humboldt County
Mattole Canyon State Marine Reserve, Humboldt County
Sea Lion Gulch State Marine Reserve, Humboldt County
Big Flat State Marine Conservation Area, Humboldt County
Double Cone Rock State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Rockport Rocks Special Closure, Mendocino County
Vizcaino Rock Special Closure, Mendocino County
Ten Mile State Marine Reserve,  Mendocino County
Ten Mile Beach State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Ten Mile Estuary State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
MacKerricher State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Point Cabrillo State Marine Reserve, Mendocino County
Russian Gulch State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Big River Estuary State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Van Damme State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Navarro River Estuary State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Point Arena State Marine Reserve, Mendocino County
Point Arena State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Sea Lion Cove State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Saunders Reef State Marine Conservation Area, Mendocino County
Del Mar Landing State Marine Reserve, Sonoma County
Stewarts Point State Marine Conservation Area, Sonoma County
Stewarts Point State Marine Reserve, Sonoma County
Salt Point State Marine Conservation Area, Sonoma County
Gerstle Cove State Marine Reserve, Sonoma County
Russian River State Marine Recreational Management Area, Sonoma County
Russian River State Marine Conservation Area, Sonoma County
Bodega Head State Marine Reserve, Sonoma County
Estero Americano State Marine Recreational Management Area, Sonoma County
Corte Madera Marsh State Marine Park, Marin County
Marin Islands State Marine Park, Marin County
Estero de San Antonio State Marine Recreational Management Area, Marin County
Point Reyes State Marine Reserve, Marin County
Point Reyes State Marine Conservation Area, Marin County
Point Reyes Headlands Special Closure, Marin County
Estero de Limantour State Marine Reserve, Marin County
Drakes Estero State Marine Conservation Area, Marin County
Point Resistance Rock Special Closure, Marin County
Double Point/Stormy Stack Special Closure, Marin County
Duxbury Reef State Marine Conservation Area, Marin County
Fagan Marsh State Marine Park, Napa County
Peytonia Slough State Marine Park, Solano County
Albany Mudflats State Marine Park, Alameda County
Robert W. Crown State Marine Conservation Area, Alameda County
North Farallon Island State Marine Reserve, San Francisco County
North Farallon Islands Special Closure, San Francisco County
Southeast Farallon Island State Marine Reserve, San Francisco County
Southeast Farallon Island State Marine Conservation Area, San Francisco County
Southeast Farallon Island Special Closure, San Francisco County
Egg (Devil's Slide) Rock to Devil's Slide Special Closure, TK County
Montara State Marine Reserve, San Mateo County
Pillar Point State Marine Conservation Area, San Mateo County
Egg (Devil's Slide) Rock to Devil's Slide Special Closure, San Mateo County
Redwood Shores State Marine Park, San Mateo County
Bair Island State Marine Park, San Mateo County
Año Nuevo State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Cruz County
Greyhound Rock State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Cruz  County
Natural Bridges State Marine Reserve, Santa Cruz County
Elkhorn Slough State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Elkhorn Slough State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Moro Cojo Slough State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Soquel Canyon State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Portuguese Ledge State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Edward F. Ricketts State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Lovers Point State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Pacific Grove Marine Gardens State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Asilomar State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Carmel Pinnacles State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Carmel Bay State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Point Lobos State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Point Lobos State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Point Sur State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Point Sur State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Big Creek State Marine Reserve, Monterey County
Big Creek State Marine Conservation Area, Monterey County
Piedras Blancas State Marine Reserve, San Luis Obispo County
Piedras Blancas State Marine Conservation Area, San Luis Obispo County
Cambria State Marine Conservation Area, San Luis Obispo County
White Rock (Cambria) State Marine Conservation Area, San Luis Obispo County
Morro Bay State Marine Reserve, San Luis Obispo County
Morro Bay State Marine Recreational Management Area, San Luis Obispo County
Point Buchon State Marine Reserve, San Luis Obispo County
Point Buchon State Marine Conservation Area, San Luis Obispo County
Vandenberg State Marine Reserve, Santa Barbara County
Kashtayit State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Barbara County
Naples State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Barbara County
Campus Point State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Barbara County
Goleta Slough State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Barbara County
Richardson Rock State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve)
Santa Barbara Island State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve), Santa Barbara Island, Santa Barbara County
Footprint State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve)
Scorpion State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve), Santa Cruz Island, Santa Barbara County
Gull Island State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve), Santa Cruz Island, Santa Barbara County
Painted Cave State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Cruz Island, Santa Barbara County
South Point State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve), Santa Rosa Island, Santa Barbara County
Skunk Point State Marine Reserve, Santa Rosa Island, Santa Barbara County
Carrington Point State Marine Reserve, Santa Rosa Island, Santa Barbara County
Judith Rock State Marine Reserve, San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara County
San Miguel Island Special Closure, San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara County
Harris Point State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve), San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara County
Begg Rock State Marine Reserve, Ventura County
Anacapa State Marine Reserve (also Federal Marine Reserve), Anacapa Island; Ventura County
Anacapa Island State Marine Conservation Area (also Federal Marine Conservation Area), Anacapa Island, Ventura County
Anacapa Island Special Closure, Anacapa Island, Ventura County
Cat Harbor State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Farnsworth Onshore State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Farnsworth Offshore State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Lover's Cove State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Casino Point State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Long Point State Marine Reserve, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Blue Cavern Onshore State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Blue Cavern Offshore State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Arrow Point to Lion Head Point State Marine Conservation Area, Santa Catalina Island, Los Angeles County
Point Dume State Marine Conservation Area, Los Angeles County
Point Dume State Marine Reserve, Los Angeles County
Point Vicente State Marine Conservation Area, Los Angeles County
Abalone Cove State Marine Conservation Area, Los Angeles County
Bolsa Bay State Marine Conservation Area, Orange County
Bolsa Chica Basin State Marine Conservation Area, Orange County
Upper Newport Bay State Marine Conservation Area, Orange County
Crystal Cove State Marine Conservation Area, Orange County
Laguna Beach State Marine Reserve, Orange County
Laguna Beach State Marine Conservation Area, Orange County
Dana Point State Marine Conservation Area, Orange County
Batiquitos Lagoon State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
Swami's State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
San Elijo Lagoon State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
San Dieguito Lagoon State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
San Diego-Scripps Coastal State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
Matlahuayl State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
South La Jolla State Marine Reserve, San Diego County
South La Jolla State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
Famosa Slough State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County
Cabrillo State Marine Reserve, San Diego County
Tijuana River Mouth State Marine Conservation Area, San Diego County


=== Areas of Special Biological Significance (ASBS) ===
There are 34 Areas of Special Biological Significance (ASBS) off the coast of California. These are marine areas that ""support an unusual variety of aquatic life, and often host unique individual species"" that are monitored for water quality by the California State Water Resources Control Board.

Region 1 – North Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board
Pygmy Forest Ecological Staircase Area of Special Biological Significance - Mendocino County
Del Mar Landing Ecological Reserve - Sonoma County
Gerstle Cove - Sonoma County
Bodega Marine Life Refuge - Sonoma County
Kelp Beds at Saunders Reef Area of Special Biological Significance - Mendocino County
Kelp Beds at Trinidad Head Area of Special Biological Significance - Humboldt County
Kings Range National Conservation Area of Special Biological Significance - Humboldt and Mendocino Counties
Redwoods National Park Area of Special Biological Significance - Del Norte and Humboldt Counties
Region 2 – San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board
James V. Fitzgerald Marine Reserve Area of Special Biological Significance - San Mateo County
Farallon Islands Area of Special Biological Significance - San Francisco County
Duxbury Reef Reserve and Extension Area of Special Biological Significance - Marin County
Point Reyes Headland Reserve and Extension Area of Special Biological Significance - Marin County
Double Point Area of Special Biological Significance - Marin County
Bird Rock Area of Special Biological Significance - Marin County
Region 3 – Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board
Año Nuevo Point and Island Area of Special Biological Significance - San Mateo County
Point Lobos Ecological Reserve Area of Special Biological Significance - Monterey County
San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz Islands Area of Special Biological Significance - Santa Barbara County
Julia Pfeiffer Burns Underwater Park Area of Special Biological Significance - Monterey County
Pacific Grove Marine Gardens Fish Refuge and Hopkins Marine Life Refuge - Monterey County
Ocean Area Surrounding the Mouth of Salmon Creek Area of Special Biological Significance - Monterey County
Carmel Bay Area of Special Biological Significance
Region 4 – Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board
San Nicolas Island and Begg Rock Area of Special Biological Significance - Ventura County
Santa Barbara Island, Santa Barbara County and Anacapa Island Area of Special Biological Significance - Ventura County
San Clemente Island Area of Special Biological Significance - Los Angeles County
Mugu Lagoon to Latigo Point Area of Special Biological Significance - Los Angeles County
Santa Catalina Island Areas of Special Biological Significance - Los Angeles County
Subarea One, Isthmus Cove to Catalina Head
Subarea Two, North End of Little Harbor to Ben Weston Point
Subarea Three, Farnsworth Bank Ecological Reserve
Subarea Four, Binnacle Rock to Jewfish Point
Region 8 - Santa Ana Regional Water Quality Control Board
Newport Beach Marine Life Refuge Area of Special Biological Significance - Orange County
Irvine Coast Marine Life Refuge Area of Special Biological Significance - Orange County
Region 9 – San Diego Regional Water Quality Control Board
San Diego-La Jolla Ecological Reserve Area of Special Biological Significance - San Diego County
Heisler Park Ecological Reserve Area of Special Biological Significance - San Diego County
San Diego Marine Life Refuge Area of Special Biological Significance - San Diego County


== See also ==
Golden Gate Biosphere Network
List of U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries
List of California Department of Fish and Wildlife protected areas
List of California state parks
Peninsulas of California
Lagoons of California
Lighthouses of California
List of marine protected areas of Oregon
List of marine protected areas of Washington
List of marine protected areas of Hawaii


== References =="
Boys State and Girls State,"The American Legion Boys State and American Legion Auxiliary Girls State are summer leadership and citizenship programs for high school juniors, which focus on exploring the mechanics of American government and politics. The programs are sponsored by the American Legion (AL) and the American Legion Auxiliary (ALA) respectively. Boys and girls are usually nominated by their high school during their junior year. One male student and one female student from each high school are then selected to receive the honor after a competitive application process. Boys and Girls State programs both began in 1937.
Boys/Girls State is typically staffed by Legion Family members, past participants, and/or community leaders who volunteer their time and effort. Administrative costs are defrayed by their state Legion organizations and local businesses.
Each state's program varies, but in general program participants are divided into subgroups referred to as cities or towns.  Most programs will assign citizens to one of two political parties. These parties are generally not representative of existing American parties. Delegates in many programs meet as parties and craft their own unique party platforms from scratch. Some parties carry their platforms over from year to year. Although most programs assign citizens randomly to a political party, a few programs have an ideological sorting mechanism to place delegates in a political party with others holding similar views. The citizens of each of these cities elect mock municipal officials, county officials, and representatives to the mock state legislature. Many programs also have a county level as well. The participants also elect state officials, such as governor, lieutenant governor, and other state-level officials mirroring their actual state. The legislature meets to organize, elect leaders, and to pass bills, in a way that is similar to how their actual state legislature operates. Some programs tend to have a more traditional education focus, providing speakers and training throughout the week and then concluding with mock political functions. Other programs take a more hands-on approach by running the mock government activities all week. American Legion chaplains host an interdenominational Christian church service for participants on Sunday, prior to graduation from Boys State or Girls State.
All programs generally follow a similar pattern, but vary by state. Some states (e.g. Nebraska) hold mock trials with the participants volunteering as lawyers, accused, and juries. Some states include a journalism component that represents the Fourth Estate in the political process. North Dakota includes a classroom-based emergency management simulation that requires participants to respond to various large-scale disasters by managing communication, resources and personnel. Other programs include creative and fun activities such as band, choir,  talent shows, and athletic competition. Some of the programs (e.g., New Mexico) host a dance during the week, inviting high school girls/boys from the area to attend. The Oregon program has moved away from using any mock systems to a completely simulated ""State of Christensen"" with its own law and order system that grows yearly and is passed on to the consecutive year.
Boys State and Girls State honors programs are held in each of the U.S. states (except Hawaii where there is only a Girls State program), usually at a college within that state.  There is a coed Boys/Girls State session held in Washington, D.C., which is sponsored by both the American Legion and American Legion Auxiliary. California has a coeducational program called ""California Boys and Girls State"" run by the American Legion. California Girls State continues as a separate program run by the American Legion Auxiliary. With exceptions, including but not limited to California, male and female programs are held separately, but at least nine states—Georgia, Nebraska, Oregon, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Maine, and Missouri—host Boys and Girls State on the same campus on the same week.


== Selection ==
Selection varies by state and by girls or boys state program. Historically, in most states, only one or two students are sent to Boys/Girls State from each high school. Therefore, selection is highly competitive, and the population of students attending represents the top talent from across the state. 
Although recruitment procedures vary, Boys/Girls State participants are often selected with the help of high school principals or guidance counselors. Participants must be between their junior and senior years in high school to qualify.


== Benefits ==
Because the hundreds of students at any given Boys/Girls State represent the top talent of that age year, being elected to a high office, such as governor, at the event can be an important distinguishing achievement for college or military academy admissions.
While each state's offerings differ, many programs offer college credit to those attending Boys/Girls State. Additionally many colleges and universities offer scholarships and other awards to those attending a Boys/Girls State program. Also, the Samsung American Legion Scholarship, which can only be applied for by Boys/Girls State attenders, is an endowed scholarship fund of $5 million administered by the American Legion. In 2010, ten $20,000 scholarships and 88 $1,000 scholarships were awarded to those who completed a Boys/Girls State program. Attendance at Boys State carries the same weight on a résumé as earning the distinction of Eagle Scout, especially when applying to US military schools and academies.


== Events ==
Once there, students typically engage in a number of political activities such as running for office, electing officials, drafting and debating bills, and making motions. Some programs offer city and county mock courts, and a state Supreme Court, with the participants acting as lawyers, judges, plaintiffs, defendants, and jury members. There are lectures and workshops for students to fully immerse themselves in government and politics. Parliamentary procedure (Robert's Rules of Order) is typically utilized.
A majority of programs divide their participants into two political parties: Nationalists and Federalists. Each political party establishes an official party platform voted on by its members. Participants are elected to a variety of offices including House of Representatives and Senate seats, executive offices (governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, treasurer, etc.). Participants also run for city and county offices such as mayor, county clerk, municipal judge, city councilman, and many more depending on the individual program's setup.
Some programs, given their proximity to their state capital, make a field trip to visit and have a tour and meet their representatives, if they are present.
Many programs handle aspects of their individual programs differently from other states. For example, New York Boys' State involves exposure to regimented military experiences, such as early-morning physical training and marching instruction provided by members of the US Marines.
Program directors and counselors meet at the annual American Legion Americanism Conference held in Indianapolis, IN each fall. This offers programs a platform to exchange ideas and best practices. The American Legion Auxiliary has a parallel program held at the same time.


== History ==
The national Boys State movement was founded in 1935 in Illinois by American Legionnaires Hayes Kennedy and Harold Card. At a time when authoritarian regimes were on the rise, the founders were alarmed by the influence of youth programs like the Hitler Youth in Nazi Germany and the Young Pioneer camps in the Soviet Union—programs that promoted loyalty to the state over individual freedom. In response, they created Boys State: a civics and leadership program designed to educate young Americans on the principles of representative democracy and the responsibilities of citizenship. 
The Illinois Department of the American Legion approved Kennedy's and Card's project and in June 1935, the very first Boys State in the nation was held on the grounds of the Illinois State Fair.
As this program succeeded and spread throughout the United States, the American Legion Auxiliary (ALA) began providing similar opportunities for girls of high school age. Thus Girls State was founded. The first Girls State was conducted in 1937 and since 1948 has been a regular part of the ALA's better citizenship programs.
In 1981, Louisiana Boys State delegate Kirk Givens of Tioga High School in Pineville died when he fell or jumped out of his 12th floor Kirby-Smith dorm room window at Louisiana State University while sleepwalking.
A documentary film on the program, focused on 2018 Texas Boys State, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2020. It was released on Apple TV+ on August 14, 2020. A ""sibling"" film about Missouri Girls State was planned to be shot during 2020 but has been delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Filming for the second documentary took place in 2022 and the film Girls State premiered at the Sundance in 2024. The documentary focussed heavily on the gender inequities between the girls state and boys state programes.
In 2023, California Boys State went coed, in part by state law. About a third of the delegates at the inaugural session of California Boys and Girls State were girls. The 300 girls at the program were ineligible for consideration for Boys Nation and the American Legion Auxiliary Girls Nation. Congress and State officials within the California program organized a boycott from Boys Nation, citing that the American Legion's selection for the national program should be based on merit, not gender or sex. A resolution is set to be presented at the Boys Nation Senate, titled ""WOMEN Resolution"" 


== Boys Nation and Girls Nation ==
Since 1947, each Boys State and Girls State program sends two delegates to Boys Nation and Girls Nation in Washington, D.C. Each state chooses their delegates differently. These delegates are sometimes the participants elected to the governor and lieutenant governor positions, but other states have separate elections for the honor, while still other states appoint their delegates through interviews with the Legionnaires who run each state program.
The event endeavors to teach delegates about the processes of federal government in the United States of America, through taking part in a mock Senate and mock elections of a Boys/Girls Nation Senate president pro tempore and secretary, vice president, and president, attending lectures, and visiting governmental institutions and historical sites.


== Notable alumni ==
Notable alumni of the Boys and Girls State programs include:


== See also ==
Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation
Missouri Boys State
Mountaineer Boys State
Model United Nations
MSC Student Conference on National Affairs at Texas A&M University
YMCA Youth & Government


== References ==


== External links ==
National Boys State Directory
National Girls State Directory"
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,"The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) is a weekly epidemiological digest for the United States published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). It was originally established as Weekly Health Index in 1930, changing its title to Weekly Mortality Index in 1941 and Morbidity and Mortality in 1952. It acquired its current name in 1976. It is the main vehicle for publishing public health information and recommendations that have been received by the CDC from state health departments. Material published in the report is in the public domain and may be reprinted without permission. As of 2019, the journal's editor-in-chief is Charlotte Kent.
As noted in the sequel, some single reports have evoked media interest also outside health and medical contexts. However, many reports are parts of series, providing consistent long-term statistics, and also indicating trend changes. Such a standing report section is the ""Notifiable Diseases and Mortality Tables"", which reports deaths by disease and state, and city for city, for 122 large cities. As another example, there are more than a hundred items about West Nile virus infections since the 1999 outbreak of the disease in the US. In 2001–2005, there were weekly updates of the WNV situation, during the warm seasons.


== Publication history ==
MMWR has its roots in the establishment of the Public Health Service (PHS). On January 3, 1896, the Public Health Service began publishing Public Health Reports. Morbidity and mortality statistics were published in Public Health Reports until January 20, 1950, when they were transferred to a new publication of the PHS National Office of Vital Statistics called the Weekly Morbidity Report. In 1952, NOVS changed the name of this publication to the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, which continues through the current day (2020).


== Notable articles ==
Several notable articles have been published in the report including:

The spread of hepatitis A among attendees of jam band concert tours (September 2003)
Several dozen deaths in teens participating in what is called the ""choking game"" (February 2008)
A report about the elevated death rate among fishermen in the Pacific Northwest (April 2008)
Improvements in public health after the implementation of municipal smoking bans (January 2009)
The initial reports of a novel swine flu virus which led to the 2009 flu pandemic (April 24, 2009)
On the other hand, there have been articles that have been controversial, such as a report stating a low concerns for risks of elevated blood levels of lead in Washington, DC (April 2004). The article was notable and later criticized for not emphasizing the risks, and now is available together with two amending ""notices to the readers"" by CDC from 2010.


== First report of AIDS ==
Five cases of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) were reported in what turned out to be the first reporting of AIDS in the medical literature (June 5, 1981). Los Angeles-based general practitioner Joel Weisman and immunologist Michael S. Gottlieb of the UCLA Medical Center had encountered a series of gay male patients with symptoms that appeared to be immune system disorders including significant loss of weight and swollen lymph nodes, accompanied by fever and rashes, in addition to two patients with chronic diarrhea, depressed white blood cell counts and fungal infections. Gottlieb diagnosed these and a number of his other patients as having pneumocystis pneumonia. A report they jointly wrote and published in the June 5, 1981, issue of Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, described their patients as ""5 young men, all active homosexuals, [who] were treated for biopsy-confirmed Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia at 3 different hospitals in Los Angeles, California"" of which ""[t]wo of the patients died"" by the time of the original report. This notice has been recognized as the first published report marking the official start of the AIDS pandemic and as ""the first report on AIDS in the medical literature"".


== Drinking water lead report controversy ==


=== Background ===
Between 2001 and 2003, various tests showed that the lead content in drinking water in Washington DC more that 10% of the tests were higher than 15 ppb (parts per billion), which was the ""action level"" fixed by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for stagnant first draw water, and not indicative of typical usage. Some of the tests were prompted by EPA's lead and copper rule, while others were conducted by professor Marc Edwards, while trying to find the causes of an increased rate of pinhole leaks in copper water pipes. He found some rather high values in a few households, sometimes exceeding 1250 PPM. From 2002 on the matter started to be noted by news media.
Lead is well known to have toxic effects, especially for embryos and small children. Even in small doses, lead poisoning may lead to permanent intelligence deficiencies and concentration difficulties.


=== Report details ===
On March 30, 2004, an ""MMWR dispatch"", Blood Lead Levels in Residents of Homes with Elevated Lead in Tap Water – District of Columbia, 2004 was made available on the MMWR web site. It was then published by CDC as ""MMWR Weekly, April 2, 2004 / 53(12); 268–270"". Its principal author was Mary Jean Brown, who was the head of the lead poisoning branch of CDC. The report ""summarizes the results of the preliminary investigations, which indicated that the elevated water lead levels might have contributed to a small increase in blood lead levels (BLLs)"". The report describes the background, and the various kinds of blood tests it employed, and explicitly states: ""All blood tests were used in this analysis."" There is no mention at all of any test results not being available, not even in the caveat section, where other potential sources of error are discussed.
The report concludes that the high amounts of lead in the drinking water may have led to a slight rise of the blood levels; however, it claimed that ""no children were identified with BLLs >10 μg/dL, even in homes with the highest water lead levels"". It notes that 10 μg/dL was ""CDC's BLL of concern for children"" since 1991. The report also claimed that the average levels were sinking with time. On the other hand, the report found some cases of children with BLLs > 5 μg/dL; and also stated that actually ""no safe BLL has been identified"". Therefore, the report recommends that efforts should be made to eliminate lead in children's blood entirely, and in particular, that the authorities should take measures to ensure that the amount of lead in drinking water always should be less than 15 PPM.
The report does not in itself provide any recommendations to the ordinary Washington, DC inhabitants, but it notes that the District of Columbia Department of Health has ""recommended that young children and pregnant and breast-feeding women refrain from drinking unfiltered tap water"".


=== Criticism of the report ===
The report later was strongly criticized, by Marc Edwards, some news media, and ultimately by the United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology.
Marc Edwards initiated a study, which included investigating health aspects. At first, he was sponsored by EPA; but when they interrupted their support, he financed it out of his own pocket. He claimed that this study, employing raw data also available to the CDC study, had found clear evidence of a correlation between rather high amounts of lead in the water on the one hand, and rather high amounts of lead in the blood of children on the other. Specifically, there were cases known to him, of children with BBL clearly exceeding 10 μg/dL; but these cases were absent from the material presented in the MMWR. Marc Edwards and pediatrician Dana Best of Children's National Medical Center in Washington, actually found a marked increase in high-level results from 2001 to 2004, among small children.
The results of Marc Edwards et al. came from analysis of the same raw data as those underlying the 2004 CDC report. In 2007, Edwards wrote to the CDC's associate director of science, James Stephens, questioning the report's conclusions and methodology, and the competence of its principal author. In 2008, Stephens answered him: ""We have examined CDC's role in the study and have found no evidence of misconduct.""
According to Salon, there was an evident dip in critical year 2003 (when the lead in the drinking water peaked), in the data present in the CDC files, there were test results for 15,755 children in 2002, only 9,765 children in 2003, and 18,038 children in 2004, At the time, Mary Jean Brown had questioned the dip, and had gotten the answer that it was due to a private laboratory not having reported the low values they had found. She had accepted the answer. Salon also claimed that the CDC had found a link between lead pipes and high childhood blood lead levels in the district in 2007, but had not publicized the study.
In 2009, the United States House of Representatives' Science and Technology Committee opened a congressional investigation into the 2004 CDC report. Investigators found that although the CDC and city health department reported dangerous lead levels in 193 children in 2003, the actual number was 486 according to records taken directly from the testing laboratories. In 2010, in their final report, the committee concluded that the CDC knowingly used flawed data in drafting the report, leading to ""scientifically indefensible"" claims in the 2004 paper. It also cited the CDC for failing to publicize later research showing that the harm was more serious than the 2004 report suggested.


=== Response to the criticism ===
The CDC did not withdraw the report, but in 2010 amended it with two ""notices to the readers"", with the following explanations. The CDC maintained that the report essentially is correct, but admitted that the presentation was misleading, as regards the absence of data, and as regards the claim that no children with BLLs above the alert threshold 10 μg/dL were found. That claim, they stated, ""was misleading because it referred only to data from the cross-sectional study and did not reflect findings of concern from the separate longitudinal study that showed that children living in homes serviced by a lead water pipe were more than twice as likely as other DC children to have had a blood lead level ≥10 μg/dL"". Moreover, the CDC emphasizes, that the original report did warn for negative effects on health of the BLLs it did report, did note that there are no safe known limits, and did demand actions for reducing the level of lead in drinking water. They also maintain, that the overall trend was towards sinking BLLs, even when the full data set is taken into consideration.


== Political pressure during the Trump administrations ==
During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, MMWR came under pressure from political appointees at the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to modify its reporting so as not to conflict with what President Donald Trump was saying about the pandemic. Starting in June 2020, Michael Caputo, the HHS assistant secretary for public affairs, and his chief advisor Paul Alexander tried to change, delay, suppress, and retroactively edit MMWR stories about the effectiveness of potential treatments for COVID-19, the transmissibility of the virus, and other issues where the president had taken a public stance. Alexander tried unsuccessfully to get personal approval of all issues of MMWR before they went out. Caputo claimed this oversight was necessary because MMWR reports were being tainted by ""political content""; he demanded to know the political leanings of the scientists who reported that hydroxychloroquine had little benefit as a treatment while Trump was saying the opposite. In emails to the head of CDC, Alexander accused CDC scientists of attempting to ""hurt the president"" and writing ""hit pieces on the administration"". On September 14, 2020, the Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis of the U.S. House of Representatives requested ""transcribed interviews"" with seven CDC and HHS personnel ""to determine the scope of political interference with CDC's scientific reports and other efforts to combat the pandemic, the impact of this interference on CDC's mission, whether this interference is continuing, and the steps that Congress may need to take to stop it before more Americans die needlessly.""
The January 23 and 30th, 2025 MMWR releases did not publish on schedule, the first such break in schedule in the publication's over 60-year history. due to the second Trump administration’s ""pause"" on public communications by all branches of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The pause elicited widespread criticism, including from former MMWR editors, but MMWR resumed publishing February 6 with 2 articles about potential health risks of recent Los Angeles area wildfires days after Trump had criticized California governor Gavin Newsom over his handling of the January 2025 Southern California wildfires. Content scheduled in the skipped issues, including three studies about the then-ongoing avian flu outbreak, appeared in subsequent weeks.


== References ==


== External links ==
Official website"
Acrylic paint,"Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion and plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Most acrylic paints are water-based, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted with water, or modified with acrylic gels, mediums, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor, a gouache, or an oil painting, or it may have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other media.
Water-based acrylic paints are used as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder (sometimes acrylic, vinyl, PVA, and others), filler, pigment, and water. Exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, because of its elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is even cheaper, so paint companies make many different combinations of them to match the market.


== History ==
German chemist Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which led to the development of acrylic paint. In 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, and patented by Rohm and Haas. The synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, displaying some properties of both oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint. These were mineral spirit-based paints.
Water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints.
Soon after the water-based acrylic binders were introduced as house paints, both individual artists and companies began to explore the new binders. Mexican mural painters like Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco were among the first to experiment with acrylic paint, impressed with its durability. Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors, water based acrylics useful for mural painting, started being produced and distributed in Mexico in 1953 by both individuals and companies. These acrylic paints began to phase out oil paint in mural art and abstract expressionism. 
Over the 1960s Lancelot Ribeiro pioneered the use of acrylic paints for art in the UK because of his ""increasing impatience"" of the time it took for oil paints to dry, as also its ""lack of brilliance in its colour potential."" He took to the new synthetic plastic bases that commercial paints were beginning to use and soon got help from manufacturers like ICI, Courtaulds, and Geigy. The companies supplied him samples of their latest paints in quantities that he was using three decades later, according to the paper. Initially, the firms thought the PVA compounds would not be needed in commercially viable quantities. But they quickly recognised the potential demand and ""so Ribeiro became the godfather of generations of artists using acrylics as an alternative to oils.""
In 1956, José L. Gutiérrez produced Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors in Mexico, and Henry Levison of Cincinnati-based Permanent Pigments Co. produced Liquitex colors. These two product lines were the first acrylic emulsion artists' paints, with modern high-viscosity paints becoming available in the early 1960s.


== Painting with acrylics ==
Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface by using acrylic medium or simply by adding water. Watercolor and oil painters also use various mediums, but the range of acrylic mediums is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and mediums can be used to modify their binding characteristics. Acrylics can be used on paper, canvas, and a range of other materials; however, their use on engineered woods such as medium-density fiberboard can be problematic because of the porous nature of those surfaces. In these cases, it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. The process of sealing acrylic painting is called varnishing. Artists use removable varnishes over isolation coat to protect paintings from dust, UV, scratches, etc. This process is similar to varnishing an oil painting.
Acrylics can be applied in thin layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors and other water-based mediums. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint — gel and molding paste are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features. Acrylic paints are also used in hobbies such as trains, cars, houses, DIY projects, and human models. People who make such models use acrylic paint to build facial features on dolls  or raised details on other types of models. Wet acrylic paint is easily removed from paintbrushes and skin with water, whereas oil paints require the use of a hydrocarbon.
Acrylics are the most common paints used in grattage, a surrealist technique that began to be used with the advent of this type of paint. Acrylics are used for this purpose because they easily scrape or peel from a surface.


=== Painting techniques ===

Acrylic artists' paints may be thinned with water or acrylic medium and used as washes in the manner of watercolor paints, but unlike watercolor the washes are not rehydratable once dry. For this reason, acrylics do not lend themselves to the color lifting techniques of gum arabic-based watercolor paints. Instead, the paint is applied in layers, sometimes diluting with water or acrylic medium to allow layers underneath to partially show through. Using an acrylic medium gives the paint more of a rich and glossy appearance, whereas using water makes the paint look more like watercolor and have a matte finish.

Acrylic paints with gloss or matte finishes are common, although a satin (semi-matte) sheen is most common. Some brands exhibit a range of finishes (e.g. heavy-body paints from Golden, Liquitex, Winsor & Newton and Daler-Rowney); Politec acrylics are fully matte. As with oils, pigment amounts and particle size or shape can affect the paint sheen. Matting agents can also be added during manufacture to dull the finish. If desired, the artist can mix different media with their paints and use topcoats or varnishes to alter or unify sheen.
When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable from a solid surface if it adheres to the surface. Water or mild solvents do not re-solubilize it, although isopropyl alcohol can lift some fresh paint films off. Toluene and acetone can remove paint films, but they do not lift paint stains very well and are not selective. The use of a solvent to remove paint may result in removal of all of the paint layers (acrylic gesso, et cetera). Oils and warm, soapy water can remove acrylic paint from skin. Acrylic paint can be removed from nonporous plastic surfaces such as miniatures or models using cleaning products such as Dettol (containing chloroxylenol 4.8% v/w).
An acrylic sizing should be used to prime canvas in preparation for painting with acrylic paints, to prevent Support Induced Discoloration (SID). Acrylic paint contains surfactants that can pull up discoloration from a raw canvas, especially in transparent glazed or translucent gelled areas. Gesso alone will not stop SID; a sizing must be applied before using a gesso.
The viscosity of acrylic can be successfully reduced by using suitable extenders that maintain the integrity of the paint film. There are retarders to slow drying and extend workability time, and flow releases to increase color-blending ability.


== Properties ==


=== Grades ===
Commercial acrylic paints come in two grades by manufacturers:

Artist acrylics (professional acrylics) are created and designed to resist chemical reactions from exposure to water, ultraviolet light, and oxygen. Professional-grade acrylics have the most pigment, which allows for more medium manipulation and limits the color shift when mixed with other colors or after drying.
Student acrylics have working characteristics similar to artist acrylics, but with lower pigment concentrations, less-expensive formulas, and fewer available colors. More expensive pigments are generally replicated by hues. Colors are designed to be mixed even though color strength is lower. Hues may not have exactly the same mixing characteristics as full-strength colors.


=== Varieties ===
Heavy body acrylics are typically found in the Artist and Student Grade paints. ""Heavy Body"" refers to the viscosity or thickness of the paint. They are the best choice for impasto or heavier paint applications and will hold a brush or knife stroke and even a medium stiff peak. Gel Mediums (""pigment-less paints"") are also available in various viscosities and used to thicken or thin paints, as well as extend paints and add transparency.
Medium viscosity acrylics – Fluid acrylics, Soft body acrylics, or High Flow acrylics – have a lower viscosity but generally the same pigmentation as the Heavy Body acrylics. Available in either Artist quality or Craft quality, the cost and quality vary accordingly. These paints are good for watercolor techniques, airbrush application, or when smooth coverage is desired. Fluid acrylics can be mixed with any medium to thicken them for impasto work, or to thin them for glazing applications.
Open acrylics were created to address the one major difference between oil and acrylic paints: the shortened time it takes acrylic paints to dry. Designed by Golden Artist Colors, Inc. with a hydrophilic acrylic resin, these paints can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days, or even weeks, to dry completely, depending on paint thickness, support characteristics, temperature, and humidity.
Iridescent, pearl and interference acrylic colors combine conventional pigments with powdered mica (aluminium silicate) or powdered bronze to achieve complex visual effects. Colors have shimmering or reflective characteristics, depending on the coarseness or fineness of the powder. Iridescent colors are used in fine arts and crafts.
Acrylic gouache is like traditional gouache because it dries to a matte, opaque finish. However, unlike traditional gouache, the acrylic binder makes it water-resistant once it dries. Like craft paint, it will adhere to a variety of surfaces, not only canvas and paper. This paint is typically used by water-colorists, cartoonists, or illustrators, and for decorative or folk art applications.
Craft acrylics can be used on surfaces besides canvas, such as wood, metal, fabrics, and ceramics. They are used in decorative painting techniques and faux finishes to decorate objects of ordinary life. Although colors can be mixed, pigments are often not specified. Each color line is formulated instead to achieve a wide range of premixed colors. Craft paints usually employ vinyl or PVA resins to increase adhesion and lower cost.
Interactive acrylics are all-purpose acrylic artists' colors which have the characteristic fast-drying nature of artists' acrylics, but are formulated to allow artists to delay drying when they need more working time, or re-wet their work when they want to do more wet blending.
Exterior acrylics are paints that can withstand outdoor conditions. Like craft acrylics, they adhere to many surfaces. They are more resistant to both water and ultraviolet light. This makes them the acrylic of choice for architectural murals, outdoor signs, and many faux-finishing techniques.
Acrylic glass paint is water-based and semi-permanent, making it a suitable paint for temporary displays on glass windows.
Acrylic enamel paint creates a smooth, hard shell. It can be oven-baked or air dried. It can be permanent if kept away from harsh conditions such as dishwashing.


=== Differences between acrylic and oil paint ===

The vehicle and binder of oil paints is linseed oil (or another drying oil), whereas acrylic paint has water as the vehicle for an emulsion (suspension) of acrylic polymer, which serves as the binder. Thus, oil paint is said to be ""oil-based"", whereas acrylic paint is ""water-based"" (or sometimes ""water-borne"").

The main practical difference between most acrylics and oil paints is the inherent drying time. Oils allow for more time to blend colors and apply even glazes over underpaintings. This slow-drying aspect of oil can be seen as an advantage for certain techniques, but it impedes an artist trying to work quickly. The fast evaporation of water from regular acrylic paint films can be slowed with the use of acrylic retarders. Retarders are generally glycol or glycerin-based additives. The addition of a retarder slows the evaporation rate of the water.
Oil paints may require the use of solvents such as mineral spirits or turpentine to thin the paint and clean up. These solvents generally have some level of toxicity and can be found objectionable. Relatively recently, water-miscible oil paints have been developed for artists' use. Oil paint films can gradually yellow and lose their flexibility over time creating cracks in the paint film; the ""fat over lean"" rule must be observed to ensure its durability.
Oil paint has a higher pigment load than acrylic paint. As linseed oil contains a smaller molecule than acrylic paint, oil paint is able to absorb substantially more pigment. Oil provides a refractive index that is less clear than acrylic dispersions, which imparts a unique ""look and feel"" to the resultant paint film. Not all the pigments of oil paints are available in acrylics and vice versa, as each medium has different chemical sensitivities. Some historical pigments are alkali sensitive, and therefore cannot be made in an acrylic emulsion; others are just too difficult to formulate. Approximate ""hue"" color formulations, that do not contain the historical pigments, are typically offered as substitutes.
Because of acrylic paint's more flexible nature and more consistent drying time between layers, an artist does not have to follow the same rules of oil painting, where more medium must be applied to each layer to avoid cracking. It usually takes 10–20 minutes for one to two layers of acrylic paint to dry, depending on the brand, quality, and humidity levels of the surrounding environment. Some professional grades of acrylic paint can take 20–30 minutes or even more than an hour. Although canvas needs to be properly primed before painting with oils to prevent the paint medium from eventually rotting the canvas, acrylic can be safely applied straight to the canvas. The rapid drying of acrylic paint tends to discourage blending of color and use of wet-in-wet technique as in oil painting. Even though acrylic retarders can slow drying time to several hours, it remains a relatively fast-drying medium and adding too much acrylic retarder can prevent the paint from ever drying properly.
Meanwhile, acrylic paint is very elastic, which prevents cracking from occurring. Acrylic paint's binder is acrylic polymer emulsion – as this binder dries, the paint remains flexible.
Another difference between oil and acrylic paints is the versatility offered by acrylic paints. Acrylics are very useful in mixed media, allowing the use of pastel (oil and chalk), charcoal and pen (among others) on top of the dried acrylic painted surface. Mixing other bodies into the acrylic is possible—sand, rice, and even pasta may be incorporated in the artwork. Mixing artist or student grade acrylic paint with household acrylic emulsions is possible, allowing the use of premixed tints straight from the tube or tin, and thereby presenting the painter with a vast color range at their disposal. This versatility is also illustrated by the variety of additional artistic uses for acrylics. Specialized acrylics have been manufactured and used for linoblock printing, face painting, airbrushing, watercolor-like techniques, and fabric screen printing.
Another difference between oil and acrylic paint is the cleanup. Acrylic paint can be cleaned out of a brush with any soap, while oil paint needs a specific type to be sure to get all the oil out of the brushes. Also, it is easier to let a palette with oil paint dry and then scrape the paint off, whereas one can easily clean wet acrylic paint with water.


=== Difference between acrylic and watercolor paint ===
The biggest difference is that acrylic paint is opaque, whereas watercolor paint is translucent in nature. Watercolors take about 5 to 15 minutes to dry while acrylics take about 10 to 20 minutes. In order to change the tone or shade of a watercolor pigment, one changes the percentage of water mixed in to the color. For brighter colors, one adds more water. For darker colors, one adds less water. In order to create lighter or darker colors with acrylic paints, one adds white or black.
Another difference is that watercolors must be painted onto a porous surface, primarily watercolor paper. Acrylic paints can be used on many different surfaces.
Both acrylic and watercolor are easy to clean up with water. Acrylic paint should be cleaned with soap and water immediately following use. Watercolor paint can be cleaned with just water.


== See also ==
 Visual arts portal


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

Handling and Care Tips for paintings"
Affordable Care Act,"The Affordable Care Act (ACA), formally known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and informally as Obamacare, is a landmark U.S. federal statute enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with amendments made to it by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, it represents the U.S. healthcare system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. Most of the act remains in effect.
The ACA's major provisions came into force in 2014. By 2016, the uninsured share of the population had roughly halved, with estimates ranging from 20 to 24 million additional people covered. The law also enacted a host of delivery system reforms intended to constrain healthcare costs and improve quality. After it came into effect, increases in overall healthcare spending slowed, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans.
The increased coverage was due, roughly equally, to an expansion of Medicaid eligibility and changes to individual insurance markets. Both received new spending, funded by a combination of new taxes and cuts to Medicare provider rates and Medicare Advantage. Several Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports stated that overall these provisions reduced the budget deficit, that repealing ACA would increase the deficit, and that the law reduced income inequality by taxing primarily the top 1% to fund roughly $600 in benefits on average to families in the bottom 40% of the income distribution.
The act largely retained the existing structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market, but individual markets were radically overhauled. Insurers were made to accept all applicants without charging based on preexisting conditions or demographic status (except age). To combat the resultant adverse selection, the act mandated that individuals buy insurance (or pay a monetary penalty) and that insurers cover a list of ""essential health benefits"". Young people were allowed to stay on their parents' insurance plans until they were 26 years old.
Before and after its enactment the ACA faced strong political opposition, calls for repeal, and legal challenges. In the Sebelius decision, the Supreme Court ruled that states could choose not to participate in the law's Medicaid expansion, but otherwise upheld the law. This led Republican-controlled states not to participate in Medicaid expansion. Polls initially found that a plurality of Americans opposed the act, although its individual provisions were generally more popular. By 2017, the law had majority support. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019.


== Provisions ==

ACA amended the Public Health Service Act of 1944 and inserted new provisions on affordable care into Title 42 of the United States Code. The individual insurance market was radically overhauled, and many of the law's regulations applied specifically to this market, while the structure of Medicare, Medicaid, and the employer market were largely retained. Some regulations applied to the employer market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system.


=== Insurance regulations: individual policies ===
All new individual major medical health insurance policies sold to individuals and families faced new requirements. The requirements took effect on January 1, 2014. They include:

Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals because of preexisting conditions.
States were required to ensure the availability of insurance for individual children who did not have coverage via their families.
A partial community rating allows premiums to vary only by age and location, regardless of preexisting conditions. Premiums for older applicants can be no more than three times those for the youngest.
Essential health benefits must be provided. The National Academy of Medicine defines the law's ""essential health benefits"" as ""ambulatory patient services; emergency services; hospitalization; maternity and newborn care; mental health and substance use disorder services, including behavioral health treatment; prescription drugs; rehabilitative and habilitative services and devices; laboratory services; preventive and wellness services and chronic disease management; and pediatric services, including oral and vision care"" and others rated Level A or B by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. In determining essential benefits, the law required that standard benefits should offer at least that of a ""typical employer plan"". States may require additional services.
Preventive care and screenings for women. ""[A]ll Food and Drug Administration approved contraceptive methods, sterilization procedures, and patient education and counseling for all women with reproductive capacity"". This mandate applies to all employers and educational institutions except for religious organizations. These regulations were included on the recommendations of the Institute of Medicine.

Annual and lifetime coverage caps on essential benefits were banned.
Insurers are forbidden from dropping policyholders when they become ill.
All policies must provide an annual maximum out-of-pocket (MOOP) payment cap for an individual's or family's medical expenses (excluding premiums). After the MOOP payment is reached, all remaining costs must be paid by the insurer.
Preventive care, vaccinations and medical screenings cannot be subject to co-payments, co-insurance or deductibles. Specific examples of covered services include: mammograms and colonoscopies, wellness visits, gestational diabetes screening, HPV testing, STI counseling, HIV screening and counseling, contraceptive methods, breastfeeding support/supplies and domestic violence screening and counseling.
The law established four tiers of coverage: bronze, silver, gold and platinum. All categories offer essential health benefits. The categories vary in their division of premiums and out-of-pocket costs: bronze plans have the lowest monthly premiums and highest out-of-pocket costs, while platinum plans are the reverse. The percentages of health care costs that plans are expected to cover through premiums (as opposed to out-of-pocket costs) are, on average: 60% (bronze), 70% (silver), 80% (gold), and 90% (platinum).
Insurers are required to implement an appeals process for coverage determination and claims on all new plans.
Insurers must spend at least 80–85% of premium dollars on health costs; rebates must be issued if this is violated.


=== Individual mandate ===
The individual mandate required everyone to have insurance or pay a penalty. The mandate and limits on open enrollment were designed to avoid the insurance death spiral, minimize the free rider problem and prevent the healthcare system from succumbing to adverse selection.
The mandate was intended to increase the size and diversity of the insured population, including more young and healthy participants to broaden the risk pool, spreading costs.
Among the groups who were not subject to the individual mandate are:

Illegal immigrants. Estimated at 8 million, roughly a third of the 23 million projection, they are ineligible for insurance subsidies and Medicaid. They remain eligible for emergency services.
Medicaid-eligible citizens not enrolled in Medicaid.
Citizens whose insurance coverage would cost more than 8% of household income.
Citizens who live in states that opt-out of Medicaid expansion and who qualify for neither existing Medicaid coverage nor subsidized coverage.
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, set to $0 the penalty for not complying with the individual mandate, starting in 2019.


=== Exchanges ===

ACA mandated that health insurance exchanges be provided for each state. The exchanges are regulated, largely online marketplaces, administered by either federal or state governments, where individuals, families and small businesses can purchase private insurance plans. Exchanges first offered insurance for 2014. Some exchanges also provide access to Medicaid.
States that set up their own exchanges have some discretion on standards and prices. For example, states approve plans for sale, and thereby influence (through negotiations) prices. They can impose additional coverage requirements—such as abortion. Alternatively, states can make the federal government responsible for operating their exchanges.


=== Premium subsidies ===
Individuals whose household incomes are between 100% and 400% of the federal poverty level (FPL) are eligible to receive federal subsidies for premiums for policies purchased on an ACA exchange, provided they are not eligible for Medicare, Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program, or other forms of public assistance health coverage, and do not have access to affordable coverage (no more than 9.86% of income for the employee's coverage) through their own or a family member's employer. Households below the federal poverty level are not eligible to receive these subsidies. Lawful Residents and some other legally present immigrants whose household income is below 100% FPL and are not otherwise eligible for Medicaid are eligible for subsidies if they meet all other eligibility requirements. Married people must file taxes jointly to receive subsidies. Enrollees must have U.S. citizenship or proof of legal residency to obtain a subsidy.
The subsidies for an ACA plan purchased on an exchange stop at 400% of the federal poverty level (FPL). According to the Kaiser Foundation, this results in a sharp ""discontinuity of treatment"" at 400% FPL, which is sometimes called the ""subsidy cliff"". After-subsidy premiums for the second lowest cost silver plan (SCLSP) just below the cliff are 9.86% of income in 2019.
Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credit.
The amount of subsidy is sufficient to reduce the premium for the second-lowest-cost silver plan (SCLSP) on an exchange to a sliding-scale percentage of income. The percentage is based on the percent of federal poverty level (FPL) for the household, and varies slightly from year to year. In 2019, it ranged from 2.08% of income (100%-133% FPL) to 9.86% of income (300%-400% FPL). The subsidy can be used for any plan available on the exchange, but not catastrophic plans. The subsidy may not exceed the premium for the purchased plan.
(In this section, the term ""income"" refers to modified adjusted gross income.)
Small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace. 


=== Cost-sharing reduction subsidies ===

As written, ACA mandated that insurers reduce copayments and deductibles for ACA exchange enrollees earning less than 250% of the FPL. Medicaid recipients were not eligible for the reductions.
So-called cost-sharing reduction (CSR) subsidies were to be paid to insurance companies to fund the reductions. During 2017, approximately $7 billion in CSR subsidies were to be paid, versus $34 billion for premium tax credits.
The latter was defined as mandatory spending that does not require an annual Congressional appropriation. CSR payments were not explicitly defined as mandatory. This led to litigation and disruption later.


=== Risk management ===
ACA implemented multiple approaches to helping mitigate the disruptions to insurers that came with its many changes.


==== Risk corridors ====
The risk-corridor program was a temporary risk management device.: 1  It was intended to encourage reluctant insurers into ACA insurance market from 2014 to 2016. For those years the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) would cover some of the losses for insurers whose plans performed worse than they expected. Loss-making insurers would receive payments paid for in part by profit-making insurers. Similar risk corridors had been established for the Medicare prescription drug benefit.
While many insurers initially offered exchange plans, the program did not pay for itself as planned, losing up to $8.3 billion for 2014 and 2015. Authorization had to be given so DHHS could pay insurers from ""general government revenues"". However, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (H.R. 3547) stated that no funds ""could be used for risk-corridor payments"". leaving the government in a potential breach of contract with insurers who offered qualified health plans.
Several insurers sued the government at the United States Court of Federal Claims to recover the funds believed owed to them under the Risk Corridors program. While several were summarily closed, in the case of Moda Health v the United States, Moda Health won a $214-million judgment in February 2017. Federal Claims judge Thomas C. Wheeler stated, ""the Government made a promise in the risk corridors program that it has yet to fulfill. Today, the court directs the Government to fulfill that promise. After all, to say to [Moda], 'The joke is on you. You shouldn't have trusted us,' is hardly worthy of our great government."" Moda Health's case was appealed by the government to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit along with the appeals of the other insurers; here, the Federal Circuit reversed the Moda Health ruling and ruled across all the cases in favor of the government, that the appropriations riders ceded the government from paying out remain money due to the insurers. The Supreme Court reversed this ruling in the consolidated case, Maine Community Health Options v. United States, reaffirming as with Judge Wheeler that the government had a responsibility to pay those funds under the ACA and the use of riders to de-obligate its from those payments was illegal.


==== Reinsurance ====
The temporary reinsurance program is meant to stabilize premiums by reducing the incentive for insurers to raise premiums due to concerns about higher-risk enrollees. Reinsurance was based on retrospective costs rather than prospective risk evaluations. Reinsurance was available from 2014 through 2016.


==== Risk adjustment ====
Risk adjustment involves transferring funds from plans with lower-risk enrollees to plans with higher-risk enrollees. It was intended to encourage insurers to compete based on value and efficiency rather than by attracting healthier enrollees. Of the three risk management programs, only risk adjustment was permanent. Plans with low actuarial risk compensate plans with high actuarial risk.


=== Medicaid expansion ===

ACA revised and expanded Medicaid eligibility starting in 2014. All U.S. citizens and legal residents with income up to 133% of the poverty line would qualify for coverage in any state that participated in the Medicaid program. Previously, states could set various lower thresholds for certain groups and were not required to cover adults without dependent children. The federal government was to pay 100% of the increased cost in 2014, 2015 and 2016; 95% in 2017, 94% in 2018, 93% in 2019, and 90% in 2020 and all subsequent years. A 5% ""income disregard"" made the effective income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138% of the poverty level. However, the Supreme Court ruled in NFIB v. Sebelius that this provision of ACA was coercive, and that states could choose to continue at pre-ACA eligibility levels.


=== Medicare savings ===
Medicare reimbursements were reduced to insurers and drug companies for private Medicare Advantage policies that the Government Accountability Office and Medicare Payment Advisory Commission found to be excessively costly relative to standard Medicare; and to hospitals that failed standards of efficiency and care.


=== Taxes ===


==== Medicare taxes ====
Income from self-employment and wages of single individuals in excess of $200,000 annually are subjected to an additional tax of 0.9%. The threshold amount is $250,000 for a married couple filing jointly (threshold applies to their total compensation), or $125,000 for a married person filing separately.
In ACA's companion legislation, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, an additional tax of 3.8% was applied to unearned income, specifically the lesser of net investment income and the amount by which adjusted gross income exceeds the above income limits.


==== Excise taxes ====
ACA included an excise tax of 40% (""Cadillac tax"") on total employer premium spending in excess of specified dollar amounts (initially $10,200 for single coverage and $27,500 for family coverage) indexed to inflation. This tax was originally scheduled to take effect in 2018, but was delayed until 2020 by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 and again to 2022. The excise tax on high-cost health plans was completely repealed as part of H.R.1865 - Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020.
Excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs. An excise tax of 2.3% on medical devices and a 10% excise tax on indoor tanning services were applied as well. The tax was repealed in late 2019.


=== SCHIP ===
The State Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP) enrollment process was simplified.


=== Dependents ===
Beginning September 23, 2010, dependents were permitted to remain on their parents' insurance plan until their 26th birthday, including dependents who no longer lived with their parents, are not a dependent on a parent's tax return, are no longer a student, or are married.


=== Employer mandate ===
Businesses that employ fifty or more people but do not offer health insurance to their full-time employees are assessed additional tax if the government has subsidized a full-time employee's healthcare through tax deductions or other means. This is commonly known as the employer mandate. This provision was included to encourage employers to continue providing insurance once the exchanges began operating.


=== Delivery system reforms ===
The act includes delivery system reforms intended to constrain costs and improve quality. These include Medicare payment changes to discourage hospital-acquired conditions and readmissions, bundled payment initiatives, the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation, the Independent Payment Advisory Board, and accountable care organizations.


==== Hospital quality ====
Health care cost/quality initiatives included incentives to reduce hospital infections, adopt electronic medical records, and to coordinate care and prioritize quality over quantity.


==== Bundled payments ====
Medicare switched from fee-for-service to bundled payments. A single payment was to be paid to a hospital and a physician group for a defined episode of care (such as a hip replacement) rather than separate payments to individual service providers.


==== Accountable care organizations ====

The Medicare Shared Savings Program (MSSP) was established by section 3022 of the Affordable Care Act. It is the program by which an accountable care organization interacts with the federal government, and by which accountable care organizations can be created. It is a fee-for-service model.
The Act allowed the creation of accountable care organizations (ACOs), which are groups of doctors, hospitals and other providers that commit to give coordinated care to Medicare patients. ACOs were allowed to continue using fee-for-service billing. They receive bonus payments from the government for minimizing costs while achieving quality benchmarks that emphasize prevention and mitigation of chronic disease. Missing cost or quality benchmarks subjected them to penalties.
Unlike health maintenance organizations, ACO patients are not required to obtain all care from the ACO. Also, unlike HMOs, ACOs must achieve quality-of-care goals.


=== Medicare drug benefit (Part D) ===
Medicare Part D participants received a 50% discount on brand name drugs purchased after exhausting their initial coverage and before reaching the catastrophic-coverage threshold. By 2020, the ""doughnut hole"" would be completely filled.


=== State waivers ===
From 2017 onwards, states can apply for a ""waiver for state innovation"" which allows them to conduct experiments that meet certain criteria. To obtain a waiver, a state must pass legislation setting up an alternative health system that provides insurance at least as comprehensive and as affordable as ACA, covers at least as many residents and does not increase the federal deficit. These states can escape some of ACA's central requirements, including the individual and employer mandates and the provision of an insurance exchange. The state would receive compensation equal to the aggregate amount of any federal subsidies and tax credits for which its residents and employers would have been eligible under ACA, if they cannot be paid under the state plan.


=== Other insurance provisions ===
The Community Living Assistance Services and Supports Act (or CLASS Act) established a voluntary and public long-term care insurance option for employees, The program was abolished as impractical without ever having taken effect.
Consumer Operated and Oriented Plans (CO-OP), member-governed non-profit insurers, could start providing health care coverage, based on a 5-year federal loan. As of 2017, only four of the original 23 co-ops were still in operation.


=== Nutrition labeling requirements ===
Nutrition labeling requirements officially took effect in 2010, but implementation was delayed, and they actually took effect on May 7, 2018.


== Legislative history ==

ACA followed a long series of unsuccessful attempts by one party or the other to pass major insurance reforms. Innovations were limited to health savings accounts (2003), medical savings accounts (1996) or flexible spending accounts, which increased insurance options, but did not materially expand coverage. Health care was a major factor in multiple elections, but until 2009, neither party had the votes to overcome the other's opposition.


=== Individual mandate ===
The concept of an individual mandate goes back to at least 1989, when The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think-tank, proposed an individual mandate as an alternative to single-payer health care. It was championed for a time by conservative economists and Republican senators as a market-based approach to healthcare reform on the basis of individual responsibility and avoidance of free rider problems. Specifically, because the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) requires any hospital participating in Medicare (nearly all do) to provide emergency care to anyone who needs it, the government often indirectly bore the cost of those without the ability to pay.
President Bill Clinton proposed a major healthcare reform bill in 1993 that ultimately failed. Clinton negotiated a compromise with the 105th Congress to instead enact the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) in 1997. The failed Clinton plan included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees through a regulated marketplace of health maintenance organizations. Republican senators proposed an alternative that would have required individuals, but not employers, to buy insurance.

The 1993 Republican Health Equity and Access Reform Today (HEART) Act, contained a ""universal coverage"" requirement with a penalty for noncompliance—an individual mandate—as well as subsidies to be used in state-based 'purchasing groups'. Advocates included prominent Republican senators such as John Chafee, Orrin Hatch, Chuck Grassley, Bob Bennett and Kit Bond. The 1994 Republican Consumer Choice Health Security Act, initially contained an individual mandate with a penalty provision; however, author Don Nickles subsequently removed the mandate, stating, ""government should not compel people to buy health insurance"". At the time of these proposals, Republicans did not raise constitutional issues; Mark Pauly, who helped develop a proposal that included an individual mandate for George H. W. Bush, remarked, ""I don't remember that being raised at all. The way it was viewed by the Congressional Budget Office in 1994 was, effectively, as a tax.""

In 2006, an insurance expansion bill was enacted at the state level in Massachusetts. The bill contained both an individual mandate and an insurance exchange. Republican Governor Mitt Romney used a line-item veto on some provisions, and the Democratic legislature overrode some of his changes (including the mandate). Romney's implementation of the 'Health Connector' exchange and individual mandate in Massachusetts was at first lauded by Republicans. During Romney's 2008 presidential campaign, Senator Jim DeMint praised Romney's ability to ""take some good conservative ideas, like private health insurance, and apply them to the need to have everyone insured"". Romney said of the individual mandate: ""I'm proud of what we've done. If Massachusetts succeeds in implementing it, then that will be the model for the nation.""
In 2007 Republican Senator Bob Bennett and Democratic Senator Ron Wyden introduced the Healthy Americans Act, which featured an individual mandate and state-based, regulated insurance markets called ""State Health Help Agencies"". The bill attracted bipartisan support, but died in committee. Many of its sponsors and co-sponsors remained in Congress during the 2008 healthcare debate.
By 2008 many Democrats were considering this approach as the basis for healthcare reform. Experts said the legislation that eventually emerged from Congress in 2009 and 2010 bore similarities to the 2007 bill and that it took ideas from the Massachusetts reforms.


=== Academic foundation ===
A driving force behind Obama's healthcare reform was Peter Orszag, Director of the Office of Management and Budget. Obama called Orszag his ""healthcare czar"" because of his knowledge of healthcare reform. Orszag had previously been director of the Congressional Budget Office, and under his leadership the agency had focused on using cost analysis to create an affordable and effective approach to health care reform. Orszag claimed that healthcare reform became Obama's top agenda item because he wanted it to be his legacy. According to an article by Ryan Lizza in The New Yorker, the core of ""the Obama budget is Orszag's belief [in]...a government empowered with research on the most effective medical treatments"". Obama bet ""his presidency on Orszag's thesis of comparative effectiveness."" Orszag's policies were influenced by an article in The Annals of Internal Medicine co-authored by Elliott S. Fisher, David Wennberg and others. The article presented strong evidence based on the co-authors' research that numerous procedures, therapies and tests were being delivered with scant evidence of their medical value. If those procedures and tests could be eliminated, this evidence suggested, medical costs might provide the savings to give healthcare to the uninsured population. After reading a New Yorker article that used the ""Dartmouth findings"" to compare two counties in Texas with enormous variations in Medicare costs using hard data, Obama directed that his entire staff read it. More than anything else, the Dartmouth data intrigued Obama since it gave him an academic rationale for reshaping medicine.
The concept of comparing the effectiveness of healthcare options based on hard data (""comparative effectiveness"" and ""evidence-based medicine"") was pioneered by John E. Wennberg, founder of The Dartmouth Institute, co-founder of The Foundation for Informed Medical Decision Making and senior advisor to Health Dialog Inc., a venture that he and his researchers created to help insurers implement the Dartmouth findings.


=== Healthcare debate, 2008–10 ===

Healthcare reform was a major topic during the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries. As the race narrowed, attention focused on the plans presented by the two leading candidates, Hillary Clinton and the eventual nominee, Barack Obama. Each candidate proposed a plan to cover the approximately 45 million Americans estimated to not have health insurance at some point each year. Clinton's proposal would have required all Americans to obtain coverage (in effect, an individual mandate), while Obama's proposal provided a subsidy without a mandate.
During the general election, Obama said fixing healthcare would be one of his top four priorities as president. Obama and his opponent, Senator John McCain, both proposed health insurance reforms, though their plans differed. McCain proposed tax credits for health insurance purchased in the individual market, which was estimated to reduce the number of uninsured people by about 2 million by 2018. Obama proposed private and public group insurance, income-based subsidies, consumer protections, and expansions of Medicaid and SCHIP, which was estimated at the time to reduce the number of uninsured people by 33.9 million by 2018 at a higher cost.

Obama announced to a joint session of Congress in February 2009 his intent to work with Congress to construct a plan for healthcare reform. By July, a series of bills were approved by committees within the House of Representatives. On the Senate side, from June to September, the Senate Finance Committee held a series of 31 meetings to develop a proposal. This group—in particular, Democrats Max Baucus, Jeff Bingaman and Kent Conrad, along with Republicans Mike Enzi, Chuck Grassley and Olympia Snowe—met for more than 60 hours, and the principles they discussed, in conjunction with the other committees, became the foundation of a Senate bill.
Congressional Democrats and health policy experts, such as MIT economics professor Jonathan Gruber and David Cutler, argued that guaranteed issue would require both community rating and an individual mandate to ensure that adverse selection or ""free riding"" would not result in an insurance ""death spiral"". They chose this approach after concluding that filibuster-proof support in the Senate was not present for more progressive plans such as single-payer. By deliberately drawing on bipartisan ideas—the same basic outline was supported by former Senate Majority Leaders Howard Baker, Bob Dole, Tom Daschle and George J. Mitchell—the bill's drafters hoped to garner the necessary votes.
However, following the incorporation of an individual mandate into the proposal, Republicans threatened to filibuster any bill that contained it. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, who led the Republican response, concluded Republicans should not support the bill.
Republican senators, including those who had supported earlier proposals with a similar mandate, began to describe the mandate as ""unconstitutional"". Journalist Ezra Klein wrote in The New Yorker, ""a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition.""
The reform attracted attention from lobbyists, including deals between lobby groups and the advocates to win the support of groups who had opposed past proposals.

During the August 2009 summer congressional recess, many members went back to their districts and held town hall meetings on the proposals. The nascent Tea Party movement organized protests and many conservative groups and individuals attended the meetings to oppose the proposed reforms. Threats were made against members of Congress over the course of the debate.
In September 2009 Obama delivered another speech to a joint session of Congress supporting the negotiations. On November 7, the House of Representatives passed the Affordable Health Care for America Act on a 220–215 vote and forwarded it to the Senate for passage.


==== Senate ====
The Senate began work on its own proposals while the House was still working. The United States Constitution requires all revenue-related bills to originate in the House. To formally comply with this requirement, the Senate repurposed H.R. 3590, a bill regarding housing tax changes for service members. It had been passed by the House as a revenue-related modification to the Internal Revenue Code. The bill became the Senate's vehicle for its healthcare reform proposal, discarding the bill's original content. The bill ultimately incorporated elements of proposals that were reported favorably by the Senate Health and Finance committees. With the Republican Senate minority vowing to filibuster, 60 votes would be necessary to pass the Senate. At the start of the 111th Congress, Democrats had 58 votes. The Minnesota Senate election was ultimately won by Democrat Al Franken, making 59. Arlen Specter switched to the Democratic party in April 2009, giving them 60 seats, enough to end a filibuster.
Negotiations were undertaken attempting to satisfy moderate Democrats and to bring Republican senators aboard; particular attention was given to Republicans Bennett, Enzi, Grassley and Snowe.
After the Finance Committee vote on October 15, negotiations turned to moderate Democrats. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid focused on satisfying centrists. The holdouts came down to Joe Lieberman of Connecticut, an independent who caucused with Democrats, and conservative Nebraska Democrat Ben Nelson. Lieberman's demand that the bill not include a public option was met, although supporters won various concessions, including allowing state-based public options such as Vermont's failed Green Mountain Care.

The White House and Reid addressed Nelson's concerns during a 13-hour negotiation with two concessions: a compromise on abortion, modifying the language of the bill ""to give states the right to prohibit coverage of abortion within their own insurance exchanges"", which would require consumers to pay for the procedure out of pocket if the state so decided; and an amendment to offer a higher rate of Medicaid reimbursement for Nebraska. The latter half of the compromise was derisively termed the ""Cornhusker Kickback"" and was later removed.
On December 23, the Senate voted 60–39 to end debate on the bill: a cloture vote to end the filibuster. The bill then passed, also 60–39, on December 24, 2009, with all Democrats and two independents voting for it, and all Republicans against (except Jim Bunning, who did not vote). The bill was endorsed by the American Medical Association and AARP.
On January 19, 2010, Massachusetts Republican Scott Brown was elected to the Senate in a special election to replace the recently deceased Ted Kennedy, having campaigned on giving the Republican minority the 41st vote needed to sustain Republican filibusters. Additionally, the symbolic importance of losing Kennedy's traditionally Democratic Massachusetts seat made many Congressional Democrats concerned about the political cost of the bill.


==== House ====

With Democrats no longer able to get the 60 votes to break a filibuster in the Senate, White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel argued that Democrats should scale back to a less ambitious bill, but House Speaker Nancy Pelosi pushed back, dismissing more moderate reform as ""Kiddie Care"".
Obama remained insistent on comprehensive reform. The news that Anthem in California intended to raise premium rates for its patients by as much as 39% gave him new evidence of the need for reform. On February 22, he laid out a ""Senate-leaning"" proposal to consolidate the bills. He held a meeting with both parties' leaders on February 25. The Democrats decided the House would pass the Senate's bill, to avoid another Senate vote.
House Democrats had expected to be able to negotiate changes in a House–Senate conference before passing a final bill. Since any bill that emerged from conference that differed from the Senate bill would have to pass the Senate over another Republican filibuster, most House Democrats agreed to pass the Senate bill on condition that it be amended by a subsequent bill. They drafted the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which could be passed by the reconciliation process.
Per the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, reconciliation cannot be subject to a filibuster. But reconciliation is limited to budget changes, which is why the procedure was not used to pass ACA in the first place; the bill had inherently non-budgetary regulations. Although the already-passed Senate bill could not have been passed by reconciliation, most of House Democrats' demands were budgetary: ""these changes—higher subsidy levels, different kinds of taxes to pay for them, nixing the Nebraska Medicaid deal—mainly involve taxes and spending. In other words, they're exactly the kinds of policies that are well-suited for reconciliation.""
The remaining obstacle was a pivotal group of pro-life Democrats led by Bart Stupak who were initially reluctant to support the bill. The group found the possibility of federal funding for abortion significant enough to warrant opposition. The Senate bill had not included language that satisfied their concerns, but they could not address abortion in the reconciliation bill as it would be non-budgetary. Instead, Obama issued Executive Order 13535, reaffirming the principles in the Hyde Amendment to continue banning the use of federal funds for abortion. This won the support of Stupak and members of his group and assured the bill's passage. The House passed the Senate bill with a 219–212 vote on March 21, 2010, with 34 Democrats and all 178 Republicans voting against it. It passed the second bill, by 220–211, the same day (with the Senate passing this bill via reconciliation by 56-43 a few days later). The day after the passage of ACA, March 22, Republicans introduced legislation to repeal it. Obama signed ACA into law on March 23, 2010.


=== Post-enactment ===
Since passage, Republicans have voted to repeal all or parts of the Affordable Care Act more than sixty times.
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 eliminated the fine for violating the individual mandate, starting in 2019. (The requirement itself is still in effect.) In 2019 Congress repealed the so-called ""Cadillac"" tax on health insurance benefits, an excise tax on medical devices, and the Health Insurance Tax.
The American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, expanded subsidies for marketplace health plans. A continuation of these subsidies was introduced as part of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022.


== Impact ==


=== Coverage ===

The law caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance. The CDC reported that the percentage of people without health insurance fell from 16.0% in 2010 to 8.9% from January to June 2016. The uninsured rate dropped in every congressional district in the U.S. from 2013 to 2015. The Congressional Budget Office reported in March 2016 that approximately 12 million people were covered by the exchanges (10 million of whom received subsidies) and 11 million added to Medicaid. Another million were covered by ACA's ""Basic Health Program"", for a total of 24 million. CBO estimated that ACA would reduce the net number of uninsured by 22 million in 2016, using a slightly different computation for the above figures totaling ACA coverage of 26 million, less 4 million for reductions in ""employment-based coverage"" and ""non-group and other coverage"".
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) estimated that 20.0 million adults (aged 18–64) gained healthcare coverage via ACA as of February 2016; similarly, the Urban Institute found in 2016 that 19.2 million non-elderly Americans gained health insurance coverage from 2010 to 2015. In 2016, CBO estimated the uninsured at approximately 27 million people, or around 10% of the population or 7–8% excluding unauthorized immigrants.
States that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3% uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while those that did not had a 14.1% uninsured rate, among adults aged 18–64. As of December 2016 32 states (including Washington DC) had adopted the Medicaid extension.
A 2017 study found that the ACA reduced socioeconomic disparities in health care access.
The Affordable Care Act reduced the percent of Americans between 18 and 64 who were uninsured from 22.3 percent in 2010 to 12.4 percent in 2016. About 21 million more people have coverage ten years after the enactment of the ACA. Ten years after its enactment studies showed that the ACA also had a positive effect on health and caused a reduction in mortality.


=== Taxes ===

Excise taxes from the Affordable Care Act raised $16.3 billion in fiscal year 2015. $11.3 billion came from an excise tax placed directly on health insurers based on their market share. Annual excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs.
The Individual mandate tax was $695 per individual or $2,085 per family at a minimum, reaching as high as 2.5% of household income (whichever was higher). The tax was set to $0 beginning in 2019.
In the fiscal year 2018, the individual and employer mandates yielded $4 billion each. Excise taxes on insurers and drug makers added $18 billion. Income tax surcharges produced 437 billion.
ACA reduced income inequality measured after taxes, due to the income tax surcharges and subsidies. CBO estimated that subsidies paid under the law in 2016 averaged $4,240 per person for 10 million individuals receiving them, roughly $42 billion. The tax subsidy for the employer market, was approximately $1,700 per person in 2016, or $266 billion total.


=== Insurance exchanges ===

As of August 2016, 15 states operated their own health insurance marketplace. Other states either used the federal exchange, or operated in partnership with or supported by the federal government. By 2019, 12 states and Washington DC operated their own exchanges.


=== Medicaid expansion in practice ===

As of December 2019, 37 states (including Washington DC) had adopted the Medicaid extension. Those states that expanded Medicaid had a 7.3% uninsured rate on average in the first quarter of 2016, while the others had a 14.1% uninsured rate, among adults aged 18 to 64. Following the Supreme Court ruling in 2012, which held that states would not lose Medicaid funding if they did not expand Medicaid under ACA, several states rejected the option. Over half the national uninsured population lived in those states.
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) estimated that the cost of expansion was $6,366 per person for 2015, about 49 percent above previous estimates. An estimated 9 to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage, mostly low-income adults. The Kaiser Family Foundation estimated in October 2015 that 3.1 million additional people were not covered because of states that rejected the Medicaid expansion.
In many states income thresholds were significantly below 133% of the poverty line. Many states did not make Medicaid available to childless adults at any income level. Because subsidies on exchange insurance plans were not available to those below the poverty line, such individuals had no new options. For example, in Kansas, where only non-disabled adults with children and with an income below 32% of the poverty line were eligible for Medicaid, those with incomes from 32% to 100% of the poverty level ($6,250 to $19,530 for a family of three) were ineligible for both Medicaid and federal subsidies to buy insurance. Absent children, non-disabled adults were not eligible for Medicaid there.
Studies of the impact of Medicaid expansion rejections calculated that up to 6.4 million people would have too much income for Medicaid but not qualify for exchange subsidies. Several states argued that they could not afford the 10% contribution in 2020. Some studies suggested rejecting the expansion would cost more due to increased spending on uncompensated emergency care that otherwise would have been partially paid for by Medicaid coverage,
A 2016 study found that residents of Kentucky and Arkansas, which both expanded Medicaid, were more likely to receive health care services and less likely to incur emergency room costs or have trouble paying their medical bills. Residents of Texas, which did not accept the Medicaid expansion, did not see a similar improvement during the same period. Kentucky opted for increased managed care, while Arkansas subsidized private insurance. Later Arkansas and Kentucky governors proposed reducing or modifying their programs. From 2013 to 2015, the uninsured rate dropped from 42% to 14% in Arkansas and from 40% to 9% in Kentucky, compared with 39% to 32% in Texas.
A 2016 DHHS study found that states that expanded Medicaid had lower premiums on exchange policies, because they had fewer low-income enrollees, whose health on average is worse than that of those with higher income.
In September 2019, the Census Bureau reported that states that expanded Medicaid under the ACA had considerably lower uninsured rates than states that did not. For example, for adults between 100% and 399% of poverty level, the uninsured rate in 2018 was 12.7% in expansion states and 21.2% in non-expansion states. Of the 14 states with uninsured rates of 10% or greater, 11 had not expanded Medicaid. The drop in uninsured rates due to expanded Medicaid has broadened access to care among low-income adults, with post-ACA studies indicating an improvement in affordability, access to doctors, and usual sources of care.
A study using national data from the Health Reform Monitoring Survey determined that unmet need due to cost and inability to pay medical bills significantly decreased among low-income (up to 138% FPL) and moderate-income (139-199% FPL) adults, with unmet need due to cost decreasing by approximately 11 percentage points among low-income adults by the second enrollment period. Importantly, issues with cost-related unmet medical needs, skipped medications, paying medical bills, and annual out-of-pocket spending have been significantly reduced among low-income adults in Medicaid expansion states compared to non-expansion states.
As well, expanded Medicaid has led to a 6.6% increase in physician visits by low-income adults, as well as increased usage of preventative care such as dental visits and cancer screenings among childless, low-income adults. Improved health care coverage due to Medicaid expansion has been found in a variety of patient populations, such as adults with mental and substance use disorders, trauma patients, cancer patients, and people living with HIV. Compared to 2011–13, in 2014 there was a 5.4 percentage point reduction in the uninsured rate of adults with mental disorders (from 21.3% to 15.9%) and a 5.1 percentage point reduction in the uninsured rate of adults with substance use disorders (from 25.9% to 20.8%); with increases in coverage occurring primarily through Medicaid. Use of mental health treatment increased by 2.1 percentage points, from 43% to 45.1%.
Among trauma patients nationwide, the uninsured rate has decreased by approximately 50%. Adult trauma patients in expansion states experienced a 13.7 percentage point reduction in uninsured rates compared to adult trauma patients in non-expansion states, and an accompanying 7.4 percentage point increase in discharge to rehabilitation. Following Medicaid expansion and dependent coverage expansion, young adults hospitalized for acute traumatic injury in Maryland experienced a 60% increase in rehabilitation, 25% reduction in mortality, and a 29.8% reduction in failure-to-rescue. Medicaid expansion's swift impact on cancer patients was demonstrated in a study using the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program that evaluated more than 850,000 patients diagnosed with breast, lung, colorectal, prostate cancer, or thyroid cancer from 2010 to 2014. The study found that a cancer diagnosis in 2014 was associated with a 1.9 percentage-point absolute and 33.5% relative decrease in uninsured rates compared to a diagnosis made between 2010 and 2013. Another study, using Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program data from 2010 to 2014, found that Medicaid expansion was associated with a 6.4% net increase in early stage (in situ, local, or regional) diagnoses of all cancers combined.
Data from the Centers for Disease and Prevention's (CDC) Medical Monitoring Project demonstrated that between 2009 and 2012, approximately 18% of people living with HIV (PLWH) who were actively receiving HIV treatment were uninsured and that at least 40% of HIV-infected adults receiving treatment were insured through Medicaid or Medicare, programs they qualified for only once their disease was advanced enough to be covered as a disability under Social Security. Expanded Medicaid coverage of PLWH has been positively associated with health outcomes such as viral suppression, retention of care, hospitalization rates, and morbidity at the time of hospitalization. An analysis of Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) survey data found a 2.8% annual increase in viral suppression rates among all PLWH from 2010 to 2015 due to Medicaid expansion. In Nebraska, PLWH newly covered by Medicaid expansion in 2013-14 were four times more likely to be virally suppressed than PLWH who were eligible but remained uninsured. As an early adopter of Medicaid expansion, Massachusetts found a 65% rate of viral suppression among all PLWH and an 85% rate among those retained in healthcare in 2014, both substantially higher than the national average.
An analysis of hospital discharge data from 2012 to 2014 in four Medicaid expansion states and two non-expansion states revealed hospitalizations of uninsured PLWH fell from 13.7% to 5.5% in the four expansion states and rose from 14.5% to 15.7% in the two non-expansion states. Importantly, uninsured PLWH were 40% more likely to die in the hospital than insured PLWH. Other notable health outcomes associated with Medicaid expansion include improved glucose monitoring rates for patients with diabetes, better hypertension control, and reduced rates of major post-operative morbidity.
A July 2019 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) indicated that states enacting Medicaid expansion exhibited statistically significant reductions in mortality rates. From that study, states that took Medicaid expansion ""saved the lives of at least 19,200 adults aged 55 to 64 over the four-year period from 2014 to 2017."" Further, 15,600 older adults died prematurely in the states that did not enact Medicaid expansion in those years according to the NBER research. ""The lifesaving impacts of Medicaid expansion are large: an estimated 39 to 64 percent reduction in annual mortality rates for older adults gaining coverage.""
Due to many states' failure to expand, many Democrats co-sponsored the proposed 2021 Cover Now Act that would allow county and municipal governments to fund Medicaid expansion.


==== Gaps in expansion ====
Despite the significant increase in access to insurance coverage and healthcare services across the board, the ACA's Medicaid expansion has not fully addressed problems of economic equity. Critics argue that Medicaid expansion has not reduced cost-sharing by a significant margin, as the amount households paid out of pocket for healthcare over the past ten years (in the form of deductibles, co-payments, etc.) rose by 77%. Additionally, 30% of providers deny Medicaid patients, which affects the accessibility of quality care. This increase in denial may be in part because providers receive 62 cents from Medicaid for every dollar received from private insurers. Studies on insurance rates show that economic inequality still persists: a significantly higher proportion of those with income greater than 100% but less than 200% of the federal poverty level were uninsured from 2010 to 2015 than of those with income greater than 200% of the federal poverty level. This is exacerbated by the 2012 Supreme Court decision allowing states to opt out of Medicaid, since many of the states that have opted out have more vulnerable populations, with large numbers of minorities or low-income people.
Medicaid patients have also reported receiving ""second-class"" treatment compared to privately insured patients, with longer wait times and lower quality of care.


==== Medicaid expansion by state ====


=== Insurance costs ===

National health care expenditures rose faster than national income both before (2009–2013: 3.73%) and after (2014–2018: 4.82%) ACA's major provisions took effect. Premium prices rose considerably before and after. For example, a study published in 2016 found that the average requested 2017 premium increase among 40-year-old non-smokers was about 9 percent, according to an analysis of 17 cities, although Blue Cross Blue Shield proposed increases of 40 percent in Alabama and 60 percent in Texas. However, some or all these costs were offset by tax credits. For example, the Kaiser Family Foundation reported that for the second-lowest cost ""Silver plan"", a 40-year old non-smoker making $30,000 per year would pay effectively the same amount in 2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208/month) after the tax credit, despite a large increase in the list price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the premium price, fully offsetting the increases for subsidy-eligible enrollees.
Premium cost increases in the employer market moderated after 2009. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69% from 2000 to 2005, but only 27% from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3% increase from 2015 to 2016. From 2008 to 2010 (before passage of ACA) health insurance premiums rose by an average of 10% per year.
Several studies found that the 2008 financial crisis and accompanying Great Recession could not account for the entirety of the slowdown and that structural changes likely shared at least partial credit. A 2013 study estimated that changes to the health system had been responsible for about a quarter of the recent reduction in inflation. Paul Krawzak claimed that even if cost controls succeed in reducing the amount spent on healthcare, such efforts on their own may be insufficient to outweigh the long-term burden placed by demographic changes, particularly the growth of the population on Medicare.
In a 2016 review, Barack Obama claimed that from 2010 through 2014 mean annual growth in real per-enrollee Medicare spending was negative, down from a mean of 4.7% per year from 2000 through 2005 and 2.4% per year from 2006 to 2010; similarly, mean real per-enrollee growth in private insurance spending was 1.1% per year over the period, compared with a mean of 6.5% from 2000 through 2005 and 3.4% from 2005 to 2010.


==== Deductibles and co-payments ====
A contributing factor to premium cost moderation was that the insured faced higher deductibles, copayments and out-of-pocket maximums. In addition, many employees chose to combine a health savings account with higher deductible plans, making the net impact of ACA difficult to determine precisely.
For the group market (employer insurance), a 2016 survey found that:

Deductibles grew 63% from 2011 to 2016, while premiums increased 19% and worker earnings grew by 11%.
In 2016, 4 in 5 workers had an insurance deductible, which averaged $1,478. For firms with less than 200 employees, the deductible averaged $2,069.
The percentage of workers with a deductible of at least $1,000 grew from 10% in 2006 to 51% in 2016. The 2016 figure dropped to 38% after taking employer contributions into account.
For the non-group market, of which two-thirds are covered by ACA exchanges, a survey of 2015 data found that:

49% had individual deductibles of at least $1,500 ($3,000 for family), up from 36% in 2014.
Many exchange enrollees qualify for cost-sharing subsidies that reduce their net deductible.
While about 75% of enrollees were ""very satisfied"" or ""somewhat satisfied"" with their choice of doctors and hospitals, only 50% had such satisfaction with their annual deductible.
While 52% of those covered by ACA exchanges felt ""well protected"" by their insurance, in the group market 63% felt that way.


=== Health outcomes ===
According to a 2014 study, ACA likely prevented an estimated 50,000 preventable patient deaths from 2010 to 2013. Himmelstein and Woolhandler wrote in January 2017 that a rollback of ACA's Medicaid expansion alone would cause an estimated 43,956 deaths annually.
According to the Kaiser Foundation, expanding Medicaid in the remaining states would cover up to 4.5 million persons. A 2021 study found a significant decline in mortality rates in the states that opted in to the Medicaid expansion program compared with those states that did not do so. The study reported that states decisions' not to expand Medicaid resulted in approximately 15,600 excess deaths from 2014 through 2017.
Dependent Coverage Expansion (DCE) under the ACA has had a demonstrable effect on various health metrics of young adults, a group with a historically low level of insurance coverage and utilization of care. Numerous studies have shown the target age group gained private health insurance relative to an older group after the policy was implemented, with an accompanying improvement in having a usual source of care, reduction in out-of-pocket costs of high-end medical expenditures, reduction in frequency of Emergency Department visits, 3.5% increase in hospitalizations and 9% increase in hospitalizations with a psychiatric diagnosis, 5.3% increase in utilizing specialty mental health care by those with a probable mental illness, 4% increase in reporting excellent mental health, and a 1.5-6.2% increase in reporting excellent physical health. Studies have also found that DCE was associated with improvements in cancer prevention, detection, and treatment among young adult patients. A study of 10,010 women aged 18–26 identified through the 2008-12 National Health Interview Survey found that the likelihood of HPV vaccination initiation and completion increased by 7.7 and 5.8 percentage points respectively when comparing before and after October 1, 2010. Another study using National Cancer Database (NCDB) data from 2007 to 2012 found a 5.5 percentage point decrease in late-stage (stages III/IV) cervical cancer diagnosis for women aged 21–25 after DCE, and an overall decrease of 7.3 percentage points in late-stage diagnosis compared to those aged 26–34. A study using SEER Program data from 2007 to 2012 found a 2.7 percentage point increase in diagnosis at stage I disease for patients aged 19–25 compared with those aged 26–34 for all cancers combined. Studies focusing on cancer treatment after DCE found a 12.8 percentage point increase in the receipt of fertility-sparing treatment among cervical cancer patients aged 21–25 and an overall increase of 13.4 percentage points compared to those aged 26–34, as well as an increased likelihood that patients aged 19–25 with stage IIB-IIIC colorectal cancer receive timely adjuvant chemotherapy compared to those aged 27–34.
Two 2018 JAMA studies found the Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRRP) was associated with increased post-discharge mortality for patients hospitalized for heart failure and pneumonia. A 2019 JAMA study found that ACA decreased emergency department and hospital use by uninsured individuals. Several studies have indicated that increased 30-day, 90-day, and 1-year post-discharge mortality of heart failure patients can be attributed to ""gaming the system"" through inappropriate triage systems in emergency departments, use of observation stays when admissions are warranted, and delay of readmission beyond the 30th day post-discharge, strategies that can reduce readmission rates at the expense of quality of care and patient survival. The HRRP was also shown to disproportionately penalize safety-net hospitals that predominately serve low-income patients. A 2020 study by Treasury Department economists in the Quarterly Journal of Economics using a randomized controlled trial (the IRS sent letters to some taxpayers noting that they had paid a fine for not signing up for health insurance but not to other taxpayers) found that over two years, obtaining health insurance reduced mortality by 12 percent. The study concluded that the letters, sent to 3.9 million people, may have saved 700 lives.
A 2020 JAMA study found that Medicare expansion under the ACA was associated with reduced incidence of advanced-stage breast cancer, indicating that Medicaid accessibility led to early detection of breast cancer and higher survival rates. Recent studies have also attributed to Medicaid expansion an increase in use of smoking cessation medications, cervical cancer screening, and colonoscopy, as well as an increase in the percentage of early-stage diagnosis of all cancers and the rate of cancer surgery for low-income patients. These studies include a 2.1% increase in the probability of smoking cessation in Medicaid expansion states compared to non-expansion states, a 24% increase in smoking cessation medication use due to increased Medicaid-financed smoking cessation prescriptions, a 27.7% increase in the rate of colorectal cancer screening in Kentucky following Medicaid expansion with an accompanying improvement in colorectal cancer survival, and a 3.4% increase in cancer incidence following Medicaid expansion that was attributed to an increase in early-stage diagnoses.
Transition-of-care interventions and Alternative Payment Models under the ACA have also shown promise in improving health outcomes. Post-discharge provider appointment and telephone follow-up interventions have been shown to reduce 30-day readmission rates among general medical-surgical inpatients. Reductions in 60, 90, and 180 post-discharge day readmission rates due to transition-of-care interventions have also been demonstrated, and a reduction in 30-day mortality has been suggested. Total joint arthroplasty bundles as part of the Bundled Payments for Care Improvement initiative have been shown to reduce discharge to inpatient rehabilitation facilities and post-acute care facilities, decrease hospital length of stay by 18% without sacrificing quality of care, and reduce the rate of total joint arthroplasty readmissions, half of which were due to surgical complications. The Hospital Value-Based Purchasing Program in Medicaid has also shown the potential to improve health outcomes, with early studies reporting positive and significant effects on total patient experience score, 30-day readmission rates, incidences of pneumonia and pressure ulcers, and 30-day mortality rates for pneumonia. The patient-centered medical home (PCMH) payment and care model, a team-based approach to population health management that risk-stratifies patients and provides focused care management and outreach to high-risk patients, has been shown to improve diabetes outcomes. A widespread PCMH demonstration program focusing on diabetes, known as the Chronic Care Initiative in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, found statistically significant improvements in A1C testing, LDL-C testing, nephropathy screening and monitoring, and eye examinations, with an accompanying reduction in all-cause emergency department visits, ambulatory care-sensitive emergency department visits, ambulatory visits to specialists, and a higher rate of ambulatory visits to primary care providers. The ACA overall has improved coverage and care of diabetes, with a significant portion of the 3.5 million uninsured US adults aged 18–64 with diabetes in 2009-10 likely gaining coverage and benefits such as closure of the Medicaid Part D coverage gap for insulin. 2.3 million of the approximately 4.6 million people aged 18–64 with undiagnosed diabetes in 2009–2010 may also have gained access to zero-cost preventative care due to section 2713 of the ACA, which prohibits cost sharing for United States Preventive Services Taskforce grade A or B recommended services, such as diabetes screenings.


=== Distributional impact ===

In March 2018, the CBO reported that ACA had reduced income inequality in 2014, saying the law led the lowest and second quintiles (the bottom 40%) to receive an average of an additional $690 and $560 respectively while causing households in the top 1% to pay an additional $21,000 due mostly to the net investment income tax and the additional Medicare tax. The law placed relatively little burden on households in the top quintile (top 20%) outside of the top 1%.


=== Federal deficit ===


==== CBO estimates of revenue and impact on deficit ====

The CBO reported in multiple studies that ACA would reduce the deficit, and repealing it would increase the deficit, primarily because of the elimination of Medicare reimbursement cuts. The 2011 comprehensive CBO estimate projected a net deficit reduction of more than $200 billion during the 2012–2021 period: it calculated the law would result in $604 billion in total outlays offset by $813 billion in total receipts, resulting in a $210 billion net deficit reduction. The CBO separately predicted that while most of the spending provisions do not begin until 2014, revenue would exceed spending in those subsequent years. The CBO claimed the bill would ""substantially reduce the growth of Medicare's payment rates for most services; impose an excise tax on insurance plans with relatively high premiums; and make various other changes to the federal tax code, Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs""—ultimately extending the solvency of the Medicare trust fund by eight years.
This estimate was made prior to the Supreme Court's ruling that enabled states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion, thereby forgoing the related federal funding. The CBO and JCT subsequently updated the budget projection, estimating the impact of the ruling would reduce the cost estimate of the insurance coverage provisions by $84 billion.
The CBO in June 2015 forecast that repeal of ACA would increase the deficit between $137 billion and $353 billion over the 2016–2025 period, depending on the impact of macroeconomic feedback effects. The CBO also forecast that repeal of ACA would likely cause an increase in GDP by an average of 0.7% in the period from 2021 to 2025, mainly by boosting the supply of labor.
Although the CBO generally does not provide cost estimates beyond the 10-year budget projection period because of the degree of uncertainty involved in the projection, it decided to do so in this case at the request of lawmakers, and estimated a second decade deficit reduction of $1.2 trillion. CBO predicted deficit reduction around a broad range of one-half percent of GDP over the 2020s while cautioning that ""a wide range of changes could occur"".
In 2017 CBO estimated that repealing the individual mandate alone would reduce the 10-year deficit by $338 billion.


==== Opinions on CBO projections ====
The CBO cost estimates were criticized because they excluded the effects of potential legislation that would increase Medicare payments by more than $200 billion from 2010 to 2019. However, the so-called ""doc fix"" is a separate issue that would have existed with or without ACA. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities objected that Congress had a good record of implementing Medicare savings. According to their study, Congress followed through on the implementation of the vast majority of provisions enacted in the past 20 years to produce Medicare savings, although not the doc fix. The doc fix became obsolete in 2015 when the savings provision was eliminated, permanently removing that spending restraint.
Health economist Uwe Reinhardt, wrote, ""The rigid, artificial rules under which the Congressional Budget Office must score proposed legislation unfortunately cannot produce the best unbiased forecasts of the likely fiscal impact of any legislation."" Douglas Holtz-Eakin alleged that the bill would increase the deficit by $562 billion because, he argued, it front-loaded revenue and back-loaded benefits.
Scheiber and Cohn rejected critical assessments of the law's deficit impact, arguing that predictions were biased towards underestimating deficit reduction. They noted, for example, it is easier to account for the cost of definite levels of subsidies to specified numbers of people than to account for savings from preventive healthcare, and that the CBO had a track record of overestimating costs and underestimating savings of health legislation; stating, ""innovations in the delivery of medical care, like greater use of electronic medical records and financial incentives for more coordination of care among doctors, would produce substantial savings while also slowing the relentless climb of medical expenses ... But the CBO would not consider such savings in its calculations, because the innovations hadn't really been tried on such large scale or in concert with one another—and that meant there wasn't much hard data to prove the savings would materialize.""
In 2010 David Walker said the CBO estimates were not likely to be accurate, because they were based on the assumption that the law would not change.


=== Employer mandate and part-time work ===

The employer mandate applies to employers of more than fifty where health insurance is provided only to the full-time workers. Critics claimed it created a perverse incentive to hire part-timers instead. However, between March 2010 and 2014, the number of part-time jobs declined by 230,000 while the number of full-time jobs increased by two million. In the public sector full-time jobs turned into part-time jobs much more than in the private sector. A 2016 study found only limited evidence that ACA had increased part-time employment.
Several businesses and the state of Virginia added a 29-hour-a-week cap for their part-time employees, to reflect the 30-hour-or-more definition for full-time worker. As of 2013, few companies had shifted their workforce towards more part-time hours (4% in a survey from the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis). Trends in working hours and the recovery from the Great Recession correlate with the shift from part-time to full-time work. Other confounding impacts include that health insurance helps attract and retain employees, increases productivity and reduces absenteeism; and lowers corresponding training and administration costs from a smaller, more stable workforce. Relatively few firms employ over 50 employees and more than 90% of them already offered insurance.
Most policy analysts (both right and left) were critical of the employer mandate provision. They argued that the perverse incentives regarding part-time hours, even if they did not change existing plans, were real and harmful; that the raised marginal cost of the 50th worker for businesses could limit companies' growth; that the costs of reporting and administration were not worth the costs of maintaining employer plans; and noted that the employer mandate was not essential to maintain adequate risk pools. The provision generated vocal opposition from business interests and some unions who were not granted exemptions.


=== Hospitals ===
From the start of 2010 to November 2014, 43 hospitals in rural areas closed. Critics claimed the new law had caused these closures. Many rural hospitals were built using funds from the 1946 Hill–Burton Act. Some of these hospitals reopened as other medical facilities, but only a small number operated emergency rooms (ER) or urgent care centers.
Between January 2010 and 2015, a quarter of ER doctors said they had seen a major surge in patients, while nearly half had seen a smaller increase. Seven in ten ER doctors claimed they lacked the resources to deal with large increases in the number of patients. The biggest factor in the increased number of ER patients was insufficient primary care providers to handle the larger number of insured. Michael Lee Jr. and Michael C. Monuteaux at Boston Children's Hospital analyzed national emergency department visits among children aged 0 to 17 from 2009 to 2016 using the American Community Survey (ACS) and Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS). They found no immediate change in pediatric emergency department visit rates the year after the ACA took full effect in 2014, but the rate of change from 2014 to 2016 was significantly higher than previous rate trends, almost 10%.
Several large insurers formed ACOs. Many hospitals merged and purchased physician practices, amounting to a significant consolidation of the provider industry. The increased market share gave them more leverage with insurers and reduced patient care options.


=== Economic consequences ===

CBO estimated in June 2015 that repealing ACA would:

Decrease GDP in the short-term, as government spending (on subsidies) was only partially replaced by spending by recipients.
Increase the supply of labor and aggregate compensation by about 0.8 and 0.9 percent over the 2021–2025 period. CBO cited ACA's expanded eligibility for Medicaid and subsidies and tax credits that rise with income as disincentives to work, so repealing ACA would remove those disincentives, encouraging workers to supply more labor, increasing the total number of hours worked by about 1.5% over the 2021–2025 period.
Remove the higher tax rates on capital income, thereby encouraging investment, raising the capital stock and output in the long-run.
In 2015 the progressive Center for Economic and Policy Research found no evidence that companies were reducing worker hours to avoid ACA requirements for employees working more than 30 hours per week.
CBO estimated that ACA would slightly reduce the size of the labor force and number of hours worked, as some would no longer be tethered to employers for their insurance. Jonathan Cohn claimed that ACA's primary employment effect was to alleviate job lock and the reform's only significant employment impact was the retirement of those who were working only to stay insured.


== Public opinion ==

Public views became increasingly negative in reaction to specific plans discussed during the legislative debate over 2009 and 2010. Approval varied by party, race and age. Some elements were more widely favored (preexisting conditions) or opposed (individual mandate).
In a 2010 poll, 62% of respondents said they thought ACA would ""increase the amount of money they personally spend on health care"", 56% said the bill ""gives the government too much involvement in health care"", and 19% said they thought they and their families would be better off with the legislation. Other polls found that people were concerned the law would cost more than projected and would not do enough to control costs.
In a 2012 poll 44% supported the law, with 56% against. By 75% of Democrats, 27% of Independents and 14% of Republicans favored the law. 82% favored banning insurance companies from denying coverage to people with preexisting conditions, 61% favored allowing children to stay on their parents' insurance until age 26, 72% supported requiring companies with more than 50 employees to provide insurance for their employees, and 39% supported the individual mandate to own insurance or pay a penalty. By party affiliation, 19% of Republicans, 27% of Independents, and 59% of Democrats favored the mandate. Other polls showed additional provisions receiving majority support, including the exchanges, pooling small businesses and the uninsured with other consumers and providing subsidies.
Some opponents believed the reform did not go far enough: a 2012 poll indicated that 71% of Republican opponents rejected it overall, while 29% believed it did not go far enough; independent opponents were divided 67% to 33%; and among the much smaller group of Democratic opponents, 49% rejected it overall and 51% wanted more.
In June 2013, a majority of the public (52–34%) indicated a desire for ""Congress to implement or tinker with the law rather than repeal it"". After the Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate, a 2012 poll held that ""most Americans (56%) want to see critics of President Obama's health care law drop efforts to block it and move on to other national issues"".
As of October 2013, approximately 40% were in favor while 51% were against. About 29% of whites approved of the law, compared with 61% of Hispanics and 91% of African Americans. A solid majority of seniors opposed the idea and a solid majority of those under forty were in favor.
A 2014 poll reported that 26% of Americans support ACA. A later 2014 poll reported that 48.9% of respondents had an unfavorable view of ACA versus 38.3% who had a favorable view (of more than 5,500 individuals). Another held that 8% of respondents agreed the Affordable Care Act ""is working well the way it is"". In late 2014, a Rasmussen poll reported Repeal: 30%, Leave as is: 13%, Improve: 52%.
In 2015, a poll reported that 47% of Americans approved the health care law. This was the first time a major poll indicated that more respondents approved than disapproved. A December 2016 poll reported that: a) 30% wanted to expand what the law does; b) 26% wanted to repeal the entire law; c) 19% wanted to move forward with implementing the law as it is; and d) 17% wanted to scale back what the law does, with the remainder undecided.
Separate polls from Fox News and NBC/WSJ, both taken during January 2017, indicated more people viewed the law favorably than did not for the first time. One of the reasons for the improving popularity of the law is that Democrats who had once opposed it (many still prefer ""Medicare for all"") shifted their positions because ACA was under threat of repeal. Another January 2017 poll reported that 35% of respondents believed ""Obamacare"" and the ""Affordable Care Act"" were different or did not know. (About 45% were unsure whether ""repeal of Obamacare"" also meant ""repeal of the Affordable Care Act"".) 39% did not know that ""many people would lose coverage through Medicaid or subsidies for private health insurance if the ACA were repealed and no replacement enacted"", with Democrats far more likely (79%) to know that fact than Republicans (47%). A 2017 study found that personal experience with public health insurance programs led to greater support for the ACA, most prominently among Republicans and low-information voters.
By the end of 2023, a Morning Consult poll of registered voters found that 57% approved of the Affordable Care Act, while 30% disapproved of it. 85% of Democrats, 56% of independents, and 28% of Republicans supported the law.


== Political aspects ==


=== ""Obamacare"" ===
The term ""Obamacare"" was originally coined by opponents as a pejorative. According to research by Elspeth Reeve, the expression was used in early 2007, generally by writers describing the candidate's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured. The term officially emerged in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott wrote, ""We will soon see a 'Giuliani-care' and 'Obama-care' to go along with 'McCain-care', 'Edwards-care', and a totally revamped and remodeled 'Hillary-care' from the 1990s"".
In May 2007, Mitt Romney introduced it to political discourse, saying, ""How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare?' And let me tell you, if we don't do it, the Democrats will. If the Democrats do it, it will be socialized medicine; it'll be government-managed care. It'll be what's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare, or whatever you want to call it.""
By mid-2012, Obamacare had become the colloquial term used both by supporters and opponents. Obama eventually endorsed the nickname, saying, ""I have no problem with people saying Obama cares. I do care.""
The use of ""Obamacare"" became increasingly rare, and at the 2024 Democratic National Convention, Obama said, ""I noticed, by the way, since it became popular, they don't call it 'Obamacare' no more.""


=== Common misconceptions ===


==== ""Death panels"" ====

On August 7, 2009, Sarah Palin created the term ""death panels"" to describe groups who would decide whether sick patients were ""worthy"" of medical care. ""Death panel"" referred to two claims about early drafts.
One was that under the law, seniors could be denied care due to their age and the other that the government would advise seniors to end their lives instead of receiving care. The ostensible basis of these claims was the provision for an Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB). IPAB was given the authority to recommend cost-saving changes to Medicare by facilitating the adoption of cost-effective treatments and cost-recovering measures when statutory expenditure levels were exceeded within any given three-year period. In fact, the Board was prohibited from recommending changes that would reduce payments before 2020, and was prohibited from recommending changes in premiums, benefits, eligibility and taxes, or other changes that would result in rationing.
The other related issue concerned advance-care planning consultation: a section of the House reform proposal would have reimbursed physicians for providing patient-requested consultations for Medicare recipients on end-of-life health planning (which is covered by many private plans), enabling patients to specify, on request, the kind of care they wished to receive. The provision was not included in ACA.
In 2010, the Pew Research Center reported that 85% of Americans were familiar with the claim, and 30% believed it was true, backed by three contemporaneous polls. The allegation was named PolitiFact's 2009 ""Lie of the Year"", one of FactCheck.org's ""whoppers"" and the most outrageous term by the American Dialect Society. AARP described such rumors as ""rife with gross—and even cruel—distortions"".


==== Members of Congress ====
ACA requires members of Congress and their staffs to obtain health insurance either through an exchange or some other program approved by the law (such as Medicare), instead of using the insurance offered to federal employees (the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program).


==== Illegal immigrants ====
ACA explicitly denies insurance subsidies to ""unauthorized (illegal) aliens"".


==== Exchange ""death spiral"" ====

Opponents claimed that combining immediate coverage with no provision for preexisting conditions would lead people to wait to get insured until they got sick. The individual mandate was designed to push people to get insured without waiting. This has been called a ""death spiral"". In the years after 2013, many insurers did leave specific marketplaces, claiming the risk pools were too small.
The median number of insurers per state was 4.0 in 2014, 5.0 in 2015, 4.0 in 2016 and 3.0 in 2017. Five states had one insurer in 2017, 13 had two, 11 had three; the remainder had four or more.


==== ""If you like your plan"" ====
At various times during and after ACA debate Obama said, ""If you like your health care plan, you'll be able to keep your health care plan."" However, in fall 2013 millions of Americans with individual policies received notices that their insurance plans were terminated, and several million more risked seeing their current plans canceled.
Obama's previous unambiguous assurance that consumers could keep their own plans became a focal point for critics, who challenged his truthfulness. Various bills were introduced in Congress to allow people to keep their plans.
PolitiFact initially cited various estimates that only about 2% of the total insured population (4 million out of 262 million) received such notices, but readers later voted Obama's claims as the 2013 ""Lie of the Year"".


== Criticism and opposition ==
Opposition and efforts to repeal the legislation have drawn support from sources that include labor unions, conservative advocacy groups, Republicans, small business organizations and the Tea Party movement. These groups claimed the law would disrupt existing health plans, increase costs from new insurance standards, and increase the deficit. Some opposed the idea of universal healthcare, viewing insurance as similar to other unsubsidized goods. President Donald Trump repeatedly promised to ""repeal and replace"" it.
As of 2013 unions that expressed concerns included the AFL–CIO, which called ACA ""highly disruptive"" to union health care plans, claiming it would drive up costs of union-sponsored plans; the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, and UNITE-HERE, whose leaders sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi arguing, ""PPACA will shatter not only our hard-earned health benefits, but destroy the foundation of the 40-hour work week that is the backbone of the American middle class."" In January 2014, Terry O'Sullivan, president of the Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA) and D. Taylor, president of Unite Here sent a letter to Reid and Pelosi stating, ""ACA, as implemented, undermines fair marketplace competition in the health care industry.""
In October 2016, Mark Dayton, the governor of Minnesota and a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party, said ACA had ""many good features"" but it was ""no longer affordable for increasing numbers of people""; he called on the state legislature to provide emergency relief to policyholders. Dayton later said he regretted his remarks after they were seized on by Republicans seeking to repeal the law.


=== Socialism debate ===
Many economically conservative opponents called the ACA ""socialist"" or ""socialized medicine"", pointing to the government redistribution of wealth via subsidies for low-income purchasers of private insurance, expansion of Medicaid, government requirements as to what products can be sold on the exchanges, and the individual mandate, which reduces freedom of consumer choice to be uninsured.
Other observers considered the law a relatively capitalist or ""regulated free-market"" means of paying for near-universal health care, because it creates new marketplaces with choices for consumers, largely relies on private employers and private health insurance companies, maintains private ownership of hospitals and doctor's offices, and was originally advocated by economic conservatives as a capitalist alternative to single-payer health care. Some pointed out that the previous system also had socialist aspects. Even for-profit private health insurance companies socialize risk and redistribute wealth from people who have it (all premium payers) to those who need it (by paying for medically necessary healthcare). The requirement to provide emergency care also forced redistribution from people who pay insurance premiums to those who choose to be uninsured, when they visit the emergency room.
Some Obamacare supporters accused conservatives of using the term ""socialism"" as a scare tactic for Obamacare as it was for Medicare and Medicaid, and some embraced the label ""socialism"" as desirable, distinguishing democratic socialism as desirable for education and health care and communism as undesirable. Milos Forman opined that critics ""falsely equate Western European-style socialism, and its government provision of social insurance and health care, with Marxist–Leninist totalitarianism"".


=== Legal challenges ===


==== National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius ====

Opponents challenged ACA's constitutionality in multiple lawsuits on multiple grounds. The Supreme Court ruled, 5–4, that the individual mandate was constitutional when viewed as a tax, although not under the Commerce Clause.
The Court further determined that states could not be forced to expand Medicaid. ACA withheld all Medicaid funding from states declining to participate in the expansion. The Court ruled that this was unconstitutionally coercive and that individual states had the right to opt out without losing preexisting Medicaid funding.


==== Contraception mandate ====

In March 2012, the Roman Catholic Church, while supportive of ACA's objectives, voiced concern through the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops that aspects of the mandate covering contraception and sterilization and HHS's narrow definition of a religious organization violated the First Amendment right to free exercise of religion and conscience. Various lawsuits addressed these concerns, including Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., which looked at private corporations and their duties under the ACA.
In Little Sisters of the Poor Saints Peter and Paul Home v. Pennsylvania, the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 on July 8, 2020, that employers with religious or moral objections to contraceptives can exclude such coverage from an employee's insurance plan. Writing for the majority, Justice Clarence Thomas said, ""No language in the statute itself even hints that Congress intended that contraception should or must be covered. It was Congress, not the [administration], that declined to expressly require contraceptive coverage in the ACA itself."" Justices Roberts, Alito, Gorsuch, and Kavanaugh joined Thomas's opinion. Justice Elena Kagan filed a concurring opinion in the judgment, in which Stephen Breyer joined. Justices Ginsburg and Sotomayor dissented, saying the court's ruling ""leaves women workers to fend for themselves.""
In a later lawsuit brought by private health insurance buyers and businesses, Judge Reed O'Connor of the Federal District Court for the Northern District of Texas ruled in March 2023 that the ACA's provision of contraceptives, HIV testing, and screenings for cancer, diabetes, and mental health violated the plaintiffs' freedom of religious exercise, and placed an injunction on that portion of the ACA. The Biden administration planned to seek a hold on O'Connor's decision.


==== King v Burwell ====

On June 25, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled, 6–3, that federal subsidies for health insurance premiums could be used in the 34 states that did not set up their own insurance exchanges.


==== House v. Price ====

House Republicans sued the Obama administration in 2014, alleging that cost-sharing reduction subsidy payments to insurers were unlawful because Congress had not appropriated funds to pay for them. The argument classified the CSR subsidy as discretionary spending subject to annual appropriation. In May 2016, a federal judge ruled for the plaintiffs, but the Obama administration appealed. Later, President Trump ended the payments. This led to further litigation.


==== United States House of Representatives v. Azar ====

The House sued the administration, alleging that the money for CSRs to insurers had not been appropriated, as required for any federal government spending. The ACA subsidy that helps customers pay premiums was not part of the suit.
Without the CSRs, the government estimated that premiums would increase by 20% to 30% for silver plans. In 2017, the uncertainty about whether the payments would continue caused Blue Cross Blue Shield of North Carolina to try to raise premiums by 22.9% the next year, as opposed to an increase of 8.8% that it would have sought if the payments were assured.
U.S. District Judge Rosemary M. Collyer ruled that the cost-sharing program was unconstitutional for spending money that has not been specifically provided by an act of Congress, but concluded that Congress had in fact authorized that program to be created. The judge also found that Congress had provided authority to cover the spending for the tax credits to consumers who use them to help afford health coverage. Collyer enjoined further cost-sharing payments, but stayed the order pending appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The case ended in a settlement before the Circuit Court.


==== California v. Texas ====

Texas and 19 other states filed a civil suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas in February 2018, arguing that with the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which eliminated the tax for not having health insurance, the individual mandate no longer had a constitutional basis and thus the entire ACA was no longer constitutional. The Department of Justice said it would no longer defend the ACA in court, but 17 states led by California stepped in to do so.
District Judge Reed O'Connor of Texas ruled for the plaintiffs on December 14, 2018, writing that the ""Individual Mandate can no longer be fairly read as an exercise of Congress's Tax Power and is still impermissible under the Interstate Commerce Clause—meaning the Individual Mandate is unconstitutional."" He then further reasoned that the individual mandate is an essential part of the entire law, and thus was not severable, making the entire law unconstitutional. O'Connor's decision regarding severability turned on several passages from the Congressional debate that focused on the importance of the mandate. While he ruled the law unconstitutional, he did not overturn the law.
The intervening states appealed the decision to the Fifth Circuit. These states argued that Congress's change in the tax was only reducing the amount of the tax, and that Congress had the power to write a stronger law to this end. O'Connor stayed his decision pending the appeal. The Fifth Circuit heard the appeal on July 9, 2019; in the interim, the U.S. Department of Justice joined with Republican states to argue that the ACA was unconstitutional, while the Democratic states were joined by the Democrat-controlled U.S. House of Representatives. An additional question was addressed, as the Republican plaintiffs challenged the Democratic states' standing to defend the ACA.
In December 2019, the Fifth Circuit agreed the individual mandate was unconstitutional, but did not agree that the entire law should be voided. Instead, it remanded the case to the District Court for reconsideration of that question. The Supreme Court accepted the case in March 2020, to be heard in the 2020–2021 term, with the ruling likely falling after the 2020 elections.
Democrats pointed out that the effect of invalidating the entire law would be to remove popular provisions such as the protection for preexisting conditions, and that the Republicans had still not offered any replacement plan—important issues in the 2020 elections.
On June 17, 2021, the Court rejected the challenge in a 7–2 decision, ruling that Texas and the other plaintiff states did not have standing to challenge the provision, leaving the full ACA intact.


==== Risk corridors ====

The Supreme Court ruled that promised risk corridor payments must be made even in the absence of specific appropriation of money by Congress.


==== Non-cooperation ====
Officials in Texas, Florida, Alabama, Wyoming, Arizona, Oklahoma and Missouri opposed those elements over which they had discretion. For example, Missouri declined to expand Medicaid or establish a health insurance marketplace engaging in active non-cooperation, enacting a statute forbidding any state or local official to render any aid not specifically required by federal law. Other Republicans discouraged efforts to advertise the law's benefits. Some conservative political groups launched ad campaigns to discourage enrollment.


=== Repeal and modification efforts ===

ACA was the subject of many unsuccessful repeal efforts by Republicans in the 111th, 112th, and 113th Congresses: Representatives Steve King and Michele Bachmann introduced bills in the House to repeal the ACA the day after it was signed, as did Senator Jim DeMint in the Senate. In 2011, after Republicans gained control of the House, one of the first votes held was on a bill titled ""Repealing the Job-Killing Health Care Law Act"" (H.R. 2), which the House passed 245–189. All Republicans and three Democrats voted for repeal. In the Senate, the bill was offered as an amendment to an unrelated bill, but was voted down. President Obama said he would veto the bill had it passed.

On February 3, 2015, the House of Representatives added its 67th repeal vote to the record (239 to 186). This attempt also failed.


==== 2013 federal government shutdown ====
Strong partisan disagreement in Congress prevented adjustments to the Act's provisions. But at least one change, a proposed repeal of a tax on medical devices, received bipartisan support. Some Congressional Republicans argued against improvements to the law on the grounds that they would weaken the arguments for repeal.
Republicans attempted to defund the ACA's implementation, and in October 2013 House Republicans refused to fund the federal government unless it came with an implementation delay, after Obama unilaterally deferred the employer mandate by one year, which critics claimed he had no power to do. The House passed three versions of a bill funding the government while submitting various versions that would repeal or delay the ACA, with the last version delaying enforcement of the individual mandate. The Democratic Senate leadership said the Senate would pass only a bill without any restrictions on ACA. The government shutdown lasted from October 1 to October 17.


==== 2017 repeal effort ====

During a midnight congressional session starting January 11, the Senate of the 115th Congress of the United States voted to approve a ""budget blueprint"" that would allow Republicans to repeal parts of the law ""without threat of a Democratic filibuster"". The plan, which passed 51–48, was named by Senate Republicans the ""Obamacare 'repeal resolution.'"" Democrats opposing the resolution staged a protest during the vote.
House Republicans announced their replacement, the American Health Care Act, on March 6. On March 24, the AHCA failed amid a revolt among Republican representatives.
On May 4 the House voted to pass the AHCA by a margin of 217 to 213. The Senate Republican leadership announced that Senate Republicans would write their own version of the bill instead of voting on the House version.
Leader McConnell named a group of 13 Republicans to draft the substitute version in private, raising bipartisan concerns about lack of transparency. On June 22, Republicans released the first discussion draft, which renamed it the ""Better Care Reconciliation Act of 2017"" (BCRA). On July 25, although no amendment proposal had garnered majority support, Republicans voted to advance the bill to the floor and begin formal consideration of amendments. Senators Susan Collins and Lisa Murkowski were the only two dissenting Republicans, making the vote a 50–50 tie. Vice President Mike Pence then cast the tie-breaking vote in the affirmative.
The revised BCRA failed, 43–57. A subsequent ""Obamacare Repeal and Reconciliation Act"" abandoned the ""repeal and replace"" approach in favor of a straight repeal, but that too failed, 45–55. Finally, the ""Health Care Freedom Act"", nicknamed ""skinny repeal"" because it would have made the least change to ACA, failed by 49–51, with Collins, Murkowski, and McCain joining all Democrats and independents in voting against it.


==== Proposed changes in 2024 ====
Donald Trump, who has historically opposed the ACA, has said during the 2024 United States presidential debates that he plans to modify or scrap sections it, saying he has ""proposals."" JD Vance has said that Trump intends to allow insurance companies to discriminate against people with preexisting conditions or disability, with subsidized insurance replaced with private insurance. Kamala Harris said she would ""maintain and grow"" the ACA.


=== Actions to hinder implementation ===

Under both the ACA (current law) and the AHCA, the CBO reported that the health exchange marketplaces would remain stable. But Republican politicians took a variety of steps to undermine it, creating uncertainty that adversely impacted enrollment and insurer participation while increasing premiums. Concern about the exchanges became another argument for reforms. Past and ongoing Republican attempts to weaken the law have included:

Lawsuits such as King v. Burwell and House v. Price.
President Trump ended the payment of cost-sharing reduction subsidies to insurers on October 12, 2017. CBO estimated in September 2017 that discontinuing the payments would add an average of 15–20 percentage points to health insurance costs on the exchanges in 2018 while increasing the budget deficit nearly $200 billion over a decade. In response, insurers sued the government for reimbursement. Various cases are under appeal as of 2019. Several insurers and actuarial groups estimated this resulted in a 20 percentage point or more increase in premiums for the 2018 plan year. In other words, premium increases expected to be 10% or less in 2018 became 28–40% instead. The insurers would need to make up the $7 billion they had previously received in cost-sharing reductions (CSRs) by raising premiums. Since most premiums are subsidized, the federal government would cover most of the increases. CBO also estimated that initially up to one million fewer people would have health insurance coverage, although rising subsidies might eventually offset this. The 85% of enrollees who received subsidies would be unaffected. CBO expected the exchanges to remain stable (i.e., no ""death spiral"" before or after Trump's action) as the premiums would increase and prices would stabilize at the higher (non-CSR) level. Several insurance companies who sued the United States for failure to pay CSRs won cases in 2018 and 2019. The judiciary decided the insurance companies are entitled to unpaid CSRs.
The 2015 appropriations bill had a rider that ended the payment of risk corridor funds. This was repeated in later years. This resulted in the bankruptcy of many co-ops. This action was attributed to Senator Marco Rubio. The cutoff generated some 50 lawsuits. The Supreme Court granted certiorari in 2019 in the case Maine Community Health Options v. United States.
Trump weakened the individual mandate with his first executive order, which limited enforcement of the tax. For example, tax returns without indications of health insurance (""silent returns"") will still be processed, overriding Obama's instructions to reject them.
Trump reduced funding for advertising for exchange enrollment by up to 90%, with other reductions to support resources used to answer questions and help people sign-up for coverage. The CBO said the reductions would reduce ACA enrollment.
Trump reduced the enrollment period for 2018 by half, to 45 days.
Trump made public statements that the exchanges were unstable or in a death spiral.


=== Perceived inadequacies ===
In December 2009, former DNC chairman and former Vermont governor Howard Dean called the ACA ""a bigger bailout for the insurance industry than AIG"" and ""an insurance company's dream"". He viewed the bill's end form as a death of the health care reform effort.
In his 2011 book Remedy and Reaction, Paul Starr, the former senior advisor for Bill Clinton's health care reform plan, notes that the ACA did not make health insurance a right and did not make medical care free at the point of service. He criticizies the ACA on the grounds that some lower-income individuals still cannot afford treatment and go without care ""if health care and insurance are treated as ordinary commodities"".
The ACA's critics often cite its inability to control costs and lower deductibles, the difficulty for average people to compare plans, lack of a strong public option, and inadequate regulations on or alternatives (such as co-operatives) to large corporate health care companies.


== Implementation ==

In 2010 small business tax credits took effect. Then Pre-Existing Condition Insurance Plan (PCIP) took effect to offer insurance to those who had been denied coverage by private insurance companies because of a preexisting condition. By 2011, insurers had stopped marketing child-only policies in 17 states, as they sought to escape this requirement. In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius the Supreme Court allowed states to opt out of the Medicaid expansion.
In 2013, the Internal Revenue Service ruled that the cost of covering only the individual employee would be considered in determining whether the cost of coverage exceeded 9.5% of income. Family plans would not be considered even if the cost was above the 9.5% income threshold. On July 2 Obama delayed the employer mandate until 2015. The launch for both the state and federal exchanges was beset by management and technical failings. HealthCare.gov, the website that offers insurance through the exchanges operated by the federal government, crashed on opening and suffered many problems. Operations stabilized in 2014, although not all planned features were complete.
The Government Accountability Office released a non-partisan study in 2014 that concluded the administration had not provided ""effective planning or oversight practices"" in developing the exchanges. In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the Supreme Court exempted closely held corporations with religious convictions from the contraception rule. At the beginning of the 2015, 11.7 million had signed up (ex-Medicaid). By the end of the year about 8.8 million consumers had stayed in the program. Congress repeatedly delayed the onset of the ""Cadillac tax"" on expensive insurance plans first until 2020 and later until 2022 and repealed it in late 2019.
An estimated 9 to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage in 2016, mostly low-income adults. The five major national insurers expected to lose money on ACA policies in 2016, in part because the enrollees were lower income, older and sicker than expected.
More than 9.2 million people (3.0 million new customers and 6.2 million returning) enrolled on the national exchange in 2017, down some 400,000 from 2016. This decline was due primarily to the election of President Trump. The eleven states that run their own exchanges signed up about 3 million more. The IRS announced that it would not require that tax returns indicate a person has health insurance, reducing the effectiveness of the individual mandate, in response to Trump's executive order. The CBO reported in March that the healthcare exchanges were expected to be stable. In May the House voted to repeal the ACA using the American Health Care Act (AHCA), but the AHCA was defeated in the Senate. The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act set the individual mandate penalty at $0 starting in 2019. The CBO estimated that the change would cause 13 million fewer people to have health insurance in 2027.
The 2017 Individual Market Stabilization Bill was proposed to fund cost cost-sharing reductions, provide more flexibility for state waivers, allow a new ""Copper Plan"" offering only catastrophic coverage, allow interstate insurance compacts, and redirect consumer fees to states for outreach. The bill failed.
By 2019, 35 states and the District of Columbia had either expanded coverage via traditional Medicaid or via an alternative program.


== In popular culture ==
SNL presented a sketch in October 2009 about the legislation's gridlock, with Dwayne Johnson playing an angry President Obama confronting three senators opposing the plan.
The show aired another sketch in September 2013 with Jay Pharoah as President Obama rolling out the plan to the public, and Aaron Paul and other cast members playing ordinary Americans helping him in advocating for the legislation.


== See also ==

Broccoli mandate
Comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States
Individual shared responsibility provision
Massachusetts health care reform (sometimes called ""Romneycare"")
Medicaid
Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015 (Reform to the American Health Care system signed into law by President Obama)
Single-payer health care
Universal health care
Universal health coverage by country
U.S. health care compared with eight other countries (tabular form)


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Altman, Stuart, and David Shactman. Power, Politics, and Universal Health Care: The Inside Story of a Century-Long Battle (2011) online
Barr, Donald A. (2011). Introduction to U.S. Health Policy: The Organization, Financing, and Delivery of Health Care in America. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0218-5.
Blumenthal,  David, Melinda Abrams, and Rachel Nuzum. ""The affordable care act at 5 years."" New England Journal of Medicine 372.25 (2015): 2451-2458. online
Bossaler, Jenny S. (April 2016). ""Access to affordable care through public libraries"". The Library Quarterly. 86 (2). University of Chicago Press: 193–212. doi:10.1086/685400. ISSN 0024-2519. JSTOR 26561661. OCLC 01755858. S2CID 147627006.
Campbell, Andrea Louise, and Lara Shore-Sheppard. ""The social, political, and economic effects of the Affordable Care Act: Introduction to the issue."" RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 6.2 (2020): 1-40 online.
CCH's Law, Explanation and Analysis of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Including Reconciliation Act Impact. Chicago, IL: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. 2010. ISBN 978-0-8080-2287-9. Two volumes: This book contains an editorially enhanced version of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act that integrates in place changes made to it by the Reconciliation Act of 2010. ... A website, www.mediregs.com/cchhealthreform, has been created to expand access to key legislative materials.
Fang, Hanming; Krueger, Dirk (2022). ""The Affordable Care Act After a Decade: Its Impact on the Labor Market and the Macro Economy"". Annual Review of Economics. 14 (1). Cambridge MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w29240. ISSN 1941-1391. LCCN 2008214322. OCLC 190859329.
Feldman, Arthur M. (2012) [2011]. Understanding Health Care Reform: Bridging the Gap Between Myth and Reality. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-7948-1. Archived from the original on June 16, 2022.
Jacobs, Lawrence R.; Skocpol, Theda (2010). Health Care Reform and American Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978142-3.
McDonough, John E. (August 2, 2011). Inside National Health Reform. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27019-0.
Brill, Steven (January 5, 2015). America's Bitter Pill: Money, Politics, Back-Room Deals, and the Fight to Fix Our Broken Healthcare System. Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-9695-1.
""Letter to the Honorable John Boehner providing an estimate for H.R. 6079, the Repeal of Obamacare Act"". United States. Congressional Budget Office. July 24, 2012. Archived from the original (Cost estimate) on July 27, 2012. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
Elmendorf, Douglas W. (November 30, 2009). ""An Analysis of Health Insurance Premiums Under the Patient Protection and Affordable Health Care Act"" (PDF). United States. Congressional Budget Office. Archived from the original on December 5, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2012.
""Analysis Of A Permanent Prohibition On Implementing The Major Health Care Legislation Enacted In March 2010"". United States. Congressional Budget Office. May 26, 2011. Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012.
Glied, Sherry; Ma, Stephanie (December 2013). ""How States Stand to Gain or Lose Federal Funds by Opting In or Out of the Medicaid Expansion"" (PDF). Issue Brief. 32. The Commonwealth Fund: 1–12. PMID 24344468. Retrieved February 20, 2016.
Jost, Timothy (February 24, 2014). ""Implementing Health Reform: Medicaid Asset Rules And The Affordable Care Act"". Health Affairs. Washington, DC: Project HOPE. doi:10.1377/forefront.20140224.037390. ISSN 1544-5208. OCLC 07760874.
Riley, Trish; Thorpe, Jane Hyatt (2012). ""Multi-state plans under the Affordable Care Act"" (PDF). Department of Health Policy. The George Washington University: School of Public Health and Health Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2013.
""Following The Affordable Care Act"". Health Affairs. ISSN 1544-5208. OCLC 07760874. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
""Pre-Affordable Care Act (2011 Archived) Health Insurance Consumer Guides for the Fifty States From Georgetown University Health Policy Institute (Can be used to explore the pre-ACA health insurance system)"". Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved April 29, 2011.
Mettler, Suzanne (2011). The Submerged State: How Invisible Government Policies Undermine American Democracy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226521664. OCLC 928901062.
Mettler, Suzanne (April 17, 2012). ""The Submerged State"". Office Hours podcast. Society Pages. Identifier 1000365943260
Jacobs, Lawrence R.; Mettler, Suzanne (2020). ""What Health Reform Tells Us about American Politics"". Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. 45 (4): 581–593. doi:10.1215/03616878-8255505. ISSN 0361-6878. LCCN 76646971. OCLC 2115780. PMID 32186336. S2CID 212752729.


=== Preliminary CBO documents ===
Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act, Incorporating The Manager's Amendment. United States. Congressional Budget Office December 19, 2009. (Cost estimate)
Effects Of The Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act On The Federal Budget And The Balance In The Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (December 23, 2009)
Estimated Effect Of The Patient Protection And Affordable Care Act (Incorporating The Manager's Amendment) On The Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (December 23, 2009)
Base Analysis—H.R. 3590, Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, United States. Congressional Budget Office. November 18, 2009. (Cost estimate)(The additional and related CBO reporting that follows can be accessed from the above link)
Estimated Distribution Of Individual Mandate Penalties (November 20, 2009)
Estimated Effects On Medicare Advantage Enrollment And Benefits Not Covered By Medicare (November 21, 2009)
Estimated Effects On The Status Of The Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (November 21, 2009)
Estimated Average Premiums Under Current Law (December 5, 2009)
Additional Information About Employment-Based Coverage (December 7, 2009)
Budgetary Treatment Of Proposals To Regulate Medical Loss Ratios (December 13, 2009)


=== CMS Estimates of the impact of P.L. 111-148 ===
Estimated Financial Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act"", as Amended. April 22, 2010.
Estimated Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act"", as Amended, on the Year of Exhaustion for the Part A Trust Fund, Part B Premiums, and Part A and Part B Coinsurance Amounts. April 22, 2010.


=== CMS Estimates of the impact of H.R. 3590 ===
Estimated Financial Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2009"", as Proposed by the Senate Majority Leader on November 18, 2009. December 10, 2009.
Estimated Effects of the ""Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act"" on the Year of Exhaustion for the Part A Trust Fund, Part B Premiums, and Part A and Part B Coinsurance Amounts. December 10, 2009.


=== Senate Finance Committee meetings ===
Senate Finance Committee Hearings for the 111th Congress recorded by C-SPAN; also available from Finance.Senate.Gov (accessed April 1, 2012).


== External links ==


=== ACA text ===
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
Full text, summary, background, provisions and more, via Democratic Policy Committee (Senate.gov)"
Pittsburgh Penguins–New York Islanders brawl,"The Penguins–Islanders brawl was an incident during a National Hockey League (NHL) regular season ice hockey game between the Pittsburgh Penguins and the New York Islanders that resulted in a record for combined penalty minutes for both teams. The game was played on February 11, 2011, at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, the home arena of the Islanders at the time. New York won the game 9–3. In all, 65 penalties were assessed, including 15 fighting majors and 21 game misconducts, resulting in a total of 346 penalty minutes.
The high number of physical altercations was attributed to numerous on-ice incidents between the two teams throughout the season, most notably an incident during the prior meeting of the two teams in which Penguins forward Maxime Talbot delivered a hit to Blake Comeau that concussed him. Prior to the rematch, there were hints and indications from the Islanders that there would be retribution for the injury. The game itself featured two separate multi-player brawls, one of which occurred after Pittsburgh's Eric Tangradi took an elbow to the head, which caused a concussion. The NHL suspended three players for actions occurring in the game and fined the Islanders organization $100,000. After the disciplinary action was announced, Penguins owner Mario Lemieux questioned the direction of the League for allowing fighting. Lemieux was highly criticized following his comments, with critics noting that his Penguins team led the entire league in fighting majors.


== Previous game ==

The previous matchup, which took place nine days prior to the brawl, featured several incidents that contributed to the hostilities between the teams. In the first period of that contest, Penguins forward Maxime Talbot delivered a ""questionable but unpenalized"" body check to the Islanders' Blake Comeau. Talbot was not penalized and Comeau played for the remainder of the game, but was diagnosed with a concussion two days later. The injury caused Comeau to miss four games, including the rematch against the Penguins.
A second incident occurred later in the game. With just 16.5 seconds left in regulation, Islanders goaltender Rick DiPietro shoved Penguins forward Matt Cooke as he skated through the crease. As Cooke fell to the ground, a scrum ensued. Penguins goaltender Brent Johnson skated the length of the ice and engaged DiPietro in a fight. Johnson threw a single left hook, knocking the Islanders goaltender to the ice. DiPietro was sidelined for six weeks following the fight due to facial fractures and knee swelling.


== Brawl game ==
The Islanders were upset over what had transpired in the previous game and hinted that there would be retribution when the clubs next met on February 11, 2011. Following the February 2 game, Islanders forward Zenon Konopka said. ""We're not happy, and we're not happy with the outcome of the game. We have to remember this."" The game began as a penalty-filled affair as eight penalties were called in the first period. The Islanders started the physical play early in the game, as Micheal Haley was assessed a roughing penalty at the 2:37 mark in the first period. Half way through the first period, the first fight of the game occurred when Haley fought with Craig Adams. A second fight broke out late in the period when the Islanders' Trevor Gillies squared off with Penguins' enforcer Eric Godard with just over two minutes left in the period. At the end of the first, New York had scored four goals on Johnson and led 4–0.
Early in the second period, New York scored two goals just 30 seconds apart, taking a 6–0 lead. After the sixth goal, Johnson was pulled and as he skated to the tunnel where the back-up goaltender sits, he was showered with boos from the crowd, largely due to the ramifications of his prior fight with DiPietro. Shortly after Johnson was pulled, the first brawl occurred. Due to his previous hit on Comeau, Talbot was targeted by the Islanders' players, and he was 'jumped' from behind by Matt Martin. Martin's attempt to engage Talbot in a fight resulted in three separate fights breaking out. In his first NHL fight, the Islanders' Josh Bailey squared off with Pascal Dupuis, while the Penguins' Mike Rupp tangled with Travis Hamonic, while Martin fought with Deryk Engelland. All six players were automatically ejected from the game after each received ten-minute game misconduct penalties. Martin received an additional ten-minute misconduct and a two-minute minor for instigating the altercation. Martin's minor was offset when Engelland was assessed a minor for roughing for his part of the altercation. Three more minors were called during the period, which ended with the Islanders leading the game 8–2.

At the start of the third period, Johnson returned to the game and less than five minutes into the period, a second brawl occurred.
 The melee started when Gillies elbowed Penguins forward Eric Tangradi in the head. After the elbow, Tangradi fell to the ice, where he was continually punched. When Gillies was separated from Tangradi, he was given a five-minute major for elbowing, a double minor for roughing, a ten-minute misconduct and a game misconduct. Despite being ejected from the game, Gillies continued to taunt the injured Tangradi from the runway to the dressing rooms. Tangradi left the game with an apparent concussion. While that situation was unfolding, other incidents were occurring on the ice — Haley fought Talbot and, while that fight was being broken up, Johnson skated from his crease towards his blue line. Haley skated towards Johnson, then both players dropped their gloves and engaged in a fight. As Haley approached, Godard left the bench to join in the fight and protect Johnson. Godard was assessed a double minor for roughing and two game misconduct penalties; Haley received an instigator minor, two fighting majors, a ten-minute misconduct and a game misconduct (the game misconduct being automatic for a third fight in a game); while Johnson was given a major for fighting. Although he was ejected from the game, the crowd chanted Haley's name for the rest of the period whenever a scrum ensued, another of which occurred at the 16:04 mark in the period that witnessed another six misconduct penalties. As the game wound down, there was yet another fight when Joe Vitale battled the Islanders' Andrew MacDonald. The fight occurred with just 2:47 remaining in the game, but it would not be the last penalty handed out, as just 15 seconds later, Ryan Craig was given both a cross-checking minor and a ten-minute misconduct. Both teams scored a goal during the third period, making the final a 9–3 Islanders win. After all the ejections at the end of regulation, the Penguins had seven eligible players, while the Islanders had nine. Only 12 players from both teams combined did not receive any penalties: Marc-Andre Fleury (who was actually the backup goalie in the game as part of a scheduled day off), Alex Goligoski, Nick Johnson, Paul Martin and Jordan Staal of Pittsburgh; and Bruno Gervais, Michael Grabner, Milan Jurcina, Mikko Koskinen, Radek Martinek, Matt Moulson and P. A. Parenteau of New York. In all, 65 penalties were assessed, including 15 fighting major penalties and 21 game misconducts, for a total of 346 minutes. The penalty minute total set team records for both the Penguins and Islanders for combined penalty minutes. Notably, Penguins star Sidney Crosby was not involved in the game nor the brawl, due to having suffered a season-ending concussion over one month prior in the 2011 NHL Winter Classic.


== Aftermath ==
The day after the game, the NHL handed out suspensions and fines for the incidents. New York's Trevor Gillies received a nine-game suspension and Matt Martin was given four games for his actions, which NHL Senior Executive Vice President of Hockey Operations Colin Campbell described as ""deliberate attempts to injure."" The Islanders organization was also fined $100,000 for ""failure to control their players."" Pittsburgh's Eric Godard was given an automatic ten-game suspension for violating League rules prohibiting players from leaving the bench to join a fight. Although such actions should result in a suspension for the player's head coach, the NHL elected not to enforce this rule. Tangradi, a recent callup from the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, suffered post-concussion symptoms, causing him to miss nearly six weeks of playing time, which had the additional effect of making Tangradi, at the time of his call-up the leading scorer in the American Hockey League (AHL), miss the AHL's clear day (as he could not be reassigned while injured), making Tangradi ineligible to play in the AHL that post-season.

Following the announcement of the suspensions, Penguins owner and Hockey Hall of Famer Mario Lemieux questioned the direction of the League. Lemieux released a statement on the issue, saying, ""The NHL had a chance to send a clear and strong message that those kinds of actions are unacceptable and embarrassing to the sport. It failed."" He further added, ""If the events relating to Friday night reflect the state of the league, I need to re-think whether I want to be a part of it."" An alternate view was expressed by Toronto Maple Leafs General Manager Brian Burke, who noted that he felt the NHL acted ""swiftly, harshly and appropriately."" Boston Bruins forward Milan Lucic agreed with Burke, stating that the NHL took a stand against line brawls and intent to injure opponents.


== Boxscore ==
Scoring summary

Number in parentheses represents the player's total in goals or assists to that point of the season
Penalty summary
As noted before, there were 346 penalty minutes handed out in the game. Combined, there were twenty-eight minor penalties (56 minutes), sixteen major penalties (fifteen of them were for fighting), and twenty-one misconduct or game misconducts handed out.
Of these, the Islanders received fourteen minor penalties (28 minutes), nine major penalties (45 minutes—eight were fighting majors and another was an elbowing), and eleven misconduct or game misconducts (110 minutes) for a total of 183 penalty minutes.
The Penguins received fourteen minor penalties (28 minutes), seven major penalties (35 minutes), all but one of which were fighting majors, and ten misconduct or game misconducts (100 minutes), for a total of 163 penalty minutes.


=== Penalty summary ===
Below is a table showing players from both teams and the number of penalties and penalties in minutes they received.


== References ==


== External links ==
Game Summary at NHL.com
Event Summary at NHL.com"
Malt,"Malt is any cereal grain that has been made to germinate by soaking in water and then stopped from germinating further by drying with hot air, a process known as ""malting"".
Malted grain is used to make beer, whisky, malted milk, malt vinegar, confections such as Maltesers and Whoppers, flavored drinks such as Horlicks, Ovaltine, and Milo, and some baked goods, such as malt loaf, bagels, and Rich Tea biscuits. Malted grain that has been ground into a coarse meal is known as ""sweet meal"". 
Malting grain develops the enzymes (α-amylase, β-amylase) required for modifying the grains' starches into various types of sugar, including monosaccharide glucose, disaccharide maltose, trisaccharide maltotriose, and higher sugars called maltodextrines. It also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, that break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast. The point at which the malting process is stopped affects the starch-to-enzyme ratio, and partly converted starch becomes fermentable sugars.
Malt also contains small amounts of other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose, which are not products of starch modification, but which are already in the grain. Further conversion to fermentable sugars is achieved during the mashing process.

Various cereals are malted, though barley is the most common. A high-protein form of malted barley is often a label-listed ingredient in blended flours typically used in the manufacture of yeast bread and other baked goods.
The term ""malt"" refers to several products of the process: the grains to which this process has been applied, for example, malted barley; the sugar, heavy in maltose, derived from such grains, such as the baker's malt used in various breakfast cereals; single malt whisky, often called simply ""single malt""; or a product based on malted milk, similar to a malted milkshake (i.e. ""malts"").


== History and traditional usage ==

Malted grains have probably been used as an ingredient of beer since ancient times, for example in Egypt (Ancient Egyptian cuisine), Sumer, and China.
In Persian countries, a sweet paste made entirely from germinated wheat is called samanū (Persian: سمنو) in Iran, samanak (Persian: سمنک) in Afghanistan, (Tajik: суманак); (Uzbek Latin: sumalak) or sümölök (Kyrgyz: сүмөлөк), which is prepared for Nowruz (Persian new year celebration) in a large pot (like a kazan). A plate or bowl of samanu is a traditional component of the Haft sin table symbolising affluence. Traditionally, women have a special party to prepare it during the night, and cook it from late in the evening until the daylight, singing related songs. In Tajikistan and Afghanistan, they sing: Samanak dar Jūsh u mā Kafcha zanēm – Dīgarān dar Khwāb u mā Dafcha zanēm (meaning: ""Samanak is boiling and we are stirring it, others are asleep and we are playing daf""). In modern times, making samanu can be a family gathering. It originally comes from the Great Persian Empire.
Mämmi, or Easter Porridge, is a traditional Finnish Lenten food. Cooked from rye malt and flour, mämmi has a great resemblance (in the recipe, color, and taste) to samanū. Today, this product is available in shops from February until Easter. A (nonrepresentative) survey in 2013 showed that almost no one cooks mämmi at home in modern-day Finland.


== Malting ==

Malting is the process of converting barley or other cereal grains into malt for use in brewing, distilling, or foods, and takes place in a maltings, sometimes called a malthouse, or a malting floor. The cereal is spread out on the malting floor in a layer of 8 to 12 centimetres (3 to 4+1⁄2 inches) depth. 

Drying
The malting process starts with drying the grains to a moisture content below 14% and then storing for around six weeks to overcome seed dormancy.
Steeping
When ready, the grain is immersed or steeped in water two or three times for two or three days to allow the grain to absorb moisture and to start to sprout.
Germination
When the grain has a moisture content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor, where it is constantly turned over for about four to six days while it is air-dried.
Pre-toasting
The grain at this point, called ""green malt"", is then dried and toasted in an oven (or kiln) to the desired color and specification. Malts range in color from very pale through crystal and amber to chocolate or black malts.
Smoking
The sprouted grain is then further dried and smoked by spreading it on a perforated wooden floor. Smoke coming from an oasting fireplace (via smoke channels) is then used to heat the wooden floor and the sprouted grains. The temperature is usually around 55 °C (131 °F).
A ""maltings"" is typically a long, single-storey building with a floor that slopes slightly from one end of the building to the other. Floor maltings began to be phased out in the 1940s in favor of ""pneumatic plants"", where large industrial fans are used to blow air through the germinating grain beds and to pass hot air through the malt being kilned. Like floor maltings, these pneumatic plants use batch processes, but of considerably greater size, typically 100-ton batches compared with 20-ton batches floor maltings.
As of 2014, the largest malting operation in the world was Malteurop, which operates in 14 countries.


== Production ==
Barley is the most commonly malted grain, in part because of its high content of enzymes, though wheat, rye, oats, rice, and corn are also used. Also very important is the retention of the grain's husk, even after threshing, unlike the bare seeds of threshed wheat or rye. This protects the growing acrospire (developing plant embryo) from damage during malting, which can easily lead to mold growth; it also allows the mash of converted grain to create a filter bed during lautering.


== Malts ==


=== Diastatic and nondiastatic ===
As all grains sprout, natural enzymes within the grain break down the starch of which the grain is composed into simpler sugars, which taste sweet and are easier for yeast to use as food. Malt with active enzymes is called ""diastatic malt"". Malt with inactive enzymes is called ""nondiastatic malt"". The enzymes are deactivated by heating the malt.


=== Base and specialty ===

Malt is often divided into two categories by brewers: base malts and specialty malts.
Base malts have enough diastatic power to convert their own starch and usually, that of some amount of starch from unmalted grain, called adjuncts.
Specialty malts have little diastatic power, but provide flavor, color, or ""body"" (viscosity) to the finished beer. Specialty caramel or crystal malts have been subjected to heat treatment to convert their starches to sugars nonenzymatically. Within these categories is a variety of types distinguished largely by the kilning temperature.


=== Two-row and six-row ===
In addition, barley malts are distinguished by the two major cultivar types of barley used for malting, two-row, and six-row.


== Malt extract ==

Malt extract, also known as extract of malt, is a sweet, treacle-like substance used as a dietary supplement. It was popular in the first half of the 20th century as a nutritional enhancer for the children of the British urban working class, whose diet was often deficient in vitamins and minerals. Children were given cod liver oil for the same reason, but it proved so unpalatable that it was combined with extract of malt to produce ""Malt and Cod-Liver Oil.""
The 1907 British Pharmaceutical Codex's instructions for making a nutritional extract of malt do not include a mashout at the end of extraction and include the use of lower mash temperatures than is typical with modern beer-brewing practices. The Codex indicates that diastatic activity is to be preserved by the use of temperatures not exceeding 55 °C (131 °F).


=== Malt extract production ===
Malt extract is frequently used in the brewing of beer. Its production begins by germinating barley grain in a process known as malting, which consists of immersing the barley in water to encourage it to sprout, then drying it to halt the progress when the sprouting begins. The drying step stops the sprouting, but the enzymes remain active due to the low temperatures used in base malt production. In one before-and-after comparison, malting decreased barley's extractable starch content by about 7% on a dry matter basis and turned that portion into various other carbohydrates.

In the next step, brewers use a process called mashing to extract the sugars. Brewers warm cracked malt in temperature-modulated water, activating the enzymes, which cleave more of the malt's remaining starch into various sugars, the largest percentage of which is maltose. Modern beer-mashing practices typically include high enough temperatures at mash-out to deactivate remaining enzymes, thus it is no longer diastatic. The liquid produced from this, wort, is then concentrated by using heat or a vacuum procedure to evaporate water from the mixture. The concentrated wort is called malt extract.


=== Malt extract types ===
Two forms of malt extract are used by brewers: liquid malt extract (LME), containing about 20% water, and dry malt extract (DME), dehydrated to 2% water. LME is a thick syrup that typically gives off more pleasant flavors than its counterpart, while DME provides better consistency in color. When using large amounts of extract, LME is typically used because its ability to dissolve in boiling temperatures, whereas DME can clump up and become difficult to liquefy. LME is also sold in jars as a consumer product.


== Research ==
Scientists aim to discover what happens inside barley grains as they become malted to help plant breeders produce better malting barley for food and beverage products. The United States Agricultural Research Service scientists are interested in specialized enzymes called serine-class proteases that digest beta-amylases, which convert carbohydrates into ""simple sugars"" during the sprouting process. The enzyme also breaks down stored proteins into their amino-acid derivatives. The balance of proteins and carbohydrates broken down by the enzyme affects the malt's flavor.


=== Enzyme-rich malt extract ===
Enzyme-rich malt extract (ERME) is a specialised form of barley malt extract (marketed by Ateria Health), that has undergone preparation to activate the natural amylase and glucanase enzymes in the grain. Initially researched as an equine food supplement, pilot studies using ERME as a human food supplement have suggested that it could potentially improve the symptoms of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) and chronic constipation, due to the way it can break down carbohydrates in the small intestine that IBS has been found to hinder. However further research is ongoing to fully prove this link.


== See also ==

Malt beer
Malt beverage
Malta (soft drink)
Radio Malt
Sprouted bread
Wheatgrass


== References ==


== Further reading ==
D. E. Briggs, Malts and Malting, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers (30 September 1998), ISBN 0-412-29800-7
Clark, Christine, The British Malting Industry Since 1830, Hambledon Continuum (1 July 1998), ISBN 1-85285-170-8


== External links ==

A Complete Guide to Malted Barley"
"Goochland County, Virginia","Goochland County is a county located in the Piedmont of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Its southern border is formed by the James River. As of the 2020 census, the population was 24,727. Its county seat is Goochland.
Goochland County is included in the Greater Richmond Region.


== History ==


=== Native Americans ===
See Native American tribes in Virginia
Long before the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century, all of the territory of Virginia, including the Piedmont area, was populated by various tribes of Native Americans. They were the historic tribes descended from thousands of years of succeeding and varied indigenous cultures. Among the historic tribes in the Piedmont were the Monacan, who were Siouan-speaking and were recorded as having several villages west of what the colonists later called Manakin Town on the James River.
They and other Siouan tribes traditionally competed with and were in conflict with the members of the Powhatan Confederacy, Algonquian-speaking tribes who generally inhabited the coastal Tidewater area along the Atlantic and the rivers feeding it. They also were subject to raids by Iroquois nations from the north, who were based south of the Great Lakes in present-day New York and Pennsylvania.
By the end of the 17th century, the Monacan had been decimated by warfare and infectious diseases carried by the mostly English colonists and traders; their survivors were absorbed into other Siouan tribes.
Portions of the historic Three Chopt Trail, a Native American trail, run through a large portion of the county. The trail was marked by three hatchet chops in trees to show the way. The modern-day U.S. Route 250 roughly follows this route from Richmond to Charlottesville.


=== Henrico Shire ===
In 1634, the colonial government organized the territory of Virginia into eight shires, to be governed as shires in England. Henrico was one of these shires.


=== Formation of Goochland County ===
Among the earliest European settlers in this area of the Piedmont were several hundred French Huguenot religious refugees, who were given land in 1700 and 1701 by the Crown and colonial authorities about 20 miles above the falls of the James River. They settled the villages collectively known as Manakin-Sabot in this area. Soon they moved out to farms and plantations they developed. In neighboring Powhatan County, to the south across the James, they settled Manakin Town, but by 1750 had mostly moved out to farms.
Goochland was founded in 1728 as the first county formed from Henrico shire, followed by Chesterfield County in 1749. Goochland originally included all of the land from Tuckahoe Creek, on both sides of the James River, west as far as the Blue Ridge Mountains. In its original form, Goochland contained the modern counties of Goochland, Powhatan, Cumberland, Fluvanna, Buckingham, Nelson, and Amherst, in their entireties. In addition, the northern sections of Appomattox, Campbell, and Bedford, and the southern two-thirds of Albemarle County were also within Goochland's original boundaries.   The creation of Albemarle County in 1744 and Cumberland County in 1749 removed most of Goochland's southern and western territory, reducing it to its modern size and boundaries.
The county was named for Sir William Gooch, 1st Baronet, the royal lieutenant governor from 1727 to 1749. The nominal governor, the Earl of Albemarle, had remained in England. As acting royal governor, Gooch promoted settlement of the Virginia backcountry as a means to insulate the Virginia colony from Native American and New France settlements in the Ohio Country.
As the colonists moved into the Piedmont west of Richmond, they first developed tobacco plantations like those of the Tidewater. After the Revolution, tobacco did not yield as high profits as markets changed. In Goochland, as in other areas of Virginia, many planters switched to growing wheat and mixed crops. This reduced their need for labor. In the early nineteenth century, some planters sold slaves in the domestic slave trade, as demand was high in the developing Deep South where cotton plantations were developed.


=== Goochland Courthouse ===
The first court was held in May 1728. The exact location of this first court is unknown, but researchers believe that the first courthouse was constructed in Goochland County between 1730 and 1737. A new courthouse was built in 1763 in Beaverdam, a short distance from the first, on the land of Alexander Baine. In the early 19th century, the courthouse was moved to its current location along Rt. 6 in central Goochland. The Goochland County Court Square was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.


=== Revolutionary War ===
During the early part of 1781, Lord Cornwallis marched his sizable army through the boundaries of Goochland. They occupied and thoroughly destroyed Elkhill, a small estate of Thomas Jefferson, slaughtering the livestock for food, burning barns and fences, and finally burning down the house.   They took 27 slaves as prisoners of war, and 24 died of disease in the camp.
One point along the James River came to be known as Cornwallis Hill. It is said that the British general, who paused here on his way to Yorktown, where he would be defeated and surrender, remarked that this spot with its magnificent vista of the James River Valley would make an ideal site for a house.
General Lafayette, a French hero of the Revolution, returned to the United States for a grand tour in 1824 and 1825. On November 2, 1824, General Lafayette ""left Richmond on his way to Monticello to visit Mr. Jefferson."" On the way, Gen. Lafayette stopped at Powell's Tavern in Goochland. (""I spent some time at the Tavern and there was much celebration at his arrival."") While there, the general met with American officers and many citizens of the county.


=== Civil War ===

The county was a site of a battle late in the war. When the war broke out, James Pleasants, a native of Goochland County and descendant of the 22nd governor of the state, insisted he replace his uncle in the Goochland Light Dragoons (known during the war as Co. F, 4th Virginia Cavalry). In 1861, he was allowed to take his uncle's place. In the winter of 1864, any troops who were close to home were allowed to return to recruit more soldiers.
At the same time, the young Union Colonel Ulric Dahlgren had a plan to infiltrate central Virginia, break out nearly 12,000 Union prisoners from Belle Isle in Richmond, the Confederate capital, and destroy the city. On March 1, 1864, Dahlgren's forces reached the plantations of Sabot Hill, Dover, and Eastwood in eastern Goochland.
On Pleasants's first night home, Dahlgren's raiders stole his horses but did not search the property. When Pleasants found out what happened, he grabbed his carbine and started off on foot after the raiders. Hearing a noise, he hid in the woods, and ordered a single Union cavalryman to surrender. Pleasants mounted the man's horse and forced the soldier to walk in front of him to search for more soldiers. Within a short amount of time, Pleasants had captured several Union prisoners and took them as prisoners back to Bowles' store. In all, he captured 15 Union soldiers, recovered 16 horses, and shot one officer who refused to surrender to him.
Eastwood was occupied by Plumer Hobson and his wife, the daughter of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise, the last governor of Virginia before the war. On the previous night General Wise had arrived at Eastwood. When a Union detail arrived at Eastwood looking for him, his daughter said that he was in Charleston, South Carolina. Instead, he was already riding rapidly southeast to Richmond to warn the troops of the Union raiders.  Dahlgren went to Sabot Hill, the home of James Seddon and his wife. She answered the door and invited the officer in for some wine and Southern hospitality; she knew that Wise was on his way to Richmond and wanted to delay Dahlgren. Ultimately, due to the quick thinking by the families in Goochland, Wise was able to warn forces in Richmond, who defeated Dahlgren's raid.


=== Convict lease program ===
After Reconstruction, Goochland County leased convicts as laborers to build roads in 1878. The state's practice of convict leasing was effectively a means of keeping African Americans in near-slavery conditions. The legislature passed a variety of minor nuisance laws, with penalties of fees, which they knew the cash-poor sharecroppers could not readily pay. When convicted of minor offenses and unable to pay the fine, black men were jailed and leased out as convicts. They suffered frequent abuse under this system, as the state exercised little supervision of conditions.


=== Monument ===
As part of their effort at commemoration after the war, the Daughters of the Confederacy commissioned a monument to the Confederate dead, to be erected on the green of the Goochland Courthouse. It was unveiled on June 22, 1918. Among those in attendance was Robert E. Lee, a grandson of General Robert E. Lee.


=== Churches ===
In 1720, there were two parishes in Henrico County, St. James and Henrico. When Goochland County was formed, St. James Parish fell within the boundaries on both sides of the James River and westward. When Albemarle County was formed from Goochland in 1744, the Parish was divided into three. St. Anne's Parish covered Albemarle, St. James Southam Parish covered the south side of the river (now Powhatan County), and St. James Northam Parish covered the rest of Goochland.
In St. James Northam Parish there were three early churches, all Anglican (and Episcopal after the church was disestablished after the Revolution): Dover Episcopal, Beaverdam Episcopal, and Lickinghole Episcopal. Dover was the first, being built in 1724; it closed sometime after the Revolutionary War. Its location and closing date are unknown. Beaverdam was located near what is now Whitehall Road, but its exact location is also unknown.
One notable church is Byrd Presbyterian Church. The congregation has some members descended from the original worshippers who were organized in 1748 at Tucker Woodson's farm by Samuel Davies, a theologian. He later served as president of Princeton University. By 1759 the group had constructed its own building on Byrd Creek. In 1838 descendants of the original congregation built a new church and began worshiping here; this church is still in use. It retains many of its original architectural features, including its slate roof and interior window valances. The cemetery has been preserved since it was established in 1838.
One of the first independent black congregations founded after the Civil War was what is now called Second Union Baptist Church, founded in 1865 near Fife/Bula northwest of Richmond. Most freedmen left white Baptist churches to form their own, and soon set up state associations with the aid of organizers from free states. Today the numerous churches in the county include several Episcopal, Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and non-denominational Christian churches.


=== Historic homes ===
Tuckahoe Plantation – One of the older James River plantation mansions in the county, it has grounds that include a private schoolhouse where Thomas Jefferson and his Randolph cousins were educated.
Sabot Hill – Built in 1855, it was owned by James A. Seddon, the Secretary of War for the Confederate States of America (CSA) during the Civil War. The large home was damaged in Dahlgren's Raid.
Woodlawn – This is a Georgian Colonial-style home built prior to 1760 by Josiah Leake. In 1834 it was purchased by Colonel Thomas Taylor, a hero of the Mexican–American War.
Clover Forest Plantation – The land was first patented in 1714. The central core of the home was not built until 1807–1811, by Captain Thomas Pemberton of the Continental Dragoons. He was later a member of the Society of the Cincinnati. It has had several owners since then.
Other historic homes and mansions in Goochland can be found through the Goochland County Historical Society (see links below).


== School buses ==
In 1973, Wayne Corporation of Richmond, Indiana introduced a safer design in school bus construction, the Lifeguard. Shortly afterward, the manufacturer held a nationwide contest to gain ideas to improve school bus safety, with the grand prize to be the award of a new Lifeguard school bus. Pearl P. Randolph, the first black member of the Goochland County School Board, created the winning entry.
As a result, the Goochland County Public Schools received the new school bus. Her idea was to install sound baffles in the ceilings of school bus bodies to help reduce driver distraction. Compact forms of such equipment were later developed in the 1980s by Wayne and other bus manufacturers when diesel engines (and their greater noise) became commonplace.


== Government ==


=== Board of Supervisors ===
District 1: Susan F. Lascolette
District 2: Neil Spoonhower
District 3: John Lumpkins Jr.
District 4: Don Sharpe
District 5: Ken C. Peterson


=== Constitutional officers ===
Clerk of the Circuit Court: Amanda S. Adams (R)
Commissioner of the Revenue: Jennifer Brown (I)
Commonwealth's Attorney: D. Michael Caudill (R)
Sheriff: Steven N. Creasey (I)
Treasurer: Pamela Duncan (R)
Goochland is represented by Republicans Tom Garrett and David Owen in the House of Delegates, Democrats Timothy M. Kaine and Mark Warner in the U.S. Senate, and Republican John McGuire in the U.S. House of Representatives.


=== Education ===
The Goochland County Public Schools system provides public school from K-12 for the county at five schools for 2,500 students.[1] In 2020 the all-boys Benedictine College Preparatory and all-girls Saint Gertrude High School moved from their separate campuses in downtown Richmond to a combined campus in Goochland under the Benedictine Schools of Richmond.


== Economy ==


=== West Creek Business Park ===
Contributors to Goochland's increased growth in the early 2000s was the construction of the West Creek Business Park, as well as the completion of Richmond's semi-circumferential State Route 288. The latter connected the county to the major travel corridors of I-64 and I-95. The industrial park began attracting many businesses, including the corporate headquarters for Farm Bureau of Virginia and Performance Food Group (PFG), as well as Hallmark Youth Care, and CarMax.


=== Top employers ===
According to the county's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the county are:


== Geography ==
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 290 square miles (750 km2), of which 281 square miles (730 km2) is land and 8 square miles (21 km2) (2.9%) is water. Goochland County is drained by the James River. 


=== Adjacent counties ===
Louisa County – north
Hanover County – northeast
Henrico County – east
Powhatan County – south
Cumberland County – southwest
Fluvanna County – west


=== Major highways ===
 I-64 - Skirts the northern county line with Louisa County
 US 250 - Runs parallel to I-64, also skirting the Louisa County line
 US 522 - Runs through the county, intersecting with SR 6 as well as both US-250 and I-64 in Louisa County
 SR 6 - Runs along the James River in the southern part of the county
 SR 45 - Runs north from Cartersville in Cumberland County to SR 6
 SR 271 - Runs from Henrico County to Hanover County across the north east corner of the county
 SR 288 - Runs along the eastern county line from I-64 to Powhatan County


== Demographics ==


=== 2020 census ===


=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 16,863 people, 6,158 households, and 4,710 families residing in the county. The population density was 59 people per square mile (23 people/km2). There were 6,555 housing units at an average density of 23 units per square mile (8.9 units/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 72.71% White, 25.64% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.47% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 0.77% from two or more races. 0.85% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
The largest ethnic/ancestry groups in Goochland County are: ""English"" (16.3%), American (13.0%), German (11.8%), Irish (9.3%), Scots-Irish (4.0%) and Scottish (3.9%).
There were 6,158 households, out of which 29.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.60% were married couples living together, 8.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.50% were non-families. 19.90% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.88.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 21.30% under the age of 18, 5.30% from 18 to 24, 32.10% from 25 to 44, 28.90% from 45 to 64, and 12.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.30 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $56,307, and the median income for a family was $64,685. Males had a median income of $41,663 versus $29,519 for females. The per capita income for the county was $29,105. 6.90% of the population and 4.30% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 7.70% are under the age of 18 and 8.10% are 65 or older.


== Notable people ==
Thomas Jefferson lived at Shadwell, then within the boundaries of the county.
Thomas Mann Randolph Jr., 21st Governor of Virginia
James Pleasants, 22nd Governor of Virginia
Edward Bates served as the 26th United States Attorney General under President Abraham Lincoln.
James Seddon served as the Confederate Secretary of War under Jefferson Davis.
John Berry Meachum, businessman, educator and founder of the oldest black church in Missouri
Josephine Turpin Washington, (1861–1949), educator and writer (distant cousin of Thomas Jefferson)
Justin Verlander, Houston Astros starting pitcher, was raised in the county.
John Hicks, catcher and first baseman for the Detroit Tigers
Giles Beecher Jackson (1853–1924), African-American lawyer, newspaper publisher, entrepreneur, and civil rights activist
Zachariah Eastin (1777–1852) War of 1812 officer, born in Goochland County.


== Communities ==
No incorporated communities are located in Goochland County. Unincorporated communities include the following:


=== Census-designated place ===
Goochland


=== Other unincorporated communities ===


== See also ==
National Register of Historic Places listings in Goochland County, Virginia


== References ==
Specific

General
History of Goochland County, Virginia
Dover Mill – Account of an Excavation


== External links ==
Information Site for Goochland County, Virginia
Goochland County Historical Society
Tuckahoe Plantation
Goochland County Public Schools
Goochland County Chamber of Commerce
Goochland Yellow Pages
The Goochland Gazette``"
Historicity of the Iliad,"The historicity of the Iliad or the Homeric Question has been a topic of scholarly debate for centuries.
While researchers of the 18th century had largely rejected the story of the Trojan War as fable, the discoveries made by Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik reopened the question. The subsequent excavation of Troy VIIa and the discovery of the toponym ""Wilusa"" in cuneiform Hittite correspondence has made it plausible that the Trojan War cycle was at least remotely based on a historical conflict of the 12th century BC, even if the poems of Homer remembered the event only through the distortion of four centuries of oral tradition.


== History ==


=== Pre-modern views ===
In Ancient Greece, the Trojan War was generally regarded as a historical event, though the details of the story were matters of debate. For instance, Herodotus argued that Homer had exaggerated the story and that the Trojans had been unable to return Helen because she was in Egypt. When sixth century Athenians cited Homer to justify their side in a territorial dispute with Megara, the Megarans responded by accusing the Athenians of falsifying the text.
The Trojan War continued to be regarded as essentially historical during the Roman Empire, even after its Christianization. In the time of Strabo, geographic writings discussed the identity of sites mentioned by Homer. Eusebius of Caesarea's influential Chronicon gave Troy the same historical weight as Abraham in his universal history of humankind. Jerome's Chronicon followed Eusebius, and all the medieval chroniclers began with summaries of this universal history.
Medieval Europeans continued to accept the Trojan War as historical, with dynasties often claiming descent from Trojan heroes. Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudo-genealogy traced a Trojan origin for royal Britons in Historia Regum Britanniae, and Fredegar gave a similar origin myth for the Merovingians in which they were descended from a legendary King Francio, who had built a new Troy at Treves.


=== Early modern views ===
In the early modern era, attitudes towards the legends grew more skeptical. Blaise Pascal characterized the story as merely a ""romance"", commenting that ""nobody supposes that Troy and Agamemnon existed any more than the apples of the Hesperides. [Homer] had no intention to write history, but only to amuse us."" During the 19th century the stories of Troy were devalued as fables by George Grote.


=== Modern scholarship ===
In the 1870s, Heinrich Schliemann reopened the question with his archaeological excavations at Hisarlik. This site had been previously identified as Classical Ilion, where ancients had believed the legendary war to have occurred. Underneath the classical city, Schliemann found the remains of numerous earlier settlements, one of which he declared to be that of the city of Homeric legend. Subsequent excavations have shown that this city was in fact a millennium too early to have coexisted with Mycenaean palaces.
Since Schliemann, the site has been further excavated and reappraised numerous times, with particular attention to the layers which did coexist with the Mycenaeans, known collectively as Late Bronze Age Troy. Additional lines of research have included excavations at other sites such as Mycenae, examination of potential references to Troy in Hittite records, and philological study of the Iliad and Odyssey themselves. Despite these achievements, there remains no consensus for or against a real Trojan War, and some scholars regard the question as unanswerable.


== Status of the Iliad ==
The more that is known about Bronze Age history, the clearer it becomes that it is not a straight forward question, but one of assessing of how much historical knowledge is present in Homer, and of what historical period. Finley concludes that it represents memories of Dark Age Greece, while the dominant view, expressed in A Companion to Homer by Wace and Stebbings (1962), believes that Homer has preserved memories of Mycenaean Greece.
The narrative focus of the Iliad is not the strategy of the war, but the psychology of the warriors, assuming common knowledge of the Trojan War as a back-story. No scholars now hold that the specific events of the tale (many involving divine intervention) are historical fact; however, few claim that the story is entirely devoid of memories of Mycenaean times.
Martin L. West has mentioned that such an approach ""misconceives"" the problem, and that Troy probably fell to a much smaller group of attackers in a much shorter time.


== The Iliad as essentially legendary ==

Some archaeologists and historians, most notably, until his death in 1986, Moses I. Finley, maintain that none of the events in Homer's works are historical. Others accept that there may be a foundation of historical events in the Homeric narrative, but say that, in the absence of independent evidence, it is not possible to separate fact from myth.
In The World of Odysseus, Finley presents a picture of the society represented by the Iliad and the Odyssey, avoiding the question as ""beside the point that the narrative is a collection of fictions from beginning to end"".: 9  Finley was in a minority when his World of Odysseus first appeared in 1954. With the understanding that war was the normal state of affairs, Finley observed that a ten-year war was out of the question, indicating Nestor's recall of a cattle-raid in Elis as a norm, and identifying the scene in which Helen points out to Priam the Achaean leaders in the battlefield as ""an illustration of the way in which one traditional piece of the story was retained after the war had ballooned into ten years and the piece had become rationally incongruous"".: 46 
Finley, for whom the Trojan War is ""a timeless event floating in a timeless world"",: 172  analyzes the question of historicity, aside from invented narrative details, into five essential elements: 1. Troy was destroyed by a war; 2. the destroyers were a coalition from mainland Greece; 3. the leader of the coalition was a king named Agamemnon; 4. Agamemnon's overlordship was recognized by the other chieftains; 5. Troy, too, headed a coalition of allies. Finley does not find any evidence for any of these elements.: 175ff. 
Aside from narrative detail, Finley pointed out that, aside from some correlation of Homeric placenames and Mycenaean sites, there is also the fact that the heroes lived at home in palaces (oikoi) unknown in Homer's day; far from a nostalgic recall of the Mycenaean age, Finley asserts that ""the catalog of his errors is very long"".

His arms bear a resemblance to the armour of his time, quite unlike the Mycenaean, although he persistently casts them in antiquated bronze, not iron. His gods had temples, and the Mycenaeans built none, whereas the latter constructed great vaulted tombs to bury their chieftains in and the poet cremates his. A neat little touch is provided by the battle chariots. Homer had heard of them, but he did not really visualize what one did with chariots in a war. So his heroes normally drove from their tents a mile or less away, carefully dismounted, and then proceeded to battle on foot.: 45 

What the poet believed he was singing about was the heroic past of his own Greek world, Finley concludes.
During the early twenty-first century, Fred Woudhuizen and Frank Kolb suggested that the Homeric stories represented a synthesis of many old Greek stories of various Bronze Age sieges and expeditions, fused together in the Greek memory during the ""dark ages"" which followed the end of the Mycenean civilization. In this view, no historical city of Troy existed anywhere: the name perhaps derives from a people called the Troies, who probably lived in central Greece. The identification of the hill at Hisarlık as Troy is, in this view, a late development, following the Greek colonisation of Asia Minor during the 8th century BC.
It is also worth comparing the details of the Iliadic story to those of older Mesopotamian literature—most notably, the Epic of Gilgamesh. Names, set scenes, and even major parts of the story, are strikingly similar according to some scholars. Some academics believe that writing first came to Greece from the east, via traders, and these older poems were used to demonstrate the uses of writing, thus heavily influencing early Greek literature.


== The Iliad as essentially historical ==

Another opinion is that Homer was heir to an unbroken tradition of oral epic poetry reaching back some 500 years into Mycenaean times. The case is set out in The Singer of Tales by Albert B. Lord, citing earlier work by folklorist and mythographer Milman Parry. In this view, the poem's core could represent a historical campaign that took place at the eve of the Mycenaean era. Much legendary material may have been added, but in this view it is meaningful to ask for archaeological and textual evidence corresponding to events referred to in the Iliad. Such a historical background would explain the geographical knowledge of Hisarlık and the surrounding area, which could alternatively have been obtained, in Homer's time, by visiting the site. Some verses of the Iliad have been argued to predate Homer's time, and could conceivably date back to the Mycenaean era. Such verses only fit the poem's meter if certain words are pronounced with a /w/ sound, which had vanished from most dialects of Greece by the 7th century BC.


== The Iliad as partly historical ==
As mentioned above, though, it is most likely that the Homeric tradition contains elements of historical fact and elements of fiction interwoven. Homer describes a location, presumably in the Bronze Age, with a city. This city was near Mount Ida in northwest Turkey. Such a city did exist, at the mound of Hisarlık.


=== Hittite evidence ===

Hittite texts provide evidence that Late Bronze Age Troy was indeed a regionally important city, that it was already known by variants of its later names, and that it was of political interest to Mycenaean Greeks (Ahhiyawans). Some stray details appearing in these records have been speculatively linked to mythic characters and events. However, the texts provide no concrete evidence for the Trojan War having occurred or for any particular historical kernel in the myths.
The Hittite placenames Wilusa and Taruisa occurring in these texts are generally regarded as corresponding to the later Greek terms (W)ilios and Troia. These correspondences were first proposed by the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer on the basis of linguistic similarities, but are now supported by geographical evidence as well. Notably, a treaty was drawn up about 1280 BCE between the Hittite king Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa (Alexander of Ilios), guaranteed by the Wilusan patron deity Apaliunas (Apollo). From the texts, one can infer Wilusa's location relative to other identified places such as the Seha River, and combining these data points places Wilusa in the Troad—a region in which Hisarlik is the only major Bronze Age city attested in the archaeological record. However, despite the strength of this argument, it is still grounded in circumstantial evidence, and scholars do not regard it as beyond question.: 395 
A number of Hittite documents attest to ongoing political turmoil in Western Anatolia which affected Wilusa on occasion. Notable among these documents are the Manapa-Tarhunda letter and Tawagalawa letter, which concern the anti-Hittite activities of a warlord named Piyamaradu. Since Piyamaradu appears to have been supported by the Ahhiyawa and these letters also mention Wilusa, these events have sometimes been interpreted as a historical basis for the Trojan War, particularly in popular literature. Although this interpretation remains a viable hypothesis, it is not favored by current scholarship. For instance, a section divider in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter seems to suggest that Piyamaradu's activities were not related to Wilusa. Similarly, although the Tawagalawa letter alludes to a previous disagreement between the Hittites and Ahhiyawa concerning Wilusa, it gives no indication that tensions escalated beyond strongly worded cuneiform tablets. Noted Hittiteologist Trevor Bryce cautions that our current understanding of Wilusa's history does not provide evidence for there having been an actual Trojan War since ""the less material one has, the more easily it can be manipulated to fit whatever conclusion one wishes to come up with"".


=== Homeric evidence ===

Also, the Catalogue of Ships mentions a great variety of cities, some of which, including Athens, were inhabited both in the Bronze Age and in Homer's time, and some of which, such as Pylos, were not rebuilt after the Bronze Age. This suggests that the names of no-longer-existing towns were remembered from an older time, because it is unlikely that Homer would have managed to name successfully a diverse list of important Bronze Age cities that were, in his time, only a few blocks of rubble on the surface, often without even names. Furthermore, the cities enumerated in the Catalogue are given in geographical clusters, this revealing a sound knowledge of Aegean topography. Some evidence is equivocal: locating the Bronze Age palace of Sparta, the traditional home of Menelaus, under the modern city has been challenging, though archaeologists have discovered at least one Mycenaean era site about 7.5 miles outside of Sparta.


=== Mycenaean evidence ===
Likewise, in the Mycenaean Greek Linear B tablets, some Homeric names appear, including Achilles (Linear B: 𐀀𐀑𐀩𐀄, a-ki-re-u), a name which was also common in the classical period, noted on tablets from both Knossos and Pylos. The Achilles of the Linear B tablet is a shepherd, not a king or warrior, but the very fact that the name is an authentic Bronze Age name is significant. These names in the Homeric poems presumably remember, if not necessarily specific people, at least an older time when people's names were not the same as they were when the Homeric epics were written down. Some story elements from the tablets appear in the Iliad.


=== Geological evidence ===
In November 2001, geologist John C. Kraft from the University of Delaware presented the results  of investigations into the geology of the region that had started in 1977. The geologists compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo's Geographia. Their conclusion was that there is regularly a consistency between the location of Troy as Hisarlik (and other locations such as the Greek camp), the geological evidence, and descriptions of the topography and accounts of the battle in the Iliad.


== See also ==

Historical Troy uncovered
Homeric Question
Geography of the Odyssey
Sources and parallels of the Exodus


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
(Dartmouth College) Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean: 27. Troy VII and the Historicity of the Trojan War Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
The Greek Age of Bronze ""Trojan War""
Hawkins, J.D., ""Evidence from Hittite Records"", Archaeology, Vol. 57, Number 3, May/June 2004"
Fusilier,"Fusilier is a name given to various kinds of soldiers; its meaning depends on the historical context. While fusilier is derived from the 17th-century French word fusil – meaning a type of flintlock musket – the term has been used in contrasting ways in different countries and at different times, including soldiers guarding artillery, various elite units, ordinary line infantry and other uses.


== Derivation of the word ==
The word fusil, which was the name of the type of musket carried by a fusilier, is itself derived from the Old French and Latin foisil, meaning a piece of flint.


== History ==

Flintlock small arms were first used militarily during the early 17th century. Flintlocks, at the time, were more reliable and safer to use than matchlock muskets, which required a match to be lit near the breech before the weapon could be triggered. By contrast, flintlocks were fired using a piece of flint. By the time of the English Civil War (1642–1652), one flintlock musket, the snaphance, was in common use in Britain.
The term fusiliers was first used officially by the French Army in 1670, when four fusiliers were distributed among each company of infantry. The following year the Fusiliers du Roi (""King's Fusiliers""), the first regiment composed primarily of soldiers with flintlocks, was formed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban.
Guarding and escorting artillery pieces was the first task assigned to the Fusiliers du Roi: flintlocks were especially useful around field artillery, as they were less likely than matchlocks to accidentally ignite open barrels of gunpowder, required at the time to load cannon. At the time, artillery units also required guards to maintain discipline amongst civilian draymen. Hence the term fusilier became strongly associated with the role of guarding artillery in Britain and the English-speaking world, especially after the formation of the first official ""Fusilier"" units, during the 1680s. As late as the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763, the Austrian Army maintained an Artillery Fusilier Regiment for the exclusive roles of providing support for field batteries on the battlefield and of protecting the artillery when on the march and in camp.
During the 18th century, as flintlocks became the main weapon used by infantry, the term fusilier gradually ceased to have this meaning and was applied to various units.


== Fusiliers by country ==


=== Belgium ===
The Belgian Army has no specific regiment called fusiliers, but the general denomination for infantry soldiers is storm fusilier (Dutch: stormfuselier; French: fusilier d'assaut).
The Belgian Navy used to have a regiment of marine infantry composed of marine fusiliers in charge of the protection of the naval bases. However this unit was disbanded in the 1990s reforms.


=== Brazil ===
Adopting a number of practices from the Portuguese military in the 19th century, the Brazilian Army uses the term fuzileiros (fusiliers) to designate the regular line infantry, as opposed to the grenadiers (granadeiros) and the light infantry (caçadores and atiradores). In addition, the Brazilian Marine Corps is called Fuzileiros Navais (Naval Fusiliers).


=== Canada ===
There are five fusilier regiments, patterned on the British tradition, in the Canadian Army. The Royal 22nd Regiment, although not fusiliers, wears fusilier ceremonial uniform with scarlet plumes, because of its alliance with the Royal Welch Fusiliers.
The five current Canadian fusilier regiments are:

The Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada (which wears Highland uniform, but with white fusilier hackles on balmoral bonnets)
Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent, white plume
Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal, white plume
The Princess Louise Fusiliers (which wear a grey hackle as a token of their alliance with the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, now part of the Royal Irish Regiment)
Les Fusiliers de Sherbrooke, white plume
Former Canadian Army fusilier regiments include the following:

The Irish Fusiliers of Canada (The Vancouver Regiment) existed in Vancouver, British Columbia, and served in the Canadian Army from 1913 until 1965 when it was reduced to nil strength and placed on the Supplementary Order of Battle. In 2002, it was taken off the Supplementary Order of Battle and amalgamated with the British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own).
The Canadian Grenadier Guards in Montreal were known as the 1st Regiment ""Prince of Wales' Fusiliers"" before 1911.
The Canadian Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) existed in London, Ontario, from 1866 until 1954 when they were amalgamated with The Oxford Rifles and became the London and Oxford Fusiliers (3rd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment) – now the 4th Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment.
The Essex Scottish Regiment of Windsor, Ontario were first known as the Essex Fusiliers from 1887 until 1927. In 1954, they were amalgamated with The Kent Regiment to form The Essex and Kent Scottish.
The Northern Pioneers when first raised in Parry Sound, Ontario in 1903 were first known as the 23rd Regiment ""Northern Fusiliers"" until they were renamed a year later. They now form part of The Algonquin Regiment (Northern Pioneers).
The Saint John Fusiliers existed in Saint John, New Brunswick, from 1872 until 1946 when they were amalgamated with The New Brunswick Rangers to become The New Brunswick Scottish. They now form part of The Royal New Brunswick Regiment.
The 88th Regiment (Victoria Fusiliers) existed in Victoria, British Columbia, from 1912 until 1920 when they amalgamated with the 50th Regiment (Gordon Highlanders of Canada) to become The Canadian Scottish Regiment (Princess Mary's).
The 105th Regiment (Saskatoon Fusiliers) existed in Saskatoon from 1912 until 1920 when they were amalgamated with the 52nd Regiment Prince Albert Volunteers to form The North Saskatchewan Regiment (1920–1924). In 1924, The North Saskatchewan Regiment was later reorganised into four separate regiments: The Yorkton Regiment (now the 64th Field Battery, RCA), The Saskatoon Light Infantry, The Prince Albert Volunteers and The Battleford Light Infantry. They now form part of The North Saskatchewan Regiment.
The Scots Fusiliers of Canada existed in Kitchener, Ontario, from 1914 until 1965 when they amalgamated with the Highland Light Infantry of Canada to form The Highland Fusiliers of Canada – later renamed as the Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada (see above).


=== France ===

By the mid-18th century, the French Army used the term fusiliers to designate ordinary line infantry, as opposed to specialist or élite infantry, such as grenadiers, voltigeurs, carabiniers or chasseurs.
The modern French Army no longer uses the term fusiliers, although a number of its infantry regiments descend from fusilier regiments.
The term fusiliers is still used in the navy and air force. They provide protection detachments, performing security and policing duties on land bases and installations as well as on ships. The commandos are selected from their ranks. The commandos are special forces units. They are:

French Navy: Force maritime des fusiliers marins et commandos (FORFUSCO)
French Air Force: Fusiliers Commandos de l'Air


=== Germany ===

Prussia made early use of the title Füsilier for various types of infantry. In 1705, the Foot Guards (Leibgarde zu Fuß) were designated as Fusilier Guards. By 1837, low-quality infantry raised from garrison companies also were named fusiliers. These latter units were dressed in blue with low mitre caps. Between 1740 and 1743 Frederick the Great raised 14 separate Fusilier Regiments (numbers 33–40, 41–43 and 45–48). Except for the mitre caps, these new regiments were identical in appearance, training and role to the existing line infantry (musketeers).
Subsequently, Prussia and several other German states used the designation Füsilier to denote a type of light infantry, usually dressed in green and acting as skirmishers. In the Prussian Army, they had been formed in 1787 as independent battalions, with many of the officers having had experience in the American Revolutionary War. The Prussian reforms of 1808 absorbed the fusiliers into the third battalion of each line infantry regiment. Now wearing the same Prussian blue uniforms as standard musketeers, they were distinguished by black leather belts, and a slightly different arrangement of cartridge pouches.
In the Prussian Army of 1870, Infantry Regiments 33 to 40 plus Regiments 73 (Hanover), 80 (Hesse-Kassel) and 86 (Schleswig-Holstein) were all designated as fusiliers, as was the Guard Fusilier Regiment. In addition, the third battalions of all guard, grenadier and line infantry regiments retained the designation 'Fusilier Battalion'. They were armed with a slightly shorter version of the Dreyse rifle (Füsiliergewehr), that took a sword bayonet (Füsilier-Seitengewehr) rather than the standard socket bayonet. Although still theoretically skirmishers, in practice they differed little from their compatriots, as all Prussian infantry fought in a style that formed a dense 'firing' or 'skirmish' line.
By the 1880s, the title was honorific and, while implying 'specialist' or 'elite', did not have any tactical significance. In a sense, all infantry were becoming fusiliers, as weapons, tactics and equipment took on the fusilier characteristics – that is: skirmish line, shorter rifles, sword bayonets, black leather equipment, and the use of bugles (rather than drums) to relay commands. Nonetheless, these titular units remained in existence until the end of the German Imperial Army in 1918, as follows:

Guard Fusilier Regiment
Fusilier Regiment Count Roon (East Prussian) No. 33
Fusilier Regiment Queen Victoria of Sweden (Pomeranian) No. 34
Fusilier Regiment Prince Henry of Prussia (Brandenburg) No. 35
Fusilier Regiment General Field Marshal Count Blumenthal (Magdeburg) No. 36
Fusilier Regiment von Steinmetz (West Prussian) No. 37
Fusilier Regiment Field Marshal Count Moltke (Silesian) No. 38
Lower Rhineland Fusilier Regiment No. 39
Fusilier Regiment Prince Charles Anton of Hohenzollern No. 40
Fusilier Regiment Field Marshal Prince Albert of Prussia (Hanoverian) No. 73
Fusilier Regiment von Gerdsdorff (Electoral Hessian) No. 80
Fusilier Regiment Queen (Schleswig-Holstein) No. 86
Grand-Ducal Mecklenburg Fusilier Regiment No. 90
Fusilier Regiment Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria King of Hungary (4th Royal) Württemberg No. 122
In addition, there was the following regiment:

Royal Saxon Schützen (Fusilier) Regiment Prince George No. 108
This was a special case, as it was also classed as Schützen (sharpshooter): this designation originally signified a type of Jäger (rifleman, literally 'hunter'), and thus the regiment wore the Jäger-style dark green uniform.
The various Fusilier regiments and battalions in the German Imperial Army of 1914 did not have any single distinctions of dress or equipment to distinguish them as fusiliers. Individual regiments did, however, have special features worn with the dark blue full dress. Some of these features were maintained on the field grey dress of the trenches right up to 1918. As examples in full dress, the Guard Fusiliers had nickel buttons and yellow shoulder straps, and the 80th Fusiliers special braiding on collars and cuffs (deriving from their origin as the Elector of Hesse's Guards). When a regiment was permitted the distinction of a horse-hair plume on the pickelhaube, for fusiliers it was always black. This included the third (Fusilier) Battalion of those regiments normally distinguished by a white horse-hair plume.
In World War II, the elite German Division Großdeutschland contained a regiment titled Panzerfüsiliere ('Armoured Fusiliers'), to maintain the old German traditions. This was again titular, as in organisation, appearance and tactical use they were essentially Panzergrenadiere. The modern German Army has no fusiliers.


=== Mexico ===
On 1 January 1969, the Mexican Army created the Parachute Fusilier Brigade (Brigada de Fusileros Paracaidistas) with two infantry battalions and a training battalion. The brigade's role is that of a strategic reserve, based in Mexico City.


=== Netherlands ===
In the Royal Netherlands Army, one of the two foot guards regiments, the Garderegiment Fuseliers Prinses Irene, is a regiment of fusiliers.


=== Portugal ===

From the 18th to the 19th centuries, the term fuzileiros (fusiliers) was used in the Portuguese Army, to designate the regular line infantry, as opposed to the grenadiers (granadeiros) and the light infantry (caçadores and atiradores). The Portuguese Army discontinued the use of the term in the 1860s.
The term fuzileiros marinheiros (fusilier sailors) has been used in the Portuguese Navy, since the late 18th century, to designate the naval infantry. The modern Portuguese Marine Corps is called Fuzileiros Navais (Naval Fusiliers).


=== Switzerland ===

Line infantry soldiers of the lowest rank in the Swiss Army have historically been designated as fusiliers. Because the modern Swiss infantry soldier is trained in a much broader variety of tasks than his earlier counterpart, and because of some supposedly negative connotations attached to the term Füsiliere, modern infantry battalions of the Swiss army have been renamed Infanteriebataillone or ""Inf Bat"". The individual soldiers are officially called Infanteristen, not Füsiliere, but colloquially they are still referred to as Füsiliere or Füsle. This meaning is retained in the name of the 1938 Swiss film Fusilier Wipf.


=== United Kingdom ===
The original fusiliers in the British Army were the 7th Foot, Royal Regiment of Fuzileers raised in 1685. This subsequently became The Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment). The original purpose of this unit was to act as escort to artillery guns, as well as keeping discipline amongst the civilian drivers. Both Scots (21st Foot) and Welsh (23rd Foot) regiments also became fusiliers in the period up to and including 1702 and all three regiments were distinguished by the wearing of a slightly shorter version of the mitred cap worn by grenadier companies of all other infantry regiments. A number of additional infantry regiments were subsequently designated as fusiliers during the 19th century, but this was simply a historic distinction without any relationship to special weapons or roles.
In 1865, a distinctive head-dress was authorised for British Army fusilier regiments. Originally a sealskin cap for other ranks, this was replaced by a black raccoon skin cap of 9 inches (23 cm) in height, according to the 1874 Dress Regulations. However, fusilier officers wore a taller bearskin like their counterparts in the foot guards. The badge for each regiment was placed at the front of the bear or raccoon skin headdress, and consisted of a stylized flaming grenade, with different emblems placed on the ball of the grenade. These continue to be worn to the present day by the band of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, and also by colour parties, pioneers and drum majors in the Royal Welsh.

Attached to the various types of fusilier headdress, including the modern beret, is the hackle. This is a short cut feather plume, the colours of which vary according to the regiment. Initially, the only regiment authorised to wear a plume or hackle were the 5th of Foot (Northumberland Fusiliers). The regiment had originally worn a white feather distinction, authorised in 1824 to commemorate the victory of St Lucia in 1778 when men of the Fifth Regiment were supposed to have taken white feathers from the hats of dead French soldiers. When, in 1829, a white plume was ordered for all line infantry regiments, to preserve the Fifth (Northumberland) Regiment's emblem, they were authorised to wear a white plume with a red tip, allegedly to indicate a distinction won in battle. The Fifth were designated fusiliers in 1836.
Following the Second Boer War, plumes were added to the headgear of all fusilier regiments in recognition of their service in South Africa.
The following fusilier regiments existed prior to the outbreak of World War I:

The nine regiments of fusiliers that existed in 1914 have since been reduced to one by a series of disbandments and mergers:

In 1920, the Royal Welsh Fusiliers was renamed as the ""Royal Welch Fusiliers"".
Due to the creation of the Irish Free State, the Royal Munster Fusiliers and Royal Dublin Fusiliers were disbanded on 31 July 1922.
In 1935, the Northumberland Fusiliers was awarded the title ""Royal"".
Under the Defence Review of 1957, the number of infantry regiments was reduced. The Royal Scots Fusiliers was amalgamated with the Highland Light Infantry on 20 January 1959 to form the Royal Highland Fusiliers. The new regiment wore the white hackle of the RSF, with a flaming grenade badge bearing the monogram of the HLI.
Under the same review, the three English fusilier regiments were grouped as the Fusilier Brigade in 1958. While retaining their individual identities, a single cap badge was adopted. This was flaming grenade bearing St George and the Dragon within a laurel wreath the whole ensigned by a crown. This combined elements of the badges of the three regiments, who continued to be distinguished by their coloured hackles: red over white for the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers, white for the Royal Fusiliers and primrose yellow for the Lancashire Fusiliers.
Also in 1958 the North Irish Brigade was formed, consisting of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, the Royal Irish Fusiliers and the Royal Ulster Rifles. All regiments adopted a harp and crown badge on the caubeen, worn with a hackle: grey for the Inniskillings, green for the Royal Irish Fusiliers and black for the Rifles.
On 1 May 1963, the Royal Warwickshire Regiment was redesignated as the Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers and joined the Fusilier Brigade. An old gold and blue hackle was adopted.
On 23 April 1968 (St George's Day), the four regiments of the Fusilier Brigade were amalgamated to form The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers. The RRF is now the only English fusilier regiment and wear the red over white hackle of the 5th Foot with the badge adopted in 1958 for the Fusilier Brigade.
On 1 July 1968, the three regiments of the North Irish Brigade were amalgamated to form the Royal Irish Rangers and ceased to be a fusilier regiment. The green hackle of the Royal Irish Fusiliers continued in use. Following a further merger in 1992, the lineage is now continued by the Royal Irish Regiment.
On 1 March 2006 (St David's Day), the Royal Welch Fusiliers was amalgamated with the Royal Regiment of Wales to form the Royal Welsh. The white hackle of the RWF is worn with the cap badge of the RRW. Elements of the regimental band wear fusilier full dress.
On 28 March 2006, the Scottish infantry regiments were merged into the Royal Regiment of Scotland. The individual battalions of the regiment retain the titles of the predecessor units, and The Royal Highland Fusiliers, 2nd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland continues to wear the white hackle of the Royal Scots Fusiliers.
In addition, the Scots Guards were known as the Scots Fusilier Guards from 1831 to 1877.


== See also ==
Musketeer
Rifleman
Grenadier


== References and notes ==


== Further reading ==
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). ""Fusilier"" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 369.
Hoffschröer, Peter (1984). Prussian Light Infantry 1792–1815 (Men-at-Arms Series #149). illustrated by Bryan Fosten. Osprey Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-85045-540-5.


== External links ==
French Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars"
History of the Jews in Baltimore,"Few Jews arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, in its early years. As an immigrant port of entry and border town between North and South and as a manufacturing center in its own right, Baltimore has been well-positioned to reflect developments in American Jewish life. Yet, the Jewish community of Baltimore has maintained its own distinctive character as well.


== Earliest Jews in Baltimore ==
The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia states:It can not be determined when Jews first settled in Baltimore. There were none among the buyers of lots when Baltimore Town was laid out in 1729–30; but as Jews are known to have been resident in Maryland in the middle of the seventeenth century, it is not hazardous to suppose that the quickly growing town attracted some of their descendants early in its history. Family traditions, not yet verified, seem to point to the presence of Jews in Baltimore in the middle of the eighteenth century. In his ""The Hebrews in America"" (p. 93), Isaac Markens mentions Jacob Myers as the earliest Jew in Baltimore, probably basing his assertion upon the following passage from Griffith's ""Annals of Baltimore"" (1824), p. 37:""In 1758 Mr. Jacob Myers took the southeast corner of Gay and Baltimore streets and built an inn."" There is reason to believe, however, that Myers was not a Jew. ""The Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser"" – the earliest paper published in Baltimore – the first issue of which appeared in 1773, shows by its advertisements for that year that Jews were then settled in Baltimore as traders, especially in West Indian products. The most substantial of these merchants apparently was Benjamin Levy, probably the same mentioned in the ""Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society"" (i. 21).
In 1781 Jacob Hart, father-in-law of Haym Salomon, headed a subscription of £2,000 ($10,000) loaned to Lafayette for the relief of the detachment under his command.


== Jewish cemetery in 1786 ==
The existence of a Jewish cemetery in 1786 indicates a Jewish community of some size. How long previous to that year the cemetery had been established is not known. The earliest mention of it occurs in a document (which was in the possession of Mr. Mendes Cohen of Baltimore), dated July 12, 1786, headed ""Mr. Carroll's [i.e. Charles Carroll of Carrollton's] claims"". It is a ""list of the names of the Persons who occupy the ground (supposed to be about 2 acres) on the east side of Jones's Falls, . . . with an account of the improvements"". One of the items is ""The Jews burying-ground, 1 small lot enclosed"", situated in Ensor's Town, near East Monument street. A deed dated Dec. 26, 1801, conveys this same burying-ground from Charles Carroll to Levi Solomon and Solomon Etting, for a consideration of five shillings; and another, dated Dec. 29, 1801, for a consideration of $80, conveys it to the same parties from Wm. McMechen and John Leggett. Interment has been made in it as late as 1832, the same year in which the oldest Jewish cemetery now in use was established. No indications can be discovered of the removal of remains buried in it when the cemetery was abandoned.

According to the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia:On the testimony of a resident close by, the last tombstone was removed, surreptitiously, presumably for building purposes, as recently as from forty to fifty years ago.


== The Etting family ==
With the advent of the Etting family, the history of the Jewish community in Baltimore becomes better documented. It is uncertain when the Etting brothers, Reuben and Solomon, together with Levi Solomon, their uncle, came to Baltimore from York, Pa. On Jan. 4, 1796, Solomon Etting's name appears in the ""Advertiser"" as one of five persons authorized ""to receive proposals in writing for a house or suitable lot"" for a bank to be established in Baltimore Town. But there are indirect indications that the family settled in Baltimore before 1787. In the list of stockholders of the same bank, published at the end of 1796, appear the following names: Solomon, Kitty, Reuben, Shinah, and Hetty Etting; Jacob F., Philadelphia, Benjamin, and Hetty Levy; and Levy and Myer Solomon. In the first directory of ""Baltimore Town and Fell's Point"", also published in 1796 – the year of the incorporation of Baltimore as a city – there are, in addition to the above, two Harts, three Jacobs, Philip Itzchkin, – Kahn, Benjamin Lyon, Solomon Raphael, and Isaac Solomon; and in the lists of letters remaining at the post-office occur the names of Hhym Levenstene and Benjamin Myers. Accordingly, the Jewish Encyclopedia estimates the Jewish population of Baltimore in 1796 at fifteen families.


== Jews elected to City Council ==
In 1798, the Collmus family arrived from Bohemia; and in 1808 the six sons of Israel J. Cohen came, with their mother, from Richmond, Va. The Cohens and the Ettings played a prominent part in the history of Baltimore Jewry, and in that of the city also. Both families acquired an enviable reputation for integrity and business tact; and their members were honored with offices of trust, by corporations and in the city government. Their names figure most prominently in the emancipation struggle of 1818–26, during which time the ""Jew Bill"" was debated in the legislature of Maryland. This bill proposed ""to consider the justice and expediency of extending to those persons professing the Jewish religion the same privileges that are enjoyed by Christians"". Immediately upon its passage, and its ratification in the legislative session of 1825–26, it was applied practically in the election of Solomon Etting and Jacob I. Cohen, JR., to seats in the city council of Baltimore.
In more recent times, the 5th District has been represented by two Jews, first by Rochelle ""Rikki"" Spector from 1977 to 2016, and then by Isaac ""Yitzy"" Schleifer since 2016, who is the second openly Orthodox Jew to hold office in Baltimore City.


== Organization of Religious worship ==
After 1826, the recorded history of the Jews of Baltimore ceases to be the history of prominent individuals, and becomes that of a community. Almost coincidentally with the removal of civil disabilities occurs the first of a series of regular meetings for religious services, whose continuity has been uninterrupted. According to the recollections of one participant, this meeting took place in Holliday street, near Pleasant street, at the house of Zalma Rehiné, a former resident of Richmond, Va., and an uncle of Isaac Leeser. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, this may possibly have been the beginning of the congregation Nidche Israel, later known as the ""Baltimore Hebrew Congregation,"" or as the ""Stadt-Schul"", probably because almost simultaneously with its origin another settlement of Jews, at Fell's Point – an outlying and at first separate district – began to crystallize into a congregation, called the ""Fell's Point Hebrew Friendship Congregation"", and regularly organized since 1838. The Nidche Israel soon found it necessary to rent rooms on North Exeter street, near what is now Lexington street. Thence the congregation moved to a one-story dwelling off High street, near the bend between Fayette and Gay streets, or near what is now Lexington street, the entrance being through a narrow alley. In 1837 a three-story brick building was bought, at the southwest corner of Harrison street and Ætna lane. In 1845 the congregation removed to Lloyd and Watson streets, the new synagogue being dedicated by the Rev. S. M. Isaacs of New York and the Rev. Isaac Leeser of Philadelphia, together with the ministers of the congregation, A. Rice and A. Ansell (Anshel). Here it worshiped until April 6, 1889, when a new building was erected on Madison avenue and Robert street. The date of the congregational charter is Jan. 29, 1830 (supplementary act, 1851). The incorporators were Moses Millem (Mulheim), Joseph Osterman, John M. Dyer, Louis Silver, and Levi Benjamin.
The first rabbi of the congregation was the above-mentioned Abraham Rice (Reiss), whose piety and character have left a lasting impress upon the community, especially through his influence upon the youths he taught, some of them later becoming its leaders. Rice established a school for instruction in Hebrew in 1845, and he officiated as the rabbi of the congregation from 1840 to 1849, and again from the spring of 1862 to Oct. 29 of the same year, the date of his death. Other rabbis of the congregation have been: Julius Spiro, in conjunction with Mr. Rice (1846–47); Henry Hochheimer (1849–59); B. Illoway (1859–61); Abraham Hofman (1868–73); Maurice Fluegel (1881–84); A. S. Bettelheim (1886–90); and Adolf Guttmacher (1891). The burial-ground belonging to the congregation was bought in 1832, at which time it covered three acres.
Rabbis of the Fell's Point Congregation, later worshiping on Eden street, have been: Aaron Günzburg (1848–56); Henry Hochheimer (1859–92); W. Willner (1892–94); Clifton H. Levy (1894–96): and M. Rosenstein (1896). This congregation, as well as the one or two chebrot of which records up to 1842 have been preserved, had separated from, or organized themselves independently of, the mother congregation, Nidche Israel, only for reasons of convenience, on account of the extended space over which the community was scattered.
In 1842 the desire for a radical change in the liturgy resulted in the formation of the Har Sinai Verein, whose rabbis have been: Max Sutro (about 1842); Moritz Brown (about 1849–55); David Einhorn (1855–61); S. Deutsch (1862–73); Jacob Mayer (1874–76); Emil G. Hirsch (1877–78); S. Sale (1878–83); David Philipson (1884–88); Tobias Shanfarber (1888–98); and Charles A. Rubenstein (1898). The congregation later erected a new house of worship on Bolton and Wilson streets. In 1873, a new charter was granted and the name was changed from Har Sinai Verein to Har Sinai Congregation.


== ""Oheb Shalom"" Congregation ==

A similar desire for a revised liturgy, but along more conservative lines, led to the formation of the Oheb Shalom Congregation in September of 1853, on the part of a number of dissidents from the original body. Rabbis of this congregation, whose new synagogue on Eutaw place and Lanvale street was considered one of the most beautiful structures in the city, have included the following: – Salomon (1854); S. M. Landsberg (1856–57); Benjamin Szold; and William Rosenau (1892). Alois Kaiser, known as a composer of synagogue music, was the cantor of this congregation.
This was followed by the formation of three Orthodox congregations, the earliest of which was the Bikur Cholim Congregation, incorporated in 1865. The Chizuk Emoonah Congregation was formed in 1871 by dissidents from the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, which had begun to introduce innovations into the synagogue service. The rabbi of the Chizuk Emoonah was Henry W. Schneeberger, who occupied the rabbinate beginning in 1876. A new synagogue was later built by the congregation at McCulloh and Mosher streets. In 1878, the Shearith Israel Congregation was formed by the consolidation of two small congregations. Schepschel Schaffer was its rabbi from 1893 to 1928.
Since then, in the organization of twenty other congregations in Baltimore – only eight of which having a house of worship of their own – the determining factor, in a few cases, has been convenience of locality, but more frequently the bond of national affiliation brought from European countries and reinforced by conservatism in religious sentiment.
An attempt was made in 1856–59 to hold services according to the liturgy of the Spanish and Portuguese Sephardim, of which Solomon Nunes Carvalho was the chief promoter. The congregation was regularly organized in 1857, under the name ""Beth Israel"", with Jacob M. De Solla as minister.
Of the eight large cemeteries in the city, one, called ""Rosedale"", was used by seven congregations and three societies; another, on the Philadelphia road, by eight congregations and two societies; and a third, on the Washington road, by three congregations and one society. Each of five congregations, the Baltimore Hebrew, the Fell's Point, the Har Sinai, the Oheb Shalom, and the B'nai Israel, had a cemetery of its own. Besides, there was a small cemetery, now disused, on the Philadelphia road, which was formerly maintained by what was called, for unknown reasons, ""Die Irische Ḥebra"". The Cohen family and the Etting family owned private cemeteries.


== Charitable societies ==
The first charitable association was the Hebrew Assistance Society (1843?), incorporated in 1856 as the ""Hebrew Benevolent Society of Baltimore"". In the latter year was founded also the Hebrew Ladies' Sewing Society, which, though an independent body, has always adapted its activities to those of the general organization. The building of the Hebrew Hospital and Asylum Association – a society for the care of the sick and the shelter of the aged – was dedicated in 1868, the first steps toward this end having been taken in 1859; and in 1872 the Hebrew Orphan Asylum was established. Both these institutions had active auxiliary organizations. The other charitable institutions with permanent homes were the Hebrew Friendly Inn and Aged Home, established in 1891, and the Working Girls' Home, founded in 1899 by the Daughters in Israel, and supported by that association.
There were, besides, two Hebrew free burial societies, a Hebrew free loan association, the Daughters in Israel of Baltimore City (a personal service sisterhood with various activities), and a number of mutual benefit and relief associations. The Baron de Hirsch Fund from the first established a local committee in Baltimore whose affairs have been administered by Dr. A. Friedenwald. In 1955, Kappa Guild, a charity run largely by Jewish women began raising funds to support children's health and welfare, providing medical equipment and resources to pediatric hospitals and programs across Maryland.


== Educational establishments ==
Congregational schools, at which daily instruction was given in Hebrew and German, and later in English, flourished until after 1870. The most successful were conducted by Joseph Sachs and Jonas Goldsmith. The Society for Educating Poor and Orphan Hebrew Children (later named ""Hebrew Education Society of Baltimore"") was founded in 1852, and incorporated in 1860. In 1901, it had two schools, a daily Hebrew school, and a weekly mission school for religious instruction, whose work was supplemented by that of the Frank Free Sabbath School, established and supported by Mrs. S. L. Frank. The first Sunday school, patterned after the one founded by Miss Rebecca Gratz in Philadelphia, was opened in 1856. In it a large number of children were taught during the years preceding the establishment of congregational religious schools. The Talmud Torah School, with a building of its own, was established in 1889, and the Hebrew Free Kindergarten and Day Nursery in 1895. The organization known as ""The Maccabeans"" maintained an evening class and a library for the use of boys and young men; continuing in a measure the work begun by the Night School, existing from 1889 to 1899 under the auspices of the Isaac bar Levison Hebrew Literary Society, and supported in part by the Baron de Hirsch Fund, for the purpose of teaching English to immigrants.
At three different times short-lived attempts have been made to maintain Young Men's Hebrew associations, the first of which existed from 1854 to 1860.
In 1941, Rabbi Samuel Rosenblatt founded the Beth Tfiloh Community School. In 2000, Beth Tfiloh Community School was named a 2000-2001 National Blue Ribbon School of Excellence and was one of 12 schools nationally to also receive an award for Special Emphasis in Technology.   
There were three Zionist societies; a branch of the Alliance Israélite Universelle; a section and a junior section of the Council of Jewish Women; six lodges of the Independent Order B'nai B'rith; three of the Independent Order B'rith Abraham; one of the Independent Order Free Sons of Israel; three of the Independent Order Free Sons of Judah; four of the Independent Order Sons of Benjamin; five of the Order Ahawas Israel; seven of the Order B'rith Abraham; and one of the Order Kesher Shel Barzel.
Chabad continues the legacy of Jewish education in Baltimore.


== Newspapers ==
The Jewish newspapers published in Baltimore have been: ""Sinai"" (a German periodical devoted to interests of radical reform, edited by Dr. David Einhorn, 1856–61, and one year in Philadelphia); ""The Jewish Chronicle"" (1875–77); ""Der Fortschritt"" (Yiddish, June–July, 1890); ""Der Baltimore Israelit"" (Yiddish, 1891–93); ""Ha-Pisgah"" (Hebrew, 1891–93, continued in Chicago); ""Jewish Comment"" (1895); ""Der Wegweiser"" (Yiddish, 1896); and the Baltimore Jewish Times.


== Public and professional life ==

The Jews of Baltimore have participated fully in the civic life of the town and the state, and have taken some part in national affairs. In the city, Jews have filled numerous minor offices, notably as councilmen, justices of the peace, supervisors of elections, and in the city law department, as well as on boards and special commissions. Myer Block was judge of the Orphans' Court in Baltimore; Jacob H. Hollander was secretary to the International Bimetallic Commission, and the first treasurer of Porto Rico under American jurisdiction. Isidor Rayner served as representative in the fiftieth, the fifty-second, and the fifty-third congresses, after having sat in the House of Delegates and the Senate of the state; later he was attorney-general of the state. Among the state senators have been Jacob M. Moses and Lewis Putzel; and among the delegates: Mendes I. Cohen, Martin Emerich, Harry A. Fuld, M. S. Hess, Emanuel H. Jacobi, Martin Lehmayer, Lewis Putzel, and Charles J. Wiener. In the business world the Jews of Baltimore have occupied an important position. To a great extent they controlled the manufacture of wearing apparel for men. Several of the largest department stores were conducted by Jews; and as financiers they bore an enviable reputation for probity and for a spirit of far-sighted and cautious enterprise.
Baltimore Jews have had prominent representatives in all the professions. Jewish physicians, men and women, have occupied positions as professors in the medical colleges, including: A. B. Arnold, Joshua I. Cohen, Aaron Friedenwald, Harry Friedenwald, and Julius Friedenwald. Jews have devoted themselves to the writing of medical and legal works. There were Jewish journalists on the editorial staffs of several of the daily newspapers. The following Jews have been connected with Johns Hopkins University in the capacity of professors and instructors: J. J. Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, Abraham Cohen, Maurice Bloomfield, Cyrus Adler, J. H. Hollander, Simon Flexner, Caspar Levias, William Rosenau and Rabbi Samuel Rosenblatt. In the public schools upward of sixty Jewish teachers were employed. Ephraim Keyser has won reputation as a sculptor, and Mendes Cohen as a civil engineer.
The wider educational life has found promoters among the Jews. Jacob I. Cohen, JR., was active in the establishment of the public-school system of Baltimore; and his nephews were instrumental in placing in the Johns Hopkins University the ""Cohen Collection of Egyptian Antiquities"", collected by his brother, Col. Mendes I. Cohen, in Egypt. At the same university Leopold Strouse established a rabbinical library, to which he made annual additions; Mrs. S. L. Frank and Albert W. Rayner have founded a Semitic fellowship in memory of their father, William S. Rayner; and Henry and Mrs. Sonneborn have presented the university with a collection of Jewish ceremonial objects. At the Cohen residence was a library valuable to Bible students, collected by Dr. Joshua I. Cohen (a catalogue of this library, compiled by Cyrus Adler, was privately printed in 1887).


== Military services ==
Jews enlisted from Baltimore for service in each of the national wars. Nathaniel Levy fought under Lafayette in the campaign of 1781; and Reuben Etting (not the one mentioned above) was taken prisoner by the British at Charlestown. Among the defenders of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore, during the War of 1812, were the brothers Mendes I. and Philip I. Cohen. In the Mexican war, Moritz Henry Weil served as a private in Company A, Third Regiment, United States Artillery, and Louis Hamburger as a private in Company C, Baltimore Battalion. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, ""[a] company of militia composed entirely of Jews was formed, with Levi Benjamin as first lieutenant; but it is not probable that it saw active service"". In the Civil war there were as many Baltimore Jews in the Confederate as in the Federal army. Leopold Blumenberg served as brevet brigadier-general, United States Volunteers, Fifth Maryland Infantry (see S. Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen, pp. 199, 200, 412). To the Spanish–American War, Baltimore Jewry sent its due quota of soldiers (see American Jewish Year Book 5661, pp. 563–565).
A few street names reveal the early presence of Jews: According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, there were two alleys, each called ""Jew alley"", one in the eastern section of the city, on which the old burying-ground is situated; and the other in the western section, probably deriving its name from residences of Jews on Eutaw street; Abraham street, in close proximity to the old burying-ground; Cohen alley, so named from the residence of one of the Cohen brothers on Mulberry street; and Etting street, of obvious derivation.


== Statistics ==
In 1825, while the ""Jew Bill"" was under discussion, Solomon Etting computed the number of Jews in Maryland to be 150. A directory of 1835 gives the names of 40 householders in Baltimore, identified as Jews by a Jewish resident whose memory goes back to that year. To these can be added at least 15 more names culled from the records of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, making a Jewish population of about 300 souls, bearing such names as Cohen, Dyer, Friedenwald, Horwitz, Kayton, Keyser, Preiss, and Rosenstock, whose descendants continued to be prominent in Baltimore and other cities. In the ""Occident"" of Dec., 1856, an anonymous correspondent put the number of Jews then residing in the city at 8,000 – an exaggerated estimate according to the Jewish Encyclopedia. In 1901 estimates of the Jewish population varied from 35,000 to 40,000, in a total population of 508,957.
According to a survey conducted by the Associated Jewish Federation of Baltimore, around 8,000 Jews of color lived in Baltimore, constituting 8% of the Jewish population. Baltimore Jews of color include African-American Jews, Asian Jews, Latino Jews, and others. The majority of the city's Jewish population are white and Ashkenazi. Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in Baltimore may or may not identify as or be considered Jews of color by society. 39% of Jewish adults in the city identified as secular Jews or as ""just Jewish"", rather than belonging to a movement such as Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Orthodox. 21% of Baltimore's Jewish community was Orthodox. 10% of Jewish households included a member who identified as LGBT.


== Notable Jews from Baltimore ==


=== Deceased ===


==== Faculty of Johns Hopkins University ====
Cyrus Adler
Maurice Bloomfield
Simon Flexner
Frederick Jelinek
James Joseph Sylvester


==== Rabbis ====


===== Conservative =====
Jacob B. Agus
Moshe Cotel
Arthur Hertzberg


===== Orthodox =====
Mordechai Gifter
Avigdor Miller
Abraham Rice
Yaakov Yitzchok Ruderman


===== Reform =====
David Einhorn
Emil G. Hirsch
Jacob Mayer
William Rosenau
Benjamin Szold


=== Living ===


==== Rabbis ====


===== Jewish Renewal =====
Arthur Waskow


===== Orthodox =====
Aharon Feldman
Yissocher Frand
Yaakov Menken
Shlomo Porter
Jonathan Rosenblatt


== Fictional Jews from Baltimore ==
Jay Landsman, a fictional character on the HBO drama The Wire, played by actor Delaney Williams.
Maurice Levy, a fictional character on the HBO drama The Wire, played by actor Michael Kostroff.
John Munch, a fictional character played by actor Richard Belzer first appearing on the NBC crime drama television series Homicide: Life on the Street.


== Notable Jewish buildings and structures in Baltimore ==
Baltimore Hebrew University
Jewish Museum of Maryland
Sinai Hospital
Yeshivas Ner Yisroel
Young Men's and Young Women's Hebrew Association Building


=== Notable Synagogues in Baltimore ===


==== Conservative ====
Beth Am
Beth El Congregation
Chizuk Amuno Congregation


==== Orthodox ====
Congregation Arugas Habosem
B'nai Israel Synagogue
Beth Tfiloh Congregation
Shaarei Tfiloh Synagogue
Shearith Israel
Congregation Shomrei Emunah
Congregation Tiferes Yisroel


==== Reform ====
Baltimore Hebrew Congregation
Temple Oheb Shalom


==== No longer active as Synagogues ====
Baltimore Hebrew Congregation Synagogue
Lloyd Street Synagogue


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Fein, Isaac M. The making of an American Jewish community; the history of Baltimore Jewry from 1773 to 1920, Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society of America, 1971.


== External links ==

Baltimore Jewish Council website
Guide to the Etting Family of Baltimore and Philadelphia Collection at the American Jewish Historical Society.
The Jewish Community of Baltimore, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot"
Furniture Row Racing,"Furniture Row Racing (FRR) was an American professional stock car racing team that competed in the NASCAR Cup Series from 2005 to 2018. The team was owned and sponsored by Furniture Row, a U.S. furniture store chain, and was based in Furniture Row's home city of Denver, Colorado, being the only NASCAR team headquartered west of the Mississippi River. FRR most recently fielded the No. 78 Toyota Camry full-time for Martin Truex Jr. FRR won their first and only championship in 2017 with Truex, becoming the first winner of the Cup Series under Monster Energy sponsorship. The team was also the first single-car team ever to make the Chase for the Sprint Cup, which it did in 2013 with Kurt Busch and again in 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018 with Truex.
From 2016 to 2018 Furniture Row Racing had a technical alliance with fellow Toyota team Joe Gibbs Racing; previously, from 2010 until the end of 2015, the team had an alliance with Richard Childress Racing under the Chevrolet banner.
Following the 2018 season, Furniture Row Racing closed its doors and sold its charter to Spire Sports + Entertainment, which is currently competing as Spire Motorsports. Much of the former FRR team currently operates under Falci Adaptive Motorsports, a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing adaptive motor racing to people with physical disabilities.


== Busch Series ==


=== Car No. 78 history ===
Furniture Row Racing made its NASCAR debut in the Busch Series at Nashville Superspeedway in 2005 with Jerry Robertson driving, starting 24th and finishing 33rd. Robertson ran ten races with the team in 2005 and nine in 2006, with his best finish being a 22nd at California Speedway in 2005.


==== Car No. 78 results ====


== Cup Series ==


=== Car No. 77/87 history ===
2008

Furniture Row Racing entered a second car for the first time in 2008, entering the No. 87 car for Kenny Wallace for the Daytona 500. In early 2008, Wallace returned to Furniture Row to drive in the Daytona 500 in a car that was supposed to serve as a safety net for Nemechek in case his team didn't make the field. Instead, Nemechek locked himself into the field with a third place qualifying run, and Wallace secured a spot in the race in the Gatorade Duels.


==== Car No. 87 results ====

Erik Jones (2017)

On August 7, 2016, Furniture Row Racing announced that Erik Jones would compete full-time in the Cup Series with backing from 5 Hour Energy. It marked the return of the No. 77 for the first time since Charlotte fall in 2014, then operated by Randy Humphrey Racing. In December 2016, Furniture Row Racing purchased the charter of the No. 62 owned by Jay Robinson and used it for the No. 77, guaranteeing the team a spot in every race of the 2017 season. Jones was on loan from Joe Gibbs Racing. In the Coca-Cola 600, Jones had a career best finish in 7th place, but Austin Dillon would go onto win the race. At Pocono Jones improved his best career finish and collected his first top 5 finish by finishing 3rd. At Kentucky, Jones took a 6th-place finish for his fifth top ten of the season.
On July 11, it was announced that Jones would leave the team after the 2017 season for his long anticipated move to the JGR No. 20 car in 2018, but 5 Hour Energy will have to stay with the team due to the viceroy rule and Monster Energy being the series sponsor. Following Jones' announced departure, Furniture Row Racing sold their No. 77 charter to JTG Daugherty Racing for the No. 37 team and announced that they would indefinitely close the No. 77 team at the end of the season, while also saying that the 77 was not just a one-year thing.


==== Car No. 77 results ====


=== Car No. 78 history ===
Early years (2005–2008)

In 2005, the team made two NEXTEL Cup appearances with Kenny Wallace debuting the team at Dover International Speedway, and Robertson running at Phoenix International Raceway.
Wallace was scheduled to drive the first five races in 2006, with Robertson filling out the rest of the schedule. At the 2006 Daytona 500, Wallace failed to put the No. 78 Furniture Row car in the field. Wallace qualified for the next two races, at California Speedway and Las Vegas Motor Speedway, finishing 41st and 38th, respectively. However, the performance of the team was not good enough to make the top 35 in points, and the team ran with various drivers for the rest of the year; Jimmy Spencer (both Pocono races) and Travis Kvapil (at road courses) also drove the car. FRR also teamed up with PPI Motorsports to share equipment and resources throughout the season. Robertson competed in select Busch Series events in 2006, his best finish being 29th.
Wallace was hired to continue to be the full-time driver in 2007. He had two sixth-place starts that season, but was released in August 2007. After Scott Wimmer and Sterling Marlin failed to qualify in the following weeks, Joe Nemechek was named the permanent driver. FRR completed a three-year contract with Nemechek (2008–2010) towards the end of the season. Nemechek locked himself into the field with a third place qualifying run in the 2008 Daytona 500. At the spring Talladega race, he gave the team their first pole. In the fall race at that track, Nemechek gave FRR its then-best finish ever of 11th.

Regan Smith (2009–2012)

For 2009, the team announced it would cut back to a part-time schedule due to financial constraints. Nemechek was to remain as the driver, but the team bought out the rest of his contract after he refused to run a partial schedule. Regan Smith ran 18 races in the No. 78 car in 2009.
FRR resumed full-time duties in 2010. The team aligned with Richard Childress Racing and earned top 35 status for the first five races of 2010 by purchasing the owner points from RCR's No. 07 car. Childress was listed as the official owner of the No. 78.
On November 15, 2010, the Furniture Row Racing transporter and motorcoach were destroyed in an accident on Interstate 25 about forty miles from the team's Denver headquarters. Richard Childress Racing provided the team a fully equipped transporter for Furniture Row's use at Homestead.
At the 2011 Daytona 500, Smith gave Furniture Row its first top ten, with a seventh-place finish. On May 7, 2011, Smith gave Furniture Row its first top five finish, and first victory, at Darlington Raceway in the Southern 500, holding off Carl Edwards. In 2012, the team struggled mightily, and Pete Rondeau was replaced as crew chief by former RCR crew chief Todd Berrier before Indy. The addition of Berrier resulted in the first back to back top-10 finishes (both 9th places) for FRR and Smith.

Kurt Busch (2012–2013)

Despite Berrier bringing Smith two top ten finishes and one top-five finish, manager Joe Garone announced that Smith would be replaced by Kurt Busch beginning with the 2012 Bank of America 500 at Charlotte.
In the 2013 season, Busch improved the status of Furniture Row as a team, with the car becoming more competitive and running in contention more frequently than not. In the first 26 races, Busch recorded 8 top five and 13 top ten finishes, and one pole position (at Darlington in May). These were statistics easily comparable to drivers who were running with the powerhouse teams. The team also had low points, such as a scary wreck in the May race at Talladega that saw Busch flip over and land on top of Ryan Newman in turn 3 with six laps to go. A number of poor finishes, and errors like crashes at New Hampshire and Martinsville, plus a dead battery while leading under a red flag at the Coca-Cola 600, kept the team hovering on the Chase bubble. A streak of top ten finishes by Busch in August, combined with a second-place finish at Richmond, secured the team a Chase berth entry. This marked Busch's eighth season making the Chase. This also made Furniture Row Racing the first ever single car team to race into the Chase.
The car was sponsored by Furniture Row for most of the season, except at Talladega that October, when the car was sponsored by Wonder Bread, in tribute to Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby. This was the second time Busch has driven a car with a Talladega Nights-based paint job at Talladega, with the other time being a car based on the ""ME"" paint job in May 2012 during his tenure with Phoenix Racing.

Martin Truex Jr. (2014–2018)

In August 2013, it was announced that Busch would not be returning to FRR for 2014, as he had signed with Gene Haas to drive with Stewart-Haas Racing starting at the 2014 Daytona 500. The team also announced that they had extended their alliance with RCR. For close to two months, speculation over who would replace Busch at Furniture Row had suggested Juan Pablo Montoya to be the most likely candidate, as Montoya was to be replaced in the No. 42 at Chip Ganassi Racing by Kyle Larson. Other potential candidates being Jeff Burton and Bobby Labonte, veterans who had not yet secured rides for 2014. However, Montoya eventually announced that he would join Team Penske in the IndyCar Series. In early October, after Michael Waltrip Racing announced that their No. 56 team was being cut to a part-time team due to the loss of NAPA Auto Parts as a sponsor in the fallout from the Spingate scandal at Richmond, it was reported that Furniture Row was in talks with Martin Truex Jr. to potentially sign him.
Prior to the November race at Texas, it was announced and confirmed that Truex had signed a multi-year deal to drive for FRR beginning at the 2014 Daytona 500. The announcement also added that FRR had hired all of the crewmen from Truex's MWR team as well.
The team's performance declined slightly in 2014, with Truex scoring only five top tens, leading only one lap and finishing 24th in the standings. At the end of the season, the team released crew chief Todd Berrier, hiring rookie crew chief Cole Pearn.

Truex's performance dramatically improved during the 2015 season, largely due to the new driver-crew chief relationship between Truex and Cole Pearn. During the Daytona 500, Truex led one lap and finished 8th. Truex earned nine top tens throughout the first 10 races, finishing second at Las Vegas. He led the most laps at Kansas and appeared on his way to a win, when a poor pit stop shuffled him to a ninth-place finish. After leading the most laps for four-consecutive races, Truex and Furniture Row finally broke into victory lane, winning the Axalta ""We Paint Winners"" 400 at Pocono Raceway in June getting Furniture Row Racing its 1st Sprint Cup victory since the Southern 500 in 2011 and breaking a 69 race winless streak for Truex. The win locked Truex and the team into the Chase for the Sprint Cup for 2015 and put him second in the standings. The next week, Truex would finish 3rd in a rain shortened race at Michigan International Speedway becoming the first driver since Richard Petty in 1969 to score 14 top 10s in the first 15 races of the season. Truex would not visit victory lane for the rest of the year but did score a total of 22 top 10s, including 8 top 5s, and finished 4th in the championship standings after racing his way to the championship 4 at Homestead.
On September 27, 2015, it was confirmed that Truex had re-signed with Furniture Row for 2016 and beyond. The team also announced a switch to Toyota in 2016, receiving a technical alliance with Joe Gibbs Racing and engines from Toyota Racing Development. Truex would win his second race with Furniture Row on May 29, 2016 after leading a record-breaking 392 of 400 laps of the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte. Truex was able to score his first multi-win season as he won the Southern 500 at Darlington and then scored off a victory at Chicagoland passing leader Ryan Blaney with 4 laps to go. Truex scored his fourth win of the season two races later at Dover, However, for the 78, the car lost the engine at Talladega, cutting the car from the Chase.

At the 2017 Daytona 500, Truex was the race leader with two laps to go, but Kyle Larson passed him in the second turn and Truex ended up finishing 13th. At Las Vegas, Truex led the most laps (150) and became the first NASCAR driver to win all three stages. Truex and Brad Keselowski battled for the win late and with two to go, Keselowski had engine trouble and Truex scored his first victory of the season. At Kansas, Truex battled with Ryan Blaney all night and led the most laps with 104, beating out Blaney. At the Coca-Cola 600, Truex dominated, leading 273 laps while Erik Jones had a career best finish in seventh place, but Austin Dillon eventually won the race. Truex dominated again at Kentucky, winning all three stages and leading the most laps, battling Kyle Busch on several restarts throughout the race for the win.
At the 2017 Brickyard 400, Truex battled Busch for the lead late in the race, but accidentally wrecked Busch, taking both himself and Busch out of the race and foiling Busch from being the first driver in the history of the speedway to three-peat. The wreck caused a lot of controversy in the Toyota operation. Following the incident, Furniture Row Racing and Joe Gibbs Racing suspended three No. 78 crew members for confronting Busch's crew chief Adam Stevens.

Following all of their success throughout the playoffs and regular season, the No. 78 team won the 2017 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series at Homestead after leading a fitting 78 laps.
Truex started off the season with an 18th-place finish in the Daytona 500, after being caught up in a late race wreck. For the next few weeks, he picked up top five finishes in five straight races, including two poles, and a win at California. Truex scored three additional wins at Pocono, Sonoma, and Kentucky. He stayed consistent enough to make it to the Championship 4. Truex finished second at Homestead and in the points standings.
On September 4, 2018, Barney Visser announced that with the loss of major sponsor 5-hour Energy, he had no choice but to announce that the team would cease operation at the end of the 2018 season, one year after winning their first championship title. On November 7, 2018, it was announced that Truex and Pearn would move to the No. 19 team of Joe Gibbs Racing replacing Daniel Suárez (who moved to the no. 41 car of Stewart–Haas Racing). The No. 78's charter was eventually sold to Spire Sports + Entertainment on December 4, 2018, and currently runs in the Cup Series as Spire Motorsports No. 77.


==== Car No. 78 results ====


== Wins ==


=== NASCAR Cup Series ===


== References ==


== External links ==
Official Furniture Row site
Furniture Row Racing owner statistics at Racing-Reference"
Leyland Royal Tiger PSU,"The Leyland Royal Tiger PSU was an underfloor-engined bus and coach chassis manufactured by Leyland between 1950 and 1954.


== Description ==
The Leyland Royal Tiger was an underfloor-engined heavyweight single deck bus or coach chassis, and sold well in the United Kingdom and overseas from launch. ""Overseas"" versions differed greatly from home market models. Upon launch in 1950 this was the fourth new marque of post-war Leyland single deck bus chassis since 1945. It used the same units as the Leyland-MCW Olympic but with a substantial steel ladder-frame chassis generally straight in elevation but with an up-sweep over the rear axle, to which operators could fit a coach-built body of their choice with the passenger floor about 3 ft (914 mm) above the road surface. The flexibly-mounted Leyland 0.600H horizontal engine was mounted in the middle of the chassis frame, driving back through a unit mounted single-plate clutch and four-speed gearbox with synchromesh on second, third, and top, or later only on third and top, to a spiral-bevel rear axle. Steering was unassisted Marles cam and double roller, all component assemblies (save for some special export orders) were built by Leyland and were proven, having been previously used in the Tiger PS2 and/or Olympic.
The last Royal Tigers were completed in 1956, by which time 6,500 had been built. In the home market it had been supplanted by the lighter Tiger Cub which was in series production by 1953 and rapidly overtook the Royal Tiger in popularity with British operators. Whilst export markets demanded even more ruggedness and power, so from 1954 the Worldmaster came on-stream to satisfy them.
Most notably the Royal Tiger was also the first post-war Leyland bus to feature a pictorial badge: a die cast bright metal item with a plated finish featuring a central shield carrying a coloured image of a charging open-mouthed Tiger on a black ground, this surmounted by ‘LEYLAND’ in inset red lettering, with ‘ROYAL’ and ‘TIGER’ on the left and right wings coming from the shield. Later bus models including the Tiger Cub, Worldmaster, Atlantean, Leopard, Lion (PSR1), Royal Tiger Cub, Panther and Panther Cub also featured this style of badge, some Leyland goods models also used the shield badge, including models with the LAD and early Ergomatic cabs and notably the sole Leyland/Thompson Brothers' Dromedary rear-engined fuel tanker.


== The home range ==
The Royal Tiger PSU1 was originally planned over eight variants PSU1/1 to PSU1/8 with a wheelbase of 15 ft 7 in (4.75 m) to suit the then UK maximum length of 27 ft 6 in (8.38 m), 8 ft (2,438 mm) width was allowed from 1948 but only on officially-approved routes until 1950. Unlike the AEC Regal IV, no Royal Tigers were built to the initially-planned length, because 30 ft length was made legal in the UK during 1950. The 30 ft (9.14 m) long Royal Tiger PSU1 as produced covered another nine variants with the same wheelbase but longer rear overhang. In tabular summary, these were as follows:

Unlike the home market Olympic, launch orders were impressive, Ribble Motor Services indented for 120, Ulster Transport Authority requiring 111, Red & White Services 52, Wallace Arnold 22 and Associated Motorways (Black & White) 15. Wallace Arnold and Black & White exclusively required coaches, the rest required a mixture of bus and coach bodies, Ribble Motor Services, whose headquarters were in Preston, chose Leyland bodies also. As well as the option of a drop-frame aft of the rear axle, coaches also had as standard a higher final-drive ratio. Leyland demonstrators at the 1950 Earls Court Commercial Motor Show were a Brush-bodied bus MTC757 and an all-Leyland coach MTD235. The PSU1 was produced until 1954 but the last to be bodied on a new home market chassis went to Wigan Corporation in 1956. This Northern Counties bodied bus is preserved.
A large number of coachbuilders produced bodies for the Royal Tiger, most of them were standard buses or coaches, at the time underfloor engined single-deck buses with up to 45 seats generally had a single front entrance opposite the driver on the front overhang, often secured with a power-operated folding door; industry-standard coaches a central entrance in mid-wheelbase, generally with a manual sliding door, 41 seats was the general coach maximum, that said, there was a much greater variety of body styles and builders than today. Buses were built on Royal Tiger PSU1 by Brush, Crossley, Duple, East Lancashire Coachbuilders, Eastern Coach Works, Heaver, Metro Cammell Weymann, Massey Brothers, Northern Counties, Park Royal, Roe and others, whilst coaches were built by (among others) Alexander, Associated Coach Builders, Beccols, Bellhouse-Hartwell, Duple, Eastern Coach Works, Harrington, Metalcraft (who bodied the first two production coaches with 43 seat centre-entrance bodies for Don Everall of Wolverhampton), Mann, Egerton & Co., Plaxton, Samlesbury Engineering, Trans-United, Willowbrook and Windover. Perhaps the most famous body on the Royal Tiger coach was the Burlingham Seagull, but Dinky Toys chose the Duple Roadmaster body for their contemporary version, a style that was considerably rarer in full size than were 1:76 scale die cast metal models of it on railway layouts and in toy cupboards. Leyland’s own 44-seat bus and 41-seat coach bodies were built on a large number of Royal Tigers until Leyland's in-house coachbuilders were locked-out at the conclusion of an unofficial industrial dispute in 1954 bringing Leyland bus and coach bodies to an end. Although the 8 ft width was the majority choice most operators chose the vacuum-servo braking system, which was at its limits coping with a fully laden vehicle with an eight-ton unladen weight.


== The export range ==
Export Royal Tigers were different. Suffix numbers varied more than home market versions as an option for overseas variants was an AEC fluid coupling and air-actuated preselector gearbox combination as on the rival AEC Regal IV. Air brakes were generally offered, vacuum brakes and narrow track were rare options and an air-servo to the Leyland clutch and synchromesh gearbox was offered as standard on all air-braked layshaft-gearbox variants. Omitting suffixes the OPSU series can be tabulated thus:

O stood for overseas and left-hand drive variants had an L prefix to the type code, Hence for example LOPSU2. Customers for the Royal Tiger were found on every populated continent, sales were however particularly high in Europe, the Middle East, South America and Australasia. All overseas markets took the OPSU series save Ireland. In the UK-administered six counties of Northern Ireland the Ulster Transport Authority constructed its own bus and coach bodies on 176 examples whilst cross-border operators Londonderry & Lough Swilly Railway, The Lough Erne Railway and the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) all took Saunders-Roe bodied PSU1 Royal Tigers, all to the rarer 7 ft 6 in (2,286 mm) width: CIÉ, the Irish Republic's government transport undertaking, after evaluating the coach demonstrator, took 8 ft 0 in (2,438 mm) wide PSU1 Royal Tigers with their own bodies, bus and coach, these forming the 200-strong U-class. The Irish Army also bought a single example, to transport regimental bands, this was also Saunders-Roe bodied it has a centre entrance is 7 ft 6 in (2,286 mm) wide, registered ZU5000 and delivered in 1953; it has recently been found by preservationists and is now stored awaiting restoration. The Lough Swilly operation still had their first Royal Tiger in revenue-earning service in 1979
The largest single Dollar-denominated order ever taken by a British manufacturer by that time was taken in 1950 by Leyland from Autobus Modernos SA of Havana, Cuba, who ordered 620 Saunders Roe B43D bodied LOPSU1/1s to replace Havana's trams. Buenos Aires, Argentina ordered 450 Royal Tigers and 300 Olympics at a Pound Sterling-denominated record for a UK vehicle builder of £4 million, by 1953 Brazilian operators had over 460 Royal Tigers in operation. Other early territories to take large numbers of overseas Royal Tigers were Australia, Egypt, Finland, India, Iran, Israel, Kenya, New Zealand, Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, The Netherlands, and Uruguay. Denmark, Greece, Jamaica, Nigeria, Norway, Venezuela and Yugoslavia among others were later added to the list of territories taking the OPSU.


== Succession ==
In most of the rest of the world Leyland customers liked the Royal Tiger, but some found it insufficiently strong and some regarded it as underpowered. As a result, Leyland produced its most successful bus model, the Royal Tiger Worldmaster. In the UK, conversely, the Royal Tiger had an unladen weight often exceeding eight tons, more than that of double-deckers with up to twenty more seats, and as the gross vehicle weight was twelve tons in 1950, a full complement of luggage and passengers would take the coaches in particular close to the legal laden limit. Thus in 1952 Leyland launched a bus to the concept of the Royal Tiger but with a lighter-weight frame and units standardised with the Comet 90 medium-weight lorry. This was the Leyland Tiger Cub.


== Rebodies and other alterations ==
The durability of the heavy PSU chassis was often well in excess of the bodies it carried, several operators had their Royal Tigers fitted with new bodies, Harper Brothers of Heath Hayes, built their own bus bodies on some of theirs in the late 1950s, using Metal Sections frames. The only other operator-bodied Royal Tiger was McLennan of Spittalfield, Perthshire's EES468 a 1952 front-entrance 43 seat coach. Many other independent operators chose newer Plaxton bodies for their Royal Tigers from the early to late 1960s.
The most notable example though was the commercial lengthening and rebodying operation ran by Audlem, Cheshire based dealer Les Gleave Ltd. Between 1961 and 1964 they converted at least 20 Royal Tiger chassis to the full-length allowed by a recent change in the law, for a cost of £200 for the conversion work; these all received new registrations and a stretch in the wheelbase to 18 ft 6in, Gleave then sent the coach chassis to Scarborough for new 36 ft Plaxton Panorama bodies (one for Harrison of Morecambe, was shown at the 1962 Blackpool Coach Rally with the apt dealer re-registration 2048LG)(Audlem was covered by the Cheshire county vehicle licensing office whose index marks included LG).
Candidate chassis were initially only the air-braked PSU1/16 variant but some PSU1/15 were also lengthened and at the same time converted to air brakes, all the converted vehicles were coded PSU1/16/LG. Blue Bird coaches of Weymouth, Dorset lengthened their own HMR444 and also extended the original Plaxton body by nearly 3 ft. later Munden of Bristol re-bodied the extended chassis and re-registered it EHY111K This bus is still extant with third registration PJY2
As well as total rebodying, some operators in the late 1950s and early 1960s took mid-life central-entrance Royal Tiger coaches and modified them to dual-purpose (i.e. buses adapted for longer-distance service routes which could also serve as private hire coaches) by converting them to front from centre entrance. Single deckers by that time could legally be worked driver-only, which by halving staff costs saved some rural routes from abandonment. Harper Brothers of Heath Hayes mentioned above fitted very utilitarian fronts to some Burlingham Seagull bodied Royal Tigers for the purpose whilst Walter Alexander & Sons converted some of its Royal Tiger coach fleet in-house (those with Alexander bodies)  and had two of its Leyland-bodied examples refitted with the contemporary (late 1950s) Walter Alexander Coachbuilders front end assemblies which produced incongruous-looking but doubtless useful service coaches.


== In service ==
The Royal Tiger on the home market was among the most powerful and quiet Public Service Vehicles yet encountered and very smooth-riding but vacuum brakes were not as efficient or as responsive as drivers desired from the outset: Wallace Arnold for one converted its vacuum braked Royal Tigers after a season or less in service, Southdown Motor Services did the same with their first batch of touring coaches, subsequently standardising on air brakes for all new buses and coaches regardless of builder. The home market Royal Tiger also lacked the air-servo assistance to the clutch or gearchange that the OPSU had and as a result clutch pressures were heavy and gear-lever throws were rather long, un-assisted steering was hard to move at low road-speeds, interviews with drivers of the Royal Tiger show they regarded the type as hard work to drive, but rewarding. Some operators swore by the Royal Tiger, but others swore at it. Barton Transport who had solely taken Leyland for all its full size bus and coach needs since the end of World War II bought five Leyland Royal Tigers with Burlingham bodies for its ‘Coach Cruise’ fleet in 1951 but the poor fuel consumption saw them sold three years later by which time Leyland's major rival AEC were getting their first orders from Barton since one Regal coach in the mid-1930s. However (see rebodies above) some operators found the near indestructible build of the Royal Tiger an asset and OK Motor Services of Bishop Auckland had a Plaxton rebodied Royal Tiger on regular service well into the 1980s.


== Preservation ==
A number of Royal Tigers are preserved, both bus and coach, in the southern hemisphere as well as the UK, at least one Les Gleave ‘stretched’ example among them, but the oddest preserved Royal Tiger might be JVB908, new to Homeland Tours of Croydon which carries a Mann Egerton body to Crellin-Duplex patent ‘Half-deck’ pattern; this carries 50 coach seats in facing pairs interlaced above and below a central gangway, it has recently been restored for its private owner by the Scottish Vintage Bus Museum. The Museum of Transport & Technology in Auckland, New Zealand has 1953 Leyland Royal Tiger PSU No.464 fitted with a Saunders Roe kitset body, one of 150 to be operated by the Auckland Transport Board, then Auckland Regional Authority until 1983. Presented in the ATB lettuce green and transport cream livery.


== Scale models ==
The only contemporary model was the Dinky Toys Duple Roadmaster. Rob's Classic Models produced Australian Government versions of the Leyland Royal Tiger Worldmaster in 1/76 scale in 2017, along with models of AEC Regal IV equivalents. Corgi Toys have since produced the Burlingham Seagull to 1/50 and 1/76 scales. Oxford Diecast now also offer a 1/76 scale model of the all-Leyland Royal Tiger coach and have recently announced a 1/76 Duple Roadmaster.


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Leyland Royal Tiger at Wikimedia Commons"
Cam'ron,"Cameron Ezike Giles (born February 4, 1976), known mononymously as Cam'ron, is an American rapper. Beginning his career in the early 1990s as Killa Cam, Giles signed with Lance ""Un"" Rivera's Untertainment, an imprint of Epic Records to release his first two studio albums Confessions of Fire (1998) and S.D.E. (Sports Drugs & Entertainment) (2000); the former received gold certification by the RIAA. After leaving Epic, Giles signed with Roc-A-Fella Records in 2001 to release his third studio album, Come Home with Me, the following year. It received platinum certification by the RIAA and spawned the singles ""Oh Boy"" (featuring Juelz Santana) and ""Hey Ma"" (featuring Juelz Santana, Freekey Zekey and Toya), which peaked at numbers four and three on the Billboard Hot 100, respectively. His fourth studio album, Purple Haze (2004) was met with similar success and likewise received gold certification by the RIAA.
Due to personal disagreements with Jay-Z, Giles and his label parted ways with Roc-A-Fella in 2005 in favor of Asylum Records. In 2006, Giles released his fifth studio album Killa Season, accompanied by a film of the same name in which Giles starred and made his director-screenwriter debut. In 2009, after taking a hiatus due to his mother's health, Giles returned to music and released his sixth studio album Crime Pays (2009), which peaked at number three on the Billboard 200. A decade later, he released his seventh album, Purple Haze 2 (2019), which narrowly entered the chart.
Prior to his solo career, Giles formed the short-lived hip hop group Children of the Corn alongside Big L and Mase in 1993; they disbanded in 1997. He subsequently formed the hip hop collective the Diplomats (also known as Dipset) in the latter year, alongside his longtime affiliate Jim Jones and cousin Freekey Zekey. He later performed as one half of the duo U.N. (Us Now) with fellow Harlem native Vado; the duo released two collaborative projects. In addition to the Killa Season film, Giles has acted in other works including the Roc-A-Fella films Paper Soldiers and Paid in Full in 2002.


== Biography ==


=== 1976–1997: Early life and career beginnings ===
Giles was born and raised in the East Harlem neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, New York City. He was raised by his mother, Fredericka Giles (July 10, 1955 – February 9, 2023). He went to school at the Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, where he met his longtime friends Mase and Jim Jones. He was a promising basketball player alongside Mase; however, he was unable to take advantage of scholarship offers due to his poor academic standing. Instead, he enrolled in a college in Texas, without even graduating from high school, but was expelled and returned to Harlem where he began selling drugs before starting his rap career. Giles was eventually introduced to the Notorious B.I.G. through his childhood friend Mase. B.I.G. introduced Giles to Lance Rivera, who signed him to his label, Untertainment.
He began his musical career in the mid-1990s, rapping alongside Big L, Mase, and his cousin Bloodshed, in a group called Children of the Corn. After Bloodshed's death in a car accident on March 2, 1997, the group disbanded and the remaining members pursued solo careers.


=== 1998–2002: Confessions of Fire, S.D.E. and Come Home with Me ===
Two years before Big L's murder in 1999, Cam'ron was introduced to the Notorious B.I.G. by Mase who was signed to Bad Boy Records at the time. Biggie was so impressed by Cam'ron that he introduced him to his partner Lance ""Un"" Rivera who signed Cam'ron to his Untertainment label, distributed by Epic Records. His debut album, Confessions of Fire, was released a year later in July 1998 and included singles such as ""3-5-7"" (which was also featured in the movie Woo), and ""Horse and Carriage"" featuring Mase, which reached the R&B Top Ten. The album achieved gold status and made the Top 10 of both the pop and R&B charts.
In 2000, Cam'ron was working with music executive Tommy Mottola and released his second album S.D.E. (Sports Drugs & Entertainment) on Sony/Epic Records. With features from Destiny's Child, Juelz Santana, Jim Jones, N.O.R.E., and producer Digga, it included the relatively successful singles, ""Let Me Know"" and ""What Means the World to You"". The album reached Number 2 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and Number 14 on the Billboard 200.
After demanding a release from Sony/Epic Records, Cam'ron signed with his childhood friend and new manager Damon Dash to Roc-A-Fella Records in December 2001, alongside artists such as Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, Freeway and Memphis Bleek. A reported $4.5 million record deal was agreed upon with Damon Dash and his Roc-A-Fella partners Kareem Biggs and Jay-Z in the form of a record advance. His third and most successful album Come Home with Me was released in 2002 featuring guests such as Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, and Memphis Bleek, and production from Just Blaze, Kanye West and the Heatmakerz. It included the hit singles ""Oh Boy"" and ""Hey Ma"", which both featured the Diplomats newest member Juelz Santana. The album achieved platinum status and served as a stepping stone for Cam'ron's group the Diplomats to sign with Roc-A-Fella.
In 2002, Cam'ron went on to appear in the Damon Dash produced film, Paid in Full, in which he played one of three main characters alongside Mekhi Phifer and Wood Harris. In 2006 he started shooting his movie for his album titled Killa Season; the film would mark both Cam'ron's screenwriting and directorial debuts, as well as his return to acting. Killa Season was released to DVD on April 25, 2006, after a special two-day theatrical release.


=== 2003–2009: Purple Haze, Killa Season and Crime Pays ===
In March 2003, Cam'ron teamed up with his fellow Diplomats Members Jim Jones, Juelz Santana, and Freekey Zeeky to release the Diplomats' debut double album, Diplomatic Immunity, under Roc-A-Fella/Diplomat Records, which was quickly certified gold by the RIAA. The album featured the lead single ""Dipset Anthem"", a remix to Cam'rons hit ""Hey Ma"", and the (street anthem) single ""I Really Mean It"", as well as featuring production from Kanye West, Just Blaze, and the Heatmakerz. A year later, the Diplomats released their second album, Diplomatic Immunity 2.
On December 7, 2004, Cam'ron's fourth studio album, Purple Haze, was released on Def Jam/Roc-A-Fella Records. It featured collaborations with Kanye West, Jaheim, Twista, Juelz Santana, and various other artists and ultimately reached gold status. The album was also a critical success, being ranked 114th on Pitchfork Media's Top 200 Albums of the first decade of the 21st century List, and 10th on Rhapsody's Hip Hop's Best Albums of the Decade. However, after feeling that the album was poorly promoted and that his projects were not receiving enough attention, Cam'ron requested his release from Roc-A-Fella Records.
On April 28, 2005, Cam'ron officially joined the Warner Music Group under the Asylum Records imprint. He began work on what would be his first project for the new label. Cam'ron's fifth studio album, titled Killa Season, was released on May 16, 2006, featuring production from long-term collaborators the Heatmakerz, Charlmagne and Ty Fyffe, as well as others such as Alchemist and I.N.F.O. Along with the album, Cam'ron released his first film, in which he wrote, directed and starred in, also titled ""Killa Season"". Despite selling 112,000 units in the first week and debuting at number 2 on the charts, Killa Season failed to have the same sales strength as his two previous releases, but Killa Season became certified gold.
After the release of Killa Season and his feud with 50 Cent in 2007, Cam'ron took a three-year hiatus from music after his mother suffered three strokes which left her paralyzed on her left side. He moved to Florida with her to set up her rehabilitation and therapy, and stayed there until she had fully recovered. Cam'ron's 2009 album, Crime Pays was released on Asylum/Diplomat Records, featuring the majority of the production handled by Skitzo and AraabMuzik. Although none of the singles from the album managed to chart, the album still reached number 3 on the Billboard 200 but only sold 150,000 units, making it the lowest selling album of his career. In 2009 Cam'ron formed a new label, Dipset West and new group the U.N.


=== 2010–present: Mixtapes, EPs and collaborations ===
In late 2009–early 2010, Cam'ron released a series of mixtapes hosted by DJ Drama called Boss of All Boses which featured his new upcoming artist Vado. Cam'ron also released a collaboration album with his new group the U.N. which included himself and fellow Harlem rapper Vado titled Heat in Here Vol. 1; the first single off the album was ""Speaking Tongues"" which peaked at No. 82 on the U.S. R&B charts. Cam'ron announced that he would be releasing a joint album with rapper Vado called Gunz n' Butta; on April 19, 2011, the album was released on E1 Music. In 2013, Vado signed with We the Best Music Group after his personal friendship with Cam'ron eroded, although Vado maintained at the time that they still worked on a business level and had no animosity towards him. After three years Cam'ron and Jim Jones decided to mend their differences and start working together again for the third installment of the Diplomatic Immunity album along with fellow Diplomats members Juelz Santana and Freekey Zekey. Cam'ron announced that the Diplomats album's release would take place around Christmas 2010. The first promotional single featuring the reunited Diplomats members was titled ""Salute""; it was produced by AraabMuzik and would later appear on Jim Jones album Capo.
In 2012 Cam'ron was featured on rapper/singer Wiz Khalifa's second studio album O.N.I.F.C. on a song titled ""The Bluff"". Also In 2012 Cam'ron would be featured on rapper/singer Nicki Minaj's second studio album Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded on a song titled ""I Am Your Leader"" along with rapper Rick Ross.
In 2013 during an interview Cam'ron discussed his seventh upcoming studio album Killa Season 2 stating that it will feature guest appearances from Dipset, T.I., Nicki Minaj, and Wiz Khalifa. On October 1, 2013, Cam'ron released his promotional mixtape for the album titled Ghetto Heaven Vol 1.
In January 2014, according to Complex Magazine, Cam'ron and A-Trak were to team up for a collaborative EP to be titled Federal Reserve which would be executive-produced by Dame Dash and have featured appearances by Juelz Santana and Jim Jones. In May, they put out the first single from the album, titled ""Dipsh*ts"", featuring commentary from Dame Dash and Juelz Santana on the hook and an accompanying official video. On February 11, 2014, Cam'ron along with fashion designer Mark McNairy revealed their ""Cape line"" during New York fashion week. On October 20, 2014, via his Instagram Cam'ron revealed and released his ""Ebola mask"" stating on the caption ""Ebola is no joking matter, so if u have to be safe, be fashionable"". Cam'ron also has a fashion clothing line titled ""Dipset USA"" which is branded off his former label Diplomat Records. On July 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 1 EP. On August 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 2 EP, it included the single ""So Bad"" featuring Nicki Minaj. On September 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 3 EP. On October 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 4 EP. On November 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 5 EP. On December 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 6 EP. On December 11, 2014, Cam'ron announced that his next studio album will not be a sequel to his fifth album Killa Season but will be a sequel to his critically acclaimed fourth studio album Purple Haze titled Purple Haze 2; Cam'ron also announced that this would be his final album. On December 16, 2014, Cam'ron would release his compilation 1st of the Month: Box Set (Deluxe Edition).
On January 1, 2015, DJ Funkmaster Flex announced via his Instagram that he had spoken to fellow Diplomats members Cam'ron, Jim Jones and Juelz Santana about an upcoming Diplomats mixtape which included Freekey Zeekey. He also stated that he would be hosting the mixtape along with DJ Khaled, Swizz Beatz and DJ Mustard.
In July 2016, Cam'ron announced an album called Killa Pink and a signature line of Reebok shoes: the Flea 2.


== Other ventures ==


=== Directing and acting ===
In 2002, Cam'ron appeared in the Damon Dash produced film, Paid in Full, in which he played one of three main characters alongside Mekhi Phifer and Wood Harris. In 2006, he started shooting video to accompany his album titled Killa Season. This was Cam'ron's screenwriting and directorial debut, as well as his return to acting. Killa Season was released to DVD on April 25, 2006, after a special two-day theatrical release.


=== Fashion designing ===
On February 11, 2014, Cam'ron, along with fashion designer Mark McNairy, revealed their ""Cape line"" during the New York fashion week. On October 20, 2014, via his Instagram, Cam'ron revealed and released his ""Ebola mask"", stating on the caption: ""Ebola is no joking matter, so if u have to be safe, be fashionable"". Cam'ron also has a fashion clothing line titled ""Dipset USA"" which is branded off his former label Diplomat Records.


=== Sports commentary ===
In 2023, Cam'ron launched an independently produced sports news talk show, called It Is What It Is. Cam'ron's co-host on the show is rapper Mase. The show's first episode premiered on February 27, 2023, on YouTube. In the months proceeding the show's launch, it has achieved viral success on the internet. According to Cam'ron, he has already turned down several multi-million dollar offers from buyers looking to purchase the show. In August 2023, it was officially announced that the show has partnered with Underdog Fantasy Sports.


== Feuds ==


=== Jay-Z ===
Although there had been rumors of a feud between the two emcees, Cam'ron went public first with a track on ""Killa Season"" called ""You Gotta Love It (Jay-Z Diss)"" featuring ex-Dipset member Max B. In the song, Cam'ron takes jabs at Jay-Z's age, his alleged ""biting"" (stealing) of lyrics, and his current girlfriend. He references Jay-Z using the Notorious B.I.G.'s rhymes, rapping ""You ain't the only one with big wallets got it my shit's brolick but ya publishing should go to Miss Wallace."" He then released another song ""Swagger Jacker (Biter Not a Writer)"" to highlight the many songs Jay-Z has borrowed lines from. In the next issue of XXL, Cam'ron explained the beef originated when Jay-Z became CEO and President of Roc-A-Fella Records. In 2010, Cam'ron stated he does not have any issues with Jay-Z anymore.
In 2013, on ""Pound Cake"", a song by Drake, Jay-Z mentioned Cam'ron again by rapping (in the middle of a verse): ""Now here's the icing on the cake/ Cake, cake-cake, cake-cake, uhh/ I'm just getting started, oh, yeah, we got it bitch/ I've done made more millionaires than the lotto did/ Dame made millions, Bigg made millions/ Ye made millions, Just made millions/ Lyor made millions, Cam made millions/ Beans would tell you if he wasn't in his feelin[g]s.""
Cam replied briefly on ""Come and Talk to Me"" off of Ghetto Heaven Vol. 1: ""She said Jay made you a millionaire? and looked me in the eyes/ Said cake, cake, cake, got that from the pies/ We made each other millions, that was my reply/ had a mill before I met him, baby, that ain't no lie/ See he named some Harlem cats and the homie from the Chi / but my thing, he ain't name nobody from the Stuy"".
On April 26, 2019, he and Jay-Z ended their feud at the re-opened Webster Hall.


=== 50 Cent ===
On February 1, 2007, Cam'ron and 50 Cent had a live argument on The Angie Martinez Show on Hot 97 radio. 50 Cent commented that he felt Koch Entertainment was a ""graveyard"", meaning major record labels would not work with their artists. Cam'ron then ridiculed the record sales of G-Unit members Lloyd Banks and Mobb Deep by pointing out that Dipset member Jim Jones outsold both of their albums despite not being signed to a major label, and also went on to clarify that his group, the Diplomats, had a distribution deal from several labels. Both rappers released diss songs with videos on YouTube. 50 Cent released ""Funeral Music"", and suggested in the song that Cam'ron is no longer able to lead the Diplomats and that Jim Jones should take his place. Cam'ron responded with ""Curtis"" and ""Curtis Pt. II"", in which he makes fun of 50 Cent's appearance, calling him ""a gorilla, with rabbit teeth"". 50 Cent responded by releasing ""Hold On"" with Young Buck. Since 2009, the feud slowly died down, and they eventually reconciled in 2016.


=== Jim Jones ===
Cam'ron revealed in 2007 that he was no longer speaking to his fellow Diplomat members Juelz Santana and Jim Jones, leading to speculation that the group had officially broken up. However, despite admitting that he did not want to contact Jim Jones, he said that he had no hard feelings towards him. In an interview with Miss Info, Cam'ron said: ""I still haven't spoken to Jim. But Jim ran with me for over 10 years, he worked hard, and I wish him the best of luck. Everybody thinks I'm mad at Jim. Why am I mad? I told people for years that Jimmy was gonna be a star. So it's better on my resume. I wish him the best."" After three years of not speaking, Cam'ron and Jim Jones mended their differences in April 2010. In late 2011, both appeared together on Wolfgang Gartner's album Weekend in America, on the track ""Circus Freaks"".


=== Kanye West ===
Both Cam'ron and Jim Jones took out their frustrations on former label-mate Kanye West in defense of former CEO Dame Dash (due to their longtime friendship dating back to growing up in Harlem) by releasing a song titled ""Toast"" rhyming over Kanye West's song ""Runaway"". The feud eventually ended, evidenced by Cam'ron, Jim Jones, and Kanye West collaborating on a song called ""Christmas in Harlem"".


== Personal life ==
On October 23, 2005, Cam'ron was leaving a nightclub in Washington, D.C., having performed the day before at Howard University. While stopped at a traffic light at the intersection of New York and New Jersey Avenues shortly after midnight, a passenger of a nearby car threatened Cam'ron to ""give up"" his 2006 Lamborghini. Cam'ron resisted, and the man then shot him. Cam'ron was struck at least once as he was holding the steering wheel, but he was able to drive, going the wrong way on streets and flashing his lights, until a fan drove him to Howard University Hospital. The gunman and passenger drove off, crashed into a parked car, and fled the scene. D.C. Metro Police recovered a cell phone from the scene of the crash, which they tried to use to trace the suspects. He stated that he does not know who shot him, although later, in the song ""Gotta Love It"" featuring Max B, Cam'ron claims that he saw the gunman throw up the Roc-A-Fella Records diamond hand signal before shots were fired.
On April 22, 2007, Cam'ron was interviewed on 60 Minutes as part of a piece on the Stop Snitchin' movement. He stated that he would ""not help the police"" try to locate a potential shooter, saying he is ""not a snitch"" and helping the police would probably hurt his record sales, adding ""It's about business but it's still also a code of ethics."" When asked by Anderson Cooper if he would tell the police if a serial killer was living next to him, Cam'ron replied ""I would probably move"" but would not inform the police. He later apologized, calling it an ""error in judgement"": ""Where I come from, once word gets out that you've cooperated with the police that only makes you a bigger target of criminal violence. That is a dark reality in so many neighborhoods like mine across America. I'm not saying its right, but its reality."" Cam'ron has had contact with the police in the past. According to The Smoking Gun, New York Police Department records indicate that Giles filed a report with police after he was assaulted by 15 unidentified men at a park in Harlem in 1999.


== Discography ==

Studio albums
Confessions of Fire (1998)
S.D.E. (2000)
Come Home with Me (2002)
Purple Haze (2004)
Killa Season (2006)
Crime Pays (2009)
Purple Haze 2 (2019)
Collaboration albums
Heat in Here Vol. 1 (with Vado) (2010)
Gunz n' Butta (with Vado) (2011)
U Wasn't There (with A-Trak) (2022)


== Filmography ==
Paid in Full (2002)
State Property 2 (2005)
Killa Season (2006)
Rap Sheet: Hip-Hop and the Cops (2006)
First of the Month (2012)
Percentage (2013)
Love & Hip Hop: New York (2012; 2016–2017)
Honor Up (2018)
Queens (2021)


== References ==


== External links ==
Cam'ron on Twitter 
Cam'ron at IMDb"
Followers of Christ,"The Followers of Christ is a small Christian denomination based in the U.S. states of Oklahoma, Oregon, Idaho, formerly California, and was founded in Kansas.


== History ==
The Followers of Christ church was founded in Chanute, Kansas, by General Marion Reece (b. 1844 - d. 1914) (sometimes spelled Riess), rooted in the Holiness Pentecostal traditions. The church moved to Ringwood, Oklahoma, in the 1890s, where leadership passed to Elder John Marshall Morris, who was the father of Marion Morris. Marion Morris led the Ringwood, Oklahoma, branch of the church until his death in 1988.
During the 1920s, Charlie Smith (the founder's brother-in-law) and George White began missions in Red Bluff, California, and Chico, California. George White's nephews Walter White and LaVerne “Vern” Baldwin became ministers in the church. Walter moved to Oregon City, Oregon from Boise, Idaho in the 1940s, after a dispute with Baldwin, possibly about adultery, women cutting their hair, and fornication. Baldwin  later became the main minister of the Boise branch, and would be followed by his son, Don. White and his congregation built a house of worship on Molalla Avenue in Oregon City, then a largely rural timber and farming community, now a suburb of Portland. He was a fiery speaker and maintained tight control over his congregation, and would often shout “I am Jesus of Nazareth! Be faithful, be faithful!” from the pulpit. When he was alive, White allowed new members into his congregation, and former members said White was treated like a Messiah of sorts, as he claimed to have been called by God to preach at the age of 22. White died in 1969, and the church has functioned without a minister since that time. The last two elders associated with White, Riley Keith I and Glenford Lee, had died in the 1980s, and the now-leaderless Oregon community became more isolated and inward-focused, and ceased recruitment of new members. Church services consist of singing seven to ten hymns every Thursday night and Sunday morning, with one of the five elected board members announcing who needs prayers at the beginning of every meeting, without any spiritual teaching or Bible readings.
Estimates of the Oregon church's membership in 2008 ranged from 1,200 to 1,500. The Followers of Christ also have congregations in Ringwood, Oklahoma, Grants Pass, Oregon, Edmonton, Alberta, Meridian, Idaho, Middleton, Idaho, the original Idaho church in Boise, Idaho, a church in Caldwell, Idaho, and Marsing, Idaho. The Marsing church is welcoming to new members and is different from the Oregon City church, as they don’t shun those who leave. The Caldwell church is similar to the Oregon City church, lacking a preacher. Most most members there believe the Oregon City congregation lost their ways. and local communities operate independently of Followers of Christ churches in other areas.
The Oregon City congregation owns a church building, as well as use a cemetery in Carus, where deceased church members are predominantly buried.


== Alleged doctrine ==
The Followers of Christ is Pentecostal in orientation, and believes in a literal interpretation of Scripture, including in the power of faith healing, prayer and the laying on of hands by church elders. Unlike many other churches which include faith healing as part of their doctrine but do not necessarily prohibit modern medical care, such as Christian Science, many members of the Followers of Christ refuse all forms of medicine and professional medical care. The church, most specifically the Oregon City and Caldwell branches, are said to practice shunning of those who violate or challenge church doctrine, including those who seek medical treatment. It has been alleged that many Followers clandestinely see doctors in defiance of church teaching, though it seems there are many members who openly seek medical treatment in conjunction with prayer and fasting, under the interpretation that a salvation through Grace and medical treatment are of no conflict.
The church relies on the Authorized Version of the Bible, and practices adult baptism by immersion, fasting and footwashing.
The church is also known for legalism and a male-dominated society. The members of the church frequently greet each other with kisses on the lips; members of the church are often pejoratively referred to as ""kissers"" by others in Oregon City, and in other communities where large concentrations of Followers of Christ are found. According to church members, children raised in the church attend public schools, but do not socialize outside the church once reaching middle-school age.


== Controversy ==
During the latter part of the twentieth century, the church began to attract attention from authorities in the state of Oregon due to an unusually high mortality rate among its children. Larry Lewman, a former medical examiner in the state, alleges that during a ten-year period twenty-five children perished due to the lack of medical intervention—a death rate 26 times higher than among the general population. An investigation by The Oregonian claimed that at least 21 out of 78 minors found to be buried in the church cemetery died of preventable causes, including simple infections which would be easily treated with routine antibiotics. Of the 78 children examined, 38 had died within the first year following birth. High death rates among children have also been noticed among Followers of Christ members in Idaho and Oklahoma. The high death rate among church children attracted national media attention, including coverage of the church by Time magazine, ABC News newsmagazine 20/20, and the PBS program Religion & Ethics Newsweekly.
Prior to 1999, authorities in Oregon were largely powerless to combat these deaths. Like many states, Oregon has laws protecting parents who practice faith healing from prosecution. The laws in Oregon at the time were especially liberal in the protections granted to parents, granting immunity from manslaughter charges to parents whose children perished due to an alleged reliance on faith healing over traditional medicine.  The widespread immunity granted by the state was opposed by many in the medical community, including the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Medical Association. The opposition was also supported by several former church members, including parents whose children had died from causes believed to be preventable; these parents have reported being ostracized from the church as a result of their advocacy.
On the other side of the debate were other faith-healing churches and civil liberties groups, who argued that parents' freedom of religion was paramount, and outweighed the state's interest in protecting children from harm. Christian Science, a religion which also practices spiritual-healing, pushed law-makers to enact religious exemptions to homicide and child neglect laws.In addition, many wished to ensure that the law differentiated between parents who acted in good faith, and parents who were genuinely abusive to their children. The debate in Oregon mirrored other debates concerning faith healing which have occurred throughout the United States, many of which have eliminated religious immunity laws for homicide.
In January 1999, a bill was introduced in the Oregon Legislature to repeal the ""religious beliefs"" defense to charges of manslaughter, homicide, and child abuse. After much debate, a modified version of the law was subsequently passed later that year.
An Alberta, Canada couple who were members of a different church were successfully prosecuted by authorities when their child died under similar circumstances; the law there did not provide the same faith-healing exemptions that were found in Oregon.
In March 2008, controversy was renewed when a 15-month-old church toddler, Ava Worthington, died of pneumonia; the first known death to occur under circumstances potentially covered by the 1999 law. Authorities in Clackamas County, Oregon filed charges of manslaughter against the parents in the case. Just three months later, on June 18, 2008, Ava's 16-year-old uncle, Neil Beagley died from an easily treatable condition (a long-term bladder blockage that forced urea into the bloodstream). In neither case did the families seek medical help. On July 23, 2009, the parents of Ava Worthington were acquitted of manslaughter charges in the death of their daughter, but the father was found guilty of one lesser charge which carries a potential sentence of a year in jail. On February 2, 2010, by a 10–2 jury verdict in Clackamas County, the parents of Neil Beagley were found guilty of criminally negligent homicide, with sentencing scheduled for February 18, 2010. Both were sentenced to 16 months in prison on March 8, 2010. On June 19, 2013, the Oregon Court of Appeals affirmed the Beagleys' convictions, rejecting their claims that their religious beliefs required the state to prove that they knew their son would die, and not merely that they should have known of a substantial and unjustifiable risk that their son would die (the standard for criminal negligence).
In January 2011, HB2721 was introduced into the Oregon Legislature which would remove religious belief as an affirmative defense for homicide. It passed March 3, 2011. The measure was later signed into law June 9, 2011.
In June 2011, Timothy and Rebecca Wyland were convicted of first-degree criminal mistreatment and  sentenced to 90 days in jail for using faith healing instead of seeking medical care for their infant daughter. During early infancy, their daughter developed a hemangioma that became so large that it engulfed her left eye, leaving her on the verge of blindness. She has since improved under court-ordered care.
On September 29, 2011, a Clackamas County jury unanimously found church members Dale and Shannon Hickman guilty of second-degree manslaughter in connection with the September 26, 2009, death of their infant son David, less than nine hours after his birth.  Mrs. Hickman went into labor two months before her due date, and the couple decided she would give birth in her mother's home, instead of a hospital.  When the three pound, seven ounce, infant developed severe health problems shortly after his birth, instead of seeking emergency medical care, Mr. Hickman, according to The Oregonian, ""Responded by holding his newborn son, praying for him and anointing him with olive oil.""  At trial, prosecutors argued that the couple had ample time after the premature birth to get medical assistance.  An expert witness testified that had they done so, the infant would have had a 99 percent chance of survival.  In response to a question at the trial, Mr. Hickman said he did not call 911, ""Because he was praying.""  Mrs. Hickman testified that she did not call for help because her church required her to defer to her husband.  Oregon mandatory sentencing laws call for a minimum prison sentence of six years and three months for this conviction, although, because the Hickmans were indicted before HB 2721 (discussed above) was enacted, their potential sentence could be capped at 18 months imprisonment and a $250,000 fine.  Both Hickmans are 26 years old (in 2011).  They have two other children.
In November, 2013, KATU-TV reopened its coverage of the group after a reporter was tipped off to the recurrence of key family names in area cemeteries, ten of which represented burials within the last two years.


== See also ==
General Assembly and Church of the First Born


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Cameron Stauth (October 15, 2013). In the Name of God: The True Story of the Fight to Save Children from Faith-Healing Homicide. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-03760-2."
Gladys Mitchell,"Gladys Maude Winifred Mitchell (21 April 1901 – 27 July 1983) was an English writer best known for her creation of Mrs Bradley, the heroine of 66 detective novels. She also wrote under the pseudonyms Stephen Hockaby and Malcolm Torrie. Fêted during her life (called ""the Great Gladys"" by Philip Larkin), her work has been largely neglected in the decades since her death.


== Life ==
Gladys Maude Winifred Mitchell was born in Cowley, Oxford on 19 April 1901 to James, a market gardener of Scottish parentage, and Annie. She was educated at Rothschild School, Brentford and The Green School. From 1919 to 1921 she attended Goldsmiths College and University College London.
Upon her graduation, Mitchell became a teacher of history, English and games at St Paul's School, Brentford until 1925. She then taught at St Ann's Senior Girls School, Hanwell until 1939. In 1926 she obtained an external diploma in European History from University College, and she then began to write novels while continuing to teach. In 1941 she joined Brentford School for Girls where she stayed until 1950. After a three-year break from teaching, she took a job at Matthew Arnold School, Staines, where she taught English and history, coached hurdling and wrote the annual school play until her retirement to Corfe Mullen, Dorset in 1961. She continued to write until her death aged 82 on 27 July 1983. Her estate was valued at £48 082.
She was a member of the Middlesex Education Association, the British Olympic Association, the Crime Writers' Association, PEN and the Society of Authors. Her hobbies included architecture and writing poetry. She studied the works of Sigmund Freud and her interest in witchcraft was encouraged by her friend the detective novelist Helen Simpson. Mitchell never married.


== Work ==
Mitchell wrote at least one novel a year throughout her career. Her first novel (Speedy Death, 1929) introduced Beatrice Adela Lestrange Bradley, a polymathic psychoanalyst and author who was featured in a further 65 novels. Her strong views and those of her assistant, Laura Menzies, on social and philosophical issues reflected those of her author; they appear to have been something of a self-portrait of the young Mitchell, reflecting, for good or ill, the standards of the modern, post-war era of the 1920s.
Mitchell was an early member of the Detection Club along with G. K. Chesterton, Agatha Christie and Dorothy L. Sayers and throughout the 1930s was considered to be one of the ""Big Three women detective writers"", but she often challenged and mocked the conventions of the genre – notably in her earliest books, such as the first novel Speedy Death, where there is a particularly surprising twist to the plot, or her parodies of Christie in The Mystery of a Butcher's Shop (1929) and The Saltmarsh Murders (1932). Her plots and settings were unconventional with Freudian psychology, witchcraft (notably in The Devil at Saxon Wall [1935] and The Worsted Viper [1943]) and the supernatural (naiads and Nessie, ghosts and Greek gods) as recurrent themes.
In addition to her 66 Mrs. Bradley novels Mitchell also used the pseudonyms of Stephen Hockaby (for a series of historical novels) and Malcolm Torrie (for a series of detective stories featuring an architect named Timothy Herring) and wrote ten children's books under her own name.
After her death Mitchell's work was neglected although three posthumously published novels sold well in the 1980s. Radio adaptations were made (by Elizabeth Proud) of Speedy Death (6 October 1990) and The Mystery of a Butcher's Shop (11 & 18 December 1991) both with Mary Wimbush as Mrs Bradley and broadcast on BBC Radio 4; both adaptations were very faithful to the original books. A BBC television series, The Mrs Bradley Mysteries (starring Diana Rigg) was produced in 1999; however, the characteristic cackle and crocodilian looks were absent, and the plots and characters were changed. Several of her books were published in large print editions in the mid 1980s.
By the mid 1990s, only one of her novels was in regular print: a Virago Press paperback edition of The Rising of the Moon (1945) – which is still in print. Something of a renaissance began in 2005 with the publication of a collection of hitherto unpublished short stories, Sleuth's Alchemy, by Crippen & Landru. In the same year Minnow Press published a new edition of her rare 1940 novel Brazen Tongue. Also, Rue Morgue Press published new editions of Death at the Opera (1934) and When Last I Died (1941) – this publisher now has a total of nine Mrs Bradley books in print. Minnow Press continued their Mrs Bradley Collectors' Series with the reissue of the scarce 1939 title Printer's Error in 2007, The Worsted Viper in 2009, and Hangman's Curfew in 2010. Of the four Minnow Press titles, only the last two are still in print. More recently, Random House has published nine titles in paperback and as ebooks under their Vintage imprint, Greyladies has published Convent on the Styx (1976) in paperback, and Groaning Spinney (1950) was republished as Murder in the Snow: a Cotswold Christmas Mystery.
Although critical opinion is divided on what is her best work, her strengths and style can be gleaned from the following 16 books: The Saltmarsh Murders (1932), Death at the Opera (1934), The Devil at Saxon Wall (1935), Come Away, Death (1937), Brazen Tongue (1940), When Last I Died (1941), The Rising of the Moon (1945), Death and the Maiden (1947), The Dancing Druids (1948), Tom Brown's Body (1949), Groaning Spinney (1950), The Echoing Strangers (1952), Merlin's Furlong (1953), Dance to Your Daddy (1969), Nest of Vipers (1979), and The Greenstone Griffins (1983). The Gladys Mitchell Tribute Site has reviews of almost all the books in its Bibliography section.


== Bibliography ==


=== as Gladys Mitchell ===


==== Novels ====
Speedy Death, (London: Gollancz, 1929)
The Mystery of a Butcher's Shop, (London: Gollancz, 1929)
The Longer Bodies, (London: Gollancz, 1930)
The Saltmarsh Murders, (London: Gollancz, 1932)
Death at the Opera, (London: Grayson, 1934)
The Devil at Saxon Wall, (London: Grayson, 1935)
Dead Men's Morris, (London: Michael Joseph, 1936)
Come Away, Death, (London: Michael Joseph, 1937)
St Peter's Finger, (London: Michael Joseph, 1938)
Printer's Error, (London: Michael Joseph, 1939)
Brazen Tongue, (London: Michael Joseph, 1940)
Hangman's Curfew, (London: Michael Joseph, 1941)
When Last I Died, (London: Michael Joseph, 1941)
Laurels Are Poison, (London: Michael Joseph, 1942)
The Worsted Viper, (London: Michael Joseph, 1943)
Sunset Over Soho, (London: Michael Joseph, 1943)
My Father Sleeps, (London: Michael Joseph, 1944)
The Rising of the Moon, (London: Michael Joseph, 1945)
Here Comes a Chopper, (London: Michael Joseph, 1946)
Death and the Maiden, (London: Michael Joseph, 1947)
The Dancing Druids, (London: Michael Joseph, 1948)
Tom Brown's Body, (London: Michael Joseph, 1949)
Groaning Spinney, (London: Michael Joseph, 1950)
The Devil's Elbow, (London: Michael Joseph, 1951)
The Echoing Strangers, (London: Michael Joseph, 1952)
Merlin's Furlong, (London: Michael Joseph, 1953)
Faintley Speaking, (London: Michael Joseph, 1954)
Watson's Choice, (London: Michael Joseph, 1955)
Twelve Horses and the Hangman's Noose, (London: Michael Joseph, 1956)
The Twenty-Third Man, (London: Michael Joseph, 1957)
Spotted Hemlock, (London: Michael Joseph, 1958)
The Man Who Grew Tomatoes, (London: Michael Joseph, 1959)
Say It with Flowers, (London: Michael Joseph, 1960)
The Nodding Canaries, (London: Michael Joseph, 1961)
My Bones Will Keep, (London: Michael Joseph, 1962)
Adders on the Heath, (London: Michael Joseph, 1963)
Death of a Delft Blue, (London: Michael Joseph, 1964)
Pageant of Murder, (London: Michael Joseph, 1965)
The Croaking Raven, (London: Michael Joseph, 1966)
Skeleton Island, (London: Michael Joseph, 1967)
Three Quick and Five Dead, (London: Michael Joseph, 1968)
Dance to Your Daddy, (London: Michael Joseph, 1969)
Gory Dew, (London: Michael Joseph, 1970)
Lament for Leto, (London: Michael Joseph, 1971)
A Hearse on May-Day, (London: Michael Joseph, 1972)
The Murder of Busy Lizzie, (London: Michael Joseph, 1973)
A Javelin for Jonah, (London: Michael Joseph, 1974)
Winking at the Brim, (London: Michael Joseph, 1974)
Convent on Styx, (London: Michael Joseph, 1975)
Late, Late in the Evening, (London: Michael Joseph, 1976)
Noonday and Night, (London: Michael Joseph, 1977)
Fault in the Structure, (London: Michael Joseph, 1977)
Wraiths and Changelings, (London: Michael Joseph, 1978)
Mingled with Venom, (London: Michael Joseph, 1978)
Nest of Vipers, (London: Michael Joseph, 1979)
The Mudflats of the Dead, (London: Michael Joseph, 1979)
Uncoffin'd Clay, (London: Michael Joseph, 1980)
The Whispering Knights, (London: Michael Joseph, 1980)
The Death-Cap Dancers, (London: Michael Joseph, 1981)
Lovers, Make Moan, (London: Michael Joseph, 1981)
Here Lies Gloria Mundy, (London: Michael Joseph, 1982)
Death of a Burrowing Mole, (London: Michael Joseph, 1982)
The Greenstone Griffins, (London: Michael Joseph, 1983)
Cold, Lone and Still, (London: Michael Joseph, 1983)
No Winding-Sheet, (London: Michael Joseph, 1984)
The Crozier Pharaohs, (London: Michael Joseph, 1984)


==== Short Story Collection ====
Sleuth's Alchemy, Cases of Mrs. Bradley and Others (Crippen & Landru, 2005). A collection of all but one of Gladys Mitchell's short stories from 1938 to 1956, many previously uncollected; edited and with a comprehensive introduction by Nicholas Fuller: ""The Case of the hundred cats"", ""Daisy Bell"", ""Strangers' Hall"", ""A Light on murder"", ""Rushy Glen"", ""Juniper gammon"", ""Manor Park"", ""A Jar of ginger"", ""The Knife"", ""The Practical joke"", ""Our pageant"", ""The Tree"", ""Sammy"", ""Peach jam"", ""The Plumb-line"", ""The Haunted house"", ""Falling petals"", ""The Price of lead"", ""The Spell"", ""The Bit of garden"", ""The Swimming gala"", ""The Tooth-pick"", ""The Bodkin"", ""The Boxer"", ""The Visitor"", ""The Oversight"", ""The Manuscript"", ""The Fish-pond"", ""The Alibi"", ""The vacuum cleaner"", ""Arsenic in the house""


=== as Malcolm Torrie ===
Mystery novels:

Heavy as Lead, (London: Michael Joseph, 1966)
Late and Cold, (London: Michael Joseph, 1967)
Your Secret Friend, (London: Michael Joseph, 1968)
Churchyard Salad, (London: Michael Joseph, 1969)
Shades of Darkness, (London: Michael Joseph, 1970)
Bismarck Herrings, (London: Michael Joseph, 1971)


=== as Stephen Hockaby ===
Historical adventure novels:

Marsh Hay, (London: Michael Joseph, 1933)
Seven Stars and Orion, (London: Michael Joseph, 1934)
Gabriel's Hold, (London: Michael Joseph, 1935)
Shallow Brown, (London: Michael Joseph, 1936)
Grand Master, (London: Michael Joseph, 1939)


== References =="
Sergeant Major's Row,"The Sergeant Major's Row are heritage-listed former terrace houses and now shops and offices. They are located in a row at 33–41 George Street in the inner city Sydney suburb of The Rocks in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. The row was built in 1881. It is also known as Sergeant Majors Row (terrace) and Major's. The property is owned by Property NSW, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002.


== History ==
This property is part of the land originally granted to Robert Campbell senior by Crown grant under the hand of Sir Richard Bourke, formerly Governor of the Colony in 1834. Robert Campbell's will gave to each of his sons and daughters one sixth of his property.
In 1848, a Deed of Partition was registered giving Arthur Jeffreys (Campbell's son-in-law) and George Campbell the task of selling parcels of property. In 1851, Jeffreys conveyed the allotments 1, 2, and 3 of Campbell's subdivision to Thomas Fisher. Two years later, Fisher without investing capital into the property, conveyed the site to Alfred Mitchell who in 1855 sold the land to Francis Mitchell. In 1878 the property still remained undeveloped. On 25 September 1878, Mitchell transferred the land to Edward Stanley Ebsworth.
Ebsworth commenced erection of five houses to this site in c. 1880 and by December 1881 the Sydney Council noted that five houses were built upon the property. In 1881, the two story, seven roomed dwellings were described as being constructed of brick walls with roofs clad in ""iron"". In 1882, tenants were Joseph O'Connor, Frank Cook and Mary Ann Kendall. The remaining houses were empty. Ebsworth mortgaged the property to the Australian Mutual Provident Society in 1884. In September 1888 the mortgage was discharged and Ebsworth conveyed the dwellings to the Sydney Real Estate Bank Limited (SREB). In April the following year the SREB mortgaged the five dwellings to Charles Edward Pitcher and Edward Lewin Samuel. In 1892, Pitcher and Samuel transferred the mortgage to the Perpetual Trustee Company Ltd.
In December 1900 the Observatory Hill Resumption Act was gazetted and the Perpetual Trustee Company Ltd. released the property to the King and the Minister for Public Works in May 1903. In 1910 the Central City Mission used No. 41 George Street.
From 1969 No. 35 was occupied by Nita McRae, one of the founders of the Rocks Residents' Group and Green Bans activist. Much of the background work to coordinate the residents' action to save The Rocks community took place in this house. A plaque was placed in her memory in 1996.
Tenders were called in the early 1980s for the lease of the buildings for their current use of shops and offices. In June 1982 the Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority (SCRA) issued an invitation to tender for lease and establishment of a medical centre at No. 37-39 George Street.
It is assumed that the buildings were subsequently leased for medical purposes as at the end of 1985, consideration was being given to the ""contraction of the medical practices at the above address [37 and 39 George Street], into 37 George Street"". Openings which had been made in the shared party wall were infilled and the buildings were again separately leased. A Doctors Surgery continues to occupy the ground floor of No. 37 George Street. A separate office operates from the upper floor. The other buildings are currently occupied by various commercial and retail tenants.
The name of the buildings, 'Sergeant Major's Row', appears to have been adopted by SCRA as a reminder for an early term for George Street, though this related more specifically the northern end of the street. In the early 1800s it was also known as ""High Street"", becoming ""George Street"" in 1810 after the then reigning monarch, King George III.
Archaeology notes: Lease to Robert Campbell by 1807. Granted to Robert Campbell, 16 October 1834.
The name given the buildings by SCRA is a reminder of an early term for George Street which was begun as a track for water carriers carrying water from the Tank Stream to the marine encampment and the hospital - its original name was Spring Row. Then it was humorously altered unofficially to Sergeant-Major's Row, then officially to High Street by Governor King and finally to George Street by Governor Macquarie.


== Description ==
Two storey terraced housing. Built By: 1880s.
The row comprises a group of seven two-storeyed late Victorian terrace houses. Nos. 29-31 were built of stone and reflect the ""standard"" terrace type pattern commonly found in Darlinghurst and Paddington, with single span iron lace balcony, arched openings to ground floor and squared lintels to first floor. Half round dormer windows to attics give an added picturesque form. Nos. 33-41 were built of stuccoed brick and are of a larger, more decorative terrace type pattern, having wide balconies supported by centre cast iron columns, iron valences and balustrade.
Style: Victorian Filigree; Storeys: Two; Facade: Stone and Brick; Roof Cladding: Galvanised Iron; Floor Frame: Timber.


=== Condition ===
As at 3 May 2001, Archaeology Assessment Condition: Partly disturbed. Assessment Basis: Floors level with George Street. Stone quarried out at rear.


=== Modifications and dates ===
Late 1960s: All terraces were renovated for continued use as residences.
Early 1980s: The terraces were leased for their current use of shops and offices.


== Heritage listing ==
As at 26 June 2002, Sergeant Major's Row, a grouping of five terrace buildings located at 33-41 George Street and site is of State heritage significance for its historical, aesthetic and scientific values. The site and buildings are also of State heritage significance for their contribution to The Rocks area, which is of State heritage significance in its own right.
Originally constructed as a speculative type development, the terraces have been occupied by a number of occupants and tenants as residences and later as commercial premises which generally reflects the growth and development of The Rocks. They are significant for their association with Robert Campbell, Edward Stanley Ebsworth and Nita McCrae who all had significant impact in the local area.
The buildings are good and intact examples of late Victorian terraces that despite ongoing upgrades and some modification significantly retain their fundamental external form and characteristics, scale and details, internal spatial arrangement and a considerable amount of original and early fabric. They make an important contribution to the streetscape at the northern end of George Street as an intact grouping and representing the more human scale, early residences of The Rocks. The site and buildings provide accessible interpretation opportunities for the general public and tourists in the heart of The Rocks.
Sergeant Major's Row was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 10 May 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
The terraces are historically significant as they are representative the late nineteenth century development in The Rocks. Constructed in 1881 as residences by a local merchant, Edward Stanley Ebsworth, they were intermittently used as boarding houses and then commercial, retail and office spaces from the late 1970s which is reflective of a shift and changing nature, growth and development of the area.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
Sergeant Major's Row is significant for its associations with Robert Campbell, to whom the land was first granted, with Walter Stanley Ebsworth, a prominent merchant and industrialist, and with Nita McRae, a founder of The Rocks Residents' Group and a Green Bans activist.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
The Row is a group of seven terraces in Victorian Filigree style which are very good examples of their type. They make an important contribution to the streetscape at the northern end of George Street. They relate well in scale and style to the pair of 1850s stone terraces at 29-31 George Street. The other buildings in the vicinity which were built early this century as part of The Rocks reconstruction by the Sydney Harbour Trust are larger in scale but sympathetic in materials and style and together with the terraces form a strong visual precinct.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The terraces have generally been occupied by a number of other individuals since construction and businesses from the late 1970s. The terraces have some association with The Rocks Residents' Group and Green Bans group through Nita McCrae who occupied No. 35 George Street during the 1970s. No. 39 was also occupied by the Nature Conservation Council during the 1980s. 37 & 39 also provided medical services to The Rocks community during this period. A Doctors' practice remains at No. 37.
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The terraces clearly demonstrate and retain planning of a late Victorian residence and way of life of that period. The site, which retains the stone cut along its western boundary, that it would appear was quarried at some stage, emphasises and is a reminder of the early form and topography of The Rocks and modifications that were undertaken during its growth and development.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The terraces located at 33-41 George Street are good and intact representative examples of late Victorian terraces that generally retain their fundamental character and detail, however have been adapted which reflects the general shift and growth of The Rocks area.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.
The terraces demonstrate the typical design characteristic of the ""standard"" terrace type that is not rare or uncommon in The Rocks or the wider context with a number of similarly scaled and styled buildings located throughout the inner suburbs of Sydney.


== See also ==

Australian residential architectural styles
29-31 George Street
Merchant's House, 43-45 George Street


== References ==


=== Bibliography ===
Grants index.
Graham Brooks & Associates (2004). Conservation Management Plan 33-41 George St.
Higginbotham, Kass & Walker (1991). The Rocks and Millers Point Archaeological Management Plan.
Sheedy, D. (1976). National Trust Classification Card - Seargent Major's Row Terrace Houses (Part of George Street- Metcalfe Store Group), 29-41 George Street.
Sydney Cove Authority (SCA) (1998). SCA Register 1979-1998.
Sydney Cove Redevelopment Authority (SCRA) (1979). Building Data Sheet AP/03.


=== Attribution ===
 This Wikipedia article was originally based on Sergeant Majors Row (terrace), entry number 1579 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) 2018 under CC-BY 4.0 licence, accessed on 14 October 2018. 


== External links ==

""Sergeant Majors Row Terraces, 29-41 George St, The Rocks, NSW, Australia (Place ID 2128)"". Australian Heritage Database. Australian Government. 21 March 1978.
""New Metcalfe Bond / George Street Precinct, 25-47, 36-88 George St, The Rocks, NSW, Australia (Place ID 2125)"". Australian Heritage Database. Australian Government. 21 March 1978."
1Malaysia Development Berhad,"1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB; Malay: [ˈsatu maˈlajʃa dɛˈvɛlɔpmɛn(t) bərˈɦad]) is an insolvent Malaysian strategic development company, wholly owned by the Minister of Finance (Incorporated).
In 2015, the company became the subject of a major international corruption scandal, with evidence pointing to money laundering, fraud, and theft. A lawsuit filed by United States Department of Justice (DOJ), alleged that at least US$3.5 billion has been stolen from Malaysia's 1MDB state-owned fund. US attorney-general Jeff Sessions had described it in an international conference as ""kleptocracy at its worst"". In September 2020, the alleged amount stolen had been raised to US$4.5 billion and a Malaysian government report listed 1MDB's outstanding debts to be at  US$7.8 billion. The scandal implicated Malaysian prime minister Najib Razak, contributing to the 2018 election loss of his party and his eventual trial and imprisonment.
As of 6 August 2022, in an ongoing effort to fight global kleptocracy, the U.S. Department of Justice recovered and returned a total of US$1.2 billion of 1MDB funds misappropriated within U.S. jurisdiction to the people of Malaysia, joining a list of several countries which have initiated recovery or that have already repatriated smaller recovered amounts.


== History ==

1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) started off as Terengganu Investment Authority (TIA) which was initiated by the  Menteri Besar of Terengganu at the time, Ahmad Said in 2008. TIA was a sovereign wealth fund with an initial fund of RM11 billion (US$3.25 billion in 2008) aimed at ensuring the economic development of Terengganu state. The fund's purpose was to ensure a long-term sustainable development while safeguarding the economic well-being of Terengganu residents. The TIA fund was derived from outstanding royalty income of RM6 billion and funds from bond issued by local and overseas financial markets. In addition, the Federal Government had proposed to provide a guarantee of RM5 billion based on Terengganu's future oil revenues.
On 27 May 2009, Ismee Ismail and Shahrol Azral Ibrahim Halmi signed a deal arranged by AmInvestment Bank Bhd to raise RM5 billion via the issuance of Islamic medium term notes (IMTNs), despite being told not to do so by the Terengganu state government. This exercise was advised by TIA's special advisor, Jho Low. On 29 May 2009, TIA received RM4.385 billion in net proceeds from IMTN from the full value of RM5 billion.
On 31 July 2009, Minister of Finance (Incorporated) (MOFI) took over TIA and amended its name to 1Malaysia Development Bhd (1MDB). This acquisition by MOFI took place four months after Najib Razak became the Prime Minister of Malaysia. In his announcement on 22 July 2009, Najib said the decision to expand TIA into a federal entity was made to enable its benefits to reach a broader spectrum of Malaysians rather than the residents of only one state.
In general, 1MDB investments can be summarized as:

Investment in PetroSaudi Holdings (Cayman) Ltd
Investment in Segregated Portfolio Company (SPC)
Investment in SRC Group
Investment in real estate sector
Investment in the energy sector
On 10 March 2015, Auditor General of Malaysia under the mandate of the Cabinet and the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) was assigned to audit the financial statements of the 1MDB Group and to evaluate whether the financial performance and activities of the 1MDB Group are aligned with the company's original objectives. However, on 4 March 2016, the audit report produced by the Auditor General of Malaysia was classified as Official Secrets Act under the Official Secrets Act 1972 by the National Security Council (Malaysia).
After the victory of Pakatan Harapan in the 14th General Election in Malaysia, the audit report was declassified. The declassification was made on 15 May 2018 at the request of the seventh Prime Minister of Malaysia, Mahathir Mohamad.
On 23 May 2018, the newly appointed Minister of Finance, Lim Guan Eng, appointed PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) to review and perform an audit of 1MDB. This followed revelations by directors of 1MDB that the company was insolvent and unable to repay its debts. On 28 June 2018, the president and chief executive officer, Arul Kanda Kandasamy was sacked for dereliction of duty.
In 2024, firms and liquidators that were linked to the 1MDB corporate scandal were put into Chapter 15 bankruptcy as they are currently looking to recover assets.


== Investments ==


=== PetroSaudi Holdings (Cayman) Ltd ===
On 28 September 2009, 1MDB established a joint venture (JV) with PetroSaudi Holdings (Cayman) Ltd; the company name was 1MDB-PetroSaudi Ltd with a 60:41 ratio where 1MDB held 41% with a cash contribution of US$1 billion while PetroSaudi Holdings contributed with assets of at least US$1.6 billion. There were four different companies registered under the name of PetroSaudi, but the investment proposals submitted to the board of directors of 1MDB failed to state that.
On 29 September 2009 (a day after formation of joint venture), Edward L. Morse submitted an asset valuation report on the same day he was appointed by the 1MDB chief executive officer. The assessment report takes into account assets in oil exploration and production rights in Turkmenistan and Argentina. The assessment was implemented on PetroSaudi International Ltd's assets despite the JV agreement clearly stating that the company owning all the rights and interests of the agreed assets for the joint venture project is PetroSaudi International Cayman, the report said.
Besides that, the JV agreement lacked clauses to guard the interests of the company. Among others, there was an advance of US$700 million in fees to 1MDB-PetroSaudi from PetroSaudi Holdings to be fully repayable on or before 30 September 2009. On 30 September 2009, a total of US$1 billion (RM3.487 billion) was transferred by 1MDB into two separate accounts. The first US$300 million was transferred into joint venture account, and the remaining US$700 million was transferred into another company's account, (Good Star Ltd, a PetroSaudi subsidiary), with the aim of repaying the advance taken by the joint venture company. However, approval by the board of 1MDB was not obtained for the payment of US$700 million into a non-joint-venture account.
In March 2010, about six months after the formation of joint venture of 1MDB-PetroSaudi, 1MDB disposed all the 40% stake (worth US$1 billion) for US$1.2 billion in Murabahah Note. Murabahah Notes are guaranteed by corporate guarantee, PetroSaudi International Ltd. On the other hand, 1MDB made an additional subscription to this Murabahah Notes up to additional US$830 million with partly funded via loans from financial institutions.
On 1 June 2012, 27 months after holding on this Murabahah Notes, 1MDB redeemed all of the Murabahah Notes with a total of US$2.22 billion including profits. This redemption of US$2.22 billion was done via an asset swap arrangement where 1MDB International Holdings Ltd (1MDB-IHL), a 1MDB subsidiary received 49% equity stake in PetroSaudi Oil Services Ltd (PSOSL), a PetroSaudi International Ltd subsidiary. This exercise raised a question in the auditor-general's audit report where the conversion of Murabahah Notes to equity investments in PSOSL was done without any study to identify PSOSL liabilities, the ability to generate funds, and past financial performance. The 1MDB board was aware that PSOSL operates in Venezuelan waters where sanctions have been imposed by the United States and ending drilling contracts, but the decision to invest in PSOSL proceeded despite such conditions. The documents were signed by 1MDB's CEO on 1 June 2012, long before obtaining the approval of 1MDB board on 20 June 2012.
During mid-July 2012, 45 days after the investment in PSOSL equities on 1 June 2012, 1MDB disposed all 49% equity in PSOSL to Bridge Partners International Investment Ltd (Bridge Partners) for a minimum of US$2.2 billion at the suggestion of 1MDB's CEO. The sale was done on 12 September 2012 and Bridge Partners issued six non-interest bearing promissory notes worth US$2.318 billion.
These promissory notes were further used as an investment in Segregated Portfolio Company (SPC).


=== Segregated Portfolio Company (SPC) ===
On 12 September 2012, Brazen Sky Ltd (a subsidiary of 1MDB), entered into an investment management agreement with Bridge Global Absolute Return Fund SPC (Bridge Global SPC) and Bridge Partners Investment Management (Cayman) Ltd. to invest US$2.318 billion funded by the promissory notes from PSOSL sales. The investment involved various portfolio investments in the Segregated Portfolio Company (SPC) of the Cayman Islands. However, the company in charge of this investment, Bridge Global Absolute Return Fund SPC (Bridge Global SPC), was a new month-old company with no fund management licence nor experience in managing large funds.
On 20 May 2013, 1MDB's board of directors redeemed the investment gradually which would improve perceptions of the funds's credibility. As of 20 December 2014, the total redeemed from the SPC fund was US$1.39 billion out of US2.318 billion and the balance of US$939.87 was to be fully redeemed by the end of December. The US$1.39 billion was transferred into Brazen Sky's bank account and then transferred into 1MDB Global Investment Ltd (1MDB-GIL) account. The SPC funds with a booked value of US$2.318 was pledged to Deutsche Bank for a loan amount of US$975 million without the approval of 1MDB's board. From the proceeds of initial redemption and with Deutsche Bank loan, some US$993 million was used for the payment of the Aabar option termination (though originally the settlement agreement was only US$300 million instead of US$993 million). The Aabar option was an option given to Aabar Ltd in exchange of a guarantee of Abu Dhabi's International Petroleum Investment Co (IPIC) to give 1MDB a total of US$3.5 billion in bond issuances via Goldman Sachs. All of these actions raised questions as they were not consistent with the initial objective of bringing the SPC portfolio back to Malaysia.


=== SRC Group ===
1MDB established SRC International Sdn Bhd (SRC) on 7 January 2011. According to the SRC Business Plan for the period of 2011 to 2015, SRC will supply coal for long-term needs of national by the fourth year of operation (in 2014).
SRC obtains funding from government grants in the form of development grants of RM15 million out of RM20 million that were approved by the Economic Planning Unit (EPU) and RM2 billion financing from the Retirement Fund Incorporation (KWAP). Financing amounting of RM2 billion from KWAP was received on 29 August 2011 with a term of financing of 10 years. The loan is guaranteed by the government which includes principal and financing benefits of RM2.902 billion.
On 3 November 2011, SRC (via subsidiary company SRC International (Malaysia) Limited, SRCI) establish a joint venture with Aabar Investments PJS (Aabar) with the name of Aabar-SRC Strategic Resources Limited (ASRC). The initial paid-up capital was US$120 million with each party contribute US$60 million.
The board of directors of SRCI approved a US$45.50 million investment in the coal industry at Mongolia but this investment was questioned as this investment was done without any evidence showing any feasibility studies done on the status of the project. The mentioned project was undertaken by the joint venture of ASRC with the Gobi Coal & Energy Limited (GCE) company.
SRC also invested in PT ABM Investama TBK, that operates in the energy resources, energy services, and energy infrastructure sectors in Indonesia up to US$120 million (RM366.68 million) through published share prices listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange.
During the meeting on 14 February 2012, CEO of SRC reported an estimated profit on the investment amounting to US$4 million.
On 15 February 2012, SRC's shareholding by 1MDB was transferred to the Ministry of Finance Incorporation (MOFI) by way of acquisition of shares through interim dividend-in-specie payments. The transfer of SRC shares has reduced the operating losses of the 1MDB Group from RM25 million to RM16.2 million, lowering the gearing ratio of 1MDB from 12 times to 9.5 times and reducing the government's total guarantee of RM2.902 billion to the 1MDB Group.


=== Real estate ===
1MDB invested into real estate market with the aim of diversification and aim to generate long-term return on investment. From 2010 until September 2015, 1MDB have acquired five different property assets with the acquisition amounting to RM2.111 billion. The land are:-

Tun Razak Exchange (TRX) project land
Bandar Malaysia project land
land in Air Itam, Penang
land in Alor Gajah, Melaka
land in Pulau Indah, Selangor


=== Tun Razak Exchange ===

On 21 May 2010, it was reported that 1MDB will jointly develop the Tun Razak Exchange project at a currently vacant piece of land covering 34.4 hectares in the city of Kuala Lumpur with Mubadala Development Company. The Tun Razak Exchange was launched on 30 July 2012 by Najib Razak.  During his speech on Tenth Malaysia Plan, Najib identified the KL International Financial District (KLIFD) and Bandar Malaysia projects as two of many public-private partnership projects which will help drive the nation's transformation agenda.
Tun Razak Exchange (TRX) project land was acquired with the price of RM302.8 million. A joint venture agreement between 1MDB and Aabar Investments PJS (Aabar) was signed on 12 March 2013. However, the development of the TRX project in collaboration with Aabar was not realized and impacted on the rest of the project.
Up to September 2015, five plots of lands of TRX were sold at RM1.358 billion in fund raising efforts for the 1MDB Group while remaining 11 plots of land plan to sell for RM2.592 billion. Besides that, 1MDB Group also construct a building in a joint venture with Mulia Group, namely Exchange 106 (formerly TRX Signature Tower) to be leased to an international financial services institution for 15 years from 2019 to 2033 with an estimated return of RM537.38 million.
In order to fund the TRX project infrastructure development, 1MDB subsidiary, 1MDB Real Estate Sdn Bhd (1MDB RE, but now known as TRX City Sdn Bhd) relies entirely on the sale of land plots.  Besides that, 1MDB also created a special purpose vehicle (SPV) raised about Rm229.50 million in August 2015 for fund raising. The TRX project is expected to face negative cash flows as the project receipts are insufficient to cover infrastructure and construction costs and worse still some money from the plots sales, i.e. RM1.095 billion and SPV fund has been flow back to 1MDB instead of using it to finance the TRX project development cost.


=== Bandar Malaysia ===

Bandar Malaysia is a 26-years long run project. It was acquired by 1MDB with the cost of RM368.72 million with additional cost of RM2.717 billion (partly funded by Government for RM1.117 billion) for the reallocation of the current Sungai Besi Airport which act as Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) airbase to 8 new locations, the biggest in Sendayan, Negeri Sembilan. However, 1MDB has used part of the allocation (RM288 million) from Government allocation to pay 1MDB debt and not used accordingly to the original purpose of the allocation.
On 13 May 2010, 1MDB as part of a consortium of companies, will jointly undertake redevelopment project of Sungai Besi Airport at Sungai Besi, an old international airport, which is now the base for the Royal Malaysian Air Force into a GDV of RM150 billion Bandar Malaysia. The site covers 486 acres and is planned to be developed into an Islamic financial centre and will include Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) as a partner. About the same time, 1MDB and QIA had signed an MOU to assess the viability of energy and real estate investments. In the MOU, QIA also proposed to invest US$5bil.
The Sungai Airport relocation phase should be completed by 2016 while the whole of Bandar Malaysia to be completed by 2040. Perbadanan Perwira Harta Malaysia (PPHM), a subsidiary of Armed Forces Fund Board Malaysia (or also known as Lembaga Tabung Angkatan Tentera (LTAT)) has been appointed as the main contractor for the RMAF base relocation project. As of August 2015, five out of eight supposed relocation sites have been late. The reasoning was a delay in submission of the area, suspension of approvals from local authorities, delays in consumer authentication, weather conditions, and flash floods in November and December 2014.
Besides that, the arrears amounting to RM396.42 million to PPHM until September 2015 also affected the progress of the construction site. This is because a total of RM1.926 billion (51.3%) of loans and sukuk amounting to RM3.75 billion was raised which was supposed to be used for financing both the reallocation of Sungai Besi Airport and the development of Bandar Malaysia was transferred back to 1MDB.
In line with the 1MDB Group rationalization plan, on 31 December 2015, 1MDB announced the sale of 60% equity in Bandar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. to the consortium of Iskandar Waterfront Holdings (IWH) and China Railway Engineering Corporation(CREC) with a 60:40 ratio. The IWH-CREC Consortium has valued 100 percent of Bandar Malaysia's land at RM12.35 billion where the value of 60% of the land is RM7.41 billion. This transaction is expected to be completed by June 2016. However the deal collapsed on 3 May 2017 due to failure to meet payment obligations, announced by Ministry of Finance of Malaysia (who owned 1MDB).


=== Air Itam land ===
Air Itam's land was acquired with the main development of affordable housing in Penang. About 85.7% of land already owned by 1MDB through the acquisition of two companies, Gerak Indera and Farlim Properties (FPSB) with a total price of RM1.056 billion (and related expenses of RM15.25 million). However, the remaining 14.3% ownership of the land has not yet to be finalized. Development of the land is also difficult to implement as full support of the State Government is not obtained and the problem of land occupied by almost 2,000 squatters are still unsolved.


=== Pulau Indah land ===
Pulau Indahland was purchase under the consideration of intention to expand the energy sector. The land was purchase at a price of RM344.24 from Tadmax Power Sdn Bhd with a land size of 318.41 acres. Initially, the land was supposed to be used for the development of Project 3B (a power plant development) but the project eventually implemented in Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan due to the land is not suitable for the development of power plant. In July 2015, the land up for sale from 1MDB as part of the rationalization plan but until today the land yet to be sold to any party.


=== Energy sector ===
In the early stage of 1MDB formation in 2009, 1MDB has embarked on a move in energy sector investment through joint venture with China and Qatar in:-

Aluminium smelting in Sarawak that uses energy sources from Bakun Hydroelectric
Investment in GDF Suez SA equities (a French multinational electric utility company)
Construction proposals re-gasification and gas-based power plant
However, the initial investment fell off due to lack of energy resources and also the government policy that did not allow any other party other than Petronas to supply gas to Independent Power Producer (IPP).
On 11 January 2010, 1MDB signed a co-operation framework agreement with the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC), with the intention of undertaking various energy-based projects in the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) and subsequently become major investors in SCORE.
On 18 January 2010, 1MDB signed a co-operation agreement with Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company (also known as Masdar) to explore clean technology projects and investments, including the possibility of building Malaysia's first carbon-neutral city.
In November 2015, the company agreed to sell its energy assets, worth around $2.3 billion, to China General Nuclear Power Group and its subsidiaries.


== Corporate structure ==
1MDB has a three-tier check-and-balance system comprising a board of advisors, a board of directors and a senior management team. The board of advisors is chaired by Najib Razak himself. From 2010 until 2013, the board of advisors included the CEO of LVMH, Bernard Arnault.

In early March 2015, with public discontent growing at the perceived lack of financial transparency at 1MDB, Najib, who is also the chairman of 1MDB's board of advisors, ordered the Auditor General of Malaysia to carry out an audit of 1MDB. However, on completion of the audit, the auditor general's final report was classified as an Official Secret for only the eyes of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) tasked to investigate improprieties at 1MDB.
It was later found that 1MDB has only one employee since the beginning of 2018 - CEO Arul Kanda, and he was on ""garden leave"" until the end of his contract in June 2018.


== Scandal ==

The involvement of 1MDB in the multi-billion ringgit Tun Razak Exchange development project drew criticism from the opposition within a year of commencement. Opposition leader and Member of Parliament of Permatang Pauh, Anwar Ibrahim, questioned the credentials of the company. He informed Parliament that according to the records held by the companies commission, 1MDB ""had no business address and no appointed auditor."" Anwar further questioned the then-current Prime Minister, Najib Razak, regarding his role in getting 1MDB involved in the Tun Razak Exchange project.
1MDB's RM425 million (US$140m) profit between 25 September 2009 and 31 March 2010 raised questions about the lack of transparency of 1MDB's accounting. Tony Pua, DAP Member of Parliament for Petaling Jaya Utara questioned former Prime Minister Najib Razak, who was also 1MDB's advisory board chairman, as to whether the figures were the result of asset injections into 1MDB by the government, such as the transfer of land rights to the company.
During the October 2010 parliamentary session, 1MDB explained that its accounts had been fully audited and signed by KPMG, and closed as of 31 March 2010. Deloitte was involved in the valuation and analysis of the portfolio, while Ernst & Young provided tax advice for 1MDB. The company also informed that it had lodged the necessary information, including providing a registered address, with the Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM) as required by the law. The registration information was made available on the company's website, www.1mdb.com.my.
During 2013, 1MDB was in the spotlight again when it applied for a six-month extension for the publication of its annual report that was supposed to be filed with the Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM) by 30 September 2013. In the meantime, the change of auditors three times in the 4 years since its inception in 2009 was widely considered suspicious.
By mid-2015, with 1MDB's accumulated debts totalling RM42 billion (US$12bn), bonds issued by the fund were downgraded to junk status by the major rating agencies such as Standard & Poor's and Fitch Ratings. The Malaysian cabinet rejected a RM3 billion ($US1 billion) cash injection, narrowing 1MDB's options to repay its debts on time.
In 2015, allegations were made in several newspapers, including The Wall Street Journal, mentioned that the 1MDB organisation had been used to steal state funds for transfer into the accounts of former Prime Minister Najib Razak, and people associated with him such as Jho Low.
In August 2015, the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC) had confirmed that no funds from 1MDB were transferred to the Prime Minister's private accounts as alleged by The Wall Street Journal. Following, 1MDB's president and group executive director (CEO), Arul Kanda, appeared in a local TV programme to clarify issues and allegations against 1MDB and also appeared in an interviewed with BFM 89.9 with host Ibrahim Sani and mentioned that 1MDB has been cleared of any and all wrongdoing by the Malaysian Attorney General.
In media interviews in September 2015, 1MDB said some media reports concerning the company appear to be politically motivated. Its president and group executive director, Arul Kanda, also clarified that none of the company's accounts in Singapore have been frozen, rebutting news reports on the matter. The company has also dismissed claims of wrongdoing.
In February 2016, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) of the United States began probing the connection between a regional top executive of global investment bank Goldman Sachs with former Prime Minister Najib Razak and the nature of the former's involvement in multibillion-dollar deals with 1MDB. Similar probes have also taken place or are currently undergoing in the United Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong and Singapore into banks that facilitated transactions for 1MDB.
In May 2016, the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of the Malaysian Parliament; consisting of several members of the parliament from both the ruling party and the opposition laid the blame for the troubles of 1MDB on the board of the troubled state fund and its former chief, saying that the board had failed to carry out its responsibilities.
In May 2018, after the formation of the new Cabinet following Pakatan Harapan's victory in the General Elections, Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng has ordered the appointment of PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) to conduct a special position audit and review of 1MDB.
On 28 July 2020, the High Court convicted former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Najib Razak on all seven counts of abuse of power, money laundering and criminal breach of trust, becoming the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to be convicted of corruption, and was sentenced to 12 years imprisonment and fined RM210 million.
On 7 February 2021, the British National Crime Agency served a warrant against the London law firm Clyde & Co on behalf of the United States Department of Justice seeking the recovery of US$330 million (£243m). These funds are reportedly held in a bank account at a NatWest branch in London. The Department of Justice has alleged that the funds are what remains of the proceeds of the first phase of the 1MDB fraud, which allegedly misappropriated US$1 billion of 1MDB funds.
On 9 February 2021, the Malaysian Government filed a lawsuit against Jho Low's former associates and former senior 1MBD officials Jasmine Loo and Casey Tang, seeking the recovery of RM 9.3 million in tax arrears. The two fugitives are wanted in Malaysia by authorities for investigations into the 1MDB fraud.
On 8 April 2022, former Goldman Sachs banker Roger Ng was convicted by a US jury of corruption charges related to his role in helping loot hundreds of millions of dollars from Malaysia's 1MDB development fund.
On 23 August 2022, Najib began serving a 12-year sentence in Kajang Prison for his role in the 1MDB scandal.
During an investigation into the 1MDB scandal, the then UAE crown prince, Mohammed Bin Zayed was asked to donate money by Najib.


== Legal Actions and Recovery Efforts ==
In December 2024, 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) initiated a legal claim against Amicorp Group for $1 billion, alleging the company's involvement in fraudulent activities related to the misappropriation of funds from the state investment fund.


=== Key Details of the Legal Claim ===
Allegations: 1MDB accuses Amicorp Group of facilitating the creation and management of shell companies that were used to divert funds from the investment fund.
The lawsuit is part of Malaysia's broader efforts to recover assets lost in the extensive 1MDB scandal, which has drawn international attention and scrutiny.
In response to the lawsuit, Amicorp Group announced its intention to ""vigorously dispute"" the claims, asserting that it has consistently acted in accordance with applicable laws and regulations.


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Wright, Tom; Hope, Bradley (2018). Billion Dollar Whale: The Man Who Fooled Wall Street, Hollywood, and the World. New York: Hachette. ISBN 9780316436502.


== External links ==
Official website (archived)"
Justo Garrán Moso,"Justo Pastor Román Garrán Moso (1867–1942) was a Spanish Catholic lawyer, publisher and politician, related to Valladolid and Navarre. He owned and managed a local vallisoletano newspaper, Diario Regional (1908–1926). In terms of ideology he was closest to Traditionalism. In terms of politics Garrán approached various right-wing currents, in-between maurismo, Integrism, corporativist Christian Democracy, primoderiverismo and Francoism, yet he was most associated with Carlism. His career climaxed during two terms in the Cortes (1919–1920, 1923); he was also member of the primoderiverista quasi-parliament, Asamblea Nacional Consultiva (1928–1930). He served in the Navarrese self-government, Diputación Foral (1928–1930), and was member of the republican Tribunal de Garantías Constitucionales (1933–1936). Garrán was also the author of few theoretical treaties, dedicated to Church-state relations and to separate Basque-Navarrese legal establishments.


== Family and youth ==

The Garráns have been for generations related to Valladolid. Justo's great-grandfather, Nemesio Garrán Martínez, was regidor of the city, where he represented ""artes y oficios""; in the Napoleonic period he voiced against resistance and advocated loyalty to “rey D. José Napoleon I"". Justo's grandfather, Esteban Garrán Vitores (1797 -1865), was ""propietario fabricante de sombreros"" and in the 1830s also served as regidor. Justo's father, Mauricio Garrán Román (1827–1898), graduated as engineer; initially posted to Tarragona, he briefly worked as jefe of Obras Públicas in Pamplona and Burgos, until in the mid-1860s he assumed the same role in Barcelona. For some 10 years he was heavily involved in development of its harbor infrastructure and until today he is considered one of key people in its history. In the mid-1880s he moved to Ministerio de Ultramar and then Ministerio de Fomento, in the Caminos, Canales y Puertos section; he also published some works on engineering.
During his service in Navarre, Garrán Román married Josefa María Micaela Moso Navarlaz (1831–1921) from Olite. Her ancestors belonged to hidalguia related to Tafalla; the Navarlaz owned more land than the Moso. Her father, Juan Moso Villanueva, “tesorero de rentas”, acquired prestigious status when following death of her mother he remarried with descendant to Conde de Espoz y Mina. Mauricio Garrán Román and Micaela Moso Navarlaz will have 4 children; apart from Justo also Mauricio, María and Josefa. In line with professional assignments of Mauricio the family soon moved to Barcelona, where the young Justo spent his childhood and adolescence; he obtained bachillerato in Ciudad Condal, before they moved to Madrid. In the mid-1880s he enrolled in law at Universidad Central and was an excellent student. Garrán Moso graduated in 1891, with his thesis titled La división de poderes. El poder moderador. The same year he was admitted to Colegio de Abogados de Madrid. He was initially employed in the law firm of Germán Gamazo (in some sources ""despacho Maura-Gamazo"") before returning to Valladolid to open his own office.

In 1900 Justo Garrán married a Pamplonesa, Catalina Moso Subiza (1870-1925). Both were fairly closely related as they had the same grandfather, Juan Moso Villanueva; Justo was his descendant from the first marriage, and Catalina from the second one. Her father, II. Conde de Espoz y Mina, was a prestigious Navarrese aristocrat and served as diputado foral in the mid-1870s. The couple settled in Valladolid, where Justo practiced and owned urban real estates, inherited from his father, though from his maternal ancestors he inherited also some rural estate in Olite. Justo and Catalina had 3 children, born between 1901 and 1912: Mauricio, María and José Garrán Moso. Both sons engaged in Carlism and served as requetés during the civil war. José became a well-known Navarrese politician of early Francoism; he served as alcalde of Pamplona (1940–1941) and FET leader and civil governor of Biscay (1941–1942). None of Justo's grandchildren from Garrán Arraiza, Huarte Garrán and Garrán Sagarra families became a public figure.


== Early public engagements (until 1919) ==

Garrán's ascendants were associated with Liberalism. His paternal grandfather commanded liberal militia during the First Carlist War, while his father was “un alfonsino declarado”; his maternal grandfather was related to the iconic liberal Espoz y Mina family. However, the young Justo did not follow suit. Already during his academic period he co-signed letters which protested alleged anti-religious governmental policy and were published in the Integrist (1885) or Catholic (1888) papers. Following death of his father, Garrán burnt his liberal books. In the 1890s he engaged in local Catholic organisations and emerged as their prominent member; in 1901 in name of Unión de Católicos de Valladolid he was signing various declarations. In the 1903 elections he ran for the Cortes as the Unión de Católicos candidate; he lost. In 1905 an Integrist newspaper claimed he would run again, this time as a Carlist candidate; it is not clear whether he lost or withdrew.
In the early 1900s Garrán engaged in a local daily flavored with Integrism, El Porvenir; at least since 1905 he was member of its “sociedad editora” and at least since 1906 he was its director. However, due to unspecified conflict within board he stepped down in 1907. In 1908 and with his own money he set up a new daily, Diario Regional. It adhered to intransigent Catholic line and formed part of so-called “buena prensa”; according to contemporary scholar it advanced clericalism. Diario soon became a popular Valladolid newspaper; with the circulation of 5,000 it was second only to its main competitor, El Norte de Castilla, owned by a liberal political Santiago Alba. Garrán did not manage his newspaper on the commercial basis; he envisaged it as part of a religious mission, carefully vetted adverts in terms of morality and covered periodic debts with his own money. It is not clear whether Diario supported any specific political current. Apparently some readers associated it with Traditionalism; in 1910 the Carlist jefé regional thought it necessary to declare Diario Regional an “enemigo nuestro”, called all Carlists to stop reading it and Carlist newspapers to stop reprinting its articles.

Having turned 40 Garrán was already a local prestigious vallisoletano figure. Since 1900 he was related to the local Universidad Literaria de Valladolid, first in Claustro de Doctores but in 1914 he was nominated catedrático numerario de derecho mercantil. He was in executive of numerous charity initiatives (like Patronado de Niños Desamparados de Valladolid), lay Catholic organisations (he served as secretary of Apostolado de Oración in Valladolid) and other associations (e.g. he remained active in the local branch of Liga Anti-duelista). As owner of numerous plots in the city, since 1907 he served also as vicepresidente of Asociación de Propietarios de Fincas Urbanas; in 1915 he entered the board of Banco Castellano. In the early 1910s he co-founded and animated the local branch of Acción Social Popular, though it was only in 1916 that he entered its Junta directiva. In 1918 he purchased El Porvenir and merged it with Diario Regional.


== Cortes deputy (1919-1923) ==

During the 1919 general elections Garrán fielded his candidature for Congress of Deputies, yet he was not formally associated with any political grouping. Some papers referred to him as to a “maurista”, member of a splinter right-wing faction of the decomposing Conservative Party, led by Antonio Maura. Others presented him as a candidate “de Acción Social Católica”. However, he was most frequently presented as “católico independiente” or simply as a Catholic politician. Garrán fared far worse than the maurista candidate Julio Pimentel and the liberal one Santiago Alba, but he narrowly managed to defeat another liberal competitor, Antonio Royo Villanova; he gathered 8.907 votes out of 22.491 votes in total. His tenure lasted slightly longer than a year, as the chamber was dissolved in 1920. During this period he barely made himself known, not a single time mentioned in the press.
Prior to the 1920 elections Garrán was expected to renew his bid from Valladolid, though according to some titles as “católico regionalista” he would rather run for the senate. Eventually he did not compete for the lower chamber, while it is not clear whether he took part in behind-the-scenes negotiations about the upper one. In the early 1920s he engaged in various initiatives calibrated as efforts to defuse social conflict by means of Christian teaching. He lectured in Casa Social Católica, spoke at “mitin social popular”, delivered address at the rally of ACNDP in Madrid. In 1922 he was among co-founders of Partido Social Popular, yet he did not assume any formal role in the party. However, according to some scholars in the early 1920s he rather moved from nascent Christian Democratic format to corporativismo. In 1923 he published Apuntes histórico críticos sobre las regalías de la corona, a treaty on relations between the state and the Church; the message was that the 1851 concordat was outdated and a new one was needed.

In the last general elections held during the restoration era, in 1923, Garrán again appeared as “católico independente”, though some thought him ""afín a mauristas"". This time he decided to compete not in Valladolid, but in the Navarrese Tafalla, the electoral district which included his native Olite. His candidature was floated by the local Integrist politician José Sánchez Marco, and got endorsed by the Integrists. He ran under the ""Dios, Patria y Fueros"" motto and declared himself defender of Navarrese foralism. Initially he was pitted against a Carlist, Esteban Martínez-Velez; eventually the latter admitted that Garrán was “natural del país” and “católico-fuerista”, and withdrew in his favor. Also the conservative datista candidate Conde del Vado withdrew in favor of Garran. Eventually he competed against a liberal garciaprietista candidate Pedro Arza Uriz and emerged decisively victorious, having gathered 5.800 votes. This time his tenure in the Cortes was even shorter; he took the oath in May, but already in September the Primo de Rivera coup terminated the period of liberal democracy, resulting in dissolution of the parliament.


== Primoderiverista (1923-1931) ==

Garrán with no reservations voiced in support of the dictatorship. In 1924 he was among co-founders of the Valladolid branch of Unión Patriótica (UP), the primoderiverista quasi-party. He took part in numerous local propaganda rallies which backed the Directorio, and as owner of Diario Regional he unequivocally promoted the new regime. However, since he kept running the newspaper as part of an apostolic pursuit, it was generating increasing losses that Garrán found more and more difficult to absorb. Eventually, following 18 years he withdrew from the project. In 1926 (some sources claim that in 1927) he sold the business to a newly set company, Diario Regional S.A.; its ownership was vastly dispersed among numerous members of local bourgeoisie; he retained the largest share of 4.8%.
In the mid-1920s Garrán renewed his relations with Navarre. In 1924 he published an article which advocated a Navarrese UP policy as not only maintenance of separate local establishments, but also restoration of the lost ones and creating new bodies; he called for a corporative regional parliament named Junta General del Reino. Present-day scholar considers the project “en la órbita del foralismo tradicionalista” and notes that it surely must have clashed with centralizing vision of the Directorio, which led to conflicts between Madrid and Pamplona over the new Estatuto Municipal and so-called cupo. However, this did not lead to deterioration of Garrán's position within the regime structures. The Navarrese UP branch launched his candidature for Diputación Foral, the local self-government, at the time its members appointed by the Ministry of Interior. He received support from 28 local ayuntamientos and in 1928 he was nominated as representative of the Tafalla merindad. His first step in the office was wiring the message of support to Primo. The same year the Diputación delegated him to Asamblea Nacional Consultiva, the quasi-parliament set by the regime.

Though he continued with Valladolid-related roles in Asociación de Propietarios de Fincas Urbanas and Banco Castellano, in the late 1920s Garrán got increasingly engaged also in the Navarrese business. In 1929 he ascended to presidency of Federación Católico-Social de Navarra (FCSN), a powerful regional agricultural organisation, controlled by mid-size and large terratenientes; it grouped 99 Sindicatos Agrícolas or Cajas Rurales and had 13,291 members. He also lobbied for setup of a landholders’ organization, which would materialize in early 1931 as Asociación de Propietarios Terratenientes de Navarra, and entered the executive of Sociedad de Socorros Mutuos ""La Conciliación"". The fall of Primo marked a turn for the worse; in 1930 he lost the seat both in Diputación and in Asamblea; local press criticised Garrán for his support for the dictatorship. His presidency in FCSN expired either in 1930 or in 1931. In anticipation of forthcoming general elections, in February 1931 he was listed as one of prospective Pamplonese candidates (as “católico independiente”) to the Cortes.


== Carlist (1931-1936) ==

In the newly established Second Republic initially Garrán was busy engaged against the secular governmental policy. In 1931 he signed numerous protest letters, either on his own behalf – e.g. in relation to would-be expulsion of religious orders, or in name of La Conciliación; the same year he joined Asociación Defensora de Religiosos Vasco-Navarros. At the time a plan for a Basque-Navarrese autonomous region was widely discussed. Its first version was drafted by Socieded de Estudios Vascos, the organisation where he hold membership; Garrán supported it and its modified version, named ""Estatuto de Estella"". However, once the statute has been rejected by the republican Cortes and appointed comisiones gestoras came out with a new draft, he firmly spoke against it; in his view this ""estatuto nacionalista"" promoted separatism and stripped the would-be autonomy of defensive measures versus the Madrid-advanced secularization; in 1932 Navarre opted out of the scheme.
In the early 1930s Garrán neared Carlism. In May 1932 he took part in a Valladolid meeting, which formally set up a regional branch of the united Carlist organisation, Comunión Tradicionalista. Later he presided over Carlist rallies in the city, e.g. in the local theatre or opening new premises. In 1933 he entered Consejo de Administración of Editorial Tradicionalista S.A., the Carlist publishing house. The same year Junta Regional Tradicionalista de Pamplona nominated him as candidate to Tribunal de Garantías Constitucionales, where he was elected from Navarre. In 1934 he gave lectures on Carlist doctrine, printed in the party newspaper El Pensamiento Navarro, served as presidente honorario  of Centro Tradicionalista in Valladolid, and took part in a broadly-designed scheme of Traditionalist lectures across the country; he was assigned to a section dedicated to “orientación general”. However, according to some scholars he merely “se integró informalmente en el tradicionalismo”; some maintain that Garrán “no se declaró nunca carlista”, and some list him either among the Integrists or as part of generic right.

In 1935 Garrán published in Pamplona a 300-page work, titled El Sistema Foral de Navarra y Provincias Vascongadas. It was a historiographic and juridical treaty on separate Basque-Navarrese legal establishments. Tailored as a response to Basque nationalist designs, stained by “los principios radicales y marxistas”, it advanced the vision of two separate paths. In case of Vasconia, Garrán advocated Junta General and Diputacion Foral for every province and the regional Consejo Vascongado, with sort of auxiliary role and minor legislative powers; the proposal was entirely incompatible with the project of Basque autonomy, at the time processed by the parliament. In case of Navarre, Garrán recommended re-establishment of Consejo Foral Administrativo as the regional executive. By scholars the scheme is described as “en la órbita del tradicionalismo”. The author called all Basques and Carlists to co-operate to bring the scheme to life. The work barely made an impact; though noticed in Navarrese papers, it was ignored among the Basque nationalists and the Madrid legislators.


== Last years (1936 and afterwards) ==

During the July Coup Garrán resided in Valladolid, the city easily seized by the rebels. According to his daughter, during the mayhem that followed he sheltered numerous left-wingers in his house. In August 1936 Junta Central Carlista de Guerra de Navarra, the regional wartime Carlist executive, nominated him to Comisión para la Reintegración Foral. The task of this body was to work out the scheme of Basque-Navarrese status in the new Spain, yet there is no further information either on its works or on Garrán's role. In February 1937 general Dávila nominated him president of Tribunal Tutelar de Menores de Pamplona, a Navarrese corrective institution for minors; he would hold this position until death. In August 1937 a “Justo Garrán y Moso” was officially listed as alférez provisional. There is no further information on his public activities, either in politics or in business, except few isolated press notes on his taking part in Carlism-flavored cultural events.
In 1939 Garrán published a book, Sofismas y Razones. Del ateísmo legal a la restauración católica. The 280-page pamphlet, approved by ecclesiastic censhorship, was continuation of his 1923 work, Apuntes histórico críticos sobre las regalías de la corona, though this time the author focused mostly on culture and education in relations between the state and the Church. Formally fully aligned with propaganda of the emerging Francoist regime, the book contained numerous references to “glorioso Movimiento Nacional” and “el illustre Caudillo”. In terms of content, it was a call to do away with the 19th-century concordat and with all the secular republican legislation and to “reanudar la observancia de las festividades religiosas, dignificar el matrimonio cristiano y sanear con toda eficacia la enseñanza”. In terms of detailed solutions Garrán refrained from any suggestions, though the chapter La solución futura advanced a vision of friendly partnership between the state and the Church. In Falangist press the work was greeted with a lukewarm welcome as well-researched, but generally outdated.

At the turn of the decades Garrán withdrew into privacy, and it was his son José who briefly emerged as holder of high administrative positions in Navarre and Biscay. Justo limited himself to publishing few pieces in a Carlist periodical La Avalancha; he was last recorded in public discourse in 1941, as the author of an article on so-called ley paccionada, a Navarre-related regulation introduced 100 years earlier. Until death he presided over few local Catholic organisations. Garrán's passing away was not acknowledged in nationwide press; local Pamplona and Valladolid titles published rather brief obituary articles. Later his name went into almost total oblivion; except a large 1957 article in Diario Regional, which hailed Garrán as the founder of the daily, he disappeared from public discourse. Today his pamphlets might appear in bibliographic listings in works on fuerismo or state-Church relations; he earned very brief biographical pieces in few online encyclopedias and in one historiographic dictionary.


== See also ==
Traditionalism
Carlism
Integrism


== Footnotes ==


== Further reading ==
Jesus M. Fuente Langas, Los procesos electorales de 1923 en Navarra, [in:] Príncipe de Viana 15 (1993), pp. 445–456
Fernando Mikelarena Peña, Las posturas de la derecha tradicionalista y conservadora Navarra entre 1929 y 1940 en relación con la reintegración foral, [in:] Historia Constitucional 22 (2021), pp. 395–436
Pablo Pérez López, Católicos, política e información. Diario Regional de Valladolid, 1931-1980 [PhD thesis Universidad de Valladolid], Valladolid 1992
Pablo Pérez López, Católicos, política e información. Diario Regional de Valladolid, 1931-1980, Valladolid 1994, ISBN 9788477624127
Guillermo A. Pérez Sánchez, Pablo Pérez López, Ricardo M. Martin de la Guardia, Juan A. Cano García, Parlamentarios vallisoletanos en la segunda Restauración (1901-1923), [in:] Investigaciones históricas: Época moderna y contemporánea 15 (1995), pp. 81–95


== External links ==
Garrán at Real Academia de la Historia service
Garrán at Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia service
Garrán at Gran Enciclopedia Navarra service
Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda on YouTube"
NcRNA therapy,"A majority of the human genome is made up  of non-protein coding DNA. It infers that such sequences are not commonly employed to encode for a protein. However, even though these regions do not code for protein, they have other functions and carry necessary regulatory information.They can be classified based on the size of the ncRNA. Small noncoding RNA is usually categorized as being under 200 bp in length, whereas long noncoding RNA is greater than 200bp. In addition, they can be categorized by their function within the cell; Infrastructural and Regulatory ncRNAs. Infrastructural ncRNAs seem to have a housekeeping role in translation and splicing and include species such as rRNA, tRNA, snRNA.Regulatory ncRNAs are involved in the modification of other RNAs.


== RNA Classification ==


=== Long non-coding RNA ===
Long non-coding RNA (LncRNA) are a type of RNA which is usually defined as transcripts which are greater than 200 base-pairs in length and not translated into proteins. This limitation distinguishes lncRNA from small non-coding RNAs which encompasses microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), and other short RNAs.  Long non-coding RNAs include lincRNAs, intronic ncRNAs, circular and linear ncRNA.


==== Long intergenic Non-coding RNA ====
Long intergenic Non-coding RNA (LincRNA) is defined as RNA transcripts that are longer than 200 nucleotides.  These RNAs must not have open reading frames that encode proteins. The term “intergenic” refers to the identification of these transcripts from regions of the genome that do not contain protein-encoding genes.  LncRNAs also contain promoter - or enhancer-associated RNAs that are gene proximal and can be either in the sense or antisense orientation.


==== Circular RNA ====
Circular RNA (CircRNA) are a novel class of endogenous noncoding RNAs and are characterized by their covalently closed loop structures. This class of ncRNA does not have a 5’ cap or 3’ Poly A tail. It has been hypothesized that cirRNAs may function as potential molecular markers for disease diagnosis and treatment and play an important role in the initiation and progression of human diseases.


=== Small non-coding RNA ===
Small non-coding RNA (sncRNA) are a type of RNA. which is usually defined as transcripts which are lesser than 200 base-pairs in length and not translated into proteins. This limitation distinguishes sncRNA from lncRNA. This class includes but is not limited to microRNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), and other short RNAs.


==== microRNA ====
microRNA (miRNA) plays an important role in regulating gene expression. Majority of miRNAs are transcribed from DNA sequences into primary miRNAs. These primary miRNAs are further processed into precursor miRNAs, and finally into mature miRNAs. The miRNAs in most cases interact with the 3’ UTR region of target to induce mRNA degradation and translational repression. Interactions of miRNAs with other regions, including the 5’ UTR, coding sequence, and gene promoters have also been reported. Under certain conditions, miRNAs are also able to activate translation or regulate transcription, but this is dependent on factors such as location of the effect. This process of interaction is very dynamic and dependent on multiple factors.


==== Ribosomal RNA ====
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) includes non-coding RNAs that play essential roles in rRNA regulation. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) takes part in protein synthesis. Occasional RNA molecules act catalytically, as RNA enzymes (ribozymes) or take part in protein export. The most important ribozyme is the major rRNA of the large subunit of the ribosome (28s rRNA in eukaryotes). It is now accepted that 28S rRNA catalyzes the critical step in polypeptide synthesis in addition to playing a major structural role.


==== Small nuclear RNA and small nucleolar RNA ====
Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) are widely known to guide the nucleotide modifications and processing of rRNA.  Both snRNA and snoRNA are categorized into a class of small RNA molecules that are present in the nucleus. However, they vary a lot by function. snRNA are 80-350nucletides long while snoRNA are 80-1000 nucleotides long in yeast. snRNA plays a critical role in regulating the pre-mRNA silencing. On the other hand, snoRNAs are involved in mRNA editing, modification of the rRNA and tRNA, and genome imprinting. Major function of snoRNA includes the maturation of rRNA during ribosomal formation. Small nuclear and small nucleolar RNAs are critical components of snRNPs and snoRNPs and play an essential role in the maturation of, respectively, mRNAs and rRNAs within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Both snRNA and snoRNA are involved in modifying RNA just after transcription. snRNA can be found in splicing speckles and Cajal bodies of the nucleus of the cell.snRNA and snoRNA requires a phosphorylated adaptor for nuclear export (PHAX) to get transported to the site of action within the nucleus.


==== Transfer RNA ====
Transfer RNA (tRNA) helps decode a messenger RNA sequence into a protein. They function at specific sites within the ribosome during translation (the process going from code to protein). Within the mRNA molecule we have three nucleotides in length codons. These codons all have a unique universal code which represents a particular amino acid. tRNAs can be classified as an adaptor molecule, being typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length.


== History ==


=== Non-coding RNA ===
DNA purification in 1869 by Dr. Friedrich Miescher’s, from salmon sperm and pus cells guided the scientists towards the presence of additional molecules in the cell except for proteins. Miescher identified the presence of a highly acidic molecule that he isolated from the pus cells and labeled it “nuclein”. The term was coined as the DNA isolated by Miescher was not protein and was derived from the nucleus of the cell. It wasn’t until 1944, when Oswald Avery proposed the DNA as a genetic carrier of information that the Miescher discovery was brought back to light.
Following the X-ray crystallography, by Rosalind Franklin and the determination of DNA double helix by Watson and Crick in 1953, further enhanced the understanding of DNA structure and allowed for the establishment of central dogma of molecular biology. However, one of the flaws with central dogma was the postulation that information flow proceeds from DNA to RNA to protein, which hinders the understanding of different regulatory mechanisms.
In 1955, George Palade identified the first ncRNA as a part of the large ribonucleoprotein complex (RNP). The second class of ncRNA to be discovered was transfer RNA (tRNA) in 1957. However, the first regulatory ncRNA was a microRNA discovered in 1988 from E.coli and was labeled as micF. On other hand, the first eukaryotic microRNA was discovered in C.elegans in 1993. It was derived from gene lin-4 and was identified as a small RNA molecule (as compared to longer mRNA molecules) forming stem-loop structures. This structure gets further modified to generate a shorter RNA that is complementary to the 3’UTR region of lin-14 transcript. This pathway allowed for a better understanding of different post translational gene silencing pathways. Since then, many other miRNAs have been discovered.
Detailed understanding of the mechanism behind this post translational silencing pathway was established in 2001 by Thomas Tuschl. It was discovered that the double stranded RNA gets processed into a shorter 25 nucleotides long fragment which is then modified into a short hairpin like structure by Drosha complex. The molecule is then diced by dicer enzymes into a functional double stranded RNA (dsRNA). These are then loaded onto the RISC complex which then finds and cleaves the targeted mRNA of interest in the cytoplasm.
It wasn’t until 1989 that the imprinting genes were discovered and the genome imprinting was established. The first two genomic imprinting genes were paternally expressed Igf2r and H19. These were both discovered independently in mice and were localized to chromosome 7. H19 is peculiar as it functions as a lncRNA but undergoes modifications similar to that of pre-mRNA processing such as splicing, 3’ polyadenylation and is transcribed by RNA polymerase II.  This lncRNA plays a significant role in mice embryonic development and can be lethal if expressed during prenatal stages. More lncRNAs have been discovered in eukaryotes overtime. One such discovery that allowed for better understanding between H19 functions was a lncRNA called XIST (X inactive-specific transcript).


=== ncRNA drugs and therapy ===
The first ncRNA therapeutic drug approved by food and drug administration (FDA) (1998) and the European medicine agency (EMA) (1999) is called Fomivirsen or Vitravene. The target organ is the eye and works against the cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in immunocompromised patients. The drug functions as an antisense oligonucleotide and binds to the complementary sequence of the mRNA that inhibits the replication of human cytomegalovirus. This therapy can also be categorized as Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) therapy.
There have been many ASO RNA therapeutics that have been approved by FDA and/or EMA over the years, but it wasn’t until 2018 that the EMA approved the drug called Patisiran/Onpattro. The drug uses ds-siRNA as a mechanism of action and is deemed effective against hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. The mechanism specifically targets the Transthyretin (TTR) mRNA.
RNA therapeutic targets are not limited to mature mRNA but have been used to target mRNA at different stages of maturation. One such example is Nusinersen (Spinaraza), it functions as an ASO and targets pre-mRNA before splicing that corresponds to Survival of motor neuron 2 gene (SMN 2). This drug therapy was approved by FDA and EMA in 2016 and 2017 respectively.
There are some drugs that have been approved by FDA and not by EMA. This can be seen in the case of an ASO type therapeutics called Eteplirsen (Exondys51) which has been approved by FDA in 2016 but not by EMA. It targets pre-mRNA corresponding to Dystrophin (DMD) and works against Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
There are many additional therapeutics that have been developed and are either in phase I or II of the clinical trials. Current RNA therapeutics in clinical trials range from a variety of target organs and diseases ranging from skin (potential treatment for disease such as keloid) to tumors (squamous cell lung cancer).
To date, for both the FDA and the EMA, ncRNAs are considered as ""simple"" medical products because of their production by chemical synthesis. When some of them, produced biologically (known as bioengineered ncRNA agents: BERAs), will be put on the market, the status of biological medical products will be applied, which could lead to inconsistencies in the legislation.


== Applications ==


=== Antisense oligonucleotides ===

Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are single-stranded DNA molecules with full complementarity to one select target mRNA and may act by blocking protein translation (via steric hindrance), causing mRNA degradation (via RNase H-cleavage) or changing pre-mRNA splicing. These short oligonucleotides have already been approved by the FDA for ten genetic disorders and many are currently in the pipeline to be approved/tested. Using oligonucleotide technology, we are now able to control protein expression via RNA interference, and are able to affect previously defined “undruggable” proteins. Even though this therapy has a lot of promise and potential, it comes with many limitations.
Compared to siRNA and microRNA, ASOs are more versatile in reducing protein expression, they have the ability to also enhance target translation. ASOs can also be customized with ease and accuracy, allowing for the targeting of virtually any mutated gene. This allows for a greater level of application in the field of precision and personalized medicine.
The main challenge of ASO therapies to specific tissues and cellular uptake is what poses a great challenge and limitation. Liposomal delivery is one such way to overcome such issues. Liposomal delivery system comes with its own share of limitations. Serum proteins in the bloodstream destabilize the lipoprotein. This destabilization leads to the depletion of protein and exposing cargo to the unstable environment. This hindrance can be overcome by using PEGs (poly(ethylene glycol) . However, PEGs are not biodegradable causing them to accumulate within the body leading to adverse effects and causing hypersensitivity. In addition, multiple rounds of therapy with PEGs can lead to the formation of PEG antibodies, which can lead to lack of efficiency in preventing the rupture of the liposome that it is attached to.
Using immunoliposomes it has been shown that targeting can be more specific as by using antibody’s specific to the protein of expression in that area, it results in the ASO drug directly impact the target site and nowhere else. Moreover, immunoliposomes are slow to dissociate leading to precise release of the ASO drug which they encapsulate.


=== LncRNA as a therapeutic approach ===
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are large transcripts (more than 200 nucleotides long) that have similar mechanism of synthesis as that of mRNAs but unlike mRNAs, lncRNAs are not translated to a protein. lncRNA contains interactor elements and structural elements. Interactor elements directly interact with other nucleic acids or proteins while the structural elements indicate the ability of some lncRNAs to form secondary and/or tertiary structures. This ability of the lncRNAs to interact with nucleic acids using its interactor elements and its ability to interact with protein using its secondary structures allows it to function in a more diverse manner than other ncRNAs such as miRNA (microRNA). LncRNA has been established to play a role in gene regulation by influencing the ability of specific regions of the gene to bind to transcriptional elements and different epigenetic modifications. One such example can be seen in the case X inactive specific transcript (XIST). In humans, 46,XX females carry an extra X chromosome (155Mb of DNA) compared to 46,XY males. To overcome this dosage imbalance, one X chromosome is randomly inactivated in human females at around the 2-8 cell stage of embryo development. This inactivation is very stable across cell divisions due to epigenetic contributions both during the initial silencing and the subsequent maintenance of the inactive X chromosome (Xi). This inactivation is carried by the lncRNA, XIST. XIST is produced in cis and inactivates the X-chromosome that it has been generated from. The inactive X chromosome can be observed as a condensed heterochromatin structure called “Barr Body”.
A study in 2013 utilized this ability of XIST as a potential therapeutic approach for treatment of trisomy 21. Trisomy 21 is commonly known as down syndrome and is caused due to presence of an additional copy of chromosome 21. The study was one of its kind as no other studies have been able to incorporate the XIST gene into a chromosome due to its large size. The study incorporated the XIST into one of the chromosomes 21 in the cells gathered from patients with down syndrome. The study was able to observe the inactivation of one of chromosome 21 in the form of a condensed heterochromatin and labeled it as a chromosome 21 barr body. Such experiments have shown to work in cells in the lab setting although no lncRNA based therapeutics are in clinical trials. The implications of such work can bring trisomy 21 and other chromosomal disorders in the realm of consideration for future gene therapy research.


== Challenges ==
One of the major issues that hinders the ncRNA therapy is the stability of the single stranded RNA molecule. RNA is typically single stranded therefore slightly unstable as compared to dsDNA molecules. This however can be overcome by fabricating the single stranded RNA to double stranded RNA(dsRNA). This is quite effective as the dsRNA is more stable at room temperature and has a longer shelf life.
Second major issue is the cell/tissue/organ specific targeting of the RNA molecules. Generally, this is overcome by containing the dsRNA in a lipid nanoparticle and using that as a ligand to bind to a receptor on the surface of the target cell. The lipid particles are taken into the liver cells through their specific receptors and this mechanism seems to be effective at targeting the liver cells/cancer.
Another organ with a relatively easy delivery mechanism is the eye. This requires an invasive technique of directly injecting the ncRNA of interest directly into the eye. These techniques are not only invasive but also don’t ensure if all the cells in the target organ are being targeted by the ncRNA of interest.
Additional issues arise once the RNA molecule enters the cell. One of the issues being the immune system. Our immune system can recognize RNA using the intracellular pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) receptors and extracellular toll-like receptors (TLR). Activation of the receptors leads to a cytokine (IFNy-Interferon gamma) mediated immune response. Common applications to overcome the immune response include second generation chemical modifications. This process includes the introduction of small one at a time chemical modifications to avoid the immune response. However, there are some reports of adverse immune responses in clinical trials employing such modified reagents. There’s no fixed answer to  issues with immunogenicity and ncRNA therapy.
Modified adenovirus vectors have been used extensively in many clinical trials as a ncRNA delivery mechanism. In particular, adenovirus vector is considered an efficient delivery system due to its stability within live cells and non-pathogenicity. Even though viral transfections have achieved significant results in basic research, one of the issues is the non-specificity leading to off target transfections. Further research needs to be done to improve the accuracy of viral transfections for future tests and clinical trials.


== ASO Guidelines ==
In December 2021, the FDA came up with a draft guidance for the use of ASO drug products. This draft guidance was directed towards sponsor-investigators who are developing individualized investigational antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) drug products for severely debilitating or life threatening diseases. Severely debilitating corresponds to a disease or condition that causes major irreversible morbidity. However, life-threatening is defined as the disease or condition has a likelihood of death unless the course of treatment leads to an endpoint of survival. Usually individuals that have a severely debilitating life threatening disease don't have any alternative treatment options, and their diseases will be rapidly progressing, leading to an early death and/or devastating  or irreversible morbidity within a short time frame without treatment.
Drug development is usually targeted for a large number of individuals, in this case that is not possible because of the specificity of the mechanism of action of the ASO combined with the rarity of the treatment-amenable patient population. Under FDA regulations, a protocol under which an individual ASO product is administered to a human subject must be reviewed and approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before it can be administered to human subjects. When the individual is a child, additional safeguards need to be identified in order to prevent any developmental issues from occurring that may affect the life of the individual. The sponsor-investigator needs to get informed consent from the individual or from the person who is responsible for the individual. The consent needs to include a description of reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts as part of the use of the ASO drug. The sponsor also needs to get individuals clinical and genetic diagnosis to confirm that the ASO will be beneficial. The analysis may be through gene sequencing, enzymatic analysis, biochemical testing, imaging evaluations. All results need to be included in the application. Also the sponsor needs to include evidence that establishes the role of the gene variant targeted by the ASO drug. The sponsor/investigator need to also provide evidence that the identified gene variant or variants are unique to the individual.
The guidance suggests that the starting dose should be based on available non-clinical data that has been collected from model organisms or in vitro studies and should be in correlation with other ASO drug product dosing information that is available. At the starting dose, pharmacological effects are expected. Furthermore, It is advised that a dosing escalation method be utilized. This includes the step of escalating the dodge from its initial dose based on pharmacodynamic effects and/or trial participants' response to the ASO.
In addition, protocols submitted to the FDA need to have a clear dosing plan and justification for selecting the starting dose, dosing interval, and plan for dose escalation or dose reduction based on clinical pharmacodynamic effects of the drug on the individual. Also all anticipated outcomes should be included in the drug plan when submitted to the FDA. It is extremely important for the investigators to monitor the patient closely during dose escalation. During the escalation period, adequate time should be provided in order to see therapeutic results. It is advised that the investigator not make concurrent changes to the dosing interval along with the dose without justification. The submitted plan should include a de-escalation/discontinuation plan if toxicity is observed. All drug administration needs to take place in an inpatient setting just to get a grasp of the adverse effects the drug may have. Once drug toxicity, beneficiancy and adverse effects are identified, the drug can be administered in an outpatient manner as long as the same concentration of drug is administered.


== See also ==
RNA therapeutics
Messenger RNA
RNA editing


== References =="
Wawona Hotel,"The Wawona Hotel, located in southern Yosemite National Park, California, is a historic late Victorian mountain resort and one of the largest intact hotels of its kind within a national park.: 5   Originally established in the 1850s as Clark's Station, a pioneer stop, it soon evolved into a bustling stagecoach stop and later transformed into a grand New England–style resort, complete with manicured grounds and refined amenities. Its design catered to East Coast and European visitors, aligning with the era’s trend of exclusive grand hotels.
Designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the Wawona Hotel is notable for its cohesive architectural integrity, much of which predates World War I.: 57  Located just 4 miles (6.4 km) from Yosemite’s southern entrance, it sits between the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias and Yosemite Valley.
Owned by the National Park Service and operated through a concessionaire contract, the Wawona Hotel has endured over a century of operation, with only a brief closure during World War II before reopening in 1947.: 5   On December 2, 2024, the hotel closed indefinitely for repairs while the National Park Service conducts a ""comprehensive condition assessment.""


== History ==


=== Clark's Station ===
 The Wawona Hotel complex was originally established on the homestead of Galen Clark, one of Yosemite's earliest pioneers and the first appointed protector of Yosemite State Park in 1864.
In the late 1850s, Galen Clark expanded his modest homestead into Clark's Station. Situated 25 miles from both Mariposa and Yosemite Valley, it became an essential waypoint for travelers. With no other place to stay, Clark took in anyone passing through, aiming to make Yosemite accessible to all, rich or poor. Even when he was away, he left the door open with a sign that read: ""Walk in and help yourselves, but please close and fasten the door.""
After the transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, Yosemite saw a boom in tourism. In 1870, Galen Clark partnered with Edwin Moore to expand the lodge, adding new sleeping and dining facilities to accommodate the surge in visitors. Despite the expansion of their business, now known as Clark & Moore’s Station, financial woes and escalating costs pushed Clark into a cycle of debt.: 100   He was forced to sell the property on December 26, 1874.


=== Washburn's Wawona Hotel (1876–1927) ===


==== Stagecoach Era ====
The Washburn family’s 56-year ownership of Clark Station began with their buyout of Galen Clark, and over time, they transformed the rustic waystation into a world-class hotel. Their stewardship helped popularize Yosemite travel and brought the giant sequoias to the forefront of America’s imagination.
The Washburn brothers operated the Yosemite Stage and Turnpike Company, a stagecoach line connecting Yosemite's key destinations to the San Joaquin Valley. The Wawona Hotel served as a central hub, providing lodging for travelers heading to Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias. The first wagon road from Wawona to Yosemite Valley was completed on April 18, 1875, coinciding with the Washburns’ first season operating Clark’s Station.
By 1876, they added the Clark Cottage and the Long White building, starting its transformation from a modest way station to a premier resort destination.: 5 
In 1881, the Yosemite Stage and Turnpike Company created the Wawona Tunnel Tree in Mariposa Grove, an 8-foot-wide and 26-foot-long passage that quickly became a popular tourist attraction, which drew visitors to the Wawona Hotel. The company operated stagecoaches from Wawona to Mariposa Grove, holding a monopoly on stagecoach visits to the grove. Stagecoaches departed daily from the Wawona Hotel, carrying up to eight passengers on three bench seats. Lunch stops were held at Galen Clark’s cabin.

Because of its isolated location, the hotel had to be self-sufficient. A post office was established around 1886, telephones were installed in 1905, and electricity was introduced in 1908. The property included springs, wells, and a large irrigation ditch that supplied water for cattle, hogs, sheep, horses, and crops of hay in Wawona Meadow.: 66  Facilities also included a store, a saloon, a truck garden, an apple orchard, and a bear cage that was occasionally used as a jail.


==== Name Change to Wawona ====
In 1884, Jean Bruce Washburn renamed the town Wawona, believing it meant ""Big Tree"" in the language of the indigenous tribes of the area.: 68  This name change replaced the previous name, Big Tree Station, which had been used since 1875. The Wawona Hotel was also renamed accordingly. However, it was later discovered that ""Wawō'na"" actually translates to evening primrose in the Miwok language.


==== Thomas Hill studio ====

Thomas Hill (painter), a renowned landscape painter of the Hudson River School, established his studio at the Wawona Hotel in the early 1880s. The studio was completed by January 1884 and became a significant cultural attraction for hotel guests, showcasing Hill's depictions of Yosemite's grandeur. Hill continued to use this studio until his death in 1908.


==== Automobile Era ====
Clarence Washburn, who took over the Yosemite Stage and Turnpike Company after his father John’s death in 1917, played a pivotal role in reshaping tourism in Yosemite. In 1913, when automobiles were legalized in the park, Washburn capitalized on the influx of visitors by modernizing the Wawona Hotel. He added upscale amenities, including tennis courts, croquet lawns, fountains, and a swimming tank by 1917. Washburn also brought a first for California: a mountain golf course at Wawona Meadow, designed by pro golfer Walter Fovargue, solidifying the hotel’s reputation as a premier destination.: 18 
The Wawona Hotel began operating year-round in 1918 to accommodate winter sports, supported by substantial infrastructure improvements including an upgraded water system in 1922 and a new electrical system in 1923. These enhancements allowed the hotel to offer continuous, year-round service to its guests.
By the 1915 season, the Washburn's Yosemite Stage and Turnpike Company had replaced horse-drawn carriages with automobiles, and by 1924, a garage and filling station had been added to cater to the growing number of motorists.: 26  In 1925, Wawona Meadow saw the addition of an airfield, which facilitated daily flights from Merced, delivering mail and newspapers, and offering sightseeing flights over Yosemite Valley, a service now prohibited by law.: 29 


=== Federal Purchase ===
In August 1932, the federal government purchased 2,665 acres from the Washburn family, acquiring the historic Wawona Hotel complex and surrounding land for $150,000. The Yosemite National Park Company, the park concessionaire, contributed half of the purchase price and, in return, secured the right to operate the hotel for the next 20 years.: 192  Clarence Washburn remained as manager through the 1934 season.
The sale ended decades of Washburn family ownership. Though the Yosemite National Park Company had previously shown interest in buying the property, the Washburns had resisted selling. However, the Great Depression strained the family’s finances, making it increasingly difficult to maintain the land.
The Park Service had long viewed the Wawona Basin as a natural addition to Yosemite, with its lands bordering the park. The 1932 acquisition finally brought the Wawona Hotel and its surrounding area under public ownership, preserving this scenic and historic site within the park’s boundaries.: 35 


=== Since the 1930s ===
The hotel is featured prominently in the 1964 World War II thriller 36 Hours, starring James Garner and Eva Marie Saint, in which the hotel serves as a U.S. military hospital in Waldshut, Germany.
On March 1, 2016, the Wawona Hotel was renamed Big Trees Lodge due to a legal dispute between the U.S. government, which owns the property, in conjunction with the new concessionaire, Aramark, and the outgoing concessionaire, Delaware North, which claimed rights to the trademarked name. The hotel regained its historic name on July 15, 2019, when a settlement was reached in the dispute.


== Features ==

The Wawona Hotel, the largest existing Victorian-era hotel complex within a U.S. national park, is a landmark of 19th-century resort architecture. Recognized for its remarkable integrity, it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, reflecting national significance in art and regional importance in commerce, conservation, and transportation.
The main building was constructed in 1879, with the dining room and Annex added in 1917.


=== Architecture ===
Built over four decades, the Wawona Hotel exemplifies the architectural unity uncommon in Victorian-era resorts. Wraparound porches and verandas integrate the design with its natural setting, while elements of Greek Revival, Stick-Style, and Eastlake architecture add sophistication. Signature details include the Washburn Cottage’s classical accents and the Moore Cottage’s Palladian-inspired cupola. Despite the loss of the Sequoia Hotel to a 1977 fire, the Wawona has preserved its pre-World War I exterior, maintaining its status as a serene retreat and a rare showcase of 19th-century resort architecture.


=== Grounds ===
Situated on a forested hillside north of Wawona Road, the hotel’s seven main buildings are arranged in a structured, orderly layout that aligns with the four cardinal directions, creating distinct outdoor spaces. The western forecourt includes the main entrance, a swimming tank, parking, the Wawona Fountain, and a tennis court, while the eastern courtyard is enclosed by structures like the Long White and Long Brown buildings.: 75   The Wawona Hotel was originally oriented to greet travelers arriving on the Chowchilla Mountain Stage Road, which was the main route to the hotel grounds.: 83 


=== Amenities ===

Most of the Wawona Hotel's 104 guestrooms open onto one of the hotel's deep verandas, which wrap around the first and second floors; they have open views of the gardened and natural landscapes. The rooms are furnished with antiques, period pieces, and vintage elements, and have no telephones or televisions in them. Outdoor recreation choices include quiet nature walks or scenic drives, and when snow arrives, nearby cross-country and downhill skiing and snowshoe routes.


==== Golf Course ====
Across Wawona Road, the Wawona Golf Course stretches across Wawona Meadow, blending with the meadow's natural contours. Oriented northeast to southwest, the course is framed by gently sloping hills and clusters of evergreens, preserving historic sightlines between the hotel and the meadow. While some views have been partially obscured by vegetation growth, the course maintains much of its original 1917 design, contributing to the historic character of the Wawona grounds.: 36–37 
The nine-hole, par-35 golf course spans 3,035 yards (2,775 m) and is the only golf facility in Yosemite National Park, as well as one of the few located within any U.S. national park. Operating since 1918, it is the oldest golf course in the Sierra Nevada and remains open daily from spring through fall, weather permitting.


== Notable Guests ==
The hotel has welcomed numerous notable guests, including Presidents Teddy Roosevelt, Ulysses S. Grant and Rutherford B. Hayes, as well as film and television stars like Robert Redford and Brad Pitt.


== See also ==
History of the Yosemite area
List of the northern Giant Sequoia groves — 3 in Yosemite.
List of plants of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
List of Yosemite destinations
National Register of Historic Places listings in Yosemite National Park
National Register of Historic Places listings in Mariposa County, California
Bibliography of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website 
Harrison, Laura Soullière (1986). ""The Wawona Hotel and Thomas Hill Studio"". Architecture in the Parks: A National Historic Landmark Theme Study. National Park Service. Archived from the original on August 16, 2007.
Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. CA-1805, ""Wawona Hotel, Wawona, Mariposa County, CA""
HABS No. CA-1805-A, ""Wawona Hotel, Long White""
HABS No. CA-1805-B, ""Wawona Hotel, Hotel""
HABS No. CA-1805-C, ""Wawona Hotel, Little White""
HABS No. CA-1805-D, ""Wawona Hotel, Thomas Hill Studio""
HABS No. CA-1805-E, ""Wawona Hotel, Little Brown""
HABS No. CA-1805-F, ""Wawona Hotel, Long Brown""
HABS No. CA-1805-G, ""Wawona Hotel, Annex Building"""
Time Out of Mind (Bob Dylan album),"Time Out of Mind is the thirtieth studio album by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, released on September 30, 1997, through Columbia Records. It was released as a single CD as well as a double studio album on vinyl, his first since The Basement Tapes in 1975.
For many fans and critics, the album marked Dylan's artistic comeback after he appeared to struggle with his musical identity throughout the 1980s; he had not released any original material since Under the Red Sky in 1990. Time Out of Mind is one of Dylan's most acclaimed albums, and it went on to win three Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year in 1998. It was also ranked number 410 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2012.
The album has an atmospheric sound, the work of producer (and past Dylan collaborator) Daniel Lanois, whose innovative work with carefully placed microphones and strategic mixing was detailed by Dylan in his memoir, Chronicles: Volume One. Although Dylan has spoken positively of Lanois' production style, he expressed dissatisfaction with the sound of Time Out of Mind. Dylan has self-produced his subsequent albums.


== Background and writing ==
In April 1991, Dylan told interviewer Paul Zollo that ""there was a time when the songs would come three or four at the same time, but those days are long gone...Once in a while, the odd song will come to me like a bulldog at the garden gate and demand to be written. But most of them are rejected out of my mind right away. You get caught up in wondering if anyone really needs to hear it. Maybe a person gets to the point where they have written enough songs. Let someone else write them"".
Dylan's last album of original material had been 1990's Under the Red Sky, a critical and commercial disappointment. Since then, he had released two albums of folk covers, Good as I Been to You and World Gone Wrong,  and MTV Unplugged, a live album of older compositions; there had been no signs of any fresh compositions until 1996.
Dylan began to write a fresh string of songs during the winter of 1996 at his farm in Minnesota, which would later make up Time Out of Mind. Criteria Studio in Miami, Florida, was booked for recording. In a televised interview with Charlie Rose, Lanois recalled Dylan talking about spending many late nights working on the lyrics. Once the words were completed, according to Lanois, Dylan considered the record to be finished saying, ""You know, whatever we decide to do with it, that's that."" Lanois replied: ""What's important is that it's written"".


== Recording sessions ==

Dylan demoed some of the songs in the studio, something he rarely did. Members of Dylan's touring band were involved in these sessions. Dylan also used these loose, informal sessions to experiment with new ideas and arrangements. Dylan continued rewriting lyrics until January 1997, when the official album sessions began. It was the second collaboration between Dylan and Lanois, who had previously produced Dylan's 1989 release Oh Mercy and was known for his work with artists such as Emmylou Harris (on Wrecking Ball) and U2 (on The Joshua Tree and Achtung Baby). Dylan wanted the sound of Time Out of Mind to be influenced by early blues musicians, such as Charley Patton, Little Walter, and Little Willie John, and he recommended that Lanois listen to their recordings to prepare for the sessions.
New personnel hired for the album included slide guitarist Cindy Cashdollar and drummer Brian Blade, both hired by Lanois. Dylan brought in Jim Keltner, who was Dylan's tour drummer from 1979 to 1981. Dylan also hired Nashville guitarist Bob Britt, Duke Robillard, Tex-Mex organist Augie Meyers, and Memphis pianist Jim Dickinson to play at the sessions.
According to Lanois, Dylan likes old 1950s records since ""they had a natural depth of field which was not the result of a mixing technique"". He used a Sony C37A microphone, which was also used to record Dylan's album Oh Mercy. Various other devices were used to produce the album's distinctive sound. Lanois also devised a method to accommodate new or revised lyrics later in an original take, since this was often the case with Dylan.
With two different sets of players competing in performance and two producers with conflicting views on how to approach each song, the sessions were far from disciplined. Years later, when asked about Time Out of Mind, Dickinson replied, ""I haven't been able to tell what's actually happening. I know they were listening to playbacks, I don't know whether they were trying to mix it or not! Twelve musicians playing live—three sets of drums,... it was unbelievable—two pedal steels, I've never even heard two pedal steels played at the same time before! ... I don't know man, I thought that much was overdoing it, quite frankly"".
Lanois admitted some difficulty in producing Dylan. ""Well, you just never know what you're going to get. He's an eccentric man..."" In a later interview, Lanois said Dylan and he used to go to the parking lot to discuss the recording in absence of the band. Lanois elaborated their discussion on the song ""Standing in the Doorway"". ""I said 'listen, I love ""Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands"". Can we steal that feel for this song?' And he'd say 'you think that'd work?' Then we'd sit on the fender of a truck, in this parking lot in Miami, and I'd often think, if people see this they won't believe it!"" With Time Out of Mind, Lanois ""produced perhaps the most artificial-sounding album in [Dylan]'s canon,"" says author Clinton Heylin, who described the album as sounding ""like a Lanois CV"".

Dylan talked about his difficulty at the recording sessions in an interview with Guitar World magazine. ""I lose my inspiration in the studio real easy, and it's very difficult for me to think that I'm going to eclipse anything I've ever done before. I get bored easily, and my mission, which starts out wide, becomes very dim after a few failed takes and this and that."" In the same interview Dylan cited Buddy Holly as an influence during the recording sessions.
In relation to past works like Highway 61 Revisited, Blood on the Tracks, and Infidels, Dylan said:

Those records were made a long time ago, and you know, truthfully, records that were made in that day and age all were good. They all had some magic to them because the technology didn't go beyond what the artist was doing. It was a lot easier to get excellence back in those days on a record than it is now.....The high priority is technology now. It's not the artist or the art. It's the technology that is coming through. That's what makes Time Out of Mind... it doesn't take itself seriously, but then again, the sound is very significant to that record. If that record was made more haphazardly, it wouldn't have sounded that way. It wouldn't have had the impact that it did.... There wasn't any wasted effort on Time Out of Mind and I don't think there will be on any more of my records.
The album's cover art is a blurry photo of Dylan in the recording studio, taken by Lanois.


== Songs ==
""Love Sick""

The first track on this album is the sparsely recorded ""Love Sick"", which was subsequently also released as a single. Daniel Lanois later said about the recording process of this song, ""We treated the voice almost like a harmonica when you over-drive it through a small guitar amplifier"". Pitchfork's Grayson Haver Callin wrote that the song shows Dylan as he ""shuffles through empty streets in the rain, a tangle of warped guitar, haunted organs, and faint drums aptly framing his bleak mood"". Dylan performed ""Love Sick"" live at the 1998 Grammy Awards ceremony.

""Dirt Road Blues""
""Dirt Road Blues"" was improvised from a country-blues riff of indeterminate origin. Lanois recalls, ""He made me pull out the original cassette, sample sixteen bars and we all played over that [for the released version],..."" Some critics criticized the performance for being 'mediocre' and for destroying the mood that was set up by the opening track. Michael Gray writes, ""'Dirt Road Blues', which
might under normal production circumstances be a heartening, even dexterous little rockabilly number, puts Dylan so far away and so tiny you just despair"".

""Standing in the Doorway""

""Million Miles""
""Million Miles"" has a 1950s blues and rock and roll atmosphere. Critics have noted that the song nods to Little Willie John, Elvis Presley, and B.B. King.

""Tryin' to Get to Heaven""

""'Til I Fell in Love with You""
In ""'Til I Fell in Love with You"", Dylan scholar Jochen Markhurst points to echoes of Ma Rainey's ""South Bound Blues', as well as the influence of Slim Harpo. The Time out of Mind outtake ""Marchin' to the City"" can be considered an earlier version of this song; in any case the songs share a few lyric lines.

""Not Dark Yet""

""Not Dark Yet"", the first of two singles from the album, was described by Time magazine as 'the moody album's center' and was included in its Ten Best Bob Dylan Songs article of 2011. The song explores the singer's own existential crises. ""Not Dark Yet"" was recorded at the early recording sessions and featured ""a radically different feel"", according to Lanois. ""[The demo of 'Not Dark Yet'] was quicker and more stripped-down and [later during the formal studio sessions], he changed it into a civil war ballad"".
The song is analyzed by Professor Christopher Ricks in his book Dylan's Visions of Sin. Ricks draws parallels between ""Not Dark Yet"" and John Keats's poem Ode to a Nightingale. Both works are musings on mortality, and Ricks argues that ""similar turns of phrase, figures of speech, [and] felicities of rhyming"" can be found throughout ""Not Dark Yet"" and the Ode: ""The memories of Ode to a Nightingale in 'Not Dark Yet' come from throughout the Ode, diffusedly there."" A promotional video of this song was released.

""Cold Irons Bound""

The next song, ""Cold Irons Bound"", won the 1998 Grammy for best male rock vocal performance. Oliver Trager describes the track as ""biting"" with ""ricocheting guitar licks, rockabilly drums, distorted organ, and [a] voice floating in a blimp of its own echo,"" in which ""one can still hear, to paraphrase 'Visions of Johanna', the ghost of electricity howling from the bones of Dylan's face..."" Michael Gray also describes this song in detail:

There's an interesting tension, too, in ""Cold Irons Bound"", perhaps more accurately an interesting inappropriateness between, on one side, the grinding electronic blizzard of the music and the cold, aircraft-hangar echo of the voice lamenting its sojourn across a lethal planet—fields turned brown, sky lowering with clouds of blood, winds that can tear you to shreds, mists like quicksand—and on the other side the recurrently stated pursuit of tenderness, in phrases that seem imported from another consciousness.
""Make You Feel My Love""

The song ""Make You Feel My Love"" was recorded twice under the title ""To Make You Feel My Love"" by other artists: Billy Joel recorded the song for his Greatest Hits Volume III collection before Dylan released the song; subsequently, Garth Brooks recorded it for the Hope Floats soundtrack. It was recorded under the original title by Bryan Ferry on Dylanesque and by Adele on 19. This song was criticized for its lyrical inferiority by The Village Voice's Robert Christgau and Greg Kot of Rolling Stone. In his review, Kot described the track as ""a spare ballad undermined by greetingcard lyrics [that] breaks the album's spell"". Opposing his view, Dylan critic Paul Williams said that it was ""refreshing"" to his ears. He said: ""...the ultimate effect is to strengthen the spell the whole record casts—this musical and verbal break is exactly in place"".

""Can't Wait""
The penultimate track of the album is ""Can't Wait"". Greg Kot wrote, ""On Time Out of Mind, [Dylan] paints a self-portrait with words and sound that pivots around a single line from the album's penultimate song, 'Can't Wait': ""That's how it is when things disintegrate"""".  An alternate version of this song is included on the album The Bootleg Series Vol. 8 – Tell Tale Signs: Rare and Unreleased 1989–2006.  (Deluxe Editions of this album contain two alternate versions of the song.)

""Highlands""

The closing track, at time of release the longest composition ever released by Dylan, the 16-minute ""Highlands"", most probably took its central motif (""My heart's in the highlands"") from a poem by Robert Burns called ""My heart's in the highlands"" (published in 1790). In Jim Dickinson's account, ""I remember, when we finished 'Highlands'—there are two other versions of that, the one that made the record is the rundown, literally, you can hear the beat turn over, which I think Dylan liked. But, anyway, after we finished it, one of the managers came out, and he said, ""Well, Bob, have you got a short version of that song?"" And Dylan looked at him and said: 'That was the short version'"".
The song describes a story of the narrator and his interactions with a waitress of a restaurant in Boston Town. Dylan mentions Neil Young and Erica Jong in this song. Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club wrote: ""The material here is generally slow and meditative, lending the work a consistent tone appropriately capped by the 16-minute 'Highlands', a 'Desolation Row'-style experiment with an extended song form; it's further proof that the singer/songwriter is far from coasting"".


== Outtakes ==
Fifteen songs were recorded for Time Out of Mind, of which eleven made the final cut.
The first song that did not make the album was ""Mississippi"", which was re-recorded for Love and Theft. According to Dylan, ""If you had heard the original recording of ['Mississippi'], you'd see in a second"" why it was omitted and recut for Love and Theft. ""The song was pretty much laid out intact melodically, lyrically and structurally, but Lanois didn't see it. Thought it was pedestrian. Took it down the Afro-polyrhythm route—multirhythm drumming, that sort of thing. Polyrhythm has its place, but it doesn't work for knife-like lyrics trying to convey majesty and heroism"".  Dylan offered the song to Sheryl Crow, who recorded it for The Globe Sessions, released in 1998, before Dylan revisited it for Love and Theft.  Three outtakes of ""Mississippi"" from the Time Out Of Mind sessions were included on The Bootleg Series Vol. 8 – Tell Tale Signs: Rare and Unreleased 1989–2006 (two versions on the generally released discs and one on a bonus disc included with the Deluxe Edition of the album).
A second outtake, ""Dreamin' of You""', also released on Tell Tale Signs, was unveiled for the first time as a free download on Dylan's website. Its lyrics were partly adapted into ""Standing in the Doorway"", though the melody and music are completely different. The music video, which starred Harry Dean Stanton, premiered on Amazon.com.
Two more songs, ""Red River Shore"" (which according to Jim Dickinson was ""the best song there was from the session"") and ""Marchin' to the City"" (which evolved into ""'Til I Fell in Love with You""), were left off the final cut. They were both included on Tell Tale Signs.
Over the years, some fans have criticized Dylan for some of the creative decisions made with his albums, particularly with song selection. Time Out of Mind was no different except this time the criticism came from colleagues who were disappointed to see their personal favorites left on the shelf. When Dylan accepted the Grammy Award for Album of the Year, he mentioned Columbia Records chairman Don Ienner, who ""convinced me to put [the album] out, although his favorite songs aren't on it"".


== Reception ==


=== Commercial reception ===
Time Out of Mind was a commercial success for Dylan. It was widely hailed as Dylan's comeback album and U.S. sales soon passed platinum and stayed on best-selling charts for 29 weeks. In UK the sales passed gold. The album, in other countries also, managed to secure positions on best-selling charts and remained there for several weeks. Again the album's highest chart position worldwide was in Norway, where it peaked at No. 2.


=== Critical reception ===

Time Out of Mind received mostly positive reviews and began a renaissance of Dylan's career. In a 2018 retrospective for Pitchfork, Grayson Haver Currin wrote that the album ""would transform Dylan from seemingly obsolete icon to wise, wizened visionary almost overnight"". In his review for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau said, ""The hooks are Dylan's spectral vocals—just his latest ventriloquist's trick, a new take on ancient, yet so real, so ordained—and a band whose quietude evokes the sleepy postjunk funk of Clapton's 461 Ocean Boulevard without the nearness of sex"". He later regarded it as ""one of those nearness-of-death albums"", along with Mississippi John Hurt's Last Sessions (1972), Warren Zevon's The Wind (2003), Neil Young's Prairie Wind (2005), and Johnny Cash's American VI: Ain't No Grave (2010).
On the NY Rock website, Cook Young called the songs ""superb"". He described Time Out of Mind as ""a curious album. It's sort of two records mixed together. Half the songs compare to the introspective plaintive compositions that we witnessed on Blood on the Tracks. The other half are 12-bar blues ditties that often sound as if Bob is making 'em up as he goes"". ""Time Out of Mind is fantastic"", said Elvis Costello. ""I think it might be the best record he's made"".
Some critics criticized Lanois's production for, as Currin wrote, ""warping Dylan’s voice too much, for burying it in a cloud of effects"". AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote, ""Time Out of Mind has a grittier foundation—by and large, the songs are bitter and resigned, and Dylan gives them appropriately anguished performances. Lanois bathes them in hazy, ominous sounds, which may suit the spirit of the lyrics, but are often in opposition to Dylan's performances"". Michael Gray writes, ""The sound is elsewhere unhelpful too on Time Out of Mind. Some tracks have Dylan so buried in echo that there is no hope of hearing the detailing in his voice that was once so central and diamondlike a part of his genius"".

Alex Ross wrote:Everything on  Time Out of Mind goes under one dreamy, archaic mood. The album manages to skip the twentieth century: trains discourage gambling, people ride in buggies, there's no air-conditioning (""It's too hot to sleep""), church bells ring, ""gay"" means happy, the time of day is measured by the sun, lamps apparently run on gas (and are turned ""down low"") and, most of the time, the singer is walking. He is almost ready to stray into the rustic wasteland of Schubert's Winterreise, which opens with the Dylanesque lines ""I came here a stranger/ A stranger I depart."" The wistfulness is intense....The melancholy could become crushing, but Dylan doesn't let it. The best songs on Time Out of Mind are inexplicably funny; there's a wicked glee in the performance as Dylan manipulates the tatters of his voice, the scatterdness of his inspiration, the paralysis that might arise from his obsession with history, the prevailing image of himself as a mumbling curmudgeon.


== Aftermath and legacy ==
Shortly after completing the album, Dylan became seriously ill with near-fatal histoplasmosis. His forthcoming tour was canceled, and he spent most of June 1997 in excruciating pain. A potentially serious condition (caused by the fungal infection Histoplasma capsulatum), it makes breathing very difficult. ""It was something called histoplasmosis that came from just accidentally inhaling a bunch of stuff that was out on one of the rivers by where I live"", said Dylan. ""Maybe one month, or two to three days out of the year, the banks around the river get all mucky, and then the wind blows and a bunch of swirling mess is in the air. I happened to inhale a bunch of that. That's what made me sick. It went into my heart area, but it wasn't anything really attacking my heart"", Dylan told Guitar World magazine.
In light of Dylan's May 1997 health scare, a number of columnists, including Dylanologist A. J. Weberman, speculated that the songs on Time Out of Mind were inspired by an increased awareness of his own mortality. This was despite the fact that all of the songs were completed, recorded, and even mixed before he was hospitalized. In interviews following its release, Dylan dismissed these speculations.

Beside being ranked as number 410 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, in both Pazz & Jop's critics poll and Uncut magazine, Time Out of Mind was voted as album of the year. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. It was voted number 652 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000).
At least two artists have covered Time Out of Mind in its entirety: guitarist Stephen Michael (recording under the name ""Georgia Sam"") and Arve-Gunnar Heløy, who not only recorded every track but translated all of the lyrics into Norwegian.
Hip hop group Public Enemy referenced the album's title in their 2007 Dylan tribute song ""Long and Whining Road"": ""From basement tapes, beyond them dollars and cents / Changing of the guards spent, now where the hell the majors went? / Most of their time out of mind, hating my mess-age rhymes"".
A 2021 Irish Times article ranking all 39 of Dylan's studio albums placed Time Out of Mind first.
The National's Aaron Dessner has cited it as his favorite Dylan album.


=== 40th Grammy Awards ===
At the 1998 Grammy Awards, Time Out of Mind won in the categories of Album of the Year, Best Contemporary Folk Album and, for ""Cold Irons Bound"", Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. At the awards ceremony, Dylan performed the song ""Love Sick"". During the performance, Michael Portnoy, an American multimedia artist and choreographer, ripped off his shirt, ran up next to Dylan, and started dancing and contorting with the words ""Soy Bomb"" painted in black across his chest. Dylan shot an alarmed glance at Portnoy, but carried on playing. Portnoy continued to dance for about 40 seconds, until another of the background dancers escorted him off stage.


== Track listing ==
All songs written by Bob Dylan.


== Personnel ==
Bob Dylan – guitar, harmonica, piano, vocals, production
Additional musicians

Bucky Baxter – acoustic guitar, pedal steel on ""Standing in the Doorway"", ""Tryin' to Get to Heaven"", ""Not Dark Yet"" and ""Cold Irons Bound""
Brian Blade – drums on ""Love Sick"", ""Standing in the Doorway"", ""Million Miles"", ""'Til I Fell in Love with You"", ""Not Dark Yet"" and ""Can't Wait""
Robert Britt – Martin acoustic, Fender Stratocaster on ""Standing in the Doorway"", ""'Til I Fell in Love with You"", ""Not Dark Yet"" and ""Cold Irons Bound""
Cindy Cashdollar – slide guitar on ""Standing in the Doorway"", ""Tryin' to Get to Heaven"" and ""Not Dark Yet""
Jim Dickinson – keyboards, Wurlitzer electric piano, pump organ on ""Love Sick"", ""Dirt Road Blues"", ""Million Miles"", ""Tryin' to Get to Heaven"", ""Til I Fell in Love with You"", ""Not Dark Yet"", ""Can't Wait"" and ""Highlands""
Tony Garnier – bass guitar, upright bass
Jim Keltner – drums on ""Love Sick"", ""Standing in the Doorway"", ""Million Miles"", ""Tryin' to Get to Heaven"", ""'Til I Fell in Love with You"", ""Not Dark Yet"" and ""Can't Wait""
David Kemper – drums on ""Cold Irons Bound""
Daniel Lanois – guitar, mando-guitar, Firebird, Martin 0018, Gretsch gold top, rhythm guitar, lead guitar, production, photography
Tony Mangurian – percussion on ""Standing in the Doorway"", ""Million Miles"", ""Can't Wait"" and ""Highlands""
Augie Meyers – Vox organ combo, Hammond B3 organ, accordion
Duke Robillard – guitar, electric Gibson L-5 on ""Million Miles"", ""Tryin' to Get to Heaven"" and ""Can't Wait""
Winston Watson – drums on ""Dirt Road Blues""
Technical personnel

Chris Carrol – assistant engineering
Joe Gastwirt – mastering engineering
Mark Howard – engineering
Geoff Gans – art direction
Susie Q. – photography
Mark Seliger – photography


== Chart history ==


== Certifications ==


== See also ==
The Bootleg Series Vol. 8 – Tell Tale Signs: Rare and Unreleased 1989–2006 – 2008 compilation featuring demos and outtakes from the album
The Bootleg Series Vol. 17: Fragments – Time Out of Mind Sessions (1996–1997) – 2023 compilation featuring a remastered version of the studio album, and further demos and outtakes from the album


== References ==


== External links ==
Lyrics at Bob Dylan's official site"
List of people from Glasgow,"This list covers famous or notable people or groups who were born or raised in Glasgow, Scotland or have been connected with it.


== Arts ==


=== Architecture ===
David Hamilton – architect
Charles Rennie Mackintosh – architect and designer
Alexander ""Greek"" Thomson – architect


=== Film ===
Bill Forsyth – film director
May Miles Thomas – screenwriter, filmmaker


=== Journalism ===
Lawrence Donegan – journalist
Ross Finlay – motoring journalist, travel writer and broadcaster
Johann Hari – journalist
Jack House – journalist, writer and broadcaster
Andrew Marr – journalist, writer and television presenter
Jack Webster – journalist


=== Literature ===
Freddie Anderson – socialist playwright and poet originally from Ireland
James Bridie – playwright
Catherine Carswell – novelist and biographer of the Scottish Renaissance
A. J. Cronin – doctor and novelist
Ivor Cutler – poet, songwriter, humourist
Lavinia Derwent – children's writer
Alasdair Gray – artist, novelist and essayist
Pearse Hutchinson – poet
James Kelman – novelist
Tom Leonard – poet
Liz Lochhead – poet and playwright
Peter May – crime writer
Edwin Morgan – poet and translator
Grant Morrison – comic book author
Tony Roper – actor, television writer, author
Suhayl Saadi – physician, novelist, playwright, anthologist; co-editor of A Fictional Guide to Scotland
J David Simons – author
Alan Spence – novelist and poet
Nigel Tranter – historical novelist


=== Performing arts ===
Moyo Akandé – actress
John Barrowman – singer and actor (The Producers, Torchwood)
Sean Biggerstaff – actor (Harry Potter)
Billy Boyd – actor (The Lord of the Rings)
Frankie Boyle – comedian
Kevin Bridges – comedian
John Cairney – actor
Peter Capaldi – actor (The Thick of It, In The Loop, Doctor Who)
Robert Carlyle – actor (Trainspotting, The World Is Not Enough)
Lawrence Chaney – drag queen and winner of the second series of RuPaul's Drag Race UK
Morven Christie – actress
Robbie Coltrane – actor (Harry Potter, Cracker)
Billy Connolly – comedian (The Man Who Sued God)
Kate Copstick – actress and director
Tony Curran – actor
Iain De Caestecker – actor (The Fades, Young James Herriot, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.)
Karen Dunbar – comedian and actress
Craig Ferguson – actor and writer
Gregor Fisher – comedian
Laura Fraser – actress
Rikki Fulton – comedian
Michelle Gomez – actress (Doctor Who, Green Wing)
Greg Hemphill – actor
Olaf Hytten – actor
Ford Kiernan – actor
Gary Lewis – actor
Brian Limond – comedian and actor
Marie Loftus – music hall entertainer
Kelly Macdonald – actress (Trainspotting, Boardwalk Empire)
Angus Macfadyen – actor
Freya Mavor – actress (Skins)
James McAvoy – actor
David McCallum – actor, first noted for playing secret agent Illya Kuryakin
Rory McCann – actor
Jane McCarry – actress
Joe McFadden – actor (Holby City, Heartbeat)
Des McLean – comedian and actor
Graham McTavish – actor
Alec Newman – actor
David O'Hara – actor
Daniel Portman – actor
Richard Rankin – actor
Maurice Roëves – actor
Jerry Sadowitz – comedian
John Gordon Sinclair – actor
Dawn Steele – actress
Brian Vernel – actor
Susan Calman – comedian and actor
Jonathan Watson – actor


=== Visual arts ===
Jacqueline Donachie – artist
Hannah Frank – artist and sculptor
John Glashan – cartoonist
Lucy McKenzie – artist
Bud Neill – cartoonist (Lobey Dosser)
Cordelia Oliver – artist, writer and art critic
Frank Quitely – comic book artist
Joseph Urie – artist


== Business ==
William Beardmore – Beardmores, Parkhead Forge, Arrol-Johnston motor company
George Bogle of Daldowie – wealthy tobacco merchant
Sir William Burrell – shipping magnate and philanthropist
Catherine Cranston – tearoom proprietor
William Cunninghame – tobacco merchant
John Glassford – wealthy tobacco merchant, partner in Thistle Bank
Sir Thomas Lipton – entrepreneur, Lipton Tea
Norman Macfarlane, Baron Macfarlane of Bearsden – entrepreneur
James McAlpin – merchant tailor
James McGill – businessman and philanthropist
Robert Napier – co-founder of Cunard Line
Reo Stakis – entrepreneur
Charles Tennant – St. Rollox Chemicals Works


== Civic ==


=== Founder ===
Saint Mungo – traditional founder of the city


=== Campaigners ===
Mary Barbour
Ian Dunn – gay and paedophile rights activist
Deborah Knox Livingston – temperance and suffrage activist


=== Crime and punishment ===
Ian Brady – violent criminal
Archibald Hall – murderer
Allan Pinkerton – detective
Edward William Pritchard – murderer who was publicly executed in Glasgow and was the last person to be publicly executed in Scotland


=== Law ===
Madge Easton Anderson – lawyer


=== Provosts ===

George Elphinstone (died 1634) – Lord Provost and courtier


== Education ==
Mary Ellen Bews – New Zealand school principal and educationalist, born in Glasgow
Mary Cranston Mason (1846–1932) – social reformer, temperance leader, Glasgow school board member


== Humanities ==
David Stow Adam – theologian
C. A. Campbell – metaphysical philosopher
William Purdie Dickson – scholar
Niall Ferguson – historian and writer
William MacAskill – philosopher and ethicist
Alasdair MacIntyre – philosopher


== Fictional figures ==
Scrooge McDuck – fictional multi-billionaire cartoon duck
Desmond Hume – fictional character in the TV series Lost.


== Military ==
William Anderson – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Andrew Bogle – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Robert Downie – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Francis Farquharson – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Herbert Henderson – recipient of the Victoria Cross
John Knox – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Donald MacKintosh – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Henry May – recipient of the Victoria Cross
John McAulay – recipient of the Victoria Cross
John McDermond – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Hugh McInnes – recipient of the Victoria Cross
James Miller – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Sir John Moore – British military officer
James Park – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Harry Ranken – recipient of the Victoria Cross
William Reid – recipient of the Victoria Cross
Walter Ritchie – recipient of the Victoria Cross
George Rodgers – recipient of the Victoria Cross
John Skinner – recipient of the Victoria Cross
James Stokes – recipient of the Victoria Cross
James Turnbull – recipient of the Victoria Cross
William Young – recipient of the Victoria Cross


== Musicians and bands ==


== Politics ==
Bashir Ahmad – first Asian MSP
Mhairi Black – youngest Member of Parliament (MP) elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom since at the Reform Act 1832
Sir Menzies Campbell – Leader of the Liberal Democrats (2006–2007)
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman – British prime minister
Roseanna Cunningham – Scottish National Party MP, MSP
Donald Dewar – Secretary of State for Scotland, First Minister
Pearse Doherty – Sinn Féin politician
Winnie Ewing – Scottish National Party MP, MEP and MSP
Margaret Ferrier – Scottish National Party MP
George Galloway – MP for Glasgow Hillhead (1987–97) and Glasgow Kelvin (1997–2005)
Nigel Griffiths – Labour Member of Parliament for Edinburgh South
Arthur Henderson – Chairman of the Labour Party
Bonar Law – British prime minister
John MacCormick – Scottish National Party
Sir John A. Macdonald – first Prime Minister of Canada
John Maclean – Socialist
Michael Martin – Speaker of the House of Commons
James Maxton – Independent Labour Party MP
Tommy Sheridan – Scottish Socialist Party MSP
Manny Shinwell – Labour MP
Nicola Sturgeon – Scottish First Minister and leader of the Scottish National Party (2014–2023)
Humza Yousaf – Scottish First Minister and leader of the Scottish National Party


== Sports ==


=== Athletics ===
Angela Bridgeman – sprinter


=== Baseball ===
Mac MacArthur – Major League Baseball player
Jim McCormick – baseball player
Bobby Thomson – baseball player


=== Boxing ===
Scott Harrison – boxer
Benny Lynch – boxer
Jim Watt – boxer


=== Cricket ===
James Stewart Carrick (1855–1923) – first-class cricketer
William Foster (born 1934) – first-class cricketer
David Livingstone (1927–2011) – international cricketer for Scotland


=== Cycling ===
Philippa York – cyclist


=== Football ===

Eddie Austin – forward
Jen Beattie – defender
Ralph Black – defender
Tom Boyd – defender
Jim Craig – defender and manager
Graeme Churchill – striker
Paddy Crerand – midfielder, manager, and sports commentator
Sir Kenny Dalglish – forward and manager
Tommy Docherty – midfielder and manager
Sir Alex Ferguson – forward and manager
Alexander Watson Hutton – teacher and founder of the Argentine Football Association
Mo Johnston – forward
Ruesha Littlejohn – forward and midfielder
Ross McCormack – striker
James McFadden – forward
Frank McGarvey – forward
Danny McGrain – defender and manager
Jimmy McGrory – forward and manager
Andrew Robertson – defender
Peter Sermanni – midfielder
Robert Snodgrass – midfielder and forward
Jock Stein – defender and manager
David Templeton – forward
John Wark – midfielder


=== Golf ===
Ewen Ferguson – professional golfer
Kylie Henry – professional golfer
Martin Laird – professional golfer
Colin Montgomerie – professional golfer
Janice Moodie – professional golfer
Edith Orr – amateur golfer


=== Ice hockey ===
Andy Aitkenhead – ice hockey player
Gordie Clark – ice hockey player
James Foster – ice hockey player
Alex Gray – ice hockey player
Frank Jardine – ice hockey player
Colin Shields – ice hockey player
Steve Smith – ice hockey player


=== Rugby union ===
Adam Ashe – rugby union player and coach
Johnnie Beattie – rugby union player
Magnus Bradbury – rugby union player
Alan Bulloch – rugby union player
Gordon Bulloch – rugby union player
Thomas Chalmers – rugby union player
Rory Hughes – rugby union player
James Malcolm – rugby union player
Duncan Weir – rugby union player
Jon Welsh – rugby union player


=== Snooker ===
Marcus Campbell – professional snooker player
Stephen Maguire – professional snooker player
Anthony McGill – professional snooker player
Alan McManus – professional snooker player


=== Swimming ===
Michael Jamieson – swimmer
Duncan Scott – swimmer


=== Tennis ===
Andy Murray – Olympic tennis player


=== Wrestling ===
Nikki Cross – professional wrestler
Joe Coffey – professional wrestler
Mark Coffey – professional wrestler
Wolfgang – professional wrestler
Isla Dawn – professional wrestler


== Science and engineering ==
June Almeida – virologist
Joseph Black – physicist and chemist
Phillip Clancey – ornithologist
Thomas Hopkirk – botanist
Ronald David Laing – psychiatrist
Elizabeth Janet MacGregor – medical doctor
David Napier – marine engineer
Robert Napier – marine engineer, co-founder of Cunard Line
James Beaumont Neilson – inventor
Sir William Ramsay – chemist
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin – mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer
James Watt – engineer
Nora Wattie – public health pioneer
John Scott Russell – naval engineer
Charles Macintosh – inventor
William Wright Virtue – engineer


== References =="
"Arroyo Seco, Querétaro","Arroyo Seco is a town in Arroyo Seco Municipality located in the far north of the Mexican state of Querétaro. Its territory is part of the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro. The municipality is centered on the small town of Arroyo Seco, which was established as a military outpost then given town status in 1833 under the name of Villa de Guadalupe before changing to its current name. The town gained municipal status in 1931. The area is very rural with most people living in communities of under 100 people, with significant Pame communities. It has a traditional economy based on agriculture, livestock and forestry but it is also one of the poorest in Mexico, with high rates of emigration, especially sending migrant workers to the United States. It is estimated that one in four households in the municipality receives money from family members in this country. The municipality is also home to one of five Franciscan mission complexes built under the tenure of Junípero Serra, located in the community of Concá.


== The town ==
Arroyo Seco is a small town of about three hundred homes centered on a plaza named after Mariano Escobedo. The town originated as a military outpost called the Presido de Arroyo Seco. It became the seat of the municipality of the same name in 1931.
The houses are painted in various colors and its streets are quiet. The town is home to all municipal services and has the most developed infrastructure and social services in the area.  This includes the Casa de Cultura cultural center, an auditorium and a library. The Mariano Escobedo plaza has an “oriental” style kiosk surrounded by large trees. On one side the main parish church called the Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe dominates. This church was begun in 1904 and was supposed to be much larger than it is, but construction was suspended due to the Mexican Revolution. It has an austere facade and the interior has black pews. The most important yearly event in the municipal seat is the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe on 12 December.
Handcrafts such as saddles, leather goods and wooden barrels for water storage can be found in the town.


== Geography ==

The municipality is part of the Sierra Gorda region, which is centered on northern Querétaro state. This region is a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental, consisting of mountain chains that parallel the Gulf of Mexico. This land was sea bed 100 million years ago, which formed ancient sedimentary rock, mostly limestone, which easily erodes. This makes the area part of the Huasteca Karst Arroyo Seco is completely within the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve of Querétaro, which was established in 1997.
Most of the territory is mountainous, with gradients of over 25%. Altitudes in the territory range from 560 to 1340 masl with an average of 980masl. The mountain formations are subdivided into two parts. The first is a corridor along the border with Jalpan which is over forty km long and five km wide. This area has some very low valleys of only 700 masl. The second area is more rugged with canyons of up to 600 meters deep and peaks which reach over 2000 masl. There are a number of flat areas and valleys which are mostly along the Ayutla and Concá rivers. The principal elevations are Santo Domingo, Cantera, Cofradía, Soledad and Pitorreal.
The terrain is composed of sedimentary rock, mostly layers of limestone, which present on the surface with medium or fine grain and sometimes as clay. It, like most of the Sierra Gorda, is on former sea bed from 150 million years ago. Recently, Arroyo Seco and other municipalities of the Sierra Gorda have reported numerous small earthquakes.  According to seismologists, these are caused by the movement of water through sedimentary rock. Erosion causes gaps and then the gaps settle onto themselves, causing the small quakes. One thing scientists are checking for is to see if any areas stand over underground cavities which may give way.
The area's location over the Huasteca Karst and the erosion of limestone has given rise to numerous pit caves. The largest of these in the Sierra Gorda is located in Arroyo Seco, called the Sótano de Barro, located in the Santa María de los Cocos community. The Sótano del  Barro is one of the largest cavities of the world by volume, measuring 15 million cubic metres, surpassed only the Sima Mayor de Sarisariñama in Venezuela. In comparison, the Sótano de Las Golondrinas has a volume of only five million meters cubed. Its widest diameter measures 420 meters and its average width is 200 meters. It has a total depth of 455 meters with a direct drop of 410 meters. Its perimeter is surrounded by dense vegetation, which is a sanctuary for green macaws. It requires a walk or mule ride of about two hours through dense forest to reach. The walls of the pit cave are mostly vertical and partially covered by vegetation. At the bottom of the cave there is a small forest on a floor which was sea bed 100 million years ago, which measures 220 meters long and 100 meters wide. Despite its depth, the bottom of the pit cave receives an abundance of sunlight allowing for the growth of trees and other vegetation, making it an isolated mini forest.  The bottom also has a number of small caves, with the largest fifty meters long. This pit cave has been classified as the deepest in the world although this has recently been challenged by those who wish to include those pit caves which are not continuous such as the Stary Swistak in Austria, which has a total depth of 480 meters.


=== Hydrography ===
Principal river systems include the Santa María, the Ayutla River and the Jalpan River with their tributaries such as the Concá River in the south of the municipality. The Santa María enters the municipality from San Luis Potosí and flows along a 400 meter deep canyon until it merges with the Ayutla River. This river flows northeast, forming another canyon then merges with the Jalpan River. There are about 100 accessible sources of water in the municipality with most located in the communities of Salitrillo, Concá and Ayutla.  The municipality is home to the junction of two of the major rivers of the Sierra Gorda, the Santa María and the Ayutla River at a location called Las Adjuntas. The Santa María River here flows warm to hot in the summer and the Ayutla River remains cold.  Although the two rivers have different water colors and temperatures, both are regulated by the surrounding environment.  The Santa María River has a number of beaches which are open to camping. There is also sports fishing of native catfish. The northern border of the municipality is partially formed by the Verde River. The Concá Waterfall is located just south of the town of the same name. This waterfall is fed by a fresh water spring and falls into the Santa María River.  Despite the name (which means dry stream or dry arroyo), most of the arroyos in the area have water in them most of the year. The municipality has ten easily accessible sources of surface water. However, the over extraction of water has led to dropping water tables and many of the area's fresh water springs are flowing at slower rates or have dried up.


=== Climate ===
The municipality divides into two climate regions. The north is semi arid with an average temperature of 22C and an annual rainfall of between five and 10.5mm per falling mostly in the summer. The other is semi hot with average temperatures varying from 18 to 22C with rains in the summer.  In the winter, the area is vulnerable to cold spells, brought in by cold fronts that arrive from the north and west. The cold spells do not usually reach freezing as the municipality does not have the high peaks that neighbors such as Pinal de Amoles does, but snow mixed with rain fell in 2006 and in 2010, freezing temperatures did reach communities such as La Florida and San Juan Buenaventura. Very cold temperatures can prompt emergency services such as the provision of blankets by the municipality's civil protection service or evacuation to shelters. Communities which are most vulnerable to severe cold include La Sanguijuela, La Escondida de Guadalupe, La Cantera, Río del Carrizal and El Durazno. The area has had problems with droughts over the past decade, especially in 2009, which have been draining reserves and aquifers. The lack of water has caused the deaths of livestock and forced more people to emigrate from the municipality. Many communities now must rely on water trucked in from outside.


=== Flora and fauna ===
Vegetation on the limestone and other sedimentary soils ranges from lowland rainforest to grasslands to scrub brush in more arid areas. In forested areas, the trees include oaks, pines, white cedar, strawberry trees and oyamels. In the drier areas, there are also mesquite trees with some other desert plants including cactus. In the lowest elevations there are tropical hardwoods such as red cedar, Montezuma cypress and a tree called the “parota.” Wildlife mostly consists of birds and mammals such as doves, quails, chachalacas, eagles, roadrunners, and some waterfowl. Mammals include squirrels, rabbits, armadillos, white-tailed deer, foxes, coyotes, wild boar, pumas, raccoons, skunks, and opossums. There are some reptiles such as rattlesnakes and coral snakes.


== Culture ==
The most popular traditional music is Huapango, especially Huapango arribeño.  It is most often played in “topadas” a type of musical duel between two musicians competing on improvisation of lyrics and melodies. Many of the songs are about history, arte and current events. In 2006, Guadalupe Reyes Reyes from El Refugio won the Premio Nacional de Ciencias y Artes in the Popular Arts category. He won the award for his contributions to Huapango arribeño. Reyes formed the band, Los Reyes de El Refugio and their work mostly focuses on rural life in the Sierra Gorda. He was born 1931, but had to work at farming early, learning to read and write mostly on his own. He was taught guitar and found he had musical ability, becoming a cantor at the local church when he was 14.
Typical dishes include jerky, cecina, “Serrano” style enchiladas and pit cooked barbacoa. Sweets include “chancaquillas” which is made with piloncillo and squash seeds. Beverages include aguamiel and pulque along with atole with sunflower seeds.
The various communities have festivals in honor of local patron saints, but the most important festival in the municipality is that honoring the Archangel Michael on 29 September. It is celebrated with street fairs and crafts exhibitions.


== The mission church of Concá ==

The mission complex at Concá is one of five Franciscan missions which were built under the direction of Junípero Serra in the mid-to-late 18th century. The missions were the last in a long line of evangelization efforts in the Sierra Gorda, which were resisted by the indigenous peoples, especially the Chichimeca Jonaz for about two centuries. This resistance was militarily broken at the Battle of Media Luna in 1748. To consolidate Spanish dominance, the Franciscans under Serra had these churches with elaborate Baroque facades built in the heart of the Sierra Gorda. In addition to Concá, churches were built in Jalpan, Tancoyol, Landa and Tilaco. The facades are notable not only for their profuse decoration, but also for the appearance of a number of indigenous elements.
The Concá mission is the smallest of the five, but between 1754 and 1758 by José Antonio de Murguía and Joaquin Fernández Osorio. It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, with the theme of the facade being “The Victory of the Faith.” It is considered to have the most indigenous elements,  with many of its elements showing the more brusque work characteristic of indigenous decoration. More obvious is an image of the Holy Trinity at the crest, which is accompanied by a rabbit and a two-headed eagle, which are Pame symbols.  Also prominent are the coat of arms of the Franciscan order, grapevines, two headed eagles, with the Virgin of Guadalupe and Our Lady of the Pillar, the patronesses of Mexico and Spain respectively.
After the missions were turned over to secular clergy, many indigenous abandoned them, a process that would continue with the Mexican War of Independence and Mexican Revolution, when the churches all suffered deterioration and sacking. Restoration of the churches began starting in 1979 until the 2000s. The five where inscribed together as a World Heritage Site in 2003.


== History ==
The town was originally known as the Presidio de Arroyo Seco, a military outpost.  In 1833, missionary Francisco Cano Santander gave it the ecclesiastical name of Villa de Guadalupe which was the town's formal name until 1840, which it was changed to the current one. Its coat of arms has three parts. The first represents the Cross of the Holy Trinity with hands representing the indigenous peoples and the evangelizers. The second is the rabbit which appears on the facade of the mission church of Concá. This rabbit is the only one to appear on the five mission churches. The third is an arroyo from which the name comes.

Arroyo Seco is part of the heart of the Sierra Gorda. This region has been occupied for about 6000 years. In the Pre Classic and Classic periods, the Sierra Gorda had a number of small cities as the climate at that time was wetter than it is now. Most of the larger cities were south of the current municipalities due to mining activities and major trade routes, but there were cities and trade routes through here as well, connecting the area mostly with Huasteca areas to the east and other areas to the north. As the climate of the Sierra Gorda dried out in the early Post Classic period, cities were abandoned for simpler hunter gatherer communities and there were migrations of Chichimecas, mostly Pames and Chichimeca Jonaz from the north. Arroyo Seco would become Pame territory. In the late pre Hispanic period, the Sierra Gorda had incursions from both the Purépecha and Aztecs from as early as 1400, attracted by the area's mineral deposits, but neither had true dominance as the Chichimecas fiercely opposed them. In the 15th century, the area was marginally dominated by the Oxitipa dominion, which was conquered by Moctezuma Ilhuicama and the Pames. This officially converted the area into an Aztec tributary state, but the Aztecs never truly had control.
The Spanish made incursions into the Sierra Gorda early in the colonial period, but the Chichimeca, especially the Jonaz just to the south, put up fierce resistance to their intrusions. This would keep the Spanish from fully dominating the area for two hundred years.
In 1532, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán entered the Sierra Gorda and conquered it but did not hold it. From that time until the 18th century, there had been a number of missions established by the Franciscans and the Augustinians, but these missions were either destroyed by the Chichimecas or the population would flee from them and move into more inaccessible mountains and canyons. The first Spanish population in the Arroyo Seco area was in San Nicolás Concá, established as an encomienda under Pedro Guzmán between 1533 and 1538. This territory extended over much of the Sierra Gorda and into what is now San Luis Potosí. In 1587, Concá and Jalpan had missions established in them by the Augustinians from Xilitla.  In 1601, friar Lucas de los Ángeles from the Xichú monastery preached in the area with limited success. In 1609, viceroy Luis de Velasco ordered that the Franciscans leave missionary work to the Augustinians, including the Arroyo Seco area. However, Franciscans from Michoacán stayed and worked with the Augustinians. Those who lasted longest in the area were those who learned the Pame language and learned to live with Pame customs.
The Spanish would break Chichimeca resistance in the Sierra Gorda in the 1740s, with the expeditions of José de Escandón, culminating in the Battle of Media Luna. To solidify these military gains, Franciscans founded new missions in this and other areas of northern Querétaro, the heart of the Sierra Gorda. These missions were taken over by Junípero Serra starting in 1750, who decided to have elaborate mission complexes built in five locations, one of which is in the municipality at Concá. In addition to evangelization, the missions worked to group the semi nomadic Pames into permanent communities centered on churches.
There was one battle here during the Mexican Revolution when forces under General Saturnino Cedillo and Coronel Marcial Cevallos took over the Concá Hacienda in 1918. The town of Arroyo Seco itself was also attacked by General Cedillo, who killed many non-combatants, sacked and burned the town. In retaliation, forces loyal to Venustiano Carranza recruited soldiers from Arroyo Seco and defeated Cedillo at the Laguna de Concá.
The town gained municipal status in 1933. At first the new municipality was governed by a committee headed by Antonio Rubio Chávez but the first municipal president, C. Angel Torres Montes, was elected in 1935.
In 1994, the municipality decided to build a garbage dump near the archeological zone of San Rafael without informing the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). Since 2006, it has been known that the dump sits on the southern part of the site proper and that the digging of the dump site is estimated to have destroyed between eight and ten pyramids.  More vestiges of the site lie 300 meters below the dump. The municipality promised for years to move the facility and from 2006, state and federal authorities have promised to replace it with a new one farther away. However, as of 2009, the dump is still operating taking on as much as forty tons of trash per week, as the new facility was not yet finished. In 2007, a smaller, above ground dump appeared in the same area, within sight of visible ruins. During this time, acids and other substances produced by the pit have probably caused damage to the limestone of the site, eating away at structures made of the substance. The site belongs to the Río Verde Culture and its estimated to extend over 10km2. Its importance has been compared to that of Tamtoc in San Luis Potosí .
In 1998, forests in the municipality were among those in five states destroyed by wildfires. In total, 180 hectares (440 acres) were burned. The fires were due to freezing conditions in the prior winter which dried out grasslands.
In the latter 2000s, the municipality has been struggling with water shortages due to drought conditions.  The lack of water has caused the deaths of livestock and forced more people to emigrate from the municipality. Many communities now must rely on water trucked in from outside. As of 2007, sixteen out of forty six communities in the municipality have significant problems with water shortages. The government states that this is because a number of wells are drying up and there is insufficient distribution. In the second largest community of Purísima de Arista, about half of the residents experience water shortages. In 2009, the municipality had number of cases of cattle dying due to bites from “vampire” bats which were transmitting a type of paralytic rabies. The bats were coming from caves located in neighboring Guanajuato.
From the latter 2000s to the present, Arroyo Seco and the rest of the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro have been experiencing numerous small earthquakes, with most registering from 2.5 to 3.5 on the Richter scale, generally imperceptible to humans. Seismologists say that while the number has been unusual, such activity is not and is due to the settling of the sedimentary rock which is below most of the Sierra Gorda region. However, Arroyo Seco and other municipalities have seismographs installed to monitor the situation.
The municipality's recent history also includes the mass migration out by many of its working aged people due to lack of economic opportunity. Most have gone to the United States with as much as forty percent of the municipality's population living in the country alone. The money that these workers send back home have significantly changed the local economy, as it is larger than the locally generated economy and larger than annual municipal budget.  The migration has caused municipality schools, especially primary schools to lose students as they leave for the United States with their parents.
In 2006, the municipality elected its first non-PRI municipal president since the Mexican Revolution, a former migrant worker by the name of Mariano Palacios Trejo, from the PRD .
Construction of a military base was begun in early 2011 at a 3-hectare (7.4-acre) site. The base is one of three being built to work against drug trafficking and other crimes along the Querétaro/San Luis Potosí border. This base is part of the 17th Military Zone to patrol the Querétaro-San Luis Potosí border. The military is there to countering drug trafficking in the area as the region does not have the resources for local police forces.


== Economy and tourism ==
The municipality is one of the most economically marginalized in the state, with the Secretaría de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL) cataloging it as one of the 200 most socioeconomically marginalized in the country. This is the main reason why Arroyo Seco and other municipalities in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro have high rates of emigration. It is not known exactly how many have left or how many come back at the end of the year to visit family, but Arroyo Seco estimates that about forty percent of its population is living somewhere in the United States. The amount sent back in remittances is also not known, but it has been estimated at between 50,000 and US$100,000 per day or about US$18 million per year to the Sierra Gorda alone, based on money exchanges made in the main city of Jalpan de Serra. This amount supersedes the annual municipal budget of Arroyo Seco and other area municipalities and generally superseded money generated by municipal economies. In Arroyo Seco, one in four homes is supported by dollars sent home by family in the United States. These migrants not only provide remittances directly to their families, they have also formed clubs with the purpose of promoting infrastructure projects in their home communities. The Club de Migrantes de la Sierra Gorda is an association of twenty seven of these clubs from various municipalities, with three from Arroyo Seco. Most of the projects are related paving, water distribution and sewerage/drainage. These dollars are often matched through a program sponsored by the Mexican federal government.  Many businesses in the municipality and the rest of the Sierra Gorda  take the dollar as currency, especially at the end of the year when many come to the area to visit family. Arroyo Seco has one of the highest rates of emigration in Querétaro. Arroyo Seco is one of the sponsors of the Día del Paisano to honor returning migrant workers in Jalpan de Serra. This events includes parades and raffles.
Because of this emigration, only 23.36% of the total population is economically active, mostly employed in traditional economic activities, such as agriculture, livestock, forestry and general commerce. About twenty percent of the total population works at home for no pay. Women make up only 22% of the paid workforce. Most of those who are not economically active are students and housewives.
Most of the territory is used for pasture and forestry, with total about ninety percent. The rest is used for agriculture, most of which is done only during the rainy season. Just over 43% of the economically active are working agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing.  Thirty of the municipality's communities engage in agriculture to some degree with most of the production for self consumption. The soil is fertile although it is sometimes hard with some drainage problems. These problems are greatest where the topsoil is less than ten centimeters. One problem with agriculture here is that the soil erodes easily.  Fruit trees include mango, oranges, limes, bananas, guavas, avocados and papaya. Other crops such as sugar cane, corn, beans, green chili peppers, cascabel chili peppers, tomatoes, watermelon, squash, chickpeas, sorghum, barley  and pitahaya. Most livestock is raised in the communities of El Refugio, San Juan Buenaventura, La Florida, San José de la Flores, Río de Carrizal, Ayutla, Salitrillo and Tepame. Most livestock is cattle with some sheep and goats.
The forests of the municipality make up about sixteen percent of the state's forest resources and cover 54% of the municipality. Over eighty percent of the forest is made up solely of broad-leafed trees with most of the rest a mix of broad-leafed and conifers. Logging is limited because of the tropical hardwoods here and conservation efforts related to the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve, but it still makes up over 15% of the state's total. About 19% of the forested lands are used for grazing. Fish farming is a growing segment of the economy, especially in communities near rivers such as Río del Carrizal, Concá, Vegas Cuatas and Ayutla. 
About 25% are working in mining, construction, utilities and manufacturing.
Commerce, transportation and services employ about eighteen percent. There are about 140 people dedicated to commerce, most of which is small grocery stores. Supermarkets and other similar stores are located in neighboring San Luis Potosí in Río Verde and San Ciro. Tourism is a small percentage of the economy, mostly based on the mission church at Concá and some resort hotels opened in recent years. People also visit to see the 1000-year-old Montezuma Bald Cypress (Taxodium mucronatum), called the Árbol Milenario or Millennium Tree. Its trunk has the second largest diameter in Mexico after the Tule tree in Oaxaca, requiring twenty two children linking hands to surround it. From its roots flows one of the fresh water springs of the community. During the colonial period, there were several haciendas in the municipality. One of these was San Nicolás de Concá, which still has abundant vegetation, a large fresh water spring and hiking trails. The main house has been converted into a hotel, conserving part of the original structure made of adobe, with rustic stairs, wooden roof beams and gardens. The San Nicolas Conca hotel has fifty rooms and is owned by an American by the name of Sharpton. The hacienda was originally dedicated to sugar cane and dates from the 18th century.
The El Abanico water park has two swimming pools, a wading pool, restaurant and gardens and areas for camping. It is located next to the Concá Hacienda.
The Hotel Ayutla water park has two swimming pools, three wading pools, sports fields, picnic areas, restaurant, gardens and areas to camp.


== Archeology ==
The San Rafael site was first documented in 1939 by the Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. Some work was done on the site by archeologists such as Dominique Michelet for about a decade. This work determined that the site was occupied from 200 to 900 CE as a Mesoamerican city with temples, plazas, patios and residences located around four Mesoamerican ball courts. The city was a regional seat of government with strong Huasteca influence. It had a total of 250 buildings even larger than the better known sites of Las Ranas and Toluquilla .
Eight to ten structures are considered destroyed and more may have suffered irreversible damage by acids eating way the limestone blocks. As of 2006, the limits of the sites have still not been defined. The vestiges of the site lie about three hundred meters below the dump. The site belongs to the Río Verde Culture and its estimated to extend over 10km2. Its importance has been compared to that of Tamtoc in San Luis Potosí.


== References =="
Thomas Quinlan (impresario),"Thomas Quinlan, (10 March 1881, Bury – 20 November 1951, Holborn) was a musical impresario, best known for founding the Quinlan Opera Company.


== Early life and career ==
Thomas Quinlan was the son of Dennis Quinlan, a railway clerk, and Ellen Quinlan, née Carroll. He was the eldest of five children.
Quinlan studied as an accountant, and in 1901 he was company secretary of the Withnell Brick company. He also trained as a baritone; he was first coached by Granville Bantock, and later studied for the operatic stage under Victor Maurel. He began music management in 1906, touring among others Enrico Caruso, Fritz Kreisler, John Philip Sousa and including a Nellie Melba tour of Ireland in 1908.
On 4 July 1907 he married Dora Collins (daughter of James Collins, a tea merchant) at St Peter and St Edward Church, 43 Palace Street, Pimlico, London SW1. The witnesses were Gertrude Browning and the pianist Angelo Fronani, who married the opera singer Zélie de Lussan in 1907.


== 1910 ==
In 1910 London heard – or had the opportunity of hearing – more opera than ever before in its history. Between mid-February and New Year's Eve, Sir Thomas Beecham either conducted or was responsible as impresario for 190 performances at Covent Garden Opera House and His Majesty's Theatre.
Beecham extended his dream into the provinces with The Beecham Opera Comique Company. As his manager, he chose Quinlan. The company would present two ""tuneful lightweights"" as he called them, The Tales of Hoffmann and Die Fledermaus. The latter was known at first as ""The Bat"", but soon it became ""A Viennese Masquerade"" and then it was dropped, Hoffmann being given exclusively. Some cities experienced one or both operas for the first time. Six evening and one or two matinee performances were given weekly in thirteen cities during the autumn segment (Blackpool, Belfast, Dublin, London, Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Newcastle upon Tyne, Leeds, Nottingham, Birmingham and Brighton) with fourteen more after Christmas (Swansea, Fulham, Bournemouth, Dublin, Southampton, Leicester, Wolverhampton, Hull, Manchester, Sheffield, Bristol, Cardiff, Plymouth, and Portsmouth).


== 1911 ==
Quinlan then decided to set up his own company, feeling that the provinces and ""the dominions beyond the seas"", as he told J.D. Fitzgerald in an interview in The Lone Hand in Sydney, had never had the chance of hearing grand opera on the same scale as Covent Garden. In 1911 the Quinlan Opera Company was formed in Liverpool. Quinlan personally supervised everything, casting the operas himself, and seeing every act of every opera before it was presented to the public.
The company rehearsed in London for five months before touring the provinces, (opening in Liverpool, where the results exceeded Quinlan's expectations), making a visit to Ireland with performances at the Theatre Royal Dublin from 26 December 1911 to 9 January 1912, and then setting off for Australia for the 1912 season. In February 1912 the company performed in South Africa (Cape Town and Johannesburg) on their way to Australia.


== 1912 ==
The first week of the 1912 season presented in conjunction with the Australian impresario J. C. Williamson, at Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne, put up a record still unbroken and likely to remain so: four Australian premieres in eight days. The company opened on Saturday, 8 June (having only arrived in the country the previous Wednesday), with a gala premiere of The Tales of Hoffmann, followed on the Monday by the first performance in Australia of the Paris version of Tannhäuser, the Australian premiere of La fanciulla del West on the Tuesday, another performance of Hoffmann on the Wednesday, Rigoletto on the Thursday, the Australian premiere of Tristan und Isolde on the Friday, and the Australian premiere of The Prodigal Son by Debussy as part of a double bill with Hänsel und Gretel on the Saturday afternoon, with Hoffmann again that night. This quick start and rate of bringing forward new productions was only possible because this was a complete company, with its own chorus and orchestra – the only one to visit Australia – and had already performed all its repertoire in England and South Africa on its way to Australia.
The Australian tour was limited to just ten weeks (five in Melbourne and five in Sydney). The presentation of fifteen operas, four of them new, in just under five weeks, in itself provided plenty of variety. The remaining operas were Die Walküre, Aida, La Bohème, Carmen, Lohengrin, Madama Butterfly, Faust and La traviata.
The artists were mostly British, with two returning Australian singers, Lalla Miranda and Julia Caroli. The company also included the British tenor John Coates and Britain's leading dramatic soprano, Agnes Nicholls. There was a total of 163 people in the party (plus a three-year-old child for Butterfly), including the permanent orchestra of 55 and a chorus of 60, and there were three conductors: Ernst Knoch for the Wagner operas, Hoffmann, Hansel and Gretel and Carmen; Tullio Voghera, who had conducted at the Met and been Caruso's accompanist, from the Royal Swedish Opera, for the Italian repertoire, and English composer/conductor Hubert Bath, who conducted the opening of Faust and took over other operas later in the run. He was also chorus-master.
Staging and presentation were of a high standard, under the direction of Louis P. Verande (assisted by George King), from Covent Garden where he had been responsible for the staging of Thomas Beecham's controversial 1910 Salome. Verande also had extensive Continental and American experience. All the costumes were designed by Dorothy Carleton Smyth from Glasgow, an authority on historical pageant and theatrical costumes, who travelled with the company. Quinlan pointed out that she concentrated on a harmoniously blended colour scheme, eschewing extraneous spangles and similar gewgaws. The sets for all the operas were designed by Oliver Percy Bernard, from the Boston Opera, and set models for the Puccini operas were first passed by the composer; while Humperdinck, Debussy, Cosima Wagner, Ricordi and other authorities lent their assistance with others. Quinlan claimed the largest scenic studio in England and said that a great deal of research had been done on the historical accuracy of stage accessories. The cost of moving the company and all the baggage – 365 tons of scenery, props and costumes – around the world was £100,000.
Except for Lalla Miranda, who had concert engagements in Brisbane, the company sailed for England on the day after the last performance, visiting Melbourne on the way for a Town Hall concert. Quinlan promised to return the following year, and to bring back not only the complete Ring Cycle, but also The Mastersingers and Louise.


== 1913–1914 ==
After their return to England in 1912, the company undertook a provincial tour (including a performance in Newcastle in March 1913), followed by visits to Ireland (with a performance at the Theatre Royal, Dublin on 14 May 1913) and South Africa (June to July 1913) on the way back to Australia, staging the first complete Ring Cycle in Australia.
Although the Ring, with Edna Thornton, was the highlight of the 1913 visit to Australia, there was another important Australian Wagner premiere, The Mastersingers of Nuremberg, as well as the premieres of Louise and Manon Lescaut. Apart from these, it was the sheer number of operas performed which was so impressive. In just under eight weeks in Melbourne, the company performed 25 operas, including two Ring cycles; while in Sydney, where the original season of seven weeks was extended to nine because a strike in New Zealand made it impossible to move on there as planned, another three operas were added. In all, nine of the major Wagner operas were staged – all except Parsifal – four of them for the first time; all the major Puccini operas written at the time: Manon Lescaut, La bohème, Tosca, Madama Butterfly, La fanciulla del West; the four most popular Verdi operas: Rigoletto, II trovatore, La traviata and Aida; other Italian works: Cavalleria rusticana, Pagliacci and The Barber of Seville; The Marriage of Figaro; and an assortment of French operas, from the new Louise and The Prodigal Son, to The Tales of Hoffmann, Samson and Delilah and the old favourites Carmen and Faust. Not surprisingly, some had only one performance in each city, though most had two or three – sometimes by popular demand. Exceeding that number were only Bohème and Butterfly (four each in Sydney), Samson and Delilah (five in Sydney) and, way out in front, Hoffmann (seven in Melbourne, eight in Sydney), its total of fifteen more than twice that of the nearest competitor (Samson and Delilah with seven).
It was not simply a visit to Australia, but part of a tour round the world, what Quinlan himself in an interview on arrival in Sydney, called an ""All-Red Tour"" (a phrase which meant something rather different in the days before the sun set on the British Empire). The intention was to return to England via New Zealand and Canada, ""never"", said Quinlan, ""leaving the red portions of the geographical map except to hop over the border from Canada to visit some of our American cousins.... We sing in English to English-speaking peoples all the time.""
The era came to an end in March 1914.  After a week in Vancouver in January, the company went on to a three-week visit of the Quinlan English Opera Co at His Majesty's Theatre, Montreal; Wagner's complete Der Ring des Nibelungen was sung in Canada for the first time (and by 1990 still the only time), along with Tannhäuser, Lohengrin, The Flying Dutchman, and Tristan und Isolde. But attendance was poor, and the company decided to cut its losses and terminate its visit to Canada, even though performances had already been announced for Toronto.
Problems in New Zealand and Canada interfered with his plan of performing nine Ring cycles around the world in the space of six months, a feat he had been confident would ""be mentioned with bated breath in European art circles"", and the enterprise proved ruinous. Quinlan estimated that it ""cost £150,000 a year to run grand opera round the world"", and with disruptions to the schedule, the incomings were not enough to balance this figure.
Quinlan's enterprise came unstuck and he managed no more grand opera seasons. Despite the crash in Canada some artists had definitely been re-engaged and contracts signed. But the outbreak of World War I put paid finally to the possibility of Quinlan's plan to bring another company to Australia in 1915. The Quinlan Company became the Harrison Frewin Company, which was acquired by the impresario H B Phillips in 1916 for £1,750. In October 1918 the Carl Rosa Company acquired the Phillips and Harrison Frewin companies.


== 1919–1921 ==
In 1919 Quinlan was reported to be in London in concert management.
The 1919–1920 season of Quinlan Subscription Concerts included performances in the Usher Hall, Edinburgh by the Halle Orchestra conducted by Hamilton Harty, with Arthur De Greef (piano) [25 October 1919], and by the Sir Thomas Beecham Orchestra conducted by Albert Coates (musician) with various soloists [20 February 1920]. There was also a performance at the Theatre Royal, Dublin.
The 1920–1921 season of Quinlan Subscription Concerts included a series of five concerts at the Usher Hall, Edinburgh [16 October 1920 to 19 March 1921]. The second in series was performed by the Sir Thomas Beecham Orchestra conducted by Albert Coates (musician) with various soloists. There was also a series of 12 concerts at Kingsway Hall [October 1920 to January 1921] featuring various orchestras, including the Quinlan Orchestra and the British Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Adrian Boult.


== 1922–1951 ==
In 1922 Quinlan, in association with E. J. Carroll, arranged a tour of Australia by the Sistine Chapel Choir, which turned out to be a financial failure. In 1926 his wife, Dora, divorced him on the ground of desertion. He died in London in November 1951.


== Notes ==


== References ==
Gyger, Alison (1990). Opera for the Antipodes (Opera in Australia 1881–1939). Sydney: Currency Press and Pellinor Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-86819-268-6
Hooey, Charles. A voice without equal
McCann, Wesley (2001). H.B.Phillips Impresario. Belfast: The Belfast Society in association with The Ulster Historical Foundation. ISBN 0-9539604-4-7
Reid, Charles (1961). Thomas Beecham: An Independent Biography. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd


== External links ==
The Beecham Opera Comique Tour 1910–1911
Quinlan Opera Company performance in Glasgow on 15 December 1911
Arts & Humanities Research Council database of concert programmes"
Arthur Britton Smith,"Arthur Britton Smith  (May 13, 1920 – October 28, 2023) was a Canadian philanthropist, businessperson, historical writer, lawyer, and war veteran.


== Early life ==
Arthur Britton Smith was born in Kingston, Ontario on May 13, 1920, the son of Cyril Middleton Smith, a lawyer, and Edna Madeline Smith (née Spooner). Both his parents were originally from Manitoba. He and three sisters were raised in Kingston (plus one who died as a toddler), growing up on Stuart Street and Kensington Avenue. He received his primary and secondary education at Victoria Public School and Kingston Collegiate and Vocational Institute.


== Career ==


=== Military service ===
Smith first joined the army in 1935 when, as a 15-year-old schoolboy, he enlisted as a part-time reservist in the 32nd (Kingston) Field Battery, an artillery unit in the Non-Permanent Active Militia. In 1938, aged 18, he became a cadet (#2652) at the Royal Military College of Canada (RMC), located in his hometown of Kingston. Upon completing the program at RMC in 1940, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Royal Canadian Artillery (RCA), a corps of the Canadian Army. World War II was underway and that same year Smith was sent overseas to the United Kingdom, posted to the 8th Field Regiment, RCA.  Smith later recalled that, as a young professional soldier, he was ""delighted to have the opportunity to fight the war."" In 1942, he was promoted to the rank of captain and transferred to the 4th Field Regiment, RCA.
In early July 1944, about a month after D-Day, Smith landed in Normandy, France, as part of the invasion follow-on forces. He was the commander of 'C' Troop, 14th Battery, 4th Field Regiment, RCA, which was part of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division. His time in France was to be brief.
Smith's unit went to the front lines on the night of July 11. On July 20, Smith was artillery Forward Observation Officer (FOO) with a company of the Fusiliers Mont-Royal (FMR), a French-Canadian infantry unit, during fierce and bloody fighting in the area of Verrières, just south of Caen (it was standard practise for the artillery troop commanders to act as FOOs—to in effect lead from the front). After the FMR initially took Troteval Farm, Smith was behind a wall speaking with another officer when a hand grenade was tossed from the other side and exploded in between the two officers. It was a German ""egg"" grenade; the grande left Smith with only some minor cuts. Smith asked a nearby Canadian tank to knock a hole through the wall, which he then rushed through looking for the enemy who had thrown the grenade.  A German soldier, armed with a ""Schmeisser"" submachine gun, suddenly appeared and fired a short burst at Smith, with two bullets hitting Smith in the chest. Smith however was wearing body armour—plates of densely moulded plastic that shielded the most vital areas of his torso—which the Canadian Army had issued to infantrymen and forward artillery personnel who were going to Normandy. The bullets left two indentations in Smith's chest plate, each about an inch deep, but he suffered only bruising.
During the remainder of that day and night and the following day, enemy armour and infantry (including elements of the 12th SS Panzer Division) mounted no fewer than four counter-attacks on the farm. To accurately direct the guns, he several times had to move to exposed positions in the face of heavy enemy fire. On one occasion, he and the few soldiers in his Observation Post killed several enemy troops who had gotten within 20 yards of their position. In a final German counter-attack on the farm, the FMR company—now critically low on ammunition—was overrun. Smith then withdrew under heavy fire and avoided being captured. Smith was later awarded the Military Cross. A few days later, on July 24, 1944, another company from the FMR, under Major J.A. Dextraze, seized Troteval Farm and held it.
On the morning of July 25, Smith was a FOO with the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry during an attack on Verriéres village.  As he advanced through a grain field, in dim pre-dawn light, his Universal Carrier—a small, light-tracked armoured vehicle commonly called a ""Bren gun carrier""—detonated a German anti-tank mine. Smith's driver was instantly killed.  Despite a lining of sandbags in the bottom of the Carrier, Smith's right leg was badly shattered and he was thrown high into the air and out of the vehicle. At least four enemy machine guns began firing at the area where the flash of the exploding mine had been seen.  Smith and his two signallers crawled away through the grain field, with machine gun bullets being shot all around. One of the bullets ricocheted off the ground and hit Smith in the side of his head, embedding itself behind his right ear.  Smith was evacuated from the war zone and ultimately repatriated to Canada in November 1944.
After spending several months in hospitals in France, the UK and Canada, Smith began a staff job at Kingston. In relatively short order, as a result of the lingering effects of his injuries, he was medically discharged from the army. Years later Smith speculated that he may be lucky to have been wounded, as the chances were high that he would have been killed had he remained in action.
In addition to having won the Military Cross for gallantry, Smith received several service medals to recognize his war service: the 1939–1945 Star; the France and Germany Star; the Defence Medal; the Canadian Volunteer Service Medal with overseas bar; and the War Medal 1939–1945. In 2014, the 70th anniversary of the Battle of Normandy, Smith's wartime service was further recognized when France awarded him its ordre national de la Légion d'honneur (National Order of the Legion of Honour).
Following the war, in 1948, Smith joined an infantry reserve unit in Kingston, the Princess of Wales' Own Regiment (PWOR), in which he served as a company commander until 1954.  He later served as the PWOR's Honorary Lieutenant-Colonel from 1968 to 1974, as the Honorary Colonel from 1974 to 1985 and again from 1992 to 1995.


=== Legal career ===
Following his service in World War II, Smith in 1945 began to work toward becoming a lawyer. In Ontario at that time, prospective lawyers went through a three-year bar admission process, involving ""articling"" (in effect, apprenticing) at a law firm while also taking some courses part-time at Osgoode Hall Law School in Toronto. Smith completed this process in 1948 and was admitted to Ontario's legal profession as a barrister and solicitor. Several years later, he was granted a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree; this degree was retroactively offered in 1991 to persons who had graduated from Osgoode Hall Law School in the years before it became a degree-granting institution. After becoming a lawyer in 1948, Smith established a law office in Kingston and practised for 50 years.


=== Real estate career ===
Early in his legal career, Smith began to dabble as a hobby in residential development and rentals. In 1954, Smith founded Homestead Land Holdings Limited, a land development, construction and residential rental company. Smith built Homestead into one of the largest residential rental companies in all of Canada, ultimately owning and marketing over 27,000 rental units in 16 cities across eastern, central and western Ontario and in Calgary, Alberta.


== Historical writing ==
Smith produced two books and a journal article, all on historical subjects.


== Community service and philanthropy ==
Smith had a recognized record of community service and philanthropy. The award of the Order of Ontario (2018) to Smith was in recognition of his community service, including his philanthropy.  Similarly, community service and philanthropy figured prominently in Smith being made a Member of the Order of Canada in 2019.  The citation for this award reads:Throughout his lifetime, Britton Smith has demonstrated exemplary qualities of leadership and vision. A native of Kingston, Ontario, he practiced law before developing one of the most successful rental organizations in the country. Esteemed for his philanthropy, he has helped grow his community through generous donations from his eponymous foundation, benefiting the social, economic and cultural fabric of the city. A decorated Second World War soldier and recipient of the Military Cross, he is also a passionate local historian and has written extensively on HMS Ontario, a military brig lost in 1780.


=== Community service ===
Smith held a number of community appointments along with his work. The following is a partial list of Smith's volunteer and community service:

Honorary Colonel, The Princess of Wales’ Own Regiment, 1974–85 and 1992–95
President of The Royal Military College Club of Canada, 1983–84
Executive member of The Royal Military College Club of Canada, 1957–83
Honorary Lieutenant-Colonel, The Princess of Wales' Own Regiment, 1968–74
Chairman of Kingston's United Way charitable fundraising campaign, 1967
Alderman (i.e. elected councillor) on Kingston City Council, serving for three terms, 1949–55


=== Philanthropy ===
Smith, personally as well as through his charitable foundation (the Britton Smith Foundation) and his closely held corporation (Homestead Land Holdings Limited), donated money to numerous charities and community projects.

A gift of $3.2 million was made to the Marine Museum of the Great Lakes in 2019 to enable it to purchase a site on the waterfront in downtown Kingston.
A $10,000 matching donation was made to the 2019 annual campaign of the Seniors Association Kingston Region.
A donation of $300,000 was made to Nanny Angel Network.
A gift of $4.5 million in 2018 to Hospice Kingston toward the building of a hospice residence and palliative care centre was made.
A gift of $5 million was made to the University Hospitals Kingston Foundation in 2018 toward building a new Providence Manor long-term care facility in Kingston.
A gift to the University Hospitals Kingston Foundation was made in 2018 to support the purchase of a robot-assisted surgical system for the Kingston Health Sciences Centre.
A gift in 2017–18 to fund, through the RMC Foundation, the purchase of 1400 ""Universal Pattern"" pith helmets for the Royal Military College of Canada and the Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean, enabling the Colleges to return to the tradition of every cadet wearing such a helmet at full-dress ceremonial parades.
Donations totaling more than $1 million to the RMC Foundation to support activities beyond the mandate of the Canadian Armed Forces at the Canadian Military Colleges.
A gift of $1.125 million was made to the Canadian National Institute for the Blind in 2017 to support various projects including work on the recreation hall at the CNIB's Lake Joseph Centre (an accessible camp in Muskoka, Ontario), the redevelopment of CNIB facilities in Kingston and Ottawa and new programs in eastern Ontario.
A gift of $700,000 in 2017 to support the Boys and Girls Club of Kingston & Area.
A gift of $10 million to Queen's University in 2014. Of this, $4.5 million was for the School of Nursing, $4.5 million for the Department of Surgery and $1 million for upgrading Richardson Stadium.
A gift of $3 million in 2016 to St. Lawrence College.
A gift of $1.2 million in 2016 through the United Way.
A gift of $3 million was made to the University Hospitals Kingston Foundation in 2015 toward the purchase of a second magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine for the Kingston General Hospital site of Kingston Health Sciences Centre.
A donation of $2 million in 2007 to the University Hospitals Kingston Foundation to support the redevelopment of Hotel Dieu Hospital, Kingston General Hospital and Providence Continuing Care Centre.
A gift of $200,000 in 2007 to the campaign to raise funds to build a civic sports and entertainment centre in Kingston.
He constructed, through his company, Homestead Land Holdings Limited, in 1979, a new entranceway to the grounds of the Royal Military College of Canada and donated much of the cost of the project.


== Personal life ==
In 1944, a few days after arriving home from the war and while still recovering from his wounds, Smith married his fiancée of four years, Edith Burpee (“Sally”) Carruthers of Kingston. They raised three children: Sheila, Britton and Alexander.  The couple was together for 68 years before Sally died of cancer in 2012.
Over the years, Smith's hobbies and pastimes included boating, hunting, fishing, tennis, horseback riding, breeding Arabian horses, raising Aberdeen cattle, and collecting old books.
Smith turned 100 in May 2020 and died in Kingston on October 28, 2023, at the age of 103.


== List of honours and awards ==


=== Orders, decorations and medals ===
Member of the Order of Canada (CM) (2019), awarded to Smith for his leadership
Order of Ontario (OOnt) (2018), awarded to Smith for his community service
Military Cross (MC) (1944), for his action against the enemy
1939–1945 Star
France and Germany Star
Defence Medal
Canadian Volunteer Service Medal, with overseas bar
War Medal 1939–1945
125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal (1992)
Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal (2012)
Efficiency Medal
Canadian Forces' Decoration (CD), with one clasp
Chevalier dans l'Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur (France) (2014)


=== Other honours and awards ===
Queen's Counsel (QC) (Ontario) (1958)
Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), Royal Military College of Canada (1989)
Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario (2009)
Wall of Honour, Royal Military College of Canada (2017)
Honorary President, Royal Military Colleges Club of Canada (2015).
Honorary Colonel's Commendation, The Princess of Wales' Regiment.
Lifetime Honorary Membership in the Royal Military Colleges Club of Canada (2009).
Honorary Patron of the United Way of Kingston, Frontenac, Lennox and Addington
Kingston Business Hall of Fame (2006) (inaugural inductee)
Jim Bennett Award, Queen's University Alumni Association (2003)
Paul Harris Fellow, Rotary Club of Kingston (1993)
Kingston Chamber of Commerce's Business Person of the Year (1990)


== References ==


== External links ==
H2652 Honorary Colonel Britton Smith, CM, MC, CD, LH, QC, LLD, Royal Military College of Canada."
Transport in France,"Transportation in France relies on one of the densest networks in the world with 146 km of road and 6.2 km of rail lines per 100 km2. It is built as a web with Paris at its center. Rail, road, air and water are all widely developed forms of transportation in France.


== History ==
The first important human improvements were the Roman roads linking major settlements and providing quick passage for marching armies.
All through the Middle Ages improvements were few and second rate. Transport became slow and awkward to use. The early modern period saw great improvements. There was a very quick production of canals connecting rivers. It also saw great changes in oceanic shipping. Rather than expensive galleys, wind powered ships that were much faster and had more room for cargo became popular for coastal trade. Transatlantic shipping with the New World turned cities such as Nantes, Bordeaux, Cherbourg-Octeville and Le Havre into major ports.


== Railways ==

There is a total of 29,901 kilometres (18,580 mi) of railway in France, mostly operated by SNCF (Société nationale des chemins de fer français), the French national railway company. Like the road system, the French railways are subsidised by the state, receiving €13.2 billion in 2013. The railway system is a small portion of total travel, accounting for less than 10% of passenger travel.
From 1981 onwards, a newly constructed set of high-speed Lignes à Grande Vitesse (LGV) lines linked France's most populous areas with the capital, starting with Paris-Lyon. In 1994, the Channel Tunnel opened, connecting France and Great Britain by rail under the English Channel. The TGV has set many world speed records, the most recent on 3 April 2007, when a new version of the TGV dubbed the V150 with larger wheels than the usual TGV, and a stronger 25,000 hp (18,600 kW) engine, broke the world speed record for conventional rail trains, reaching 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph).
Trains, unlike road traffic, drive on the left (except in Alsace-Moselle). Metro and tramway services are not thought of as trains and usually follow road traffic in driving on the right (except the Lyon Metro).
France was ranked 7th among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index for intensity of use, quality of service and safety performance, a decrease from previous years.

The French non-TGV intercity service (TET) is in decline, with old infrastructure and trains. It is likely to be hit further as the French government is planning to remove the monopoly that rail currently has on long-distance journeys by letting coach operators compete. Travel to the UK through the Channel Tunnel has grown in recent years, and from May 2015 passengers have been able to travel direct to Marseille, Avignon and Lyon. Eurostar is also introducing new Class 374 trains and refurbishing the current Class 373s.

The French government are making plans to privatise the French railway network, following a similar model Great Britain used from the 1990s until the 2020s.


=== Rapid transit ===

Six cities in France currently have a rapid transit service (frequently known as a 'metro'). Full metro systems are in operation in Paris (16 lines), Lyon (4 lines) and Marseille (2 lines). Light metro (VAL-type) systems are in use in Lille (2 lines), Toulouse (2 lines) and Rennes (2 lines).


=== Trams ===

In spite of the closure of most of France's first generation tram systems in earlier years, a fast-growing number of France's major cities have modern tram or light rail networks, including Paris, Lyon (Lyon having the biggest one), Toulouse, Montpellier, Saint-Étienne, Strasbourg and Nantes. Recently the tram has seen a very big revival with many experiments such as ground level power supply in Bordeaux, or trolleybuses pretending to be trams in Nancy.
This way of travelling started disappearing in France at the end of the 1930s. Only Lille, Marseille and Saint-Étienne have never given up their tram systems. Since the 1980s, several cities have re-introduced it.

The following French towns and cities run light rail or tram systems:

Angers - since 2011;
Besançon - since 2014;
Bordeaux - since 2003;
Brest - since 2012;
Caen - since 2002 as a 'trams on tyres' system, replaced 2019 by conventional trams;
Clermont-Ferrand - since 2006, 'trams on tyres';
Grenoble - since 1987;
Île-de-France (Paris metropolitan area) - since 1992
Lille, Roubaix and Tourcoing - non-stop since 1909;
Lyon - since 2001;
Le Mans - since 2007;
Marseille - since 2007;
Montpellier - since 2000;
Mulhouse - since 2006
Nancy - since 2000, 'trams on tyres' system featuring a single guide rail while running on tyres;
Nice - since 2007;
Nantes - since 1985;
Orléans - since 2000;
Reims - since 2011;
Rouen - since 1994;
Saint-Étienne - non-stop since 1881;
Strasbourg - since 1994
Toulouse - since 2010 (previously existed from 1906 to 1952)
Valenciennes - since 2006
Dijon - since 2012
Le Havre - since 2012
Tram systems are planned or under construction in Tours, and Fort-de-France.
The revival of tram networks in France has brought about a number of technical developments both in the traction systems and in the styling of the cars:

APS third rail: The Alstom APS system uses a third rail placed between the running rails, divided electrically into eight-metre segments with three metre neutral sections between. Each tram has two power collection skates, next to which are antennas that send radio signals to energise the power rail segments as the tram passes over them. At any one time no more than two consecutive segments under the tram should actually be live. Alstrom  developed the system primarily to avoid intrusive power supply cables in sensitive area of the old city of Bordeaux.
Modern styling: The Eurotram, used in Strasbourg has a modern design that makes it look almost as much like a train as a tram, and has large windows along its entire length.
Modular design: The Citadis tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a modular concept for carriages providing more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to 100 km/h, is suitable for stop spacings ranging from 500 m to 5 km. Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.
Prominent bi-articulated ""tram-like"" Van Hool vehicles (Mettis) are used in Metz since 2013. They work as classic trams but without needing rails and catenaries, and can transport up to 155 passengers while being ecological thanks to a diesel-electric hybrid engine. 
In the starting up, batteries feed the engine of the bus, which can then roll 150 meters before the diesel engine takes over.


== Roads ==

There are ~950,000 km (590,000 mi) of roads in France. The French motorway network or autoroute system consists largely of toll roads, except around large cities, in Brittany, in parts of Normandy, in the Ardennes and in Alsace. It is a network totalling 12,000 km (7,500 mi) of motorways operated by private companies such as Sanef (Société des autoroutes du Nord et de l'Est de la France). It has the 8th largest highway network in the world, trailing only the United States, China, India, Russia, Japan, Canada, Spain and Germany.
France currently counts 30,500 km of major trunk roads or routes nationales and state-owned motorways. By way of comparison, the routes départementales cover a total distance of 365,000 km. The main trunk road network reflects the centralising tradition of France: the majority of them leave the gates of Paris. Indeed, trunk roads begin on the parvis of Notre-Dame of Paris at Kilometre Zero. To ensure an effective road network, new roads not serving Paris were created.
In 2022, France safety rate is near but not better than the OECD median, with rates of 49.8 per million population (or 4.98 / 100 000) and 5.2 per billion vehicle kilometers traveled (0.52 / 100 million VKT).
France is believed to be the most car-dependent country in Europe. In 2005, 937 billion vehicle kilometres were travelled in France (85% by car). While the traveled distance did not change, from 2012 to 2022, it is counted as 730 billion vehicle kilometers. Car makes 80% of the 1000 billion vehicle kilometers traveled each year. Traveled distance is reduced in 2020, but is counted in 2019 as 615 billion vehicle kilometer traveled including 448 car with a French registration plate according to the Union routière de France.
In order to overcome this dependence, in France and many more countries the long-distance coaches' market has been liberalised. Since 2015, with the law Macron, the market has exploded: the increasing demand lead to a higher supply of bus services and coach companies.
Black Saturday refers, in France, to the day of the year when road traffic is most dense due to the many departures on holiday. (Traffic problems are exacerbated by France's extreme centralisation, with Paris being the hub of the entire national highway network.) This Saturday is usually at the end of July, though in 2007 both the last Saturday of July and the first Saturday of August are designated as Black Saturdays. The Autoroute du Soleil, the highway to the south of France and Spain, is usually particularly busy. In 2004 there was more than 700 kilometres (430 mi) in accumulated traffic congestion. The black colour is the qualification with which the French government web site Bison Futé designates a day with extrêmement dense (extremely busy) traffic. The French newspapers call this day samedi noir after Bison Futé's designation. Usually, the French call these days les jours de grands départs (days of great departures). In Dutch, this French phenomenon was known as zwarte zaterdag long before the French adopted the term samedi noir, both meaning (literally) Black Saturday.
The term Black Saturday may also refer to Saturday July 31, 1982, when the worst road accident in French history happened. Around 1:45 AM, a coach collided into passenger cars near Beaune in dense holiday traffic during rainfall. The collision and subsequent fire killed 53 people, among which 46 were children. After this crash, a regulation was enforced to prohibit the transportation of groups of children during this part of the year.


=== Electric roads ===

France plans to invest 30 to 40 billion euro by 2035 in an electric road system spanning 8,800 kilometers that recharges electric cars, buses and trucks while driving. Two projects for assessment of electric road technologies were announced in 2023. Three technologies are being considered: ground-level power supply, inductive charging, and overhead lines. Ground-level power supply technologies, provided by Alstom, Elonroad, and others, are considered the most likely candidate for electric roads. Inductive charging is not considered a mature technology as it delivers the least power, loses 20%-25% of the supplied power when installed on trucks, and its health effects have yet to be documented. Overhead lines is the most mature technology, but the catenaries and overhead wires pose safety and maintenance issues, and motorway companies find overhead lines too expensive.
A working group of the French Ministry of Ecology recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others. A standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), CENELEC Technical Standard 50717, has been published in late 2022. A standard encompassing full interoperability and a ""unified and interoperable solution"" for ground-level power supply electric road systems, detailing complete specifications for ""communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road"" is specified in CENELEC technical standard 50740 in accordance with European Union directive 2023/1804. The standard was approved in 2025.


==== Trials ====
Alstom has developed a ground-level power supply (alimentation par le sol - APS) system for use with buses and other vehicles. The system has been tested for safety when the road is cleared by snowplows, under exposure to snow, ice, salting, and saturated brine, and for skid and road adherence safety for vehicles, including motorcycles. Alstom will trial its electric road system (ERS) on the public road RN205 in the Rhône-Alpes region between 2024 and 2027. The system is expected to supply 500 kW of power for electric heavy trucks, as well as power for road utility vehicles and electric cars.
Vinci will test two electric road systems (ERS) from 2023 to 2027. Both technologies will initially be tested in laboratory conditions, and upon meeting the test requirements they will be installed along 2 kilometers each on the A10 autoroute south of Paris. Wireless ERS by Electreon will be tested for durability under highway traffic, and will attempt to reach 200 kW of power delivery per truck using multiple receivers. Rail ERS by Elonroad, which supplies 350 kW of power per receiver, will be tested for skid effects on motorcycles. Both systems will be interoperable with cars, buses, and trucks.


=== Bus transport in France ===

In most, if not all, French cities, urban bus services are provided at a flat-rate charge for individual journeys.  Many cities have bus services that operate well out into the suburbs or even the country. Fares are normally cheap, but rural services can be limited, especially on weekends.
Trains have long had a monopoly on inter-regional buses, but in 2015 the French government introduced reforms to allow bus operators to travel these routes.


== Waterways and canals ==

The French natural and man-made waterways network is the largest in Europe extending to over 8,500 kilometres (5,300 mi) of which (VNF, English: Navigable Waterways of France), the French navigation authority, manages the navigable sections. Some of the navigable rivers include the Loire, Seine and Rhône. The assets managed by VNF comprise 6,700 kilometres (4,200 mi) of waterways, made up of 3,800 kilometres (2,400 mi) of canals and 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) of navigable rivers, 494 dams, 1595 locks, 74 navigable aqueducts, 65 reservoirs, 35 tunnels and a land area of 800 km2 (310 sq mi). Two significant waterways not under VNF's control are the navigable sections of the River Somme and the Brittany Canals, which are both under local management.
Approximately 20% of the network is suitable for commercial boats of over 1000 tonnes and the VNF has an ongoing programme of maintenance and modernisation to increase depth of waterways, widths of locks and headroom under bridges to support France's strategy of encouraging freight onto water.


== Marine transport ==

France has an extensive merchant marine, including 55 ships of size Gross register tonnage 1,000 and above. The country also maintains a captive register for French-owned ships in Iles Kerguelen (French Southern and Antarctic Lands).
French companies operate over 1,400 ships of which 700 are registered in France. France's 110 shipping firms employ 12,500 personnel at sea and 15,500 on shore. Each year, 305 million tonnes of goods and 15 million passengers are transported by sea. Marine transport is responsible for 72% of France's imports and exports.
France also boasts a number of seaports and harbours, including  Bayonne, Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Brest,  Calais, Cherbourg-Octeville, Dunkerque, Fos-sur-Mer, La Pallice, Le Havre, Lorient, Marseille, Nantes, Nice, Paris, Port-la-Nouvelle, Port-Vendres, Roscoff, Rouen, Saint-Nazaire, Saint-Malo, Sète, Strasbourg and Toulon.


== Air travel ==

There are approximately 478 airports in France (1999 est.) and by a 2005 estimate, there are three heliports. 288 of the airports have paved runways, with the remaining 199 being unpaved.
Among the airspace governance authorities active in France, one is Aéroports de Paris, which has authority over the Paris region, managing 14 airports including the two busiest in France, Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport.  The former, located in Roissy near Paris, is the fifth busiest airport in the world with 60 million passenger movements in 2008, and France's primary international airport, serving over 100 airlines.
The national carrier of France is Air France, a full service global airline which flies to 20 domestic destinations and 150 international destinations in 83 countries (including Overseas departments and territories of France) across all 6 major continents.


== See also ==
Rail transport in France
Black Saturday, a day of extreme road congestion in France
Réseau Ferré National


== References =="
High-frequency ventilation,"High-frequency ventilation (HFV) is a type of mechanical ventilation which utilizes a respiratory rate greater than four times the normal value (>150 (Vf) breaths per minute) and very small tidal volumes.  High frequency ventilation is thought to reduce ventilator-associated lung injury (VALI), especially in the context of Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and acute lung injury (ALI). This is commonly referred to as lung protective ventilation. There are different types of high-frequency ventilation. Each type has its own unique advantages and disadvantages. The types of HFV are characterized by the delivery system and the type of exhalation phase.
High-frequency ventilation may be used alone, or in combination with conventional mechanical ventilation. In general, those devices that need conventional mechanical ventilation do not produce the same lung protective effects as those that can operate without tidal breathing. Specifications and capabilities will vary depending on the device manufacturer.


== Physiology ==
With conventional ventilation where tidal volumes (VT) exceed dead space (VDEAD), gas exchange is largely related to bulk flow of gas to the alveoli. With high-frequency ventilation, the tidal volumes used are smaller than anatomical and equipment dead space and therefore alternative mechanisms of gas exchange occur.


== Procedure ==
Supraglottic Approach—The supraglottic approach is advantageous as it allows a completely tubeless surgical field.
Subglottic Approach
Transtracheal Approach


== High-frequency jet ventilation (passive) ==
High-frequency jet ventilation (HFJV) minimizes movement of the thorax and abdomen and facilitates surgical procedures where even slight motion from spontaneous or intermittent positive pressure ventilation may significantly affect the duration and success of the procedure (for example atrial fibrillation ablation). HFJV does NOT allow: setting specific tidal volume, sampling ETCO2 (and because of this, frequent ABGs are required to measure PaCO2). In HFJV a jet is applied with a set driving pressure, followed by passive exhalation for a very short period before the next jet is delivered, creating ""auto-PEEP"" (called pause pressure by the jet ventilator). The risk of excessive breath-stacking leading to barotrauma and pneumothorax is low but not zero.
In HFJV exhalation is passive (depends on passive lung and chest-wall recoil) whereas in HFOV gas movement is caused by in-and-out movement of the “loudspeaker” oscillator membrane.  Thus in HFOV both inspiration and expiration are actively caused by the oscillator, and passive exhalation is not allowed.
In the UK, the Mistral or Monsoon jet ventilator (Acutronic Medical Systems) is most commonly used.  In the United States the Bunnell LifePulse jet ventilator is most commonly used.


=== Bunnell LifePulse jet ventilator ===

HFJV is provided by the Bunnell Life Pulse High-Frequency Ventilator.  HFJV employs an endotracheal tube adaptor in place for the normal 15 mm ET tube adaptor. A high pressure ""jet"" of gas flows out of the adaptor and into the airway. This jet of gas occurs for a very brief duration, about 0.02 seconds, and at high-frequency: 4-11 hertz. Tidal volumes ≤ 1 ml/Kg are used during HFJV. This combination of small tidal volumes delivered for very short periods of time creates the lowest possible distal airway and alveolar pressures produced by a mechanical ventilator. Exhalation is passive. Jet ventilators utilize various I:E ratios—between 1:1.1 and 1:12—to help achieve optimal exhalation. Conventional mechanical breaths are sometimes used to aid in reinflating the lung. Optimal PEEP is used to maintain alveolar inflation and promote ventilation-to-perfusion matching. Jet ventilation has been shown to reduce ventilator induced lung injury by as much as 20%.  Usage of high-frequency jet ventilation is recommended in neonates and adults with severe lung injury.


==== Indications for use ====
The Bunnell Life Pulse High-Frequency Ventilator is indicated for use in ventilating critically ill infants with pulmonary interstitial emphysema (PIE). Infants studied ranged in birth weight from 750 to 3529 grams and in gestation age from 24 to 41 weeks.
The Bunnell Life Pulse High-Frequency Ventilator is also indicated for use in ventilating
critically ill infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) complicated by pulmonary air leaks who are, in the opinion of their physicians, failing on conventional ventilation. Infants of this description studied ranged in birth weight from 600 to 3660 grams and in gestational age from 24 to 38 weeks.


==== Adverse effects ====
The adverse side effects noted during the use of high-frequency ventilation include those
commonly found during the use of conventional positive pressure ventilators. These adverse effects include:

Pneumothorax
Pneumopericardium
Pneumoperitoneum
Pneumomediastinum
Pulmonary interstitial emphysema
Intraventricular hemorrhage
Necrotizing tracheobronchitis
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia


==== Contraindications ====
High-frequency jet ventilation is contraindicated in patients requiring tracheal tubes smaller than 2.5 mm ID.


==== Settings and parameters ====
Settings that can be adjusted in HFJV include 1) inspiratory time, 2) driving pressure, 3) frequency, 4) FiO2, and 5) humidity.  Increases in FiO2, inspiratory time, and frequency improve oxygenation (by increasing ""auto-PEEP"" or pause pressure), while an increase in driving pressure and a decrease in frequency improve ventilation.  


===== Peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) =====
The peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) window displays the average PIP. During startup a PIP sample is taken with every inhalation cycle and is averaged with all other samples taken over the most recent ten-second period. After regular operation begins, samples are averaged over the most recent twenty-second period.


===== ΔP (Delta P) =====
The value displayed in the ΔP (pressure difference) window represents the difference between the PIP value and the PEEP value.

  
    
      
        Δ
        p
        =
        
          P
          
            I
            P
          
        
        −
        
          P
          
            E
            E
            P
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta p=P_{IP}-P_{EEP}}
  


===== Servo pressure =====
The servo pressure display indicates the amount of pressure the machine must generate
internally in order to achieve the PIP appearing in the servo-display.  Its value can range from 0—20 psi (0—137.9 kPa).  If the PIP sensed or approximated at the distal tip of the tracheal tube deviates from the desired PIP, the machine automatically generates more or less internal pressure in an attempt to compensate for the change. The servo-pressure display keeps the operator informed.
The servo display is a general clinical indicator of changes in the compliance or resistance of the patient's lungs, as well as loss of lung volume due to tension pneumothorax.


== High-frequency oscillatory ventilation ==
In High-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) the airway is pressurized to a set mean airway pressure (called continuous lung-distending pressure) through an adjustable expiratory valve.  Small pressure oscillations delivered at a very high rate are superimposed by the action of a “loudspeaker” oscillator membrane. HFOV is often used in premature neonates with respiratory distress syndrome who fail to oxygenate appropriately with lung-protective settings of conventional ventilation.  It has also been used in ARDS in adults, but two studies (the OSCAR and OSCILLATE trials) showed negative results for this indication.
Parameters that can be set in HFOV includes the continuous lung-distending pressure, oscillation amplitude and frequency, I:E ratio (positive-oscillation/negative-oscillation ratio), fresh gas flow (called bias flow), and FiO2.  Increases in continuous lung-distending pressure and FiO2 will improve oxygenation.  Increases in amplitude or fresh gas flow and decreases in frequency will improve ventilation.


== High-frequency percussive ventilation ==
HFPV — High-frequency percussive ventilation combines HFV plus time cycled, pressure-limited controlled mechanical ventilation (i.e., pressure control ventilation, PCV).


== High-frequency positive pressure ventilation ==
HFPPV — High-frequency positive pressure ventilation is rarely used anymore, having been replaced by high-frequency jet, oscillatory and percussive types of ventilation. HFPPV is delivered through the endotracheal tube using a conventional ventilator whose frequency is set near its upper limits.  HFPV began to be used in selected centres in the 1980s. It is a hybrid of conventional mechanical ventilation and high-frequency oscillatory ventilation.  It has been used to salvage patients with persistent hypoxemia when on conventional mechanical ventilation or, in some cases, used as a primary modality of ventilatory support from the start.


== High-frequency flow interruption ==
HFFI — High Frequency Flow Interruption is similar to high-frequency jet ventilation but the gas control mechanism is different. Frequently a rotating bar or ball with a small opening is placed in the path of a high pressure gas. As the bar or ball rotates and the opening lines-up with the gas flow, a small, brief pulse of gas is allowed to enter the airway. Frequencies for HFFI are typically limited to maximum of about 15 hertz.


== High-frequency ventilation (active) ==
High-frequency ventilation (active) — HFV-A is notable for the active exhalation mechanic included.  Active exhalation means a negative pressure is applied to force volume out of the lungs.  The CareFusion 3100A and 3100B are similar in all aspects except the target patient size.  The 3100A is designed for use on patients up to 35 kilograms and the 3100B is designed for use on patients larger than 35 kilograms.


=== CareFusion 3100A and 3100B ===

High-frequency oscillatory ventilation was first described in 1972 and is used in neonates and adult patient populations to reduce lung injury, or to prevent further lung injury. HFOV is characterized by high respiratory rates between 3.5 and 15 hertz (210 - 900 breaths per minute) and having both inhalation and exhalation maintained by active pressures.  The rates used vary widely depending upon patient size, age, and disease process.  In HFOV the pressure oscillates around the constant distending pressure (equivalent to mean airway pressure [MAP]) which in effect is the same as positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). Thus gas is pushed into the lung during inspiration, and then pulled out during expiration. HFOV generates very low tidal volumes that are generally less than the dead space of the lung.  Tidal volume is dependent on endotracheal tube size, power and frequency. Different mechanisms (direct bulk flow - convective, Taylorian dispersion, Pendelluft effect, asymmetrical velocity profiles, cardiogenic mixing and molecular diffusion) of gas transfer are believed to come into play in HFOV compared to normal mechanical ventilation. It is often used in patients who have refractory hypoxemia that cannot be corrected by normal mechanical ventilation such as is the case in the following disease processes: severe ARDS, ALI and other oxygenation diffusion issues.  In some neonatal patients HFOV may be used as the first-line ventilator due to the high susceptibility of the premature infant to lung injury from conventional ventilation.


==== Breath delivery ====
The vibrations are created by an electromagnetic valve that controls a piston. The resulting vibrations are similar to those produced by a stereo speaker. The height of the vibrational wave is the amplitude. Higher amplitudes create greater pressure fluctuations which move more gas with each vibration. The number of vibrations per minute is the frequency. One Hertz equals 60 cycles per minute. The higher amplitudes at lower frequencies will cause the greatest fluctuation in pressure and move the most gas.	
Altering the % inspiratory time (T%i) changes the proportion of the time in which the vibration or sound wave is above the baseline versus below it. Increasing the % Inspiratory Time will also increase the volume of gas moved or tidal volume. Decreasing the frequency, increasing the amplitude, and increasing the % inspiratory time will all increase tidal volume and eliminate CO2. Increasing the tidal volume will also tend to increase the mean airway pressure.


===== Settings and measurements =====


====== Bias flow ======
The bias flow controls and indicates the rate of continuous flow of humidified blended gas through the patient circuit.  The control knob is a 15-turn pneumatic valve which increases flow as it is turned.


====== Mean pressure adjust ======
The mean pressure adjust setting adjusts the mean airway pressure (PAW) by controlling the resistance of the airway pressure control valve.  The mean airway pressure will change and requires the mean pressure adjust to be adjusted when the following settings are changed:

Frequency (Hertz)
% Inspiratory time
Power and Δp change
Piston centering
During high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV), PAW is the primary variable affecting oxygenation and is set independent of other variables on the oscillator. Because distal airway pressure changes during HFOV are minimal, the PAW during HFOV can be viewed in a manner similar to the PEEP level in conventional ventilation. The optimal PAW can be considered as a compromise between maximal lung recruitment and minimal overdistention.


====== Mean pressure limit ======

The mean pressure limit controls the limit above which proximal PAW cannot be increased by setting the control pressure of the pressure limit valve.  The mean pressure limit range is 10-45 cmH2O.


====== ΔP and amplitude ======

The power setting is set as amplitude to establish a measured change of pressure (ΔP).  Amplitude/Power is a setting which determines the amount of power that is driving the oscillator piston forward and backward resulting in an air volume (tidal volume) displacement.  The effect of the amplitude on the ΔP that it is changed by the displacement of the oscillator piston and hence the oscillatory pressure (ΔP).  The power setting interacts with PAW conditions existing within the patient circuit to produce the resulting ΔP.


====== % Inspiratory time ======
The percent of inspiratory time is a setting which determines the percent of cycle time the piston is traveling toward (or at its final inspiratory position).  The inspiratory percent range is 30—50%.


====== Frequency ======

The frequency setting is measured in hertz (hz).  The control knob is a 10-turn clockwise-increasing potentiometer covering a range of 3 Hz to 15 Hz.  The set frequency is displayed on a digital meter on the face of the ventilator.  One Hertz is (-/+5%) equal to 1 breath per second, or 60 breaths per minute (e.g., 10 Hz = 600 breaths per minute).  Changes in
frequency are inversely proportional to the amplitude and thus delivered tidal volume.

Breaths per minute (f)

  
    
      
        f
        =
        H
        z
        ⋅
        
          60
          
            s
            e
            c
            o
            n
            d
            s
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle f=Hz\cdot 60_{seconds}}
  


====== Oscillation trough pressure ======
Oscillation trough pressure is the instantaneous pressure within the HFOV circuit following the oscillating piston reaching its complete negative deflection.

  
    
      
        O
        T
        P
        =
        M
        A
        P
        −
        (
        A
        M
        P
        
          /
        
        3
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle OTP=MAP-(AMP/3)}
  


== Transtracheal jet ventilation ==
Transtracheal jet ventilation refers to a type of high-frequency ventilation, low tidal volume ventilation provided via a laryngeal catheter by specialized ventilators that are usually only available in the operating room or intensive care unit. This procedure is occasionally employed in the operating room when a difficult airway is anticipated.  Such as Treacher Collins syndrome, Robin sequence, head and neck surgery with supraglottic or glottic obstruction).


== Adverse effects ==
The adverse side effects noted during the use of high-frequency ventilation include those
commonly found during the use of conventional positive pressure ventilators. These adverse effects include:

Pneumothorax
Pneumopericardium
Pneumoperitoneum
Pneumomediastinum
Pulmonary interstitial emphysema
Intraventricular hemorrhage
Necrotizing tracheobronchitis
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia


== See also ==
Mechanical ventilation
Respiratory therapy
Ventilator associated lung injury


== References =="
Wuhua dialect,"The Wuhua dialect (simplified Chinese: 五华话; traditional Chinese: 五華話; pinyin: Wǔhuáhuà, Hakka: ŋ̍˧˩ fa˧˥ fa˥˩, Kak-ka-fa (-va), Kak-fa (-va) is a major dialect of Hakka Chinese spoken in Wuhua County, Jiexi County, Shenzhen, eastern Dongguan, Northern Guangdong around Shaoguan, Sichuan Province, and Tonggu County in Jiangxi Province.
Overall, the Wuhua dialect is very similar to the prestige dialect of Hakka, the Meixian dialect.


== Characteristics ==
The Wuhua dialect is characterized by the pronunciation of several voiced Middle Chinese qu-sheng (fourth tone) syllables of Moiyen dialect in the Shang-sheng (third tone). The tone-level of the yang-ping is a rising /13/, /35/ or /24/ instead of the low-level /11/ usually found in Meixian. In Wuhua-concentrated areas of Northern Bao'an and Eastern Dongguan, the same Meixian dialect tone level of the yang-ping is found. Two sets of fricatives and affricates (z, c, s, zh, ch, sh, s / ts’ / s, [ts], [tsh], [s] and [ts], [tsh], [s] and [tʃ ], [tʃh], [ ʃ ]) appear, similar to Mandarin Chinese. The distinctive ""y"" final is found in the Yuebei (Northern Guangdong) Hakka group and Sichuan group. Retroflexed initials in 知 (Zhi series) “Knowledge”, 曉/晓 (Xiao group) “Dawn”, and part of 溪 (Xi) “Brook”, and poor usage of medials in Grade III and closed finals. Wuhua dialect exhibits “latter-word” tone sandhi. Phonologically, Wuhua showcases a north–south separation while lexically depicting an east- and middle-Guangdong separation, showing similarities to inland and coastal Hakka dialects. Lexically it shows east–west separation in Wuhua, which is quite different from the phonological point of view. Outwardly, lexicons in Wuhua show that the Wuhua dialect is on the diglossia that separates east and middle Guangdong. This way, the lexicons distinguish coast-side dialects from inland ones. The Wuhua dialect is transitional, no matter how it is seen historically or geographically. Overall, the Wuhua Hakka dialect is very similar to the prestige of the Moiyen (Meixian) Hakka dialect.
In the Wuhua Hakka dialect group, Qusheng consists of only QingQu syllables, Shangsheng is a combination of Qingshang and Zhuoqu Characters.
The rounded vowel [y] is common in Yuebei and Sichuan.
According to the Hakka classification of Hashimoto Mantaro, the Wuhua accent falls into Hakka dialects with a high rising staccato and high level tone, a falling tone contour for tone 4 and a rising feature for tone 2.


== Background ==
Most varieties of Jiaying subdialect (Yue-Tai) belong to the Meixian patois, but those in northern Guangdong and Sichuan and some dialects in western Guangdong belong to the Wuhua patois, the Wuhua patoi merges Yangqu with the Shang tone instead, so that voiced characters of MC departing tones have the Shang tone, not Qu. Besides, the Meixian group has a Yingping tone value of 11, but Wuhua has the value of 35 or 24.


== Location ==
Wuhua County is located in the upper reaches of the Han River. The southeast border of the county is adjacent to Fengshun, Jiexi, and Lufeng. Heyuan and Zijin are located on the southwest borders. The northwest border is connected to Longchuan and the northeast to Xingning. Due to the resulting language contact, Wuhua is affected by the dialectal assimilation of the surrounding areas.
The Wuhua dialect can be found in Wuhua County, Jiexi County, Northern Bao'An (formerly Xin'An (Sin-On), presently called Shenzhen), and Eastern Dongguan, in Guangdong Province, It can also be observed in Yuebei or Northern Guangdong around Shaoguan, as well as in Sichuan Province, and Tonggu County in Jiangxi Province.
Taiwan is also home to the Wuhua Hakka people who migrated from South Wuhua County during the Qing dynasty. Taiwanese Wuhua has observed many changes in its initials, finals, and lexicons. As a result, it shares characteristics with the neighboring Sixian (四縣) and Hailu (海陸) Dialects. The tones remained the same. Minority languages tend to assimilate with their superiors as observed in the Wuhua dialect of Taiwan. The Changle dialect originates in its eponym, the county of Changle (now Wuhua). Currently, speakers of the Yongding and Changle dialects have left their own families. Due to this, there are fewer dialects that are used in present-day Taiwan, including but not limited to prominent Sixian and Hailu dialects.


== Internal variation and related dialects ==
The internal variation within Wuhua County is minimal and is mostly seen in the phonology. The Wuhua dialect spoken in Wuhua County is traditionally categorized into three subgroups:

the northern subgroup, traditionally known as the Changle accent or Huacheng Dialect 華城話 / 华城话 (长乐声; 長樂聲; Chánglè shēng), represented by the dialect spoken in Huacheng; Market Towns where this Accent is spoken are Huacheng, and Qiling. [Huacheng dialect [華城話], [The water villages (Shuizhai) distributed in the county and its vicinity, that is, to the north of Anliu], distributed in the four towns of Huacheng, Xinqiao, Qiling and Shuangtou near Xingning in the north.]
the central subgroup, traditionally known as the Xiace accent or Shuizhai Dialect 水寨話 / 水寨话 (下侧声; 下側聲; Xiàcè shēng), represented by the dialect spoken in Shuizhai; Market Towns where this Accent is spoken are Shuizhai, Hedong, Guotian, Hengbei, Zhuangshui, and Tanxia. [Shuizhai dialect [水寨話], distributed in the county seat and its vicinity, that is, Shuizhai, Daba, Hedong, Yóutián, Pingnan, Hengpi, Xikeng, Xiaodu, Guotian, Zhuanshui, Tanxia, and Changbu in the north of Anliu, Datian, Zhoujiang, Zhongxing, Wenkui [文葵], Dadu, Shuanghua and other places.]
the southern subgroup, traditionally known as the Shangshan accent or Anliu Dialect 安流話 / 安流话 (上山声; 上山聲; Shàngshān shēng), represented by the dialect spoken in Anliu. The Hakka dialect in the south of Wuhua ""Anliu Dialect"" is influenced by the Hailu accent of its neighbors, so the tone is relatively hard. Market Towns where this Accent is spoken are Anliu, Zhoujiang, Shuanghua, Huayang, Meilin, Mianyang, and Longcun. [Shangshan dialect [上山聲], similar to Hakka dialects of Jiexi and Hailufeng, is distributed in Mianyang, Qiaojiang, Meilin, Huayang, Longcun, Xiāofāng, Dengshe, etc. south of Anliu. Shuizhai [水寨話] dialect and Huacheng [華城話] dialect are collectively called Xiashan dialect [下山聲/話]. The original Hakka dialect is Cantonese and Taiwanese [Yuetai] dialect Family, while Shangshan dialect belongs to Hakka dialect Zhangchao dialect Family [客家話漳潮片].]
A western subgroup, which only includes the dialect spoken in Changbu (长布; 長布; Chángbù) 長佈話 / 长布话, may be added.
New Wuhua speech, Due to its proximity to Xingning City, the spoken language of young people in Wuhua County has been deeply affected by the Xingning dialect, especially in northern towns. Also, due to modern schooling, and mass movement, more modern vocabulary is entering the dialect. Wuhua dialect ending consonants have changed from -m to -ng[ŋ] and from -p to -k
Changle accent, On the Island of Taiwan, the Hakka people who use Changle accent mainly live in the area of Taozhu Miao, and a small number of them are scattered in Taipei and Taichung. Most of their ancestors are from Anliu Town and Meilin Town in Wuhua County. Features of Wuhua Dialect. Changle accent is gradually declining in Taiwan and tends to merge with the four-counties accent (Sixian accent) .
In more detailed analysis:

In Zijin County, the Nanlu accent (南路腔; Nánlù qiāng) spoken in the towns of Longwo, as well as some villages in Shuidun Township, Nanling, Yangtou, Su District, and other villages, This Accent is similar to the Wuhua dialect due to the area's proximity to Wuhua County. The Villagers speak with a Wuhua Accent, Zijin County's Prestige accent, Zicheng's Qusheng Tone is spoken in Wuhua County's Shangsheng Tone, Related to Yuencheng, Dongyuen, Longchuan, Heping, Lianping.
The Yuebei group; [粵北] is the most dominant dialect in the rural area of Northern Guangdong around Shaoguan. (c. 2 million speakers), The Speech spoken in Xinfeng, Qujiang and Ruyuan
Jiexihua [揭西话; 揭西話] is spoken by the inhabitants of Jiexi County in Guangdong Province. The Hakka accent of Wuyun Town is relatively close to the Hakka accent of Wuhua County (c. 500,000 speakers)
Dongguan Hakka [东莞话; 東莞話] is spoken by Hakka inhabitants, in the Eastern part of Dongguan County and North of Bao’an county. This accent has the Yangping as a level tone of value 11, Like Meixian Dialect. (c. 60T speakers)
The Sichuan Hakka group or “Tu-Guangdonghua” (四川客家話; 四川客家话) is spoken by the migrants from Wuhua County, Meizhou, Guangdong to Sichuan Province (c. 1-2 million speakers)
Tongguhua (銅鼓話; 铜鼓话) is spoken by the people in and around Tonggu County, Jiangxi Province. (c. 1 million speakers)
The Changle accent (长乐腔; 長樂腔) was once used in Taiwan as one of the seven major Hakka accents. There are other accents such as Sixian, Hoiliuk, Yongding, Changle/Wuhua, Dabu, Raoping, and Chao'An. It was introduced to the territory by settlers from Changle County (present-day Wuhua) in Jiaying (present-day Meizhou) and immigrants from Yong'an County, Present-day Zijin County (Huizhou Prefecture). Its language is akin to the accents adjacent to the Qin River near Anliu and its surrounding area, in the south of Wuhua County located in present-day mainland China. However, in the Qu Lao Keng area in Yangmei District (specifically Taoyuan City) on Taiwan, there are still many families who utilize the Changle Accent., In Taiwan, the Hakka people who use Changle accent mainly live in the area of Taozhumiao, and a small number of them are scattered in Taipei and Taichung. Most of their ancestral homes are Anliu Town and Meilin Town in Wuhua County. They belong to the Shangshan Accent, and some of the Characteristics of earlier days are preserved. The characteristics of Wuhua dialect. Changle accent is gradually declining in Taiwan and tends to merge with the Sixian accent., ""Most of the Wuhua Hakka immigrants in Taiwan came from the vicinity of Anliu. During the Qing Dynasty, they followed Hailufeng to immigrate to the Hailufeng immigration area in Taoyuan and Hsinchu. Therefore, Taiwan's Wuhua Hakka has almost integrated into Hailuke. The Changle dialect has disappeared in Taiwan.""
Other areas Related to the Wuhua Hakka Accent:
Meizhou: Fengshun,
Qingyuan: Yingde, Qingxing, Qingcheng, Lianzhou, Lianshan and Liannan,
Guangzhou: Conghua, and other places on the Pearl River Delta,
Guangxi: Hezhou (贺州), in Liantang (莲塘), Shatian (沙田), Gonghui (公会), Guiling (桂岭), Huangtian (黄田)


== Phonology ==


=== Consonant inventory ===


==== Finals ====
Most finals are the same with Meixian / Moiyen dialect, except for:


=== Vowel inventory ===


=== Tones ===

In Wuhua, Shaoguan (and most dialects around it), and Sichuan, the Yangping is usually 35 instead of 11.


== Wuhua Romanization and IPA ==

Romanization with an asterisk (*) always precedes an [i].


== Notes ==


== References =="
HCR Corporation,"Human Computing Resources Corporation, later HCR Corporation, was a Canadian software company that worked on the Unix operating system and system software and business applications for it.  Founded in 1976, it was based in Toronto.
By a description of one of its founders, HCR was a ""UNIX contract R&D and technology development and marketing firm.""  The company was most known for its extensive knowledge of Unix, for porting Unix to new hardware platforms, for developing compilers as part of the porting work, and for consulting and product development work on Unix.  It was a pioneer in the Unix industry and by one account was the second firm ever to commercially support Unix.  By 1990 HCR was a prominent player in the Canadian Unix scene.
HCR was acquired by the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) in 1990.  It became the subsidiary SCO Canada, Inc., which existed until 1996 when the Toronto offices were closed.


== Origins at the University of Toronto ==
Human Computing Resources was founded in 1976 by several computer scientists at, and graduates of, the University of Toronto, with the aim of creating computer graphics and systems software.  The company was privately held.    Foremost among these co-founders was Ronald Baecker, an associate professor in the Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering at the University of Toronto and a significant figure and pioneer in the field of human–computer interaction.  Baecker served as president of the new firm.
Another co-founder was Michael Tilson, who as a graduate student of Baecker's at the University of Toronto during the mid-1970s was one of the early pioneers of Unix adoption in Canada.
An additional co-founder was David Tilbrook, a student of Baecker's who had developed the interactive NewsWhole pagination system for The Globe and Mail, which became an early predecessor to desktop publishing.  
Other Baecker students who later became well known in the Unix world included Rob Pike and Tom Duff, although neither worked at HCR.


== Formative years ==


=== Consulting and contracting ===
The new company's offices were on  St. Mary Street, in a mid-century modern building just off Yonge Street in the Bay Street Corridor section of Toronto.
Human Computing Resources initially focused on information technology consulting and contract programming jobs.  An early customer for contract work was IBM.
But it also tried to establish a product business, with an effort underway by 1977 to try to market the NewsWhole newspaper layout product.  Despite newspapers seeing demonstrations of the product and liking it, they were unwilling to commit their businesses to a product from an unproven, very small software business.  In 1979 the NewsWhole product was dropped.  As Tilson said in a 1986 interview, ""The company quickly discovered that the software industry was not a bed of roses.""
In 1978 Human Computing Resources began giving courses in the Toronto area on computers for personal use – the Commodore PET – and for business.
By 1979 the new firm had begun exhibiting at the annual Canadian Computer Show and Conference in Toronto.
Baecker maintained a part-time involvement in his academic career during this period.


=== Unix specialists ===
Human Computing Resources began to focus on writing software for the Unix operating system, which was starting to gain a foothold outside its Bell Labs founding place.  This work began in 1979 when HCR acquired a license to resell Unix from Western Electric Co.  By one account, HCR was the second firm to support Unix commercially, following Interactive Systems Corporation in the US in 1977.  
Microsoft was working on its version of Unix, called Xenix, and in 1982 engaged with the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) in this work, with the two companies' engineers working together on improvements.  Microsoft and SCO then further engaged HCR in Canada, and a software products group within Logica plc in the United Kingdom, as part of making further improvements to Xenix and porting Xenix to other platforms.   In doing so, Microsoft gave HCR and Logica the rights to do Xenix ports and license Xenix binaries in those territories.  As a result, some of Xenix was developed by Human Computing Resources in Toronto.  The early history of Xenix has a sometimes unclear narrative, but by some accounts HCR had a greater role than just extending what Microsoft had done, as it had to take over the initial porting of the AT&T Version 7 Unix after Microsoft was unable to do so.
In particular, as Baecker said in 2001 for a University of Toronto course he gave on software as a business, HCR's focus became doing
""UNIX operating systems programming for hardware companies without UNIX expertise needing to bring UNIX to market quickly.""
As such, their customer space was in the original-equipment manufacturer (OEM) and value-added reseller (VAR) markets, including Control Data Corporation, NCR, Prime Computer, and National Semiconductor.  Tilson published a seven-page article in Byte magazine about their work on the NS16032 as a case study of doing a Unix port.  Other architectures they worked on included the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11 and VAX-11, Motorola 68000, Intel 8086, Zilog Z8000, PERQ workstation, and Computer Automation 4/95.
This work often included establishing Unix environments and functioning compilers for the C programming language on various 16-bit and 32-bit processors.  It also stressed the portability traits, good and bad, of the C language.
An employee of HCR in the early 1980s, Richard Miller, had had an especially historic role in Unix, having done, in 1977, one the first ports of Unix to a non-PDP architecture while he was at the University of Wollongong in Australia.
In 1983, the trade magazine InfoWorld stated that HCR ""probably has more experience porting UNIX to different architectures than anyone else.""
The HCR variant of Unix was branded as Unity.  Initially based on UNIX System III, it was sold on a stand-alone basis for the PDP-11 and VAX minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation.     Moreover, HCR had an implementation of Unity that ran on top of the VAX/VMS operating system, providing file path translations and the ability to use Unix utilities from VMS.  
In addition, Unity was sold on an OEM basis for other architectures, which in 1983 included the NS16032 and the Motorola 68000.


=== Other products ===
Besides Unix itself, the company was showcasing a variety of system software products.  These included a compiler for the Pascal programming language and an interpreter for the BASIC programming language.  Cross compilers from VAX Unix to the NS16032 architecture for C, Pascal, and Fortran 77 were also offered.
There was a Unix-based RT-11 emulator. For operating system usability, there was the configurable HCR Menu Shell, which ran atop the standard Bourne shell and provided a more friendly and customizable interface, and the HCR/EDIT screen-oriented text editor.
In addition, HCR often worked with, and did active marketing for, the Mistress relational database system, which was supported commercially by Rhodnius Ltd, another Toronto-based software firm.
HCR also marketed several business applications.
By 1983, UNIX Review trade publication was referring to HCR as a ""well-known software vendor"".


=== Financials ===
By one account, HCR received funding in 1982 and 1983 from two Canadian venture capital firms, Ventures West Technologies and TD Capital Group, with the two combined ending up with 50 percent ownership of HCR; more money was subsequently raised by diluting existing shares.  By another account, HCR received $750,000 CAD from one round of venture capital funding in 1981 and $2.2 million from another round in 1984, with Ventures West Technologies being one of the firms involved.
The company was profitable during some of these years.  Revenues rose from $1.3 million CAD in 1982 to $2.2 million in 1983 to $3.2 million in 1984, with Unix porting contracts with hardware manufacturers ranging from $100,000 to $1 million in size.  Some 80 percent of the company's sales came from the United States, 15 percent from Europe, and 5 percent from Canada itself.  Marketing costs were minimal since those were borne by the hardware manufacturers for selling complete systems. 
There was competition, as other companies were in this area.  In addition to Interactive Systems Corporation and SCO, companies doing Unix ports or substantial work with Unix included UniSoft, Microport, and a number of smaller firms.
As Unix began to penetrate into wider consciousness in the 1980s, 
employees at HCR became Unix evangelists.  They were quoted in newspaper articles as the operating system became more discussed in technology circles and appeared in overseas symposiums with the likes of Unix inventors and pioneers Ken Thompson, Brian Kernighan, Samuel J. Leffler, and P. J. Plauger.  HCR gave training courses in Unix. From its Toronto offices, HCR provided Unix training courses and executive seminars on the importance and impact of Unix, and offered introductory Unix seminars at various North American cities. Between 1982 and 1985, HCR staff published a dozen articles for, or presented at conferences of, the USENIX association, and HCR hosted the Summer 1983 USENIX conference in Toronto where some 1,600 Unix users were in attendance.
Overall, however, HCR did not focus on one specific mission.  In his 2001 course on software as a business, Baecker spoke of the ""Three Product Strategies of HCR"", and began by being critical of the time he was in charge of the company, saying that its strategy reflected his personality: ""the academic, the visionary, ... go everywhere, which is to have no focus and to go nowhere"".


== Change in leadership ==
In February 1984, Baecker stepped down as president of HCR, and returned on a more active basis to the faculty of the University of Toronto.
He was replaced as president by Dennis Kukulsky, formerly a national sales manager with Tektronix.
Baecker remained as chairman of the company.
Under Kukulsky, the company sought to focus on software products that would run on Unix,   and in particular, products aimed at business users.  Indeed, the promise of producing business applications was part of what had attracted venture capital funding and part of why Kukulsky had been hired.
The company was faced with a significant loss for 1985, due to increased development, sales, and marketing costs, including opening sales offices in the United States.
HCR released the Chronicle Business Applications Software suite in 1985.  HCR's Chronicle included modules for general ledger, accounts payable, and accounts receivable, as well as inventory, invoicing, purchase orders, and sales and profitability analysis.
This was followed by HCR's  Chariot UNIX Business Software, which sold for around $7,500 per development system.  It included the business application modules of Chronicle but more importantly contained a 4GL-like application generator to allow HCR's customers to create new business applications or tailor existing ones. 
Chariot was aimed at value-added resellers (VARs) and ran on the DEC VAX, IBM PC AT, AT&T 3B, and NCR Tower.  Chariot was well received in computer industry trade shows, and some 1,500 VARs signed up for it or otherwise indicated interest. But HCR was short on both time and money and the promised delivery date of February 1986 was not met, and even had Chariot been ready for release, the company lacked the ability to market it effectively.
These business products were not successful, with very little actual revenue coming in from them and substantial development costs being incurred.  Overall, Human Computing Resources went through the same tribulations as many software firms, such as a failing to accurately predict development costs and being unsure how to market products once developed.  One executive commented to the Financial Post that when it came to software, ""Pricing is a black art.""
Baecker's course analysis spoke critically of this era of the company as well, saying that it had embodied Kukulsky's personality of ""the salesman, the opportunist ... go where the money is, i.e., 4GLs for UNIX, an area in which HCR had no expertise"".


== Change of name and another change in leadership ==

The fallout from the Chariot project was such that by July 1986, Kukulsky had resigned  and co-founder Tilson was president of the company.  Tilson had previously been serving as vice president of technical development.  The company's management divested itself of the business products, deciding to return its focus to system software and developers.  Staffing reductions took place as well.
The changes resulted in HCR becoming profitable again, with earnings of around $100,000 on revenue of $4 million. 
By 1987, the official name of the company had changed to HCR Corporation.  Principal ownership of the company was split among five venture capital investors, who together owned 70 percent of HCR.  The headquarters office had moved as well, now being located in a Bloor Street building in the Yorkville neighborhood of Toronto, a short distance from the previous site.  
The firm continued to have a visible presence in the Unix industry.  Tilson gave a talk at the Unix-focused AUUG about what Unix might look like thirteen years out in the year 2000.
In 1989 the Canadian branch of UniForum named Tilson the Man of the Decade for his work on Unix.
The company continued to do complex Unix porting work, such as having a contract with ETA Systems to develop a C compiler and port Unix System V with Berkeley Software Distribution networking improvements to that company's ETA10 vector processor supercomputer.  Similarly, HCR had a contract with Intel to develop C and Fortran 77 compilers for the iWarp parallel computing supercomputer architecture.  HCR used the Bell Labs Portable C Compiler (pcc) as a starting point for much of this kind of work, but they had developed components of their own, such as a portable intermediate-code global optimizer that fit into the pcc scheme.
The company's management made one of its focuses be on development tools.
By 1989 HCR was still a vendor for a BASIC interpreter and Pascal compiler, and had added a compiler for the burgeoning C++ programming language that was based on  AT&T's Cfront.  Their advertisements for the HCR/C++ product emphasized the multiple platform packaging, documentation, and support services that came with it.  HCR was an early participant in the ISO C++ standardization effort.
HCR also provided validation services and a test suite for C compilers. In 1990, HCR announced the release of the SuperTest suite, in collaboration with Associated Computer Experts (ACE) of the Netherlands, which included nearly 400,000 separate tests of C compiler conformance and quality.
In addition, HCR developed and sold the Configuration Control Menu System, or CoCo.  This product was designed to manage change requests and supported a form of code review based around email available on Unix platforms.  A survey article in Software Engineering Notes pronounced CoCo an ""interesting tool"" that could be used in conjunction with existing Unix-based configuration management commands such as SCCS.
During the Unix Wars of the late 1980s, HCR was affiliated on the Unix International side.
By 1990, HCR had around 50 employees.  The company did not disclose its annual revenues at that point.
In Baecker's course analysis of the company's strategic history, he summarized this period as reflecting Tilson's nature of ""the technologist, the pragmatist, the realist ... go where HCR had expertise, i.e., UNIX software development tools (unfortunately, too late)"".  However, Tilson's recollections revealed a more positive view: ""My role as CEO was to turn the company around with greater focus on core business.  The ultimate result was to be acquired as a healthy business with a good return for shareholders and new opportunities for employees.""


== Acquisition by SCO ==
The Santa Cruz Operation (SCO), an American company based in Santa Cruz, California, announced on 9 May 1990 that it was acquiring HCR Corporation.  Financial terms were not disclosed but the companies said it would be a ""share swap with a multimillion dollar value.""  The acquired entity would take on the name SCO Canada, Inc., and operate as an independent subsidiary company.  The office remained at the same Bloor Street address.  Tilson remained head of the operation and became a vice president of SCO.
The two companies had been both allies and competitors at different times in the past, as had the software products group of Logica (which had been part of the early Xenix work, and which SCO had previously acquired in 1986).
The HCR acquisition allowed SCO to improve its development tools offerings, especially for the recently released SCO OpenDesktop operating system.  SCO Canada also took over work on the existing SCO Microsoft C compiler that dated back to Xenix days; it was offered in addition to the pcc compiler as part of the SCO OpenDesktop Development System.  SCO Canada continued to sell the HCR C++ product, which by 1991 had an estimated 450 licensed sites using it, and maintained a role in the language's standardization effort.
SCO Canada also took on some other work, such as looking to provide strategic partners with porting assistance to SCO Unix, and doing integration work between SCO Unix and Novell NetWare.
In September 1995, it was announced that SCO was buying the UnixWare and related Unix business from Novell, which in turn had acquired it from Unix Systems Laboratories in 1993. The New Jersey office of Novell had a languages and development tools group with more advanced technology than what SCO Canada had been working with, and that made the SCO Canada engineering staff largely redundant once the Novell deal was closed in December 1995.  The SCO Canada office was shut down in early 1996.


== References =="
Leading activity,"In the framework of the Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) the leading activity is the activity, or cooperative human action, which plays the most essential role in child development during a given developmental period. Although many activities may play a role in a child's development at any given time, the leading activity is theorized to be the type of social interaction that is most beneficial in terms of producing major developmental accomplishments, and preparing the child for the next period of development. Through engaging in leading activities, a child develops a wide range of capabilities, including emotional connection with others, motivation to engage in more complex social activities, the creation of new cognitive abilities, and the restructuring of old ones (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 98).
The term ""leading activity"" was first used by Lev Vygotsky (1967: 15–17) in describing sociodramatic play as the leading activity and source of development of preschoolers, but it was not systematically incorporated into Vygotsky's theory of child development. Later, however, Alexei Leontiev and other ""neo-Vygotskians"" such as Alexander Zaporozhets and Daniel Elkonin (Zaporozhets 1997; Zaporozhets & Elkonin 1971) made the concept a fundamental element of their activity theory of child development. The concept has now been extended to several stages or periods in human development.
The notion of a
the leading activity is part of a broader theory of activity that attempts to integrate cognitive, motivational, and social aspects of development. Despite many detailed descriptive accounts of the developmental forms of memory, perception, and cognition in various phases of childhood (e.g. Piaget's work), often missing is an explanation for how or why the child develops these psychological processes (Karpov 2003: 138). The exploration of leading activities seeks to illuminate these questions. Rather than biological maturation or stimulus-response learning, specific types of social activity are seen as generating human development. Because of its attention to causal dynamics, the neo-Vygotskian theory has been called ""the most comprehensive approach to the problem of determinants and mechanisms of child development (Karpov 2003: 138).""


== Nature ==
A leading activity is conceptualized as joint, social action with adults and/or peers that is oriented toward the external world. In the course of the leading activity, children develop new mental processes and motivations, which ""outgrow"" their current activity and provide the basis for the transition to a new leading activity (Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, & Miller 2003: 7). In most cases, the emergence of an activity can be seen long before it becomes the leading activity in a child's life (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99). Adults and more capable peers who instruct or assist children in engaging in the leading activity are said to be providing mediation of the activity, and creating a zone of proximal development, which allows children to perform activities at a higher level than they could perform independently. Mediation of leading activities is theorized to help children develop by acquiring the use of cultural or psychological ""tools,"" which transform children's mental processes.


== Sequence ==
The activity considered leading for any given age or period of development depends on the type of society in which a child develops, and on the particular historical and cultural expectations for children of that age (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Neo-Vygotskians have proposed a sequence of children's optimal leading activities in modern industrialized societies (though leading activities may differ in agrarian or hunter-gatherer societies). Of course, not all children within a particular culture will engage equally in leading activities (or in equal ""quality"" of activities), which leads to different developmental trajectories and outcomes. For example, children who lack opportunities to engage in rich, well-developed sociodramatic play during their preschool years appear to have greater difficulty with self-regulation and impulse control, characteristics associated with the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 99)
The proposed sequence of leading activities is not strictly determined by biological age, but rather by the typical age-related forms of adult and peer interaction in a given society (Chaiklin 2003: 48). As a result of their historical and cultural specificity, leading activities are subject to change. Different leading activities may develop and be found more beneficial for development within particular societies, leading to a revision or reconceptualization of the most effective leading activities. Karpov (2005) reviews recent empirical findings of Western researchers, which are highly consistent with the neo-Vygotskian analysis of child development through engagement in leading activities.


=== Infancy: emotional communication with caregivers ===
During the first year of life, emotional communication with caregivers is seen as the leading activity and context in which the developmental achievements of infancy occur. Vygotsky saw these interactions as the social foundation that would lead to learning and development in a uniquely human way (Karpov 2005). Primary caregivers establish an emotional dialogue with infants that goes beyond mere diapering and feeding routines. Development of this active, two-way emotional relationship results in what Bowlby (1969) called attachment. This shared activity is the blueprint for future relationships the child will develop, and creates motivation for the child to engage in later forms of shared activity (Leontiev 1978).
Infants' emotional exchanges with caregivers begin with purely emotional exchanges, such as smiling or cooing back and forth, or more physical interactions such as when a baby happily responds to hugging, bouncing, or tickling (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Caregivers generally take the initiative in establishing emotional rapport with infants, and infants move from being relatively passive participants to taking increasingly active roles in these dialogues. It has been found that around the beginning of the second month of life, infants begin smiling in response to their caregivers' smile and voice (Zaporozhets & Markova 1983).
In the third month of life, children begin smiling, gesturing and vocalizing (cooing) when greeting familiar adults. Vygotskians have called this the animation complex and infants soon come to use it proactively to arouse and maintain the attention of a caregiver (Bodrova & Leong 2007). From around three to six months of age, infants use smiles and vocalizations to invite caregivers to engage in emotional exchanges, creating what researchers such as Tronick have called interactional synchrony (Tronick 1989). Parents often use ""baby-talk"" or ""child-directed speech"" in response to their children's prelinguistic vocalization (e.g. babbling), and it has been shown that infants respond by modifying their babbling in accordance with the phonological structure present in their caregivers' utterances (Goldstein & Schwade 2008). This sort of vocalized emotional interaction, or what John Locke (2001) has referred to as vocal communion, appears to be linked to attachment and later lexical learning, thus playing a formative role in language development.
During the second half of the first year of life, infant-caregiver interactions expand to include emotional exchanges around objects, and actions on those objects (Bodrova & Leong 2007). For instance, a father may now smile and shake a rattle in response to the baby's smile. Around this time, parents may begin to label objects and talk about the actions they are performing. For infants, these objects become interesting as they are presented through emotional interaction with adults (Karpov 2005). While Piaget believed that infants' sensorimotor manipulation of objects came through spontaneous body movements and exploratory actions, evidence suggests otherwise. Children who were severely deprived of emotional contact did not engage in much object manipulation, even though objects were accessible to them in their cribs (Lisina 1974; Spitz 1946). This supports the Vygotskian assertion of a link between emotional interactions with caregivers and the development of object manipulation and exploratory behavior.
In this new context of emotional communication around objects, infants develop more sophisticated communication tools of gestures and words. Vygotsky (1988) describes how an infant's unsuccessful grasping for an object is assigned social meaning when an adult hands the object to the child. The grasping motion then transforms into pointing, an instrumental gesture communicating to an adult the baby's desire, and perhaps prompting the adult to act on the infant's behalf (Vygotsky 1988). Like gestures, a child's first words are treated as meaningful by the adults, and only later are used by infants to signify objects, people, and actions (Bodrova 2007: 104). A baby may make a random ""da da"" sound in her father's presence, and happy parents assign these sounds the meaning ""Daddy,"" a meaning which the baby then learns from the parents.  Language thus emerges in shared form, with adults initially providing most of the verbal interaction, and children eventually beginning to appropriate and use the tool of language themselves (Bodrova & Leong 2007: 104).
In summary, a positive emotional attitude toward adults is crucial for infants' development, as it leads to a vital interest in what the adult presents to the infant and does in their presence, such as using language and manipulating cultural objects, such as toys (as opposed to mere ""natural"" objects, such as rocks). As Yuri Karpov (2003: 142) put it, ""Figuratively speaking, infants become interested in the external world because it has been presented to them by loved adults."" Infants accept adults as mediators of their relations with the world, and show increasing interest in the actions they can perform with cultural tools and objects (Bodrova & Leong 2007). This leads to infants' transition to a new leading activity.


=== Toddlerhood: object-centered joint activity ===
Although infants begin to engage in object manipulations during the first year of life, the nature of these manipulations changes qualitatively during the second year of life, when object-centered joint activity with adults becomes toddlers' leading activity. Though for much of infancy children have been involved with ""dyadic"" interactions with caregivers, or independent interactions with objects around them, around this time toddlers become centrally engaged in actions that are ""triadic"" in the sense that they involve the child, the adult, and some object or entity to which they share attention (Tomasello 1999). While working with objects toddlers look where their caregivers look (gaze following), use adults as social reference points (social referencing), and act on objects the way adults act on them (imitative learning) (Tomasello 1999). Toddlers tune into the ways adults are using objects, and use communicative gestures to get adults to tune into them, as well as objects in which they are interested.
Most often in recent Western psychology, the term ""joint attention"" has been used to describe these various triadic social skills and interactions (Moore & Dunham 1995). This concept appears consistent with Russian psychologists' use of the term ""object-centered joint activity"" to describe the leading activity for this age period. Although infants are able to independently manipulate objects according to their physical, surface characteristics (e.g. banging a spoon to produce a sound), through adult-child joint activity, children can begin to learn to use objects according to their social, or cultural logic (e.g. using a spoon for eating). In addition, toddlers' more advanced motor ability (e.g. transitioning from crawling to walking) allows them to explore new places and objects, and their hands are more free to handle cultural objects in more complex ways. Through a series of adult demonstrations and joint activities with objects, toddlers come to learn the uses of those objects, for instance that a fork is used to eat, mittens are to put on hands, and a brush is used to brush hair (Bodrova & Leong 2007).
Like Piaget (1963), Vygotsky believed that young children develop sensory-motor thinking, in which they solve problems with objects by using motoric actions and perceptions. Unlike Piaget, however, Vygotsky saw sensorimotor thinking as mediated by other people through shared language and object-activity, rather than the mere maturation of sensorimotor schemas, as Piaget maintained (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Toddlers learn the words for objects and actions that are performed with them, and eventually become capable of generalizing from object to object and from one situation to another. For instance, toddlers learn that different objects can serve the same function (e.g. that one can ""drink"" from a cup, mug, or bottle) (Bodrova & Leong 2007). In addition, toddlers begin to restructure their perception of the important characteristics of objects. Vygotsky's students Zaporozhet and Venger proposed the concept of ""sensory standards"" to refer to acquired patterns of perception based in objects' socially important characteristics (Venger 1988). Perceiving culturally designated colors, shapes, and basic tastes are early examples of sensory standards that toddlers' learn through object interactions with adults (e.g. ""Hand me the orange block"").
An important aspect of toddlers' sensorimotor thinking is that, through joint object-activity with adults, it becomes infused with speech. As psychologist Karl Buhler put it, language is a tool or means for ""one to inform the other about the things"" (Bühler 1934, as cited in Müller & Carpendale 2000). Vygotsky thought that in toddlerhood, nonverbal sensorimotor thought begins to merge with spoken language, which ultimately leads to the development of verbal thinking (Vygotsky 1962). This language acquisition, in turn, is thought to restructure and develop children's other mental processes during the second and third years of life, including perception, attention, memory, and thinking. Tamis-LeMonda et al. (1996) found that maternal responsiveness to children's vocalizations at 13 months of age were predictive of later language development as well as children's later expression of symbolic play at 20 months. Especially beneficial were those interactions in which the mother directly imitated or expanded on children's verbalizations.
As adult-child object activity moves into the third year of a child's life, children develop the ability to make ""object substitutions"" (e.g. using a stick to represent a horse, or a banana to represent a telephone); this generally occurs after adults model naming a substitute object after a missing one during joint object activity (Karpov 2005). These object substitutions are theorized to play a role in the development of symbolic thought (Bodrova & Leong 2007). In the course of object-oriented activity with adults, toddlers shift from imitations of actions with objects to imitations of the social roles and relationships behind the actions (e.g. shifting from feeding the doll with a spoon, to imitating the relationship of a mother-daughter, and the care and love associated with it). As adults help toddlers to discover the social roles behind the object actions they engage in (e.g. ""You're feeding the baby just like a mommy would""), toddlers gain an increasing interest in adult social relations, which motivates them to take up the next leading activity (Karpov 2005).


=== Early childhood: sociodramatic play ===
From approximately age three to six years, sociodramatic play (or role play) is proposed to be children's leading developmental activity. Sociodramatic play is the exact opposite of what is normally thought of as ""free play"" when children do whatever they want, free of any rules or social pressure (Karpov 2003: 146). Because of children's interest in the social world of adults, and their inability to take on these complex roles directly (e.g. being a doctor or firefighter), they imitate and explore adult social relations through sociodramatic play (Karpov 2003). In some historical or present traditional societies, however, role play may not be the leading activity during this age period, and children may engage more directly in apprenticeship and adult forms of work (Elkonin 2005a)
Contrary to popular belief, adult mediation is critical in helping to children to achieve what Elkonin (2005b) called ""mature"" sociodramatic play. This type of play provides the maximum developmental benefit for children, and is characterized by: symbolic representation and symbolic actions; language use to create a pretend scenario; complex interwoven themes; rich multifaceted roles; and an extended time frame (often over several days). Bodrova & Leong (2007: 144–153) detail several ways that adults can enrich children's sociodramatic play, including providing ideas and themes, and helping children plan, coordinate, and monitor their play. It is important that children be exposed to various social roles, situations, and institutions in their schooling and life experiences, in order to have rich material for play. In addition, the importance of ""sticking to one's role"" in the particular play situation facilitates the play interaction, and allows fertile ground for the development of planning, self-regulation, impulse control, and perspective taking (Bodrova & Leong 2007).
Researchers have cited numerous important developmental achievements generated by sociodramatic play (see summary in Bodrova & Leong 2007). They include: inhibition of impulses and self-regulation through adhering to playing a sociodramatic role; the overcoming of ""cognitive egocentrism"" by learning to take other points of view through playing various social roles; the development of imagination through voluntarily entering the imaginary situations involved in play; the ability to act on an internal mental plane; the integration of emotions and cognition; further development of object substitutions and symbolic thought; and development of the ""learning motive"" to continue to grow toward adulthood, which helps to propel children's next leading activity of learning in school (Karpov 2005).
As one illustration of the benefits of play, dramatic role play encourages children to use language to regulate their own behavior and those of other children (to make sure everyone sticks to their dramatic role), and this use of language generalizes to other non-play tasks (Bodrova & Leong 2007). Children talk to themselves aloud while carrying out a task or activity; this is what Piaget called ""egocentric speech"" (1926), but has more recently come to be known as ""private speech."" To guide themselves, children often use speech or phrases that they have heard during collaborative action with peers or adults, and sometimes even imitate their caregiver's voice (Luria 1961). There is evidence that the proportion of private speech that children use increases when the task they are engaging in is more difficult or novel; in addition, private speech tends to precede action in these cases, thereby playing a planning function for children (Duncan & Pratt 1997). Vygotsky's experimental data supported the idea that children's private speech originates in social interaction, and later becomes internalized as inner (nonvocal) speech, a tool for verbal thinking, planning, and self-regulation. (Vygotsky 1962)


=== Middle childhood: learning activity in educational settings ===
Learning activity in educational settings is proposed as the leading activity for the period of middle childhood (roughly age 6-12), but authors caution that schooling must be properly organized to have the maximum developmental benefit. For instance, rather than passively waiting for children to reach an appropriate developmental level before teaching certain concepts, as he interpreted Piaget's viewpoint, Vygotsky (1962) proposed that schooling should ""march ahead of development and lead it."" Furthermore, learning activity should promote the development of ""scientific concepts,"" as opposed to the ""spontaneous concepts"" of preschoolers developed in everyday life (ibid.). For Vygotsky, scientific concepts (which include the arts, humanities, and social sciences) represent the most advanced and systematic generalizations of human activity, as opposed to more superficial impressions about the world based merely on everyday personal experience (Karpov 2005). An example of a child's spontaneous concept might be that ""coins sink in water because they are metal."" The scientific concept would be that coins sink in water because their density (mass/volume) is greater than the density of water.
Karpov (2005) emphasizes that children should also learn procedures for when and how to apply scientific knowledge to problem solving and everyday situations, and he gives some examples of this. In predicting whether a piece of wood will float, children can learn to measure the density of the wood and compare this to water's density; they can also learn a second problem-solving strategy of calculating the weight of water the wood displaces, and comparing this to the weight of the wood. Instead of jumping to the conclusion that a whale is a fish because it has fins and lives in the water (spontaneous concept based on superficial observation), they can learn to apply taxonomic principles of biology to see that below the ""surface,"" whales share the criteria of the class ""mammals"" (air-breathing vertebrates with hair, mammary glands, etc.). Learning scientific concepts has the effect of restructuring children's way of thinking about the world, and leads to what Piaget called ""formal-logical thought"" (Inhelder & Piaget 1958). This includes the essential developmental ability to solve problems using abstract, theoretical information that goes beyond mere personal experience (Karpov 2003).
For an overview of different types of instruction and their outcomes, from the point of view of neo-Vygotskians, see Arievitch & Stetsenko (2002). A so-called ""theoretical learning"" approach, based in Vygtosky's cultural-historical theory, has shown promise in promoting formal-logical thought, theoretical reasoning, and other higher mental functions (tool-mediated, intentional, conscious processes) (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2002). These theoretical reasoning capabilities are thought to be crucially important in children's transition to the next leading activity, interaction with peers (Bodrova & Leong 2007; Karpov 2005).


=== Adolescence: interaction with peers ===
Interaction with peers is suggested as the leading activity for adolescents. Although peer interaction has certainly played an important role in children's development up until this point, in the period of adolescence it is theorized to become the leading activity in terms of its motivational importance, and its power in generating adolescent development. Authors point out that adults are still important mediators of adolescents' activity during this period, only less directly than when children were younger (Karpov 2005).
The activity of peer interaction provides opportunities for adolescents to use adult and societal norms, models, and relations in analyzing the behavior of their peers. As they test, master, internalize, and perhaps challenge these social standards, adolescents also come to use them for reflective self-analysis (Karpov 2005). This leads to self-awareness and the formation of what Erik Erikson (1968) called personal identity, a major developmental accomplishment of adolescence that prepares adolescents for the transition to adulthood. This further contributes to the development of formal-logical thinking in adolescents, making them capable of analysis of their feelings, goals and ambitions, morality, history, and their place in society, the existence of which they have just ""discovered"" (Karpov 2003: 150).
Although Karpov (2005) reviews the ways in which the neo-Vygotskian view of adolescence is highly consistent with recent findings and ideas of Western researchers, there is some controversy over the motive that propels peer interaction as the leading activity of adolescence. This motive has not been clearly defined in the literature, whether it has to do with cognitive advances, a desire to take on more adult roles, or sexual attraction to peers based in the reproductive developments of adolescence (Karpov 2005).


== Extensions ==
The concept of leading activity has been extended conceptually and chronologically (into adulthood) by certain authors, such as Anna Stetsenko and Igor Arievitch, who argue that the self can be understood as a leading activity (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004). They emphasize that the self is a process of real-life activity that is connected to, and positioned within ongoing societal activities. Rather than residing in the depths of a human ""soul,"" the self is constantly re-enacted and reconstructed. The self engages in practical life tasks and collaborative transformative practices, and contributes to purposefully ""changing something in and about the world (including in oneself as part of the world)"" (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004: 494).


== See also ==
Active learning
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
Aleksei N. Leontiev
Situated cognition
Social constructivism (learning theory)
Lev Vygotsky


== References ==

Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2009). Tools of the mind: A Vygotskian-based early childhood curriculum. Early Childhood Services: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Effectiveness, 3(3), 245–262.
Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context., Learning in doing (pp. 39–64). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Duncan, R. M., & Pratt, M. W. (1997). Microgenetic change in the quantity and quality of preschoolers' private speech. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(2), 367–383. doi:10.1080/016502597385388
Elkonin, D. B. (2005a). On the Historical Origin of Role Play. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 43(1), 49–89.
Elkonin, D. B. (2005b). The Subject of Our Research: The Developed Form of Play. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 43(1), 22–48.
Erikson, E. h. (1968). Identity: youth and crisis. Identity: youth and crisis. Oxford England: Norton & Co.
Goldstein, M. H., & Schwade, J. A. (2008). Social feedback to infants' babbling facilitates rapid phonological learning. Psychological Science, 19(5), 515–523. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02117.x
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). Adolescent thinking. The growth of logical thinking:  From childhood to adolescence., An essay on the construction of formal operational structures (pp. 334–350). New York, NY US: Basic Books.
Karpov, Y. V. (2003). Development through the lifespan: A neo-Vygotskian approach. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context., Learning in doing (pp. 138–155). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Karpov, Y. V. (2005). The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development. The Neo-Vygotskian Approach to Child Development. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Kozulin, A., Gindis, B., Ageyev, V. S., & Miller, S. M. (2003). Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. (A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller, Eds.)Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press.
Locke, J. L. (2001). First communication: The emergence of vocal relationships. Social Development, 10(3), 294–308. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00167
Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. Oxford England: Liveright.
Müller, U., & Carpendale, J. I. M. (2000). The role of social interaction in Piaget's theory: Language for social cooperation and social cooperation for language. New Ideas in Psychology, 18(2-3), 139–156. doi:10.1016/S0732-118X(00)00004-0
Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. The language and thought of the child. Oxford England: Harcourt, Brace.
Piaget, Jean. (1963). The origins of intelligence in children. The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY US: W W Norton & Co.
Stetsenko, A., & Arievitch, I. (2002). Teaching, learning, and development: A post-Vygotskian perspective. In G. Wells & G. Claxton (Eds.), Learning for life in the 21st century:  Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education. (pp. 84–96). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
Stetsenko, A., & Arievitch, I. M. (2004). The self in cultural-historical activity theory: Reclaiming the unity of social and individual dimensions of human development. Theory & Psychology, 14(4), 475–503. doi:10.1177/0959354304044921
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bornstein, M. H., Baumwell, L., & Damast, A. M. (1996). Responsive parenting in the second year: Specific influences on children's language and play. Early Development & Parenting, 5(4), 173–183. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0917(199612)5:4<173::AID-EDP131>3.0.CO;2-V
Tomasello, M. (1999). The human adaptation for culture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, 509–529. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509
Tronick, E. Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2), 112–119. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.112
Venger, L. A. (1988). The origin and development of cognitive abilities in preschool children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 11(2), 147–153.
Vygotsky, L., Hanfmann, E., & Vakar, G. (1962). Thought and language. (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Eds.)Thought and language. Cambridge, MA US: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet Psychology, 5(3), 6–18.
Zaporozhets, A. V. (1997). Principal problems in the ontogeny of the mind. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 35(1), 53–94. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405350153
Zaporozhets, A. V., & Elkonin, D. B. (1971). The psychology of preschool children. Trans. by J. Shybut & S. Simon. The psychology of preschool children. Trans. by J. Shybut & S. Simon. Oxford England: Massachusetts Inst. of Technology"
Baramulla district,"Baramulla district (or Varmul, in Kashmiri) is one of the 20 districts in the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) in the disputed Kashmir region. Baramulla town is the administrative headquarters of this district. The district covered an area of 4,588 km2 (1,771 sq mi) in 2001, but it was reduced to 4,243 km2 (1,638 sq mi) at the time of 2011 census.  In 2016, the district administration said that the area was 4,190 km2 (1,620 sq mi). Muslims constitute about 98% of the population.


== Etymology ==
The name Baramulla, meaning ""Boar's Molar Place,"" is derived from two Sanskrit words Varaha (Boar) and Mula. According to Hindu texts, the Kashmir Valley was once a lake called Satisaras, the lake of Parvati (consort of Shiva). Hindu texts state that the lake was occupied by a demon, Jalodbhava, until Vishnu assumed the form of a boar and struck the mountain with his molar at Baramulla (ancient Varahamula). He bored an opening in it where the lake water flowed out.


== History ==


=== Ancient and medieval ===
The city of Baramulla, from which the district derives its name, was founded by Raja Bhimsina in 2306 BCE. A number of prominent visitors have travelled to Baramulla. These include the Chinese visitor Heiun T'Sang and the British historian, Moorcraft. Mughal emperors had a special fascination for Baramulla. As the gateway of the Kashmir Valley, Baramulla was a stopping place for them during their visits to the valley. Jahangir also stayed at Baramulla during his visit to Kashmir in 1620 CE.
From the very beginning, Baramulla has been a religious center. The construction of Hindu Teerth and Buddhist Vihars made the city sacred to people of both religions. In the 15th century, the noted Muslim saint, Syed Janbaz Wali, visited the valley along with his companions in 1421 CE. He chose Baramulla as the centre of his mission and was buried here after death. His shrine attracts pilgrims from all over the Valley. In 1620, the sixth Sikh Guru Shri Hargobind visited the city. Baramulla thus became an abode of Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists and Sikhs.
It was the oldest and the most important town in the north of princely state of Kashmir and Jammu. In the later centuries, until 27 October 1947, it was the 'Gateway of Kashmir Valley' by the Rawalpindi-Murree-Muzaffarabad-Baramulla Road. It became a part of Union of India when the Maharaja, under duress of invasion by Pakistani tribal forces, signed the instrument of accession on 26 October 1947, which was accepted by India the next day.
Actual area of district Baramulla according to 2018 survey by the centre for remote sensing and gis is 2204.06 km2.


=== Pakistani tribal invasion (1947) ===

After the Partition of India in 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh chose to remain independent, not joining either India or Pakistan. A large number of tribals from Pakistan attacked Kashmir under the code name ""Operation Gulmarg,"" intending to seize Kashmir. The invading tribals started moving along Rawalpindi-Murree-Muzaffarabad-Baramulla Road on 22 October 1947 with Pakistani army men in plain clothes. Muzaffarabad fell on 24 October 1947. They reached and captured Baramulla on 25 October. There they stayed for several days looting, raping, and killing residents; burning and plundering homes and businesses; and desecrating and vandalising shrines and temples. They could have reached Srinagar, just 50 km away, and captured its airfield, which was not defended at all. They raped and killed European nuns (only one survived) at Baramulla's St. Joseph convent and Christian nurses at the missionary hospital. This looting, raping, murder and abduction of girls continued for several days. It is said that the suffering of Baramulla saved the rest of Kashmir, because aeroplanes carrying Indian troops airlifted from Delhi on the morning of 27 October could land at Srinagar airfield while the invaders were still at Baramulla.
Charles Chevenix Trench writes in his The Frontier Scouts (1985):

In October 1947... tribal lashkars hastened in lorries - undoubtedly with official logistic support - into Kashmir... at least one British Officer, Harvey-Kelly took part in the campaign. It seemed that nothing could stop these hordes of tribesmen taking Srinagar with its vital airfield. Indeed nothing did, but their own greed. The Mahsuds in particular stopped to loot, rape and murder; Indian troops were flown in and the lashkars pushed out of the Vale of Kashmir into the mountains. The Mahsuds returned home in a savage mood, having muffed an easy chance, lost the loot of Srinagar and made fools of themselves.
Tom Cooper of Air Combat Information Group wrote:

...the Pathans appeared foremost interested in looting, killing, ransacking and other crimes against the inhabitants instead of a serious military action.
Biju Patnaik (who later became Chief Minister of Odisha) piloted the first plane to land at Srinagar airport that morning. He brought 17 soldiers of 1-Sikh regiment commanded by Lt. Col. Dewan Ranjit Rai.

""...The pilot flew low on the airstrip twice to ensure that no raiders were around... Instructions from PM Nehru’s office were clear: If the airport was taken over by the enemy, you are not to land. Taking a full circle the DC-3 flew ground level. Anxious eye-balls peered from inside the aircraft – only to find the airstrip empty. Nary a soul was in sight. The raiders were busy distributing the war booty amongst them in Baramulla.""
In the words of Gen Mohammad Akbar Khan (Brigadier-in-Charge, Pakistan, in his book War for Kashmir in 1947): ""The uncouth raiders delayed in Baramulla for two (whole) days for some unknown reason.""
It took two weeks for the Indian army to evict the raiders from Baramulla. Joined by Pakistani regular troops, they had become well-entrenched.
Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah spoke in the UN Security Council on 5 February 1948 thus: ""...the raiders came to our land, massacred thousands of people — mostly Hindus and Sikhs, but Muslims, too — abducted thousands of girls, Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims alike, looted our property and almost reached the gates of our summer capital, Srinagar...""


=== Recent years ===
Roads have been improved and road network has grown considerably in Baramulla town since 1947. New schools and colleges have started and better facilities for education have been created. More bridges on Jhelum river have been constructed or planned to connect the old town on the north bank of the river with the new town on the south bank. Decongestion of the old town has been attempted by moving some residents to houses in the new town.
The most recent development has been creation of railway connectivity with Srinagar, Anantnag and Qazigund and the planned connectivity with Banihal and Jammu.


== Administration ==
Baramulla district comprises sixteen tehsils: Pattan, Uri, Kreeri, Boniyar, Tangmarg, Sopore, Watergam Rafiabad, Rohama, Dangiwacha, Bomai, Dangerpora, Khoie(Panzipora), Wagoora, Kunzer, Kwarhama and Baramulla.
This district consists of 26 blocks: Uri, Rohama, Rafiabad, Zaingeer, Sopore, Boniyar, Baramulla, Tangmarg, Singhpora, Pattan, Wagoora, Kunzer, Paranpillian, Bijhama, Norkhah, Narwav, Nadihal, Kandi Rafiabad, Hardchanum, Tujjar Sharief, Sangrama, Sherabad Khore, Lalpora, Wailoo, Khaipora and Chandil Wanigam. Pattan tehsil is the largest tehsil of District Baramulla and was later split to form a separate Kreeri tehsil.
Pattan Town is situated in the centre of the district between Srinagar and Baramulla cities and is surrounded by villages like Palhalan, Nihalpora Hanjiwera Zangam, Sherpora, Sonium and Yall. Each block consists of a number of panchayats.


== Politics ==
Baramullah district has seven assembly constituencies: Uri, Rafiabad, Sopore, Wagoora-Kreeri, Baramulla, Gulmarg and Pattan.


== Demographics ==

According to the 2011 census Baramulla district had a population of 1,008,039, or 1,015,503, roughly equal to the nation of Cyprus or the US state of Montana. This gives it a ranking of 443rd in India (out of a total of 640). Of the total population, 542,171 (53.4%) were males and 473,332 (46.6%) were females, the sex ratio being 885 females for every 1,000 males (this varies with religion), a decrease from 905 in 2001 census, and much lower than the national average of 940. The sex ratio for children in 0 to 6 year age group was even less at 866.
The district has a population density of 305 inhabitants per square kilometre (790/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 20.34%.  Baramula has a literacy rate of 66.93%. with male literacy 77.35% and female literacy 55.01%. Total literate in Baramula district were 571,348 of which males and females were 352,289 and 219,059 respectively.
Baramulla town is the largest town in the district and the fourth most-populous town in the state, with a population of 167,986 as per 2011 census.

The most widely spoken language is Kashmiri (82.11% of the population according to the 2011 census), but there are also speakers of Pahari (9.88%), Gujari (3.45%), Hindi (1.58%) and Punjabi (1.26%).


== Geography and climate ==
The district is spread from Srinagar district and Ganderbal district in the east to the line of control in the west, and from Kupwara district in the north and Bandipore district in the northwest to Poonch district in the south and Badgam district in the southwest. Baramulla has cool climate under Köppen climate classification. In winter, generally between December and February, snowfall occurs. Gulmurg is popular destination for tourist all over world.
Baramulla city is located on the banks of Jhelum river at the highest point of the river. The old town lies on the north (right) bank of the river and the new town lies on the south (left) bank. They are connected by five bridges, including a suspension bridge connecting Gulnar park with Dewan Bagh.


== Healthcare ==
Baramulla has a district civil hospital and a district veterinary hospital with facilities such as radiology (x-ray) and ultrasonography. The hospital has been shifted to a new building with 300 beds in Kanthbagh in March 2013, ( In the Land of Ushkara Baramulla) which was in construction for two decades. St.Joseph's Hospital & Nursing School run by Christian Missionary Nuns Baramulla district hospital is also the associated hospital of the Government Medical College, Baramulla. There are smaller hospitals in other towns of the district and primary health centres at villages in the district. Primary Health Center Ushkara near Jamia Masjid Ushkara under Block Sheeri.


== Tehsils ==
Source:

Baramulla
Boniyar
Dangerpora
Dangiwacha
Kawarhama
Khoie (Panzipora)
Kreeri
Kunzer
Narwav
Pattan
Rohama
Singh
Sopore
Tangmarg
Uri
Wagoora
Watergam
Zaingeer (Bomai)


== References ==


== External links ==

Baramulla district official website"
Goalpokhar I,"Goalpokhar I is a community development block that forms an administrative division in Islampur subdivision of Uttar Dinajpur district in the Indian state of West Bengal.


== History ==
Historically the western frontier of ancient Pundravardhana kingdom, bordering ancient Anga of Mahabharat fame, the Dinajpur area remained somewhat obscure in the major empires that held sway over the region and beyond till the rise of the Dinajpur Raj during the Mughal period. Some areas later forming a part of Uttar Dinajpur were parts of kingdoms in Nepal. Dinajpur district was constituted by the British in 1786, with a portion of the estate of Dinajpur Raj. Subsequent to the Permanent Settlement in 1793, the semi-independent Dinajpur Raj was further broken down and some of its tracts were transferred to the neighbouring British districts of Purnea, Malda, Rajshahi and Bogra. In 1947, the Radcliffe Line placed the Sadar and Thakurgaon subdivisions of Dinajpur district in East Pakistan. The Balurghat subdivision of Dinajpur district was reconstituted as West Dinajpur district in West Bengal.  Raiganj subdivision was formed in 1948.
In order to restore territorial links between northern and southern parts of West Bengal which had been snapped during the partition of Bengal, and on the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission a portion of the erstwhile Kishanganj subdivision comprising Goalpokhar, Islampur and Chopra thanas (police stations) and parts of Thakurganj thana, along with the adjacent parts of the erstwhile Gopalpur thana in Katihar subdivision were transferred from Purnea district in Bihar to West Bengal in 1956, and were formally incorporated into Raiganj subdivision in West Dinajpur. The township of Kishanganj and its entire municipal boundary remained within Bihar. Islampur subdivision was formed in March 1959. At the same time, the portion of Chopra PS lying to the north of the Mahananda river covering an area that now comprises Bidhannagar-1 gram panchayat, Bidhannagar-2 GP, Chathat-Bansgaon GP and the southern half of Phansidewa-Bansgaon Kismat GP in Darjeeling district, was transferred from West Dinajpur to the jurisdiction of Phansidewa PS in Darjeling district. With the introduction of the Community Development Programme in 1960–61, community development blocks were set up in West Dinajpur district.
In 1992, West Dinajpur district was bifurcated and Uttar Dinajpur district was established.


== Geography ==
Goalpokhar is located at 26°05′N 88°08′E.
Uttar Dinajpur district has a flat topography and slopes gently from north to south. All rivers flow in that direction. Except for the eastern fringes of Chopra CD Block, most of the district is a part of the catchment area of the Mahanada and also a part of the larger Barind Tract The soil is composed of different varieties of alluvium.  The main rivers are: Nagar, Mahananda, Kulik, Gamari, Chhiramati (Srimati) and Tangon. The rivers have little water in the dry season but with heavy rains, during monsoon, overflow the banks. The Nagar river flows along the international border with Bangladesh on the east of Goalpohar I CD Block. The Sartano river flows through the CD Block and Sudana river on the eastern part.
There is one river flowing from north to south in the eastern border of Goalpokhar I block and that river acts as the natural border between West Bengal of India and Bangladesh. The BSF has done much fencing alongside the river. Because of this fencing, a huge area of cultivable land has fallen on the other side of the river which is not accessible to the farmers of this region and it causes lot of trouble to the farmers because it is almost as if they have lost their cultivable lands because of the fencing by the BSF.
Goalpokhar I CD Block is bounded by Islampur CD Block on the north, Baliadangi, Ranisankail and Haripur Upazilas in Thakurgaon District of Bangladesh on the east, Karandighi CD Block on the south and Goalpokhar II CD Block and Kishanganj CD Block in Kishanganj district of Bihar on the west.
Approximately 206 km of the India-Bangladesh border is in Uttar Dinajpur district. It covers the eastern boundary of the district. On the western side Uttar Dinajpur district has 227 km boundary with Bihar.
Goalpokhar I CD Block has an area of 365.11 km2.It has 1 panchayat samity, 14 gram panchayats, 204 gram sansads (village councils), 153 mouzas and 144 inhabited villages. Goalpokhar police station serves this block. Headquarters of this CD Block is at PO Panjipara, Goalpokhar.
Uttar Dinajpur district is one of the smaller districts in the state and stands 15th in terms of area (3,140.00 km2) in the state.
Gram panchayats of Goalpokhar I block/ panchayat samiti are: Dharampur I, Dharampur II, Goagaon I, Goagaon II, Goalpokher, Goti, Jaingaon, Khagore, Lodhan, Mahua, Panjipara, Pokharia, Sahapur I. Sahapur II.


== Demographics ==


=== Population ===
As per the 2011 Census of India, Goalpokhar I CD Block had a total population of 326,120, of which 320,121 were rural and 5,939 were urban. There were 169,954 (52%) males and 156,166 (48%) females. Population below 6 years was 61,875. Scheduled Castes numbered 43,442 (13.32%) and Scheduled Tribes numbered 12,595 (3.86%).
As per 2001 census, Goalpokhar I block had a total population of 245,603, out of which 126,706 were males and 118,897 were females. Goalpokhar I block registered a population growth of 26.56 per cent during the 1991-2001 decade. Decadal growth for the district was 28.72 per cent.
The only census town in Goalpokhar I CD Block was (2011 population in brackets): Hanskunda (5,939).
Large villages (with 4,000+ population) in Goalpokhar I CD Block were (2011 population in brackets): Majlishpur (7,802),  Churakuti (5,257), Panjipara (12,376), Teliapokhar (5,362), Majhok (4,709), Pokharia (5,541), Mahua (16,080), Jaingaon (10,866), Chhota Patna (4,186), Khargar (5,422), Raypur (4,433), Dharampur (5,255), Bara Singhanath (5,464), Angarbhasa (4,208), Athiala (5,887), Goalpokhar (4,500), Babhanbari (4,088), Goalin (6,623), Debiganj (6,457), Agoi (4,308) and Sholpara (4,045).
Other villages in Goalpokhar I CD Block included (2011 population in brackets): Goagaon (2,150) and Lodhan (3,955).
Decadal Population Growth Rate (%)

Note: The CD Block data for 1971–1981, 1981-1991 and 1991-2001 is for Goalpokhar PS covering both Goalpokhar I and Goalpokhar II blocks
The decadal growth of population in Goalpokhar CD Block in 2001-2011 was 31.88%. The decadal growth of population in Goalpokhar PS  in 1991-2001 was 30.19%, in 1981-91 was 27.06% and in 1971-81 was 33.39%. The decadal growth rate of population in Uttar Dinajpur district was as follows:  30.2% in 1971–81, 34.0% in 1981–91, 28.7% in 1991-2001 and 23.2% in 2001–11. The decadal growth rate for West Bengal was 13.93% in 2001–2011, 17.77% in 1991–2001. 24.73% in 1981-1991 and 23.17% in 1971–1981.
Uttar Dinajpur district has the highest decadal population growth rate in West Bengal with a figure of 23.2% for the decade 2001-2011 and is much higher than the state average of 13.8%.
According to the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district, population growth in the area that later became Uttar Dinajpur district was low in the pre-independence era and started picking up with the waves of East Bengali refugees coming in from erstwhile East Pakistan. Despite the formation of an international border in 1947, none of the PS areas in the area which later formed Islampur SD showed much increase in settlement density between 1941 and 1951, and accelerated settlement only came into evidence in this region after 1961, following their transfer from Bihar to West Bengal. Thus, as population growth in the Uttar Dinajpur region accelerated considerably under the impetus of partition migration after 1951, the Islampur SD areas offered additional living space, easing the overall migration pressure on the region.
The Human Development Report analyses, “A spurt in population growth rates first became evident between 1951-1961, and was further magnified between 1971-81 after the creation of Bangladesh when population growth in most districts bordering the Bangladesh-West Bengal frontier showed similar escalation. However, after 1981, when population growth in most other West Bengal districts had tapered off, growth rates in Uttar Dinajpur again showed a fresh spurt. Thus, no deceleration in population growth rates occurred in the district until after 1991… In addition to Hindu and tribal migrants from across the international border, a sizeable number of migrant Muslims have also settled in the district, mainly driven by economic reasons… migrants from other states comprised 23% of the total migrants residing in Uttar Dinajpur.” The large number of migrants from other states is mainly from the neighbouring areas in Bihar.
A study by North Bengal University has observed that “Immigrants from East Pakistan/Bangladesh have arrived in Uttar Dinajpur in almost equal numbers before and after 1971.” The Human Development Report opines, “The overall post-Partition impact on the rates of demographic growth has been particularly strong in all North Bengal districts. Despite its smaller relative size, the region has received more migration in pro rata terms than the West Bengal districts lying south of the Ganga.”


=== Literacy ===
As per the 2011 census, the total number of literates in Goalpokhar I CD Block was 111,662 (42.26% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 67,441 (48.80% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 44,221 (35.08% of the female population over 6 years). The gender disparity (the difference between female and male literacy rates) was 13.72%.
The literacy rate in Uttar Dinajpur district at 60.13% in 2011, up from 47.89% in 2001, was the lowest amongst all districts of West Bengal. The highest literacy rate amongst the districts of West Bengal was that of Purba Medinipur district at 87.66% in 2011.
According to the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district,  “Goalpokhar-1, Goalpokhar-2, Karandighi and Islampur blocks in that order stood at the very bottom of the literacy scale in the state. This pooling of illiteracy within Islampur SD also led to the low ranking of Uttar Dinajpur at 494th position out of 595 Indian districts in terms of literacy rates in 2001, despite which its rank had improved considerably in relative terms from the 523rd rank it had occupied in 1991.”
The five blocks transferred from the state of Bihar to form a new subdivision in West Dinajpur in 1959 had until 1956 been part of the Kishanganj region which is still characterised by a low overall literacy rate of 31 percent in 2006–07, against which the corresponding rate for Uttar Dinajpur as a whole is a literacy rate of 48 percent... “Like Kishanganj which is now a full-fledged Bihar district, Islampur SD too has a largely rural profile, a large Muslim population and deep concentration of rural poverty”... Persisting regional disparities in access to education and infrastructure, rather than the response and enthusiasm of the local people are largely responsible for making Uttar Dinajpur the least literate district in West Bengal. “Thus, a major challenge facing the district relates to the improvement of educational attainments of the weaker social sections and women, especially among the Muslim community which has a dominant presence in the Islampur SD region… A huge gulf separates the Muslim literacy rate of 36 percent in Uttar Dinajpur from the Muslim literacy rate of 58 percent achieved by West Bengal as a whole.”
See also – List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate
See also - Literacy in Bihar


=== Language and religion ===

In the 2011 census, Muslims numbered 251,965 and formed 77.26% of the population in Goalpokhar I CD Block. Hindus numbered 72,892 and formed 22.35% of the population. Christians numbered 676 and formed 0.21% of the population. Others numbered 587 and formed 0.18% of the population. In Goalpokhar I and Goalpokhar II CD Blocks taken together, as per the District Statistical Handbook for Uttar Dinajpur, while the proportion of Muslims increased from 67.71% in 1991 to 68.82% in 2001, the proportion of Hindus declined from 31.69% in 1991 to 30.19% in 2001.
In the 2011 census, Uttar Dinajpur district had 1,501,170 Muslims who formed 49.92% of the population, 1,482,943 Hindus who formed 49.31% of the population, 16,702 Christians who formed 0.56% of the population and 6,319 persons belonging to other religions who formed 0.23% of the population. While the proportion of Muslim population in the district increased from 45.3% in 1991 to 49.9% in 2011, the proportion of Hindu population declined from 54.2% in 1991 to 49.2% in 2011.

In 2001, Bengali was the mother-tongue of 66.8% of the population of Uttar Dinajpur district, followed by Surajpuri (11.7%), Urdu (9.8%), Hindi (4.0%), Santali (4.0%), Telugu (0.4%), Kurukh/Oraon (0.3%), Bhojpuri (0.3%), Sadan/ Sadri (0.1%), Nepali (0.1%) and Maithili (0.1%). Other languages spoken were: Rajbansi, Oriya, Marwari and Munda. The proportion of population having Bengali as their mother tongue increased from 72.2% in 1961 to 76.5% in 1991 and then dropped to 66.8% in 2001. The proportion of population having Surajpuri as their mother tongue increased from 3.3% in 1991 to 11.7% in 2001. The proportion of population having Urdu as their mother tongue decreased from 10.1% in 1961 to 6.0% in 1971 and then increased to 9.8% in 2001. Information about mother-tongue is available only at the district level and above. In the District Census Handbook for Uttar Dinajpur district covering 2011 census, the mother-tongue information is provided for the period 1961 to 2001.
The Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur describes the Islampur subdivision as “a region where Urdu and Hindi are widely
spoken as a first language because of the prior transfer of this territory to West Bengal from Bihar”
As per the West Bengal Official Language (Amendment) Act, 2012, which came into force from December 2012, Urdu was given the status of official language in areas, such as subdivisions and blocks, having more than 10% Urdu speaking population. In Uttar Dinajpur district, Goalpokhar I and II blocks, Islampur block and Islampur municipality were identified as fulfilling the norms set In 2014, Calcutta High Court, in an order, included Dalkhola municipality in the list.


== Rural poverty ==
As per the Rural Household Survey conducted in 2002, 59.2% of the rural families in Goalpokhar I CD Block belonged to the BPL category, against 46.7% of rural families in Uttar Dinajpur district being in the BPL category.  As per the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district, “The two Goalpokhar blocks are placed in the least favourable positions in Uttar Dinajpur, both because of low levels of human development and high concentration of exclusion and human poverty. Goalpokhar-1 nevertheless does better than Itahar in terms of Human Poverty Index (HPI). Goalpokhar-2, on the other hand, is incontrovertibly the least developed block of Uttar Dinajpur district, with the lowest levels of human development and the highest concentration of human poverty”.


== Economy ==


=== Livelihood ===

In Goalpokhar I CD Block in 2011, amongst the class of total workers, cultivators numbered 31,366 and formed 31.10%, agricultural labourers numbered 47,488 and formed  47.08%, household industry workers numbered 3,744 and formed 3.71% and other workers numbered  18,236 and formed 18.11%. Total workers numbered 100,866 and formed 30.93% of the total population, and non-workers numbered 225,254 and formed 69.07% of the population.
Note: In the census records a person is considered a cultivator, if the person is engaged in cultivation/ supervision of land owned by self/government/institution. When a person who works on another person's land for wages in cash or kind or share, is regarded as an agricultural labourer. Household industry is defined as an industry conducted by one or more members of the family within the household or village, and one that does not qualify for registration as a factory under the Factories Act. Other workers are persons engaged in some economic activity other than cultivators, agricultural labourers and household workers.  It includes factory, mining, plantation, transport and office workers, those engaged in business and commerce, teachers, entertainment artistes and so on.


=== Infrastructure ===
There are 144 inhabited villages in Goalpokhar I CD Block. All 144 villages (100%) have power supply. All 104 villages (100%) have drinking water supply. 28 villages (19.44%) have post offices. 119 villages (82.64%) have telephones (including landlines, public call offices and mobile phones). 59 villages (40.97%) have a pucca (paved) approach road and 49 villages (34.03%) have transport communication (includes bus service, rail facility and navigable waterways). 4 villages (2.78%) have agricultural credit societies. 8 villages (5.56%) have banks.


=== Agriculture ===
“With its distinctive physiographic and agroclimatic features, the Dinajpur region has been a bread-basket area of Bengal for many centuries, growing multiple varieties of fine and coarse rice in vast quantities, along with major economic crops like jute. The livelihood profile of Uttar Dinajpur district has evolved in association with these old agricultural patterns, and more than two-thirds of its active workforce still draws livelihoods directly from agriculture and related occupations.”
Agricultural potential has been uneven across Uttar Dinajpur based on soil conditions and irrigation potential. This has generated considerable internal migration within the district, as areas with higher agricultural potential and higher labour demand has attracted large number of people. The impact of land reforms has also varied. As the Islampur subdivision blocks evolved initially under the Bihar administration, the land estates were larger in size and the extent of land acquired under ceiling laws were higher. The cultivator population in Islampur subdivision was also thinner. Such conditions have been favourable for migrants. The movement of people from agricultural activities to non-agricultural activities has been low in Uttar Dinajpur district except for some pockets.
Goalpokhar I CD Block had 159 fertiliser depots, 19 seed stores and 81 fair price shops in 2013–14.
In 2013–14, Goalpokhar I CD Block produced 47,362 tonnes of Aman paddy, the main winter crop from 21,766 hectares, 9,794 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 4,217 hectares, 160 tonne of Aus paddy (summer crop) from 90 hectares, 13,807 tonnes of wheat from 5,925 hectares, 6,017 tonnes of maize from 2,471 hectares, 62,316 tonnes of jute from 5,386 hectares and 32,756 tonnes of potatoes from 1,480 hectares. It also produced pulses and oilseeds.
In 2013–14, the total area irrigated in Goalpokhar I CD Block was 319 hectares, out of which 79 hectares were irrigated by river lift irrigation and 240 hectares by deep tube wells.


=== Craft based activities ===
“More than eleven hundred rural households across the district are engaged in traditional crafts based industries, among which dhokra, mat making, terracotta, village pottery and bamboo craft in the Goalpokhar-1 and Kaliaganj regions are notable.”


=== Banking ===
In 2012–13, Goalpokhar I CD Block had offices of five commercial banks and four gramin banks.


=== Backward Regions Grant Fund ===
Uttar Dinajpur district is listed as a backward region and receives financial support from the Backward Regions Grant Fund.  The fund, created by the Government of India, is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. As of 2012, 272 districts across the country were listed under this scheme. The list includes 11 districts of West Bengal.


== Transport ==

Goalpokhar I CD Block has 5 originating/ terminating bus routes. The nearest railway station is 20 km from CD Block headquarters
The Howrah–New Jalpaiguri line passes through Goalpokhar I CD Block and there are stations at Ikarchala and Panjipara railway station. In the early 1960s, when Farakka Barrage was being  constructed, a far reaching change was made. Indian Railways constructed a new broad-gauge rail link from south Bengal to connect North Bengal.
National Highway 27 passes through Goalpokhar I CD Block.


== Education ==
In 2012–13, Goalpokhar I CD Block had 121 primary schools with 30,965 students, 16 middle schools with 4,862 students, 7 high schools with 2,192 students and 7 higher secondary schools with 14,459 students. Goalpokhar I CD Block had  522 institutions for special and non-formal education with 50,429 students.
As per the 2011 census, in Golpokhar CD Block, amongst the 144 inhabited villages, 14 villages did not have a school, 91 villages had 1 or more  primary schools, 38 villages had at least 1 primary and 1 middle school and 15 villages had at least 1 middle and 1 secondary school.
The mid-day meal programme for rural school children was launched in 2005 in Uttar Dinajpur district. As on 30 April 2015, 602,557 children in 3,006 schools were covered under this programme.
Shree Agrasen Mahavidyalaya was established in 1995 at Dalkhola (outside the CD block).


== Healthcare ==
In 2013, Goalpokhar I CD Block had 1 block primary health centre and 1 primary health centre, with total 40 beds and 4 doctors (excluding private bodies). It had 40 family welfare subcentres. 4,762 patients were treated indoor and 202,752 patients were treated outdoor in the hospitals, health centres and subcentres of the CD Block.
Lodhan rural hospital at PO Goalpokhar (with 30 beds) is the main medical facility in Goalpokhar I CD block. There is a  primary health centre at Goagaon (with 10 beds).


== External links ==
 Raiganj travel guide from Wikivoyage


== References =="
Los Bañales,"Los Bañales is a Roman archaeological site located in the municipality of Uncastillo, in the northwestern part of the province of Zaragoza, Spain. It is located in the region of the Cinco Villas, with extensive occupation before, during, and after the Roman period. The site is a case study for the archaeological study of urbanization, cultural change, imperialism, trade and exchange, landscape, and social history.
The site consists of a city whose name remains unconfirmed, although it is likely to have been Tarraca. It occupies an area of more than twenty hectares (49 acres), bounded on the north by a monumental residential space, on the south by two sizeable hills, on the east by the elevated remains of a Roman aqueduct, and on the west by a necropolis. Large monumental thermal baths were constructed at the end of the 1st century CE and an aqueduct transported water to the city from a nearby reservoir. The current name of the site comes from the hermitage of Our Lady of The Baths (Nuestra Señora de Los Bañales), which was built within what is now the archaeological area.
In the early years of work at the site, only the extensive hydraulic system was studied in detail. Since 2008 research has resumed and new architectural spaces and material culture have been uncovered, including domestic, commercial, and possibly religious structures and artefacts as well as evidence for Roman, late antique, and medieval occupation. At present the project has the support of the Directorate General of Cultural Heritage of the Government of Aragon, the District of the Cinco Villas and the municipalities of Uncastillo, Sádaba, Layana and Biota.


== Historical background ==
Los Bañales lies in a territory that ancient sources such as Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, Livy, and Strabo attribute to the Vascones, a people that occupied the territories of present-day Navarre and the Cinco Villas from Aragon to the River Gállego. As such, in the Roman period it would have belonged to the jurisdiction of Caesaraugusta, present-day Zaragoza. Communication was maintained by means of a road network that linked the ports of Tarraco (Tarragona) and Oiasso (Irún) through Caesaraugusta and Pompelo (Pamplona). Before arriving at Los Bañales, that same route passed through the Roman city in Ejea de los Caballeros, perhaps the Segia of ancient sources. Part of this route probably led through Los Bañales as far as Aquitania through the old Roman cities located in Cabezo Ladrero (Sofuentes) and Campo Real / Fillera (Sos del Rey Católico-Sangüesa). The existence of such a highly interconnected social and economic network might help explain the monumentality of Los Bañales and other nearby cities.
The Romans arrived in the area around 195 BCE. We do not know the name that the indigenous inhabitants had for the city at that time. Many names have been proposed - Clarina, Muscaria, Atiliana - but what is currently considered more plausible is Tarraca, the Terracha listed in the Ravenate (IV 43 - 311,11) which is a ciuitas foederata according to the lists of Pliny (Nat. 3, 24) concerning the legal convent of Caesaraugusta, the Tarraga vascona cited by Ptolemy (U 6, 66), in the way of Caesaraugusta to Pompelo, although this route is not mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. Only the future appearance of a public inscription in which the name of the city appears would resolve the question.
According to the latest known data, the city had - at least in its lower and most monumental part – an initial and almost complete abandonment around the third century CE. This resulted in a transfer of its local elites to rural estates, which they had exploited since the first century BCE, and a retraction of its settlement towards the central hill of El Pueyo, where settlement seems to survive until the 9th century CE.


== History of archaeological activity ==
In June 1931, the Gaceta de Madrid, predecessor of the Official State Gazette, included Los Bañales de Uncastillo and other monuments in the area, such as the Mausoleum of the Atilii and the Sádaba Synagogue in the National Artistic Treasury. Seventy years later, in March 2003, these sites were declared to be of cultural interest by the Directorate General of Heritage of the Government of Aragon.1 From 1931 to 2003, the site was the scene of archaeological actions on three occasions:
Between 1942 and 1947 directed by José Galiay. This team excavated the baths, El Pueyo, the area of the two columns and the northwest corner of the forum, which Galiay interpreted as a temple.
Between 1972 and 1979 directed by Antonio Beltrán. This team excavated the thermal baths in their totality -including its reconstruction- a quarter in El Pueyo, already excavated by Galiay. They carried out complete studies on the aqueduct and the hydraulic system, and in the last campaigns, they re-excavated the zone of the two columns, erroneously treated as a macellum - market-place -.
Between 1998 and 2001 directed by José María Viladés and Miguel Ángel Zapater. They excavated an area east of the baths.
Currently and without interruption since 2008, the site is the subject of a Research Plan commissioned by the Directorate General of Heritage of the Government of Aragon to the Uncastillo Foundation and directed by the archaeologist Juan José Bienes and the historian Javier Andreu.
Since 2015, Los Bañales has had a constantly growing Virtual Museum hosted on the Sketchfab platform which is one of the platforms most commonly used by heritage projects and institutions. The museum collects 3D digitalizations of all types of archaeological material - from structures to objects of material culture - not only from Los Bañales but also from other archaeological sites in the District of Las Cinco Villas. On September 30, 2016, the Los Bañales archaeological project was awarded the Local / Regional prize in the First Edition of the Sísifo Awards for research, defense and dissemination of the Archaeological Heritage, promoted by the Sisyphus Research Group of the University of Córdoba through its project of Scientific Culture - Arqueología Somos Todos (We are all Archaeology)- highlighting the commitment to the dissemination and socialization of heritage that, since 2008, has been developing in Los Bañales. The award ceremony took place at the University of Córdoba on October 27, 2016.


== Urban center ==
To the south of the municipality of Uncastillo lies a broad area known as Los Bañales. The area contains the remains of a large Roman city whose name is still debated. Study of the site enables us to understand the principle difficulties that Rome faced in establishing urban centers in such locations. Nonetheless, it is one of the most prosperous and monumental urban centers in the Ebro valley. While study of the site is ongoing, the site has already yielded magnificent examples of Roman public and private architecture, and hydraulic engineering


=== El Pueyo ===
Archaeological examination of the city has calculated that the city of Los Bañales occupied an area of approximately 24 hectares, between the southern slope of the hill of El Pueyo and the mound of El Huso and La Rueca (503m), all the way to the bottom of the valley, where two large round stones in a vertical position were raised in the Roman era and bear (images/inscriptions) of old legends of giants and Sasones, possibly one of the city's boundary markers along the passing road.
The hill of El Pueyo, a small promontory 567 meters in height and a little less than a hundred on the surrounding land, is possibly the original location of the pre-Roman settlement. The settlement became culturally acculturated to a different extent in each of the three terraces on which it is built. According to the latest known evidence, the hill was most likely occupied until the 9th c CE.,  A gradual process of abandonment processes over the previous centuries and the hill's inhabitants scattered throughout the nearby territory.
Each terrace had a different domestic character. Thus, in the area closest to the forum, a central street -partially excavated by José Galiay and still visible today- served as the axis around which houses were located radially. Protecting the second terrace remains of a wall made with large ashlars. At the highest point of the hill vestiges of a monumental building, perhaps a Roman temple continuing its pre-Roman use. The entire valley is visually dominated from the summit of the hill, and this may explain the location of the possible temple.
Excavations in the last few years have produced a notable crop of ceramic material from the 8th and 9th centuries CE, as well as the discovery of a unique bone scapula with Arabic text.


=== The forum ===
The first terrace of El Pueyo could have been reserved for public purposes. This is evidenced by the remains of the building that José Galiay called a temple in his excavations in the 1940s, consisting of an important concentration of pedestals and molding elements of remarkable size next to a wall closing at an angle towards the hill and that they had not returned to be a reason for study until the beginning of the current Research Plan, revealing without a doubt that it is in fact a monumental forum until now only part of its north and west sides are known.
The actions carried out in the last excavation campaigns - since 2008 - have revealed that the forum was based on large foundation boxes seated on the rock itself and made with large ashlar stones, which suggests that the upper spaces were of an imposing majesty. This together with its elevated and terraced situation in a wide area between the hermitage of Nuestra Senora de Los Bañales and the way up to El Pueyo suggests that the forum would be ostensibly visible from the road, on its way to the south of the city crossing the valley.
Recent summer excavation campaigns in the forum have continued to produce new results:
Season III (2011) - Exedra in the western portico with four in situ monumental inscriptions of a votive and salutary nature dedicated by one Pompeia Paulla to four deities.
Season IV (2012) - Edicum in the Western Portico -contiguous to the previous one- with a monumental podium with remains of statue bases and with five texts. The texts refer to M. Fabius Nouus and Porcia Fauentina whose statues -judging by the cartels with their names - would occupy the left side of the building, leaving the center reserved for a statue to Victoria Augusta offered by both and the sides for individual tributes by each of them to L. Fabius Placidus, uncle of M Fabius Nouus, and Porcia Germulla, perhaps Porcia's sister.  The two epigraphic sets, by decision of the Government of Aragon, were protected by sandstone replicas made by the Stonemasonry Workshop School.
Season V (2013) - A remarkable lot of more than 40 pieces of Roman sculptural material discarded, surely, for conversion into lime. The lot contains pieces in imported white marble as well as remnants of different decorative programs composed of toga and battleship statues.  The remains of a shell of an armored statue - Thoracatus - decorated with reliefs alluding to an imperial victory as well as the remains of two legs that allow partial reconstruction of the original sculpture. The Paleorama company works on the Princeps Resurgens project, which aims at the virtual reconstruction by photogrammetric means of this thoracatus.
Season VI (2014) - The complete perimeter of the forum was defined, in the process discovering the western side that was missing. A new batch of more than thirty pieces of white marble of statuary of the forum was also discovered, highlighting among them a new fragment of the breastplate of the thoracatus -complementary to that discovered in the campaign of 2013-and several fragments of imperial portraits of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Season VII (2015) – During excavation of the eastern cryptoporticus of the forum, a pedestal appeared, dedicated by the cavalry officer Quintus Sempronius Vitulus to the Emperor Tiberius, in his fifth consulate (31/32 AD). A second pedestal, found in the same area as the first, was dedicated to Lucius Caesar,  adopted son of the Emperor Augustus. It can be dated to between 5 BC and 2 AD. A third pedestal in the same area, dedicated by a freedman to the same Quintus Sempronius Vitulus, described his military career as an officer in the Taurian wing and subprefect of a cohort in the cohors Germanorum.  A fourth pedestal practically identical to the previous one was also found, although on this occasion the name of the dedicator of the monument was complete, the freedman Aesopus  and, unlike the previous one, which was made by Vitulus himself in his will, this was erected by Aesopus on his own initiative.
Season VIII (2016) - The perimeter of the public square was completely defined, with the tabernae on the western side and the street on the way up to El Pueyo on the eastern side.

In 2014, Pablo Serrano Basterra, a fellow of the Research Plan of the Uncastillo Foundation in Los Bañales, with the advice of the project team, used the virtual 3D software Blender in the Forum Renascens to recreate the forum digitally. In early 2018 an application for Android phones and tablets was released which presents the site through a series of multimedia materials such as audio guides, virtual recreations, and 3D videos. This site was the first in Aragón to make an application of this type available to the public. In its first edition it focused on the forum of the Roman city, while it left the rest of the parts of the site for further extensions.


=== The baths ===

The baths are undoubtedly the most representative monument of the site of Los Bañales and possibly an inspiring element of the current name of the area, related to the baths. To a great extent, its current excellent state of preservation is due to its use for years as a dwelling. It was described in 1610 by Juan Bautista Labaña, a Portuguese geographer, author of a map and an itinerary of the Kingdom of Aragón.
They were excavated by the teams of both José Galiay and later by Antonio Beltrán, who restored it to the state it is in today. It measures about 530 m2 and had a capacity for approximately sixty people. Given the estimated size of the city's population, this is not large enough, and this suggests that they would not be the only baths available.
The building was accessed from two small lobbies with benches, which allowed control of the entry and exits, from there to a locker room -apodyterium- in which the niches are preserved as wardrobe -loculi-. Through two doors you can access the cold room -frigidarium- in which there is a small pool -natatio-, or the warm room -tepidarium- and from this to the hot room -caldarium- where there was also a hot water tub, in a room that functioned as a sauna -sudity-. There were latrines accessible from the frigidarium and from the lobby on the east side of the baths.


== Water supply ==
Located in an immense plain in the center of the fluvial basins of the rivers Riguel and Arba de Luesia, from its beginnings the city of Los Bañales had to solve, by means of cisterns and springs now mostly vanished, how to obtain a water supply. But its growth or the loss of the original aquifers led to the construction of a hydraulic system, unparalleled in the Roman world, which would provide the volume of water necessary to cover all the city's needs. Judging by the marks attested in some of the ashlars of the pillars of the aqueduct alluding to the Legio IIII Macedonica that participated in the construction between 9 and 5 a. C of the road between Caesaraugusta and Pompelo -together with Legio VI Victrix and Legio X Gemina-, one could date the construction of the aqueduct on those same dates, coinciding with what would be the first monumental takeoff of the city. In April 2015, within the program of the First Roman Weekend in Los Bañales, two new audiovisuals dedicated to the hydraulic system of the city were presented. The first one was a report directed by the young Aragonese filmmaker Álvaro Bonet y el segundo, una recreación infográfica realizada en Blender por Pablo Serrano and the second one, an infographic recreation made in Blender by Pablo Serrano, of which fragments also appear in the first of the audiovisuals.


=== The elevated section of the aqueduct: the great pillars ===
The aqueduct is one of the most outstanding elements of the archaeological site of Los Bañales. It is a work, which, despite its apparent coarseness, is a key example of Roman aqueducts in Spain due to its constructive system.
It extends from Puy Foradado - a name suggesting that it was drilled for the passage of water - saving a small depression of about 350 m, resting on a rocky ridge, partly elevated on pillars and in others points for a channel carved into the rock itself -specus-, to access the city of Los Bañales at some point yet to be determined.
In this elevated part of the aqueduct, 32 of the more than 70 pillars that it was supposed to have are conserved, built with sandstone ashlars from the area, in variable number and thickness in each pillar, depending on the necessary height, placed dry one on another and ingeniously supported on the stratum of sandstones that emerges in the area and in which the foundation boxes needed to balance each pillar on the ground were worked.
The upper ashlar of each pillar has a ""U"" -shaped recess that would serve to support the lintel that would hold the channel -or pipe- that would transport the water and about 90 cm from the crowning of each pillar a horizontal perforation appears from side to side that would allow there to be a system of propping for the support of the lintel in the center of the span between each two pillars.
The elevated section of this aqueduct was complemented by sections of specimens carved into the rock itself - some meters of this system have been found-, taking advantage of the slope of some hills, maintaining the necessary level and with the appropriate slope for the continuity of the water transit. Taking into account the dimensions to which the different elements of the route are located, it has been calculated that the entire aqueduct maintained a constant slope of less than 0.1% -a meter of difference for each kilometer of travel-, which makes a difference of height between pillars of a few millimeters.
There is a local legend that attributes the construction of the aqueduct to the Devil.

A young woman who supposedly lived in Los Bañales, tired of hauling water from the river, makes a pact with the Devil to build an aqueduct that brings water to her home before the rooster crows the next day contributing her soul to change, but when next to the dawn of the next day the Devil is placing the last stone of his work, the girl brings a lamp to the rooster, who believing that it is already day, sings and makes the Devil give up thinking that he could not get his task, getting the girl in that way and after placing the last stone, his precious aqueduct without loss of his soul.


=== The dam ===
The oral tradition attributes the origin of the water that arrived at Los Bañales, based exclusively on the collective memory, to the Fountain of the Devil of Malpica de Arba, but until now this data has not been confirmed and the measurements of height made in the most of 9 km. -in a straight line- of travel between this place and the Roman city make it hardly viable, which suggests that the source of supply -caput aquae- lies elsewhere.
For this reason, and taking into account some notes of previous archaeological campaigns that cited a possible dam in the place called Cubalmena, recent work has shown its existence, which would little more than 2 km. from the center of the current site, although it is already in the municipality of Biota.
The structure discovered is most likely a Roman dam, although it currently serves as a separation wall between two plots of culture at different heights. But excavation along the entirety of what would be its front downstream reveals a wall 53m in length. It is in the form of an arch and was made with blocks placed in staggered courses and supported on its two ends on two rocky outcrops where it would prop up to resist the thrust of the body of water. Work has been carried out on the upper part of the dike that confirms that it was built on a bed of clays that, in addition to support, served to waterproof it.
Taking into account the size of the dike, an approximate height of 3m. and the extension of the water canvas according to the orography of the superior farm, it has been calculated that it could contain some 30,000 m3 of water. It would be the water coming from a spring that has now disappeared - but which still persists in the memory of the people and which makes the current land especially fertile - as well as the rain water that would be collected from the nearby hills by the small ravines that converge on that same plot.
From this dam and surrounding - or horadando- the hill of Puy Foradado, the water outlet would look for the valley in the direction of the city and would link with the elevated section of the aqueduct, although at the moment the starting point is not known nor the route that would link these two structures.


== Residential, craft and commercial areas ==
There are several areas in the city of Los Bañales, with structures that are identified as residential and / or commercial areas, both in Roman times and at other times in their history.


=== Domestic craft area ===
Next to the thermal baths, a plot that had not been previously unexplored was excavated between 2009 and 2012. This work yielded an artisanal and industrial space, built using other monumental-looking spaces possibly for public use, and reusing architectural materials of other constructions.
They observed in this space, both residential type buildings and well as others that seemed to be industrial. Ovens or storage areas suggested that this area may contain houses with craft workshops. This is backed by the fact that the team found a lot of objects made of bone. It is possible that it was a store -tabernae- dedicated to the manufacture and sale of such products.


=== The arcaded street ===
The first thing that is found by the visitor who comes to Los Bañales through the town of Layana are two colossal Tuscan columns. For decades this was mistakenly considered to be a possible access to the forum of the city or part of a market -macellum-, but, in reality, these two columns - and others of which only its base is conserved - formed part of a portico located at the crossroads of two streets. In fact, part of the sidewalks are conserved - in one of whose angles a monumental dwelling was located, which probably belonged to the local elite. This house has a central peristyle to which the main rooms were opened, of which parts of the stone plinth are preserved, on which the different walls would be supported.
Alongside this area, the remains of a staircase that would lead to another area located on a lower terrace, currently a growing area, are also preserved. All this area was excavated for the last time and very partially, in the 70s of the twentieth century, and partially again in 2017.


=== The houses of El Pueyo ===
El Pueyo was completely occupied by houses of pre-Roman era, and today you can intuit, observing from a high point, the different blocks of houses -insulae -. In the facades of these houses, which in some cases had to have low commercial -tabernae-, you can see well squared and large blocks located in key areas of the building, while the dividing sockets of the interior were made with hewn stones and perpendicular orthostats to give greater consistency to the wall. Its atypical structure for the Roman model suggests that they are houses adapted to the different periods of survival of the population in this area of the city, from centuries before acculturation with Rome and until centuries after the dismantling of the public structures of the Roman city.
Excavated by José Galiay and documented again by Antonio Beltrán, a part of the second mentioned terrace, is currently under study again, since in recent excavations a section of the wall that surrounded this terrace was discovered, with the base of one of its towers and even the doorway of a wall.


== The necropolis ==

Like any Roman city, Los Bañales had its own necropolis. Its remains have been identified to the southwest of what would have been the urban nucleus.
As a result of the archaeological surveys – excavation has not yet taken place – the necropolis has yielded quadrangular and triangular-headed steles, funerary altars, pedestals and especially cupae.
The cupae -in Latin, singular cupa, plural cupae- is a peculiar type of funerary monument of an elongated plant with cylindrical cover, imitating a tumbled barrel -in fact, cupa means tonel in Latin-, which were used in some regions of the Roman Empire between the 1st and 3rd centuries and which was exceptionally frequent in this area.  Under their barrel shape they had a hole in which an urn was inserted with the ashes of the deceased. They also had a side holes so that the relatives could make offerings and libations and on one of the sides a commemorative inscription would have been carved.
The cupae were not only frequent in the necropolis of Los Bañales but also in the villas of the elite. The findings have been increasing in recent years, since the beginning of the revision of the rural territory in 2009. The most recent occurred in the summer of 2015.


== Funerary monuments ==
Under the protection of the city of Los Bañales and not far from the passing road, some of the estates of the local elite had their own funerary areas in the surroundings of their luxurious homes.

Mausoleum of the Atilii - popularly called the altar of the Moors
Its inscriptions indicate that a woman named Atilia Festa built it, in life, for her grandfather Gaius Atilius Genialis, for her father Lucius Atilius Festus and for herself. This facade is one of the ornamental jewels of Roman funerary art in the Iberian Peninsula.
In January 2016, Pablo Serrano, infographics artist of the Los Bañales project, carried out a 3D reconstruction of the monument based on detailed photogrammetric documentation and comparison with similar monuments and Roman funerary culture. This reconstruction is hosted on the Los Bañales video channel.
Mausoleum of the Sádaba Synagogue A Roman mausoleum made of opus mixtum, with rigging made of ashlar and brick, a cruciform plan with two exedras appended to the sides, and unequal arms. The monument follows architectural parallels from the Constantinian era, 4th century CE., similar to Sant Miquel de Egara (Tarrasa) or Centcelles (Constantí, Tarragona). It was likely associated with a sumptuous villa, of which some remains are preserved a few meters from the mausoleum.
On April 17, 2015 the Geometric Documentation of Heritage Laboratory (LDGP) of the University of the Basque Country, presented an exhaustive work on the remains of this mausoleum, documenting its state of conservation at that time and making its results public for future studies or restoration work.


== Rural settlement ==
In spite of the intense urbanization that the area registered in Roman times, the region's ancient cities survived, above all, on agrarian activity. Cereal, oil, wine, esparto, wood, livestock products and, also, sandstone must have been the primary products of this territory. The area was very well irrigated by the waters of the rivers Riguel and Arba de Luesia and was crossed, in addition, by a road that connected the Ebro Valley with the Bay of Biscay and the Pyrenees and an extensive network of secondary roads.
The local elite, which had large farms, maintained an active relationship with the city, using it as a market for its products and as a source of workers. There were large rural districts annexed to the city -uici- where different groups of artisans were located. Somewhat more distant and strategically located were the villas, sumptuous farms that took advantage of the resources of their surrounding area and in some cases had important facilities such as baths or cemeteries.
In the summer of 2013, the City Council of Layana, with the advice of the Uncastillo Foundation, inaugurated an innovative Interpretation Center on the rural Roman landscape called De Agri Cultura. This interpretive space is located in the medieval tower of the 11th century that presides over the hamlet of the municipality. It is a space that allows visitors to get an idea of the productive systems, economic life and peasant society of the Roman era in the vicinity of Los Bañales.


== See also ==
List of Bienes de Interés Cultural in the Province of Zaragoza


== References =="
Surface acoustic wave,"A surface acoustic wave (SAW) is an acoustic wave traveling along the surface of a material exhibiting elasticity, with an amplitude that typically decays exponentially with depth into the material, such that they are confined to a depth of about one wavelength.


== Discovery ==
SAWs were first explained in 1885 by Lord Rayleigh, who described the surface acoustic mode of propagation and predicted its properties in his classic paper. Named after their discoverer, Rayleigh waves have a longitudinal and a vertical shear component that can couple with any media like additional layers in contact with the surface. This coupling strongly affects the amplitude and velocity of the wave, allowing SAW sensors to directly sense mass and mechanical properties. The term 'Rayleigh waves' is often used synonymously with 'SAWs', although strictly speaking there are multiple types of surface acoustic waves, such as Love waves, which are polarised in the plane of the surface, rather than longitudinal and vertical.
SAWs such as Love and Rayleigh waves tend to propagate for much longer than bulk waves, as they only have to travel in two dimensions, rather than in three. Furthermore, in general they have a lower velocity than their bulk counterparts.


== SAW devices ==
Surface acoustic wave devices provide wide-range of applications with the use of electronic system, including delay lines, filters, correlators and DC to DC converters. The possibilities of these SAW device could provide potential field in radar system, communication systems.


=== Application in electronic components ===
This kind of wave is commonly used in devices called SAW devices in electronic circuits. SAW devices are used as filters, oscillators and transformers, devices that are based on the transduction of acoustic waves.  The transduction from electric energy to mechanical energy (in the form of SAWs) is accomplished by the use of piezoelectric materials.

Electronic devices employing SAWs normally use one or more interdigital transducers (IDTs) to convert acoustic waves to electrical signals and vice versa by exploiting the piezoelectric effect of certain materials, like quartz, lithium niobate, lithium tantalate, lanthanum gallium silicate, etc.  These devices are fabricated by substrate cleaning/treatments like polishing, metallisation, photolithography, and passivation/protection (dielectric) layer manufacturing. These are typical process steps used in manufacturing of semiconductors like silicon integrated circuits.
All parts of the device (substrate, its surface, metallisation material type, thickness of metallisation, its edges formed by photolithography, layers - like passivation coating the metallisation) have effect on the performance of the SAW devices because propagation of Rayleigh waves is highly dependent on the substrate material surface, its quality and all layers in contact with the substrate. For example in SAW filters the sampling frequency is dependent on the  width of the IDT fingers, the power handling capability is related to the thickness and materials of the IDT fingers, and the temperature stability depends not only of the temperature behavior of the substrate but also on the metals selected for the IDT electrodes and the possible dielectric layers coating the substrate and the electrodes.
SAW filters are now used in mobile telephones, and provide technical advantages in performance, cost, and size over other filter technologies such as quartz crystals (based on bulk waves), LC filters, and waveguide filters specifically at frequencies below 1.5-2.5 GHz depending on the RF power needed to be filtered. Complementing technology to SAW for frequencies above 1.5-2.5 GHz is based on thin-film bulk acoustic resonators (TFBAR, or FBAR).
Much research has been done in the last 20 years in the area of surface acoustic wave sensors.
Sensor applications include all areas of sensing (such as chemical, optical, thermal, pressure, acceleration, torque and biological).  SAW sensors have seen relatively modest commercial success to date, but are commonly commercially available for some applications such as touchscreen displays. They have been successfully applied to torque sensing in motorsport powertrains and high performance aerospace applications as well as temperature sensing in harsh environments such as high voltage electrical power transmission and the combined sensing of torque and temperature on the rotor of electric motors


=== SAW device applications in radio and television ===
SAW resonators are used in many of the same applications in which quartz crystals are used, because they can operate at higher frequency.  They are often used in radio transmitters where tunability is not required.  They are often used in applications such as garage door opener remote controls, short range radio frequency links for computer peripherals, and other devices where channelization is not required.   Where a radio link might use several channels, quartz crystal oscillators are more commonly used to drive a phase locked loop.  Since the resonant frequency of a SAW device is set by the mechanical properties of the crystal, it does not drift as much as a simple LC oscillator, where conditions such as capacitor performance and battery voltage will vary substantially with temperature and age.
SAW filters are also often used in radio receivers, as they can have precisely determined and narrow passbands.  This is helpful in applications where a single antenna must be shared between a transmitter and a receiver operating at closely spaced frequencies.  SAW filters are also frequently used in television receivers, for extracting subcarriers from the signal;  until the analog switchoff, the extraction of digital audio subcarriers from the intermediate frequency strip of a television receiver or video recorder was one of the main markets for SAW filters.
Early pioneer Jeffery Collins incorporated surface acoustic wave devices in a Skynet receiver he developed in the 1970s. It synchronised signals faster than existing technology.
They are also often used in digital receivers, and are well suited to superhet applications.  This is because the intermediate frequency signal is always at a fixed frequency after the local oscillator has been mixed with the received signal, and so a filter with a fixed frequency and high Q provides excellent removal of unwanted or interference signals.
In these applications, SAW filters are almost always used with a phase locked loop synthesized local oscillator, or a varicap driven oscillator.


== SAW in geophysics ==
In seismology surface acoustic waves could become the most destructive type of seismic wave produced by earthquakes, which propagate in more complex media, such as ocean bottom, rocks, etc. so that it need to be noticed and monitored by people to protect living environment.


== SAW in quantum acoustics ==
SAWs play a key role in the field of quantum acoustics (QA) where, in contrast to quantum optics (QO) which studies the interaction between matter and light, the interaction between quantum systems (phonons, (quasi-)particles and artificial qubits) and acoustic waves is analysed.  The propagation speed of the respective waves of QA is five orders of magnitude slower than that of QO. As a result, QA offers a different perspective of the quantum regime in terms of wavelengths which QO has not covered. One example of these additions is the quantum optical investigation of qubits and quantum dots fabricated in such a way as to emulate essential aspects of natural atoms, e.g. energy-level structures and coupling to an electromagnetic field. These artificial atoms are arranged into a circuit dubbed ‘giant atoms’, due to its size reaching 10−4–10−3 m. Quantum optical experiments generally made use of microwave fields for matter-light interaction, but because of the difference of wavelength between the giant atoms and microwave fields, the latter of which has a wavelength ranging between 10−2–10−1 m, SAWs were used instead for their more suitable wavelength (10−6 m).
Within the fields of magnonics and spintronics, a resonant coupling between spin waves and surface acoustic waves with equal wave-vector and frequency allows for the transfer of energy from one form to another, in either direction. This can for example be useful in the construction of magnetic field sensors, which are sensitive to both the intensity and direction of external magnetic fields. These sensors, constructed using a structure of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric layers have the benefit of operating without batteries and wires, as well as having a broad range of operating conditions, such as high temperatures or rotating systems.


=== Single electron control ===

Even at the smallest scales of current semiconductor technology, each operation is carried out by huge streams of electrons. Reducing the number of electrons involved in these processes, with the ultimate goal of achieving single electron control is a serious challenge. This is due to the electrons being highly interactive with each other and their surroundings, making it difficult to separate just one from the rest. The use of SAWs can help with achieving this goal. When SAWs are generated on a piezoelectric surface, the strain wave generates an electromagnetic potential. The potential minima can then trap single electrons, allowing them to be individually transported. Although this technique was first thought of as a way to accurately define a standard unit of current, it turned out to be more useful in the field of quantum information. Usually, qubits are stationary, making the transfer of information between them difficult. The single electrons, carried by the SAWs, can be used as so called flying qubits, able to transport information from one place to another. To realise this a single electron source is needed, as well as a receiver between which the electron can be transported. Quantum dots (QD) are typically used for these stationary electron confinements. This potential minimum is sometimes called a SAW QD. The process, as seen in the GIF on the right, is typically as follows. First SAWs are generated with an interdigital transducer with specific dimensions between the electrodes to get the favorable wavelengths. Then from the stationary QD the electron quantum tunnels to the potential minimum, or SAW QD. The SAWs transfer some kinetic energy to the electron, driving it forward. It is then carried through a one dimensional channel on a surface of piezoelectric semiconductor material like GaAs. Finally, the electron tunnels out of the SAW QD and into the receiver QD, after which the transfer is complete. This process can also be repeated in both directions.


== SAW and 2D materials ==
As acoustic vibrations can interact with the moving charges in a piezoelectric semiconductor through the strain-induced piezoelectric field in bulk materials, this acoustoelectric (AE) coupling is also important in 2D materials, such as graphene. In these 2D materials the two-dimensional electron gas has band gap energies generally much higher than the energy of the SAW phonons traveling through the material. Therefore the SAW phonons are typically absorbed via intra-band electronic transitions. In graphene these transitions are the only way, as the linear dispersion relation of its electrons prevents momentum/energy conservation when it would absorb a SAW for an inter-band transition.
Often the interaction between moving charges and SAWs results in the diminishing of the SAW intensity as it moves through the 2D electron gas, as well as re-normalizing the SAW velocity. The charges take over kinetic energy from the SAW and lose this energy again through carrier scattering.
Aside from SAW intensity attenuation, there are specific situations in which the wave can be amplified as well. By applying a voltage over the material, the charge carriers may obtain a higher drift speed than the SAW. Then they pass on a part of their kinetic energy to the SAW, causing it to amplify its intensity and velocity. The converse works as well. If the SAW is moving faster than the carriers, it may transfer kinetic energy to them, and thereby losing some velocity and intensity.


== SAW in microfluidics ==
In recent years, attention has been drawn to using SAWs to drive microfluidic actuation and a variety of other processes. Owing to the mismatch of sound velocities in the SAW substrate and fluid, SAWs can be efficiently transferred into the fluid, creating significant inertial forces and fluid velocities. This mechanism can be exploited to drive fluid actions such as pumping, mixing, and jetting.[8] To drive these processes, there is a change of mode of the wave at the liquid-substrate interface. In the substrate, the SAW wave is a transverse wave and upon entering the droplet the wave becomes a longitudinal wave.[9]  It is this longitudinal wave that creates the flow of fluid within the microfluidic droplet, allowing mixing to take place. This technique can be used as an alternative to microchannels and microvalves for manipulation of substrates, allowing for an open system.
This mechanism has also been used in droplet-based microfluidics for droplet manipulation. Notably, using SAW as an actuation mechanism, droplets were pushed towards two or more outlets for sorting. Moreover, SAWs were used for droplet size modulation, splitting, trapping, tweezing, and nanofluidic pipetting. Droplet impact on flat and inclined surfaces has been manipulated and controlled using SAW.
PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) is a material that can be used to create microchannels and microfluidic chips. It has many uses, including in experiments where living cells are to be tested or processed. If living organisms need to be kept alive, it is important to monitor and control their environment, such as heat and pH levels; however, if these elements are not regulated, the cells may die or it may result in unwanted reactions. PDMS has been found to absorb acoustic energy, causing the PDMS to heat up quickly (exceeding 2000 Kelvin/second). The use of SAW as a way to heat these PDMS devices, along with liquids inside microchannels, is now a technique that can be done in a controlled manner with the ability to manipulate the temperature to within 0.1 °C.
The development of Flexible Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) devices has been a significant driver in the advancement of wearable technology and microfluidic systems. These devices are typically fabricated on polymer substrates, such as Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) and polyimide, and utilize sputtering deposition of materials like AlN and ZnO. This combination of flexibility and advanced materials has expanded their application potential across various fields.


== SAW in flow measurement ==
Surface acoustic waves can be used for flow measurement. SAW relies on the propagation of a wave front, which appears similar to seismic activities. The waves are generated at the excitation centre and spread out along the surface of a solid material. An electric pulse induces them to generate SAWs that propagate like the waves of an earthquake. Interdigital transducer acts as sender and as receiver. When one is in sender mode, the two most distant ones act as receivers. The SAWs travel along the surface of the measuring tube, but a portion will couple out to the liquid. The decoupling angle depends on the liquid respectively the propagation velocity of the wave which is specific to the liquid. On the other side of the measuring tube, portions of the wave will couple into the tube and continue their way along its surface to the next interdigital transducer. Another portion will be coupled out again and travels back to the other side of the measuring tube where the effect repeats itself and the transducer on this side detects the wave. That means excitation of any one transducer here will lead to a sequence of input signals on two other transducers in the distance. Two of the transducers send their signals in the direction of flow, two in the other direction.


== See also ==
Linear elasticity
Love wave
Phonon
Picosecond ultrasonics
Rayleigh wave
Surface plasmon polariton
Ultrasound


== References ==


== External links ==
History of SAW Devices
SAW Sensor
Watching ripples on crystals"
"Clean, Old-Fashioned Hate","Clean, Old-Fashioned Hate is the name given to the Georgia–Georgia Tech football rivalry. It is an American college football rivalry between the Georgia Bulldogs and Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. The two Southern universities are located in the U.S. state of Georgia and are separated by 70 miles (110 km). They have been heated rivals since 1893.
The sports rivalry between the two institutions has traditionally focused on football, a sport in which both programs have historically been successful, with an annual game often held on Thanksgiving weekend. However, they compete in a variety of other intercollegiate sports, as well as competing for government and private funding, potential students, and academic recognition regionally and nationally.
The University of Georgia (commonly referred to as UGA, or Georgia) is located in the college town of Athens, and is a liberal arts research university. The Georgia Institute of Technology (commonly referred to as Georgia Tech, Tech, or GT) is a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics research university with a metropolitan campus in Midtown Atlanta. Georgia competes athletically in the Southeastern Conference while Georgia Tech competes in the Atlantic Coast Conference since 1979 after leaving the SEC in 1964.
The two teams have won eight national titles in football. Georgia Tech claims four national championships: 1917, 1928, 1952, and 1990. Georgia also claims four titles: 1942, 1980, 2021, and 2022. Georgia also has won a title in baseball in 1990. Both schools have also seen prominence in men's basketball, with Georgia Tech reaching the Final Fours of 1990 and 2004 (when it reached the National Championship game). Georgia made the Final Four in its first NCAA Tournament appearance in 1983.


== Series history ==


=== Establishment ===
Georgia was the first state-chartered school in the U.S., founded on January 27, 1785. Georgia Tech was founded 100 years later on October 13, 1885. Patrick Hues Mell, the president of the University of Georgia at that time, was a firm believer that the new school should be located in Athens with UGA's main campus, like the Agricultural and Mechanical School. Despite Mell's arguments, the new school was located near what was then the northern city limits of Atlanta.
The first known hostilities between the two schools trace back to 1891. The University of Georgia's literary magazine declared the school's colors to be ""old gold, black, and crimson."" Dr. Charles H. Herty, the first UGA football coach, felt that old gold was too similar to yellow and that yellow ""symbolized cowardice."" Also in 1891, a student vote chose old gold and white as Georgia Tech's school colors. After the 1893 football game against Tech, Herty removed old gold as an official school color. Tech first used old gold for their uniforms, as a proverbial slap in the face to UGA, in their first unofficial football game against Auburn in 1891. Georgia Tech's school colors were henceforth old gold and white.


=== Wartime disruption ===

Fuel was added to the fire in 1919, when UGA mocked Tech's continuation of football during the United States' involvement in World War I. At the time, Tech was a military training ground and had a complete assembly of male students. Many schools, such as UGA, had lost the vast majority of their able-bodied male students to the war effort, forcing them to temporarily suspend football during the war. As a result, UGA did not play a football game from 1917–18. When UGA renewed its program in 1919, the student body staged a parade, which mocked Tech's continuation of football during times of war. The parade featured a tank shaped float emblazoned with the words ""UGA IN ARGONNE"" followed by a yellow-clad donkey and a sign that read ""TECH IN ATLANTA."" This act led directly to Tech cutting athletic ties with UGA and canceling several of UGA's home football games at Grant Field (UGA commonly used Grant Field as its home field). Tech and UGA did not compete in athletics until the 1921 Southern Conference basketball tournament. Regular season competition was not renewed until a 1925 agreement between the two institutions.


=== Series information ===
Until Vince Dooley became Georgia's head coach in 1964, the rivalry was fairly evenly matched, with Tech holding a slim 27–26–5 series lead. This is mostly due to the success of Georgia Tech's hall-of-fame head coach, Bobby Dodd who had a 12–10 record against the Bulldogs. During his reign, the Yellow Jackets won eight in a row against UGA from 1949–1956. This is the longest winning streak by either team in the rivalry's history. During these eight years, Tech dominated UGA, and outscored the Bulldogs 176–39. However, when Dooley took over at UGA in 1964, the rivalry flipped. Dooley went 19–6 against Georgia Tech, including a 3–0 head-to-head record against Dodd. Since 1969, UGA has dominated the rivalry, posting a 41–14 record. During this time the Bulldogs have had win streaks of six games (1978–1983), seven games (1991–1997), seven games (2001–2007), five games (2009–2013) and seven games (2017–present). Former Georgia coach Mark Richt finished with a record of 13–2 against Tech, while now-retired GT head coach Paul Johnson finished at 3–8 against UGA. 2014 was the first year that overtime occurred at Sanford Stadium. GT went on to win 30–24. In 2018, Georgia beat Tech in Athens 45–21. As of 2024, Georgia Tech is in the midst of a more than twenty-year home drought against the Dawgs, having failed to beat Georgia in Atlanta since 1999. The Yellow Jackets lost to their in-state rivals 52–7 and 45–0 at Grant Field in 2019 and 2021, respectively, the largest-ever margins of victory for the Bulldogs. However, Georgia Tech holds the largest margin with a 48–0 win from 1943.


=== Fight songs ===
The fight songs, sung at every sporting event, have even been tailored to the rivalry. The ""Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech"" was first published in the Georgia Tech yearbook, The Blueprint, and was written following the first Georgia football game in which Georgia fans harassed the Georgia Tech players and fans. Hence the infamous chorus ""To Hell with Georgia"" was written. ""Up With the White and Gold"", published in 1929, featured the lyrics ""Down with the red and black"" and even ""Drop the battle axe on Georgia's head."" Georgia's unofficial fight song, ""Glory, Glory"" was arranged in 1909 and remains unchanged to this day. Officially, the end of the fight song is ""G-E-O-R-G-I-A"", but Georgia students change the lyrics to ""To hell with Georgia Tech!"" during the Georgia-Georgia Tech game. In more recent years, students have replaced Georgia Tech in the song with the name of whatever school they are playing at the time. The official fight song of The University of Georgia is ""Hail to Georgia"", although many observers erroneously infer that the official fight song is ""Glory, Glory"" because it is played more often, much as the University of Tennessee at Knoxville has as its official fight song ""Here's To Old Tennessee"" (using the tune of Yale University's ""Down the Field"") but plays ""Rocky Top"" more often.


== Game results ==


=== Results by location ===
This is a list of results by location as of November 29, 2024.


== Traditions ==

It is common for Georgia fans to refer to the Georgia Institute of Technology as Georgia Tech University, GTU, or North Avenue Trade School. The ""GTU"" nickname is derived from the common mistitle given to Georgia Tech in media outlets. Also, since Georgia Tech is an engineering school, Georgia fans often refer to Tech fans as nerds, dorks, Techies, or Gnats (acronym for Georgia North Avenue Trade School). The school's campus and Grant Field front North Avenue in midtown Atlanta, giving rise to the ""Trade School"" nickname. Grant Field is also very commonly referred to as ""The Joke by Coke"" by Georgia fans, based on its proximity to the headquarters of The Coca-Cola Company. Georgia fans also refer to the 600 level of Sanford Stadium as the ""Tech Deck"", due to the placement of Georgia Tech fans up in that section of the stadium. Georgia Tech fans combat this by calling UGA, ""The university (sic) of georgia"". They also often refer to UGA fans as rednecks, and even sometimes refuse to capitalize the letter ""U"" in the acronym.
A common rallying cry for students of Georgia Tech is the question ""What's the good word?"" often repeated three times (the answer being ""To Hell with Georgia!"") and, on the fourth time, will then ask ""How 'bout them Dawgs?"" (""Piss on 'em!"") Tech students have also created an unofficial fight song entitled '""To Hell With Georgia"", which is set to tune of The Battle Hymn of the Republic and refers to UGA as ""the cesspool of the South.""
Another long-standing tradition at Georgia Tech, which began in 1915, requires freshmen to wear a RAT cap, which stands for ""Recruit at Tech"", around campus, and most notably to football games. The caps are decorated with the football team's scores, the freshman's name, hometown, major, and expected graduation date, and ""To HELL With georgia"" emblazoned on the back of the cap. Tradition states that freshmen are required to wear the RAT cap at least until the homecoming game, where they can take it off after the game for a Georgia Tech win, or keep it on the remainder of the freshman year if they lose. Anti-hazing laws have loosened the strictness and overall participation by most freshmen at Georgia Tech, except in the volunteer marching band.
The school newspapers of the two institutions often mock their rival institution. The Red and Black, Georgia's daily newspaper, usually has a few jokes and articles mocking Georgia Tech the week before the football game.The Technique, Georgia Tech's weekly newspaper, prints a larger, special edition mocking The Red and Black, and commonly refers to its rival as ""The university (sic) of Georgia."" The special edition features several articles of parody and humor based on fictitious happenings at the University of Georgia, and is known as ""To Hell With Georgia"", after the school's popular cheer. On years where the schools play their match at UGA's Sanford Stadium, Technique staff distribute the issue across UGA's campus.
UGA students traditionally ring the school's Chapel Bell until midnight following any home football win. However, when UGA beats Tech, the bell rings all night long. Tech has a similar tradition with its whistle. UGA's Chapel Bell and Georgia Tech's Ramblin' Wreck have been rumored to have been stolen numerous times by their respective rival before, after, or even during major sporting events between the two schools. The bulldog statue in front of UGA's Memorial Hall was once stolen by Tech students. The culprits put the UGA and Tech police on a scavenger hunt to find the missing statue. Many fans of the respective institutions refuse to even partake in clothing, food, or other materials of their rival's school colors. Examples include Georgia fans refusing to eat mustard or Georgia Tech fans refusing to use red pens.
Two Georgia Tech fight songs refer to UGA in their lyrics: ""Up With the White and Gold"" has the lyric ""down with the Red & Black"", and ""Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech"" contains the lyric ""To Hell with Georgia"". No UGA fight song officially refers to Georgia Tech in any way, though at the conclusion of ""Glory, Glory"" students often change the final line from G-E-O-R-G-I-A to ""and to Hell with Georgia Tech"" as they do with all of their opponents.


== Sports ==


=== Football ===
The game has been played 118 times according to Georgia Tech and only 116 times according to Georgia record books. Georgia discredits two games in 1943 and 1944 (both years in which Georgia Tech won) because many of their players went to fight in World War II, though official college football records include the games. The game has been played in either Athens or Atlanta alternating every year since 1928. Both Georgia Tech and Georgia hold 4 national titles for a total of 8 national titles between them. The two schools also have a total of 31 conference titles (15 for Tech, 16 for Georgia) between them, making the rivalry a battle between two historically prestigious programs.
The record between the two teams is 70 Georgia wins, 41 Georgia Tech wins, and 5 ties. Georgia Tech's longest winning streak, and the longest in the series, is eight games from 1949–1956. Georgia's longest winning streak in the series is seven straight games and has been achieved three times: From 1991 to 1997, 2001 to 2007 and from 2017 to present. Georgia won the most recent game in the series on November 29, 2025 at Sanford Stadium, in Athens, by a final score of 42-40 in 8OT. The victor wins the Governor's Cup.

The first time the two teams met on the football field was on November 4, 1893. The Georgia School of Technology (Georgia Tech's original name) Blacksmiths led by coaches Stanley E. ""Stan"" Borleske and Casey C. Finnegan traveled 70 miles (110 km) by train to play the Georgia team coached by Ernest Brown in Athens at Herty Field. The Blacksmiths defeated Georgia handily 28–6 on four scores by Leonard Wood, a thirty-three-year-old United States Army physician and future Medal of Honor recipient. During and after the game, disgruntled Georgia fans threw rocks and other debris at the Georgia Tech players and chased the victorious Blacksmiths back to their awaiting train.

At one time early in the last half of the game, a stone was hurled at one of the Tech players, striking him a cruel blow in the head... At another time, one of the Athenians drew a knife and threatened one of the Techs' better players... The Techs were also poked and gouged with canes on plays toward the boundary lines... Some of the crowd had the privilege of the gridiron equally with the players.
The next day in the Atlanta Journal, an Athens journalist accused Tech of using ""a heterogeneous collection of Atlanta residents – a United States Army surgeon, a medical student, a lawyer, and an insurance agent among them, with here and there a student of Georgia's School of Technology thrown in to give the mixture a Technological flavor."" Hence, the sports rivalry was born.
1902 saw the series' first scoreless tie. Georgia came in as 6–1 favorites. ""It's the worst game we have ever played."" said Georgia captain Frank M. Ridley. On Tech was its first All-Southern player, Jesse Thrash.
In 1905, Tech beat Georgia 46–0. Craig Day returned a missed field goal 110 yards for a touchdown.
In 1908, UGA attacked Tech's recruitment tactics in football. UGA alumni incited a Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association investigation into Tech's recruitment of a player UGA had recruited as well. The Georgia Alumni claimed that Tech had created a fraudulent scholarship fund, which they used to persuade the player to attend Tech rather than UGA. The SIAA ruled in favor of Tech, but the 1908 game was cancelled that season due to bad blood between the rivals.
The 1915 game was the second scoreless tie. John G. Henderson headed a group of three men, one behind the other with his hands upon the shoulders of the one in front, to counter John Heisman's jump shift offense.
The only true break in the series dates back to 1917 and the United States entry into World War I. The two institutions felt that the rivalry had grown too intense, fueled by Georgia's inflammatory accusations that Georgia Tech was cowardly because the school continued its football program during wartime while Georgia suspended its program for the football seasons of 1917 and 1918. Tech meanwhile won the South's first recognized national championship in 1917.
The game renewed play again in 1925. That year, a third-quarter field goal by Ike Williams was the only scoring in the game, giving Georgia Tech a 3–0 victory. Georgia end Smack Thompson would yell out in his sleep, and had said ""Kill the SOB"" in reference to Tech's star fullback Doug Wycoff leading up to the game. Once during the game, the two collided with each other, knocking each unconscious.
In 1927, Georgia's ""dream and wonder"" team marched onto Grant Field having won all its games and upset Yale. The Bulldogs were ensured a national championship with a victory. Georgia Tech won 12 to 0. The field was a muddy mess from the rain, and some Georgia supporters contended that Tech watered down the field.

In 1932, Georgia Tech and Georgia were two of the original 13 charter members of the Southeastern Conference. Georgia Tech would continue its membership until 1964 after Tech Coach Bobby Dodd began a historic feud with Alabama Coach Bear Bryant. Georgia Tech left the SEC concerning the allocation of scholarships and student athlete treatment. Georgia Tech would later attempt re-entry but the re-entry was eventually voted down. Lacking a league in which to compete, Georgia Tech helped charter the Metro Conference in 1975 for all sports besides football (in which it remained independent for nearly 20 years). Tech eventually joined the Atlantic Coast Conference in 1979, though it would not compete for the ACC football championship until 1983. Since 1978, Georgia has won 37 of the last 47 games against Georgia Tech. Georgia coaches Mark Richt and Kirby Smart have had a large part in the Bulldog's recent dominance over Georgia Tech, enjoying a 13–2 record and 7–1 record respectively, against the Yellow Jackets.
In 2020, the rivalry was not played for the first time since 1925 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which resulted in the SEC limiting its schedule to conference-only play.
In 2024, Georgia came back from a 17–0 halftime deficit in Athens to force overtime. The game was decided in 8OT, which is the second longest game in FBS history by total number of overtimes. This was the fourth time, and first since 2013, that the game was decided in overtime. The previous longest game between the two teams was 2OT.


=== Basketball ===
The Georgia Tech and Georgia basketball rivalry can be just as heated as its football counterpart. The two teams have played 199 times with Georgia Tech leading the series with 107 wins over Georgia's 92 wins. The first game between the two basketball teams was on March 10, 1906. Georgia Tech won the game 27–13 in Athens. The longest winning streak by UGA was 7 games, which occurred twice from 1909–1921 and from 1980–1984. Georgia Tech accumulated a 10-game winning streak, its longest over UGA, from 1958–1961. Like most series, there is a distinct advantage to being the home team. The home record since 1906 is 111–53 (67.7%) while 23 games in the series have been played on neutral courts.
The Georgia Tech vs. Georgia game was played in the Omni Coliseum for 14 years beginning in 1981 and ending in 1994. The series in the Omni favored the Yellow Jackets with an 8–6 record. The neutrality of the Omni, because of its proximity to Georgia Tech, came into question by the UGA athletic department in 1993 so the series was renewed as an alternating home court event. The home team has won every game but four since the home court advantage was reinstated, Georgia won two road games (2000, 2010); Georgia Tech won two (2011, 2013). Since 1994, the Tech-UGA basketball game has had the highest average attendance for both teams at their respective stadiums.
9 other games were played on neutral courts. These games occurred in the SIC Tournament (1921 and 1923), SEC tournament (1934, 1945, 1946, and 1948), and the Gator Bowl Tournament (1952, 1953, and 1960). Tech holds a 5–4 record in these tournaments over Georgia.
On an ironic note, after tornadoes forced the 2008 SEC men's basketball tournament to be moved from the Georgia Dome to Georgia Tech's home court Alexander Memorial Coliseum (now known as Hank McCamish Pavilion), the Bulldogs pulled off an unlikely stretch of three wins in thirty hours to win the tournament on their bitter rivals' home court.
The basketball rivalry has picked up intensity recently after Georgia Tech coach Josh Pastner's first tweet after being hired was #THWg (To Hell With Georgia). Pastner's Yellow Jackets however could not live up to the smack talk as the Bulldogs won convincingly 60–43 on the Yellow Jackets home court. Pastner’s second attempt to beat Georgia also fell short, as the Yellow Jackets were pummeled at Stegeman Coliseum by a score of 80–59. 
In 2019, Georgia won again in a nailbiter 82–78. The teams did not meet during the 2020–2021 season due to COVID-19 restrictions. In 2021, the series started back up 
again. This time, the Jackets beat Georgia, ending their five year losing streak to the Bulldogs, by winning in Athens 88–78. It was Josh Pastner’s first win against Georgia. 
The following year, the two teams played one of the most memorable games in the rivalry. Georgia led by first year head coach Mike White entered the game 7–2. Tech came into the game 5–3. In a game that featured 11 ties and 18 lead changes, the Jackets scored the last six points of the game to defeat the Bulldogs 79–77 in front of a rowdy home crowd at McCamish Pavilion.


=== Baseball ===

April 16, 1898, the first baseball game between Georgia and Georgia Tech, then known as the Georgia School of Technology was played with Georgia winning 18 to 4. The game was played at the newly created ballfields in Piedmont Park located in the center of the horse race track, almost exactly where they still are today. Piedmont Park served the Atlanta Crackers, the city's original professional baseball team, before they moved to a stadium on Ponce de Leon Avenue in 1904.
The two baseball teams have met 350 times since 1898. Georgia Tech has 149 wins, Georgia has 199 wins, and there are 2 ties in the series. Three baseball games are played between the two institutions every year. Two of the three games are played at the respective colleges' baseball stadiums while the finale is played at Truist Park, home of the Atlanta Braves. The 2004 Georgia Tech vs. Georgia Game at Turner Field had the second most spectators in college baseball history with 28,836 fans in attendance.
Between the two schools, Georgia holds the only National Title by besting Oklahoma State in the 1990 College World Series. Both Georgia and Georgia Tech have played in College World Series finals with Georgia competing in two (1990 and 2008) and Georgia Tech competing in one (1994).
Since the reformatting of the NCAA baseball tournament in 1999, Tech and UGA have hosted eight super regionals – the fourthmost super regionals hosted by a state behind California, Texas, and Florida. The two teams have met six times in the NCAA tournament with Georgia holding a 4–2 edge over Tech. Georgia has eliminated Tech three times in tournament play in 1987, 2001, and 2008. Tech avenged the 2001 elimination by eliminating UGA in 2002. Tech and UGA's latest meeting in the 2008 NCAA tournament saw UGA sweep Tech in a two game series, which eliminated Tech from the tournament.
In 2010, Georgia Tech swept the season series against UGA, winning games in Atlanta, at Turner Field, and a 25–6 win in Athens.
Georgia has won the season series the last two seasons taking 2 out of 3 in 2016 and sweeping the Yellow Jackets in 2017.
2017 was the first season the annual neutral site game was played at SunTrust Park (Truist Park's former name), the home of the Atlanta Braves. Both teams traded the lead throughout the game in front of a crowd of 23,737. Georgia completed the season sweep with an 8–7 victory.
In 2025, the series returned to Truist Park for one game on April 15.


=== Other sports ===
Georgia Tech and Georgia enjoy healthy rivalries in all other sports in which the two universities compete, most notably softball, women's basketball, and various club sports.
In 2008, the cross country and track teams began a revival of what had once been a common occurrence with short series of events dubbed the ""Old School"" dual meets. The two teams competed in a total of five one-on-one competitions. The cross country events were hosted by Georgia, and the track events were held at the Georgia Tech Track, site of the 1996 Olympic Trials, in Atlanta. The Georgia men won at all five meetings. The tradition was unceremoniously terminated when the programs mutually agreed to expand the competition in their schedule.
Through August 29, 2008, the two women's volleyball teams have played 31 times, with Georgia leading the overall series with 21 wins over Georgia Tech's 10. However, Tech holds a 10–1 record since 1999, including a 7–1 mark since GT head coach Bond Shymansky took over the program in 2002. The only Georgia victory in this period came in 2005 in front of a record-breaking Georgia Bulldog crowd. Two of the last three meetings (2006 and 2007) were held in Georgia Tech's O'Keefe Gym, both in front of fire-code-limited 2000 spectators, while the latest match (2008) was held at Georgia with a crowd of 1,604.


== See also ==
List of NCAA college football rivalry games
List of most-played college football series in NCAA Division I


== References and footnotes ==


== Further reading ==
Barnhart, Tony. Southern Fried Football: The History, Passion, And Glory. Triumph Books. 2000. ISBN 1-57243-367-1
Cromartie, Bill. Clean, Old-Fashioned Hate. Gridiron Publishers. 2002. ISBN 1-55853-124-6
Dodd, Bobby and Jack Wilkinson. Dodd's Luck. Golden Coast Publishing Company. 1988. ISBN 0-932958-09-5
Dooley, Vince. Dooley's Dawgs. Longstreet Press. 2003. ISBN 1-56352-727-8
King, Kim and Jack Wilkinson. Kim King's Tales from the Georgia Tech Sideline. Sports Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1-58261-819-4
Stegeman, John F. (1966). The Ghosts of Herty Field: Early Days on a Southern Gridiron. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. pp. 14–20. LCCN 66027606.
Van Brimmer, Adam. Stadium Stories: Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. Globe Pequot. 2006. ISBN 0-7627-4020-5.


== External links ==
Georgia vs Georgia Tech – Georgia – rivalry series record from College Football Data Warehouse"
Would I Lie to You?,"Would I Lie to You? (abbreviated as WILTY) is a British comedy panel show aired on BBC One, made by Zeppotron for the BBC. It was first broadcast on 16 June 2007, starring David Mitchell and Lee Mack as team captains. The show was originally presented by Angus Deayton, and since 2009 has been hosted by Rob Brydon.


== History ==
The show was presented by Angus Deayton in 2007 and 2008, with Rob Brydon (who had appeared as a guest panellist in the second series) taking over as host in 2009. Throughout the entire run of the show, the team captains have been comedians David Mitchell and Lee Mack. Alan Carr was a team captain in the pilot but subsequently turned down an offer to appear on later shows.
The first series was recorded at Fountain Studios in Wembley during March and April 2007 and aired at 21:55 between 16 June and 28 July 2007 on BBC One (missing a week for coverage of the Concert for Diana memorial event). Filming for the second series took place between 15 November and 18 December 2007. The second series was filmed at BBC Television Centre in White City, West London, because Fountain Studios were being used for The X Factor. The second series aired at 21:00 between 11 July 2008 and 29 August 2008 on BBC One, and contained eight shows, an increase of two from series one. A compilation episode featuring some previously unaired material was aired on 19 September 2008 at 21:30 on BBC One.
Filming of a third series of eight episodes took place at Pinewood Studios during March and April 2009, and was broadcast between 10 August 2009 and 29 September 2009 on BBC One at 22:35. A compilation episode was also recorded. The airdate was 17 December 2009, due to the addition of Match of the Day to the BBC One schedule. Filming of a fourth series of eight episodes took place at Pinewood Studios again during April and May 2010, and was broadcast between 23 July 2010 and 10 September 2010 on BBC One at 22:35. The compilation episode aired on 17 September 2010. The fifth series was filmed during March 2011 and started airing from 9 September at 21:30.
The sixth series of the show was recorded in March 2012 and began its broadcast on 13 April 2012. This series was aired in a pre-watershed slot, at 20:30, for the first time.
Series 16 aired on Fridays at 20:00.


== Format ==

For each show, two celebrity guests join each of the team captains. The teams compete as each player reveals unusual facts and embarrassing personal tales for the evaluation of the opposing team. Some of these are true, some are not, and it is the panellists' task to decide which is which.


=== Rounds ===
In all rounds, the scoring system is the same: teams gain a point for correctly guessing whether a statement is true or not, but if they guess incorrectly the opposing team gets a point.  Each episode running time is 30 minutes, so some questions are edited out prior to airing.  In addition, the comic format allows each team member to question and joke with the opposing team.  Hence, each episode has differing total scoring points reflecting the varying number of questions asked and answered.
During series one through series five, it was impossible for viewers to follow the scores until they were read out at the end of each round, as some questions were edited out, and the final scores reflected the total questions played while filming each episode (not reflecting the final edits for the 30 minute running time). However, starting with series six on, the scores were re-recorded to reflect what had made the aired edits and not the whole filmed recording.


==== Current rounds ====
""Home Truths"": Panellists read out a statement about themselves, from a card which they have not seen prior to recording. The opposing team has to decide whether it is true or false by asking the panellist questions. Much of the comedy in this round derives from the holder of the card having to improvise answers under increasingly detailed questioning. The first series used all six panellists; from the second series onwards, the round tended to focus on the four guests. In series two a 'possessions' element was introduced, in which the panellist takes an item out of a box and reads a statement from a card, and has to convince the opposing team that the possession genuinely belongs to them.
""This is My..."": A guest comes onto the set and is introduced by first name, but remains standing in silence as the round continues. Panellists on one team tell the opposing team about their relationship to the guest; only one account out of three told is genuine, and the opposing team has to work out which it is. At the end of the round, the guest reveals their true identity, and with which of the panellists they have a genuine relationship.
""Quick-Fire Lies"": The second questioning round, with the panellists chosen at random. In earlier series, the panellists were ostensibly under a time limit although no on-screen indicator of the time limit was ever present. The notion of a time limit was eventually dropped in the later series, making the round identical to ""Home Truths"" in practice. This round usually features – but is not exclusive to – Mitchell and Mack. From the fourth series onwards, Brydon also became an occasional participant, with both teams questioning him at once.


==== Former rounds ====
""Ring of Truth"": A celebrity fact is read out by the host, and each team has to reach a joint decision on whether it is true or false. This round was generally edited out of the fourth series; as of series five, it is no longer being played.
""Telly Tales"": Clips from a TV show are shown, a statement is read out about the show by a member of one team and the other team has to guess whether it is true or false. This round was only played in the first series.


=== Special episodes ===
Most series have included some special episodes:

Christmas special: these are just like ordinary episodes, except that they are Christmas-themed, and are first broadcast near Christmas.
Unseen bits and More unseen bits: these are mainly a compilation of truths or lies which were edited out of the regular episodes of the series. Sometimes some bloopers are included as well.
Best bits: has highlights from the series.
Seasons 2 and 3 combined Best & Unseen bits into a single episode.


== Cast ==


=== Guest appearances ===
The following have all appeared multiple times as one of the guest panelists on the show, including any as-yet unbroadcast episodes of Series 19. This does not include the 2011 Comic Relief special.

a. ^  Including an appearance where he substituted for Lee Mack as captain


== Ratings ==
The first show of Series 1 had 3.8 million viewers, a 19% audience share at the time it was broadcast.
The first show of Series 2 had 3 million viewers and a 14% audience share. Later episodes indicated ratings of 2.7 - 3.2 million, with the final show of the series getting 3.3 million viewers and a 15% audience share.
The first show of Series 3 had 2.8 million viewers, the lowest number for a series opener so far; however, this equated to a 17% audience share. The final show attracted only 2.5 million viewers, but with a 19% audience share overall.
The first show of series 4 had 3.12 million viewers and a 19.7% audience share, the best performance for a series opener since series 1.
The series 5 premiere had the show's highest ratings to date, with 4 million viewers and a 17.2% audience share.
Series 6 began with an audience share of 14.9% and peak viewing figures of 3.53 million. These figures were above the seventh series figures of 2.83 million / 12.8% audience share, although these rose to 3.17 million by the end of the series with a 14.7% share.


== Awards and nominations ==


== International broadcasts ==
The show airs on ABC TV in Australia and TVNZ 2 in New Zealand and began screening on BBC UKTV in Australia and New Zealand from November 2014. It is available to stream on BritBox in the US and Canada.


== Merchandise ==
A DVD of the complete fourth series was released in September 2011.
A board game based on the show was released in 2012,  with a second edition with updated prompts following in 2019.
A DVD of the complete fifth series was released in October 2012.
A DVD of the complete sixth series was released in October 2013.
A book based on the series, Would I Lie to You? Presents the 100 Most Popular Lies of All Time, was published in October 2015. The publishers, Faber and Faber, have also ordered a second book.
Series 4 to 7 were released individually on DVD in Australia across July and August 2015.


== Episodes ==


=== Series ===

Series 2 and 3 each combined ""Best bits"" and ""Unseen bits"" into a single episode.


=== Specials ===


=== Appearances in other media ===

An additional 10-minute feature, entitled ""Mam, Would I Lie To You?"" was broadcast on the ITV show Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway on 13 March 2021. This edition was hosted by Ant and Dec and featured a team of Lee Mack, Stephen Mulhern and Michelle Visage playing two rounds of a slightly altered ""This is My..."" where the panellists had to guess which of the three children was the child of an audience member by the story given. Zeppotron and the BBC were thanked in the programme's credits for use of the WILTY brand and format.


== International versions ==
A New Zealand version of the show, presented by broadcaster Paul Henry, and featuring team captains Jesse Mulligan and Jon Bridges, began airing on TV3 in 2012. It followed the Rob Brydon era British format closely but was short-lived.
A short-lived Croatian version of this show titled Ma lažeš! (lit. 'You're Lying!') presented by Rene Bitorajac and featuring team captains Luka Bulić and Jan Kerekeš aired on RTL from 2021 until 2022.
The Czech version of this show Copak bych vám lhal? (lit. 'How Could I Lie to You?') presented by Igor Bareš and featuring Sandra Pogodová and Michal Dlouhý as team captains was to be broadcast from January 2013 on ČT, a public television broadcaster.
The Icelandic version, Satt eða logið? (lit. 'Truth or lie?'), began airing in 2017 on Stöð 2. Originally presented by Logi Bergmann Eiðsson who was succeeded by Benedikt Valsson in the second season, team captains are Auðunn Blöndal and Katla Margét Þorgeirsdóttir.
The Slovak version, Klamal by som ti? (lit. 'Would I Lie to You?'), presented by singer/actor Filip Tůma and featuring Petra Polnišová and Zuzana Šebová, actresses, as team captains, began airing in March 2019 on Markíza.
An Australian version of the show began broadcasting on Network 10 on 28 February 2022. It is presented by Chrissie Swan, with Chris Taylor and Frank Woodley as team captains. Taylor was replaced by Charlie Pickering in the second season.
An American version of the show premiered on The CW on April 9, 2022.


== See also ==
Call My Bluff, had a similar format, choosing the truth between three word definitions rather than personal stories
Would You Believe?, 1970s Australian TV series with a similar format
To Tell the Truth, American TV panel show


== References ==


== External links ==
Would I Lie to You? at BBC Online 
Would I Lie to You? at IMDb 
Would I Lie to You? at British Comedy Guide
Would I Lie to You? at epguides.com
Would I Lie to You? at UKGameshows.com
Zeppotron Website - Show Details
Digital Spy - Angus Deayton Returns To The BBC
Endemol UK Announces show details"
Slapp Happy,"Slapp Happy was a German/English avant-pop group, formed in Germany in 1972. Their lineup consisted of Anthony Moore (keyboards), Peter Blegvad (guitar) and Dagmar Krause (vocals). The band members moved to England in 1974 where they merged with Henry Cow, but the merger ended soon afterwards and Slapp Happy split up. Slapp Happy's sound was characterised by Dagmar Krause's unique vocal style. From 1982 there have been brief reunions to create an opera called Camera, record the album Ça Va in 1998, and perform shows around the world.


== History ==


=== Germany ===
Slapp Happy was formed in 1972 in Hamburg, Germany by British experimental composer Anthony Moore. Moore had recorded two avant-garde/experimental solo LPs at Faust's studio in Wümme, Bremen, Germany for Polydor Records. When he presented them with a third album, they rejected it, stating that they wanted something more commercial. Moore obliged and asked his American friend, Peter Blegvad to come to Hamburg and help him write some pop songs. Blegvad recalls responding, ""Pop songs. Three-chord stuff. How hard can that be ...?"" For them it was a joke. They said, ""we'll take the piss out of pop.""
Calling themselves Slapp Happy, Moore and Blegvad wrote the song ""Just a Conversation"" in 20 minutes. They recorded it in Faust's studio with Faust's rhythm section backing them. But when the pair found their singing was not working, they asked Moore's girlfriend (and future wife), Dagmar Krause to sing. She had sung previously on stage and in several groups, but wanted to stop. Reluctantly, however, she agreed to sing, and transformed Slapp Happy from a joke into something unexpected. American music academic Benjamin Piekut said ""Krause's voice possessed a levity and grace that was shot through with world-weary Lenyiana."" Now a trio, Slapp Happy presented Polydor with ""Just a Conversation"", and were surprised when the label released it as a single in 1972, backed by ""Jumping Jonah"", another pop ditty they had recorded. Polydor also gave them a record deal.
Moore and Blegvad continued writing ""naive rock"", as Blegvad described it, and when they had enough songs, the trio returned to Wümme in May 1972 to record Sort Of, their debut album. Once again, Faust were their backing band. The LP was released later in 1972, but did not sell well, primarily because Slapp Happy refused to perform live. In late 1972 Slapp Happy began recording their second album, Casablanca Moon with Faust. The songs here were more sophisticated and artful than those on Sort Of. Moore's music was harmonically richer, and Blegvad's lyrics more serious and poetic. Blegvad said, ""We were snobs about pop music ... Anthony was more interested in making modern classical music."" But they acknowledged that their attempts at commercial music were naïve and called their approach ""the Douanier Rousseau sound"", after the self-taught French artist. But Polydor did not like the direction Slapp Happy were taking and rejected the album.


=== England ===
In early 1973, Slapp Happy left Germany for England. Henry Cow, who had recently signed a record deal with the then emerging Virgin Records, heard a cassette tape of the trio's rejected second album, and were impressed and recommended that Virgin sign them. The record label, however, was concerned about how receptive English audiences would be to Krause's German accent. But after several other musicians and critics advocated them, including Robert Wyatt and Ian MacDonald in New Musical Express, Virgin added Slapp Happy to their roster later in 1973.
Soon after signing, Slapp Happy went to Virgin's Manor Studios in Oxfordshire in early 1974 to re-record Casablanca Moon. Blegvad said Virgin felt that their unreleased second album was ""a good demo, but too crude for radio, so we re-recorded the same songs with swisher production"". Session musicians were used, under the direction of violinist Graham Preskett, with new arrangements of the songs by Roger Wootton of Comus. Virgin released the album as Slapp Happy in May 1974. The new recording attracted the attention of the press, particularly after Wyatt endorsed it. But Henry Cow were not so complimentary. Blegvad remembers them saying, ""Well, it's OK, the songs aren't bad, but it's really a missed opportunity. You made a conventional pop record and you could have done something more.""
It was not until 1980 that Recommended Records released the original Casablanca Moon (with Faust) as Acnalbasac Noom (the words of the original title written backwards). Comparison of the two releases revealed two very different musical arrangements. Acnalbasac Noom had a raw and unsophisticated feel about it, whereas Slapp Happy tended to be more sentimental with more complex arrangements, including a string orchestra.
In June 1974, there were plans for a joint appearance by Slapp Happy and Virgin label mates Henry Cow and Wyatt at a free concert in Hyde Park in London, but this was cancelled at the last minute. However, on 25 June Slapp Happy recorded a Top Gear session for the BBC, enlisting the help of former and current Cow members Geoff Leigh, Fred Frith and Lindsay Cooper, plus Wyatt, who contributed guest vocals and percussion to a version of Blegvad's ""A Little Something"" from Casablanca Moon. Credited as ""Slapp Happy & Friends"", this was later released in 1994 on Wyatt's compilation album, Flotsam Jetsam.
Slapp Happy returned to the studio in May 1974 to record two new compositions with session musicians, ""Europa"" and ""War (Is Energy Enslaved)"". Virgin had requested a single that was ""radio friendly"", but upon hearing the songs they rejected them, stating that they felt they were better suited for an album. This caused Blegvad and Moore to rethink their songwriting strategy, and they began producing more serious and challenging music. Moore said they had written material ""which had to be executed using a musical vocabulary greater than Peter or I could handle."" This led to Slapp Happy asking Henry Cow to be their backing band on their second album for Virgin. After discussions between the two bands, they collaborated in November 1974 and recorded Desperate Straights. ""Europa"" and ""War"" were re-recorded, and the album was later released under the name ""Slapp Happy/Henry Cow"".
The success of this collaboration surprised everyone, considering how dissimilar the two bands were. The music often had a Berlin Cabaret feel about it with a taste of avant-garde jazz. Slapp Happy and Henry Cow decided to merge and returned to the studio in early 1975 to record Henry Cow's In Praise of Learning. The only real contribution from Slapp Happy (besides Dagmar's singing) was the Moore/Blegvad song ""War"", which blended in well with the album's political aggression. But differences in approach between the two groups had come to a head in April 1975 and Moore and Blegvad quit, suggesting that Henry Cow's music was too serious (and political) for their liking. Krause, however, elected to remain with Henry Cow, who needed a vocalist. This effectively meant the end of Slapp Happy as a band. They did, however, record one more single, ""Johnny's Dead"", without Krause, which was released in July 1975. It was credited to ""Slapp Happy featuring Anthony Moore"", and was the beginning of Moore's solo career, in which he spelt his name ""More"".


=== Reunions ===
Moore and Blegvad then both embarked on separate solo careers. In 1982 the trio reunited briefly to record a Slapp Happy single, ""Everybody's Slimmin' (Even Men and Women)"" on their own private label, Half-Cat Records. Here Krause sings rap-style to a rhythm box sound. They also performed live (for the first time ever) during the ""Dial M For Music"" festival, held at London's Institute of Contemporary Arts on 10 September 1982.
The three collaborated again in 1991 on a specially commissioned television opera ""Camera"", produced by After Image for Channel 4, based on an original idea by Krause, with words by Blegvad and music by Moore. Krause played the lead character ""Melusina"" and the opera was broadcast two years later on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom. The soundtrack Camera was released on CD in 2000, although under the names ""Dagmar Krause, Anthony Moore and Peter Blegvad"" and not ""Slapp Happy"".
In 1997, Slapp Happy reunited again to record a new studio album Ça Va on Richard Branson's new V2 label. It was Slapp Happy's first album since 1975 and the music picked up from where it had left off with literate and quirky pop songs. A departure from the past, however, was that they made the music themselves, playing all the instruments and using looped samples to produce a layered sound on many of the tracks.
Slapp Happy was popular in Japan and toured there in 2000, playing on stage without any backing musicians. A CD, Live in Japan, was released in 2001 in Japan only.
Krause, Moore and Blegvad reformed Slapp Happy again in November 2016 to perform with Faust at the Week-End festival in Cologne, Germany. The two groups also played together on 10–11 February 2017 at Cafe Oto in London. On 24 February 2017 Slapp Happy, without Faust, performed at Mt. Rainier Hall, Shibuya in Tokyo. In September 2017, Slapp Happy and Faust played at the 10th Rock in Opposition festival in Carmaux, France. They made a final appearance in November 2017 in Brussels, Belgium.


== Music ==
Slapp Happy's music was eccentric pop with an ""avant-garde"" twist to it. It drew on a variety of musical idioms, including waltzes, bossa novas, French chansons and tangos. The songs' lyrics were literate and playful while the mood varied from ""dreamy"" to sinister. However, it was Dagmar Krause's unusual and eerie high-pitched voice that was the group's most arresting feature. Her German-inflected vocals ranged from a sweet melodious croon to the ""love-it-or-hate-it"" Armageddon style typified on In Praise of Learning.


== Members ==
Anthony Moore – keyboards, guitar, percussion, programming, tape manipulation, toy theremin, melodica, harmonica, vocals
Peter Blegvad – guitar, bass guitar, saxophone, clarinet, percussion, harmonica, vocals
Dagmar Krause – vocals, piano, percussion, harmonica
Note: Dagmar Krause was credited as ""Daggi"" on Slapp Happy's first album, Sort Of (1972). On the next three albums, Slapp Happy (1974), Desperate Straights (1975) and In Praise of Learning (1975), she was credited as ""Dagmar"". From Acnalbasac Noom (1980) onwards Krause was credited with her full name.


== Discography ==
The year below indicates the release date (not the recording date).


=== Albums ===
Sort Of (1972, LP, Polydor Records, Germany)
Slapp Happy (also known as Casablanca Moon) (1974, LP, Virgin Records, UK)
Desperate Straights (with Henry Cow) (1975, LP, Virgin Records, UK)
In Praise of Learning (with Henry Cow) (1975, LP, Virgin Records, UK)
Acnalbasac Noom (1980, LP, Recommended Records, UK)
Ça Va (1998, CD, V2 Records, UK)
Camera (as ""Dagmar Krause/Anthony Moore/Peter Blegvad"") (2000, CD, Blueprint Records, UK)
Live in Japan (2001, CD, FMN Records, Japan)


=== Singles ===
""Just a Conversation"" / ""Jumpin' Jonah"" (1972, 7"", Polydor Records, Germany)
""Casablanca Moon"" / ""Slow Moon's Rose"" (1974, 7"", Virgin Records, UK)
""Johnny's Dead"" / ""Mr. Rainbow"" (1975, 7"", Virgin Records, UK) – credited to ""Slapp Happy featuring Anthony Moore""
""Alcohol"" (1981, 7"", Recommended Records, UK) – one-sided bonus single issued with RēR re-issue of Sort Of
""Everybody's Slimmin' (Even Men and Women)"" / ""Blue-Eyed William"" (1983, 7"", Half-Cat Records, UK)


== References ==


== Works cited ==
Cutler, Chris, ed. (2009). ""The Road: Volumes 1–5"". The 40th Anniversary Henry Cow Box Set (box set booklet). Henry Cow. London: Recommended Records.
Cutler, Chris, ed. (2019). ""Book 1 | The Studio: Official Releases"". The Henry Cow Box Redux: The Complete Henry Cow (box set booklet). Henry Cow. London: Recommended Records.
Piekut, Benjamin (2019). Henry Cow: The World Is a Problem. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-1-47800-405-9.


== External links ==

Slapp Happy : Review at the Wayback Machine (archived 15 January 2014)
Peter Blegvad biography. Calyx: The Canterbury Website.
Slapp Happy John Peel sessions. BBC Radio 1."
The Invaders,"The Invaders is an American science fiction television series created by Larry Cohen that aired on ABC for two seasons, from 1967 to 1968. Roy Thinnes stars as David Vincent,  who after stumbling across evidence of an in-progress invasion of aliens from outer space—the aliens disguising themselves as humans and gradually infiltrating human institutions—tries to thwart the invasion despite the disbelief of officials and the general public, and the undermining of his efforts by the aliens. The series was a Quinn Martin production.


== Plot ==
The architect David Vincent accidentally learns of a secret alien invasion already underway and thereafter travels from place-to-place attempting to foil the aliens' plots and warn a skeptical populace of the danger. Other plot elements include Vincent's grim and lonely determination to find ""tangible proof of the invaders’ existence"" despite having become a ""quasi-famous object of public ridicule"";  the aliens' success in hiding their plots, undermining Vincent's credibility and killing off those who also discover them in ways disguised as a natural death; and the constant tension over whether the individuals Vincent comes across are humans or aliens. As the series progresses, Vincent is able to convince a small number of people to help him fight the aliens.
In many episodes, at least one individual, often a key figure such as a U.S. Air Force intelligence officer (in the episode ""The Innocent""), a police officer (in ""Genesis"" and ""The Spores""), a U.S. Army major (""Doomsday Minus One""), or a NASA official (""Moonshot"") becomes aware of the alien threat and survives the episode in which he or she was introduced. In ""The Leeches"", a millionaire (Arthur Hill) survives an alien abduction after being rescued by Vincent, while in ""Quantity: Unknown"" a scientist (Susan Strasberg) is convinced of alien technology. In ""The Saucer"", guest stars Anne Francis and Charles Drake witness an alien saucer's landing. In the second season, larger groups of surviving witnesses were featured, as in episodes ""Dark Outpost"" and ""The Pursued"", and three scientists in ""Labyrinth"". Most significant of these is millionaire industrialist Edgar Scoville (Kent Smith), who became a semi-regular character as of December 1967, heading a small but influential group from the episode ""The Believers"". Later episodes had the military involved (""The Peacemaker""), as Vincent's claims were now clearly being taken more seriously. In ""The Miracle"" (guest star Barbara Hershey), after an alien encounter, Vincent manages to retain a piece of alien technology both as evidence and for examination by both his group and the authorities.
The series depicted an undercurrent of at least partial credulity among authority figures regarding Vincent's claims, even in the first season, as in early episodes such as ""The Mutation"", where a security agent (Lin McCarthy) is keeping an eye on Vincent and ends up inclined to believe him. In ""The Innocent"", the USAF officer (Dabney Coleman) guns down an alien who incinerates in front of him, tying in with Vincent's claims; while at the end of the episode after apparently disbelieving Vincent, he then phones USAF security to run a full background check on an officer whom Vincent claimed was an alien. In ""Moonshot"", the NASA official (Peter Graves) is fully expecting Vincent to arrive; and in ""Condition: Red"", a NORAD officer and staff witness an alien UFO formation onscreen, and are left convinced. Each of these incidents is kept to just the individual episode, with hinted official backing of Vincent (or at least 'semi-backing' suggested in the episode ""The Condemned""). Elsewhere, Vincent is shown as being publicly 'dismissed as a crank' by the authorities, while behind the scenes they apparently take him seriously—for example in ""Doomsday Minus One"", where Vincent has been invited by an Army intelligence official and then is given classified information; in the two-part ""Summit Meeting"" where he is present at a top security meeting without any question; and in ""Condition: Red"" where he is allowed into NORAD without question. Thus, viewers were left to draw their own conclusions as to the situation regarding Vincent's actual standing.


=== Characteristics of the invaders ===

The emphasis of the series is on Vincent and his efforts, and unlike most science fiction the back story of the aliens—their ""dying"" planet in ""another galaxy"" (or even their names)—is ""a deliberate blank"". They appear human except for a few telltale characteristics (they lack a pulse, the ability to bleed, or show emotion, and many have a deformed fourth finger). While the disguised aliens can be killed by humans, they glow red and disintegrate when this happens, eliminating evidence of their existence. The aliens are shown in their true form in only two episodes. In ""Genesis"" (season one, episode five), an ill alien researcher loses his human form and is briefly seen immersed in a tank of water.  ""The Enemy"" has a dying, mutated Invader (Richard Anderson) revert to his true appearance. Unless they receive periodic treatments in what Vincent calls ""regeneration chambers"", which consume a great deal of electrical power, they revert to their alien form. One scene in the series showed an alien beginning to revert, filmed in soft focus and with pulsating red light.
Most of the aliens, in particular the lowest-ranking members or workers in green jumpsuits, are emotionless and have deformed little fingers that cannot move and are bent at an unnatural angle, although  ""deluxe models"" could manipulate this finger. Black aliens' palms were not pale, like humans of African descent, but were the same shade as the rest of their skins. Some mutants experience emotions similar to those of humans and even oppose the alien takeover.
When aliens die, their bodies  glow red and burn up along with their clothes and anything else they were touching, preventing the documenting of their existence. On several occasions, a dying alien would deliberately touch a piece of their technology to prevent it from falling into the hands of humans.  In episode three (""The Mutation""), a female alien who falls for Vincent and is killed while running to warn him he is in danger tells him, ""That's what happens to us when we die here on Earth.""


=== Technology of the invaders ===
The type of spaceship by which the Invaders reach the Earth is a flying saucer of a design resembling early 1950s photographs of alleged UFOs produced by self-proclaimed UFO ""contactee"" George Adamski. They differ slightly from Adamski's images in not having three spheres on the underside, but instead five shallower protrusions. Numerous pieces of alien technology featured ""penta"" or five-sided designs. It was a principle of the production crew to show The Invaders' technology with set, prop designs, and control panels that were utterly alien from the conventional human ones (such as H. R. Giger would later present in Alien).
To kill humans they apply a small, handheld, disc-shaped weapon with five glowing white lights to the back of the victim's head or neck to induce a seemingly natural death, which is usually diagnosed as a cerebral hemorrhage. They also employ weapons that disintegrate witnesses, vehicles, and when necessary members of their own race with some sort of ray. Also in their arsenal is a small device consisting of two spinning, transparent crystals joined at their corners which acts like a truth serum, forces human beings to do the aliens' bidding, or (in most cases) imposes the complete loss of memory of previous events.


== Themes ==
According to producer Alan A. Armer, ""The major thing that the show had going for it is the fact that we are all a little bit paranoid, and that it’s easy to identify with ... one person fighting the society, fighting the government, fighting an invisible force ...” Series creator Larry Cohen noted the similarities between The Invaders and another Quinn Martin-produced show, The Fugitive, while also describing Alfred Hitchcock as a major influence.

Of course The Invaders was definitely in the same genre as The Fugitive: a man moving across America, in search of something, and in jeopardy.  Really, to me, my idea was taken more from Alfred Hitchcock than it was taken from The Fugitive.  I always liked the Hitchcock movie where the hero is in a situation where he's the only one that knows the spies are operating, and no one will believe him.  And when he takes the police back to the locale where he saw their operation, everything has been removed, there's no more evidence, everybody lies and says that he was never there before.
Such Hitchcock movies include The 39 Steps (1935) with Robert Donat, Saboteur (1942) with Robert Cummings, and North by Northwest (1959) with Cary Grant.
The large numbers of UFO reports in the post-World War II era was the subject of paranoia and conspiracy, as scientists and authorities (the Condon Committee and the Robertson Panel), and debunkers dismissed or downplayed the reports; and dedicated ""ufologists"" made sometimes-outlandish claims of alien presence on Earth and of earthly conspiracies to suppress evidence of it. Interest in the subject of UFOs became fringe, and ""a punchline"" in popular culture.


== Cast ==
Roy Thinnes appears as David Vincent in all 43 episodes.  For the first 30 episodes, he is the only recurring character.
Kent Smith appears as Edgar Scoville for 13 episodes, beginning with episode 31, ""The Believers"".  Scoville heads a small group called The Believers, who accept David Vincent's claims of alien invasion.  None of the other Believers are series regulars, and are typically only seen briefly on-screen as extras or in bit roles.
Lin McCarthy appears as Col. Archie Harmon, a skeptical friend of Scoville's, in two episodes.
Alfred Ryder appears as an Invaders leader in three episodes.
Max Kleven appears as an unnamed Alien in five episodes.


== Production ==


=== Development ===
The series was produced by Quinn Martin, who was looking for a show to replace the immensely popular The Fugitive, which was ending its run in 1967. Larry Cohen, the series' creator, had conceived two earlier series with similarities to The Invaders. Chuck Connors starred in Branded (1965) as a soldier court-martialed for cowardice, who traveled the West searching for witnesses and proof that he had acted valiantly, and Coronet Blue (1967) about Michael Alden, a man suffering from amnesia who was being pursued by a powerful group of people. All he could remember were the words ""Coronet Blue"".
Another inspiration was the wave of ""alien Doppelgänger"" films which had come 10 years before in the 1950s, typified by Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) and the British film Quatermass 2 (1957), known in America as Enemy from Space.  While these paranoid tales of extraterrestrials who lived among us, posing as humans while planning a takeover, are usually linked with a Red Scare subtext, Martin simply wanted a premise that would keep the hero moving around and that would explain why he could not go to the authorities (i.e. not only had some aliens infiltrated human institutions already, but most humans would dismiss a claim of alien invasion as a paranoid delusion). However, as the series unfolded, the various 'disappearances' of people in episodes (killed by the Invaders, such as Vincent's partner Alan Landers—played by James Daly—in the pilot, etc.), those installed alien figures revealed to be aliens by Vincent thus having to withdraw (such as Edward Andrews' character in ""The Mutation"", etc.) plus the surviving one or two key human witnesses in most episodes (from the third episode onwards) did rather alter the basic premise of the show to something deeper and more thought-provoking early on.
Season one was produced in association with the ABC Television Network or as it was listed in the end credits, ""The American Broadcasting Company Television Networks"".


=== Production Sequence ===
Before each episode, an ""in color"" promo bumper, typical of most ABC programs of the era, appears, as ABC was the last network to adopt color programming: Next... The Invaders, In Color!
Then, following the bumper, each episode begins with a cold open, to help set up the plot of the episode to come. After the prologue, the main title appears, announced by Dick Wesson:

The Invaders! A Quinn Martin Production. Starring Roy Thinnes as architect David Vincent.
(A different shot of Thinnes' face was used for the second season.) This would be followed by the opening narration (by Bill Woodson):

The Invaders, alien beings from a dying planet. Their destination: the Earth. Their purpose: to make it their world. David Vincent has seen them. For him, it began one lost night on a lonely country road, looking for a shortcut that he never found. It began with a closed deserted diner, and a man too long without sleep to continue his journey. It began with the landing of a craft from another galaxy. Now David Vincent knows that the Invaders are here, that they have taken human form. Somehow he must convince a disbelieving world that the nightmare has already begun.
Then, in a manner typical of Quinn Martin productions, Wesson would announce, ""The guest stars in tonight's story..."", and announce the name of each guest star (typically three or four) over a series of close-up clips of the guest stars.  Wesson would then announce ""Tonight's Episode"", and say the title of the episode about to be viewed, which would also appear on screen.
Also typical of Quinn Martin productions of the time, the show was divided into ""Acts"" labeled by the Roman numerals I-IV, preceded by a cold open.  A narration preceded Act I, and Act IV came before an Epilog with narration at the end.
Dominic Frontiere, who had provided scores for Twelve O'Clock High and The Outer Limits, provided scores for The Invaders as well.


== Episodes ==


=== Season 1 (1967) ===


=== Season 2 (1967–68) ===


== Home media ==
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released the entire series on DVD in Regions 1, 2 & PAL 4.
On June 5, 2018, CBS Home Entertainment released The Invaders: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.

Thinnes also provided audio commentary for the official The Invaders DVD releases. He has also filmed special video introductions for every 
episode, which are an optional ""Play"" feature on the episode menus. The ""in color"" bumper follows each of these introductions. Since the 1960s, recurring public interest in UFO lore may have helped to revive interest in the television series, and commentary on the DVD collections acknowledges that, in private life, Thinnes has kept up a strong interest in UFO-related information.
On May 5, 2019, ""classic-TV"" digital/basic-cable network MeTV began weekly airings of The Invaders as part of its ""Red-Eye Sci-Fi Saturday Night"" late Saturday evening/early Sunday morning programming lineup.


== Spin-offs and remakes ==


=== Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected (1977) ===
The pilot episode of the series, ""Beachhead"", was remade in 1977 for another Quinn Martin series, Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected (known in the United Kingdom as Twist in the Tale), where it was retitled ""The Nomads"".


=== The Invaders miniseries (1995) ===
In 1995, the premise was used as the basis for a four-hour television miniseries revival also called The Invaders on Fox. Scott Bakula starred as Nolan Wood, who discovers the alien conspiracy, and Roy Thinnes very briefly appeared as David Vincent, now an old man handing the burden over to Wood.  The miniseries has been released in some countries on home video, edited into a single movie. The first part aired on November 12, 1995; part 2 aired on November 14, 1995 (both in two-hour time slots).


== Reuse of footage ==
Several seconds of footage from the opening sequence of the flying saucer approaching Earth from space appears in the opening of the episode ""The Innocent Prey"" of the series The Fantastic Journey. It aired on June 6, 1977. In the plot of that final episode of the series, the saucer was a prisoner transport ship of the future operated by humans that malfunctioned and crashed on Earth at night in the heavy vegetation of a jungle. The full-scale saucer used in ground scenes, however, was physically different on the outside and inside from The Invaders one.


== The Invaders abroad ==
Both seasons of the series were broadcast in Romania around 1970.. Several episodes aired in Hungary in 1980, running from July 4 to September 5 under the title Támadás egy idegen bolygóról (""Attack from an Alien Planet""). Newspaper reviews tended to be critical of the show being ""more fiction than science"", but it was nevertheless well received by viewers, as attested by references to it in popular culture at the time.


== In other media ==


=== Books ===
Ten books based on the television series have been published.

Army of the Undead by Rafe Bernard (US, Pyramid Books, 1967) – the same story as Halo Highway
The Autumn Accelerator by Peter Leslie (UK, Corgi (a Transworld imprint), 1967)
Enemies from Beyond by Keith Laumer (US, Pyramid Books, 1967)
Halo Highway by Rafe Bernard (UK, Corgi, 1967) – the same story as Army of the Undead
The Invaders by Keith Laumer (US, Pyramid Books, 1967)
Meteor Men by Keith Laumer (writing as Anthony Le Baron) (UK, Corgi, 1967)
Dam of Death by Jack Pearl (US, Whitman (a Western Publishing imprint), 1967)
The Invaders: Alien Missile Threat by Paul S. Newman (US, a Big Little Book from Whitman, 1967)
Night of the Trilobites by Peter Leslie (UK, Corgi, 1969)
The Invaders by Jim Rosin (US, Autumn Road Company, 2010)


=== Comics ===
Gold Key Comics published four issues of an Invaders comic book based upon the series in 1967–1968, years before Marvel Comics published their own, unrelated Invaders superhero series.
Whitman Publishing published a Big Little Book of the show titled Alien Missile Threat in 1967 as part of its 2000 Series (#2012).


== Notes ==


=== Citations ===


=== Explanatory notes ===


== External links ==
The Invaders at IMDb
The Invaders at Classic TV History (behind-the-scene history, episodes full credits)
The Invaders informational episode Guide
The Invaders informational web site"
Price fixing,"Price fixing is an anticompetitive agreement between participants on the same side in a market to buy or sell a product, service, or commodity only at a fixed price, or maintain the market conditions such that the price is maintained at a given level by controlling supply and demand.
The intent of price fixing may be to push the price of a product as high as possible, generally leading to profits for all sellers but may also have the goal to fix, peg, discount, or stabilize prices. The defining characteristic of price fixing is any agreement regarding price, whether expressed or implied.
Price fixing requires a conspiracy between sellers or buyers. The purpose is to coordinate pricing for mutual benefit of the traders. For example, manufacturers and retailers may conspire to sell at a common ""retail"" price; set a common minimum sales price, where sellers agree not to discount the sales price below the agreed-to minimum price; buy the product from a supplier at a specified maximum price; adhere to a price book or list price; engage in cooperative price advertising; standardize financial credit terms offered to purchasers; use uniform trade-in allowances; limit discounts; discontinue a free service or fix the price of one component of an overall service; adhere uniformly to previously announced prices and terms of sale; establish uniform costs and markups; impose mandatory surcharges; purposefully reduce output or sales in order to charge higher prices; or purposefully share or pool markets, territories, or customers.
Price fixing is permitted in some markets but not others; where allowed, it is often known as resale price maintenance or retail price maintenance.
Not all similar prices or price changes at the same time are price fixing. These situations are often normal market phenomena. For example, the price of agricultural products such as wheat basically do not differ too much, because such agricultural products have no characteristics and are essentially the same, and their price will only change slightly at the same time. If a natural disaster occurs, the price of all affected wheat will rise at the same time. And the increase in consumer demand may also cause the prices of products with limited supply to rise at the same time.
In neo-classical economics, price fixing is inefficient. The anti-competitive agreement by producers to fix prices above the market price transfers some of the consumer surplus to those producers and also results in a deadweight loss.
International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of many countries. Examples of prosecuted international cartels are those that controlled the prices and output of lysine, citric acid, graphite electrodes, and bulk vitamins.


== Legal status ==


=== United States ===
In the United States, price fixing can be prosecuted as a criminal federal offense under Section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act.
Criminal prosecutions must be handled by the U.S. Department of Justice, but the Federal Trade Commission also has jurisdiction for civil antitrust violations. Many state attorneys general also bring antitrust cases and have antitrust offices, such as Virginia, New York, and California. Further, where price fixing is used as an artifice to defraud a U.S. government agency into paying more than market value, the U.S. attorney may proceed under the False Claims Act.
Private individuals or organizations may file lawsuits for triple damages for antitrust violations and, depending on the law, recover attorneys fees and costs expended on prosecution of a case. If the case at hand also violates the False Claims Act of 1863, in addition to the Sherman Act, private individuals may also bring a civil action in the name of the United States under the Qui Tam provision of The False Claims Act.
Under American law, exchanging prices among competitors can also violate the antitrust laws. That includes exchanging prices with the intent to fix prices or the exchange affecting the prices individual competitors set. Proof that competitors have shared prices can be used as part of the evidence of an illegal price fixing agreement. Experts generally advise that competitors avoid even the appearance of agreeing on price.
Since 1997, US courts have divided price fixing into two categories: vertical and horizontal maximum price fixing. Vertical price fixing includes a manufacturer's attempt to control the price of its product at retail. In State Oil Co. v. Khan, the U.S. Supreme Court held that vertical price fixing is no longer considered a per se violation of the Sherman Act, but horizontal price fixing is still considered a breach of the Sherman Act. Also in 2008, the defendants of United States v LG Display Co., United States v. Chunghwa Picture Tubes, and United States v. Sharp Corporation, heard in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, agreed to pay a total sum of $585 million to settle their prosecutions for conspiring to fix prices of liquid crystal display panels. That was the second largest amount awarded under the Sherman Act in history.


=== Canada ===
In Canada, it is an indictable criminal offence under Section 45 of the Competition Act. Bid rigging is considered a form of price fixing and is illegal in Canada (s.47 Competition Act).


=== Australia ===
Price fixing is illegal in Australia under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010, with considerably similar prohibitions to the US and Canadian prohibitions. The Act is administered and enforced by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission. Section 48 of the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) explicitly states, ""A corporation shall not engage in the practise of resale price maintenance."" A broader understanding of the statutory provision is in Section 96(3)of the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth), which broadly defines what can be resale price maintenance.


=== New Zealand ===
New Zealand law prohibits price fixing, among most other anti-competitive behaviours under the Commerce Act 1986. The act covers practices similar to that of US and Canadian law, and it is enforced by the Commerce Commission.


=== European Union ===
Under the EU commission's leniency programme, whistleblowing firms that co-operate with the antitrust authority see their prospective penalties either wiped out or reduced.


=== United Kingdom ===
British competition law prohibits almost any attempt to fix prices.
The Net Book Agreement was a public agreement between UK booksellers from 1900 to 1991 to sell new books only at the recommended retail price to protect the revenues of smaller bookshops. The agreement collapsed in 1991, when the large book chain Dillons began discounting books, followed by rival Waterstones.
However, price-fixing is still legal in the magazine and newspaper distribution industry, and sometimes in the motion picture industry. Retailers who sell at below cover price are subject to withdrawal of supply. The Office of Fair Trading has given its approval to the status quo.


== Exemptions ==
When the agreement to control price is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or is entered by sovereign nations as opposed to individual firms, the cartel may be protected from lawsuits and criminal antitrust prosecution. That is why OPEC, the global petroleum cartel, has not been prosecuted or successfully sued under US antitrust law.
International airline tickets have their prices fixed by agreement with the IATA, a practice for which there is a specific exemption in antitrust law.


== Examples ==


=== Compact discs ===

Between 1995 and 2000, music companies were found to have used illegal marketing agreements such as minimum advertised pricing to artificially inflate prices of compact discs in order to end price wars by discounters such as Best Buy and Target in the early 1990s. It is estimated customers were overcharged by nearly $500 million and up to $5 per album. A settlement in 2002 included the music publishers and distributors; Sony Music, Warner Music, Bertelsmann Music Group, EMI Music, Universal Music as well as retailers Musicland, Trans World Entertainment and Tower Records. In restitution for price fixing they agreed to pay a $67.4 million fine distribute $75.7 million in CDs to public and non-profit groups.


=== Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) ===

In October 2005, the Korean company Samsung pleaded guilty to conspiring with other companies, including Infineon and Hynix Semiconductor, to fix the price of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) chips. Samsung was the third company to be charged in connection with the international cartel and was fined $300 million, the second largest antitrust penalty in US history.
In October 2004, four executives from Infineon, a German chip maker, received reduced sentences of 4 to 6 months in federal prison and $250,000 in fines after agreeing to aid the U.S. Department of Justice with their ongoing investigation of the conspiracy.


=== Capacitors ===
In March 2018, the European Commission fined eight firms, mostly Japanese companies, €254 million for operating an illegal price cartel for capacitors. The two largest players were Nippon Chemi-Con which was fined €98 million and Hitachi Chemical which was fined €18 million.


=== Perfume ===
In 2006, the government of France fined 13 perfume brands and three vendors for price collusion between 1997 and 2000. The brands include L'Oréal (€4.1 million), Chanel (€3.0 million), LVMH's Sephora (€9.4 million), and Hutchison Whampoa's Marionnaud (€12.8 million).


=== Liquid crystal displays ===
In 2008 in the US, LG Display Co., Chunghwa Picture Tubes and Sharp Corp., agreed to plead guilty and pay $585 million in criminal fines for conspiring to fix prices of liquid crystal display panels.
South Korea–based LG Display would pay $400 million, the second-highest criminal fine that the US Justice Department antitrust division has ever imposed. Chunghwa would pay $65 million for conspiring with LG Display and other unnamed companies and Sharp would pay $120 million, according to the department.
In 2010, the EU fined LG Display €215 million for its part in the LCD price fixing scheme. Other companies were fined for a combined total of €648.9 million, including Chimei Innolux, AU Optronics, Chunghwa Picture Tubes Ltd., and HannStar Display Corp. LG Display said it is considering appealing the fine.


=== Air cargo market ===
In late 2005/early 2006, Lufthansa and Virgin Atlantic came forward about their involvement in large price-fixing schemes for cargo and passenger surcharges in which 21 airlines were involved since 2000 (amongst which were British Airways, Korean Air, and Air France-KLM). U.S. Department of Justice fined the airlines a total of $1.7 billion, charged 19 executives with wrongdoing and four received prison terms.
In December 2008, the New Zealand Commerce Commission filed legal proceedings against 13 airlines in the New Zealand High Court. According to the Commission, the carriers ""colluded to raise the price of [freight] by imposing fuel charges for more than seven years"". In 2013 Air New Zealand was the final airline of the 13 to settle.
The Commission noted that it might involve up to 60 airlines. In 2009 the Commission said overseas competition authorities were also investigating the air cargo market, including the US and Australia where fines had been imposed.


=== Tuna ===
An attempt to fix the price of tuna resulted in a $25 million fine for Bumble Bee Foods in 2017 and a $100 million fine for StarKist in 2020. Christopher Lischewski, the former CEO of Bumble Bee, was sentenced to 40 months in jail and fined $100,000 for his 2010–2013 involvement.


=== Coronavirus vaccine ===
During the COVID-19 pandemic, companies such as Pfizer and Moderna announced rates for their coronavirus vaccines that would differ based on deals established with various governments. Executive orders were enacted in the United States to lower prescription drug costs which was claimed by Pfizer's CEO to cause ""enormous destruction"" to the pharmaceutical industry.


=== 1990s airlines ===
Airlines in the 1990's were blocked by the US Department of Justice from continuing to use software to share data on routes and prices before they became public.


=== Rent algorithm ===
ProPublica in 2022 investigated the use of algorithms created by RealPage by rental companies across the United States to set rents, which critics worry has helped to raise rents by limiting competition. The US DOJ escalated its investigation into price-fixing in March of 2024, and filed an anti-trust lawsuit in August of 2024.


== Signs of possible price fixing during bidding ==
It is more common to have price fixing trends during the bidding process, such as:

If the bid or quoted price is much higher than expected, the reason may be collusive to set the price or just overpriced, but it is legal in itself.
If all suppliers choose to increase prices at the same time, it is beyond the scope of input cost changes.
If the price of a new supplier is lower than the usual corporate bidding price, the reason may be that there is a collusion of bidding among existing companies.
If the price of a new supplier drops significantly after bidding, the reason may be that some suppliers have been colluding and the new supplier has forced them to compete.


== Impact of price fixing ==
When prices are determined between various companies, it may affect consumers' choices to a certain extent, and affect small businesses that rely on these suppliers.
Taking freight as an example, many products are now transported by freight through various channels. If the freight price is artificially increased, it will have an impact on the entire supply chain. For example, it will cause the price of goods and services to increase, and it will also affect consumers' choices.


== Criticism on legislation ==
Economic liberals believe that price fixing is a voluntary and consensual activity between parties that should be free from government compulsion and government interference. At times price fixing ensures a stable market for both consumers and producers. Any short-term benefit of increased price competition will force some producers out of the market and cause product shortages and prices for consumers to rise. In the end price-fixing legislation forces producers out of a market because it can not compete with the biggest discounter and the market winds up a monopoly anyway.


== See also ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Sticker Shock, Guilty Pleas Show High Cost of Price-Fixing in Auto Industry, FBI
Avoid and report anti-competitive activity
US Department of Justice Antitrust Resource Manual
Identifying Horizontal Price Fixing in the Electronic Marketplace
SONY Accused of Price Fixing in the UK - November 15, 2005
Antitrust Enforcement
Be Careful About Antitrust Law!
US Department of Justice Website, Samsung Pleads Guilty to Price Fixing - October 5, 2005
US Department of Justice Website, Infineon Pleads Guilty to Price Fixing - October 2004
Antitrust settlement in Nevada price-fixing case
In Defense of Price Fixing by Sean Gabb
""LVMH, L'Oreal, PPR fined for perfume price collusion; LVMH plans appeal"" Forbes
Concepto de Fixing en Español"
2006 Riga NATO summit,"The 2006 Riga summit or the 20th NATO Summit was a NATO summit held in the Olympic Sports Centre, Riga, Latvia from 28 to 29 November 2006. The most important topics discussed were the War in Afghanistan and the future role and borders of the alliance. Further, the summit focused on the alliance's continued transformation, taking stock of what has been accomplished since the 2002 Prague Summit. NATO also committed itself to extending further membership invitations in the upcoming 2008 Bucharest Summit. This summit was the first NATO summit held on the territory of the Baltic states.


== Security measures ==

The summit was held in the Olympic Sports Centre, Riga. Roads in the center of Riga were closed down and parking was not allowed at the airport or at several roads, out of fear of car bombs. About 9000 Latvian police officers and soldiers took care of the Summit's security, while more than 450 other airmen from seven European NATO countries were called upon to ensure a no-fly zone above the summit in an operation called Operation Peaceful Summit. This enhanced ongoing Baltic Air Policing activities with additional aircraft, communications and maintenance support.


== Summit ==
All agreements were not actually made in the North Atlantic Council meeting, but in fact, it was made in the Istanbul Summit, 2003, except for the signing of the missile defense contract which happened on 28 November. The Council meeting was held on 29 November.


=== Main topics ===
While the tensions between NATO members from the build-up to the invasion of Iraq had dissipated, the NATO summit, and the months preceding the summit, were marked by divisions between the United States and the United Kingdom on the one side and France, Germany, Italy and Spain on the other. Two rifts existed, one about the military contributions to the war in Afghanistan, and the other concerning whether or not NATO should assume a more global role.


==== War in Afghanistan ====

Before and during the summit US president George W. Bush, British prime minister Tony Blair, Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper and Dutch Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende made a plea to European NATO members to make more troops available for deployment in Afghanistan, remove the national caveats (i.e. national restrictions on how, when and where forces can be used) and start sending its troops into the conflict-ridden south of the country. According to Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) General James L. Jones it was not the lack of combat troops and the caveats were the problem, but the lack of adequate helicopters and military intelligence to support airlift and on-the-ground operations.
While the NATO countries in question refused to participate in the fighting in the south, they agreed to remove some of these national caveats, and in an emergency situation, all national caveats should cease to exist, meaning that every ally should come to the aid of the forces that require assistance. A number of NATO member states also pledged to provide additional assets, including fighters, helicopters, infantry companies as well as training teams that will mentor the Afghan National Army. NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that the removal of some of the caveats meant that some 20,000 of the 32,000 NATO troops in ISAF are made ""more usable"" for combat duties and that 90% of the formal mission requirements were now filled. Military sources, however, told reporters at the summit that these caveats never existed in emergency situations, adding that it would be a strange alliance where one country's soldiers refused to support their allies in an emergency. NATO leaders also backed a French proposal to set up a ""contact group"" to coordinate action concerning Afghanistan, but the United States had reservations about France's proposal to include Iran, which has considerable influence over the west of Afghanistan, in the proposed contact group due to the dispute over Iran's nuclear programme. The group was modelled on the one set up for the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s.
Political scientist Joseph Nye commented that ""while the Riga summit relaxed some of these caveats to allow assistance to allies in dire circumstances, Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, and the US are doing most of the fighting in southern Afghanistan, while French, German, and Italian troops are deployed in the quieter north. It is difficult to see how NATO can succeed in stabilizing Afghanistan unless it is willing to commit more troops and give commanders more flexibility."" The controversy surrounding the differences in contributions to Afghanistan indeed remained after the summit. For instance, in March 2007, British commanders accused the NATO members that refused to fight in the conflict-ridden south (in non-emergency situations) of causing ""huge resentment"" and a sense of betrayal and undermined the credibility of the alliance. They added that despite the earlier pleas for reinforcements or to have ""operational caveats"" removed, some countries, notably France and Germany, were still not heeding their requests.
Besides the above discussion about contributions and caveats, the summit was noticed to paint an optimistic picture of the war in Afghanistan and Afghanistan's future. For instance, NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that ""real progress"" had been made in Afghanistan and that this was the main highlight of the summit. He strongly disagreed with visions of ""doom and gloom,"" and added that five years after the defeat of the Taliban regime, Afghanistan had become a democratic society that is ""no longer a threat to the world."" He also believed that the defeat of the insurgency was only a matter of time, stating that the war in Afghanistan ""is winnable, it is being won, but it is not yet won because, of course, we have many challenges in Afghanistan."" In his opinion, these challenges included besides military engagement mainly reconstruction and development work.


==== Role of NATO ====

The second, more fundamental rift, concerned a discussion about whether NATO should form close relationships with countries far beyond NATO's borders, in particular Australia, Japan and South Korea. The United States and some other NATO members pressed for a closer relationship with these countries. R. Nicholas Burns, Under Secretary for Political Affairs explained the US proposal: ""We seek a partnership with them so that we can train more intensively (...) and grow closer to them because we are deployed with them. Australia, South Korea and Japan are in Afghanistan. They have all been in Iraq (...) [and] in the Balkans."" It was however not clear how far this plan would have gone in practice, but the US insisted they were not seeking to turn NATO into a global alliance: membership would not be offered to the prospective new partners. The idea of a ""global"" NATO however was strongly opposed by France, which considers NATO a regional defense alliance that should not spread its wings too far over the globe. The French Defence Minister Michele Alliot-Marie summarized the position of France as follows: ""The development of a global partnership could... dilute the natural solidarity between Europeans and North Americans in a fuzzy entity [and it would] send a bad political message, that of a campaign launched by the West against those who don't share their ideas. What a pretext we would offer to those who promote the idea of a clash of civilisations."" The summit did not reach a satisfying consensus on the future role of NATO and it was considered an exercise in ""papering over cracks"", much more than it was ever a serious effort to decide on the future borders and core purposes. As a consequence, the debate continued after the summit.


=== Other topics ===


==== Kosovo ====
At the Riga summit, NATO members confirmed the role of NATO-led KFOR in ensuring a stable security environment there. This is perceived to be a reference to the possible United Nations decision in favour of independence.  Because Serbia strongly opposes the break-away of Kosovo, the resulting tensions between Serbia and Kosovo could create instability in the region.


==== Enhanced cooperation with non-members ====
Enhanced cooperation with non-member states closer at home was less controversial and two offers were made: an extension of Partnership for Peace membership, and a training initiative.

Partnership for Peace (PfP) membership was offered to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia. NATO hoped that this would bring these countries more into the Euro-Atlantic community as the PfP is a programme of practical bilateral cooperation between individual Partner countries and NATO, thereby allowing Partner countries to choose their own priorities for cooperation. It is expected that PfP membership is for these three countries the first step towards NATO membership. As a result, the PfP offer sparked the anger of the UN tribunal trying suspected war criminals from the Balkans.
NATO launched a Training Cooperation Initiative offering to share NATO training expertise with its Mediterranean Dialogue (MD) countries (Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Israel and Jordan) and Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI) countries. The initial phase included expanding those countries' participation in relevant existing NATO training and education programmes, and the establishment of a Middle East faculty at the NATO Defense College in Rome. As a second phase, NATO would consider supporting the establishment of a Security Cooperation Centre in the region, to be owned by the MD and ICI countries, with regional funding and NATO assistance. Senior NATO staff have tended to highlight this project as evidence of NATO's forward-thinking and its desire to avoid becoming a party to a ""clash of civilizations"".


==== Comprehensive Political Guidance ====
Comprehensive Political Guidance (CPG), a policy document that had been agreed upon by Defence Ministers in June 2006 and an addition to the 1999 Strategic Concept document, was formally endorsed during the summit. The CPG intends to provide a framework and political direction for NATO's continuing transformation in the coming 10 to 15 years. More specifically, the document expresses the belief that the principal threats to the Alliance in the coming decades are terrorism, proliferation, failing states, regional crises, misuse of new technologies, and disruption of the flow of vital resources. According to this document, the Alliance should adapt to these new threats and set out the Alliance vis-a-vis capability issues, planning disciplines and intelligence for the next 10 to 15 years, including among others the need for joint expeditionary forces and the capability to deploy and sustain them over long periods of time. The document further underlined that NATO's forces should be able to conduct a variety of missions, from high to low intensity, and emphasized the likelihood that NATO will need to carry out a greater number and range of smaller operations. The CPG also confirmed the principle that 40% of the member states' military forces must be re-deployable, and 8% must constantly be on operations abroad. This principle makes it, among other things, possible to effectively compare the contributions made by various states, irrespective of the size of their populations.
The CPG policy document is regarded as self-contradictory for at least two reasons. Firstly, it identified the two greatest threats to NATO as terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), whilst simultaneously reaffirming the 1999 Strategic Concept as ""remaining valid"" despite the fact that it barely mentioned these threats. Secondly, the document states that collective defence remains the core purpose of NATO, but at the same time emphasizes potential NATO contributions to conflict prevention and crisis management, and the potential planning and management of missions like that in Afghanistan. The Riga Declaration even described the capability for such missions as NATO's ""top priority"". Additionally, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer wanted and expected a new Strategic Concept to be debated and agreed upon by 2008, reinforcing already existing views that the CPG will most likely last much less than the 10 to 15 years as the guiding policy document.


==== Energy security ====

The Riga summit was the first NATO summit that underscored the need for energy security, following the Russia-Ukraine gas dispute. The ""Riga Summit Declaration"" (par. 45) stated that ""Alliance security interests can also be affected by the disruption of the flow of vital resources"" and that it supported ""a coordinated, international effort to assess risks to energy infrastructures and to promote energy infrastructure security."" It further states that NATO leaders ""direct the Council in Permanent Session to consult on the most immediate risks in the field of energy security, to define those areas where NATO may add value to safeguard the security interests of the Allies and, upon request, assist national and international efforts."" Radio Free Europe reports that an unnamed diplomatic source told that several NATO leaders, including Latvian president Vaira Vike-Freiberga, had tried to make arrangements for bilateral talks concerning this topic with Russian president Vladimir Putin during the summit, but Putin instead attended the CIS energy summit in Minsk, Belarus on 28 November 2006. In contrast, The Independent reported that the summit was marred by a diplomat fracas over an invitation to President Vladimir Putin and that he was eventually not invited, and that Putin as a result threatened that he would visit Latvia for the first time since independence during the summit to upstage the summit. It was even proposed that Putin could honour French president Jacques Chirac, who was at the summit and whose 74th birthday coincided with the summit, by visiting Latvia. He later made clear that this would not go ahead.


==== 2008 membership invitations ====
The NATO Heads of State and Government congratulated the efforts of the three Balkan states currently in NATO's Membership Action Plan: Albania, Croatia and Macedonia, and declared that the Alliance intends to extend further invitations to these countries during the 2008 Bucharest Summit, on condition that these countries meet NATO standards. The Alliance also affirmed that NATO remained open to new European members under Article X of the North Atlantic Treaty, but remained largely silent on the prospects of Georgia and Ukraine, two countries that had declared membership as a goal, as the summit limited itself to noting the efforts of both countries to conduct an ""intensified dialogue"" with NATO. Nevertheless, Estonian Prime Minister Andrus Ansip said after the summit that he had discussed Georgia's membership with US president Bush on 28 November. He further added that in his view Georgia had ""very good chances"" to join NATO if the planned reforms would continue and that a Membership Action Plan, the next necessary step on Georgia's way towards membership, was only ""a small step away"". Preceding the summit, it was expected that Ukraine was on a fast track to membership: it was believed that Ukraine would have received an invitation to a Membership Action Plan during the summit, followed by an invitation to join in 2008 and membership in 2010. According to political scientist Taras Kuzio the summit showed that Georgia rapidly moved ahead of Ukraine in its drive to join NATO, even though it joined the Intensified Dialogue program a year later than Ukraine, because president of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko failed to support a pro-Western Orange revolution coalition following the Ukraine's parliamentary elections of March 2006. In other words, Ukraine showed more ambivalence in its desire to join NATO, whereas in Georgia the pro-Western Rose Revolution coalition remained united.


==== NATO Response Force ====
NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer announced that the NATO Response Force was finally fully operational since all capabilities necessary were in place. The force is believed to be capable of performing missions worldwide across the whole spectrum of operations (such as evacuations, disaster management, counterterrorism, and acting as ""an initial entry force"") and can number up to 25,000 troops and should be able to start to deploy after five days' notice and sustain itself for operations lasting 30 days or longer if resupplied. The heads of state and government also agreed to share the costs of airlift for the short notice deployments of the Response Force.


==== 2010 Theatre Missile Defence ====
In September 2006, NATO selected an international consortium led by Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) to build an Integration Test Bed for the Alliance's future Active Layered Theatre Missile Defence (ALTBMD) capability. After two months of negotiations, ALTBMD Programme Manager, General (Ret) Billard, and SAIC contracting Officer, Mr. Robert Larrick, signed the contract on the first day of NATO's Riga Summit. This decision was based on an unpublished report agreed upon earlier by NATO ministers following a study into the feasibility of theatre missile defences.
This programme is one of three programmes that NATO is pursuing in the area of missile defence. The contract puts the Alliance on track for having, by 2010, a system to protect troops on missions against ballistic missiles. The contract is worth approximately 75 million EUR for work that would be conducted over a period of six years. The theatre missile defence would be a multi-layered system of systems, comprising early warning system sensors, radar and various interceptors. While NATO member countries would provide the sensors and weapon systems, NATO itself would develop a commonly funded NATO architecture to integrate all of these elements. The development of the ALTBMD system was agreed by NATO members in large part because it is limited. NATO members are deeply divided about the multi-tiered BMD architecture promoted by the US Missile Defense Agency (MDA).


== Views on the summit ==
For the three formerly post-Soviet states of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania such a high-level event was held for the first time in the region. As a consequence, it held symbolic meaning. It is perceived to have increased the visibility of these three Baltic states as NATO members.


== References ==


== External links ==
Riga Summit, Official Web Site, [10]
NATO, NATO Riga Summit, http://www.nato.int/docu/comm/2006/0611-riga/index.htm
US Department of State, The NATO Riga Summit, https://web.archive.org/web/20071212224704/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/scp/2006/76799.htm
M. Bucher, ""NATO, Riga and Beyond"" in Disarmament policy, (2007), 84, http://www.acronym.org.uk/dd/dd84/84nato.htm Archived 2 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine"
Oswald Watt,"Walter Oswald Watt,  (11 February 1878 – 21 May 1921) was an Australian aviator and businessman. He served as a pilot during World War I with, firstly, the French Foreign Legion and, secondly, the Australian Flying Corps (AFC).
The son of a Scottish-Australian merchant and politician, Watt was born in England and moved to Sydney when he was one year old, returning to Britain at the age of eleven for education at Bristol and Cambridge. In 1900 he returned to Australia, and enlisted in the Militia, before acquiring cattle stations in New South Wales and Queensland. He was also a partner in the family shipping firm.
The first Australian to qualify for a Royal Aero Club flying certificate, in 1911, Watt joined the Aviation Militaire of the French Foreign Legion as a pilot on the outbreak of World War I.  He transferred to the Australian Flying Corps in 1916, quickly progressing from flight commander with No. 1 Squadron in Egypt to commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron on the Western Front. By February 1918, he had been promoted to lieutenant colonel and taken command of the AFC's 1st Training Wing in England.
A recipient of France's Legion of Honour and Croix de Guerre, and twice mentioned in despatches during the war, Watt was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1919. He left the military to pursue business interests in Australia, and was lauded for his generosity to other returned airmen. In 1921, at the age of 43, he died by accidental drowning at Bilgola Beach, New South Wales. He is commemorated by the Oswald Watt Gold Medal for outstanding achievement in Australian aviation, and the Oswald Watt Fund at the University of Sydney.


== Early career ==
Born on 11 February 1878 in Bournemouth, England, Oswald Watt was the youngest son of John Brown Watt, a Scot who had migrated to New South Wales in 1842 and became a successful merchant and politician, frequently representing his state on overseas missions. Oswald's Australian-born mother, Mary Jane, died when he was one and shortly afterwards the family relocated to Sydney. Oswald was sent back to England at the age of eleven to complete his schooling at Clifton College, Bristol, before going on to study at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1899.  Returning to Sydney in 1900, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the New South Wales Scottish Rifles, a Militia unit, and in 1902 was appointed an aide-de-camp to the Governor of New South Wales.  On 27 September that year, he married Muriel Williams at St. John's Anglican Church in Toorak, Victoria; the couple had one son.

Watt's family was wealthy, and he was able to establish himself as a grazier by purchasing several cattle stations in New South Wales and Queensland. Travelling abroad again, he obtained his Master of Arts degree from Cambridge in 1904.  In October the following year he was promoted to captain in the Scottish Rifles. On a subsequent trip to England he took flying lessons at the Bristol aviation school on Salisbury Plain, where his fellow students included Eric Harrison. Watt attained his Royal Aero Club certificate, no. 112, on 1 August 1911, becoming the first Australian citizen so qualified. Upon his return to Australia later that year, he publicly declared that the time was ""rapidly approaching when an aero corps [would] have to be inaugurated"" as part of the country's ""military defence scheme"".
In March 1912, Watt recommended a location in Canberra near the Royal Military College, Duntroon, as a base for the Army's proposed Central Flying School. Owing to its altitude and nearby mountainous terrain, the site was rejected by the school's nominated commanding officer, Lieutenant Henry Petre. Petre eventually chose 297 hectares at Point Cook, Victoria, an area suitable for seaplanes as well as land-based aircraft, to become the ""birthplace of Australian military aviation"". Watt also advocated manufacturing foreign-designed aircraft under licence in Australia, but this would not be pursued until after World War I. In 1913 he was divorced on the grounds of ""misconduct"" with actress Ivy Schilling, and lost custody of his son in the judgment. He then went to Egypt, where he purchased and practised flying a Blériot XI monoplane; while there he met leading French aviators Louis Blériot and Roland Garros.


== World War I ==

In May 1914, the francophile Watt left Egypt with his aeroplane and took up employment at the Blériot factory and airfield in Buc, outside Paris. Fired by the widely held conviction that Britain would stay out of a European conflict, Watt offered his services and his plane to the French government on 2 August, the day France declared war on Germany. This gesture was welcomed and he joined the Aviation Militaire section of the Foreign Legion as a pilot. Though he was ranked an ordinary soldier, his colleagues in Bleriot Squadron No. 30 referred to him as ""Capitaine"" in deference to his previous status in the Australian Militia. Posted to Maurice Farman Squadron No. 44 in April 1915, he earned the Legion of Honour badge after he and his observer crash-landed in no man's land and succeeded in making their way back to French lines with valuable intelligence under intense fire from German positions. Soon afterwards, Watt was awarded the Croix de Guerre—with palm leaves personally presented by General Joffre—and promoted to the provisional rank of captain. He was not eligible to command a French unit because he was a foreigner. Watt always proclaimed his antipodean connection while serving France, painting a kangaroo on the nose of his plane, which he named Advance Australia. Considered a no-nonsense type, he once introduced himself to a British pilot with the words ""I am an Australian and I haven't got any manners"".

The French recognised that Watt's talents were not being fully utilised due to his ineligibility to lead a squadron, and recommended that he transfer to the Australian Flying Corps. Watt did so on 1 March 1916, with the rank of captain. Posted to Egypt in May, he was made commander of B Flight, No. 1 Squadron, and took charge of the unit's first contingent of Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s the following month. No. 1 Squadron was engaged mainly in aerial reconnaissance and army co-operation duties, but the two-seat B.E.2 proved inferior to German Fokkers and Rumplers in speed, time-to-climb, and manoeuvrability.  In September 1916, Watt was promoted to major and given command of No. 2 Squadron, which was formed in Kantara. He was mentioned in despatches by General Archibald Murray, Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, on 13 October; the commendation was promulgated in the London Gazette on 1 December. No. 2 Squadron's personnel was composed largely of former Lighthorsemen, as well as thirteen mechanics from the Australian Flying Corps' first combat formation, the Mesopotamian Half Flight, led by Flight Sergeant George Mackinolty. Watt personally trained the force in England commencing in January 1917, before deploying it to the Western Front that September.  He was ""a born leader of men"", according to one officer; another recalled that ""In the things that mattered, his men knew he stood for absolute obedience. They also knew that when discipline could be safely relaxed he would be quick to grant them some relief from the strain.""

In the vicinity of Saint-Quentin on 2 October, No. 2 Squadron became the first AFC unit in Europe to see aerial combat when one of its patrols engaged some German two-seaters, which managed to escape. Because the Airco DH.5s in the squadron were handicapped as fighters by engine problems and low speed, the squadron was employed mainly in ground support duties. During the Battle of Cambrai that commenced on 20 November 1917, Watt led his pilots on daring low-level bombing and strafing attacks against enemy fortifications and lines of communication. Their loss rate reached 30%, but morale remained high. After visiting the squadron, the Royal Flying Corps' Major General Hugh Trenchard described its airmen as ""really magnificent"" and Charles Bean, war correspondent and future editor of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, commented on their ""remarkably high level of conduct and general tone"". Six of Watt's officers were awarded the Military Cross for gallantry during the battle, prompting General Sir William Birdwood to send him a personal message of congratulation on 16 December, declaring: ""... This is indeed a magnificent record for your squadron, and one of which I am sure everyone of you must rightly be extremely proud; I doubt if it has been beaten anywhere ...""  By this time, No. 2 Squadron had begun converting to Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s, though it could achieve little in the winter months due to inclement weather. Watt himself, now almost forty, was beginning to show the strain of frontline command. Bean found him looking ""very worn"" and noticed him shivering even while seated in front of the mess hall fire.
In February 1918, Watt was promoted to lieutenant colonel and given command of the AFC's 1st Training Wing (Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8 Squadrons) headquartered at Tetbury in Gloucestershire, England; the wing's role was to train replacement pilots for the four operational AFC squadrons in Palestine and France. Watt proposed moving the wing to France, but it remained in England. He was mentioned in despatches by Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig on 7 April, and the commendation was gazetted on 28 May. Shortly after the end of hostilities in November 1918, novelist William John Locke visited 1st Training Wing and found that ""there was not one [of Watt's men] who ... did not confide to me his pride in serving under a leader so distinguished"". A pilot later opined that as well as having ""courage, determination, and an immense capacity for work"", Watt possessed ""the greatest factor in leadership, a genius for endearing himself (without conscious effort) to all who served under him"".


== Post-war career and legacy ==

Watt was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1919, in recognition of his war service. He returned to Australia on 6 May with the rest of 1st Training Wing's personnel, aboard the troopship Kaisar-i-Hind, on which he was the ranking officer. Leaving the AFC soon afterwards, he was elected president of the New South Wales section of the Australian Aero Club. He also served as senior delegate on a committee of veteran military pilots examining applications for appointment to a proposed independent Australian air service. Watt was esteemed as a man who did not forget old comrades, providing former AFC members with financial aid and helping them re-establish themselves in civilian life. He maintained an interest in commercial flying but refused an offer to take up the position of controller of civil aviation in 1920 owing to his business interests, which included partnership in the family shipping firm of Gilchrist, Watt & Sanderson Ltd, and directorships of mining, rubber, and art corporations. He also turned down invitations to stand for parliament, and to join the fledgling Royal Australian Air Force.
Oswald Watt drowned at Bilgola Beach, near Newport, New South Wales, on 21 May 1921. Cuts and bruising on his body indicated that he had slipped on rocks, struck his head, and rolled unconscious into relatively shallow water. Survived by his 15-year-old son, he was accorded a military funeral two days later at St Jude's Church, Randwick. Members of the AFC, Royal Air Force, and Australian Aero Club formed a guard of honour at the service, one of the largest in the suburb's history, which also included representatives of the Royal Australian Navy and Australian Army. Among the tributes was a floral wreath from an anonymous group of French admirers, and another that was dropped by parachute from a low-flying plane. On 31 May, Watt's body was cremated and his ashes interred in the family vault at St Jude's.
In his will, Watt left two bequests to the Australian Aero Club, one of which was used to establish the Oswald Watt Gold Medal for outstanding achievement in Australian aviation. Winners of the award have included Charles Kingsford Smith, Bert Hinkler, Henry Millicer, Ivor McIntyre, Jon Johanson and Andy Thomas. He also bequeathed a sum to the Royal Military College, Duntroon, to award annually a set of binoculars for the best cadet essay on military aviation or aeronautics. The award was founded as the Oswald Watt Prize later in 1921. Most of the residue of Watt's estate went to the University of Sydney. Considered one of the university's great benefactors, he was commemorated by the Oswald Watt Fund. In May 1923, the Oswald Watt Wing of the Havilah Home for Orphans, Wahroonga, was opened by the Governor-General of Australia. Watt was acknowledged as both a source and a reviewer by F.M. Cutlack in the latter's volume on the Australian Flying Corps that was first published in 1923 as part of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. During World War I, Oswald Watt had been the only AFC officer to command a wing apart from Lieutenant Colonel Richard Williams, who was later to become known as the ""Father of the RAAF"". In 2001, military historian Alan Stephens noted that ""had fate drawn him to a post-war career in the Air Force instead of to business and an untimely death, 'Toby' Watt might have challenged Richard Williams as the RAAF's dominant figure in its formative years"".


== Notes ==


== References ==
Air Power Development Centre (October 2011). ""Oswald Watt: The leader the RAAF never had"". Pathfinder (166).
Coulthard-Clark, Chris (1991). The Third Brother: The Royal Australian Air Force 1921–39. North Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-442307-2.
Cutlack, F.M. (1941) [1923]. The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 (11th edition): Volume VIII – The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, 1914–1918. Sydney: Angus & Robertson. OCLC 220900299.
Garrisson, A.D. (1999). Australian Fighter Aces 1914–1953. Fairbairn, Australian Capital Territory: Air Power Studies Centre. ISBN 978-0-642-26540-1.
Molkentin, Michael (2010). Fire in the Sky: The Australian Flying Corps in the First World War. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-072-9.
Odgers, George (1996) [1984]. Air Force Australia. Frenchs Forest, New South Wales: National. ISBN 978-1-86436-081-3.
Stephens, Alan (2006) [2001]. The Royal Australian Air Force: A History. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-555541-7.
Stephens, Alan; Isaacs, Jeff (1996). High Fliers: Leaders of the Royal Australian Air Force. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. ISBN 978-0-644-45682-1.
Sutherland, Barry, ed. (2000). Command and Leadership in War and Peace 1914–1975: The Proceedings of the 1999 RAAF History Conference. Canberra: Air Power Studies Centre. ISBN 978-0-642-26537-1.
Wilson, David (2005). The Brotherhood of Airmen. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-333-1.


== Further reading ==
Clark, Chris (2016). The High Life of Oswald Watt: Australia's First Military Pilot. Warriewood, New South Wales: Big Sky Publishing. ISBN 9781925275797."
Underwater diving in Guam,"Underwater diving encompasses a variety of economically and culturally significant forms of diving on the U.S. island territory of Guam. Scuba diving tourism is a significant component of the island's tourist activity, in particular for visitors from Japan and South Korea. Recreational diving by Guam residents has a lesser but still substantial economic impact. Marine biologists have raised concerns about the effect of diving upon the health of some of Guam's reefs. Recreational dive sites on Guam include submerged shipwrecks, such as the double wrecks of SMS Cormoran and Tokai Maru, and natural features, such as Blue Hole.
Freedive spearfishing is a culturally and economically important activity for Guam residents, with a history extending to the pre-Spanish CHamoru people. Guam is well represented in local and regional spearfishing competitions. Scuba spearfishing was banned by law in March 2020, after over ten years of resistance from local fishing groups.


== Recreational diving ==

Scuba diving tourism is a subset of tourism that is dependent on a healthy marine ecosystem. In 2006, the Guam Economic Development Authority (GEDA) estimated that 30% of the island's economy was tourism, while 65% comprised the economic impact of the U.S. military. In 2001, a study by the Guam Visitors Bureau identified 13 dive companies operating on Guam, which employed 13 dive boats and 99 certified instructors. Authorities also believe there to be a large number of ""fly-by-nighters"" who operate out of vans and can handle small groups of tourists. According to the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), the largest diver certification agency, there were just over 10,000 PADI certifications issued on Guam in 2003, compared to about than 5,000 in 1990. The vast majority – 88% –  of PADI certifications issued from 1980 to 2003 on Guam were to Japanese, with 9% to local divers and 3% to ""other"".

In a 2007 study published by the University of Guam (UOG) Marine Lab, researchers attempted to estimate the number of dives and divers being conducted on Guam. The first method was to use 2002 numbers and tourist segment studies published by the Guam Visitors Bureau. Using this method, UOG study calculated that 6.3% of the 976,351 visitors in 2002 were divers, or 61,746 people. Since this study, number of Koreans tourists surged, eventually outnumbering Japanese tourists in 2017. Doing a similar calculation for fiscal year 2019, there were 734,339 arrivals from South Korea. Exit interviews by the Guam Visitors Bureau in FY2019 found that 27% of Korean visitors reported participation in scuba diving activities. This corresponds to about 198,271 Korean visitors diving at least once during the year. For the same time period, there were 674,345 arrivals from Japan, of whom 7% reported scuba diving, corresponding to about 74,204 divers. For context, the population of Guam in July 2021 is estimated at 168,801.
The 2007 UOG study estimated the annual number of dives by locals to be between 64,00 and 128,000. Combined with the visitors numbers for 2002, this yielded an estimated total number of annual dives on Guam of 190,000 to 375,000. This was comparable to the second method used by the researchers; using reported daily tank fill numbers, they alternately estimated that there were 256,00 to 340,000 dives annually. The study used 300,000 as its approximation of the number of dives per year on Guam, with one-third being made by locals and two-thirds by international visitors. After estimating the various costs of dives and certifications, the 2007 UOG study estimated that the direct economic value of visitor diving was $4 million, the most valuable water sport activity on Guam that is dependent on a healthy ecosystem. Diving by locals was valued at $1.2 million, third-place after dolphin watching.
PADI reports that there are 15 PADI dive shops on Guam, of which seven are 5 Star Instructor Development Centers/Resorts and four are PADI 5 Star Dive Centers/Resorts. The majority of PADI shops were located in central Guam, with the exceptions of dive shops catering to Naval Base Guam and Andersen Air Force Base.
Naval Base Guam has operated the U.S. Navy's busiest recompression chamber in the Pacific region since 1971. It is the only chamber, also called a dive locker, in the Micronesia region and treats both civilian and military divers suffering from decompression sickness. In 2016, the dive locker treated one person per week on average, down from three per week before the widespread use of dive computers. Most patients were tourists or local scuba spearfishermen.


=== Environmental impact of recreational diving ===

A number of recreational diving activities may have harmful environmental impacts, including touching or breaking coral, kicking sand or silt over living coral, and feeding or harassing wildlife. A small number of protected sites on Guam receive a disproportionately large percentage of inexperienced divers and students receiving open water instruction, who are the most likely to engage in harmful behaviors. These sites are Tumon Bay Marine Preserve, located in the tourist center of Tumon, and Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, along the coast of Piti. The number of divers at Piti Bomb Holes increased dramatically after access to a third location, Outhouse Beach on Apra Harbor, was restricted in 2001. In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Outhouse Beach was deemed too close to critical infrastructure around the Port of Guam. An estimated 50 to 200 dives occurred daily within a 0.25 hectares (0.62 acres) section of Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, putting the number of annual dives at over 18,000. The threshold at which coral damage can rapidly accumulate is 4,000 to 6,000 dives, putting Piti Bomb Holes at severe risk.
The International Coastal Cleanup is a popular event on Guam, which routinely ranks in the top 25 countries for pounds collected. The event typically includes cleanup scuba dives near the Agat World War II Amtrac site off Agat Cemetery and at Asan Cut, which are dive sites particularly prone to accumulating trash washed out by nearby rivers.


== Spearfishing ==

Breath-hold spearfishing is both a cultural and economic activity on Guam. The ancient CHamoru people used a barbed spear known as a fisga. The 8-foot wooden shaft was tipped with either wood or bone, and used for both surface and subsurface spearfishing. Spearfishing by skin divers was called etokcha' in the CHamoru language. Fishermen would swim with their eyes open and use an underhand thrust for small prey or an overhead thrust for larger prey. Irritated eyes were treated with drops from Scaevola taccada, known as nanasu.
Spearfishing continues to be widespread on Guam. Most spearfishing occurs from 5 to 60 feet (1.5 to 18.3 m), with the favored prey fish being parrotfish and unicornfish. Speared fish are often sold through the Guam Fisherman's Cooperative. A 2017 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council meeting noted that the Marianas Underwater Fishing Federation was taking the lead in teaching spearfishermen to enter their catch in NOAA's Marine Recreational Information Program website/mobile app. The Federation noted, ""they are trying hard to legitimize spearfishing as a sport, [but] there are many others who are pillaging the resources by spearing fish that are too small or taking more than what is needed."" It was also noted that much of the catch recorded thus far was for personal use.

A 2010 study found that the establishment of Guam's marine preserves had more than doubled the death rate by drowning of CHamoru fisherman, including spear fishermen, with the hypothesis being that they were pushed into more hazardous areas. Prior to the establishment of the preserves in 1997, residents of Guam fished primarily on the western coast, which is leeward of the trade winds, and in the reefs along Cocos Lagoon in the south. Non-CHamoru fishermen who were resident on Guam were primarily recreational fishermen, while CHamoru residents were more likely subsistence fishermen. With the enforcement of marine preserves in the historical fishing grounds in the west and south, non-CHamoru recreational fishermen reduced their fishing activity, while CHamoru subsistence fishermen began more heavily fishing the windward eastern coast, which has more hazardous conditions that increase the risk of drowning. Comparing the pre-preserve period of 1986–2009 and post-period of 2001–2009, the study found that the drowning rate of CHamoru fishermen increased 225%; the proportion of drowning deaths on the east coast increased from 20% to 63%; and the drowning death rates of non-CHamoru fishermen fell by about 50%. Deaths of spearfishermen remain common.


=== Competitive spearfishing ===

Guam athletes participate in competitive spearfishing. Guam took gold in both the individual and team events at the quadrennial 2018 Micronesian Games, with one sports site commenting, ""Guam has a very experienced and well-equipped crew that has a great deal of international spearfishing experience."" Guam also took team gold and individual silver at the 2014 Games, as well as team gold and individual bronze at the 2010 Games.
In 2008, Guam made its first appearance at the Inter-Pacific Spearfishing Competition as a social competitor. It was voted in as a core member in 2014 and hosted for the first time in 2017. Guam placed third in the 2018 games. Guam representatives also competed at the inaugural Freshwater World Spearfishing Championships resulted in silver in individual men's in 2017. At the 2019 games, Guam won silver and bronze in mixed pairs. The Marianas Underwater Fishing Federation also sponsors an Annual Marianas Spearfishing Challenge in Hagåtña.


== Commercial, military, and scientific diving ==

Apra Harbor is the focus of much commercial diving, in particular for inspection, repair, and construction of wharves and mooring systems for the Port of Guam and Naval Base Guam.
Naval Base Guam has about 180 personnel who dive as part of their duties. This includes personnel from Naval Special Warfare Group One's Special Warfare Unit 1 of the Navy SEALs, elements from Marine Forces Special Operations Command, Explosive Ordnance Disposal Mobile Unit (EODMU) 5, and the submarine tenders USS Emory S. Land and USS Frank Cable. In August 1974, the hulk of RMS Caribia, a decommissioned passenger ship, ran aground at the tip of the Glass Breakwater and broke apart in Typhoon Mary. The ship salvage to clear the port entrance was complicated by the discovery of a Korean War-era LCU wreck next to Caribia with 50 tons of unexploded ordnance.  This prompted the biggest EOD project ever conducted on Guam, requiring 952 dives over 388 hours.


== References =="
Indians in Saint Kitts and Nevis,"The Indian community in Saint Kitts and Nevis is made up of Indo-Kittitians, Indo-Nevisians, non-resident Indians and persons of Indian origin. Indo-Kittitians and Indo-Nevisians are nationals of Saint Kitts and Nevis whose ancestry lies within the country of India. The community originated from the Indian indentured workers brought to Saint Kitts and Nevis by the British in 1861 and 1874 respectively. By 1884, most of the community had emigrated to Caribbean nations with larger Indian populations such as Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname.
In recent years, the Indian population of Saint Kitts and Nevis has witnessed a gradual increase, as a result of immigration by Indo-Caribbeans particularly Indo-Guyanese. Some Indian Sindhi businessmen have also moved to the country recently. According to the 2001 Census of Saint Kitts and Nevis, the population of Indian people in the country rose from 0.7% in 1991 to 1.5% in 2001. They were the third largest ethnic group in country, after Africans (92.4%) and people of mixed race (3%). The 2001 Census recorded 443 East Indian males and 266 East Indian females in the country.


== Indenture ==
Following the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies on 1 August 1838, plantation owners in the region sought to find an alternative to African slave labour. The British began transporting indentured workers from India to work on plantation estates in Saint Kitts and Nevis, which had become British colony in 1713. Saint Kitts and Nevis were the last among British and French colonies to introduce Indian indentured labour. Nevis received 315 Indian indentured workers, the smallest among all the colonies that employed indentured labour. Saint Kitts received the third smallest number (337 workers), after the Dutch colony of St. Croix which received 321 Indian workers. Limited information exists on indentured workers in Saint Kitts. A register that kept records of indentured workers was lost in a fire at the Court House in Saint Kitts in 1982. Some documents related to indentured workers are held at the National Archives in Saint Kitts.


=== Saint Kitts ===
The only ship that carried indentured workers from India to Saint Kitts, the Dartmouth, departed from Calcutta on 26 February 1861 and arrived in Saint Kitts on 3 June 1861. The details of the passengers on the ship at the time of departure were recorded in an entry made in the report by Captain Eales, the Protector of Emigrants in the Protector's Office at Fort William in Calcutta, India. The entry, dated 28 May 1861, records that the ship had departed with 361 Indians on board - 192 men, 113 women, 17 boys, 24 girls and 13 infants under the age of two. The report also notes that four Indians died of cholera around the time of departure. However, it does not account for two passengers. The St. Christopher Advertiser and Weekly Intelligencer reported that the Dartmouth docked at St. Kitts on 3 June 1861 with 337 Indians on board - 186 men, 103 women, 13 boys, 10 girls and 10 male and 15 female infants. The difference between the figures indicates that 20 Indians died during the voyage.
Eales' report provides information about the origin and age of the passengers. According to the report, the passengers came from the areas of Sahebgunge or Gya Jharkhand (85 immigrants), Ranchi Jharkhand (84), Pooroolea Bengal (40), Hazareebaugh Jharkhand (33), Arrah or Shahabad Bihar (25), and Patna, Azimabad, Jellasore or Monghyr Bihar (22). The report records that 139 passenger were aged between 20–30 years, 71 were aged between 30–40 years, and the remaining 151 immigrants were either below the age of 20 or above the age of 40.
Upon arriving in Saint Kitts, the indentured workers were assigned to estates except for six who were directly admitted at the Colonial Hospital. Five of the admitted workers died at the hospital. The largest group of workers, around 29, were sent to Dewar Estate, and the smallest group of four workers was assigned to Mansion Estate. The West Farm, Dupuys, and Golden Rock estates received more female Indian workers than males. West Farm received 10 females and 8 males, Dupuys got 6 females and 5 males, and Golden Rock received 4 females and 3 males. On average, the 25 estates received an average of 13 indentured Indian labourers each. Shortly after the assignments, around 7 Indian workers died - 2 adults from Con Phipps estate, 1 person from Stone Castle estate, 1 child from Needsmust estate, and 1 child and 1 infant from Dewar. An infant that had been born during the voyage, and assigned to Helden estate, also died. During the same period, four Indian children were born on the island.
There were some reported instances of Indian indentured labourers refusing to work. The Masters and Servants Act of 1849 mandated that indentured labourers were required work from the moment they agreed to work for a plantation owner, but did not require the agreement to be in writing. An article in the St. Christopher Advertiser and Weekly Intelligencer published on 5 November 1861 states, ""Bramandat (a coolie) was charged by Mr Solomon Shelford with breach of his contract as a labourer. It appeared from the evidence that the defendant refused to do the work ordered, had not worked for a week. Defendant said that he would not do the work ordered (weed canes) but would do other work. He was committed to goal there to be kept to hard labour for 30 days."" On 12 November 1861, the same newspaper reported that two workers named Dheajan and Shampod were charged with breach of contract by S.H. Richardson for refusing to work and were ordered to pay a fine of 5 shillings each (equivalent to £71 in 2023).
Within four years of arriving in Saint Kitts, most of the workers converted from Hinduism and Islam to Christianity. They also began adopting Christian names. The Colonial Report, St. Kitts, 1868, FCOL states that only a ""handful"" of Indians were indentured in St. Kitts in 1868. The estimated 10 Indians who were still indentured are presumed to have re-indentured, as the original indenture period was five years. The report also emphasizes the ""great exodus"" of Indians from Saint Kitts to Guyana and Trinidad. Twenty-two Indians died during their indenture period in Saint Kitts. Sixty-three Indians emigrated to Trinidad and Guyana after completing their indenture periods.
In the 1860s, the decade that Indians arrived in Saint Kitts, they accounted for about 5% of the island's total population. By 1887, the Indian population in Saint Kitts had declined by 82% and there were only 61 Indians still residing in Saint Kitts, or 0.2% of the island's total population. According to the 1921 Census of Saint Kitts, there were 21 India-born people in the country indicating that most of the Indian immigrants had left Saint Kitts. The Census did not provide figures for ethnic makeup of the population, but only noted the birth place of respondents. Therefore, it provides no information on the total Indian population of Saint Kitts in 1921, which would include Indians born on the island.


=== Nevis ===
The only ship that carried indentured workers from India to Nevis, the Syria, departed from Calcutta and arrived in Nevis on 30 March 1874 with 315 Indians on board. The Government of Nevis enacted Acts on 24 March and 9 April 1874 to raise funds to import the workers. In 1874, £4,993 (equivalent to £585,530 in 2023) of the government's total annual expenditure of £11,149 (equivalent to £1,307,444 in 2023) was allocated for facilitating the immigration of Indian labour. Upon arriving, Indian indentured labourers were assigned to estates across Nevis. According to a written reply to an enquiry from the Guiana Emigration Agency at 8 Garden Reach, Calcutta, which was responsible for emigration of Indians to Nevis, acting President John Kemys Spencer-Churchill declared that all Indian immigrants were freed from indentureship in April 1879. Some Indian labourers broke their contracts before the five-year indenture period ended so that they could migrate to Trinidad. Others emigrated after completing their contracts. No Indian workers in Nevis chose to re-indenture after completing their initial five-year contract, however, many chose to remain in Nevis as free workers.
Indians faced many legal issues in Nevis in the years following their arrival. Court records from 1874 and 1875 show that over 120 Indians were convicted of various offences, most often for breaching their contract. However, convictions of Indians reduced to 27 in 1880 suggesting that they had begun to assimilate and integrate with Nevisian society.
Around 20% of Indian immigrants to Nevis returned to India by 1890.


== Present day ==
Historians regard the Indians of Saint Kitts and Nevis as a ""lost"" population, as little is known about the descendants of the Indian indentured workers who arrived in the country. This can be attributed to the small number of Indians brought to Saint Kitts and Nevis as compared to other colonies in the Caribbean. Historian Kumar Mahabir states, ""The small number of Indians in St. Kitts was a major contributor to their disappearance, physiologically and culturally."" This is a common phenomenon among Indo-Caribbeans in nations with small Indian populations. Indo-Caribbeans in countries with larger populations such as Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname maintain Indian cultural and religious practices even today.
The small number of immigrants, inter-marriages, mass exodus of Indians from Saint Kitts and Nevis to other Caribbean nations, and subsequent integration with the Indian community in those nations resulted in the ""disappearance"" of the Indo-Kittitian and Indo-Nevisian communities. Although Nevis received slightly less Indian immigrants than Saint Kitts, the former bears comparatively more traces of Indian heritage. Historian Bonham C. Richardson wrote in 1983, ""Today in the late 20th century, the only noticeable vestige of this immigration on the two islands [Saint Kitts and Nevis] is a few Indian families in the Cotton Ground village area of Nevis north of Charlestown.""
In recent years, the Indian population of Saint Kitts and Nevis has witnessed a gradual increase, as a result of immigration by Indo-Caribbeans to the country particularly Indo-Guyanese. Some Indian Sindhi businessmen have also moved to the country recently. According to the 2001 Census of Saint Kitts and Nevis, the population of East Indian people in the country rose from 0.7% in 1991 to 1.5% in 2001. They were the third largest ethnic group in country, after Africans (92.4%) and people of mixed race (3%). The 2001 Census recorded 443 East Indian males and 266 East Indian females in the country. Indian cuisine has had a significant influence on Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Indian food such roti, goat curry, pork curry, mutton curry and vegetable curries are a common part of Kittitian and Nevisian cuisines.


== References ==


== See also ==
India–Saint Kitts and Nevis relations"
Map,"A map is a symbolic depiction of interrelationships, commonly spatial, between things within a space. A map may be annotated with text and graphics. Like any graphic, a map may be fixed to paper or other durable media, or may be displayed on a transitory medium such as a computer screen. Some maps change interactively. Although maps are commonly used to depict geographic elements, they may represent any space, real or fictional. The subject being mapped may be two-dimensional such as Earth's surface, three-dimensional such as Earth's interior, or from an abstract space of any dimension.
Maps of geographic territory have a very long tradition and have existed from ancient times. The word ""map"" comes from the medieval Latin: Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant 'napkin' or 'cloth' and mundi 'of the world'. Thus, ""map"" became a shortened term referring to a flat representation of Earth's surface.


== History ==

Maps have been one of the most important human inventions for millennia, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way through the world. The earliest surviving maps include cave paintings and etchings on tusk and stone. Later came extensive maps produced in ancient Babylon, Greece and Rome, China, and India. In their simplest forms, maps are two-dimensional constructs. Since the Classical Greek period, however, maps also have been projected onto globes. The Mercator Projection, developed by Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator, was widely used as the standard for two-dimensional world maps until the late 20th century, when more accurate projections were more widely used. Mercator also was the first to use and popularize the concept of the atlas: a collection of maps.


== Geography ==

Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface (see History of cartography), and one who makes maps is called a cartographer or mapmaker.
Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today. They are a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps. In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies.  Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the British Ordnance Survey: a civilian government agency, internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work.
The location information showed by maps may include contour lines, indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc.


== Orientation ==

The orientation of a map is the geographical direction toward the top of the map. In the Middle Ages many Eurasian maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with east at the top (meaning that the direction ""up"" on the map is eastward). The word ""orient"" is derived from Latin oriens, meaning east. The modern cartographic convention is to put north at the top of a map. This convention is only a few hundred years old.
As no direction is inherently ""up"" on a spheroidal planet, a variety of orientations have been used on maps both historically and in the present day. Different factors may influence the preferred orientation of a map, depending both on its expected use and cultural factors affecting the perception of each direction. For instance, north and west had historically not been placed at the top of maps made in the Northern Hemisphere as these were the directions where the sun disappeared.
Many maps were oriented to place a particularly significant or holy site at the top. Early Islamic maps often placed south at the top because this was the direction of Mecca relative to the map-makers. Similarly, European Christian maps like the T-O map placed east at the top as this was the direction of the Garden of Eden. Early Chinese maps placed north at the top (despite most Chinese compasses pointing south) due to the location of the imperial capital.

Other examples of maps with non-north orientations include:

Portolan charts are oriented to the shores they describe.
Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top.
Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.
Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centered on the pole; the direction North would be toward or away from the center of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian toward the bottom of the page; maps of the Antarctic have the 0° meridian toward the top of the page.
South-up maps invert the North is up convention by having south at the top. Ancient Africans including in Ancient Egypt used this orientation, as some maps in Brazil do today.
Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earth's sphere onto an icosahedron. The resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation.
Orienteering maps are oriented to magnetic north.


== Scale and accuracy ==

Many maps are drawn to a scale expressed as a ratio, such as 1:10,000, which means that 1 unit of measurement on the map corresponds to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground. The scale statement can be accurate when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, such as a city map. Mapping larger regions, where the curvature cannot be ignored, requires projections to map from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane. The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane without distortion means that the map cannot have a constant scale. Rather, on most projections, the best that can be attained is an accurate scale along one or two paths on the projection. Because scale differs everywhere, it can only be measured meaningfully as point scale per location. Most maps strive to keep point scale variation within narrow bounds. Although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for most purposes unless the map covers a large fraction of the Earth. At the scope of a world map, scale as a single number is practically meaningless throughout most of the map. Instead, it usually refers to the scale along the equator.

Some maps, called cartograms, have the scale deliberately distorted to reflect information other than land area or distance. For example, this map (at the left) of Europe has been distorted to show population distribution, while the rough shape of the continent is still discernible.
Another example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map. The geographic structure is respected but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations. Near the center of the map, stations are spaced out more than near the edges of the map.
Further inaccuracies may be deliberate. For example, cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely to enhance the clarity of the map. For example, a road map may not show railroads, smaller waterways, or other prominent non-road objects, and even if it does, it may show them less clearly (e.g. dashed or dotted lines/outlines) than the main roads. Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter that the user is interested in easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy. Software-based maps often allow the user to toggle decluttering between ON, OFF, and AUTO as needed. In AUTO the degree of decluttering is adjusted as the user changes the scale being displayed.


== Projection ==

Geographic maps use a projection to translate the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Projection always distorts the surface. There are many ways to apportion the distortion, and so there are many map projections. Which projection to use depends on the purpose of the map.


== Symbols ==

The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. Those signs are usually explained in a map legend on the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.
Some cartographers prefer to make the map cover practically the entire screen or sheet of paper, leaving no room ""outside"" the map for information about the map as a whole. These cartographers typically place such information in an otherwise ""blank"" region ""inside"" the map—cartouche, map legend, title, compass rose, bar scale, etc.
In particular, some maps contain smaller maps inset into otherwise blank areas of the map: for example:

a map at a much smaller scale showing the whole globe and the position of the main map on that globe, or
showing ""regions of interest"" (such as cities) at a larger scale to show details that would not otherwise fit, or
showing places that do not fit on the main map, such as Alaska and Hawaii on maps of the United States, or the Shetland and Orkney Islands on maps of Britain.


== Design ==

The design and production of maps is a craft that has developed over thousands of years, from clay tablets to geographic information systems. As a form of design, particularly closely related to graphic design, map making incorporates scientific knowledge about how maps are used, integrated with principles of artistic expression, to create an aesthetically attractive product, carries an aura of authority, and functionally serves a particular purpose for an intended audience.
Designing a map involves bringing together a number of elements and making a large number of decisions. The elements of design fall into several broad topics, each of which has its own theory, its own research agenda, and its own best practices. That said, there are synergistic effects between these elements, meaning that the overall design process is not just working on each element one at a time, but an iterative feedback process of adjusting each to achieve the desired gestalt.

Map projections: The foundation of the map is the plane on which it rests (whether paper or screen), but projections are required to flatten the surface of the Earth. All projections distort this surface, but the cartographer can be strategic about how and where distortion occurs.
Generalization: All maps must be drawn at a smaller scale than reality, requiring that the information included on a map be a very small sample of the wealth of information about a place. Generalization is the process of adjusting the level of detail in geographic information to be appropriate for the scale and purpose of a map, through procedures such as selection, simplification, and classification.
Symbology: Any map visually represents the location and properties of geographic features using map symbols, graphical depictions composed of several visual variables, such as size, shape, color, and pattern.
Composition: As all of the symbols are brought together, their interactions have major effects on map reading, such as grouping and Visual hierarchy.
Typography or Labeling: Text serves a number of purposes on the map, especially aiding the recognition of features, but labels must be designed and positioned well to be effective.
Layout: The map image must be placed on the page (whether paper, web, or other media), along with related elements, such as the title, legend, additional maps, text, images, and so on. Each of these elements has its own design considerations, as does their integration, which largely follows the principles of Graphic design.
Map type-specific design: Different kinds of maps, especially thematic maps, have their own design needs and best practices.


== Types ==

Maps of the world or large areas are often either ""political"" or ""physical"". The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders and administrative regions; the purpose of the physical map is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type, or land use including infrastructures such as roads, railroads, and buildings. 

Topographic maps show elevations and relief with contour lines or shading. 
Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures.


=== Electronic ===

From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer. Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by geographic information systems (GIS). The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographic maps. Having local information such as rainfall level, distribution of wildlife, or demographic data integrated within the map allows more efficient analysis and better decision making. In the pre-electronic age such superimposition of data led Dr. John Snow to identify the location of an outbreak of cholera. Today, it is used by agencies around the world, as diverse as wildlife conservationists and militaries.

Even when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps.
Interactive, computerized maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point. In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerized maps with route planning and advice facilities that monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or more of:

replacing the map by a more detailed one
enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence showing more detail by removing less information compared to the less detailed version
enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the user's vision, possibly more detail can be seen. If a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separately, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode-ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is interpolation.

For example:

Typically (2) applies to a Portable Document Format (PDF) file or other format based on vector graphics. The increase in detail is limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines, arcs of circles, or splines.
(2) may apply to text and (3) to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building.
(1) may apply to the text as needed (displaying labels for more features), while (2) applies to the rest of the image.  Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in.
The map may also have layers that are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics.  For a single raster graphics image (2) applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter (3) applies.


=== Climatic ===

The maps that reflect the territorial distribution of climatic conditions based on the results of long-term observations are called climatic maps. These maps can be compiled both for individual climatic features (temperature, precipitation, humidity) and for combinations of them at the earth's surface and in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Climatic maps show climatic features across a large region and permit values of climatic features to be compared in different parts of the region. When generating the map, spatial interpolation can be used to synthesize values where there are no measurements, under the assumption that conditions change smoothly.
Climatic maps generally apply to individual months and the year as a whole, sometimes to the four seasons, to the growing period, and so forth. On maps compiled from the observations of ground meteorological stations, atmospheric pressure is converted to sea level. Air temperature maps are compiled both from the actual values observed on the surface of the Earth and from values converted to sea level. The pressure field in the free atmosphere is represented either by maps of the distribution of pressure at different standard altitudes—for example, at every kilometer above sea level—or by maps of baric topography on which altitudes (more precisely geopotentials) of the main isobaric surfaces (for example, 900, 800, and 700 millibars) counted off from sea level are plotted. The temperature, humidity, and wind on aero climatic maps may apply either to standard altitudes or to the main isobaric surfaces.
Isolines are drawn on maps of such climatic features as the long-term mean values (of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, total precipitation, and so forth) to connect points with equal values of the feature in question—for example, isobars for pressure, isotherms for temperature, and isohyets for precipitation. Isoamplitudes are drawn on maps of amplitudes (for example, annual amplitudes of air temperature—that is, the differences between the mean temperatures of the warmest and coldest month). Isanomals are drawn on maps of anomalies (for example, deviations of the mean temperature of each place from the mean temperature of the entire latitudinal zone). Isolines of frequency are drawn on maps showing the frequency of a particular phenomenon (for example, the annual number of days with a thunderstorm or snow cover). Isochrones are drawn on maps showing the dates of onset of a given phenomenon (for example, the first frost and appearance or disappearance of the snow cover) or the date of a particular value of a meteorological element in the course of a year (for example, passing of the mean daily air temperature through zero). Isolines of the mean numerical value of wind velocity or isotachs are drawn on wind maps (charts); the wind resultants and directions of prevailing winds are indicated by arrows of different lengths or arrows with different plumes; lines of flow are often drawn. Maps of the zonal and meridional components of wind are frequently compiled for the free atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure and wind are usually combined on climatic maps. Wind roses, curves showing the distribution of other meteorological elements, diagrams of the annual course of elements at individual stations, and the like are also plotted on climatic maps.
Maps of climatic regionalization, that is, division of the earth's surface into climatic zones and regions according to some classification of climates, are a special kind of climatic map.
Climatic maps are often incorporated into climatic atlases of varying geographic ranges (globe, hemispheres, continents, countries, oceans) or included in comprehensive atlases. Besides general climatic maps, applied climatic maps and atlases have great practical value. Aero climatic maps, aero climatic atlases, and agro climatic maps are the most numerous.


=== Extraterrestrial ===
Maps exist of the Solar System, and other cosmological features such as star maps. In addition maps of other bodies such as the Moon and other planets are technically not geographical maps.
Floor maps are also spatial but not necessarily geospatial.


=== Topological ===

Diagrams such as schematic diagrams and Gantt charts and tree maps display logical relationships between items, rather than geographic relationships. Topological in nature, only the connectivity is significant. The London Underground map and similar subway maps around the world are a common example of these maps.


=== General ===
General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map. Most atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category. The following are some features that might be shown on general-purpose maps: bodies of water, roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries, latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks. These maps give a broad understanding of the location and features of an area.  The reader may gain an understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the location of major transportation routes all at once.


=== Extremely large maps ===


==== The Great Polish Map of Scotland ====

Polish general Stanisław Maczek had once been shown an impressive outdoor map of land and water in the Netherlands demonstrating the working of the waterways (which had been an obstacle to the Polish forces progress in 1944). This had inspired Maczek and his companions to create Great Polish Map of Scotland as a 70-ton permanent three-dimensional reminder of Scotland's hospitality to his compatriots. In 1974, the coastline and relief of Scotland were laid out by Kazimierz Trafas, a Polish student geographer-planner, based on existing Bartholomew Half-Inch map sheets. Engineering infrastructure was put in place to surround it with a sea of water and at the General's request some of the main rivers were even arranged to flow from headwaters pumped into the mountains. The map was finished in 1979, but had to be restored between 2013 and 2017.


==== Challenger Relief Map of British Columbia ====
The Challenger Relief Map of British Columbia is a hand-built topographic map of the province, 80 feet by 76 feet. Built by George Challenger and his family from 1947 to 1954, it features all of B.C.'s mountains, lakes, rivers and valleys in exact-scaled topographical detail. Residing in the British Columbia Pavilion at the Pacific National Exhibition (PNE) in Vancouver from 1954 to 1997 it was viewed by millions of visitors. The Guinness Book of Records cites the Challenger Map as the largest of its kind in the world. The map in its entirety occupies 6,080 square feet (1,850 square metres) of space. It was disassembled in 1997; there is a project to restore it in a new location.


==== Relief map of Guatemala ====

The Relief map of Guatemala was made by Francisco Vela in 1905 and still exists. This map (horizontal scale 1:10,000; vertical scale 1:2,000) measures 1,800 m2, and was created to educate children in the scape of their country.


=== List ===


== Legal regulation ==
Some countries required that all published maps represent their national claims regarding border disputes. For example:

Within Russia, Google Maps shows Crimea as part of Russia.
Both the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China require that all maps show areas subject to the Sino-Indian border dispute in their own favor.
In 2010, the People's Republic of China began requiring that all online maps served from within China be hosted there, making them subject to Chinese laws.
In 2017, Turkey banned the terms ""Kurdistan"" and ""Kurdish regions"". In 2018, the government had a user-generated map of Kurdistan, which it deemed ""terrorist propaganda"", removed from Google Maps.
In Pakistan, the Surveying and Mapping (Amendment) Act, 2020 made printing, displaying, or using any unofficial or ""incorrect"" map of Pakistan a crime punishable by 5 years in jail and a fine of 5 million rupees. It asserts that India is illegally occupying some Pakistani territory along the northern India–Pakistan border.


== See also ==


=== General ===


=== Map designing and types ===


=== Map history ===


=== Related topics ===


== References ==


=== Citations ===


=== Bibliography ===
David Buisseret, ed., Monarchs, Ministers and Maps: The Emergence of Cartography as a Tool of Government in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-07987-2
Denis E. Cosgrove (ed.) Mappings. Reaktion Books, 1999 ISBN 1-86189-021-4
Freeman, Herbert, Automated Cartographic Text Placement. White paper.
Ahn, J. and Freeman, H., ""A program for automatic name placement,"" Proc. AUTO-CARTO 6, Ottawa, 1983. 444–455.
Freeman, H., ""Computer Name Placement,"" ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449–460.
Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, ISBN 0-226-53421-9
O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson, The History of Cartography. Scotland : St. Andrews University, 2002.


== External links ==
International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals
Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, by the staff of the U.S. Library of Congress.
The History of Cartography Project at the University of Wisconsin, a comprehensive research project in the history of maps and mapping"
Paks Nuclear Power Plant,"The Paks Nuclear Power Plant (Hungarian: Paksi atomerőmű) is located 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from the small town of Paks, central Hungary, 100km southwest of Budapest on the shores of the Danube river. It is the first and only operating nuclear power station in Hungary. In 2019, its four reactors produced more than 50% of Hungary's electricity production.


== Technical parameters ==
VVER is the Soviet designation for a pressurized water reactor. The number following VVER, in this case 440, represents the power output of the original design. The VVER-440 Model V213 was a product of the first uniform safety requirements drawn up by the Soviet designers. This model includes added emergency core cooling and auxiliary feedwater systems as well as upgraded accident localization systems.
Each reactor contains 42 tons of lightly enriched uranium dioxide fuel. Fuel takes on average three years to be used (or ""burned"") in the reactors; after this the fuel rods are stored for five years in an adjacent cooling pond before being removed from the site for permanent disposal.
The power plant is nearly 100% owned by state-owned power wholesaler Magyar Villamos Művek. A few shares are held by local municipalities, while a voting preference or ""golden"" share is held by the Hungarian government.
One brand-new reactor pressure vessel was bought from Poland after the Żarnowiec Nuclear Power Plant project was abandoned in 1990.


== Lifetime extension ==
In 2000, the Paks Nuclear Power Plant commissioned a feasibility study which concluded that the plant may remain in operation for another 20 years beyond the original 30-year design lifetime. The study was updated in 2005 with similar conclusions.
In November 2005, Hungary's Parliament passed a resolution with overwhelming bipartisan majority to support the lifetime extension.
The feasibility study concluded that the non-replaceable parts are in sufficient condition to remain in operation for another 20 years while a minority of replaceable parts needed replacement or refurbishment.
The power generator made repeated surveys of public opinion on the lifetime extension and concluded that support for the decision hovered near 70%.
Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents in March 2011, Hungary's government said it would conduct a stress test on the Paks Nuclear Power Plant to assess safety, but it would not abandon plans for lifetime extension and it would also go ahead with plans for its expansion.
Unit 1 was granted a license-extension to 2032 in 2012, unit 2 to 2034 in 2014, and unit 3 to 2036 in 2016. Unit 4 got its license extended till 2037 in 2017.
The nine Ganz power generators were to be serviced by Alstom once per year between 2013 and 2021.


== Power uprating ==
Thanks to optimizations, modernization and fuel upgrades, it was possible to safely increase the output power of the Unit 4 reactor to 500 MWe in 2006, followed by Unit 1 in 2007. With upgrades to the remaining two units the plant's power generation reached 2000 MWe in 2009.


== New nuclear units ==
On 30 March 2009 the National Assembly of Hungary gave its principal consent by votes 330 for, 6 against and 10 abstentions to the preparation works of the possible new units. On 26 February 2010 the owner state company MVM Group decided the expansion with about 2 trillion Hungarian Forints price.
On 18 June 2012 the Hungarian government ranked Paks expansion as a ""high priority project of the national economy"", in this context established a committee (Nuclear Power Governmental Committee) for preparation of the factual steps. The Nuclear Power Governmental Committee is headed by Viktor Orbán (Prime Minister) and has two members; Mihály Varga (Minister of National Economy) and Zsuzsanna Németh (National Developmental Minister). As of 2016, Hungary is said to import 30% of its electricity.
According to the agreement signed by Zsuzsanna Németh (National Developmental Minister of Hungary) and Sergey Kiriyenko (Rosatom chairman) on 14 January 2014 Paks Nuclear Power Plant will be expanded by the Russian state company Rosatom. Eighty percent of the project's cost will be financed with a 10 billion Euro credit line from Russia. Subject to European Commission approval, construction of two VVER-1200 reactors was planned to start in 2019. On 6 March 2017, the European Commission announced its approval. János Süli, former CEO of the nuclear power station, was appointed Minister without Portfolio in the Third Orbán Government in May 2017, responsible for the planning, construction and commissioning of the two new blocks at Paks Nuclear Power Plant.
On 20 June 2019 the Paks II Zrt. (Paks II Ltd.) reported on their website that the preparation of the construction site has started including more than 80 service buildings. On 30 June 2020 the application for the construction license has been submitted to the Hungarian nuclear regulatory authority. On 26 August 2022, the regulator issued the license, and construction was expected to start within a few weeks, with completion planned for 2032.
In December 2024 Paks II has gotten approval for pouring first concrete.


=== Cost and Funding ===
According to the official website of Paks II NPP, the cost of the project is fixed at EUR 12.5 Billion. The World Nuclear News mentioned in an article that Russian state loan of up to EUR 10 Billion will be provided to finance 80 percent of the project.


== Reactor data ==


== Incidents ==


=== Major incidents (INES >0) ===


==== 2003 incident (INES 3) ====
An INES level 3 event (""serious incident"") occurred on 10 April 2003 at the Unit 2 reactor. The incident occurred in the fuel rod cleaning system located under 10 metres (33 ft) of water in a cleaning tank next to the spent fuel cooling pond, located adjacent to the reactor in the reactor hall.  The reactor had been shut down for its annual refueling and maintenance period on 28 March and its fuel elements removed.
The cleaning system had been installed to remove dirt and corrosion from fuel elements and control rods during shutdown, as there had previously been problems with magnetite corrosion products from the steam generators being deposited on the fuel elements which affected the flow of coolant. The sixth set of thirty partially spent elements were in the tank having been cleaned, the cleaning having finished at 16:00. At 21:50, radiation alarms mounted on the cleaning system detected a sudden increase in the amount of krypton-85. The suspicion was that one of the fuel rod assemblies was leaking. At 22:30, the reactor hall was evacuated because of elevated radiation levels both there and in the ventilation stack.
At 02:15 the following morning, the hydraulic lock of the cleaning vessel lid was released, and immediately the dose rate increased significantly (6-12 millisieverts/hour) around the spent fuel pond and the pool containing the cleaning machine, and the water level dropped for a short time, by about 7 cm (2.8 in). Water samples from the pond showed contamination due to damaged fuel rods. The lid on the cleaning machine was winched up at 04:20, but one of the three lifting cables attached to it broke; and it was not finally removed until 16 April.
The incident was initially given an INES rating of 2 (""incident""). However a video examination of the damaged fuel elements following the successful removal of the lid caused the rating to be raised to 3 (""serious incident""). This revealed that cladding on the majority of the 30 fuel elements had been broken, with radioactive spent uranium fuel pellets spilling from the elements into the bottom of the cleaning tank. Apart from the release of radioactive material, a concern was that the accumulation of a compact mass of fuel pellets could lead to a criticality accident, as the pellets were in a tank of neutron moderating water. Water containing neutron absorbing boric acid was added into the tank to raise its concentration to 16 g/kg to prevent this. Ammonia and hydrazine were also added to the water to help with the removal of radioactive iodine-131.
An investigation by the Hungarian Atomic Energy Agency concluded that the cause of the incident was inadequate cooling of the fuel elements, which were heated due to the radioactive decay of short-lived fission products. These were kept cool by water circulated by a submerged water pump.  However the cooling was inadequate, leading to the damage to some elements through a build-up of steam around them, depriving them of most of their cooling. The investigation proposed that the severe damage probably occurred when the lid was released, causing thermal shock to cladding because of the sudden entry of cool water into the system, and explosive steam production.
One of the interesting results of the investigation was that the Hungarian Atomic Agency had placed too much trust in the technology and knowledge of the French Framatome Company. The agency did not investigate documentation provided by the company deeply enough, missing a fatal design flaw in the Framatome-designed, produced, and operated cleaning equipment.
The discharge of radioactive gases through the stack continued for several days after the incident, although the Hungarian Atomic Energy Agency determined that the radiation levels adjacent to the plant were only about 10% above normal. However, the reactor remained out of service for over a year, finally resuming commercial electricity production in September 2004.
The damaged fuel was completely removed by the end of 2006 and in 2014 transported to Russia for final disposal.


==== 2005 incident (INES 1) ====
On 9 April 2005, Unit 1 was shut down for planned maintenance. The defect that occurred during the cooling of the block was classified as INES grade 1 (abnormality), although the power plant originally requested a zero rating.


==== 2009 outage incident (INES 2) ====
A Self Powered Neutron Detector (SPND) was dropped when the wire rope holding it broke during an outage on 4 May 2009. The event was rated as INES 2. All staff were safely evacuated, and no member was exposed to more than the permitted daily radiation dose.


==== 2012 incident (INES 1) ====
On 6 September 2012, scheduled work was done on a gate, but the required written instructions were not completed in time. This is an administrative mismatch and was classified as 1 in the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES).


=== Incidents below the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) ===
Malfunctions (operational events) below the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) are published quarterly by the MVM Paks Nuclear Power Plant. According to IAEA, these mean no risk, yet a part of these resulted in partial or complete block shutdowns.


==== 2016 incident ====
On the morning of 14 July 2016 reactor 1 was automatically shut down due to an equipment malfunction, which did not pose any safety threat. The reactor was brought back to full capacity the afternoon of the following day with the malfunction to be reviewed by the national regulator. The shut down came one week after a separate malfunction of a generator forced the plant to reduce its power output.


== See also ==

Energy in Hungary
Nuclear power in Hungary


== References ==


== External links ==

Paks Nuclear Power Plant website (English version)
Paks NPP website (Hungarian version)"
Pelagic thresher,"The pelagic thresher (Alopias pelagicus) is a species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae; this group of sharks is characterized by the greatly elongated upper lobes of their caudal fins. The pelagic thresher occurs in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, usually far from shore, but occasionally entering coastal habitats. It is often confused with the common thresher (A. vulpinus), even in professional publications, but can be distinguished by the dark, rather than white, color over the bases of its pectoral fins. The smallest of the three thresher species, the pelagic thresher typically measures 3 m (10 ft) long.
The diet of the pelagic thresher consists mainly of small midwater fishes, which are stunned with whip-like strikes of its tail. Along with all other mackerel sharks, the pelagic thresher exhibits ovoviviparity and usually gives birth to litters of two. The developing embryos are oophagous, feeding on unfertilized eggs produced by the mother. The young are born unusually large, up to 43% the length of the mother. Pelagic threshers are valued by commercial fisheries for their meat, skin, liver oil, and fins, and are also pursued by sport fishers. The International Union for Conservation of Nature assessed this species as endangered in 2019.


== Taxonomy and phylogeny ==
The pelagic thresher was originally described by Japanese ichthyologist Hiroshi Nakamura on the basis of three large specimens, none of which was designated a holotype. He illustrated one of the three specimens in his paper, ""On the two species of the thresher shark from Formosan waters"", published in August 1935. Nakamura also separately illustrated and described a fetus, that Leonard Compagno later concluded was probably of a common thresher. Several authors, including Gohar and Mazhar (1964, Red Sea), Kato, Springer and Wagner (1967, Eastern Pacific), Fourmanoir and Laboute (1976, New Caledonia), Johnson (1978, Tahiti), and Faughnan (1980, Hawaiian Islands) have published illustrations of ""common threshers"" that were in fact pelagic threshers.
An allozyme analysis conducted by Blaise Eitner in 1995 showed that the closest relative of the pelagic thresher is the bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus), with which it forms a clade. The specific epithet pelagicus is from the Greek pelagios, meaning ""of the sea"". Another common name is the smalltooth thresher.


== Distribution and habitat ==
Due to confusion with the common thresher, the distribution of the pelagic thresher may be wider than is currently known. It ranges extensively in the Indo-Pacific, with scattered records from South Africa, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea (off Somalia, between Oman and India, and off Pakistan), to China, southeastern Japan, northwestern Australia, New Caledonia, and Tahiti, to the Hawaiian Islands, California, and the Galapagos Islands. The North Pacific population shifts northward during warm El Nino years. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has shown extensive gene flow within the eastern and western Pacific pelagic thresher populations, but little flow between them.
The pelagic thresher primarily inhabits the open ocean, occurring from the surface to a depth of at least 150 m (490 ft). However, it occasionally comes close to shore in regions with a narrow continental shelf, and has been observed near coral reef dropoffs or seamounts in the Red Sea and the Gulf of California, and off Indonesia and Micronesia. It has also been known to enter large lagoons in the Tuamotu Islands.


== Description ==
The pelagic thresher is the smallest of the thresher sharks, typically 3 m (10 ft) in length and 69.5 kg (153.2 lb) in weight, and usually not exceeding 3.3 m (11 ft) and 88.4 kg (195 lb). Males and females attain known maximum lengths of 3.5 m (11 ft) and 3.8 m (12 ft), respectively. A record of 5 m (16 ft) is dubious and may have resulted from confusion with other thresher species. This species has a fusiform body (wide in the middle and tapered at the ends) and a very slender upper caudal fin lobe nearly as long as the rest of the shark. The pectoral fins are long and straight with broad, rounded tips. The first dorsal fin is placed halfway between the pectoral and pelvic fins, and is of comparable size to the pelvic fins. The second dorsal and anal fins are tiny.
The head is narrow with a short, conical snout and a distinctive ""pinched"" profile when viewed from below. The eyes are very large in juveniles and decrease in relative size with age. No furrows occur at the corners of the mouth. The teeth are very small, numbering 21–22 rows on each side with a symphysial (central) row in the upper jaw and 21 on each side without a symphysial row in the lower jaw. Five to 11 rows of posterior teeth are present. The teeth are smooth-edged, with oblique cusps and lateral cusplets on the outside margins. The body is covered with very small, smooth dermal denticles with flat crowns and cusps with parallel ridges. The coloration is an intense dark blue above and white below; the white does not extend to above the pectoral fins. The color rapidly fades to gray after death. The dark pigment above the pectoral fins, the rounded pectoral fin tips, and the absence of labial furrows separate this shark from the common thresher.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Biology and ecology ==

The pelagic thresher is an active, strong swimmer and has been known to leap clear of the water (five times in a row on one documented occasion). Predators of the pelagic thresher include larger fishes (including other sharks) and toothed whales. Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Litobothrium amplifica, L. daileyi, and L. nickoli, which inhabit the shark's spiral valve intestine, and copepods of the genus Echthrogaleus, which infest the skin. At Malapascua Island in the Philippines, pelagic threshers have been observed regularly visiting cleaning stations occupied by cleaner wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus and Thalassoma lunare), during which they exhibit characteristic behaviors to facilitate the cleaning interaction. These visits occur more frequently early in the morning, and may be why these normally oceanic sharks are sometimes encountered in shallow water.


=== Feeding ===
Little information is available on the feeding ecology of the pelagic thresher. Its very slender tail and fine dentition suggest an exclusive diet of small, pelagic prey. Analysis of stomach contents reveals that pelagic threshers feed mainly on barracudinas, lightfishes, and escolars, all inhabitants of the mesopelagic zone. Therefore, little competition occurs between the pelagic thresher and other large oceanic piscivores such as billfishes, tunas, and dolphinfishes, which tend to feed near the surface. As in other threshers, pelagic threshers may swim in circles to drive schooling prey into a compact mass, before striking them sharply with the upper lobe of their tails to stun them. Because of this behavior, pelagic threshers are often hooked on longlines by their tails.


=== Life history ===
Like the rest of the mackerel sharks, the pelagic thresher is ovoviviparous. It gives birth to two pups at a time (rarely just one), one per uterus. With no defined breeding season, most adult females are pregnant throughout the year; the gestation period is uncertain, but has been suggested to be less than one year as in the common thresher. The developing embryos are sustained by a yolk sac until they are 12 cm (4.7 in) long, after which they are oophagous and feed on egg capsules produced by the mother. Each capsule measures about 55 mm (2.2 in) long and 12 mm (0.5 in) across, and contains 20–30 ova. Early-stage embryos have specialized teeth for opening the capsules, while later-stage embryos have their teeth hidden and swallow the capsules whole, their teeth not becoming functional again until just after birth. No evidence of sibling cannibalism has been found as in the sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus). Young pelagic threshers are born unusually large, up to 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long or 43% the length of the mother, which likely reduces predation on the newborns.
The growth rate of pelagic threshers slows with age: 

9 cm/year for ages 0–1,
8 cm/year for ages 2–3,
6 cm/year for ages 5–6,
4 cm/year for ages 7–10,
3 cm/year for ages 10–12,
and 2 cm/year for ages 13 and greater.
Females reach maturity at 2.8–2.9 m (9.2–9.5 ft) long and eight to nine years old, while males mature at 2.7–2.8 m (8.9–9.2 ft) long and seven to eight years old. The oldest confirmed ages for females and males are 16 and 14 years, respectively. Extrapolating the growth curves to the largest known individuals suggests that females may have a lifespan exceeding 28 years, and males 17 years. A single female produces about 40 young over her entire life.


=== Thermoregulation ===
Anatomical examination indicates that the pelagic thresher is unlikely to be warm-bodied like the common thresher; it lacks a rete mirabile, a blood vessel countercurrent exchange system that prevents metabolic heat from being dissipated into the water, inside its trunk. Furthermore, its aerobic red muscles, responsible for generating heat in the common thresher, are positioned in two lateral strips just beneath the skin rather than at the core of the body. A rete system is present around the pelagic thresher's brain and eyes, albeit less developed than in the bigeye thresher, which may serve to buffer those organs against temperature changes.


== Human interactions ==

The pelagic thresher has never been implicated in an attack on humans; it has small jaws and teeth for its size and tends to flee from divers. This shark is taken by commercial fisheries in the central Pacific and western Indian Oceans, as well as off California and Mexico. Abundant off northeastern Taiwan, it comprises over 12% (about 3,100 fish, 220 metric tons) of the annual Taiwanese shark landings. The meat is sold for human consumption, the skin is made into leather, and the fins are used for shark fin soup in Asia. The squalene oil in the liver of the pelagic thresher can comprise 10% of its weight, and is used in the manufacture of cosmetics, health foods, and high-grade machine oil.
Though rarely caught, pelagic threshers are also valued by sport fishers and are listed as game fish by the International Game Fish Association. The largest overall records are from New Zealand, while the light tackle records are from California. Pelagic threshers are frequently taken as bycatch on longlines and in driftnets meant for other species such as tuna, and also rarely in gillnets and antishark nets.


== References ==


== External links ==

Species Description of Alopias pelagicus at www.shark-references.com
Photos of Pelagic thresher on Sealife Collection"
Kazakh art,"The art of Kazakhstan covers all forms of art created throughout history by the peoples living on the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan. Throughout most periods, much of the population of Kazakhstan was nomadic, or at least moved regularly across the vast country. The great majority of the art of Kazakhstan is applied art: the decoration of practical objects, including household utensils and patterned harnesses, through art forms such as carpet-weaving, pottery, and leatherwork. The art of Kazakhstan also includes architecture, fine arts, and sculpture.
Although modern Kazakhs are often keen to assert its national character, Kazakh art has at most times been intimately connected with wider artistic styles, in particular the Scythian art of the first millennium BC, and Islamic art from the 8th century AD onwards. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Russian art was the dominant influence.


== History ==


=== Prehistory ===
Prehistoric rock engravings and paintings occupy a prominent place among Kazakhstan's monuments. Rock engravings, or petroglyphs, embossed in the rock with stone or metal tools, are particularly common, and the geology and landforms of the country's mountain ranges lent themselves to the proliferation of this art form. The absence of anthropogenic impact across most of the country has resulted in preservation of many of monuments, providing rich material for study.
The earliest examples of art in Kazakhstan are Paleolithic. Found in the Hantau and Karatau Mountains, they take the form of animal images carved into the rocks. 
Neolithic and Bronze Age petroglyphs found in the Bayanaulsky cave (Pavlodar region), and in the Tanbaly gorge (Almaty region) (where the images include an elk, a lion, a hunter with a bow, an ox harnessed to a cart, and a cow) and on the northern shores of Lake Balkhash (a duel between two men with sabers, next to which stands a girl, and others) give an idea of the main occupations and customs of the ancient tribes inhabiting the territory of modern Kazakhstan.
The petroglyphs of the Tamgaly archaeological complex, one of the most ancient and vivid rock art monuments of the ""Seven Rivers"" (Zhetysu, or Semirechye) area near Lake Balkhash, lie 170 km north-west of the city of Almaty in the Anrakai Mountains. The rock paintings and engravings were discovered in 1957 by an archaeological expedition of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences, under the direction of A. G. Maximova. Study of the sanctuary there, with its many cave paintings, began in the 1970s and 1980s. There are some 2000 petroglyphs, most of which are located in the lower part of the main gorge and on the side of the adjacent gorge to the west.
The themes of the drawings are diverse, and include human figures, animals, horsemen, people and predatory animals hunting, scenes of daily life, ritual dances, sun-headed deities, and multi-figure compositions depicting scenes of people and animals, of hunting animals and of bull sacrifice. The most common images are of horses; deer, which symbolize power and beauty in Kazakh art; and eagles, representing immortality and the sky.
In the Bronze Age, the territory of modern Kazakhstan was inhabited by people of the Andronovo culture, and the Begazy–Dandybai culture in the south. The Andronovo culture processed metal ores, including gold, copper, and probably silver. In some areas this was a large-scale industry.  Although significant survivals are rare, it is clear that textiles, mostly woolen, were in general use for clothing, along with leather and fur. Clothing was often richly decorated with metal and stone jewellery. Greek descriptions of Iron Age steppe nomad dress survive, along with Greek and Persian depictions of related steppe-dwelling peoples.


=== Protohistory ===

In the first millennium BC, the territory of present-day Kazakhstan in the Ili River area was occupied by the Saka tribes, whose works of art formed part of the wider tradition of Scythian art across the Eurasian Steppe. Most artifacts found have come from kurgan burial mounds.  The most famous Saka-era discovery was made in the Issyk kurgan in south-eastern Kazakhstan, near Almaty city, in 1969. Known as the ""Golden Man"", this wealthy Saka man or woman was costumed in armor, boots and hat decorated with many gold plates, so that the burial resembled a statue in precious metals. Most of the jewelry found was of gold, made by casting, stamping, embossing, and engraving in the form of circular sculpture, high relief and bas-relief.
The ""Golden Man"" wears a high-peaked turban decorated with golden plates depicting horses, snow leopards, birds, and trees with spreading crowns, and a necklace in the form of a golden hoop with a tiger head at each extremity. In the lobe of the left ear is a gold earring with a turquoise ornament. A sword in a sheath covered with red leather hangs from the belt to the right, and to the left is an iron dagger in a sheath with gold overlays depicting a galloping moose and a horse. On gold plates on both sides of the dagger are carved animal figures, among them the wolf, fox, mountain sheep, fallow deer, fox, and snake.  The tall hat compares with the tall saukele head-dress that is today part of the traditional wedding costume for Kazakh women.
The treasures of the Issyk mound, including an exact copy of the ""Golden Man"", were originally exhibited at the Kazakh Museum of Archeology in Almaty, and are now at the State Museum of Gold and Precious Metals of the Republic of Kazakhstan in Astana.
The ""golden man"" on the winged leopard has become one of the main symbols of Kazakhstan.
Many ""balbals"" or kurgan stelae, monoliths shaped like human figures, have been found topping kurgans, or surrounding them in groups.


=== Islamic period ===

In the Middle Ages, various states succeeded each other across the territory of modern Kazakhstan. Active trade along the Great Silk Road enriched the culture of the people who lived there, bringing new art techniques and influencing the creativity of local artists.
On the Silk Road, the cities of Isfijab, Yangikent, Suyab, Kayalyk Mirki, and Kulan in the valleys of the rivers Syr Darya, Talas, Chu, and Ili were centers of culture, religion, and trade, providing a connection between agricultural oases and nomadic steppe, between East and West.
The medieval centers of culture, science, and art were the cities of Otrar, Taraz, Balasagun, Sygnak, and Sauran, among many others. The mausoleums of Babaji-Khatun (10th–11th centuries), Aisha-Bibi (11th–12th centuries), Alash-khan (12th–14th centuries), Dzhuchi-khan (13th century), Kozy-Korpesh, and Bayan-Slu (8th–10th centuries), and the tower of Tamerlane (14th century) are considered unique examples of the architecture of this time. The Khoja Ahmed Yassavi Mausoleum complex, in the city of Turkistan, stands out as one of the largest architectural monuments not only of Kazakhstan but of Central Asia. Built by order of Timur (14th century) in honor of the preacher Yassavi, the mausoleum was constructed of fired brick, set inside and out with multi-colored blue and white tiles, and decorated with carved elements, tiled Arabic inscriptions, mosaic work and painted majolica. The central hall contains a huge cauldron cast from an alloy of seven metals, which was exhibited in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia, between 1935 and its return in 1989.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, great progress was made in the use of architectural elements such as arches, vaults, and domes. The medieval builders attached great importance to their building materials, and already at that time brick and glazes of notable quality were made. Particular attention was paid to the quality of the bricks, most of which were square in shape with one side painted blue, white or green. Such bricks were laid simultaneously with the building of external walls. Polychrome majolica tiles were also used in wall decoration. In the interiors, murals and relief ornaments began to appear. Applied art featured widely in the construction of the mausoleums of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, Kok-Kesen and Alash Khan. 
In the Middle Ages, among other applied arts, carpet-weaving and pottery became widespread in Kazakhstan. Richly patterned carpets were used both in the home, as decoration, and worn, as protection against the elements.
Common patterns ornamenting carpets, household items and kitchen utensils included floral motifs, hunting scenes, folk games, animals, and birds. The image of the horse as a central motif is found throughout Kazakhstan, personifying beauty and power. Horses were of great cultural significance as a means of transport, especially in wartime, and were sacrificed to the gods and interred alongside warriors in burial mounds.
Pottery items were often decorated with inscriptions in different languages, such as Turkic, Uighur, and Sogdian. Examples include the ceramic inscriptions found in the archaeological city of Aktobe, located in the middle reaches of the Chu River. Many inscriptions found on these ceramics date back to the 9th–11th centuries.


=== Modern period ===

In Kazakhstan, fine art in the classical sense has its origins in the 19th century and the influence of Russian artists Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov, who travelled in Central Asia and portrayed what they saw. Khludov had a particular influence on the development of the local school of painting, becoming the teacher of many local artists. The most famous of these is Abilkhan Kasteev, after whom the State Museum of Art of Kazakhstan was renamed. Among other influential painters of that period Kazakh scholars mention Sergei Kalmykov.
The Kazakh school of art was fully formed by the 1940s, and flourished in the 1950s. Local painters, graphic artists and sculptors, trained under the unified Soviet system of artist education, began active work, often using national motifs in their art. The painters S. Aitbaev, S. Mambayev, O. Tansykbaev, J. Shardenov, and M. Telzhanov, graphic artists A. Duzelkhanov and E. Sidorkina, and sculptors H. Nauryzbaeva and E. Sergebaeva are today counted among the key figures of Kazakhstani art.
An avant-garde movement formed in Kazakhstan in the late 1980s, aiming to find fresh ideas and protest against established forms and images in art. Various principles of plastic art began to appear, for example in B. Tulkeev's highly complex psychological compositions, A. Sydykhanov's mystical graphic compositions, A. Akanaeva's Picasso-like improvised compositions, and D. Aliyev's chaotic figurative pieces. K. Duisenbaev used principles of plastic art in expressive formalism to convey the inner forces of nature and the soul. K. Akhmetzhanov's canvases optically assemble colored pieces to produce a picture of the world that reflects surrounding realities. The works of A. Menlibayev and E. Ghazaryan exemplify a revival of interest in the folklore and ornamental style of a range of historical, regional and cultural tradition. 
Since Kazakhstan's declaration of independence, on 16 December 1991, there have been cardinal changes in all spheres: political, economic, social and art. The monument to Ablai Khan in Astana (sculptor N. Dalbai, architect Sh. Valikhanov) made a considerable contribution to approval of the idea of independence of Kazakhstan. 
Other landmarks of modern monumental sculpture of this time are the equestrian monument to Isatay Taimanov and Makhambet Utemisov in Atyrau (sculptor B. Abishev and E. Sergebaev), and the monument to Sultan Baybars in Atyrau (sculptor K. Kakimov).
The Independence Monument in Almaty (sculptors: A. Zhumabaev and N. Dalbai, architect Sh. Valihanov) is a particularly well-known modern sculptural and architectural complex of this era. Located on Almaty's main square, the Independence Monument combines Kazakh cultural heritage and tradition with universal elements, and has become a symbol of statehood, and of Kazakhstan's past, present and future. The granite stele is crowned with the statue of a young warrior, styled after the ""Golden Man"", with a mythical winged leopard his feet.
The Kazakh national school of painting experienced difficult times in the 1990s, as the state significantly reduced its budget on the cultural programs and commissioned less works from the painters. However, by the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, the situation improved as major private and public companies have begun providing their patronage to established and young painters by funding numerous art exhibitions and commissioning painting works. At the beginning of the 20th century, several painters  received wide recognition and organized their art exhibitions around Kazakhstan, including Akzhana Abdalieva, Akmaral Abulkhair, Maksim Vedernikov,  Dinara Dukenbayeva, Erbolat Tolepbai, Zeinelkhan Mukhamedjan, Carmine Barbaro and many others. 
Mythological symbolism is significant in Kazakhstan's modern art of the 21st century. It is expressed, for example, in the visual searching of artists Gulnara Kasmalieva and Muratbek Djumaliev's ""TransSiberian Amazons"" (2005) and multi-channel video art ""A New Silk Road: Algorithm of Survival and Hope” (2007), and in the performance and photography of Victor and Elena Vorobievs' “(Non)Silk Road” (2006).


== Museums of Kazakhstan ==

There are more than 170 museums in Kazakhstan. The oldest, the Semipalatinsk Museum of History and Local Lore, was built in 1883.

Central State Museum of Kazakhstan
National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan
A. Kasteyev State Museum of Arts


== Kazakh artists ==
Carmine Barbaro
Agimsaly Duzelkhanov
Aisha Galimbaeva
Abilkhan Kasteev
Leyla Mahat
Marina Reshetnikova


== See also ==
Music of Kazakhstan
Kazakh literature


== References =="
Bussy-Saint-Georges,"Bussy-Saint-Georges (pronounced [bysi sɛ̃ ʒɔʁʒ]) is a commune in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 25.5 km (15.8 miles) from the center of Paris, in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France.


== Geography ==
In the East, at the distance 30 kilometres (19 miles) from Paris and in the heart of Marne-la-Vallée, Bussy-Saint-Georges has a privileged position thanks to a high-density motorway network. From Bussy, the direct access to the A4 motorway and the nearby A104 offer easy access to the whole country.
The city centre is only 7 km (4.3 mi) away from Disneyland Paris.
With easy access to the RER line , close to the TGV railway station of Chessy – Marne-la-Vallée and two international airports Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle and Orly, the city has a central position in the transport network.
Bussy-Saint-Georges is located in the perimeter of the new city of Marne-la-Vallée as defined by the national government in 1966. But Marne-la-Vallée is just a geographical entity, precisely divided in 4 sectors. The city is in sector 3 of Marne-la-Vallée, also called Val-de-Bussy.
In Val-de-Bussy of Marne-la-Vallée, Bussy-Saint-Georges is from 1985 the leading and main support of the built-up area, as a real and independent new town (French: Ville nouvelle) with a unique status of local and new town. The others towns decided to be organized around a common agglomeration system of new towns.


== Population ==
The city has benefited from one of the largest growth rates in France. The population has multiplied by 56 in 30 years, between 1982 and 2012.

Bussy-Saint-Georges has a strong power of attraction on young families. 50% of the Buxangeorgiens are less than 30 years old.


=== Surrounding towns ===
Bussy-Saint-Martin
Chanteloup-en-Brie
Collégien
Favières
Ferrières-en-Brie
Guermantes
Jossigny
Pontcarré
Bussy-Saint-Georges has built its identity on a green model environment with parks and gardens. They represent 155 hectares of integrated green spaces, 9 kilometres (6 miles) of soft connecting links, ten squares and parks in the city centre, eight pools and more than 8,200 trees today.


== History ==

In the origins, the village of Bussy appeared in 841 under the Roman name of Villa Buxido. In 855 the territory formed a large parish under the protection of Saint-Georges. Nevertheless, the full name of Bussy-Saint-Georges only appeared in the 13th century. The name of Bussy comes from Buscus because of the city's native environment initially composed of woods and many groves. In the Middle Ages, Bussy-Saint-Martin et Bussy-Saint-Georges was unified under a unique landlord authority, the lords of Bussy. Here is the list of the successive lords of Bussy:

de Buci family from 1196 to 1490;
de la Rosque from 1490 to the end of the 16th century;
Louis Guibert and his heirs from the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 18th century;
at the beginning of the 18th century until the French Revolution, the family of Pondre, lord of Guermantes.
In 1789, Bussy-Saint-Georges was under the authority of the Généralité of Paris.
During the 19th century, the town was in the county of Lagny, with a population from 500 to 550 inhabitants. Two ordinances, 6 June 1826 and 15 August 1827 reduced the territory of Bussy in favour of the territories of Ferrières and Jossigny.
Since 1985, Bussy-Saint-Georges has been integrated into the perimeter of the new town plan of Marne-la-Vallée and received a total of 180.50 hectares as additional territories  coming from the nearest towns (Bussy-Saint-Martin, Collégien, Ferrières).
In July 2017, M. Hugues Rondeau, who has been the mayor from 1998 until 2014, was considered as guilty by French justice for illegal taking of interest and condemned to six months of suspended prison, payment of 60.000 euros for damage and interest, and ineligibility for five years.
In May 2019, he was banned from public service for life by the Court.


== Administration ==

Bussy-Saint-Georges is in the Canton of Torcy, in the administrative département of Seine-et-Marne; its prefecture is Melun. The canton brings together six towns and 38,236 inhabitants. Before its creation in 1975, the city of Bussy was in the Canton of Lagny-sur-Marne, finally divided in smaller new subdivisions considering the growth of population.
The canton of Torcy is now part of the arrondissement of Torcy created in 1993. The subprefecture was opened on 1 January 2006.
This arrondissement is the least geographically extended but the most populated of the department, with 10 cantons, 43 towns representing 343,583 inhabitants.
The town hall, built in 1850, stands in the old village, on the Place de la Mairie (Town hall square).


== Main sights ==

The tower, the only vestige of the lord’s castle of de Buci, a fortress offering a strategic refuge dominating the valleys de la Brosse and de la Gondoire, dated from 12th century. The current place de Verdun is on the previous location of the castle, which was surrounded by the ditches filled with water by the same source of a fountain which still exists in the place du marché. The graveyard, in the north of the tower, beyond the fortifications, was discovered during a private house building in 1960. The tower is 21 meters high and 9 meters large.
The Farm of Roquemont. It takes its name from la Rosque’s fief, Bussy-Saint-Georges lords from 1490 to 1594; it was also the main source of the lords for the benefit of Bussy fief. Later, the farm was called the great farm of Bussy-Saint-Georges.
The Russon mill, a water mill is located in the street of de la Brosse. The former owner has restored it. The mill was a component of the outbuildings of the Farm of Roquemont. It was used as a mill only for a few months and was otherwise used as accommodation for the farm hands.
The Wash-house, built in the mid-19th century. Bussy already used a very old wash-house close to spring in Ferrières: the wash-house of Cessoy. But it was too far from the center of the village and difficult to reach for the washerwomen who used barrows for the laundry. The city council bargained with the family de Guermantesfor to acquire land attached to another spring, in the upper side of the street du Moulin, for building the second wash-house. Currently, the wash-house of Cessoy is private, in contrast to the public one in the street du Moulin.
The Farm of Génitoy. The name, genesterium in Latin or genestay in Old French, later génitoire or génitoy, originates from the abundant Genista flowers. The farm was also an important fief with a castle. In 1672, Madame de Montespan had a baby in the castle of Génitoy, one of the Louis XIV's son: Louis-César de Bourbon, count of Vexin.
La Jonchère. At the beginning of the 19th century, this was a great farm. The owner was M. Martin de Longchamps, who also owned Fontenelles. It was a féculerie in 1836, which dominated all the intensive potato production in the region.  Unfortunately from 1845 potato blight affected the activity and then completely stopped it. The farmers decided to replace it with sugar beet. The domaine de la Jonchère was used for establishing the installations of the new product.
The current village church was constructed on the location of a medieval church. François de la Rosque, parish priest, member of the lord of Bussy’s family, celebrated the consecration of the church in 1580. The construction was finished in 1595 and the baptism of the three bells followed on August 22, 1600: Louise, in reference to the foundation of the St-Louis chapel, Isabelle, a first name of the wife of Louis Guibert, and Georges, patron saint of the parish. The church was restored in the 19th century and, at the request of the inhabitants who were disappointed for not hearing the Angélus, the bell tower was raised in 1866 to the current height of 32 meters.  The church became public property in 1905. Under the porch of the monument, there is an 18th-century gravestone. It covered the body of abbot Duchesne buried in the chancel of the church. Inside, the body and the transept have a refined ogival style. The beams hold a painted vault in the arch. On the right side, there is a Saint-Georges sculpture. On the left is a chapel, probably for the translation of relics in 1431, given to the parish of Bussy-Saint-Georges by the abott Duchesne, restored in 1904 thanks to a group of the Visitation of the Virgin. The baptistery has a renaissance underbody and the washbowl of a ceremony is decorated with four angel’s heads. We can also notice an embedded stone font on the left of the entrance.
The modern church of Notre-Dame du Val, built in 1997 by the architectural office Gonot-Marcenat. Fully made with modern components, the dome is in natural copper. The location is at 33, boulevard Thibaud-de-Champagne.
Rêve de la Mère: a statue erected in 2010 dedicated to the Boat people and refugees from the Vietnam War. Bussy-Saint-Georges is home to a significant Vietnamese population, and the statue is a symbol for Vietnamese refugees seeing France as a free nation and is a reminder for French-born Vietnamese of their ancestral roots and culture.


== Culture and leisure ==
City Library: The Médiathèque de l’Europe was inaugurated in October 2006. In it can be found CDs, books (novels, comics, documentaries, magazines etc.), DVDs, music scores…
The library also welcomes a large range of activities put in place by the cultural department of the city. Currently, the hours of opening concern the following days: Tuesday from 2pm to 7pm, Wednesday 10am – 12:30am and 2pm to 6pm, Thursday 2pm – 6pm, and Sunday 10am – 12:30am and 2pm – 6pm.
Conservatoire: The Jean-Sébastien-Bach Conservatoire of Bussy-Saint-Georges opened its doors in 1995. Widened in 2004, the expanse for the reception of people was doubled. In 2006 more than 700 pupils and 45 employees were involved, 28 individual instrumental disciplines (some of these instruments are ""rare"" such as harpsichord, viola de gamba or traditional Chinese ones: pipa, guzheng) and 10 steel band disciplines.


== Education ==
Bussy-Saint-Georges is home to:

9 preschools, 9 primary schools
3 public junior high schools (Jacques-Yves-Cousteau, Anne-Frank, Claude-Monet) and a private junior high school, Maurice-Rondeau
2 senior high schools/sixth-form colleges
Lycée Martin-Luther-King
Lycée Maurice-Rondeau
capacity of 200 young children in day-care centers
an artistic conservatoire
a city library
University of Marne-la-Vallée is the area university, and the vicinity has other post-secondary institutions.


== Sport ==
Michel Jazy Sport Complex, including a dance room, gymnastic structures, tennis courts, martial art areas, volleyball area.
Maurice Herzog  Sport Complex, including athletics training tracks, football space, archery practicing area, gymnastic room, climbing wall, a table tennis room.
Laura Flessel Sport Complex.
5 tennis  courts on the path of deux Châteaux, 2 outdoor courts on the golfers’ promenade, 2 outdoor courts at the Graveyard street.
An international golf area covering 750,000 square metres.


== Economy ==
Within its territory, the city has an industrial region (Gustave Eiffel Park) located in the south of the city. Among the listed companies, there are Tech Data, SME Distribution (Sony), IBM, Air liquide, Asialand, BT France companies,... There are also a Senior Teaching Technical Book Center (Centre technique du livre de l'enseignement supérieur) and the Technical Center of the French National Library (Centre technique de la Bibliothèque nationale de France). The city economic growth continues with the creation of new city planning areas or Zone d’Aménagement Concerté, such as the ZAC Léonardo-de-Vinci (30 hectares) or the Rucherie (80 hectares). But the debts of the town may be considered as huge.


== Transport ==
In the center of the city, there is the Bussy-Saint-Georges station of the RER line . There is also a  bus network (""Pep’s"").


== Festivals ==
All through the year, the city of Bussy-Saint-Georges offers to its inhabitants a large list of celebrations:

Wishes of the Buxangeorgiens: January
Festival of Asia (Tết): February
Carnival days: March
Saint George's day: April
Journée nationale du souvenir de la déportation et ravivage de la flamme du souvenir: April
Commemoration of the end of World War II: 8 May
antique roadshow days: June
Commemoration for dead soldiers in French Indochina: 8 June
Commemoration of the Général de Gaulle's call: 18 June
Nation day (pyrotechnics): 13 July
Golf Open of the city: September
Forum of the associations: September
Les virades de l’Espoir (important march for the custic fibrosis cure research): September
Secondhand trade days: September
Commemoration of the Armistice in 1918: 11 November
Night of the Beaujolais : November
Commemoration for dead soldiers during the north-African wars: 5 December
Christmas Time (marché de noël, animations, patinoire): December and January.


== People ==
Maurice Boitel, painter


== International relations ==

Bussy-Saint-Georges is twinned with:

 Radcliffe-on-Trent, United Kingdom, since 1999
 Kiryat Ekron, Israel, since 1998
 San Giuliano Milanese, Italy, since 2002
 Meiningen, Germany, since 2006


== List of mayors ==
Jacques Macquin (1953-1971)
Guy Sadaune (1971-1973)
Maurice Koehl (1973-1983)
Daniel Doussot	(1983-1989)
Dominique Blondel (1989-1994)
Bernard Ménager (1994-1998)
Hugues Rondeau (1998-2014)
Chantal Brunel (2014-2016)
Yann Dubosc (2016–Present)


== See also ==
Communes of the Seine-et-Marne department


== References ==


== External links ==

Official site (in French)
Official site of Bussy-Saint-Georges (in French) (Archive)
1999 Land Use, from IAURIF (Institute for Urban Planning and Development of the Paris-Île-de-France région) (in English)
Base Mérimée: Search for heritage in the commune, Ministère français de la Culture. (in French)"
Battle of Bramall Lane,"The ""Battle of Bramall Lane"" is a name used by the British press to refer to an English First Division football match played between Sheffield United and West Bromwich Albion at Bramall Lane, Sheffield on 16 March 2002. It is the only match in English professional football history to have been abandoned due to a shortage of players. Going into the match, Sheffield United were comfortably mid-table with neither promotion or relegation possible, while Albion were fighting for promotion to the Premier League, the top flight of English football. The two clubs were not historically seen as rivals, and the fixture was not a local derby, but there was history between United midfielder Georges Santos and Albion midfielder Andy Johnson due to an injury Santos suffered from a collision with Johnson in a previous meeting.
United goalkeeper Simon Tracey was sent off in the 9th minute for deliberately handling the ball outside the area to stop a shot at goal. Albion striker Scott Dobie gave his side the lead going into half-time, and midfielder Derek McInnes doubled the lead in the 63rd minute, prompting United manager Neil Warnock to make two substitutions; Santos and Patrick Suffo came on, but both received red cards within moments. Santos committed a dangerous two-footed tackle on Johnson, and Suffo headbutted McInnes in the ensuing melee. Down to eight men, United conceded a third goal, with Dobie scoring his second of the afternoon. United midfielder Michael Brown and defender Robert Ullathorne suffered injuries that meant they could no longer take part in the match. Because United had already used all of their allowed substitutions, referee Eddie Wolstenholme, who had already declined to send off both Brown and captain Keith Curle for clear red-card offences, was forced to abandon the match in the 82nd minute, as dictated by the rules of the game.
A week later, Albion were awarded a 3–0 victory by The Football League, while United, Warnock and several United players received bans and fines from The Football Association. Warnock faced allegations of cheating from Albion manager Gary Megson, sparking a long-lasting feud between the two managers. Neither Santos nor Suffo ever played for United again, departing the club in the following months.


== Background ==

With eight league matches of the 2001–02 season remaining, West Bromwich Albion were in third place in the First Division on 67 points, 11 points behind their Black Country rivals Wolverhampton Wanderers, who occupied the second automatic promotion spot. Meanwhile, Sheffield United were in 15th position on 50 points, safe from relegation but not threatening the playoff places. Albion manager Gary Megson had nearly been appointed United manager in 1999, following a spell at Stoke City, and had a meeting with chairmen Derek Dooley and Bernard Procter; he turned down the role, citing his long-time affinity towards rivals Sheffield Wednesday, and United instead turned to Neil Warnock, who was manager going into the match.
In a First Division fixture on 10 March 2001 between United and Nottingham Forest, United midfielder Georges Santos was substituted off early in the match, with what was believed to be a concussion. Warnock revealed his disappointment that the referee took no action against Forest midfielder Andy Johnson, who had caused the injury. Santos underwent a five-and-a-half-hour operation on a double fracture of his eye socket, and spoke with his lawyers about the possibility of taking legal action. Johnson defended himself, saying he was ""totally blameless"", as it was Santos who was late in the challenge, but Warnock accused him of lying. Later in the year, Johnson moved to Albion.
The first fixture of the season between United and Albion was decided by a last-minute goal from Carl Asaba that gave United a 1–0 victory despite having Shane Nicholson sent off.


== Match ==

Nine minutes into the match, United goalkeeper Simon Tracey was sent off by referee Eddie Wolstenholme for deliberately handling the ball outside the penalty area and denying Albion an obvious goalscoring opportunity. Sheffield United manager Neil Warnock sent on the substitute keeper, Wilko de Vogt, in place of striker Peter Ndlovu. Albion defender Lárus Sigurðsson received a yellow card shortly after. Albion opened the scoring in the 18th minute, when striker Scott Dobie headed in a cross from Andy Johnson.
Albion were unable to take further advantage of having an extra man until the 62nd minute, when captain Derek McInnes scored their second with a powerful shot, struck first-time from outside the area, that De Vogt was unable to reach. Warnock responded by making two substitutions, the last of his allowed three, in an attempt to make his team more attacking, taking off Gus Uhlenbeek and Michael Tonge for Georges Santos and Patrick Suffo.
The match quickly turned ugly; a stray ball from McInnes in midfield, later described by United striker Laurent D'Jaffo as a ""pass from God"", led to Santos being sent off for a high and poorly timed lunging tackle on Johnson, the studs of his boot connecting with the Welsh midfielder's shin. The two teams then began a mass brawl on the pitch, and amid the ensuing melee, Suffo headbutted McInnes in full view of referee Wolstenholme, an action so violent it caused the Albion player to bleed, and Suffo was also sent off. Albion defender Darren Moore was visibly angered by the actions of the United players, and had to be physically restrained by D'Jaffo; Johnson said it was like Moore ""had the devil in him"". By the time play resumed, United had been reduced to eight men, and had none of their three allotted substitutions remaining. Soon after, United captain Keith Curle was fortunate to avoid a sending off after appearing to throw punches at McInnes, as was Michael Brown for a foul on the same player, clambering over him as Albion made a breakaway. Wolstenholme later admitted to not awarding red cards and keeping both players on the field in order to finish the match.
In the 77th minute, Albion added a third goal when Dobie tapped in his second of the match from close range after United's defence were unable to clear an Albion corner kick. Two minutes later, Brown limped off for United with a suspected groin injury, and was soon followed by Robert Ullathorne, who went off injured in the 82nd minute suffering with muscle spasms, and reducing the team to six men. In accordance with Law 3 of the Laws of the Game, which states ""that a match should not continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team"", referee Wolstenholme abandoned the game with Albion leading 3–0, marking the first time a match in English professional football had ever been abandoned through the implementation of this law in the history of English football.


=== Details ===


== Aftermath ==
After the match, Albion manager Gary Megson said:

There will be no replay. If we are called back to Bramall Lane, we shall kick-off and then walk off the pitch. I've been in professional football since 16 and I'm 42 now. I've never ever witnessed anything as disgraceful as that. There is no place for that in any game of football, let alone professional football.
Football League spokesman John Nagle released a statement saying, ""The Football League have the authority to allow the result to stand, or to order the game to be replayed"", and confirmed there would be a meeting the following Thursday to discuss the matter. Writing for the BBC, journalist Phil McNulty said he believed Neil Warnock and Sheffield United should face heavy punishment, and argued for a points deduction. Warnock, though, echoed Megson's comments, saying, ""there is no place for that in any game of football, let alone a professional match"", but joked that he'd ""have brought a deckchair out on the pitch to keep one of [the injured players] on"" had he known the match would be called off. In the changing room, Megson told Moore that if a replay was necessary, he would bring Albion's youth team. Speaking to the Lancashire Telegraph, referee Eddie Wolstenholme said he was correct in sending off all three of the United players, and knew immediately that, once Ullathorne was leaving the field due to injury, he would be forced to abandon the match.
Warnock faced accusations of cheating from Megson, who claimed that Warnock was telling his players to find a way to come off the field. Warnock described the comments as ""disgraceful"" and accused Megson of hypocrisy, drawing comparisons between his situation and that of Osama bin Laden, the mastermind of the September 11 attacks, which had occurred six months earlier. Brown and Ullathorne's injuries were legitimate, however; Brown missed the rest of the season, and Ullathorne missed the following four matches; Warnock was ultimately not mentioned in Wolstenholme's match report, declaring that his fourth official had not informed him of any remarks. Warnock placed Santos on the transfer list, and told Suffo he would never play for United again, and it marked the final time either player appeared for the club. Johnson accused Santos of deliberately attempting to hurt him or possibly end his career; he was forced to miss several matches with an injury. Less than two months after the match, Suffo left United and joined Spanish club Numancia, while Santos was released in the summer and ultimately signed for Grimsby Town following a trial period.
Albion were awarded a 3–0 win and the three points by The Football League. The decision was unanimous, and Nagle said ""any other decision would be grossly unfair and set a precedent that would not be in the best interests of the game"". United were fined £10,000 by The Football Association, Santos was given a six-match ban (four, plus two for violent conduct), Suffo paid a £3,000 fine and received a six-match ban (three for the dismissal, three for violent conduct), and Keith Curle was made to pay a fine of £500 and received a two-match ban, while Warnock was made to pay £300 for ""improper conduct towards the fourth official"", but no evidence was found that either he or any player had made a deliberate attempt to have the match abandoned. Following the verdict, Albion chief executive John Wile said there was no ""bad blood"" between the clubs, and said the decision to award the points was correct. Following United's midweek victory against Millwall, Warnock expressed his displeasure regarding the reaction he had received in the media, saying, ""I thought in this country people are innocent until proven guilty, but some of the comments in the papers were out of order"", and said he and his family had endured an ""absolute bloody nightmare"".
United ultimately finished the season 13th in the league table, while Albion finished second and were automatically promoted.


=== Legacy ===
The next meeting between the clubs came at Albion's stadium, The Hawthorns, on 14 October 2003, during the 2003–04 season. United won 2–0 to go top of the table. Warnock received an abusive reception from the Albion supporters and refused to shake Megson's hand before the match, but joked afterwards that he had a crash helmet in the event of a repeat. The return fixture came on 21 February 2004, and the away side again emerged victorious as Albion recovered from a goal down to win 2–1, with the winning goal coming five minutes from time. Megson praised his team for overcoming the negative atmosphere, in which both sets of supporters ""exchanged derogatory chants with even greater fervour than is customary"", according to The Guardian journalist John Ashdown; Albion midfielder Johnson was particularly targeted. The feud between Warnock and Megson continued when Megson moved to Nottingham Forest, and on one occasion Warnock was quoted as saying, ""I wouldn't shake his hands in a million years. I wouldn't piss on him if he was on fire"". In a 2022 interview with The Mirror, Megson described the name Battle of Bramall Lane as a misnomer as it ""suggests there were two teams battling"" and apportioned the blame solely to Warnock.
Speaking in 2020 to the Sheffield Star, Suffo explained that his actions were solely in defence of teammate Santos, and described it as a highlight of his career on par with winning the 2000 Olympics and playing in the 2002 FIFA World Cup for Cameroon, but also spoke of his regret of the incident as he had begun to feel settled at the club. The close relationship between United club executive Derek Dooley and Megson was said to be severely damaged by the event. Suffo's teammate Michael Brown later described the match as ""bizarre"" and ""crazy"", and spoke of his regret about being involved in such a match while appearing on BT Sport in 2020. Curle has described the match as ""surreal"" and ""farcical"", while Albion striker Bob Taylor believed it was unforgettable for those involved and in attendance.


=== Other instances ===
4 January 1977, Estadio Centenario, Montevideo: Uruguay 1–1 Ecuador, match abandoned after 78 minutes due to Ecuador receiving five red cards.
14 November 2001, Estádio José Alvalade, Lisbon: Portugal 5–1 Angola, match abandoned after 67 minutes due to Angola receiving four red cards, and a player being injured after Angola had used all their substitutions.
10 March 2013, Harry Abrahams Stadium, London: Wingate and Finchley 0-1 Thurrock, match abandoned after 85 minutes due to Wingate and Finchley receiving five red cards.
18 February 2018, Estádio Manoel Barradas, Salvador: Bahia 3–0 Vitória, match abandoned after 80 minutes due to Vitória receiving five red cards. Bahia also had four red cards.


== References ==


== External links ==
The Broken Metatarsal podcast episode featuring Eddie Wolstenholme interview"
Bela (gastropod),"Bela is a genus of sea snails; marine gastropod mollusks in the family Mangeliidae.


== Taxonomy ==
Because of taxonomic uncertainty regarding the type species, many authors in the 19th century e.g. G.O. Sars (1878) and W.H.Dall (1919) used the generic name Bela for unrelated species correctly placed in Propebela, Oenopota or Curtitoma, and then used Raphitoma for species currently placed in Bela.


== Description ==
The ovate shell is fusiform. The surface is dull, smooth, or longitudinally ribbed. The spire is elevated and shorter than the body whorl. The columella is flattened. The siphonal canal is short. The outer lip shows a small sinus at its junction with the body whorl. 


== Species ==
Species within the genus Bela (gastropod) include:

Species brought into synonymy

Bela abyssicola (Reeve, 1844): synonym of Pleurotoma abyssicola Reeve, 1844
Bela abyssorum Locard, 1897: synonym of Gymnobela abyssorum (Locard, 1897)
 Bela aegeensis (Reeve, 1844): synonym of Bela nebula (Montagu, 1803)
Bela africana Ardovini, 2004: synonym of Sorgenfreispira africana (Ardovini, 2004)
Bela africana Ardovini, 2008: synonym of Sorgenfreispira africana (Ardovini, 2004)
Bela alberti (Dautzenberg & Fisher, 1906): synonym of Phymorhynchus alberti (Dautzenberg & Fischer, 1906)
Bela albrechti Krause, 1886: synonym of Granotoma albrechti (Krause, 1886)
Bela aleutica (W.H. Dall, 1871): synonym of Oenopota aleutica (W.H. Dall, 1871)
Bela americana Packard, 1867: synonym of Propebela scalaris (Møller, 1842)
Bela anderssoni Strebel, 1908: synonym of Falsimohnia anderssoni (Strebel, 1908)
Bela angulosa Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Propebela angulosa (G. O. Sars, 1878)
† Bela annemariae Lozouet, 2015: synonym of † Petrafixia annemariae (Lozouet, 2015)
Bela antarctica Strebel, 1908: synonym of Conorbela antarctica (Strebel, 1908)
Bela apollinea (Melvill, J.C., 1904): synonym of Leiocithara apollinea (Melvill, 1904)
Bela arctica A. Adams, 1855: synonym of Propebela arctica (A. Adams, 1855)
Bela ardovinii Mariottini & Oliverio, 2008: synonym of Sorgenfreispira ardovinii (Mariottini & Oliverio, 2008)
Bela assimilis Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Propebela assimilis (Sars G. O., 1878)
Bela australis Adams & Angas, 1864: synonym of Guraleus australis (Adams & Angas, 1864)
Bela bergensis Friele, 1886: synonym of Propebela bergensis (Friele, 1886)
Bela bicarinata (Couthouy, 1838): synonym of Curtitoma violacea (Mighels & C. B. Adams, 1842)
Bela blakei A. E. Verrill, 1885: synonym of Mohnia blakei (A. E. Verrill, 1885)
Bela blaneyi Bush, 1909: synonym of Oenopota blaneyi (Bush, 1909)
Bela brachystoma (Philippi, 1844): synonym of Sorgenfreispira brachystoma (Philippi, 1844)
Bela cancellata Mighels & Adams, 1842 sensu G. O. Sars, 1878: synonym of Bela sarsii Verrill, 1880: synonym of Oenopota impressa (Mörch, 1869)
Bela cancellata (Mighels & Adams, 1842): synonym of Propebela cancellata (Mighels & Adams, 1842)
† Bela candida Yokoyama, 1926: synonym of Oenopota candida (Yokoyama, 1926)
Bela clarae Peñas & Rolán, 2008: synonym of Bela atlantidea (Knudsen, 1952)
Bela concinnula Verrill, 1882: synonym of Propebela concinnula (A. E. Verrill, 1882)
Bela confusa (Locard, 1897): synonym of Bela brachystoma (Philippi, 1844)
Bela conoidea Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Curtitoma conoidea (Sars G. O., 1878)
Bela costulata (Risso, 1826): synonym of Mangelia costulata Risso, 1826
Bela decussata (Couthouy, 1839): synonym of Curtitoma decussata (Couthouy, 1839)
Bela demersa Tiberi, 1868: synonym of Taranis moerchii (Malm, 1861)
Bela detegata Locard, 1897: synonym of Propebela bergensis (Friele, 1886)
Bela erosa (Schrenck, 1861): synonym of Rhodopetoma erosa (Schrenck, 1862)
Bela erythraea Jousseaume, 1895: synonym of Taranidaphne hongkongensis (Sowerby III, 1889)
Bela eva Thiele, 1925: synonym of Maoritomella eva (Thiele, 1925)
Bela exilis Ardovini, 2004: synonym of Sorgenfreispira exilis (Ardovini, 2004)
Bela expansa Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Lusitanops expansa (Sars G. O., 1878): synonym of Lusitanops expansus (Sars G. O., 1878)
Bela exquisita Yokoyama, 1926: synonym of Curtitoma exquisita (Yokoyama, 1926)
Bela eva Thiele, 1925: synonym of Maoritomella eva (Thiele, 1925)
Bela excurvata Carpenter, 1864: synonym of Oenopota excurvata (Carpenter, 1864)
Bela expansa Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Lusitanops expansa (Sars G. O., 1878)
Bela fidicula (Gould, 1849): synonym of Propebela fidicula (Gould, 1849)
Bela filicinctus (E. A. Smith, 1882): synonym of Horaiclavus filicinctus (E. A. Smith, 1882)
† Bela formica Nordsieck, 1977: synonym of Bela fuscata (Deshayes, 1835) (junior subjective synonym)
Bela fulvicans Strebel, 1908: synonym of Falsimohnia fulvicans (Strebel, 1908)
Bela furfuraculata Locard, 1897: synonym of Propebela bergensis (Friele, 1886)
Bela gazellae Strebel, 1905: synonym of Mangelia gazellae (Strebel, 1905)
Bela ginnania (Risso, 1826): synonym of Haedropleura septangularis (Montagu, 1803)
Bela ginnania (Risso, 1826): synonym of Haedropleura septangularis (Montagu, 1803)
Bela glacialis Thiele, 1912: synonym of Lorabela glacialis (Thiele, 1912)
Bela gouldii Verrill, 1882: synonym of Propebela rugulata (Reeve, 1846)
Bela graphica Locard, 1897: synonym of Oenopota graphica (Locard, 1897)
Bela grimaldii Dautzenberg, 1889: synonym of Amphissa acutecostata (Philippi, 1844)
Bela grippi Dall, 1908: synonym of Bellaspira grippi (Dall, 1908)
Bela guernei Dautzenberg, 1891: synonym of Belomitra quadruplex (Watson, 1882)
Bela harpa Dall, 1885: synonym of Oenopota harpa (Dall, 1885)
Bela hebes Verrill, 1880: synonym of Curtitoma hebes (Verrill, 1880)
Bela holomera Locard, 1897: synonym of Gymnobela pyrrhogramma (Dautzenberg & Fischer, 1896)
Bela iessoensis Smith E. A., 1875: synonym of Obesotoma iessoensis (Smith E. A., 1875)
Bela incisula Verrill, 1882: synonym of Curtitoma incisula (Verrill, 1882)
Bela kobelti Verkrüzen, 1876: synonym of Granotoma kobelti (Verkrüzen, 1876)
† Bela koeneni (Cossmann & Lambert, 1884): synonym of †Petrafixia koeneni  (Cossmann & Lambert, 1884)
Bela koreni Friele, 1886: synonym of Oenopota koreni (Friele, 1886)
Bela krausei Dall, 1887: synonym of Granotoma krausei (Dall, 1887)
Bela laevigata (Philippi, 1836): synonym of Bela zonata (Locard, 1892)
Bela laevigata Dall, 1871: synonym of Obesotoma laevigata (Dall, 1871)
Bela limatula Locard, 1896: synonym of Amphissa acutecostata (Philippi, 1844)
Bela luetkeana Krause, 1885: synonym of Propebela luetkeana (Krause, 1885)
Bela lütkeana Krause, 1885: synonym of Bela luetkeana Krause, 1885: synonym of Propebela luetkeana (Krause, 1885)
Bela magellanica (Martens, 1881): synonym of Oenopota magellanica (Martens, 1881)
Bela martensi Strebel, 1905: synonym of Mangelia martensi (Strebel, 1905)
Bela metschigmensis Krause, 1886: synonym of Oenopota metschigmensis (Krause, 1886)
Bela michaelseni Strebel, 1905: synonym of Mangelia michaelseni (Strebel, 1905)
Bela mingoranceae Martin Perez & Vera-Pelaez, 2006: synonym of Bela powisiana (Dautzenberg, 1887)
Bela minuscularia Locard, 1897: synonym of Curtitoma violacea (Mighels & C. B. Adams, 1842)
Bela mitralis Adams & Angas, 1864: synonym of Mitraguraleus mitralis (Adams & Angas, 1864)
Bela mitrula Lovén, 1846: synonym of Propebela exarata (Møller, 1842)
Bela murdochiana Dall, 1885: synonym of Oenopota murdochiana (Dall, 1885)
Bela neozelanica Suter, 1908: synonym of Scrinium neozelanica (Suter, 1908)
† Bela nitida Pavia, 1976: synonym of † Sorgenfreispira nitida (Pavia, 1975)  (basionym)
Bela nobilis (Møller, 1842): synonym of Propebela nobilis (Møller, 1842)
Bela notophila Strebel, 1908: synonym of Lorabela notophila (Strebel, 1908)
Bela obliqua Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Oenopota obliqua (Sars G.O., 1878)
Bela optima Thiele, 1925: synonym of Microdrillia optima (Thiele, 1925)
Bela ornata (Locard, 1891): synonym of Mangelia costulata Risso, 1826
† Bela paessleri H. Strebel, 1905: synonym of Mangelia paessleri (H. Strebel, 1905)
Bela pelseneri Strebel, 1908: synonym of Lorabela pelseneri (Strebel, 1908)
Bela plicatula Thiele, 1912: synonym of Lorabela plicatula (Thiele, 1912)
Bela polysarca (Dautzenberg & Fischer H., 1896): synonym of Gymnobela frielei (Verrill, 1885)
† Bela pseudoexilis Della Bella, Naldi & Scarponi, 2015: synonym of † Sorgenfreispira pseudoexilis (Della Bella, Naldi & Scarponi, 2015)
Bela purissima Strebel, 1908: synonym of Typhlodaphne purissima (Strebel, 1908)
Bela pygmaea Verrill, 1882: synonym of Curtitoma ovalis (Friele, 1877)
Bela pyramidalis (Ström, 1788): synonym of Oenopota pyramidalis (Strøm, 1788)
Bela rathbuni Verrill, 1882: synonym of Propebela rathbuni (Verrill, 1882)
Bela recondita Locard, 1897: synonym of Gymnobela pyrrhogramma (Dautzenberg & Fischer, 1896)
Bela regina Thiele, 1925: synonym of Tomopleura regina (Thiele, 1925)
Bela robusta Packard, 1866: synonym of Obesotoma robusta (Packard, 1866)
Bela rugulata (Reeve, 1846): synonym of Propebela rugulata (Reeve, 1846)
Bela sansibarica Thiele, 1925: synonym of Microdrillia sansibarica (Thiele, 1925)
Bela sarsii Verrill, 1880: synonym of Oenopota impressa (Mörch, 1869)
† Bela scalariformis (Brugnone, 1862): synonym of † Sorgenfreispira scalariformis (Brugnone, 1862)
Bela scalaris (Møller, 1842): synonym of Propebela scalaris (Møller, 1842)
Bela scalaroides Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Propebela scalaroides (Sars G. O., 1878)
Bela schmidti Friele, 1886: synonym of Oenopota harpa (Dall, 1885)
Bela sculpturata Dall, 1887: synonym of Mangelia sculpturata (Dall, 1887)
Bela septangularis (Montagu, 1803): synonym of Haedropleura septangularis (Montagu, 1803)
Bela septenvillei (Dautzenberg & Durouchoux, 1913): synonym of Bela nebula (Montagu, 1803)
Bela simplicata  É.A.A. Locard, 1896: synonym of Amphissa acutecostata (R. A. Philippi, 1844)
Bela solida Dall, 1887: synonym of Obesotoma solida (Dall, 1887)
Bela spitzbergensis Friele, 1886: synonym of Propebela spitzbergensis (Friele, 1886)
Bela striata Hutton, 1873: synonym of †Iredalula striata (Hutton, 1873)
Bela striatula Thiele, 1912: synonym of Belalora striatula (Thiele, 1912)
Bela subarctica Derjugin, 1924: synonym of Propebela rugulata (Reeve, 1846)
Bela subturgida Verrill, 1884: synonym of Propebela subturgida (Verrill, 1884)
Bela subvitrea Verrill, 1884: synonym of Propebela subvitrea (Verrill, 1884)
Bela tenuicostata Sars G. O., 1878: synonym of Oenopota tenuicostata (Sars G.O., 1878)
Bela tenuilirata Dall, 1871: synonym of Obesotoma tenuilirata (Dall, 1871)
Bela tenuilirata Krause, 1886: synonym of Curtitoma lawrenciana (Dall, 1919)
Bela tumida Posselt, 1898: synonym of Obesotoma tumida (Posselt, 1898)
Bela turricula (Montagu, 1803): synonym of Propebela turricula (Montagu, 1803)
Bela turriculata Locard, 1892: synonym of Propebela turricula (Montagu, 1803)
Bela turrita Strebel, 1908: synonym of Belaturricula turrita (Strebel, 1908)
Bela violacea (Mighels & Adams, 1842): synonym of Curtitoma violacea (Mighels & C. B. Adams, 1842)
Bela woodiana (Møller, 1842): synonym of Obesotoma woodiana (Møller, 1842)
Bela yanamii Yokoyama, 1926: synonym of Plicifusus yanamii (Yokoyama, 1926)
Bela zonatum (Locard, 1891): duplicate of Bela zonata
Nomina dubia

Bela fortis (Reeve, 1844): nomen dubium
Bela minuta (Reeve, 1844): nomen dubium
Bela turgida (Reeve, 1844): nomen dubium


== References ==

Vaught, K.C. (1989). A classification of the living Mollusca. American Malacologists: Melbourne, FL (USA). ISBN 0-915826-22-4. XII, 195 pp
Howson, C.M.; Picton, B.E. (Ed.) (1997). The species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the British Isles and surrounding seas. Ulster Museum Publication, 276. The Ulster Museum: Belfast, UK. ISBN 0-948150-06-8. vi, 508
Gofas, S.; Le Renard, J.; Bouchet, P. (2001). Mollusca, in: Costello, M.J. et al. (Ed.) (2001). European register of marine species: a check-list of the marine species in Europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification. Collection Patrimoines Naturels, 50: pp. 180–213
W. Baluk. 2003. Middle Miocene (Badenian) gastropods from Korytnica, Poland; Part IV – Turridae. Acta Geological Polonica 53(1):29-78
Mariottini P., Smriglio C., Di Giulio A. & Oliverio M. 2009. A new fossil conoidean from the Pliocene of Italy, with comments on the Bela menkhorsti complex (Gastropoda: Conidae). Journal of Conchology 40(1): 5-14


== External links ==

Gray J.E. (1847). On the classification of the British Mollusca by W E Leach. Annals and Magazine of Natural History. ser. 1, 20: 267-273
P Bartsch. ""The Nomenclatorial Status of Certain Northern Turritid Mollusks""; Proceedings of the biological Society of Washington 54, 1-14, 1941
Della Bella G., Naldi F. & Scarponi D. (2015). Molluschi marini del Plio-Pleistocene dell'Emilia-Romagna e della Toscana - Superfamiglia Conoidea, vol. 4, Mangeliidae II. Lavori della Società Italiana di Malacologia. 26: 1-80
Worldwide Mollusc Species Data Base: Mangeliidae
Tucker, J.K. 2004 Catalog of recent and fossil turrids (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Zootaxa 682:1-1295."
Epiglottitis,"Epiglottitis is the inflammation of the epiglottis—the flap at the base of the tongue that prevents food entering the trachea (windpipe). Symptoms are usually rapid in onset and include trouble swallowing which can result in drooling, changes to the voice, fever, and an increased breathing rate. As the epiglottis is in the upper airway, swelling can interfere with breathing. People may lean forward in an effort to open the airway. As the condition worsens, stridor and bluish skin may occur.
Epiglottitis was historically mostly caused by infection by H. influenzae type b (commonly referred to as ""Hib""). Following the introduction of the Hib vaccine, pediatric cases of epiglottitis fell from 3.47 cases per 100,000 children in 1980 to 0.63 cases in 1990 such that it is now more often caused by other bacteria, most commonly Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, or Staphylococcus aureus. Predisposing factors include burns and trauma to the area. The most accurate way to make the diagnosis is to look directly at the epiglottis. X-rays of the neck from the side may show a ""thumbprint sign"" but the lack of this sign does not mean the condition is absent.
An effective vaccine, the Hib vaccine, has been available since the 1980s. The antibiotic rifampicin may also be used to prevent the disease among those who have been exposed to the disease and are at high risk. The most important part of treatment involves securing the airway, which is often done by endotracheal intubation. Intravenous antibiotics such as ceftriaxone and possibly vancomycin or clindamycin is then given. Corticosteroids are also typically used. With appropriate treatment, the risk of death among children with the condition is about one percent and among adults is seven percent.
With the use of the Hib vaccine, the number of cases of epiglottitis has decreased by more than 95%. Historically, young children were mostly affected, but it is now more common among older children and adults. In the United States, pediatric cases of epiglottitis fell from 3.47 cases per 100,000 children in 1980 to 0.63 cases in 1990 following the introduction of the Hib vaccinae, and it now affects about 1.3 per 100,000 children a year. In adults, between 1 and 4 per 100,000 are affected a year. It occurs more commonly in the developing world. In children the risk of death is about 6%; however, if they are intubated early, it is less than 1%.


== Signs and symptoms ==
Epiglottitis is associated with fever, throat pain, difficulty in swallowing, drooling, hoarseness of voice, and stridor. Onset is typically over a day. The throat itself may appear normal.

Stridor is a sign of upper airway obstruction and is a surgical emergency. The child often appears acutely ill, anxious, and will have very quiet shallow breathing often keeping the head held forward and insisting on sitting up in bed, commonly called the ""tripod position."" The early symptoms are usually insidious but rapidly progressive, and swelling of the throat may lead to cyanosis and asphyxiation.
Adults commonly present with less dramatic breathing symptoms than children due to them having wider airways to begin with, so their main symptoms are usually a severe sore throat and difficulty swallowing. The back of the throat appears normal in 90% of adult patients, so epiglottitis should considered when there is pain out of proportion to exam or when pain is caused by pressing on the external windpipe. Adult epiglottitis is often referred to as supraglottitis. In contrast to children, the symptoms are non-specific, sub-acute and can be unpredictable. 


== Causes ==
Epiglottitis is primarily caused by an acquired bacterial infection of the epiglottis. Historically it was most often caused by Haemophilus influenzae type B, but with the availability of immunization this is no longer the case. H. influenzae type B contains a capsule which helps it avoid being destroyed by macrophages and also contains surface proteins that allow it to stick to the lining of the upper respiratory tract. Presently, the bacteria most often causing infection are other encapsulated organisms including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. These bacteria spread in respiratory droplets or aerosols produced from coughing and sneezing. While the overall incidence of epiglottitis has decreased, the incidence of cases caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae has increased in adults. The exact strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae are often those that are covered by the PPV-23 vaccine, but there is no evidence that this vaccine prevents epiglottitis.
There have been many cases of epiglottitis reported in immunocompromised patients, including those undergoing cancer treatment and those who are HIV positive. While a variety of different bacteria can cause disease in these patients, cases often involve the Candida species of fungus, though it is unknown if the fungus causes significant disease on its own.
Alternate risk factors and causes associated with infection include burns and other trauma to the area. Medical research has also identified a link between epiglottitis and crack cocaine usage.  Underlying disorders of the immune system, such as graft-versus-host disease and lymphoproliferative disorders, have also been identified as contributors of increased risk for developing the infection .


== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis may be confirmed by direct inspection using a laryngoscope, although this may provoke airway spasm. If epiglottitis is suspected, attempts to visualize the epiglottis using a tongue depressor are discouraged for this reason; therefore, diagnosis is made on basis of indirect fiberoptic laryngoscopy carried out in a controlled environment like an operating room. An infected epiglottis appears swollen and is described as having a ""cherry-red"" appearance. Imaging is rarely useful, and treatment should not be delayed for this test to be carried out.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Imaging ===
On lateral C-spine X-ray, the thumbprint sign describes a swollen, enlarged epiglottis. A normal X-ray, however, does not exclude the diagnosis. An ultrasound may be helpful if specific changes are present, but its use (as of 2018) is in the early stages of study.
On CT imaging, the ""Halloween sign"" describes an epiglottis of normal thickness. It can safely exclude the acute epiglottitis. Furthermore, CT imaging can help to diagnose other conditions such as peritonsillar abscess or retropharyngeal abscess which have similar clinical features.


=== Necrotizing Epiglottitis ===
If there is visual or radiologic evidence that the infection has caused tissue destruction, the disease is called ""necrotizing epiglottitis"" (NE). The feared complication of NE is the bacteria spreading to the surrounding neck muscles and causing cervical necrotizing fasciitis which is a surgical emergency.


=== Differential Diagnosis ===
The differential diagnosis includes other infectious causes of acute airway obstruction, as well as acute or subacute mechanical causes. It includes, but is not limited to, the conditions below.

Retropharyngeal abscess
Peritonsillar abscess
Croup
Infectious mononucleosis
Diphtheria
Pertussis
Bacterial tracheitis
Ludwig's angina
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Foreign body obstruction
Obstructing tumor
Allergic reaction, including angioedema
Inhalation injury
Laryngospasm
Congenital structural defects in pediatric patients, including laryngomalacia


== Prevention ==
An effective vaccine, the Hib vaccine, has been available since the 1980s. Modern Hib vaccines are mainly conjugate vaccines, with the key component being the polysaccharide found in the bacteria's capsule which is its primary virulence factor. Currently, the CDC recommends that children receive a two or three-dose primary series with an additional booster dose. The countries of the world who have included the Hib vaccine in their immunization schedules typically begin the series at the age of two or three months with subsequent doses administered at four or eight week intervals. Routine vaccination in these nations has led to a dramatic decrease in the incidence of invasive diseases caused by H. influenzae type b such as epiglottitis, meningitis and pneumonia. It has been reported that epiglottitis cases have decreased by 95% since the 1980s following the introduction of the first Hib vaccine.
The antibiotic rifampicin may also be used to prevent the disease among those who have been exposed to the disease and are at high risk.


== Management ==
The most important part of treatment involves securing the airway. Nebulized epinephrine may be useful to improve the situation temporarily. Corticosteroids are also typically used. However, there is poor evidence for whether steroids actually improve patient outcomes. Epiglottitis may require urgent tracheal intubation to protect the airway. Tracheal intubation can be difficult due to distorted anatomy and profuse secretions. Spontaneous respiration is ideally maintained until tracheal intubation is successful. A surgical airway opening (cricothyrotomy) may be required if intubation is not possible. The management of epiglottitis is different in adults compared to children. Emergent tracheal intubation with general anesthesia (inhalational induction to preserve spontaneous ventilation) in the operating theater is standard. However only 10% of adults require airway intervention, which means a selective approach is required. Tracheal intubation is a high risk scenario with a 1 in 25 failure rate in adults. Multiple airway management techniques have described for adults and include: awake tracheostomy, awake fibreoptic intubation, general anesthesia with spontaneous breathing preserved or ablated with paralysis. The optimal technique is controversial and likely determined by contextual factors such as the severity of epiglottitis and the clinical location (ie emergency department or intensive care or the operating room). Ideally airway intervention should occur in the operating room with an otolaryngology surgeon present to perform an emergency tracheostomy in the event of complete airway obstruction or failed intubation.
Intravenous antibiotics such as ceftriaxone and possibly vancomycin or clindamycin are given once the airway is secure. A third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone is usually sufficient since it is usually effective against H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae. If S. aureus is suspected to be causing the disease, then the treatment should include ceftaroline or clindamycin as these would provide coverage against antibiotic resistant strains of that bacteria (MRSA). Vancomycin can also be considered for its MRSA coverage, but it may be less safe than ceftaroline in children older than two months. If the patient has a penicillin allergy, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, clindamycin, or levofloxacin may be appropriate choices.
Necrotizing epiglottitis is treated similarly to uncomplicated epiglottitis, but usually requires intubation in addition to standard IV antibiotic therapy. If the tissue damage continues to spread and necrotizing fasciitis of the neck is suspected, patients are taken to the operating room for emergency debridement.


== Prognosis ==
With appropriate treatment, the risk of death among children with the condition is about one percent and among adults is seven percent. Elsewhere, it has been reported that only one percent of adults diagnosed with epiglottitis die from the disease. Some people may develop pneumonia, lymphadenopathy, or septic arthritis.
Between 1998 and 2006, there were an average of 36 deaths per year in the United States attributed to epiglottitis, giving a case-fatality rate of 0.89% during that time period.
Patients who recover from necrotizing epiglottitis often regain their ability to swallow foods and liquids despite the tissue damage.


== Epidemiology ==
While, historically, young children were mostly affected, it is now more common among older children and adults. Before Haemophilus influenzae (Hib) immunization children of two to four were most commonly affected. With immunization about 1.3 per 100,000 children are affected a year. It has been reported that only 0.5 per 100,000 American children are diagnosed every year, while the incidence in American adults is about 1 to 4 per 100,000. A 2010 retrospective study revealed the average age of patients admitted to American hospitals for epiglottitis was about 45, but patients under the age of 1 and over the age of 85 are also particularly vulnerable.


== Notable cases ==
Bill Bixby's 6-year-old son Christopher died of the condition in 1981.
Jeannie Mai spent some time in an ICU with epiglottitis.
Sarah Silverman spent a week in the ICU at Cedars Sinai Hospital with epiglottitis.
George Washington is thought to have died of epiglottitis. The treatments given to Washington, such as severe bloodletting, an enema, vinegar, sage, molasses, butter, blistering his throat with Spanish fly, requiring him to swallow mercurous chloride and antimony potassium tartrate, and applying wheat poultices to various parts of the body, are no longer used.
Jin of BTS announced in a 2022 video that he had been diagnosed with epiglottitis.
Wes Moore's father died of epiglottitis when Moore was four years old.


== References ==


== External links ==

Medscape"
Cost of goods sold,"Cost of goods sold (COGS) (also cost of products sold (COPS), or cost of sales) is the carrying value of goods sold during a particular period.
Costs are associated with particular goods using one of the several formulas, including specific identification, first-in first-out (FIFO), or average cost. Costs include all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs that are incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. Costs of goods made by the businesses include material, labor, and allocated overhead. The costs of those goods which are not yet sold are deferred as costs of inventory until the inventory is sold or written down in value.


== Overview ==
Many businesses sell goods that they have bought or produced. When the goods are bought or produced, the costs associated with such goods are capitalized as part of inventory (or stock) of goods. These costs are treated as an expense in the period the business recognizes income from sale of the goods.
Determining costs requires keeping records of goods or materials purchased and any discounts on such purchase. In addition, if the goods are modified, the business must determine the costs incurred in modifying the goods. Such modification costs include labor, supplies or additional material, supervision, quality control, and use of equipment. Principles for determining costs may be easily stated, but application in practice is often difficult due to a variety of considerations in the allocation of costs.
Cost of goods sold may also reflect adjustments. Among the potential adjustments are decline in value of the goods (i.e., lower market value than cost), obsolescence, damage, etc.
When multiple goods are bought or made, it may be necessary to identify which costs relate to which particular goods sold. This may be done using an identification convention, such as specific identification of the goods, first-in-first-out (FIFO), or average cost. Alternative systems may be used in some countries, such as last-in-first-out (LIFO), gross profit method, retail method, or a combinations of these.
Cost of goods sold may be the same or different for accounting and tax purposes, depending on the rules of the particular jurisdiction. Certain expenses are included in COGS. Expenses that are included in COGS cannot be deducted again as a business expense. COGS expenses include: 

The cost of products or raw materials, including freight or shipping charges;
The direct labor costs of workers who produce the products;
The cost of storing products the business sells;
Factory overhead expenses.


== Importance of inventories ==
Inventories have a significant effect on profits. A business that produces or buys goods to sell must keep track of inventories of goods under all accounting and income tax rules. An example illustrates why. Fred buys auto parts and resells them. In 2008, Fred buys $100 worth of parts. He sells parts for $80 that he bought for $30, and has $70 worth of parts left. In 2009, he sells the remainder of the parts for $180. If he keeps track of inventory, his profit in 2008 is $50, and his profit in 2009 is $110, or $160 in total. If he deducted all the costs in 2008, he would have a loss of $20 in 2008 and a profit of $180 in 2009. The total is the same, but the timing is much different. Most countries' accounting and income tax rules (if the country has an income tax) require the use of inventories for all businesses that regularly sell goods they have made or bought.


== Cost of goods for resale ==
Cost of goods purchased for resale includes purchase price as well as all other costs of acquisitions, excluding any discounts.
Additional costs may include freight paid to acquire the goods, customs duties, sales or use taxes not recoverable paid on materials used, and fees paid for acquisition. For financial reporting purposes such period costs as purchasing department, warehouse, and other operating expenses are usually not treated as part of inventory or cost of goods sold. For U.S. income tax purposes, some of these period costs must be capitalized as part of inventory. Costs of selling, packing, and shipping goods to customers are treated as operating expenses related to the sale. Both International and U.S. accounting standards require that certain abnormal costs, such as those associated with idle capacity, must be treated as expenses rather than part of inventory.
Discounts that must be deducted from the costs of purchased inventory are the following:

Trade discounts (reduction in the price of goods that a manufacturer or wholesaler provides to a retailer) – includes a discount that is always allowed, regardless of the time of payment.
Manufacturer's rebates – based on the dealer's purchases during the year.
Cash discounts (a reduction in the invoice price that the seller provides if the dealer pays immediately or within a specified time) – may reduce COGS, or may be treated separately as gross income.
Value added tax is generally not treated as part of cost of goods sold if it may be used as an input credit or is otherwise recoverable from the taxing authority.


== Cost of goods made by the business ==
The cost of goods produced in the business should include all costs of production. The key components of cost generally include:

Parts, raw materials and supplies used,
Labor, including associated costs such as payroll taxes and benefits, and
Overhead of the business allocated to production.
Most businesses make more than one of a particular item. Thus, costs are incurred for multiple items rather than a particular item sold. Determining how much of each of these components to allocate to particular goods requires either tracking the particular costs or making some allocations of costs. Parts and raw materials are often tracked to particular sets (e.g., batches or production runs) of goods, then allocated to each item.
Labor costs include direct labor and indirect labor. Direct labor costs are the wages paid to those employees who spend all their time working directly on the product being manufactured. Indirect labor costs are the wages paid to other factory employees involved in production. Costs of payroll taxes and fringe benefits are generally included in labor costs, but may be treated as overhead costs. Labor costs may be allocated to an item or set of items based on timekeeping records.
Costs of materials include direct raw materials, as well as supplies and indirect materials. Where non-incidental amounts of supplies are maintained, the taxpayer must keep inventories of the supplies for income tax purposes, charging them to expense or cost of goods sold as used rather than as purchased.
Materials and labor may be allocated based on past experience, or standard costs. Where materials or labor costs for a period fall short of or exceed the expected amount of standard costs, a variance is recorded. Such variances are then allocated among cost of goods sold and remaining inventory at the end of the period.
Determining overhead costs often involves making assumptions about what costs should be associated with production activities and what costs should be associated with other activities. Traditional cost accounting methods attempt to make these assumptions based on past experience and management judgment as to factual relationships. Activity based costing attempts to allocate costs based on those factors that drive the business to incur the costs.
Overhead costs are often allocated to sets of produced goods based on the ratio of labor hours or costs or the ratio of materials used for producing the set of goods. Overhead costs may be referred to as factory overhead or factory burden for those costs incurred at the plant level or overall burden for those costs incurred at the organization level. Where labor hours are used, a burden rate or overhead cost per hour of labor may be added along with labor costs. Other methods may be used to associate overhead costs with particular goods produced. Overhead rates may be standard rates, in which case there may be variances, or may be adjusted for each set of goods produced.


== Identification conventions ==
In some cases, the cost of goods sold may be identified with the item sold. Ordinarily, however, the identity of goods is lost between the time of purchase or manufacture and the time of sale. Determining which goods have been sold, and the cost of those goods, requires either identifying the goods or using a convention to assume which goods were sold. This may be referred to as a cost flow assumption or inventory identification assumption or convention. The following methods are available in many jurisdictions for associating costs with goods sold and goods still on hand:

Specific identification. Under this method, particular items are identified, and costs are tracked with respect to each item. This may require considerable recordkeeping. This method cannot be used where the goods or items are indistinguishable or fungible.
Average cost. The average cost method relies on average unit cost to calculate cost of units sold and ending inventory. Several variations on the calculation may be used, including weighted average and moving average.
First-In First-Out (FIFO) assumes that the items purchased or produced first are sold first. Costs of inventory per unit or item are determined at the time produces or purchased. The oldest cost (i.e., the first in) is then matched against revenue and assigned to cost of goods sold.
Last-In First-Out (LIFO) is the reverse of FIFO. Some systems permit determining the costs of goods at the time acquired or made, but assigning costs to goods sold under the assumption that the goods made or acquired last are sold first. Costs of specific goods acquired or made are added to a pool of costs for the type of goods. Under this system, the business may maintain costs under FIFO but track an offset in the form of a LIFO reserve. Such reserve (an asset or contra-asset) represents the difference in cost of inventory under the FIFO and LIFO assumptions. Such amount may be different for financial reporting and tax purposes in the United States.
Dollar Value LIFO. Under this variation of LIFO, increases or decreases in the LIFO reserve are determined based on dollar values rather than quantities.
Retail inventory method. Resellers of goods may use this method to simplify record keeping. The calculated cost of goods on hand at the end of a period is the ratio of cost of goods acquired to the retail value of the goods times the retail value of goods on hand. Cost of goods acquired includes beginning inventory as previously valued plus purchases. Cost of goods sold is then beginning inventory plus purchases less the calculated cost of goods on hand at the end of the period.


== Example ==
Jane owns a business that resells machines. At the start of 2009, she has no machines or parts on hand. She buys machines A and B for 10 each, and later buys machines C and D for 12 each. All the machines are the same, but they have serial numbers. Jane sells machines A and C for 20 each. Her cost of goods sold depends on her inventory method. Under specific identification, the cost of goods sold is 10 + 12, the particular costs of machines A and C. If she uses FIFO, her costs are 20 (10+10). If she uses average cost, her costs are 22 ( (10+10+12+12)/4 x 2). If she uses LIFO, her costs are 24 (12+12). Thus, her profit for accounting and tax purposes may be 20, 18, or 16, depending on her inventory method. After the sales, her inventory values are either 20, 22 or 24.
After year end, Jane decides she can make more money by improving machines B and D. She buys and uses 10 of parts and supplies, and it takes 6 hours at 2 per hour to make the improvements to each machine. Jane has overhead, including rent and electricity. She calculates that the overhead adds 0.5 per hour to her costs. Thus, Jane has spent 20 to improve each machine (10/2 + 12 + (6 x 0.5) ). She sells machine D for 45. Her cost for that machine depends on her inventory method. If she used FIFO, the cost of machine D is 12 plus 20 she spent improving it, for a profit of 13. Remember, she used up the two 10 cost items already under FIFO. If she uses average cost, it is 11 plus 20, for a profit of 14. If she used LIFO, the cost would be 10 plus 20 for a profit of 15.
In year 3, Jane sells the last machine for 38 and quits the business. She recovers the last of her costs. Her total profits for the three years are the same under all inventory methods. Only the timing of income and the balance of inventory differ. Here is a comparison under FIFO, Average Cost, and LIFO:


== Write-downs and allowances ==
The value of goods held for sale by a business may decline due to a number of factors. The goods may prove to be defective or below normal quality standards (subnormal). The goods may become obsolete. The market value of the goods may simply decline due to economic factors.
Where the market value of goods has declined for whatever reasons, the business may choose to value its inventory at the lower of cost or market value, also known as net realizable value. This may be recorded by accruing an expense (i.e., creating an inventory reserve) for declines due to obsolescence, etc. Current period net income as well as net inventory value at the end of the period is reduced for the decline in value.
Any property held by a business may decline in value or be damaged by unusual events, such as a fire. The loss of value where the goods are destroyed is accounted for as a loss, and the inventory is fully written off. Generally, such loss is recognized for both financial reporting and tax purposes. However, book and tax amounts may differ under some systems.


== Alternative views ==
Alternatives to traditional cost accounting have been proposed by various management theorists. These include:

Throughput accounting, under the Theory of Constraints, under which only totally variable costs are included in cost of goods sold and inventory is treated as investment.
Lean accounting, in which most traditional costing methods are ignored in favor of measuring weekly ""value streams"".
Resource consumption accounting, which discards most current accounting concepts in favor of proportional costing based on simulations.
None of these views conform to U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or International Accounting Standards, nor are any accepted for most income or other tax reporting purposes.


== Other terms ==
Net sales = gross sales – (customer discounts, returns, and allowances)
Gross profit = net sales – cost of goods sold
Operating profit = gross profit – total operating expenses
Net profit = operating profit – taxes – interest
Net profit = net sales – cost of goods sold – operating expense – taxes – interest


== See also ==
Accounting standards
Average cost method
Cost of revenue
Gross margin
Income tax in the US
Inventory
List of business and finance abbreviations


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Fox, Stephen C, Income Tax in the USA chapter 23, 2013 edition ISBN 978-0-9851-8233-5, ASIN B00BCSNOGG.
Horngren, Charles T., et al.: Cost Accounting:  A Managerial Emphasis ISBN 978-0-1329-6064-9 ASIN B00B6F3AWI.
Kieso, Donald E; Weygandt, Jerry J.; and Warfield, Terry D.:  Intermediate Accounting, Chapters 8 and 9.  ISBN 978-0-4705-8723-2 ASIN B006PKWD8G.
Kinney, Michael R.:  Cost Accounting: Foundations and Evolutions.  ISBN 978-1-1119-7172-4.
Lanen, William, et al.:  ""Fundamentals of Cost Accounting.  ISBN 978-0-0735-2711-6 ASIN B005MR88U0.
Walter, Larry:  Principles of Accounting, Chapter 8, Inventory.


=== Formal guidance ===
International Accounting Standards IAS 2, Inventories.
U.S. Internal Revenue Service Publication 334, Tax Guide for Small Business, pages 27–29.
U.S. Financial Accounting Standards Board ASC 330."
E-Flexer-class ferry,"The E-Flexer is a class of Chinese-built Ro-Pax ferries ordered by Stena RoRo for European line service. There are twelve vessels that have been built; they are operated by Stena Line, Brittany Ferries, DFDS Seaways and Marine Atlantic. There are three vessels on order and upon delivery, they will be operated by Corsica Linea and Attica Group. Stena Line took five vessels of the class, Brittany Ferries five (four powered by LNG, two of which are also hybrid electric), and a single vessel each to DFDS and Marine Atlantic, of which the latter's vessel is also hybrid electric. All of the vessels were delivered to Stena RoRo with the Stena Line vessels transferred to that company and the Brittany Ferries, DFDS and Marine Atlantic examples long-term chartered to those operators, with an option to purchase at the end of the charter.


== History ==
Following about two years of design work, Stena ordered the first four vessels of the class from Chinese shipbuilder AVIC Weihai (now China Merchants Jinling Shipyard) in April 2016, with options for four more ships.  Stena originally planned to utilize the four ferries on Irish Sea services out of Belfast, but later agreed to charter the third ship in the series to Brittany Ferries.  In February 2018, the keel was laid for the first ship, with her delivery scheduled for early 2020.  Stena RoRo ordered a fifth ship in April 2018, which will enter service with DFDS Seaways on a ten-year charter upon delivery. The following month, Stena RoRo ordered a sixth ship, to be placed with Brittany Ferries on a ten-year charter beginning in late 2021.  Construction on the second ship in the class began in June 2018. In July, Stena Line ordered two more ships, accounting for all the options in the original 2016 order, while Stena RoRo announced that it had agreed to take new options for four more vessels.


=== Service ===
The first ship in the class, named Stena Estrid, was launched in January 2019 and was delivered in China on 15 November. On arrival in Holyhead, faulty seals on over 20 windows were discovered. Repairs were carried out prior to her maiden voyage, which took place on 13 January 2020. She is regularly operated on Stena's route between Holyhead and Dublin.
Stena Edda, the second E-flexer earmarked for Stena Line's fleet, was delivered to Stena RoRo on 15 January 2020. Following bunkering in Singapore and Gibraltar, and an outside port limits call at Galle, the crew travelling from Weihai were also checked by local authorities for coronavirus infection, with no evidence of the disease being present. She entered service on Stena's route between Belfast and Birkenhead, where Stena Embla, the third ship of the series, is planned to operate upon her delivery in early 2021.
Galicia was delivered on 3 September 2020, with her entry into service in 2021. She operates out of Portsmouth, England, to Santander, Spain and Cherbourg, France. Brittany Ferries took delivery of Salamanca in 2022, followed by Santoña in 2023. On 20 July 2021, Brittany Ferries announced that 2 more E-Flexer ships are due to enter service between 2024 and 2025, replacing Bretagne and Normandie. These two vessels, named Saint Malo and Guillaume De Normandie will be shortened to about 195 m (639 ft 9 in) in order to comply with St. Malo port restrictions, are due to operate between Portsmouth and St. Malo (codename Bretagne II) and Portsmouth and Caen/Ouistreham (codename Normandie II). These will be ships 11 and 12.
The fifth ship in the series, operated by DFDS, is called Côte d'Opale. She differs significantly from the other E-Flexer vessels as she has additional public spaces in areas where passenger cabins are located on the Stena Line and Brittany Ferries ships. The drastic changes from the rest of the E-Flexer class come about from the fact that she is running on the Dover-Calais cross-channel service, which is a short crossing - only taking 90 minutes from Dover to Calais.
On 4 August 2021, the Côte d'Opale entered service, replacing DFDS's older 1991 Boelwerf-built Calais Seaways.
The day after Brittany Ferries ordered two additional E-Flexers, Marine Atlantic ordered an E-Flexer. This vessel will be slightly shorter than the standard E-Flexer at 202.9 m (665 ft 8 in) and will run on Marine Atlantic's two routes, connecting the North Sydney-Port aux Basques-Argentia triangle.
In mid-2024 two other ferries, intended for Attica Group, were ordered for delivery in 2027.


== Design ==

E-Flexer-class ships were designed by Stena and Deltamarin, and built in China by China Merchants Shipyards (formerly part of AVIC). The basic concept of the E-Flexer follows a standardised design using (by default configuration) one full passenger deck, two mixed use decks, and two full-length garages for road traffic, plus a smaller garage in the ship's lower hull. Ships of the class are powered by two engines instead of four, which is said to reduce fuel consumption alongside a specialised hull design. The standard design is 214.5 m (703 ft 9 in) long by 27.8 m (91 ft 2 in) wide, however the design can be lengthened and shortened, and the interior can be tailored according to the operator's needs.
The first five ships to be built are each powered by two MaK M43C diesel engines, with a total power output of 25,200 kilowatts (33,800 hp), driving two propellers that give the ships a service speed of 22 knots (25 mph). Those engines are designed to be compatible with liquefied natural gas (LNG) fuel after modifications.  Brittany Ferries' second and third (Salamanca and Santoña) ships will be modified to be capable of running on LNG from delivery, though both will have reduced freight capacity as a result of the space occupied by their LNG tanks.  All of the E-Flexer ships ordered to date will be ice-classed, either to 1A or 1C requirements.


=== Subclasses ===


==== Stena Line (standard) ====
The standard Stenas, ships #1-#3 (Stena Estrid, Edda and Embla), are the first ships of E-Flexers delivered, with all being delivered between 2019 and 2020. They have a fully-passenger Deck 8 (upper deck) and partial -passenger Deck 7. Deck 7 houses a restaurant overlooking the bow of the ship, with a car garage to the stern. Deck 8 houses numerous amenities at the bow, with the stern section housing passenger cabins.


==== Stena Line (extended) ====
The extended Stenas are ships #7 and #8 (Stena Estelle, Stena Ebba) of the class. These ships follow much the same layout as the original standard-length Stena E-Flexers, however these are extended to 240 m (787 ft 5 in) long. With the extension in the ship's length, lane space is increased by 500 lane metres to 3600lm. Stena Ebba is not to be confused with Stena Edda which is smaller sister ship in the preceding standard E-Flexer class.


==== Brittany Ferries (standard) ====
The standard Brittany Ferries (Galicia, Salamanca and Santoña) follow a very similar design to Stenas Estrid, Edda and Embla, with the chief differences being an extended superstructure and with the Deck 7 car deck being cut in favour of passenger cabins, turning Deck 7 into a full passenger deck. Salamanca and Santoña will be capable of running on liquefied natural gas from launch, while the Galicia will be able to convert at a later date. Due to LNG tanks taking up some lane metres on the latter two, lane metres on the combined two decks will be reduced from 3100lm to 2758lm.


==== Brittany Ferries (shortened) ====
Two E-Flexers (Saint-Malo and Guillaume de Normandie, christened on 28 March 2025 in Ouistreham), will be built to the shortened specification. These are shortened to 194.7 m (638 ft 9 in) length in order to comply with St. Malo harbour restrictions. Saint-Malo is due to replace the 1989 Bretagne while the Guillaume de Normandie will replace the 1992 Normandie. Guillaume de Normandie will follow a similar layout to the standard Brittanies, while Saint-Malo will sacrifice additional lane metres for cabin space. Guillaume de Normandie will have some 2100lm of garage space, with the Saint-Malo instead using 1100lm. Uniquely, these two ships will be hybrid electric, with capability of sailing out of harbour on 11 MWh battery electric power. The Saint-Malo was delivered on 15 October 2024 and entered service on February the 12th 2025. Guillaume de Normandie was delivered a few months after Saint Malo and took-over from the Normandie on April 18th 2025.


==== Attica Group - Superfast Ferries ====
On June 28, 2024 it was announced that Stena RoRo had placed an order for two additional E-Flexers (ships #14 and #15) to be delivered to the Greek shipping company Attica Group (owner of the Superfast Ferries brand). These two newbuildings, as yet unnamed, will be 240 m (787 ft 5 in) long and thus share the hull with ships #7 and #8 (Stena Estelle and Stena Ebba), despite having much less lane space (3320 lm to 3600 lm). Both ships will be methanol-ready and will feature an hybrid propulsion as-built. The Attica Group and Stena RoRo agreed a 10-year bareboat charter scheme, including a purchase option as from the end of the 5th year of hire period. The ships will be delivered in April and August 2027.


=== Custom E-Flexer builds ===


==== Côte d'Opale (DFDS) ====
The Côte D'Opale is one of three unique E-Flexer newbuilds. Her design sacrifices cabins completely on Deck 8 in favour of passenger amenities, alongside being outfitted with a so-called ""cow catcher"" on the bow and sliding doors at the rear. These changes were made in order for her to be suitable for service on the highly intensive Dover-Calais sailing, which only lasts 1 hour 30 minutes and utilises shore-to-ship ramps instead of the conventional ship-to-shore ramps used elsewhere.


==== Ala'suinu (Marine Atlantic) ====
The vessel for Marine Atlantic is the second unique E-Flexer. She, dubbed Ala'suinu (Mi'kmaq for Traveller), is a slightly shortened variant of the standard E-Flexer, though longer than the shortened Brittany ships on order, at 202.9 m (665 ft 8 in) long. She is able to carry 1100 passengers and 2571 lane metres of vehicle space, and, like the St. Malo Brittany Ferries ships, is be capable of running on marine diesel or liquid natural gas, with hybrid electric propulsion. Like the Brittany Ferries' ships, the car deck on Deck 7 has been sacrificed for additional cabin space. The ship was delivered to Stena RoRo and Marine Atlantic on 7 February 2024.


==== Capu Rossu (Corsica Linea) ====
On January 8, 2024, it was announced that Stena RoRo had secured a contract with Corsica Linea to deliver an E-Flexer, marking the first time Stena RoRo secured a contract to deliver a ship to a Mediterranean operator. This ship will be based on the same hull form as Marine Atlantic's Ala'suinu, and by extension will measure the same at 202.9 m (665 ft 8 in) long. The new Capu Rossu will have 2,500 lane metres of rolling cargo space, 235 passenger cabins and capacity for 1,000 passengers, with LNG capability and hybrid propulsion as-built. 


==== Unbuilt E-Flexers ====


===== Interislander =====
There was also a concept for a ship of this class for Interislander (Island E-Flexer), which was never realised.


== Specifications ==


== References =="
Eynsham,"Eynsham   is a village and civil parish in the West Oxfordshire district, in Oxfordshire, England, about 5 miles (8 km) north-west of Oxford and east of Witney. The 2011 Census recorded a parish population of 4,648. It was estimated at 5,087 in 2020.


== Etymology ==
Eynsham's name is first attested in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took its present form in the later ninth century, as Egonesham. (The Chronicle portrays the settlement as one of four captured by a West Saxon named Cuthwulf in 571 CE following the Battle of Bedcanford. The historicity of the battle is, however, in doubt.) The name is thought to derive from the Old English personal name Ægen, in its genitive form Ægenes, combined with the word hamm (""river-meadow""). Thus the name once meant ""Ægen's river-meadow"".


== History ==

Eynsham grew up near the historically important ford of Swinford on the River Thames flood plain. Excavations have shown that the site was used in the Bronze Age (3000–300 BCE) for a rectilinear enclosure edging a gravel terrace. Evidence has been found of 6th–7th-century Saxon buildings at New Wintles Farm, about three-quarters of a mile (1 km) from the present parish church. There is evidence that Eynsham had an early minster, probably founded in the 7th or 8th centuries. In the reign of the early ninth-century Mercian king Cenwulf, Eynsham was the site of a royal manor of three-hundred hides.: 32 
In 1005 Aethelmar, kinsman of Aethelred II founded a Benedictine abbey on the site of the earlier minster. The first abbot was Ælfric of Eynsham, a prolific writer in Old English. The Domesday Book of 1086 includes a paragraph on the settlement, then known as Eglesham.  By 1302 Eynsham had a wharf handling cargo that included hay, straw, malt, grain and timber, beside the later Talbot Inn on Wharf Stream, a tributary of the Thames. By the medieval period Eynsham Abbey was among the largest in the area. It succumbed to the Reformation in 1538 and few remains can be seen today. After the dissolution, its estates were granted to Sir George Darcy.
By 1790 a newly completed Oxford Canal was trading with Eynsham Wharf, mainly to sell coal from the Midlands. From 1792 the Oxford Canal employed a wharfinger at Eynsham and in 1800 bought the lease of the wharf. It consolidated its position by buying the Talbot Inn in 1845 and the freehold of Eynsham Wharf in 1849, perhaps in response to the railway mania that was taking traffic from canals and navigations. Eynsham Lock, on the Thames just above the confluence with Wharf Stream, was the last flash lock on the Thames, not rebuilt as a pound lock until 1928. The village suffered several fires in its history. Among the worst were a Whit Monday morning one in 1629, which destroyed 12 houses and another in 1681 that destroyed 20. By the early 19th century the parish had its own fire engine in a parish fire station on the ground floor of the early 18th-century Bartholomew Room, where it remained up to 1949.
The Bartholomew Room was built in 1703 from an endowment of John Liam Bartholomew in 1701 to found a parish charity school. Its lower storey was arcaded, presumably as market premises, but the arcades were walled up in the later 19th century. While some parts of the ground floor continued to serve as the fire station; others were turned into a village gaol. From 1928, a local Roman Catholic congregation used the upper room for its services. In 1983 the parish council bought and restored the building.


=== Roads ===

By the mid-18th century, Swinford had a ferry, but the main road was in poor condition. Heavier road traffic between Oxford and Witney preferred to pass further north via Bladon, where the better-maintained Oxford–Woodstock and Witney–Woodstock roads met. When the latter became a turnpike in 1751, the road via Eynsham and Swinford ferry was included as a branch. In 1769 the Earl of Abingdon opened Swinford Toll Bridge to replace the ferry. The Witney–Woodstock road ceased to be a turnpike in 1869, but the Witney–Oxford road remained one until 1877. Eynsham was a major coaching stop on the London–Fishguard road. Since 1922 this has been numbered as the A40. There is a planned expansion of the A40 between Eynsham and Witney into a dual carriage way, with work expected to commence in 2023 should planning permission be granted. In 1936 a bypass for the main road was built north of the village and the road over Swinford bridge renumbered as B4044.


=== Rail ===
The Witney Railway between Witney and Yarnton opened through Eynsham parish in 1861. The station was on the south side of the village. The Great Western Railway took over the line in 1890 and enlarged Eynsham station in 1944. British Railways closed the line to passenger trains in 1962 and in 1970 to goods traffic. The track was dismantled. The station has since been demolished and a business park built there. In February 2015 the Witney Oxford Transport Group proposed reopening the station as an alternative to improving the A40 road as proposed by Oxfordshire County Council. The case centred on the severe traffic congestion on the roads to and from Oxford.


=== Industry ===
Local industries include gravel extraction and a factory for superconducting magnets, Siemens Magnet Technology Ltd.


== Churches ==


=== Church of England ===
The Church of England parish church, St Leonard's, was built the 13th century. In the 15th, the nave was rebuilt, a clerestory and north aisle were added and a west tower was built. There are Mass dials on the south wall. The building was restored three times: by William Wilkinson in 1856, Harry Drinkwater in 1892 and over eight years in the 1980s.  The west tower has a ring of six bells. James Keene of Woodstock cast the third in 1653. Richard Keene cast the fifth in 1673. John Taylor & Co of Loughborough cast or recast the treble, second, fourth and tenor bells in 1895. The church also has a Sanctus bell that Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry cast in 1924.  St Leonard's is a Grade II* listed building.


=== Baptist ===
The Baptist church in Lombard Street was opened in either 1808 or 1818.


=== Roman Catholic ===
In 1895 Herbert May founded a Roman Catholic mission at his home, Newland Lodge. The lodge burnt down in 1897, after which Mass was said at the Railway Inn until May had a new house built for him. The mission closed when May moved to Oxford. In 1928 the Roman Catholic parish of Witney leased the upper storey of the Bartholomew Room, making it St Peter's Chapel. Building of a new Roman Catholic church began in the 1930s but was delayed by the Second World War and completed only in 1967.


== Amenities ==
Eynsham Primary School is a community primary school. Eynsham's Bartholomew School is the county secondary school for the district. As a specialist technology college, it draws pupils mainly from primaries at Eynsham, Standlake, Stanton Harcourt, Freeland, Cassington and Hanborough.
Eynsham Football Club plays in the Oxfordshire Senior League Division One. Eynsham Sports and Social Club plays in Witney and District Football League Division Three and its reserve team in Division Four. Eynsham Cricket Club plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division Three.
Eynsham has a Women's Institute and a Morris dancing troupe.


== Notable residents ==
In order of birth:

Dida of Eynsham (late 7th century), a Mercian noble
Ælfric of Eynsham (c. 955 – c. 1010), a monk, abbot and religious writer
Adam of Eynsham (early 13th century), a monk, abbot and writer
Anthony Kitchin (1471–1563) became Abbot of Eynsham, then Bishop of Llandaff.
Thomas Jordan (c. 1612–1685), child actor and poet, may have been born in Eynsham, where his family had land.
John Deval (1710–1774), Master Mason to the King
E. K. Chambers (1866–1954), Shakespeare scholar and local historian, retired to Eynsham and died there.
Eric Gordon (1905–1992), Bishop of Sodor and Man, retired to Eynsham and died there.
Mollie Harris (1913–1995), actress and author, lived in Eynsham and wrote a book about it: From Acre End, 1982.
Kingsley Amis (1922-1995), author, lived in Eynsham with his wife Hilary Amis in 1948 where she gave birth to their first child, Philip.
Tommy Vance (1940–2005) was a BBC Radio 1 and Virgin Radio disc jockey born in Eynsham.
Anthony J. Batten (born 1940), Canadian visual artist, was born at Eynsham Hall.
Marc Hudson (born 1987), singer for power metal band DragonForce


== See also ==
Crossings of the River Thames
Locks on the River Thames
Tilgarsley


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Aston, Michael; Bond, James (1976). The Landscape of Towns. Archaeology in the Field Series. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. pp. 81–83, 97–98. ISBN 0-460-04194-0.
Blair, John (1994). Anglo Saxon Oxfordshire. Stroud: Alan Sutton Publishing. p. 63. ISBN 0-7509-0147-0.
Chambers, Sir Edmund (1936). Eynsham Under the Monks. Vol. XVIII. Oxfordshire Record Society.
Compton, Hugh J (1976). The Oxford Canal. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. pp. 58–59. ISBN 0-7153-7238-6.
Crossley, Alan; Elrington, C.R, eds. (1990). A History of the County of Oxford. Victoria County History. Vol. 12: Wootton Hundred (South) including Woodstock. London: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Historical Research. pp. 98–158. ISBN 978-0-19722-774-9.
Emery, Frank (1974). The Oxfordshire Landscape. The Making of the English Landscape. London: Hodder & Stoughton. pp. 40, 42, 53, 55, 56, 111, 118, 148, 150, 163, 164, 167, 191, 192, 209. ISBN 0-340-04301-6.
Keevil, G.D. (1995). In Harvey's House and God's House. Thames Valley Landscape Series. Vol. 6. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. ISBN 0-904220-10-9.
Page, WH, ed. (1907). A History of the County of Oxford. Victoria County History. Vol. 2: Ecclesiastical History, etc. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co. p. 156.
Rowley, Trevor (1978). Villages in the Landscape. Archaeology in the Field Series. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. p. 137. ISBN 0-460-04166-5.
Sherwood, Jennifer; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1974). Oxfordshire. The Buildings of England. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. pp. 600–603. ISBN 0-14-071045-0.


== External links ==

Eynsham Online"
List of Claymore characters,"Claymore, a manga series by Norihiro Yagi, is set in a medieval world plagued by Yoma, humanoid shape-shifters that feed on humans. A mysterious group, known as the Organization, creates human-Yoma hybrids to exterminate Yoma for a fee. The public refer to these warriors as ""Claymores,"" alluding to their large swords, or ""Silver-eyed Witches,"" due to their silver eyes.


== Main characters ==
Clare (クレア, Kurea) Voiced by: Houko Kuwashima (Japanese); Stephanie Young, Cherami Leigh (Child) (English)
Clare is the series' protagonist. As a child, Clare's parents are killed by a Yoma disguised as Clare's brother; he and his pack force her to travel with them to deceive other victims Teresa destroys the pack in Teo village and inadvertently frees Clare. As Clare is an outcast, Teresa assumes responsibility for her. Condemned to death for desertion, Teresa decides to live for Clare. As a result, the Organization sends an execution team. Though Teresa defeats the team, an awakened Priscilla kills Teresa. Clare is converted into a Claymore and trains for years to attain the power necessary to kill Priscilla. As she is considered weak due to her Yoma abilities coming not from Yoma flesh but from the remains of Teresa, Clare is No. 47 - the lowest possible rank.
Teresa (テレサ, Teresa) Voiced by: Romi Park (Japanese); Christine Auten (English)
Teresa of the Faint Smile is so named as she has no apparent technique or personality trait — only her faint smile. Though she can sense Yoki flow in her opponents, she defeats Priscilla despite Priscilla's ability to hide her Yoki. Teresa is never seen using more than 10% Yoki in battle, yet consistently defeats more powerful opponents and holds the highest possible rank - No. 1. She adopts Clare, but is later killed by Priscilla. Clare takes Teresa's severed head and demands the Organization to use it in place of a Yoma to turn her into a Claymore.
Priscilla (プリシラ, Purishira) Voiced by: Aya Hisakawa (Japanese); Brina Palencia (English)
Priscilla is the main adversary of Clare. Priscilla is powerful enough to fight without Yoki, concealing her presence from sister warriors. Priscilla is assigned to lead an execution team against Teresa. Teresa defeats the team, despite Priscilla's Yoki concealment. In desperation, Priscilla begins releasing her Yoki and eventually kills Teresa. Priscilla fully awakens into a winged, one-horned demonic humanoid. She destroys the execution team, but ignores Clare. Priscilla flies to parts unknown. Eventually, Priscilla meets and defeats Isley and Rigaldo. Then she reverts to human form and regresses into childhood, losing her memory. Isley swears allegiance to Priscilla and promises to take Priscilla south. Later, she becomes attached to Raki, due to the scent of Teresa he carries, via his past exposure to Clare. Near the end of the anime, she regains her memories and battles Clare, believing her to be Teresa. Clare manages to defeat her, but before she can strike the killing blow, Raki protects Priscilla, telling Clare that she must not give into her desire for revenge as it would make her no better than a Yoma. Her life is spared, and Isley arrives to take her away with him as she again regressed to her childlike persona.
Miria (ミリア, Miria) Voiced by: Kikuko Inoue (Japanese); Monica Rial (English)
Miria plays the consummate leader in series. Her agility-based technique leaves afterimages, confusing opponents, earning her the nickname ""Phantom"" Miria. Miria secretly investigates the Organization after the death of a friend, Hilda, the target of an Awakened Hunt. At the end of the anime, she decides to leave the Organization, having grown disillusioned with its corruption and deception.
Deneve (デネヴ, Denevu) Voiced by: Hana Takeda (Japanese); Caitlin Glass (English)
Deneve is a Northern Campaign survivor that displays high regenerative ability. Deneve forms a close friendship with Helen early on, and after the Paburo Hunt, Deneve bonds with Miria and Clare. Deneve reveals that, as a young girl, a Yoma killed her family. She wishes to avenge her family, but as she has a strong will to live, she ends up becoming a Defensive Type instead. Ashamed of what she regards as her cowardice, she fights suicidally until she meets Helen, who convinces her that her thoughts are natural, as ""We're only human, after all.""
Helen (ヘレン, Heren) Voiced by: Miki Nagasawa (Japanese); Jamie Marchi (English)
Helen, the fourth member of the Paburo Hunt, can stretch her arms to extreme lengths to attack at range or bind her opponents. Helen likes to eat and drink. She is hot tempered and aggressive, and status conscious, initially disliking Clare for her low rank. Like Deneve, Miria, and Clare, Helen is partially awakened. After surviving the Northern Campaign, she combines Flexible Limb Stretching with Jean's Drill Sword technique.


== Supporting characters ==


=== Awakened Beings ===
Awakened Beings (覚醒者 Kakusei-sha) are Claymore warriors that have fully awakened. They possess abilities similar to Yoma, only of much greater magnitude. Awakened Beings can take on myriad of forms—a bird (Hilda in anime), crustacean (Agatha), humanoid (Dauf), or mammal (Isley and Rigaldo). In Organization history, there are three cases of a No. 1 warrior awakening. Known as ""Creatures of the Abyss"" (深淵の者 Shin'en no mono), they settle in different regions of the island—one in the West (Lautrec), one in the North (Alfons), and one in the South (Mucha). This status quo did not change until Isley, the ""Silver King"" of the North, began to raise an army of Awakened and expand his influence into the others' regions.

Abyss Feeders
The original Abyss Feeders (深淵喰い Shin'en gui) are 11 warriors created from the 11 Awakened Beings that attacked the Organization Headquarters after the Northern Campaign. Abyss Feeders are trained to hunt Creatures of the Abyss. Their eyes and mouths have been sewn shut, the ability to sense and radiate Yoki has been removed and they track their target by scent alone. They are trained to return home if six or more Feeders are killed. After killing Isley, they are used to track down Riful for Alicia and Beth.
Agatha (アガサ, Agasa)
Hiding in Robona, Agatha's presence is detected by Galatea, who is also in hiding. Galatea releases her Yoki, baiting the Organization to send an execution team—Clarice and Miata. They find and attack Galatea, resulting in a 3-way fight among the team, Galatea and Agatha. Later, she fights in a mummy-like body, but is defeated by the survivors of the Northern Campaign.
Alicia (アリシア, Arishia) and Beth (ベス, Besu)
Identical twin sisters, they are part of the Organization's program to develop controlled Awakened Beings. The first experiment, using non-identical sisters Luciela and Rafaela, ends in failure. Due to training from infancy, Alicia and Beth are of one mind—a two-body Claymore warrior in effect. One sister fully awakens, while the other sister retains the Twins' collective human mind and remote controls the awakened partner. The Twins are defeated and killed by Priscilla.
Dauf (ダフ, Dafu) Voiced by: Kenji Hamada (Japanese); Christopher Ayres (English)
Consort of Riful of the West. Awakened, Dauf appears as a giant armored humanoid. He forms rods from his hands, arm and mouth, firing them as projectiles. But for all his physical power, Dauf displays low intelligence and poor tactics. His regeneration and healing abilities are also low. Devoted to Riful, he fears her deserting him.
Isley (イースレイ, Īsurei) Voiced by: Koji Yusa (Japanese); John Swasey (English)
Isley is the Creature of the Abyss of the North. His awakened form resembles a centaur, whose arms can shape-shift into a lance and shield, crossbow, and sword. When Priscilla defeats him, he swears allegiance to her. In order to conceal Priscilla's true power, Isley claims that he won and that she is simply his consort. To keep his promise to take Priscilla south, Isley gathers the Northern Army. He also comes into contact with Raki, giving the young man valuable tutelage in swordsmanship. Despite being a powerful Awakened Being, he possesses a genteel manner and shows great respect towards even those who are opposed to him.
Luciela (ルシエラ, Rushiera)
No. 1 of Luciela era. She and Rafaela are the Organization's first attempt at creating a controlled Awakened Being. The experiment fails due to use of non-identical sisters. Luciela's awakened form is cat-like. Luciela loses fight with Isley over control of southern region of Mucha. Rafaela finds Luciela and kills her by breaking her spine. However, Rafaela injects her Yoki into Luciela and they successfully merged.
Ophelia (オフィーリア, Ofīria) Voiced by: Emi Shinohara (Japanese); Luci Christian (English)
Ophelia is as powerful as she is unstable. As a child, her family was killed by Priscilla, with her brother sacrificing his life to ensure that she escaped safely. As a result of this childhood trauma, she displays sociopathic behavior, even going so far as to fight her fellow Claymores. She despises Awakened Beings because of her family's death, and she relishes any opportunity to hunt them out of revenge. Ophelia's technique is Rippling Sword, where her super-flexible arm undulates the blade, creating a snake-like illusion. She styles herself ""Rippling Ophelia."" She tries to kill Clare, but Ilena interrupts Clare's execution. Ophelia is defeated and badly injured. Pushed to the brink of insanity by her defeat and her past trauma, Ophelia awakens into a serpentine form; despite her transformation, she believes that she is still in control of her mind and body (the only oddity she notes is a newfound appetite for entrails). She tracks down Clare and they do battle in a lake. After seeing her reflection in the water, Ophelia allows Clare to kill her. As she dies, she has a vision of her brother, believing that she will reunite with him in the afterlife.
Riful (リフル, Rifuru) Voiced by: Nana Mizuki (Japanese); Brittney Karbowski and Cynthia Cranz (English)
Riful is the Creature of the Abyss in the West. Riful is both the youngest No. 1 and the youngest Creature of the Abyss. Riful's awakened form resembles a mermaid-octopus, composed of fleshy layers that can riffle apart. She lives with her consort, Dauf, in abandoned castles in Lautrec. To counter Isley of the North, Riful attempts to build an army of awakened Claymores.
Rigaldo (リガルド, Rigarudo) Voiced by: Hiro Yuuki (Japanese); Vic Mignogna (English)
Isley's second-in-command. Rigaldo appears composed, but angers easily when provoked. Rigaldo's lion form is smaller than most Awakened Beings, but he compensates with greater speed and agility. For long-range and surprise attacks, Rigaldo can extend his claws at high speed. In contrast to his high offensive power, Rigaldo is lacking in regenerative ability. While not friends with Isley, Rigaldo works for him, having been defeated by Isley earlier. In VIZ English translation, Isley nicknames Rigaldo as the ""Silver-eyed Lion."" He is killed by a nearly-awakened Clare; before dying, he expresses amazement at Clare's skill and power.


=== Claymores ===
Anastasia (アナスタシア, Anasutashia)
Anastasia is known for her ability to ""float"" midair on strands of hair. She and her comrades join the rebels in overthrowing the Organization. Her leadership proves critical in destroying a lab where Awakened Beings are made.
Audrey (オードリー, Ōdorī)
No. 3 of the next generation. She displays a polite demeanor, in contrast to Rachel's. Audrey uses her sword to deflect her opponent's attack without opposing it with force. Riful calls this technique a ""Gentle Sword.""
Clarice (クラリス, Kurarisu)
No. 47 of the next generation. An incomplete hybrid, she retains her original hair color and is susceptible to cold. Also a member of a failed Awakened Hunt led by Nina, she was rescued by survivors of the Northern Campaign. Clarice is assigned to lead an execution team for Galatea. Clarice and Miata find and attack Galatea in Rabona, only to meet an awakened Agatha. After defeat in a 3-way fight, the three warriors and city are saved by survivors of the Northern Campaign. Clarice and Miata later stay in Rabona under the supervision of Galatea.
Cynthia (シンシア, Shinshia) Voiced by: Miho Miyagawa (Japanese); Anastasia Muñoz (English)
Cynthia, a member of Team Veronica, is one of seven survivors of the Northern Campaign. Cynthia helps fight the Insectile Awakened Being during the first battle. Her personality appears cheerful and caring. She accompanies Clare to find Raki in Lautrec. Cynthia displays mental acuity when she guesses that Rubel is an enemy agent working against the Organization. After the 7-year Timeskip, Cynthia's regeneration skill have advanced to the point where she regenerates Uma's missing leg.
Dietrich (ディートリヒ, Dītorihi)
Dietrich first appears leading an Awakened Hunt into disaster. But Deneve and Helen save the warriors. Dietrich uses a technique, which she jumps skyhigh, then lands a blow on the target, bisecting it. Dietrich joins the rebels in seeking the truth about the Organization.
Flora (フローラ, Furōra) Voiced by: Miyu Matsuki (Japanese); Trina Nishimura (English)
Flora's sword drawing technique is one of the fastest of any warrior. Diplomatic personality, even when imposing discipline on Pieta Task Force. After the battle, Flora tests Clare in a sword-match. Afterward, Flora determines her Windcutter is slower, but more precise, while Clare's Quick Sword is faster. Flora says she is no longer ""the fastest of warriors."" Rigaldo bisects Flora with a claw. During the 7-year Timeskip, Clare invents a Yoki-less Windcutter. She uses it against a surprised Agatha, who cannot detect Clare's Yoki.
Galatea (ガラテア, Garatea) Voiced by: Ai Orikasa (Japanese); Colleen Clinkenbeard (English)
Galatea acts as ""Eye"" of the Organization. Well-mannered, aristocratic bearing. One of the kinder Claymore warriors. She can sense Yoki, read thoughts and emotions of other warriors from long distances. She can also control Yoki flow in Awakened Beings, misdirecting their attacks. She is sent on a mission to retrieve Clare. After fighting alongside Clare and Jean, Galatea reports them dead. Galatea deserts the Organization after the Northern Campaign. Swearing never to wield her sword again, she takes religious vows and becomes Sister Latea, a nun in Rabona, caring for orphans at a neighborhood church.
Hilda (ヒルダ, Hiruda) Voiced by: Komina Matsushita (Japanese); Colleen Clinkenbeard (English)
Hilda acts as Miria's mentor during Miria's first Awakened Hunt. Miria (then No. 17) and Hilda vow to work together again as single-digit warriors. Behind the scenes, Hilda begins to awaken. She gives her Black Card to Ophelia, who, instead of giving it to Miria, destroys it. Ophelia leads an unaware Miria on a hunt in the mountains. The giant, mummy-like Hilda scarcely resists Miria's fatal attack, possibly keeping the vow Hilda made earlier. As Hilda dies reverting to human form, a horrified Miria nearly awakens herself. Years later, Helen stumbles across Hilda's sword, which had been lost during her awakening. Miria stakes the sword as Hilda's gravemark on the mountain.
Ilena (イレーネ, Irēne) Voiced by: Minami Takayama (Japanese); Wendy Powell (English)
Ilena can fully awaken her sword-arm, yet control it in making near-unpredictable attacks. Ilena, along with Sophia and Noel, are assigned to an execution team led by Priscilla. The team fails to kill Teresa, who is beheaded by an awakening Priscilla. Sophia and Noel are killed. Ilena loses her left arm, who later goes into hiding. Years later, Ilena comes upon Ophelia, who is about to kill Clare. Ilena defeats Ophelia's Rippling Sword, wounding Ophelia in the process. Ilena brings Clare to a cabin hidden in a mountain valley, where Clare recovers. After failing to teach Clare the Quick-sword, Ilena cuts off her remaining arm and orders Clare to attach it. But after Clare leaves the valley, Rafaela shows up and presumably executes Ilena for desertion.
Jean (ジーン, Jīn) Voiced by: Kotono Mitsuishi (Japanese); Laura Bailey (English)
Jean's technique is based on twisting the sword arm, her free hand holding then releasing it in one burst. Galatea says ""Among all the warriors, you have the fastest, strongest thrust."" Jean and hunt members, Katea and Raquel, are captured by Dauf and Riful. Raquel and Katea are killed. After prolonged torture, Jean awakens into a butterfly-like form. Clare, repeating Galatea's technique, is able to revert Jean to her human self. As a result, Jean believes she has a debt to pay Clare, much to Clare's dismay. After an awakened Clare kills Rigaldo, she pleads with Helen to kill her. Jean, mortally wounded, uses the last of her strength to revert Clare to normal."" In the anime, this occurs after Clare's battle with Priscilla.
Miata (ミアータ, Miāta)
A pre-teen, Miata has an unstable mind, which if controlled, would enable Miata to be No. 1. Miata is paired with Clarice, who acts as a surrogate mother, breastfeeding Miata from time to time. Due to her heightened five senses, Miata is assigned to track down and execute Galatea. Miata and Clarice eventually find Galatea in Rabona, which is attacked by the awakened Agatha. Galatea released Yoki, baiting the Organization to send potential allies to Rabona. Miata and Clarice desert the Organization and stay in Rabona.
Nina (ニーナ, Nīna)
Next generation's No. 9. She is cold and harsh, skilled in tactics, but a poor strategist. Nina calls her technique ""Shadow Chaser,"" as she shadows the target's Yoki and attacks, her sword not stopping until target is killed. She leads an Awakened Hunt, which includes Clarice. The hunt is overpowered by three Awakened Beings, but the warriors are rescued by survivors of the Northern Campaign.
Noel (ノエル, Noeru)
""Storm Wind"" Noel is No. 4 and 5 of the Teresa era. She has a rivalry with Sophia, as they argue about who is No. 3 and 4, only to later discover both have been demoted due to Priscilla's promotion as the new No. 2. Sophia and Noel join an execution team to find and kill Teresa. Later, an awakening Priscilla beheads Teresa. Ilena, Noel and Sophia attack Priscilla, who wounds Ilena, then kills Sophia and Noel with extendable claws.
Rachel (レイチェル, Reicheru)
Rachel's personality is the opposite of Audrey's demure manner. Rachel appears hot-tempered and confrontational. Rachel stores force in her sword blade, which she releases like a leaf spring. Riful calls this technique ""Strong Sword."" Despite repeated attacks and stepped-up efforts, the technique proves ineffectual against Riful. Miria and her comrades rescue Audrey and Rachel. Rachel dislikes Miria. But due to Rachel's friendship with Audrey, Rachel joins the Claymore mutiny.
Rafaela (ラファエラ, Rafaera) Voiced by: Satsuki Yukino (Japanese); Kate Oxley (English)
Rafaela and her elder sister Luciela are the Organization's first attempt at Mind Share and controlled awakening. But Luciela fully awakens and nearly destroys the Organization. Rafaela is decommissioned and exiled. Years later, after the loss of warriors No. 1 through 5, Rubel persuades Rafaela to rejoin the Organization as No. 5. Rafaela acts as an enforcer. She presumably executes Ilena for desertion and tracks down Clare and Jean. After Luciela is defeated by Isley, Rafaela finds and kills Luciela, fusing her body with her sister's. The merged bodies are found by Riful, who brings them back to her castle in Lautrec.
Renée (ルネ, Rune)
No. 6 of the next generation. She serves as ""Eye"" of the Organization. She first appears outside of Doga village. Renée questions Raki on how he identified a Yoma. But Priscilla frightens her away. After leaving the town, Renée is captured by Riful. In an abandoned castle, Riful tries to persuade Renée to awaken the merged Luciela-Rafaela, which Renée does.
Sophia (ソフィア, Sofia)
No. 3 and 4 of Teresa's era. She has a rivalry with Noel, as they argue about who is No. 3 and 4, only to later discover both have been demoted due to Priscilla's promotion as the new No. 2. Sophia and Noel join an execution team to find and kill Teresa. Later, an awakening Priscilla beheads Teresa. Ilena, Noel and Sophia attack Priscilla, who wounds Ilena, then kills Sophia and Noel with extendable claws.
Tabitha (タバサ, Tabasa) Voiced by: Akeno Watanabe (Japanese); Leslie Patrick and Michele Specht (English)
Tabitha is assigned to Team Miria during Northern Campaign. Tabitha, like Galatea, specializes in sensing Yoki, fulfilling the role of the ""Eye"" for the survivors.
Uma (ユマ, Uma) Voiced by:  (Japanese); Cherami Leigh (English)
Uma is assigned to Team Miria during Northern Campaign. She is one of the seven survivors. After training during 7-year Timeskip, Uma still feels insecure and weak compared to her comrades. Later in Lacroix village, she finds that she can easily dispatch higher ranking Claymore warriors. She can throw her sword accurately over long distances.
Undine (ウンディーネ, Undīne) Voiced by: Rie Ishizuka (Japanese); Clarine Harp (English)
Undine leads Team Undine during Northern Campaign.  Undine is noted for her confrontational personality. Her large muscles are due to slowly releasing Yoki. She uses two swords, the second from a fallen friend. Later, Deneve discovers an Undine shrunk to her true, slender form. Deneves guesses that reason for Undine's temporary muscles was getting permission from the Organization to carry two swords. During the second battle, Undine is killed by Rigaldo. Before the warriors' last stand, Deneve takes up Undine's own sword.
Veronica (ベロニカ, Veronika) Voiced by: Akeno Watanabe (Japanese); Michele Specht (English)
Assigned during Northern Campaign to lead Team Veronica. During first battle, Insectile Awakened decimates Team Jean, Jean left standing alone. Team Veronica reinforces Team Jean. Veronica and Cynthia act as decoys, while Jean kills Insectile. During second battle, Rigaldo kills Veronica.


=== The Organization ===
The Organization is headquartered in the eastern region of Sutafu. Rimuto is the leader. Field operatives, dressed in black, act as case officers/handlers for Claymore warriors.
Miria speculates that the island is a testing ground for creating Awakened Beings. She says that a greater continent exists beyond the island, where war rages between two sides. One side is allied with the Dragons' Descendents, the other is the parent power behind the Organization.

Dae (ダーエ, Dāe) is chief scientist of the Retrieval Squad, responsible for creating Yoma-type entities. Left half his face is missing, exposing his eyeball and teeth. He uses the arm of Priscilla to resurrect Cassandra, Roxanne and Hysteria.
Ermitage (エルミタ, Erumita) is the handler of Galatea and Miria. Ermita compares himself to a parent watching over his child, but also says he would never father a monster. He is voiced by Chō.
Orsay (オルセ, Oruse)Voiced by: Hōchū Ōtsuka (Japanese); David Trosko (English)
Teresa's handler. He is voiced by Hōchū Ōtsuka.
Rado (ラド) is Clarice's handler and the one to tell her to take care of Miata.
Rimuto (リムト) heads the Executive committee.
Rubel (ルヴル, Ruburu) Voiced by: Hiroaki Hirata (Japanese); R. Bruce Elliott (English)
Clare's handler. Later, Cynthia guesses that he is an enemy agent, working to destroy the Organization from within. While he gives information to Miria, he hides the existence of half-awakened Claymores, further stalling research on controlled awakening.


=== Humans ===
Raki (ラキ, Raki) Voiced by: Motoki Takagi (Japanese); Todd Haberkorn (English)
Raki first appears in series as young boy in Doga village. A Yoma disguised as an older brother, Zaki, kills Raki's family. The village chief hires Clare to find and kill the Yoma. Clare adopts Raki when he is exiled from Doga. After fleeing Ophelia in Gonahl, Clare and Raki split up, Clare promising to rejoin Raki. Later in Alfons, Raki escapes from a slave prison. Raki meets Priscilla and Isley. Isley becomes Raki's mentor. When Clare finds Raki's former prison, she and her comrades leave Alfons. He reappears in Doga as an adult, travelling with a regressed, childlike Priscilla. By now an experienced swordsman, he is shown to wear his own armor. Later in Ticelli village, Raki is struck by parasitic rods. Priscilla buries her arm into his shoulder, preventing the rods from killing Raki, but abandons him shortly thereafter Later, the Retrieval Squad captures Raki and brings him to Organization Headquarters.
Father Vincent (ヴィンセント司祭, Vuinsento shisai) Voiced by: Masaaki Yajima  (Japanese); Chuck Huber (English)
Father Vincent is a priest in charge of Rabona cathedral. A bald, middle-aged man, he is dressed in religious vestments and wears a gold chain with a cross around his neck. A Yoma is killing staff members in the cathedral. Vincent asks the Organization for help. Owing to Rabona's ban on Claymores, Clare and Raki arrive in the city posing as siblings. During a meeting with Vincent, Clare gets his promise to take care of Raki should she die. Later, when Clare is injured, Vincent tends Clare's wounds, but is shocked by the Yoma scar on her abdomen.
Galk (ガーク, Gāku) Voiced by: Kazuma Horie (Japanese); Christopher Sabat (English)
Galk is a leader in the Rabona guards, and friend of Sid. He is the older and wiser of the two. A tall muscular man with short hair, he usually wears a suit of armor. He warmed up to Clare much sooner than Sid did, respecting her resolve as a warrior.
Sid (シド, Shido) Voiced by: Hiroyuki Yoshino (Japanese); Eric Vale (English)
Sid is a guard of the Holy City of Rabona, and friend of Galk. Initially, he appears brash, short-tempered and hostile toward Claymore warriors. He is skilled at knife throwing. Despite his initial dislike of Claymores, he comes to respect and admire Clare for her prowess as a warrior.


== References =="
Edgemar,"Edgemar, located at 2415–2449 Main Street in Santa Monica, California, is a mixed-use shopping center designed by architect Frank Gehry that combines early 19th century warehouses, a 1940s Art Deco office building and new construction.


== History ==


=== 1908–1984 ===
In 1908, the Imperial Ice Company built an 8,000 square foot warehouse at the back of its property at 2435 Main Street in Santa Monica, California. Another 3,000 square foot warehouse was added beside it in 1928.
With the advent of refrigeration in the 1940s leading to a decline in the ice business, the Santa Monica Dairy Company, minority partners in the Imperial Ice Company, bought the property for the egg-processing division of their dairy. The Santa Monica Dairy Company, founded by Swiss immigrant Herman Michel, was the oldest dairy in Los Angeles County.
The company built a small Art Deco-style building with Main Street frontage for their offices. The 1908 warehouse became their ""egg-candling room"" in which eggs were held up to light to check for fertilization. The company's name was later changed to Edgemar Farms.
In 1983, the Michel Brothers sold their company to Foremost Dairy and placed the Main Street property on the market.


=== 1984–2007 ===
In 1984, Thomas Eatherton, an artist whose studio was in a 2,000 square foot metal outbuilding on the north end of the site, showed neighbor Abby Sher, who had a family history of development, the original ice warehouse with its 25-foot ceilings, clerestory windows, and 8,000 square feet of clear span, and suggested its use as a museum. Sher took the suggestion as the impetus for creating a small piazza-like setting with the museum as its centerpiece. Influences were the Tuscan hill town of Volterra, with its central piazza containing, along with the usual shops and cafes, an Etruscan museum and a large fresco-adorned municipal building; and the 1948 neighborhood shopping center, The Brentwood Country Mart. Sher purchased the Edgemar Farms property in October 1984, and retained the use of the name, Edgemar, for the development.
In the early 1980s, the model of melding art with commerce was being widely explored as a way to support art institutions. In planning or under construction at the time were the California Plaza project that incorporated the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; the expansion of the Museum of Modern Art, New York, funded through the sale of zoning rights for the Museum Tower project; and the Orange County Performing Arts Center, which opened in 1986 as part of South Coast Plaza.
Locally, the Edgemar project was part of wider restoration and adaptive reuse activities that included the Santa Monica Pier and Carousel and the transformation of the 1894 Roy Jones house into the Heritage Square Museum.
Sher selected architect Frank Gehry to design Edgemar, in part because many of his early projects included renovated and new construction, his then predilection for modest materials including galvanized metal, chain link, concrete, and stucco—all materials found on the original site—and because of his early experience working in the office of  Victor Gruen Associates, premier shopping center architects.

The 50,000 square foot Edgemar site's zoning was split down the middle—commercial on Main Street and residential on Second Street, but the 1908 warehouse and its 1928 addition were located in the residentially zoned portion of the property. A Conditional Use Permit was required to transform the original Imperial Ice Company warehouse buildings to accommodate a restaurant and museum as well as retail and office spaces.
In hearings before the Santa Monica Planning Commission, the Santa Monica City Council, and the California Coastal Commission, the development enjoyed strong backing from the art community, but encountered resistance from neighboring residents who were concerned about the impact to the neighborhood on parking, traffic, and noise. With design modifications that included additional parking and the building of a sound barrier that doubled as a planter, the project was approved in August 1988.
The 1908 warehouse, earthquake retrofitted, and with a mezzanine added, became home to the newly formed Santa Monica Museum of Art (SMMOA). The 1928 warehouse addition was converted to restaurant space. Of the 1940s art deco Edgemar office building, only the front wall with its art deco façade was retained; the new northwest wall was faced in green tile. Other new construction included a 2-story building for ground floor retail and second story office use, and a parking lot with one level of underground parking.
When construction was completed in 1988, Edgemar comprised roughly 16,000 square feet of space for retail, 8,000 square feet for office, 3,500 square feet for the restaurant, and 8,000 square feet, plus mezzanine, for the museum. In 1997, 6,000 square feet of the museum space was converted into a theater center, and the remaining 2,000 square feet became Second Street-facing artist lofts. These modifications were designed by Koning Eizenberg Architecture.


== Tenants ==
Gerber Kawasaki Wealth and Investment Management
The Edgemar Restaurant and Lounge


=== Museum ===
Santa Monica Museum of Art (SMMOA)
Curator Hal Glicksman served as the museum's director during the planning phase.
Thomas Rhodes served as the museum's director from 1988 until 1998. The first exhibition under Rhodes' leadership, Art in The Raw, took place in the raw space before the interior build out was completed. This exhibition ran from July 21, 1988 through January 7, 1989, and included works by Michael Brewster, David Bunn, Meg Cranston, Daniel J. Martinez, Bryan Pezzone, Mineko Grimmer, Carl Stone, and May Sun.
In the fall of 1989, SMMOA held its inaugural exhibition in the finished space, Bon Angeles, organized in association with the Goethe Institute, Los Angeles, which brought eight artists from Düsseldorf, Germany for six weeks to use SMMOA as a studio and exhibition space. The artists included in this exhibition were Hilmar Boehle, Ernst Hesse, Marcel Hardung, Adolphe Lechtenberg, Annette Leyener, Julia Lohmann, Wasa Marjanov, and Manfred Müller.
The Santa Monica Museum of Art left Edgemar at the end of December 1996 and re-opened in Bergamot Station in 1998.


=== Retail ===
The first businesses to open in Edgemar were the Gallery of Functional Art (August 1988 – 1994), which featured artist and architect-designed furniture and other functional objects; the first Ben & Jerry's Ice Cream west of Chicago (opening in January 1989); and Röckenwagner Restaurant, which opened in the summer of 1991 and operated until 2006.
Other first generation tenants were Monsoon – an Asian import store (1989–1991); Quarterdeck/DESQaway – a remote office, and international newsstand (1989–1994); KikiLeweeBaby – Women's accessories and men's furnishings (1991–1994); Highlights – Designer lighting (1989–2007); Harriett Dorn Children – Children's clothing (1990–1994); Buffalo – Men's and women's designer clothing (1991–1996); Bannatyne Gallery – Craftsman furniture and antiques (1994–1997); and the Gallery of Contemporary Photography (1991–1995). In 1995, the Museum of Contemporary Art opened a museum gift store at Edgemar.
Current tenants (2015) tenants include: Buffalo Exchange, Blue Bottle Coffee, Santa Monica Travel & Tourism, Ben & Jerry's Ice Cream, Brick & Mortar Restaurant (in the space formerly occupied by Röckenwagner), Edgemar Center of the Arts, Hale Arts, Bomb Shell, Santa Monica Cross Fit.


=== Office ===
Mad River Post, a post-production facility, occupied most of the second floor offices for eighteen years (1989–2007).
Gerber Kawasaki Wealth and Investment Management now occupies the old theater.


=== Theater ===
As of 2025, the theatre has been transformed into the new headquarters for Gerber Kawasaki Wealth and Investment Management, a firm that specializes in holistic financial planning for families, tech executives, and many other local professionals.
The center hosts the Edgemar Center for the Arts, a collaborative rehearsal performance space.  The arts center was founded in 1999 by Michelle Danner and Larry Moss and opened in 2002.  The arts center is a self-supporting non-profit that hosts plays, classes, and summer camps.


=== Artist Lofts ===
There are two live/work artist lofts, each 1,310 square feet, along 2nd Street in the eastern end of the former museum space.


== Holidays ==
In 1995, Anthony Schmitt designed and constructed the first Edgemar Holiday Tree using shopping carts as his construction module. Every year since then, with one exception, Schmitt and his team have constructed the unique shopping cart tree. In 2012 the tree was made up of 86 shopping carts and measured thirty-three feet tall, with some smaller carts at the top to creating a forced perspective giving the illusion of even greater height.
The tree is assembled by hand just before Thanksgiving each year. When the construction is complete, it is decorated with lights and ornaments. Carolers sing and cider is served in conjunction with the Main Street Holiday Festival.
Summer Soulstice: Each summer since 1992, and most recently in conjunction with The Main Street summer solstice festival, Edgemar hosts musical performances in the courtyard.


== Art and Design ==
Courtyard
Edgemar Fountain by Thomas Eatherton
Umbrellas by Gregg Fleishman
Wind Sculpture by Paul Chilkov
Subterranean Parking Garage
LISTEN EDGEMAR, a permanent sound installation created by Hugh Livingston and Michael Zbyszynski in Edgemar's subterranean parking garage, opened May 16, 2004. Fourteen speakers are installed in the ceiling of the garage. The installation incorporates ""found sounds"" from the Edgemar environment and recordings of improvisations by Jessica Catron (cello), Vinny Golia (woodwinds), Paul Livingstone (sitar), Pauline Oliveros (accordion), Jeremy Drake (guitar), and Philip Gelb (shakuhachi) in response to those sounds. Sounds and music are constantly sampled from a computer in the garage. New sounds come in and go out in conjunction with high and low tides at the Santa Monica Pier.


== References ==


== External links ==

Official Site for the Edgemar Center
Official Site for the Edgemar Center for the Arts"
Chevrolet Equinox,"The Chevrolet Equinox is a crossover SUV introduced by Chevrolet in 2004 for the 2005 model year. It was intended to replace the North American Chevrolet Tracker and Chevrolet S-10 Blazer. The third-generation Equinox also replaced the first-generation Chevrolet Captiva.
An all-electric battery-powered (BEV) version called the Equinox EV was introduced in 2022 with sales starting in 2023 for the 2024 model year. It adopts a separate design and underpinnings from the internal combustion engine powered Equinox.


== First generation (2005) ==

The Chevrolet Equinox was introduced in 2004 at the 2003 North American International Auto Show for the 2005 model year; its mechanical twin, the Pontiac Torrent, was introduced in 2005 at the 2005 Los Angeles Auto Show for the 2006 model year. A unique feature on the Equinox was its sliding rear bench seat dubbed ""Multi-Flex"".
Riding on the GM Theta platform, the unibody is mechanically similar to the Saturn Vue and the Suzuki XL7. However, the Equinox and the Torrent are larger than the Vue, riding on a 112.5 in (2,858 mm) wheelbase, 5.9 in (150 mm) longer than the Vue. Front-wheel drive is standard, with optional all-wheel drive. They are not designed for off-roading unlike the truck-based Chevrolet Tahoe and TrailBlazer.
For the 2006 model year, GM updated the Equinox for the first time, adding GM badges on the front doors, as well as recoloring the dashboard panel from grey to black. Heated seats became available with the cloth interior, and the rear seats now featured smaller headrests for improved rear visibility. The transmission shifter knob and HVAC controls were also updated. Outside, LS models now featured a standard body-color front bumper (instead of black), while LT models now featured body-color outside mirrors.
The Equinox and Torrent received several interior and mechanical updates for 2007. The instrument cluster was redesigned with a trip computer display, replacing the Saturn-sourced unit. There were also some mechanical updates: the gear ratios of the five-speed transmission were revised for improved fuel economy, brakes now have rear vented discs instead of drums, and the fuel tank size is now 20.5 US gallons (on FWD) or 16.6 US gallons (on AWD), instead of the previous 17-US-gallon size on both models.
The first-generation Equinox and Torrent were produced exclusively at the CAMI Automotive GM/Suzuki joint venture plant in Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada. The 3.4 L LNJ V6 engine is made in China (by Shanghai GM), while the Aisin AF33 transmission is made in Japan. Starting with the 2008 model year, the Equinox Sport and Torrent GXP were available with a 3.6-liter DOHC V6 engine that was made in the United States.
Production ended in May 2009.
The Chevrolet Equinox was not sold in Mexico during the 2009 model year.


=== Pontiac Torrent ===

While the Torrent shares its basic body structure and mechanicals with the Equinox, it does have a different front and rear styling.
The Torrent was discontinued after the 2009 model year as part of the discontinuation of the Pontiac brand, with the last one rolling off the assembly line on September 2, 2009. A Buick Theta crossover SUV was to be made, effectively taking place of the Pontiac Torrent. Instead, GM replaced the Torrent with the GMC Terrain, which shares the Theta platform with the second-generation Equinox.


=== Engines ===


=== Sport trims ===

For the 2008 and 2009 model years, GM offered different versions of the Equinox and Torrent; called Sport and GXP, respectively. Featuring a 3.6-liter LY7 DOHC V6 engine and a 6-speed automatic transmission (with Manual Tap Up/Down shifting capability). This larger and more powerful (264 hp (197 kW; 268 PS) or 40% increase) engine allowed acceleration from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in under seven seconds.
These models also received a 1 in (25 mm) lowered ride height with a performance-tuned suspension and unique front and rear body kits. The lower stance is accented by the 18-inch 5-spoke chrome wheels and the absence of the roof rack, giving them a smoother design flow compared to the standard models. The GXP had twin hood scoops, hydraulic power-assisted steering (as opposed to the electric power-assisted standard Torrent), improved interior trim with unique gauges, and a dual chrome-tipped exhaust.
Optional features included navigation, heated sport leather seats, DVD entertainment system, a sunroof, and all-wheel drive. GM stated the Equinox Sport was the first vehicle to reflect its more cautious naming standards. GM also prominently promoted the Pontiac Torrent GXP in television advertisements by touting its horsepower advantage over the BMW X3, in an effort to brand Pontiac more as a direct, low-cost rival to BMW.


=== Equinox LTZ ===

An Equinox LTZ model was added for the 2008 model year. It is differentiated by its 17-inch chrome-clad aluminum wheels, chrome door handles, and chrome luggage rack side rail inserts. Standard interior features include heated front seats, leather seating inserts, head curtain side-impact airbags, AM/FM stereo with six-disc in-dash CD changer and MP3 capability, and a Pioneer premium seven-speaker audio system. The Equinox LTZ came with the same ride and handling package as LS and LT models.


=== Olympic-themed special editions ===

For the 2008 model year, in tribute to the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic Games, the Equinox and Torrent each received a special edition, the Team Canada Edition and the Podium Edition, respectively. This package added chrome-clad wheels, sunroof, premium sound system, and special badging. These trims were sold only in Canada.


== Second generation (2010) ==

The second-generation Equinox was announced by GM on December 21, 2008, and debuted at the 2009 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. The 2010 Equinox went on sale in June 2009. It is built on a stiffened version of the same ""Theta"" platform used in the previous model. The second-generation Equinox was built with a pair of upgraded gasoline direct injection engines, with better fuel economy claimed by GM. Earlier 2010 models had the GM badges on the front doors but were later deleted. It also features the Multi-Flex sliding rear bench seat and an optional height-programmable power liftgate. Laminated front door glass was standard on all models.
Marketing of the Chevrolet Equinox resumed in Mexico in late November 2009, for the 2010 model year after a year of absence, but ceased after the 2011 model year. However, in October 2015, the Equinox was reintroduced in Mexico to replace the Captiva Sport for the 2016 model year.
The second-generation Equinox is available standard with a 2.4-liter Ecotec I4 engine (produced in Tonawanda, New York, and Spring Hill, Tennessee), while a 3.0-liter V6 engine is available as an option on LT and LTZ trims. All four-cylinder models come with a fuel economy mode, which alters the drivetrain's behavior for improved fuel economy and is engaged by pressing the ""eco"" button on the front center console. Four-cylinder models have electric power steering, while V6 models have the more conventional hydraulic power steering. Both powertrains are mated to a six-speed automatic transmission and an optional all-wheel-drive system, with front-wheel drive being standard.
This generation of Equinox was assembled in three plants: Ingersoll and Oshawa (both in Ontario), and Spring Hill, Tennessee. The latter two plants only produced models with the 2.4-liter Ecotec engine, with Oshawa only producing front-wheel-drive models.


=== Model year changes ===


==== 2011 ====
For 2011, the 3.0-liter V6 engine received flex-fuel capability. The compass on the Driver Information Center now became standard on all models, while LT models now came standard with Bluetooth and a USB port. 2LT models also received standard heated cloth front seats. On LS models, the ""LS"" badge on the liftgate was removed.


==== 2012 ====
For the 2012 model year, the 2.4-liter Ecotec I4 engine received flex-fuel capability. The 2012 model year introduced the Chevrolet MyLink telematics system to the Equinox, beginning in Spring 2012. Bluetooth connectivity is now standard on all models, while a seven-inch touch screen radio and backup camera are now standard on the 1LT trim in addition to the 2LT and LTZ trims. Exterior mirrors now featured a convex portion for improved blind-spot visibility. A forward-collision and lane-departure alert system also became available on V6 LTZ models.


==== 2013 ====
For the 2013 model year, a new direct-injected 3.6-liter V6 became available on LT and LTZ models, providing 301 horsepower (224 kW; 305 PS) and 272 lb⋅ft (369 N⋅m; 38 kg⋅m) of torque. This engine offered 14 percent more horsepower and 22 percent more torque than the previous 3.0-liter V-6, with the same EPA-estimated fuel economy. A new FE2 suspension package, with front dual-flow dampers, was offered, optional on the LTZ V6 and packaged with 18-inch or 19-inch chrome-clad aluminum wheels. 
Additional new features for 2013 models included a dual-player DVD entertainment system, a power convenience package (including universal home remote and eight-way power front passenger seat), and a safety package with lane departure warning system, forward collision warning, and rear park assist (available on all 2LT and LTZ models). A USB port became standard on all models.


==== 2014 ====
For the 2014 model year, chrome-clad wheels became standard on LTZ models. Chrome exterior door handles and mirror caps were also available on LT models as part of the Chrome Package. 


==== 2015 ====
The 2015 model year saw the addition of OnStar with 4G LTE and built-in Wi-Fi hotspot, which included a 3GB/three-month data trial, standard on LT and LTZ models, with navigation available on LTZ and 2LT. A new level trim, L, was introduced as the base trim; derived from the LS trim, it was sold exclusively to retail markets and only available in front-wheel drive with the 2.4-liter Ecotec engine, and did not come with rear floor mats, the digital compass, or SiriusXM radio. The flex-fuel capability option for the 3.6-liter V6 was discontinued.


==== 2016 ====
For 2016, the Chevrolet Equinox received its first mid-cycle refresh (along with its cousin, the GMC Terrain), which was unveiled at the 2015 Chicago Auto Show on February 12, 2015. This Equinox received a new grille, headlights, wheels, and front fascia, as well as reworked tail lights. On the interior, the Equinox gained a new gear selector, a second storage shelf underneath the dashboard (in the place of the discontinued CD player), as well as deletion of the door lock buttons from the dashboard. The 1LT and 2LT trims were merged into a single LT trim. Also, front-wheel-drive models could no longer be had with the 3.6-liter V6 engine. Models equipped with the V6 engine received redesigned dual chrome exhaust tips (borrowed from the GMC Terrain Denali).

All Equinox trims featured projector-style front headlights, backup camera, and the Chevrolet MyLink 7-inch touch-screen infotainment system. The OnStar delete feature was removed along with the rear-seat DVD entertainment system and 19-inch wheels.


==== 2017 ====
For 2017, the final model year of this generation, the Equinox received two new appearance packages—a Midnight Edition package and a Sport package. Both packages featured 18-inch black-painted five-spoke aluminum wheels, black exterior Chevrolet emblems, black accented grille and rear fascia, black roof-rack cross bars, Jet Black perforated leather-appointed seats, and memory driver seat and exterior mirrors. The Midnight Edition had black exterior paint, while the Sport package had white exterior paint; both packages were only available with the 2.4-liter Ecotec engine. The 18-inch chrome-clad aluminum wheels were discontinued. The LTZ trim was renamed Premier, while the Equinox badge was moved from the right side of the liftgate to the left.


=== Engines ===

Notes:

All four-cylinder models have a single rear exhaust port, while all V6 models have dual rear exhaust ports.
All output ratings are on regular gasoline.


=== EPA fuel economy ratings ===
Skepticism about the Equinox's EPA fuel economy ratings has been raised after a number of road tests at the model's launch achieved 20 to 30% lower fuel economy than the official EPA ratings. After achieving 18.8 mpg‑US (12.5 L/100 km; 22.6 mpg‑imp) in a road test, Edmunds InsideLine stated, ""...our testing didn't come close to achieving [the EPA's numbers], even though we're usually within 1 mpg of the EPA combined number."" Car and Driver recorded another 18 mpg‑US (13 L/100 km; 22 mpg‑imp) figure and noted its ""...fuel economy that won’t live up to the 22 mpg‑US (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg‑imp)/32 mpg‑US (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg‑imp) EPA ratings in real-world use..."". Green Car Reports recorded as much as 25.8 mpg‑US (9.1 L/100 km; 31.0 mpg‑imp) on a road trip, driving almost exclusively highway miles in ""Eco"" mode; this is about 20% below the published highway EPA rating. AutoWeek only averaged 23 mpg‑US (10 L/100 km; 28 mpg‑imp). The Truth About Cars published an editorial suggesting that GM ""inflated"" the Equinox's fuel economy ratings for public relations purposes and that the trip computer inaccurately reports fuel economy reported to the driver.
Motorweek, however, managed to achieve 29.3 mpg‑US (8.0 L/100 km; 35.2 mpg‑imp) with their test car during mixed driving. LeftlaneNews.com was also able to average 28 mpg‑US (8.4 L/100 km; 34 mpg‑imp) average in mixed city and highway driving.


=== Safety ===
The 2010 Equinox was awarded ""Top Safety Pick"" by IIHS.


== Third generation (2018) ==

Chevrolet unveiled the third-generation Equinox on September 22, 2016. Gasoline-powered variants of the 2018 Chevrolet Equinox went on sale in early 2017, while diesel-powered variants arrived in fall 2017. This generation was developed as a smaller vehicle to align itself with other vehicles in the compact crossover SUV segment, with its former role occupied by the new Chevrolet Blazer.
The third-generation Equinox also introduced a new AWD system from GKN Driveline, allowing the driver to disengage the driveshaft to reduce friction and rotational inertia when AWD is not needed by the push of a button, replacing the fully-automatic system of previous generations. Other new features that were standard on all models included a start-stop system, passive entry, active grille shutters, electronic parking brake, second-row HVAC, and umbrella storage in the front door panels. The infotainment system features a seven-inch (on L/LS/LT/RS) or eight-inch diagonal (on LT/RS/Premier) touch-screen, both coming standard with Android Auto and Apple CarPlay capability.
New safety features introduced on the third-generation Equinox include a surround-view camera, forward collision warning, low-speed automatic braking, and a Safety Alert Seat, as well as a standard Rear Seat Alert system, a feature first introduced on the 2017 GMC Acadia. While the Equinox no longer features a sliding rear seat, the rear seats can be folded by disengaging the latches on the top of the rear seats, or additionally on LT and higher trims, by using the levers on the right side of the cargo area. All models now featured tempered front door glass and rear solid disc brakes.
For 2019, the infotainment systems were upgraded with all models now featuring two USB ports on the center stack, while the second-row 12-volt power outlet was replaced with two USB charge-only ports; an SD card reader and higher-quality backup camera and sound system became available on higher trims. All LT models now featured a multi-color LCD display on the gauge cluster. New safety features, including adaptive cruise control and front pedestrian braking, became available. The Premier badge on the liftgate was changed from a single rectangular emblem to individual letters.
For 2020, the diesel engine was discontinued because of low consumer demand. (GM originally planned to discontinue AWD on diesel models.) All Equinox models now came standard with a host of additional safety features, including forward collision alert, following distance indicator, lane keep assist, lane departure warning, forward automatic emergency brakes, and IntelliBeam automatic high-beam headlamps. The rear passive entry buttons were also removed from the exterior door handles.
For 2021, the 2.0-liter LTG turbocharged inline-four was discontinued as it only comprised around seven percent of all Equinox sales. Leather seating became available on LT models with the Confidence and Convenience Package.
The Equinox was discontinued again in the Mexican market in July 2021 because of poor sales, being indirectly replaced by the Captiva, although it is still produced in Mexico for export markets.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Trim levels ===
The third-generation Equinox is available in four trim levels: L, LS, LT, and Premier. The 1.5-liter turbo I4 is standard on all trims. The 2.0-liter turbo I4 and 1.6-liter turbo-diesel is available on LT and Premier. Front-wheel drive is standard on all trims, while all-wheel drive is available on LS and higher trims.
An appearance package was available as the Redline Edition. The Redline Edition became available in October 2017. For 2018, the Redline Edition was only available on the LT trim without the panoramic sunroof or diesel engine.
For the 2020 model year, the Midnight Edition and Sport Edition packages became available on LT models. Both packages featured blacked-out trim, including leather seating (cloth for 2021), 19-inch aluminum wheels, Chevrolet bowties, grille, fog lamp bezel surround, and window trim. The Midnight Edition was only available in the Mosaic Black Metallic exterior color, while the Sport Edition was available with most of the other colors. The Midnight trim line went on sale in Mexico in September 2019.


=== Powertrain ===
The third-generation Equinox is available with up to three turbocharged inline four-cylinder engine choices. Gasoline engines are identical to the 2016 Malibu: a 1.5-liter unit that produces 170 hp (127 kW) (12 hp (9 kW) less than the 2.4-liter engine in the previous Equinox but more torque), or a 2.0-liter unit that produces 252 hp (188 kW) (48 hp (36 kW) less than the 3.6-liter V6 engine in the previous Equinox). The 2.0-liter engine was an option on the LT and Premier trims from 2018 to 2020, and models so equipped featured dual chrome exhaust tips, larger front brakes, the ""2.0 T"" badge on the liftgate, trailering equipment, and a 17-inch spare wheel.
For the first time, a 1.6-liter turbo-diesel I4 engine that produces 136 hp (101 kW) became available, but only on LT and Premier trims. The 2.0-liter unit is mated to a nine-speed automatic transmission, while the other two engines are mated to a six-speed automatic transmission.


=== 2022 refresh ===
On February 6, 2020, Chevrolet unveiled a refreshed Equinox at the Chicago Auto Show. The updated vehicle sports a new front grille, which extends into the redesigned headlamps, along with a restyled lower fascia with different fog lamps. The rear also sees redesigned tail lamps and rear bumper. On the interior, the cloth seats are redesigned, featuring a zig-zag pattern instead of a honeycomb pattern, and all models now have wireless Android Auto/Apple CarPlay and an auto stop-start deactivation switch.
The trim levels changed slightly, with the RS joining the primary LS, LT, and Premier offerings. The sport/street-centric RS trim is set apart by its unique front and rear stylings, black exterior accents, black badges, ""Dark Android"" 19-inch wheels, and quad-tip exhaust. Inside, the sport-inspired crossover features black upholstery with red contrasting stitching and an RS-branded shift knob and front passenger seat tag.
The base L trim level was dropped, making the LS trim level the base model. The Midnight and Sport editions were replaced by the new RS trim level, while the Redline edition was later offered, but on Premier instead of LT. The refreshed Equinox went on sale in the first quarter of 2021 as a 2022 model, a year later than originally planned because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
The 2022 model was only available with the 1.5-liter LYX turbo inline-four. A 2.0-liter turbo inline-four did not return for the 2022 refresh.
For 2023, the 1.5-liter LYX turbo inline-four was replaced by the 1.5-liter LSD turbo inline-four which adds a higher-pressure fuel system (from 20 MPa to 35 MPa), enhanced piston design with PVD coating, and precise intake phaser positioning optimizing efficiency which together contribute to a 5 hp increase to 175 hp over the LYX. All Equinox models now featured electro-hydraulic brakes, and the Midnight and Sport editions returned on the LS trim. 

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Engines ===


=== Holden Equinox ===

Holden launched the Holden Equinox (EQ series) in Australia in November 2017, with the first cars arriving in Australia and New Zealand in December. It was available with a 1.5-liter turbocharged engine on the base LS and LS+ models, while the more potent 2.0-liter turbocharged model was available for all other models – LT, LTZ, and LTZ-V. The 1.6-liter turbo-diesel engine launched in 2018. It was produced at GM's Ramos Arizpe assembly facility in Mexico and replaced the Korean-built five-seat Captiva.
The Australasian Equinox was sold alongside the seven-seat Holden Acadia, known as the GMC Acadia in the Americas.
On October 17, 2018, Holden halted orders on the Equinox because of slow sales and unsold inventory at its dealerships. The Holden Equinox was discontinued in 2020, along with the rest of the Holden lineup, following GM's decision to terminate the marque in Australia and New Zealand and withdraw from all right-hand-drive markets because of poor sales and adequate investments not being returned for demand and funding needed continue to serve and remain present in right-hand-drive markets.


=== Safety ===


== Fourth generation (2025) ==

Chevrolet unveiled the fourth-generation Equinox on January 23, 2024, for the 2025 model year. The model adopts a new electrical architecture and a new platform spun off the existing D2XX platform, called the VSS-S. It also carries over the 1.5-liter turbocharged four-cylinder gasoline engine used by the outgoing Equinox. Trim levels are reduced from four to three, which are LT, RS, and ACTIV, with each trim having its unique front fascia. 
The fourth-generation Equinox is built at the San Luis Potosí plant in Mexico (alongside the GMC Terrain) and sales commenced in mid-2024. It is sold alongside the battery-electric powered Equinox EV.
The Equinox shares similar exterior styling from the Traverse, with its front fascia and shark-fin style C-pillar. It features all-LED lighting and for the first time, it is available with 20-inch alloy wheels.
The Activ model features 17-inch machine-finished alloy wheels in all-terrain tires, an available white-colored roof option for a dual-tone exterior color, blacked badging, a unique front fascia with vertical grille inserts and gray metallic accents, a Maple Sugar and Black interior theme, and ACTIV logo stitched on front seat headrests.
The interior has an 11-inch configurable Driver Information Center and an 11.3-inch infotainment touchscreen system (30% larger screen compared to the previous model) that features Google built-in connected services; it has a similar screen layout to the Trax. The gear selector for the automatic transmission is now located on the steering wheel column which allows the drive mode selection dial to be placed in the center console, and the physical headlight controls were omitted to reduce microchip usage.
The 1.5-liter turbocharged inline-four gasoline engine is carried over from its predecessor, with the option of FWD and AWD drivetrains. GM has dropped the 6-speed automatic transmission; instead, the FWD models use a continuously variable transmission (CVT) while the AWD models use an eight-speed automatic transmission. For the first time, the Equinox features drive mode selection on the RS and ACTIV trims.
For 2026, the drive mode selection feature became standard on all models.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== China ===
The fourth-generation Equinox also debuted in March 2024 in China, where it is marketed as the Equinox Plus to differentiate it from the previous generation. It is only available as a plug-in hybrid vehicle, powered by a similar 1.5-liter turbocharged gasoline engine.


== Equinox EV ==

The battery-electric version of the Equinox was introduced in January 2022 in a set of artist impression images at the 2022 Consumer Electronics Show (CES) and went on sale in 2024 for the 2024 model year. It received a completely separate design and underpinnings to the ICE-powered Equinox. The vehicle is equipped with GM Ultium batteries shared with other GM battery electric vehicles.


== Fuel cell version ==

The Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell Vehicle uses hydrogen for fuel with water as its only exhaust. The Equinox Fuel Cell uses the fourth-generation hydrogen technology found in the Chevrolet Sequel concept, which was unveiled in September 2009. The fuel cell is designed for only 50,000 miles (80,000 km) of driving, but is engineered to be operable in sub-freezing temperatures throughout its life. GM states that the Equinox Fuel Cell is about 500 pounds (230 kg) heavier than the original Equinox and has one inch shorter ground clearance. To reduce weight, it has aluminum doors and a carbon fiber hood. It uses headlights from the Pontiac Torrent.
A dashboard mounted screen calculates the fuel savings to that of a gasoline-powered Equinox. It also includes a kilowatt meter and a fuel cell energy display. The fuel cell has four vapor outlets that replace the exhaust pipe. Three carbon-fiber fuel tanks store up to a maximum of 9.25 pounds (4.2 kg) of gaseous hydrogen at 10,000 psi (70 MPa), and give the Equinox a range of 200 miles (320 km). The Equinox Fuel Cell is certified by the EPA as a zero-emission vehicle (ZEV). GM built 115 Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell vehicles and deployed them in 2007–2008 in several target areas including New York and California as part of a comprehensive plan dubbed ""Project Driveway"".
The Equinox Fuel Cell includes safety features such as ABS, traction control system, and GM's OnStar telematics service, which offers drivers advice on operating the vehicles as well as information on nearby hydrogen filling stations. The vehicle complies with all 2007 federal safety standards.


=== Performance ===
Motor Trend assessed the vehicle's performance as nearly the same as the 3.6-liter gasoline-powered equivalent, while bemoaning the dearth of high-pressure hydrogen filling stations near Riverside, California, in 2008.


== Natural gas version ==
In 2013, Nat G CNG Solutions and AGA Systems announced that it had begun offering a Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) version of the Chevrolet Equinox and the GMC Terrain using the 2.4-liter direct-injected engine. The natural gas version is a ""bi-fuel"" CNG vehicle, meaning that it can run on either gasoline or natural gas, giving it extended range. The Terrain/Equinox were the first direct-injection natural gas vehicles ever approved by the US EPA.
Silver Eagle Distributors, a distributor of Anheuser-Busch products, was the launch customer for the natural gas version with an initial order of up to 100 of the natural gas GMC Terrains. CenterPoint Energy was an early customer of the natural gas Chevy Equinox.


=== CNG configurations ===
The CNG version was available as a newly purchased Equinox through select dealers or as a retrofit on 2013 and 2014 models. Nat G CNG Solutions offered the vehicle in two options: a two-seater ""cargo version"" and a five-seat ""passenger version."" The cargo version has an 837-mile combined gasoline / natural gas (9.2 GGE of CNG) while the passenger version has a 775-mile combined highway range (6.8 GGE of CNG).


=== Emissions and performance ===
The companies claimed that the natural gas version had tested at the EPA lab at 31 mpg‑US (7.6 L/100 km; 37 mpg‑imp) highway on natural gas and had achieved a Bin 3 emissions equivalent to the Toyota Prius.


== Electric conversion ==

Amp Electric Vehicles has sold an all-electric conversion of the Chevrolet Equinox. It sold its first converted Equinox to Dayton Power & Light, and had a five-year, thousand-SUV order from Northern Lights Energy in Iceland.


== Sales ==


=== Equinox ===


=== Pontiac Torrent ===


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website"
List of Old Etonians born in the 19th century,"The following notable Old Boys of Eton College were born in the 19th century.


== 1800s ==
William Hay, 18th Earl of Erroll (1801–1846)
Winthrop Mackworth Praed (1802–1839), poet and politician
José Agustín de Lecubarri (1802–1874), diplomat and navy officer
Sir John William Lubbock (1803–1865), Vice-Chancellor, University of London, 1837–1842, astronomer and mathematician
Sir Edward Branch (1803-1871), British Army officer
Field Marshal Lord William Paulet GCB (1804–1893), British Army officer
James Harris, 3rd Earl of Malmesbury (1807–1889), Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1852, 1858–1859, and Lord Privy Seal, 1866–1868, 1874–1876
Frederick Tennyson (1807–1898), poet
William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire (1808–1891), politician and benefactor of science and industry
William Ewart Gladstone (1809–1898), President of the Board of Trade, 1843–1845, Colonial Secretary, 1845–1846, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1852–1855, 1859–1866, and Prime Minister, 1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886, 1892–1894
Alexander Kinglake (1809–1891), military historian
George Selwyn (1809–1878), Bishop of New Zealand, 1841–1867, and Lichfield, 1868–1878


== 1810s ==
George Harris, 3rd Baron Harris (1810–1872), Governor of Madras, 1854–1859
James Milnes Gaskell (1810–1873), politician, Lord of the Treasury
Charles Kean (1811–1868), actor
John Bowes (1811–1885), art collector, founder of the Bowes Museum
Arthur Henry Hallam (1811–1833), poet
Rodolphus de Salis (1811–1880), Colonel of the 8th Hussars
William Fane de Salis (businessman) (1812–1896), company chairman
Robert Moore (1812–1857), cricketer and clergyman
John Story (1812–1872), cricketer
John Dolignon (1813–1896), cricketer
Robert Sutton (1813–1885), first-class cricketer and reverend
Sir Arthur Borton (1814–1893), Governor of Malta, 1878–1884
Sir John William Kaye KCSI (1814 – 1876), military historian, civil servant and army officer.
Arthur Kinnaird, 10th Lord Kinnaird (1814–1887), banker, politician and philanthropist
Sir John Lawes (1814–1899), agriculturist
George Vance (1814–1839), cricketer
Lieutenant-Colonel Douglas Labalmondière (1815–1893), Assistant Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1856–1888
John Charles Ryle (1816–1900), Anglican evangelical theologian and first Bishop of Liverpool
Thomas Gambier Parry (1816–1888), English artist and art collector
Edmund Beckett, 1st Baron Grimthorpe (1816–1905), Chancellor and Vicar-General of the Province of York, 1877–1900, and clock designer
Leopold Fane De Salis (1816–1898), Australian pastoralist and politician
George Seymour (1816–1838), cricketer
Henry Woodyer (1816–1896)
Sir Algernon Coote, 11th Baronet (1817–1899), Irish cricketer and clergyman
Frederick Garnett (1817–1874), cricketer
George Lyttelton, 4th Baron Lyttelton of Frankley (1817–1876), politician and co-founder of Canterbury, New Zealand
Lieutenant-General Lord Henry Percy (1817–1877), Crimean War Victoria Cross
John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge (1820–1894), Attorney General, 1871–1873, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, 1873–1880, and Lord Chief Justice, 1880–1894
Sir John Carmichael-Anstruther, 6th Baronet (1818–1831), shot at Eton
John Wynne (1819–1893), cricketer and clergyman


== 1820s ==
Tsatur Khan (1820–1905), General and Persian Envoy to Russia
Sir Richard Garth (1820–1903), Chief Justice of Bengal, 1875–1886
Edward Thring (1821–1887), Headmaster of Uppingham School, 1853–1887
Maxwell Blacker (1822–1888), cricketer and clergyman
John Francis Campbell of Islay (1822–1885), Gaelic scholar
John Buller (1823–1867), cricketer and soldier
William Johnson Cory (1823–1892), poet
Horatio Nelson, 3rd Earl Nelson (1823–1913), Politician
Henry Hildyard (1824–1898), cricketer and clergyman
J. L. Joynes Sr. (1824–1908), clergyman and schoolmaster
Robert Honywood (1825–1870), cricketer
William Spottiswoode (1825–1883), President of the Royal Society, 1878–1883, mathematician and physicist
Frederick Coleridge (1826–1906), cricketer and clergyman
Thomas Levett, 1826, later Levett-Prinsep of Croxall Hall, Derbyshire
General Sir George Higginson (1826–1927), Crimean War soldier, commander of the Brigade of Guards
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Charles Russell (1826–1883), Crimean War Victoria Cross and politician
John Coleridge Patteson (1827–1871), Bishop of Melanesia, 1861–1871, and martyr
Sir Charles Oakeley, 4th Baronet (1828–1915), cricketer and soldier
Frederick Eden (1829–1916), cricketer
Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Fraser (1829–1895), Indian Mutiny Victoria Cross
Henry Agar-Ellis, 3rd Viscount Clifden, won both Derby and St. Leger in 1848
Sir James Fitzjames Stephen (1829–1894), judge


== 1830s ==
Edwin Blake (1830–1914), civil engineer and politician in New Zealand
William Brodrick, 8th Viscount Midleton (1830–1907), peer and politician
Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (1830–1903), Secretary of State for India, 1866–1867, 1874–1878, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1878–1880, 1885–1886, 1887–1892, 1895–1900, and Prime Minister, 1885–1886, 1886–1892, 1895–1902
James Payn (1830–1898), novelist, poet, editor and journalist
Clement Walker Heneage (1831–1901), Indian Mutiny Victoria Cross
Fiennes Cornwallis 1831–1867
Henry Labouchère (1831–1912), politician and publisher
Sir Robert Herbert (1831–1905), first Premier of Queensland
Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Pearson (1831–1890), Assistant Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1881–1890
George Fosbery (1832–1907), Umbeyla Expedition Victoria Cross and firearms expert
Gerald Goodlake (1832–1890), Crimean War Victoria Cross
Robert Loyd-Lindsay, 1st Baron Wantage (1832–1901), Crimean War Victoria Cross and politician
Harry Moody (1832–1921), cricketer and civil servant
Field Marshal Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts (1832–1914), Commander-in-Chief, Madras, 1881–1885, India, 1885–1893, Ireland, 1895–1899, and South Africa, 1899–1900, Commander-in-Chief, 1901–1904, and Indian Mutiny Victoria Cross
Sir Leslie Stephen (1832–1904), Editor, Dictionary of National Biography, 1882–1891, and writer
Charles Stuart Aubrey Abbott, 3rd Baron Tenterden (1834–1882), diplomat
John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury (1834–1913), Vice-Chancellor, University of London, 1872–1880, chairman, London County Council, 1890–1892, banker, scientist, archaeologist and author
Edward Ede (1834–1908), cricketer, twin brother of the below
George Ede (1834–1870), cricketer and jockey, winner of the 1868 Grand National, twin brother of the above
Richard Durnford C.B. (1834–1934), Secretary to the Charity Commissioners of England and Wales.
William Molyneux, 4th Earl of Sefton (1835–1897), KG, Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire
F. C. Burnand (1836–1917), librettist, translator and dramatist
William Hartopp (1836–1874), cricketer and soldier
Sir Frederick Albert Bosanquet (1837–1923), Common Serjeant of London 1900–1917
Oscar Browning (1837–1923), historian
Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909), poet
Edmond Warre (1837–1920), oarsman and Head Master (later Provost) of Eton
General Sir Redvers Buller (1839–1908), Adjutant General, 1890–1897, General Officer Commanding Natal, 1899–1900, and I Corps, 1901–1906, and Zulu War Victoria Cross
Col. Sir Francis Arthur Marindin (1838–1900), Senior Inspecting Officer of Railways, Board of Trade and President of the Football Association.
Charles Wood, 2nd Viscount Halifax (1839–1919), president of the English Church Union from 1868 to 1919
Augustus Legge (1839-1913), Bishop of Lichfield from 1891 to 1913


== 1840s ==
Tankerville Chamberlayne (1840–1924), Member of Parliament for Southampton
Charles Garnett (1840–1919), cricketer
Sir William Mackworth Young KCSI (1840–1924), Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab
Duncan Pocklington (1841–1870), cricketer and Oxford rower
Osbert Mordaunt (1842–1923), cricketer
William Rose (1842–1917), cricketer
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919), Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Cambridge, 1879–1884, Professor of natural philosophy, Royal Institution, 1887–1905, Secretary to the Royal Society, 1887–1896, and Nobel Laureate
Admiral of the Fleet Sir Arthur Knyvet Wilson (1842–1921), Third Sea Lord, 1897–1901, Flag Officer Commanding Channel Squadron, 1901–1908, and Home Fleet, 1903–1907, First Sea Lord, 1909–1912, and Sudan Campaign Victoria Cross
Edward Wynne-Finch (1842–1914), cricketer
Sir Charles Lawes-Wittewronge (1843–1911), oarsman, cyclist, runner and sculptor
John Boddam-Whetham (1843–1918), naturalist and cricketer
James Saumarez, 4th Baron de Saumarez (1843–1937), diplomat
Arthur Teape (1843–1885), cricketer
Robert Bridges (1844–1930), Poet Laureate, 1913–1930
Arthur John Butler (1844–1910), professor of Italian language and literature at University College, London
Arthur Wood (1844–1933), cricketer
Quintin Hogg (1845–1903), sugar merchant, philanthropist and Scotland footballer
General Sir Neville Lyttelton (1845–1931), Commander-in-Chief, South Africa, 1902–1904, Chief of the General Staff, 1904–1908, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Ireland, 1908–1912, and Governor, Royal Hospital Chelsea, 1912–1931
John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914), Governor General of Canada, 1878–1883
 Heneage Legge (1845-1911), St George's Hanover Square MP from 1900 to 1906.
Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne (1845–1927), Governor General of Canada, 1883–1888, Viceroy of India, 1888–1893, Secretary of State for War, 1895–1900, and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1900–1905
Charles Nicholas Paul Phipps (1845–1913), Brazil merchant and Conservative member of parliament for Westbury (1880–1885)
Sir Frederick Pollock (1845–1937), Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, University of Oxford, 1883–1903
Vincent Coles (1845–1929), Principal of Pusey House, Oxford 1897–1909.
Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet (1846–1919), father of T. E. Lawrence
Sir Charles Edmond Knox (1846–1938), Lieutenant-General
Edmond Fitzmaurice, 1st Baron Fitzmaurice (1846–1935), Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1908–1909, and writer
Charles Alexander (1847–1902), cricketer and barrister
Lord William Beresford (1847–1900), Zulu War Victoria Cross
Arthur Fitzgerald Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird (1847–1923), footballer, and President of the Football Association, 1890–1923
Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery (1847–1929), Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1892–1894, and Prime Minister, 1894–1895
Martin Gosselin (1847–1905), Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Portugal 1902–1905
Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour (1848–1930), Prime Minister, 1902–1905, First Lord of the Admiralty, 1915–1916, and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1916–1919
Digby Mackworth Dolben (1848–1867), poet
Sir Henry Maxwell Lyte (1848–1940), Deputy Keeper of the Public Records, 1886–1926, and historian
Sir Hubert Parry (1848–1918), Director, Royal College of Music, 1895–1918, Professor of Music, University of Oxford, 1899–1908, and composer
Julian Sturgis (1848–1904), librettist who played football as an amateur for the Wanderers F.C. winning the FA Cup in 1873, and was thus the first American to win an FA Cup Final.
Lord Randolph Churchill (1849–1894), Secretary of State for India, 1885–1886, and Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1886–1887
Sir Joseph Dimsdale (1849–1912), Lord Mayor of London, 1901–1902, and politician
Lieut-Col Richard W.B. Mirehouse (formerly Richard Walter Byrd Levett) (1849–1914), High Sheriff of Pembrokeshire, 1886, and Lieutenant Colonel of 4th Batt. North Staffs Regiment.


== 1850s ==
Frederic William Maitland (1850–1906), Downing Professor of the Laws of England, University of Cambridge, 1888–1906
Ivo Branch (1851-1928), British Army officer
William Legge, 6th Earl of Dartmouth (1851–1936) British peer, Conservative politician, Vice-Chamberlain of the Household
George Harris, 4th Baron Harris (1851–1932), Governor of Bombay, 1890–1895, and England cricketer
Sir John Murray (1851–1928), publisher
Henry Stephens Salt (1851–1939), writer, social reformer, socialist, animal rights campaigner, vegetarian, literary critic, and biographer
Arthur Augustus Tilley (1851–1942), literary historian
Reginald Brett, 2nd Viscount Esher (1852–1930), Secretary, Office of Works, 1895–1902, defence expert and writer
William Ellison-Macartney (1852–1924), MP for South Antrim, 1885–1903, Governor of Tasmania, 1913–1917, Governor of Western Australia, 1917–1920
Reginald Hargreaves (1852–1926), cricketer
Arthur Lyttelton (1852–1903), Master of Selwyn College, Cambridge, 1882–1893
Henry Legge (1852–1924), British soldier and courtier
Gerald Balfour, 2nd Earl of Balfour (1853–1945) Conservative politician
Major Ernest Gambier-Parry (1853–1936), Suakin Expedition 1885, author, musician, artist
Mark Hanbury Beaufoy (1854–1922) Liberal member of parliament, author of 'Never, never, let your gun pointed be at anyone...'
Alfred Clayton Cole (1854–1920), Governor of the Bank of England
J. L. Joynes Jr. (1853–1893), journalist, writer, poet and socialist activist
Sir Horace Plunkett (1854–1932), Irish politician and writer
Howard Sturgis (1855–1920), novelist
William Edwards (1855–1912), Sudan Campaign Victoria Cross
James Lowther, 1st Viscount Ullswater (1855–1949), Conservative politician
Edward Lyttelton (1855–1942), Headmaster of Haileybury School, 1890–1905, and Eton, 1905–1916, and writer, who made one appearance for England in 1878.
St John Brodrick, 1st Earl of Midleton (1856–1942), Secretary of State for War, 1900–1903, and Secretary of State for India, 1903–1905
Herbert Edward Ryle (1856–1925), Old Testament scholar and Dean of Westminster.
Algernon Haskett-Smith (1856–1887), cricketer
Alfred Lyttelton (1857–1913), Colonial Secretary, 1903–1905, and England footballer.
Field Marshal Herbert Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer (1857–1932), quartermaster general, 1904–1905, General Officer Commanding Northern Command, 1911–1914, II Corps, 1914–1915, Second Army, 1915–1917, 1918, Italian Expeditionary Force, 1917–1918, and British Army of the Rhine, 1918–1919, Governor of Malta, 1919–1924, and High Commissioner for Palestine, 1925–1928
Walter Forbes (1858–1933), cricketer
Sir Charles Hawtrey (1858–1923), actor-manager
Sir Henry Miers (1858–1942), Waynflete Professor of Mineralogy, University of Oxford, 1895–1908, principal, University of London, 1908–1915, and vice-chancellor, Victoria University of Manchester, 1915–1926
Sir Kynaston Studd (1858–1944), Lord Mayor of London, 1928–1929, and philanthropist
George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston (1859–1925), Viceroy of India, 1899–1905, and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1919–1924
Reginald Macaulay (1858–1937), footballer who won the FA Cup with Old Etonians in 1882 and made one appearance for England in 1878.
Harry Goodhart (1858–1895), twice FA Cup winner and England international footballer, who went on to become Professor of Humanities at Edinburgh University.
Arthur Chitty (1859–1908), cricketer and barrister
Sir Lionel Cust (1859–1929), Director, National Portrait Gallery, 1895–1909, and Surveyor of the King's Pictures, 1901–1927
Sidney Gambier-Parry (1859–1948), ecclesiastical architect
Sir Cecil Spring Rice (1859–1918), Minister to Persia, 1906–1908, and Sweden, 1908–1912, and ambassador to the United States, 1912–1918
James Kenneth Stephen (1859–1892), poet, tutor to Prince Albert Victor Edward (Prince Eddy), Virginia Woolf's cousin, Barrister, suffered from bi-polar disorder, one of suspects as Jack the Ripper


== 1860s ==
Martin Hawke, 7th Baron Hawke of Towton (1860–1938), Yorkshire cricketer
William Inge (1860–1954), Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity, University of Cambridge, 1907–1911, and Dean of St Paul's, 1911–1934
John Frederick Peel Rawlinson (1860–1926), footballer who won the FA Cup with Old Etonians in 1882 and made one appearance for England 1881, before serving as a member of parliament for Cambridge University from 1906 to 1926.
Sir Eldon Gorst KCB, Consul-General in Egypt.
George Lambton (1860–1945), British flat racing Champion Trainer 1906, 1911 and 1912
Major-General Lawrence Drummond (1861–1946), First World War general
Arthur Cairns, 2nd Earl Cairns (1861–1890), Private Secretary to the President of the Board of Trade
Stanley Mordaunt Leathes (1861–1938), poet, historian and senior civil servant
Walter Henry Montagu Douglas Scott (1861–1886), Scottish cricketer and nobleman
A. C. Benson (1862–1925), Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge, 1915–1925, and writer
Harry Levy-Lawson, 1st Viscount Burnham (1862–1933), Managing Proprietor, The Daily Telegraph, 1903–1928, and politician
Field Marshal Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy (1862–1935), General Officer Commanding Egypt, 1912–1914, Cavalry Corps, 1915, IX Corps, 1915–1916, XVII Corps, 1916, Canadian Corps, 1916–1917, and Third Army, 1917–1919, Governor General of Canada, 1921–1926, and Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1928–1931
M. R. James (1862–1936), author, antiquary, Director, Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, 1894–1908, Vice-Chancellor, University of Cambridge, 1913–1915, and Provost of Eton, 1918–1936
William Bromley-Davenport (1862–1949), MP, soldier, England footballer 1884, and Provost of Eton, 1918–1936
Sir William Rees-Davies (1863–1939), Chief Justice of Hong Kong
Arthur Studd (1863–1919), cricketer, artist and art collector – one of the Studd brothers
Arthur Bourchier (1864–1927), actor-manager
Fiennes Cornwallis, 1st Baron Cornwallis (1864–1935), politician
Brigadier-General George Colborne Nugent (1864–1915), Second Boer War, Killed in World War I
Ralph Pemberton (1864–1931), cricketer
Walter Seton (1864–1912), barrister, cricketer and soldier
Brigadier-General Charles FitzClarence (1865–1914), Second Boer War Victoria Cross, killed in World War I
Evelyn Metcalfe (1865–1951), cricketer
George Murray (1865–1939), Heath Professor of Comparative Pathology, University of Durham, 1893–1908, and Professor of Systematic Medicine, Victoria University of Manchester, 1908–1925
Sidney James Agar, 4th Earl of Normanton (1865–1933)
John Douglas-Scott-Montagu, 2nd Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (1866–1929), automobile enthusiast and expert
Guy Nickalls (1866–1935), Olympic oarsman
Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe (1867–1958), Governor-General of New Zealand, 1930–1935, politician and agriculturist
Algernon Burnaby (1868–1938), landowner, soldier, and Master of the Quorn Hunt
The Hon. Henry Coventry (1868–1934), cricketer
Sir George Herbert Duckworth (1868–1934), public servant
Willie Llewelyn (1868–1893), cricketer
Lord Henry Scott (1868–1945), cricketer, British Army soldier and deputy-governor of the Bank of Scotland
George Thesiger (1868–1915), General killed in action at the battle of Loos
Victor Christian William Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire (1868–1938), Governor General of Canada 1916–1921.
Oliver Russell, 2nd Baron Ampthill (1869–1935), diplomat
Godfrey Foljambe (1869–1942), cricketer


== 1870s ==
Brigadier-General Charles Strathavon Heathcote-Drummond-Willoughby (1870–1949), soldier
Montague MacLean (1870–1951), cricketer
John Dawson (1871–1948), cricketer
Major-General Sir John Gough (1871–1915), Somaliland Campaign Victoria Cross
Montagu Norman, 1st Baron Norman (1871–1950), Governor, Bank of England, 1920–1944
Sir Home Gordon (1871–1956), 12th Baronet Gordon of Embo, Sutherland, cricket writer and journalist
Harold Basil Christian (1871–1950), South African/Rhodesian farmer, botanist, horticulturist focusing on aloe and cycad
Arthur Hoare (1871–1941), cricketer and clergyman
Richard Jones (1871–1940), cricketer
Alexander Murray, 8th Earl of Dunmore (1872–1962), Malakand Campaign Victoria Cross
Algernon Temple-Gore-Langton, 5th Earl Temple of Stowe (1871–1940)
Douglas Hogg, 1st Viscount Hailsham (1872–1950), Attorney General, 1922–1924, 1924–1928, Lord Chancellor, 1928–1929, 1935–1938, and Secretary of State for War, 1931–1935
Brigadier General Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie (1872–1955), Governor of South Australia, 1928–1934, and New South Wales, 1935–1936, Governor-General of Australia, 1936–1944, and Sudan Campaign Victoria Cross
Frederick Roberts (1872–1899), Boer War Victoria Cross
Sir Charles Ross, 9th Baronet (1872–1942), inventor of the Ross Rifle
Maurice Baring (1874–1945), poet, writer and journalist
Major-General Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone (1874–1957), Governor-General of South Africa, 1923–1931, and Canada, 1940–1946
Sir George Russell Clerk (1874–1951), British Ambassador to France, 1934–1937
Geoffrey Dawson (1874–1944), Editor, The Times, 1912–1919, 1923–1941
Richard Hely-Hutchinson, 6th Earl of Donoughmore (1875–1948), Chairman of Committees, House of Lords, 1911–1931
Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh (1875–1947), Professor of Physics, Imperial College, London, 1908–1919
Arthur Stanley, 5th Baron Stanley of Alderley (1875–1931), MP for Eddisbury, 1906–1910, Governor of Victoria, 1914–1920, and Chairman of the Royal Colonial Institute, 1925–1928
Sir Trevor Bigham (1876–1954), Assistant Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1914–1931, and Deputy Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis, 1931–1935
Charles Burnell (1876–1969), oarsman
Brigadier-General John Campbell (1876–1944), First World War Victoria Cross
Bernard Darwin (1876–1961), golfer and sportswriter
Edward Dent (1876–1957), Professor of Music, University of Cambridge, 1926–1941, and musicologist
Arnold Ward (1876–1950) journalist, solicitor, MP
Arthur Hollins (1876–1938), cricketer and chairman of Preston North End F.C.
HRH Prince Aga Khan III (1877–1957), 48th Imam of the Shia Ismaili Muslims
Bernard Bosanquet (1877–1936), cricketer
Sir Desmond MacCarthy (1877–1952), literary critic and writer
Roger Quilter (1877–1953), composer
Charles Rolls (1877–1910), managing director, Rolls-Royce, 1906–1910, engineer, aviator, cyclist, racing driver, land speed record holder and first British air accident fatality
Hubert Carr-Gomm (1877–1939), Liberal MP for Rotherhithe, 1906–18 and assistant secretary to Henry Campbell-Bannerman
George Villiers, 6th Earl of Clarendon (1877–1955), chairman, BBC, 1927–1930, Governor-General of South Africa, 1931–1937, and Lord Chamberlain, 1938–1952
Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron Dunsany (1878–1957), writer
Henry McLaren, 2nd Baron Aberconway (1879–1953), industrialist, horticulturalist and politician
Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor (1879–1952), Proprietor, The Observer, 1911–1945, Lord Mayor of Plymouth, 1939–1944, and politician
Douglas Clifton Brown, 1st Viscount Ruffside (1879–1958), Speaker of the House of Commons, 1943–1951
Sir Gerald Kelly (1879–1972), portrait painter and President of the Royal Academy, 1949–1954
George Lloyd, 1st Baron Lloyd (1879–1941), Governor of Bombay, 1918–1923, High Commissioner for Egypt and the Sudan, 1925–1929, and Colonial Secretary, 1940–1941


== 1880s ==
George Boyd-Rochfort (1880–1940), First World War Victoria Cross
Henry James Bruce (1880–1951), diplomat and author
Francis Grenfell (1880–1915), First World War Victoria Cross
Lawrence Oates (1880–1912), Antarctic explorer
Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne (1880–1944), politician, Minister of State in the Middle East, assassinated in Cairo
Oliver Locker-Lampson (1880–1954), MP
Edward Ede (1881–1936), cricketer
Lewis Evans (1881–1962), Victoria Cross recipient
Frederick Septimus Kelly (1881–1916), composer
Lewis John Mason Grant (1881- 1975), painter
Sir Albert Napier (1881–1973), Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office
William Payne-Gallwey (1881–1914), cricketer
Eustachy, Prince Sapieha (1881–1963), Polish Foreign Secretary
Robert Vansittart, 1st Baron Vansittart (1881–1957), divil servant and diplomat
Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson (1881–1964), Field Marshal, and Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, January-December 1944
Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax (1881–1959), Viceroy of India, 1926-1931, and Foreign Secretary, 1938-1940
Ludovic Heathcoat-Amory (1881–1918), cricketer and soldier
John Christie (1882–1962), founder of the Glyndebourne Festival Opera and Military Cross recipient.
Harry Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery (1882–1974), politician
Christopher Stone (1882–1965), early BBC disc jockey
Prince Arthur of Connaught (1883–1938), Governor-General of South Africa, 1920-1924
Arthur Borton (1883–1933), Victoria Cross recipient
John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946), economist, 1st Baron Keynes
George Lyttelton (1883–1962), teacher and letter-writer
Gerald Hugh Tyrwhitt-Wilson, 14th Baron Berners (1883–1950), composer and novelist
Charles Edward, Duke of Albany (1884–1954), Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1900–1918), President of the German Red Cross, 1933–1945
Alexander Cadogan (1884–1968), diplomat and civil servant, Permanent Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, 1938-1946
Alfred Dillwyn Knox (1884–1943), classics scholar, papyrologist and World War 2 code-breaker at Bletchley Park
John Murray (1884–1967)
George Butterworth (1885–1916), composer and Military Cross recipient
Shane Leslie (1885–1971), Anglo-Irish diplomat and writer
Sir Horace James Seymour (1885–1978), diplomat
John Jacob Astor, 1st Baron Astor of Hever (1886–1971), Anglo-American newspaper proprietor, politician
Arthur Anderson (1886–1967), Olympic athlete
Geoffrey Drummond (1886–1941), Victoria Cross recipient
Henry Dunell (1886–1950), cricketer
Myles Kenyon (1886–1960), cricketer
Sir Albert Charles Gladstone, 5th Baronet, of Fasque (1886–1967), Olympic gold medal-winner
Hugh Dalton (1887–1962), politician and Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1945-1947
Denys Finch Hatton (1887–1931), big game hunter
Julian Huxley (1887–1975), evolutionary biologist
Henry Moseley (1887–1915), physicist of atomic numbers
Julian Grenfell (1888–1915), war poet
Sir Charles Andrew Gladstone, 6th Baronet, of Fasque (1888–1968), schoolmaster
Ronald Knox (1888–1957), theologian, Catholic convert and Bible translator
Thomas Ralph Merton (1888–1969), physicist and MI6 scientist
Patrick Shaw-Stewart (1888–1917), war poet
Neville Elliott-Cooper (1889–1918), Victoria Cross recipient
Eugen Millington-Drake (1889–1972), diplomat
Walter Styles (1889–1965), soldier and Member of Parliament


== 1890s ==
Philip Bainbrigge (1890–1918), writer
Alfred ""Duff"" Cooper, 1st Viscount Norwich (1890–1954), Secretary of State for War, 1935-1937, and First Lord of the Admiralty, 1937-1938
Percy Hansen (1890–1951), Victoria Cross recipient
Archie Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso (1890–1970), leader of the Liberal Party, 1935-1945
Edmond Foljambe (1890–1960), first-class cricketer
Stewart Menzies (1890–1968), head of MI6 during World War II
Archer Windsor-Clive (1890–1914), the first first-class cricketer to be killed during World War I
Anthony Muirhead (1890–1939), Member of Parliament (MP) for Wells in Somerset 1929–1939
Arthur Batten-Pooll (1891–1971), First World War soldier who was awarded the Victoria Cross
William Congreve (1891–1916), First World War soldier, Victoria Cross
Walter D'Arcy Hall (1891–1980), soldier, Member of Parliament
Edward Stephenson (1891–1969), cricketer and soldier
William Boswell (1892–1916), cricketer
Edward Bridges, 1st Baron Bridges (1892–1969), Cabinet Secretary, 1938–1945, and Permanent Secretary to the Treasury, 1945–1956
Wykeham Cornwallis, 2nd Baron Cornwallis (1892–1982)
Sir Reginald Graham (1892–1980), First World War Victoria Cross
J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), Professor of Genetics and of Biometry, University College London, 1933–1957
Ewart Horsfall (1892–1974), oarsman who competed in the 1912 and 1920 Summer Olympics
Sir Osbert Sitwell (1892–1969), writer
George Llewelyn Davies (1893–1915), along with his four younger brothers the inspiration for playwright J. M. Barrie's characters of Peter Pan and the Lost Boys, killed in action in the Second Battle of Ypres, Belgium, 15 March 1915
General Sir Frank Messervy (1893–1974), British Indian Army officer in the First and Second World Wars. First Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army following independence
HM King Prajadhipok of Siam (1893–1941), King of Siam, 1925–1935
Oliver Lyttelton, 1st Viscount Chandos (1893–1972), Colonial Secretary, 1951–1954
William Forbes-Sempill, 19th Lord Sempill (1893–1965), naval aviator and traitor
Brigadier Sir Richard Gambier-Parry, KCMG (1894–1965), head of Section VIII of the Secret Intelligence Service, Director of Communications Hanslope Park, Operation Tracer
Aldous Huxley (1894–1963), novelist
General Sir Oliver Leese (1894–1978), General Officer Commanding XXX Corps, 1942–1943, GOC Eighth Army, 1943–1944, Commander-in-Chief, Allied Land Forces, South-East Asia, 1944–1945, and General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Eastern Command, 1945–1946
Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton (1894–1986), Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1955–1957, and Prime Minister, 1957–1963
Peter Warlock (1894–1930), composer and writer on music
Thomas Corbett, 2nd Baron Rowallan (1895–1977), Chief Scout of the Commonwealth, 1945–1959, and Governor of Tasmania, 1959–1963
Terence Gray (Wei Wu Wei) (1895–1987), theatrical producer, author
Geoffrey Madan (1895–1947), aphorist
Colonel George Edward Younghusband CBE (1896–1970), soldier serving in WWI and WWII, POW Italy, Vincigliata,
Sir Frederick ""Boy"" Browning (1896–1965), General Officer Commanding I Airborne Corps, 1943–1944
John Dunville (1896–1917), First World War Victoria Cross
Tim Massy-Beresford (1896–1987), British Army officer
Sir Henry Segrave (1896–1930), engineer, racing driver, aviator and holder of land speed record
Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon (1897–1977), Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1935–1938, 1940–1945, 1951–1955, and Prime Minister, 1955–1957
Arthur Rhys Davids (1897–1917). Royal Flying Corps Distinguished Service Order, Military Cross First World War.
Julian Royds Gribble (1897–1918), First World War Victoria Cross
Peter Llewelyn Davies (1897–1960), awarded the Military Cross for service during World War I; in 1926 founded the publishing house Peter Davies Ltd.
Francis Manners, 4th Baron Manners (1897–1972)
Sir Sacheverell Sitwell (1897–1988)
General Sir Richard McCreery (1898–1967), General Officer Commanding Eighth Army, Northern Italy, 1944–1945
Colin Hercules Mackenzie (1898–1986), founder of Force 136
Leo d'Erlanger (1898–1978), banker
John Cobb (1899–1952), racing driver and holder of land speed record
Christopher Hussey (1899–1970), architectural historian and writer
Henry Gray Studholme Bt. (1899–1987), Conservative MP
Thomas Brocklebank (1899–1953), Baronet and cricketer
George Scott-Chad (1899–1950), cricketer


== See also ==
List of Old Etonians born before the 18th century
List of Old Etonians born in the 18th century
List of Old Etonians born in the 20th century


== References =="
Ecclesiastical Household,"The Ecclesiastical Household is a part of the Royal Household of the sovereign of the United Kingdom. Reflecting the different constitutions of the churches of England and Scotland, there are separate households in each nation.


== England ==
The Church of England Ecclesiastical Household comprises the College of Chaplains, and the associated Chapel Royal, the Royal Almonry Office, various Domestic Chaplains, and service Chaplains.
The College of Chaplains is under the Clerk of the Closet, an office dating from 1437. It is normally held by a diocesan bishop, who may however remain in office after leaving his see. The current clerk is Richard Jackson, Bishop of Hereford. The Deputy Clerk of the Closet, a new office dating only from 1677, is Paul Wright, Domestic Chaplain to the Sovereign and Sub-dean of the Chapel Royal and the sole full-time clerical member of the household. The sub-dean is assisted by Priests-in-Ordinary to the Sovereign.
The Clerk of the Closet is responsible for advising the Private Secretary to the Sovereign on the names for candidates to fill vacancies in the Roll of Chaplains to the Sovereign. He presents bishops for homage to the sovereign; examines any theological books to be presented to the sovereign; and preaches annually in the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace. He receives a salary of £7 a year.
Some three or four chaplains are appointed annually, and one is kept vacant for the sovereign's own choosing.


== List of Chaplains in the Household in England ==
The College of Chaplains consists of those appointed chaplain to the monarch. They are honorary chaplains who do not fulfill any formal duties. They preach once a year in the Chapel Royal.
During the reign of Queen Victoria, there were 36 Chaplains-in-Ordinary and a number of honorary chaplains. A new appointment as chaplain would traditionally be made among the honorary chaplains. Upon his accession in 1901, Edward VII reduced the number of chaplains-in-ordinary to 12 and removed the prerequisite that a chaplain need previously have been appointed an honorary chaplain.
Chaplains appointed as a bishop or to other senior church positions leave the household.


=== Chaplains in Ordinary ===


==== Queen Victoria ====
Charles Wesley, D.D. 1847 - 14 September 1859
Augustus Frederick Phipps 18 June 1847 – 27 January 1896
John Barlow ? – 1867 (resigned)
Daniel Heneage Finch-Hatton 1866 – ?
Edward Meyrick Goulburn – 1866 (resigned, appointed Dean)
William Henry Brookfield 1 January 1867 – ? (replacing Goulburn)
William Thomas Bullock 13 September 1867 – ? (replacing Barlow)
Francis Byng 1872 – 1889 (resigned)
Francis Pigou, Rural Dean, Vicar of Doncaster 4 July 1874 – ?)
James Moorhouse, Rural Dean, Vicar of Paddington 4 July 1874 – 1876 (resigned, appointed a bishop)
Edward Benson, Chancellor of Lincoln Cathedral 11 October 1875 – 1877 (resigned, appointed a bishop)
George Granville Bradley, 14 September 1876 – ?
William Henry Bliss, 8 November 1876 – ?
Henry John Ellison, Honorary Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, Vicar of Windsor 26 December 1879 – 25 December 1899 (deceased)
John Llewelyn Davies, Rector of Christ Church, Marylebone 10 February 1881 – ?
Thomas Teignmouth Shore, Vicar of Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair 20 September 1881 – 22 January 1902
Arthur Robins, Rector of Holy Trinity Church, Windsor 10 October 1882 – 1899 (deceased)
John Blakeney, Archdeacon of Sheffield, Prebend of York 3 January 1890 – 12 January 1895 (replacing Byng), (deceased)
Thomas Blundell Hollinshead Blundell, M.A., Rector of Halsall, Ormskirk 31 December 1895 – 1901
W. Rogers – 1896 (deceased)
James Welldon 1892 – 6 December 1898 (resigned, appointed a bishop)
Clement Smith, Rector of Whippingham, Isle of Wight 2 March 1896 – 22 January 1901 (replacing Rogers)
Alfred Ainger 2 March 1896 – 22 January 1901 (replacing Phipps)
Arthur Lyttelton, 1896 – 6 December 1898 (appointed a bishop)
John Henry Joshua Ellison, Vicar of Windsor 1896 – 22 January 1901
Archibald Boyd-Carpenter, MA, Rector of St George's, Bloomsbury 13 December 1897 – (replacing John Neale Dalton)
Charles Turner, Rector of St. Georges-in-the-East, London 21 April 1898 – 13 July 1898 (replacing Selwyn), (resigned, appointed a bishop)
Walter Lawrance, Rector of St Albans, Hertfordshire 13 July 1898 – ?
Herbert Edward Ryle, Hulsean Professor of Divinity at Cambridge 6 December 1898 – 4 January 1901 (resigned, appointed a bishop)
William Donne, Vicar of Wakefield 6 December 1898 – ?
Frederick Cecil Alderson 1 January 1900 – 22 January 1901 (replacing Robins)
Robert Henry Hadden 1 January 1900 – 22 January 1902 (replacing Ellison)
Robert Moberly 4 January 1901 – 22 January 1901


==== King Edward VII ====
Alfred Ainger 23 July 1901 – ?
(First name unknown) Duckworth, 23 July 1901 – ?
John Henry Joshua Ellison, Vicar of Windsor 23 July 1901 – 1910
James Fleming, 23 July 1901 – ?
Edgar C. S. Gibson, 23 July 1901 – ?
Charles Gore 23 July 1901 – 1 January 1902 (resigned, appointed a bishop)
Frederick Hervey, Canon of Norwich and Rector of Sandringham 23 July 1901 – ?
Robert C. Moberly, 23 July 1901 – ?
Handley Moule, Principal of Ridley Hall, Cambridge 23 July 1901 – September 1901 (resigned, appointed a bishop)
Thomas Teignmouth Shore, 23 July 1901 – ?
Clement Smith, Canon of Windsor and Rector of Whippingham, Isle of Wight 23 July 1901 – 1910
Leonard Francis Tyrwhitt, 23 July 1901 – ?
James Adams, Vicar of Stow Bardolph 31 October 1901 – ? (replacing Moule)
Armitage Robinson 1 January 1902 – October 1902 (replacing Gore), (resigned, appointed a dean)
Augustus Jessopp, DD, Rector of Scarning, East Dereham 15 November 1902 – (replacing Robinson)


==== Queen Elizabeth II ====
John Stott, 1959–1991, and, on his retirement in 1991, an Extra Chaplain


=== Honorary chaplains ===


==== Queen Victoria ====
John Cawston, Chaplain of the Fleet, dates unknown
William Henry Brookfield, Inspector of Schools 24 March 1862 – 1 January 1867
William Drake, Honorary Canon of Worcester, Rural Dean and Vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Coventry 24 March 1862 – ?
Lord Wriothesley Russell, Canon of Windsor, Rector of Chenies 28 March 1862 – ?
Henry Liddell, Dean of Christ Church 28 March 1862 – January 1898 (deceased)
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Canon of Christ Church, Oxford 28 March 1862 – ?
Joseph Lightfoot, Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge 28 March 1862 – ?
John Edward Kempe, Prebend of St Paul's Cathedral and Rector of St. James Church, Westminster 26 June 1862 – ?
George Protheroe 6 July 1865 – ?
Thomas James Rowsell, Rector of St. Christopher-le-Stocks, and St. Margaret's, Lothbury 20 January 1866 – 1869
Stopford Augustus Brooke 1 January 1867 – 1875
Francis Byng 1867–1872
Francis Pigou, ? – 4 July 1874
James Moorhouse, ? – 4 July 1874
Edward Benson, ? – 11 October 1875
George Bradley, Master of University College, Oxford 4 July 1874 – ?
William Henry Bliss, Minor Canon of Windsor, and Rector of West Isley, Berkshire 4 July 1874 – 8 November 1876
Henry John Ellison, Honorary Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, Vicar of St John the Baptist Church, Windsor 11 October 1875 – 26 December 1879
John Llewelyn Davies, Rector of Christ Church, St. Marylebone 8 November 1876 – 10 February 1881
Thomas Teignmouth Shore, Vicar of Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair 2 July 1878 – 20 September 1881
Arthur Robins, Rector of Holy Trinity Church, Windsor, and Chaplain to Her Majesty's Household Troops 7 September 1878 – 10 October 1882
Edward Glyn, Vicar of Kensington 10 February 1881 – ?
Arthur Lewis Babington Peile, Vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Ventnor 10 February 1881 – ?
Randall Davidson, Resident Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury 10 October 1882
Richard Gee, Vicar of St John the Baptist Church, Windsor 1884–1901
John Blakeney, Archdeacon of Sheffield, Prebend of York 1886 – 3 January 1890
James Welldon 1888–1892
Archibald Boyd-Carpenter ? – 13 December 1897
John Fenwick Kitto, Vicar of St Martin-in-the-Fields 3 January 1890 – 1901
John Erskine Clarke, Vicar of Battersea 27 July 1895 – 22 January 1901
Alfred Ainger, Master of the Temple 28 January 1895 – 2 March 1896
John Henry Joshua Ellison, Vicar of St Gabriel's, Pimlico and Vicar of St John the Baptist Church, Windsor 28 January 1895 – ?
Arthur Lyttelton, Vicar of Eccles 27 July 1895 – 1896
Clement Smith, Rector of Whippingham, Isle of Wight ? – 2 March 1896
Charles Turner ? – 21 April 1898
Walter Lawrance, Rector of St Albans, Hertfordshire ? – 13 July 1898
Herbert Edward Ryle, Hulsean Professor of Divinity at Cambridge 2 March 1896 – 6 December 1898
William Donne, Vicar of Wakefield 2 March 1896 – 6 December 1898
Charles Gore, Canon of Westminster 21 April 1898 – ?
Edward Perowne, Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge 21 April 1898 – ?
Robert Moberly, Canon of Christ Church, Oxford and Regius Professor of Pastoral Theology 13 July 1898 – 4 January 1901
Frederick Cecil Alderson, Canon of Peterborough and Rector of Lutterworth 13 December 1897 – 1 January 1900
Robert Henry Hadden, Vicar of St Botolph, Aldgate 13 December 1897 – 1 January 1900
John Stafford Northcote, Vicar of St Andrew's, Westminster, 6 December 1898 – ?
Handley Moule, Principal of Ridley Hall, Cambridge 6 December 1898 – 22 January 1901
Henry Pereira, Honorary Canon of Canterbury Cathedral 26 January 1900 – 22 January 1901
Owen Evans, Warden of Llandovery College 26 January 1900 – 22 January 1901
Edgar Gibson, Vicar of Leeds 4 January 1901 – 22 January 1901


==== King Edward VII ====
John Harcourt Berry, M.A., Chaplain of the Fleet 27 March 1901 – ?
E. H. Goodwin, Chaplain to the Forces, first class 1 June 1901 – ? (in recognition of his services while Principal Chaplain to the South African Field Force)
Thomas Blundell Hollinshead Blundell, M.A., Rector of Halsall, Ormskirk 26 July 1901 – 1905, (deceased)
William Stuart Harris, M.A., Chaplain of the Fleet and Inspector of Naval Schools 26 June 1902 – ?


==== Queen Elizabeth II ====
Noël Jones 1983–1984
Ray Jones 1984–1989
T. J. Thomas-Botwood, MBE 1 July 2022 – ?


==== King Charles III ====
S. Ashley-Emery 9 September 2024 – present


=== Priests in Ordinary ===


==== Queen Victoria ====
John Swire


==== King Edward VII ====
H. G. Daniell-Bainbridge, 23 July 1901 – ?
H. D. Macnamara, 23 July 1901 – ?
H. A. Sheringham, 23 July 1901 – ?
R. Tahourdin, 23 July 1901 – ?


==== Queen Elizabeth II ====
Trevitt Hine-Haycock
William Whitcombe
Jonathan Osborne


=== Honorary Priests in Ordinary ===


==== King Edward VII ====
H. Aldrich Cotton, 23 July 1901 – ?
E. W. Kempe, 23 July 1901 – ?
Edwin Price, 23 July 1901 – ?
John Swire, 23 July 1901 – May 1902


== Scotland ==
The King's Household in Scotland (Ecclesiastical) consists of chaplains who are all ministers of the Church of Scotland.
The current Dean of the Chapel Royal (since 2019) is Professor David Fergusson, who was also appointed Dean of the Thistle at the same time. Other members are the Dean of the Thistle (where held by another individual), and two Domestic Chaplains: the minister at Crathie Kirk (by Balmoral Castle) and the minister at the Canongate Kirk (by the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh). There are ten ""Chaplains in Ordinary"". Upon retirement the chaplains may be appointed ""Extra Chaplains"".


== List of Chaplains in the Household in Scotland ==


=== Chaplains-in-Ordinary to the sovereign in Scotland ===


==== King George II ====
William Gusthart from 1727 to 1764


==== Queen Victoria ====
Robert Lee, DD 17 December 1846 – 1868
Norman Macleod ? – 1862 (deceased)
John Stuart, minister of St Andrew's church, Edinburgh 8 December 1862 – ? (replacing Macleod)
Archibald Watson, 2 May 1868 –  in place of Robert Lee, deceased
Robert Herbert Story, 1886 – ?


==== King Edward VII ====
Archibald Charteris, 18 October 1901 – 1908
Donald Macleod, 18 October 1901 – 1910
Cameron Lees, 18 October 1901 – 1910
James MacGregor, 18 October 1901 – 1910
Robert Herbert Story, 18 October 1901 – 1907
J. R. Mitford Mitchell, 18 October 1901 – 1910
Samuel James Ramsay Sibbald, Minister of the Parish of Crathie 30 June 1903 – ? (in place of Charteris, deceased)


==== King George V ====
Donald Macleod, 7 May 1910 – 1916
Cameron Lees, 7 May 1910 – 1913
James MacGregor, 7 May 1910 – 1910
J. R. Mitford Mitchell, 7 May 1910 – 1925
Wallace Williamson, 7 May 1910 – 1926
Samuel James Ramsay Sibbald, 7 May 1910 – 1936
Pearson McAdam Muir, Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland 16 December 1910 – 1924 (in place of MacGregor, deceased)
Robert Howie Fisher, minister of Morningside, Edinburgh 25 July 1913 – ? (in place of Lees)
Alexander Miller Maclean, 27 October 1914 – 1925 (in place of J.R. Mitford Mitchell, deceased)
William Paterson Paterson, 10 March 1916 – 1936 (in place of Macleod)
John White, 8 August 1924 – (in place of Muir, deceased)
Archibald Main, Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, University of Glasgow 29 May 1925 – 1936 (in place of Alexander Miller Maclean, deceased)
Norman MacLean, Collegiate Minister of St. Cuthbert's, Edinburgh 24 August 1926 – 1936 (in place of Wallace Williamson, deceased)
Alexander Martin, Principal of New College, Edinburgh. 8 November 1929 – 1936
Robert J. Drummond, 8 November 1929 – 1936
Donald Fraser, 8 November 1929 – 1933
George Adam Smith, 3 October 1933 – 1936 (in place of Donald Fraser)
Charles Warr, Dean of the Chapel Royal and Dean of the Thistle, 8 November 1934 – 1936 (in place of Robert Howie Fisher; extra Chaplain in 1934)
John White


==== King Edward VIII ====
Samuel James Ramsay Sibbald, 21 July 1936 – 1937
William Paterson Paterson, 21 July 1936 – 1937
John White, 21 July 1936 – 1937
Archibald Main, 21 July 1936 – 1937
Norman MacLean, 21 July 1936 – 1937
Alexander Martin, 21 July 1936 – 1937
Robert J. Drummond, 21 July 1936 – 1937
George Adam Smith, 21 July 1936 – 1937
Charles Warr, 21 July 1936 – 1937


==== King George VI ====
Samuel James Ramsay Sibbald, 2 March 1937 – 1950
William Paterson Paterson, 2 March 1937 – ?
John White, 2 March 1937 – ?
Archibald Main, 2 March 1937 – 1947
Norman MacLean, 2 March 1937 – ?
Alexander Martin, 2 March 1937 – 1946
Robert J. Drummond, 2 March 1937 – 1951
Sir George Adam Smith, 2 March 1937 – 1942
Charles Laing Warr, 2 March 1937 – 1952
James Macdougall Black, 5 May 1942 – 1948 (in place of Sir George Adam Smith, deceased)
James Hutchinson Cockburn, 24 November 1944 – 1952 (in place of John Stirton, deceased)
Andrew Nevile Davidson, 30 July 1946 – 1952 (in place of Alexander Martin, deceased)
John Baillie, 3 June 1947 – 1952 (in place of Archibald Main, deceased)
William White Anderson, 15 November 1949 – 1952 (in place of James Black, deceased)
John Henry Duncan, 31 October 1950 – 1951 (in place of Samuel Sibbald, deceased)
Thomas Bentley Stewart Thomson, 16 March 1951 – 1952 (in place of John Henry Duncan, deceased)
James Pitt Watson, 17 August 1951 – 1952 (in place of Robert J. Drummond, deceased)


==== Queen Elizabeth II ====

Charles Laing Warr 1 August 1952 – 9 December 1969
James Hutchison Cockburn 1 August 1952 – 1973
Andrew Nevile Davidson 1 August 1952 – 1969
John Baillie 1 August 1952 – 1960
William White Anderson 1 August 1952 –
Thomas Bentley Stewart Thomson 1 August 1952 – 1959 (thereafter Extra chaplain)
Professor James Pitt Watson 1 August 1952 – 1963
Professor James Stuart Stewart 1 August 1952 – 1966 (thereafter Extra chaplain)
John Annand Fraser 1 August 1952 – 23 June 1964 (thereafter Extra Chaplain)
John Lamb 1 August 1952 – (Domestic Chaplain Balmoral)
Hugh Osborne Douglas, 17 December 1959 – 18 September 1981 (in place of Thomas Thomson, resigned) thereafter Extra chaplain
Ronald William Vernon Selby Wright, 24 May 1963 – ? (in place of James Pitt Watson, deceased)
Henry Charles Whitley, 24 May 1963 – 1976 thereafter Extra Chaplain
Anderson Nicol 23 June 1964 – 1972 (in place of John Annand Fraser)
William Henry Rogan 1966–1978 (in place of James Stuart Stewart) thereafter Extra Chaplain
Robert Leonard Small 12 September 1967 – 1975 (in place of Edgar Primrose Dickie, retired) thereafter Extra Chaplain
W R Sanderson
William Morris 15 April 1969 – ? (in place of Nevile Davidson, retired)
George Thomson Henderson Reid 1969–1980 (in place of Charles Laing Warr, deceased)
James Boyd Prentice Bulloch 1980–1981 (in place of Reid, retired)
William Bryce Johnston 1981–1991 (in place of Bulloch, deceased)
Colin Forrester-Paton 18 September 1981 – 5 April 1988 (in place of Hugh Osborne Douglas, retired) thereafter Extra chaplain
Harry William Macphail Cant 1972–1991 (in place of Anderson Nicol, deceased)
Kenneth Macvicar 1974–1991
John McIntyre 1975-1986 (in place of Robert Leonard Small, retired)
Robin Barbour 1976–1991 (in place of Henry Whitley, retired)
Allan Young 1978–1979 (in place of Rogan, retired)
Gilleasbuig Macmillan 1979–2014 (in place of Young, deceased)
William Boyd Robertson Macmillan 5 April 1988 – (in place of Colin Forrester-Paton, retired)
James Leslie Weatherhead 11 April 1991 – 2017 (in place of Harry William MacPhail Cant, deceased)
Mary Irene Levison  11 May 1991 – 29 January 1993 (in place of RAS Barbour, retired) (thereafter Extra Chaplain)
Andrew Stewart Todd 1991 – ? (in place of MacVicar, retired)
Charles Robertson 1991–2010 (in place of Johnston, retired)
Iain Torrance 2001–2019
James Alexander Simpson 21 July 1992 – 2004 (in place of Alwyn James Cecil Macfarlane, retired)
Norman Walker Drummond 29 Jan 1993 – 2022 (in place of Levison, retired)
John Paterson ? – 2008
James Gibson 2004 – 2018 (afterwards extra Chaplain)
Angus Morrison 2006 – ?
Kenneth MacKenzie 2007 – ? (Domestic chaplain)
Lorna Hood 2008 – ? (in place of Paterson, retired)
Neil Gardner 2008 – ? (Domestic chaplain)
Alistair Bennett 2010–2022
Susan Brown 2012 – ?
John Chalmers 2013 – ?
Finlay Macdonald 2001–2015
David Fergusson 2015 – ?
Alastair Symington 1996–2017
George Cowie 2017–2022
James Gibson – 2018
Liz Henderson 2018 – present (in place of Gibson)
George Whyte 2019 – present
Dr Marjory Maclean 2022 – present (in place of Cowie, deceased)
Dr Grant Barclay 2022 – present (in place of Drummond)
Prof John Swinton 2022 – present (in place of Bennett)


=== Extra Chaplains-in-Ordinary to HM in Scotland ===


==== King Edward VII ====
Malcolm C. Taylor, 18 October 1901 – ?


==== King George V ====
Malcolm C. Taylor, 7 May 1910 – ?
Charles Laing Warr 12 March 1926


==== Queen Elizabeth II ====
George Thomson Henderson Reid 1980 – ?
Kenneth Macvicar 1991 – ?
William Bryce Johnston 1991 – ?
Gilleasbuig Macmillan 2014 – ?
Iain Torrance 2019 – ?
John Chalmers 2022 – ?


==== King Charles III ====
Dr. Elizabeth Lorna Hood 2023 – present
Dr. Angus Morrison 2023 – present


== References =="
Crowd psychology,"Crowd psychology (or mob psychology) is a subfield of social psychology which examines how the psychology of a group of people differs from the psychology of any one person within the group. The study of crowd psychology looks into the actions and thought processes of both the individual members of the crowd and of the crowd as a collective social entity. The behavior of a crowd is much influenced by deindividuation (seen as a person's loss of responsibility)
and by the person's impression of the universality of behavior, both of which conditions increase in magnitude with size of the crowd. Notable theorists in crowd psychology include Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904), and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Many of these theories are today tested or used to simulate crowd behaviors in normal or emergency situations. One of the main focuses in these simulation works aims to prevent crowd crushes and stampedes.


== Origins ==
According to his biological theory of criminology, which suggests that criminality is inherited and that someone “born criminal” could be identified by the way they look, Enrico Ferri expressed his view of crime as a degeneration more profound than insanity, for in most insane persons the primitive moral sense survives the wreck of their intelligence. Along similar lines were the remarks of Benedickt, Sergi and Marro. A response from the French, who put forward an environmental theory of human psychology, M. Anguilli called attention to the importance of the influence of the social environment upon crime. Professor Alexandre Lacassagne thought that the atavistic and degenerative theories as held by the Italian school were exaggerations and false interpretations of the facts, and that the important factor was the social environment.""
In Paris during 10–17 August 1889, the Italian school received a stronger rebuke of their biological theories during the 2nd International Congress of Criminal Anthropology. A radical divergence in the views between the Italian and the French schools was reflected in the proceedings.

""Professor Lombroso laid stress upon epilepsy in connection with his theory of the 'born criminal'. Professor Léonce Pierre Manouvrier characterized Lombroso's theory as nothing but the exploded science of phrenology. The anomalies observed by Lombroso were met with in honest men as well as criminals, Manouvrier claimed, and there is no physical difference between them. Baron Raffaele Garofalo, Drill, Alexandre Lacassagne and Benedikt opposed Lombroso's theories in whole or in part. Pugliese found the cause of crime in the failure of the criminal to adapt himself to his social surroundings, and Benedikt, with whom Tarde agreed, held that physical defects were not marks of the criminal qua criminal."" It is in this context that you have a debate between Scipio Sighele, an Italian lawyer and Gabriel Tarde, a French magistrate on how to determine criminal responsibility in the crowd and hence who to arrest. (Sighele, 1892; Tarde, 1890, 1892, 1901) Both thinkers had published early studies on this matter (Sighele wrote ""The Criminal Crowd"", and Tarde ""La criminalité comparée"".)
Earlier, literature on crowds and crowd behavior had appeared as early as 1841, with the publication of Charles Mackay's book Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. The attitude towards crowds underwent an adjustment with the publication of Hippolyte Taine's six-volume The Origins of Contemporary France (1875). In particular Taine's work helped to change the opinions of his contemporaries on the actions taken by the crowds during the 1789 Revolution. Many Europeans held him in great esteem. While it is difficult to directly link his works to crowd behavior, it may be said that his thoughts stimulated further study of crowd behavior. However, it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that scientific interest in the field gained momentum. French physician and anthropologist Gustave Le Bon became its most-influential theorist.


== Types of crowds ==
There is limited research into the types of crowd and crowd membership and there is no consensus as to the classification of types of crowds. Two recent scholars, Momboisse (1967) and Berlonghi (1995) focused upon purpose of existence to differentiate among crowds. Momboisse developed a system of four types: casual, conventional, expressive, and aggressive. Berlonghi classified crowds as spectator, demonstrator, or escaping, to correlate to the purpose for gathering.
Another approach to classifying crowds is sociologist Herbert Blumer's system of emotional intensity. He distinguishes four types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive, and active. A group of people who just so happen to be at the same location at the same time is known as a casual crowd. This kind of mob lacks any true identity, long-term goal, or shared connection. A group of individuals who come together for a particular reason is known as a conventional crowd. They could be going to a theater, concert, movie, or lecture. According to Erich Goode, conventional crowds behave in a very conventional and hence somewhat structured manner; as their name suggests, they do not truly act out collective behavior. A group of people who come together solely to show their excitement and feelings is known as an expressive crowd. A political candidate's rally, a religious revival, and celebrations like Mardi Gras are a few examples.  An active crowd behaves violently or in other damaging ways, such looting, going above and beyond an expressive crowd. One of the main examples of an acting crowd is a mob, which is an extremely emotional group that either commits or is prepared to do violence. A crowd changes its level of emotional intensity over time, and therefore, can be classed in any one of the four types.
Generally, researchers in crowd psychology have focused on the negative aspects of crowds, but not all crowds are volatile or negative in nature. For example, in the beginning of the socialist movement crowds were asked to put on their Sunday dress and march silently down the street. A more-modern example involves the sit-ins during the Civil Rights movement. Crowds can reflect and challenge the held ideologies of their sociocultural environment. They can also serve integrative social functions, creating temporary communities.
Crowds can be defined as active (""mobs"") or passive (""audiences""). Active crowds can be further divided into aggressive, escapist, acquisitive, or expressive mobs. Aggressive mobs are often violent and outwardly focused. Examples are football riots, the Los Angeles riots of 1992, and the 2011 English riots. Escapist mobs are characterized by a large number of people trying to get out of a dangerous situation like the November 2021 Astroworld Festival. Incidents involving crowds are often reported by media as the results of ""panic"", but some experts have criticized the media's implication that panic is a main cause of crowd disasters, noting that actual panic is relatively rare in fire situations, and that the major factors in dangerous crowd incidents are infrastructure design, crowd density and breakdowns in communication. Acquisitive mobs occur when large numbers of people are fighting for limited resources. An expressive mob is any other large group of people gathering for an active purpose. Civil disobedience, rock concerts, and religious revivals all fall under this category.


== Theoretical perspectives ==


=== Le Bon ===
Gustave Le Bon held that crowds existed in three stages: submergence, contagion, and suggestion. During submergence, the individuals in the crowd lose their sense of individual self and personal responsibility. This is quite heavily induced by the anonymity of the crowd. Contagion refers to the propensity for individuals in a crowd to unquestioningly follow the predominant ideas and emotions of the crowd. In Le Bon's view, this effect is capable of spreading between ""submerged"" individuals much like a disease. Suggestion refers to the period in which the ideas and emotions of the crowd are primarily drawn from a shared unconscious ideology. Crowd members become susceptible to any passing idea or emotion. This behavior comes from an archaic shared unconscious and is therefore uncivilized in nature. It is limited by the moral and cognitive abilities of the least capable members. Le Bon believed that crowds could be a powerful force only for destruction. Additionally, Le Bon and others have indicated that crowd members feel a lessened sense of legal culpability, due to the difficulty in prosecuting individual members of a mob. In short, the individual submerged in the crowd loses self control as the ""collective mind"" takes over and makes the crowd member capable of violating personal or social norms.
Le Bon's idea that crowds foster anonymity and generate emotion has been contested by some critics. Clark McPhail points out studies which show that ""the madding crowd"" does not take on a life of its own, apart from the thoughts and intentions of members. Norris Johnson, after investigating a panic at a 1979 The Who concert concluded that the crowd was composed of many small groups of people mostly trying to help each other. Additionally, Le Bon's theory ignores the socio-cultural context of the crowd, which some theorists argue can disempower social change. R. Brown disputes the assumption that crowds are homogenous, suggesting instead that participants exist on a continuum, differing in their ability to deviate from social norms.


=== Freudian theory ===
Sigmund Freud's crowd behavior theory primarily consists of the idea that becoming a member of a crowd serves to unlock the unconscious mind. This occurs because the super-ego, or moral center of consciousness, is displaced by the larger crowd, to be replaced by a charismatic crowd leader. McDougall argues similarly to Freud, saying that simplistic emotions are widespread, and complex emotions are rarer. In a crowd, the overall shared emotional experience reverts to the least common denominator (LCD), leading to primitive levels of emotional expression. This organizational structure is that of the ""primal horde""—pre-civilized society—and Freud states that one must rebel against the leader (re-instate the individual morality) in order to escape from it.
Theodor Adorno criticized the belief in a spontaneity of the masses: according to him, the masses were an artificial product of ""administrated"" modern life. The Ego of the bourgeois subject dissolved itself, giving way to the Id and the ""de-psychologized"" subject. Furthermore, Adorno stated the bond linking the masses to the leader through the spectacle is feigned:

""When the leaders become conscious of mass psychology and take it into their own hands, it ceases to exist in a certain sense. ... Just as little as people believe in the depth of their hearts that the Jews are the devil, do they completely believe in their leader. They do not really identify themselves with him but act this identification, perform their own enthusiasm, and thus participate in their leader's performance. ... It is probably the suspicion of this fictitiousness of their own 'group psychology' which makes fascist crowds so merciless and unapproachable. If they would stop to reason for a second, the whole performance would go to pieces, and they would be left to panic.""


=== Deindividuation theory ===
Deindividuation theory is largely based on the ideas of Gustave Le Bon and argues that in typical crowd situations, factors such as anonymity, group unity, and arousal can weaken personal controls (e.g. guilt, shame, self-evaluating behavior) by distancing people from their personal identities and reducing their concern for social evaluation. This lack of restraint increases individual sensitivity to the environment and lessens rational forethought, which can lead to antisocial behavior. More recent theories have stated that deindividuation hinges upon a person being unable, due to situation, to have strong awareness of their self as an object of attention.  This lack of attention frees the individual from the necessity of normal social behavior.
American social psychologist Leon Festinger and colleagues first elaborated the concept of deindividuation in 1952. It was further refined by American psychologist Philip Zimbardo, who detailed why mental input and output became blurred by such factors as anonymity, lack of social constraints, and sensory overload. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment has been presented as a strong argument for the power of deindividuation, although it was later criticised as unscientific. Further experimentation has had mixed results when it comes to aggressive behaviors, and has instead shown that the normative expectations surrounding the situations of deindividuation influence behavior (i.e. if one is deindividuated as a KKK member, aggression increases, but if it is as a nurse, aggression does not increase).
A further distinction has been proposed between public and private deindividuation. When private aspects of self are weakened, one becomes more subject to crowd impulses, but not necessarily in a negative way. It is when one no longer attends to the public reaction and judgement of individual behavior that antisocial behavior is elicited. Philip Zimbardo also did not view deindividuation exclusively as a group phenomenon, and applied the concept to suicide, murder, and interpersonal hostility.


=== Convergence theory ===
Convergence theory holds that crowd behavior is not a product of the crowd, but rather the crowd is a product of the coming together of like-minded individuals. Floyd Allport argued that ""An individual in a crowd behaves just as he would behave alone, only more so."" Convergence theory holds that crowds form from people of similar dispositions, whose actions are then reinforced and intensified by the crowd.
Convergence theory claims that crowd behavior is not irrational; rather, people in crowds express existing beliefs and values so that the mob reaction is the rational product of widespread popular feeling. However, this theory is questioned by certain research which found that people involved in the 1970s riots were less likely than nonparticipant peers to have previous convictions.
Critics of this theory report that it still excludes the social determination of self and action, in that it argues that all actions of the crowd are born from the individuals' intents.


=== Emergent norm theory ===
Ralph H. Turner and Lewis Killian put forth the idea that norms emerge from within the crowd. Emergent norm theory states that crowds have little unity at their outset, but during a period of milling about, key members suggest appropriate actions, and following members fall in line, forming the basis for the crowd's norms.
Key members are identified through distinctive personalities or behaviors. These garner attention, and the lack of negative response elicited from the crowd as a whole stands as tacit agreement to their legitimacy. The followers form the majority of the mob, as people tend to be creatures of conformity who are heavily influenced by the opinions of others. This has been shown in the conformity studies conducted by Sherif and Asch. Crowd members are further convinced by the universality phenomenon, described by Allport as the persuasive tendency of the idea that if everyone in the mob is acting in such-and-such a way, then it cannot be wrong.
Emergent norm theory allows for both positive and negative mob types, as the distinctive characteristics and behaviors of key figures can be positive or negative in nature. An antisocial leader can incite violent action, but an influential voice of non-violence in a crowd can lead to a mass sit-in. When a crowd described as above targets an individual, anti-social behaviors may emerge within its members.
A major criticism of this theory is that the formation and following of new norms indicates a level of self-awareness that is often missing in the individuals in crowds (as evidenced by the study of deindividuation). Another criticism is that the idea of emergent norms fails to take into account the presence of existent sociocultural norms. Additionally, the theory fails to explain why certain suggestions or individuals rise to normative status while others do not.


=== Social identity theory ===
The social identity theory posits that the self is a complex system made up primarily of the concept of membership or non-membership in various social groups. These groups have various moral and behavioral values and norms, and the individual's actions depend on which group membership (or non-membership) is most personally salient at the time of action.
This influence is evidenced by findings that when the stated purpose and values of a group changes, the values and motives of its members also change.
Crowds are an amalgam of individuals, all of whom belong to various overlapping groups. However, if the crowd is primarily related to some identifiable group (such as Christians or Hindus or Muslims or civil-rights activists), then the values of that group will dictate the crowd's action.
In crowds which are more ambiguous, individuals will assume a new social identity as a member of the crowd. This group membership is made more salient by confrontation with other groups – a relatively common occurrence for crowds.
The group identity serves to create a set of standards for behavior; for certain groups violence is legitimate, for others it is unacceptable. This standard is formed from stated values, but also from the actions of others in the crowd, and sometimes from a few in leadership-type positions.
A concern with this theory is that while it explains how crowds reflect social ideas and prevailing attitudes, it does not explain the mechanisms by which crowds enact to drive social change.


== See also ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Borch, Christian. The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology. Cambridge University Press 2012, ISBN 978-1-107-62546-4
Buford, Bill. Among the Thugs: The Experience, and the Seduction, of Crowd Violence. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. (1990)
Canetti, Elias (1960). Crowds and Power. Viking Adult. ISBN 0-670-24999-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Challenger, R., Clegg, C. W., & Robinson, M. A. (2009). Understanding crowd behaviours. Multi-volume report for the UK Government's Cabinet Office. London: Cabinet Office. http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/resource-library/understanding-crowd-behaviours-documents
Johnson, Norris R. ""Panic at 'The Who Concert Stampede': An Empirical Assessment."" Social Problems. Vol. 34, No. 4 (October 1987): 362–373.
Le Bon, Gustave (1895) Psychology of Crowds. [Improved edition www.sparklingbooks.com.]
Le Bon, Gustave (1895). ""The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind"". Retrieved 15 November 2005.
Mackay, Charles (1841). Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1-85326-349-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Martin, Everett Dean, The Behavior of Crowds, A Psychological Study, Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York, 1920.
Mc Phail, Clark, The Myth of the Madding Crowd, New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1991.
Moscovici, Serge
(in French) Psychologie des minorités actives, P.U.F., 1979
(in French) L'Age des foules: un traité historique de psychologie des masses, Fayard, 1981 (about Gustave Le Bon's invention of crowd psychology and Gabriel Tarde)
Rheingold, Howard, Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution, 2003
Surowiecki, James, The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies and Nations, 2004.
van Ginneken, Jaap, Crowds, psychology and politics 1871–1899, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
van Ginneken, Jaap, Kurt Baschwitz – A Pioneer of Communication Studies and Social Psychology. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2017.


== External links ==

Dr. J. P van de Sande, On Crowds (in English and Dutch)
""Crowd Disasters"" by Prof. Dr. G. Keith Still (archived 20 April 2012)
Understanding crowd behaviours – gov.uk"
Ocean (train),"The Ocean (French: L'Océan), previously known as the Ocean Limited, is a passenger train operated by Via Rail in Canada between Montreal, Quebec, and Halifax, Nova Scotia. It is the oldest continuously operated named passenger train in North America. The Ocean's schedule takes approximately 22 hours, running overnight in both directions.  Together with The Canadian and Via's corridor trains, the Ocean provides a transcontinental service across Canada.


== History ==
The Intercolonial Railway of Canada (IRC) inaugurated the Ocean Limited on July 3, 1904, as a summer-only ""limited stop"" service to supplement the Maritime Express. In Halifax, it connected with the Dominion Atlantic Railway's luxury train, the Flying Bluenose. During the immigration boom of the early 20th century, the Ocean Limited and other passenger trains on its route saw increased use as they provided key wintertime connections for both the Grand Trunk Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway in moving sponsored immigrants to lands in the Prairie provinces.

In 1918, the IRC was merged into the Canadian National Railways (CNR) and the Ocean Limited continued its operation much as before.  During both the First and Second World Wars, the Ocean Limited provided important service to the port of Halifax.
In 1964 the Ocean received ex-Milwaukee Road Skytop Lounge lounge-sleeping cars.: 30 
CNR dropped the ""Limited"" from the train's name in 1966 as part of the company's adoption of bilingual names.: 99 : 285  Despite the name change references to the Ocean Limited remain commonplace.
During a landslide which affected the old IRC line near Rimouski, Quebec, in 1977, for six months CN diverted the Ocean onto another parallel line several hundred kilometres to the south, maintaining the same Halifax–Montreal schedule times.


=== Via Rail ===

In 1976, CN placed operation of its passenger services under a new division using the marketing slogan ""Via"". In April 1978 this division was split off as a separate Crown corporation named Via Rail Canada, taking with it all CN passenger trains and equipment.  The new national passenger rail service did not begin to change train names and operations until 1979, following the October 1978 assumption of all CPR passenger trains and equipment.
The Ocean did not get renamed by Via, and in fact became supplanted on the Halifax–Moncton portion of its route in 1985 by another Via train, the Atlantic (formerly the Atlantic Limited), which saw its eastern terminus extended to Halifax from Saint John.  This train also assumed the train numbers and equipment of the defunct CN passenger train Scotian, which survived only into the first few years of the Via era.
Under Via, the Ocean underwent several changes in its operation:

(1979–1981) Daily operation (seven days a week) in both directions between Halifax-Montreal.  Another Via train, the Atlantic also served these cities over a different route.
(1981–1985) Daily operation (seven days a week) in both directions, albeit as the only through train between Halifax-Montreal, following cancellation of the Atlantic.
(1985–1990) Daily operation (seven days a week) in both directions between Moncton and Montreal, following reinstatement of the Atlantic, which became the through train to Halifax.  Passengers on the Ocean were forced to change trains at Moncton.
(1990–1994) Operation three days a week in both directions between Halifax and Montreal following Via budget cuts.  The Atlantic also operated three days a week and equipment rotated on the two trains.  Service between Moncton and Halifax and between Saint-Hyacinthe and Montreal, the only common portions of the two routes, was six days a week.
(1994–2012) Daily operation (six days a week) in both directions between Halifax and Montreal. The second cancellation of the Atlantic resulted in increased operation on the route of the Ocean. CN sold its portion of the Ocean's route between Rivière-du-Loup, QC, and Moncton, NB, to a shortline operator which operated the section from Rivière-du-Loup to Campbellton as the Chemin de fer Matapédia et du Golfe and the section from Campbellton to Moncton as the New Brunswick East Coast Railway.  CN re-acquired these portions on November 3, 2008, and, as a result, the Ocean now again operates solely on CN trackage.
(1998) October 26, 1998, saw CN abandon its scenic route along the waterfront of Lévis, Quebec, which served the combined railway station and ferry terminal. This section of the railway was redeveloped as an urban cycling trail, although the former Lévis train station and platform remain. Via Rail was forced to relocate the Ocean stop for the Quebec City region to Charny, necessitating a reverse move in each direction. Via offers a connecting shuttle van service for Ocean passengers between Charny and Quebec City (in 2014 Via moved the stop from Charny to Sainte-Foy - both the eastbound and westbound trains travel in to Sainte-Foy forward, and reverse back to the main line).
(2006) The gradual phasing out of the restored stainless steel Budd cars was to have taken place, with all departures in both directions to have been operated in favor of the more modern European-built Renaissance equipment. However, Via has had occasional problems with this equipment and has had to use the Budd cars. Work on upgrading the Renaissance fleet has resulted in the need to operate one Budd consist (with the two other consists Renaissance outfitted) during the winter season. This took place through to the winter of 2011/2012, and ended after the service was reduced to three trips a week, with the exception of extra Budd-equipped trains during the Christmas holidays in 2014 and 2015. A stainless steel Park Car (originally built in 1954) was attached to the end of every train for passengers in Easterly Class (named ""Sleeper Plus""). Though initially available only during the peak summer season and the Christmas holidays, the Park car was part of every train year-round. The Renaissance cars' European couplers made it necessary to insert a barrier vehicle known as a transition car (numbered 7600–7602) between the Renaissance sleeping cars and the Park Car (or other Budd HEP cars). The transition car is converted from a Renaissance sleeper shell and is effectively an empty walk-through corridor with carpeted floor and handrails along the walls.
(2012) On June 27, 2012, Via Rail Canada announced plans to reduce frequency of the Ocean from six to three times per week. Starting October 2012, the Ocean departed Montreal on Wednesdays, Fridays and Sundays, and departed Halifax on Tuesdays, Fridays and Sundays. The Tuesday departure from Halifax was later changed to Wednesday, so the departure days are the same in both directions.
(2014) In 2014, CN threatened to abandon the Newcastle Subdivision, an action which would have jeopardized the Ocean. As part of an agreement, the government of New Brunswick announced it would give $25 million to CN to upgrade and maintain freight service on the line's northern and southern sections. CN committed to spend an equal amount to maintain and operate these two pieces for freight services for the next 15 years. However, a 71-kilometre (44 mi) section of track between Bathurst and Moncton was not part of the deal and the lack of rail traffic initially kept this part of the route from being saved. However, in May 2014, the federal government pledged $10.3 million to rebuild the line to save the Ocean.
(2014) The Ocean celebrates its 110th year of service.
(2020) Via Rail shuts down the Ocean due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
(2020) On November 1, 2020, Via Rail's lease with the Halifax Port turnaround loop ended, meaning the train is not able to make the return trip, jeopardizing the train's future.
(2021) On August 11, 2021, the Ocean started a gradual return to service, departing once a week in Halifax and once a week in Montreal. Via Rail opted to have the locomotives in a back to back consist, something unique and atypical of them. However, this made the train able to return to Montreal despite not having a turnaround loop in Halifax.
(2022) Starting June 3, 2022, Via Rail resumed the three times weekly schedule each way, with departures from both Montreal and  Halifax on Wednesdays, Fridays and Sundays.
(2022) Due to the December 23, 2022 ice storms throughout much of Eastern Canada, both Ocean trains departing from Montreal and Halifax were stuck in Campbellton and Rivière-du-Loup respectively for over 24 hours. Due to fallen trees and debris from the storm blocking the Mont-Joli Subdivision, no CN workers cleared the tracks until mid-Christmas day, by which point both trains were already ordered to return to their respective departure terminals. Via Rail gave out thousands of dollars worth of free vouchers and coupons to customers affected by this.


== Route ==

The route taken by the Ocean runs through eastern Canada including the Island of Montreal and the city's skyline and suburbs, the lower St. Lawrence River valley, the Matapédia River valley, the south shore of Chaleur Bay and the forests of eastern New Brunswick, the Tantramar Marshes, the Cobequid Mountains and Wentworth Valley, the edge of Cobequid Bay and mixed farmland through central Nova Scotia to Halifax.


== Rolling stock ==

Three Renaissance train-sets supported the Ocean route, but the reduction to three departures in each direction per week in late 2012 reduced the need to only two sets of equipment. These sets range from as few as 14 cars in the off season to as many as 21 cars during the peak summer period, and each includes a baggage car, several coach cars, a dining car bracketed by two service cars, multiple sleeping cars, a transition car (see discussion above) and a Park sleeper buffet-lounge dome observation car. The Ocean is almost invariably hauled by a pair of London, Ontario-built GM F40PH locomotives, all of which CAD Railway Industries of Montreal has upgraded to the F40PH-3 model. A third locomotive is sometimes added in autumn and winter to help deal with difficult track conditions.
For several years prior to 2012, Via Rail removed one set of Renaissance equipment from service during the winter for upgrade work and replaced it with Budd-built stainless steel HEP1 equipment (including a baggage car, coaches, a Skyline dome car, a dining car, Château sleeper cars, and a Park car). This practice ended after the service reduction, as only two sets of equipment were required. However, in 2014 and again in 2015, Via added trains during the Christmas holiday period, which they ran using a set of HEP1 equipment much like in past years. These runs have been popular with railfans and the travelling public, as they provide more types of sleeping accommodations, a dome accessible to coach passengers, and a full dining car with meals cooked on board (a contrast to the catered meals in the normal Renaissance dining cars).
Prior to August 2013, the Ocean ran from Montreal to Matapédia, Quebec, joined to Train 16/17, the Montréal–Gaspé train (formerly called the Chaleur) three times per week. In Matapédia, the trains were separated with Train 16 continuing to the Gaspé peninsula and Train 14 (the Ocean) continuing to Halifax (and vice versa with Trains 15/17). Train 16/17 had its own locomotive which ran from Montreal, resulting in the combined trains (14 + 16 and 15 + 17) running with three locomotives between Montreal and Matapédia. The Montréal–Gaspé train used Budd-built stainless steel passenger cars, including a Skyline dome car. It was not possible to pass between the two trains when connected. Trains 16/17 were suspended due to infrastructure problems on the line to Gaspé, and service will not resume until the line is upgraded.
The balloon track at Halifax used to turn locomotives and passenger cars located in the Port of Halifax's South End Container Terminal was taken out of service in late 2020 to create more storage space for containers and the balloon tracks were severed in the fall of 2021. This necessitated certain operational changes to maintain service in both directions. The two F40PH locomotives are coupled back to back, unique for Via Rail trains, to enable the locomotives to couple on to the opposite end of train in Halifax for the return trip to Montreal. A result of the inability to turn the train set in Halifax is that the lead car on the eastbound Ocean (Train 14), typically a Renaissance baggage car, becomes the trailing car on the westbound Train 15 (in 2022, there is a second baggage car, a Budd HEP1 car, on the opposite end of the train). This situation has also resulted in the dropping of the iconic Park car (customarily the trailing car on Via's long-distance trains) from the Ocean train consist.


== References ==

Smith, Douglas N.W. (2004). The Ocean Limited: A Centennial Tribute.


== External links ==
 Media related to Ocean (train) at Wikimedia Commons

Via Rail's site for the Ocean
 The Ocean travel guide from Wikivoyage"
God Eater (video game),"God Eater (ゴッドイーター, Goddo Ītā) is a 2010 action role-playing game for the PlayStation Portable, developed and published by Namco Bandai Games in Japan.  Gods Eater Burst (ゴッドイーター バースト, Goddo Ītā Bāsuto) is an enhanced re-release that expanded the story and introduced new game mechanics.  Burst was the version that was localized and published by D3 Publisher in regions outside Japan; it was released in Japan on October 28, 2010, in North America on March 15, 2011, and in Europe three days later. A sequel, God Eater 2, was released in Japan in November 2013. An anime television series based on the game, also called God Eater, was released by Ufotable in 2015.
A remaster of Gods Eater Burst for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita, titled God Eater Resurrection has been released on October 29, 2015, in Japan. It was released in Western territories in summer 2016 with North American and European divisions of Bandai Namco Entertainment publishing the game on PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Microsoft Windows.


== Gameplay ==

God Eater is an action role-playing game in which players take control a young New-Type God Eater, special warriors dedicated to defeating monstrous enemies known as the Aragami (荒神, ""violent god""). God Eater offers mission-based single-player mode, which consists over 100 missions, and cooperative play of up to three teammates over local ad hoc wireless multiplayer or AI-controlled teammates. The North American version of the game also supported the PlayStation 3's ad hoc Party. The game features character creation, allowing customization of hair style, hair color, face, skin color, clothing, and voice.
The goal of each mission is to defeat specific Aragami in the designated area within the time limit. Additional rewards are gained depending on how efficiently the mission was completed. Players can dash, sprint, and jump by consuming stamina (ST) that auto-regenerates over time. Players' sole weapon is the God Arc (神機, Jinki), a unique weapon that can instantly switch to four different forms: Blade, Gun, Shield and Predator. Attacking Aragami in Gun form consumes Oracle Points (OP). Oracle Points can be regained by successfully attacking in Blade form; however, this also consumes stamina. Once an Aragami has been defeated, materials can be collected from its remains by switching to Predator form and devouring it. If a player loses all of their health points (HP), AI teammates can use ""Link Aid"" to revive team members by sacrificing some HP of their own. By devouring an Aragami that is still alive, God Eaters obtain an Aragami bullet that can be fired back and temporarily enter a state called ""Burst Mode"" in which their speed, strength and energy regeneration increase. In addition, New-Type God Eaters can send teammates into an artificial Burst Mode called ""Link Burst"" by sending Aragami bullets at their teammates. The Link Burst is capable of ""stacking"" up to three times by receiving multiple Aragami bullets in succession.
Players can upgrade, enhance and craft Blade, Gun, Shield, Upgrade Parts for their God arc using materials primarily found in missions. Gods Eater Burst introduces a new equipment part called the Control Unit which bestows different abilities to the user when in Burst Mode depending on the Unit equipped.
God Eater Resurrection adds new and basic GE2RB updated features. Predator Style replaces the previously occupied Control Unit equip slot. It introduces a variety of new devouring moves such as various aerial devours, combo devours, step devours. Additionally, quick and charged devour can be changed with various other devours unlocked throughout the game. These devours can be further enhanced by the addition of various buffs, which are ranked from 1 to 3 depending on how useful they are. Devours have ranks too, from 1 to 3. The bigger the rank, the longer it takes to devour, but the better the available buffs. An updated feature from GE2 allows players the optional use of an Operator in battle, who will notify the player of any newly emerging Aragami and give status updates on players and NPCs in-battle.
""Personal Abilities"" given to the NPC characters (sometimes online players as well) can provide various extra rewards or modify mission rewards. Selecting an NPC character's Personal Ability can lead to a small post-mission cut scene giving more details about the characters. The updated game also adds four weapons: Charge Spear, Boost Hammer, Shotgun, and Variant Scythe. These weapons made their debut in Gods Eater 2 and Gods Eater 2 Rage Burst. In total God Eater Resurrection has 14 difficulty ranks: 1-6 are the original God Eater scenario, 7-10 are Gods Eater Burst and 11-14 are the new God Eater Resurrection story arc. Included with the game are also two ""Predator packs"", collections of high difficulty missions.


== Plot ==


=== Setting ===
The game is set in the year 2071, in a world where civilization has been devastated by mysterious monsters known as the Aragami. The organization Fenrir, which had existed prior to the Aragami Outbreak in the early 2050s, rose to prominence after discovering the existence of Oracle Cells, the building blocks of Aragami. Using weapons called God Arcs, made from the cells of Aragami, Fenrir's Anti-Aragami Punitive Force, known as God Eaters, battle to exterminate the Aragami threat. The story is primarily set in the former Greater Tokyo Area. God Eaters are classified as either old-type, which can only keep their God Arc in gun form or blade form, or new-type, which can switch between gun and blade form.


=== Story ===


==== Part 1 ====
The protagonist joins Fenrir Far East Branch alongside Kota. They are assigned to the first unit, which consists of Lindow (the leader), Sakuya, and Soma along with their instructor, Tsubaki. Dr. Paylor Sakaki teaches new recruits about Aragami, and an initiative to expand the arcology of the Far East Branch known as the Aegis Project. A God Eater from Russia named Alisa, a new-type like the protagonist, joins the first unit. During a mission, Alisa experiences a psychological episode and accidentally traps Lindow. The rest of the first unit escapes, leaving Lindow behind. Alisa is treated for her episodes and removed from combat duty. The protagonist visits Alisa when she is asleep and discovers he can see her memories by making physical contact. Her episodes are due to the childhood trauma of watching her parents eaten by an Aragami and hypnosis by her therapist. The protagonist retrains Alisa, and she returns to duty. Sakuya, grieving for Lindow, finds a secret message from him which is inaccessible without his armlet.
After Lindow is declared missing in action, the protagonist is promoted to leader of the first unit. The director of the Fenrir Far East Branch, Johannes, uses them in top secret missions looking for the entity known as the singularity. Sakaki, aware of the director's intentions, deceives him into searching for the singularity in Europe by telling him a mysterious Aragami appeared there. Sakaki uses this time to send the first unit on a mission leading to the discovery of a human-like Aragami named Shio. They keep Shio a secret and educate her. The first unit searches for Lindow's armlet, recovering it in the body of an Aragami. Lindow's message for Sakuya reveals he was secretly investigating the Aegis Project. Sakuya and Alisa's further investigation leads them to Aegis Island. Johannes catches the two and admits that the Aegis project's true goal is to awaken the Aragami ""Nova"", destroy all life on earth, and save the Fenrir staff and their families by sending them into outer space in arks. Alisa's therapist hypnotizes Alisa into fighting Sakuya, but she overcomes it and the two escape.
The two inform the first unit about the Aegis Project. Kota decides to support the project to protect his family. A power outage causes the branch to go over to the backup generators controlled by Johannes, allowing him to see Sakaki is holding Shio, who is the singularity. Alisa and Sakuya rejoin the first unit after discovering that the Aegis Project is close to completion. Kota, discovering Shio is missing, decides to help the others and shows them a secret route into Aegis Island. Johannes extracts Shio's core and uses it to activate Nova. He urges the team to go into an ark before it's too late. Shio awakens, fuses her consciousness with Nova, and takes Nova to the moon in order to save the planet.


==== Part 2 (Burst) ====
Three months later, the first unit encounters a new-type Aragami that damages the protagonist's God Arc. Far East Branch is infiltrated by Aragami. With his God Arc undergoing repairs, the protagonist resorts to using Lindow's God Arc. Normally it is impossible to wield someone else's God Arc, but to save the life of Licca, the engineer, the protagonist endures the excruciating pain. He/She experiences Resonance through the God Arc, revealing Lindow is still alive. Before falling unconscious, the protagonist is saved from an Aragami by a God Eater, Ren, who used to work with Lindow. The search for Lindow is reopened. Ren explains that when a God Eater loses their armlet they eventually turn into Aragami themselves and can only be killed by their own God Arc. During the search for Lindow, the protagonist reencounters the new-type Aragami and experiences Resonance, revealing that the new-type is actually Lindow. The protagonist and Ren face Lindow alone on Aegis Island. Defying Ren's appeal to mercy kill Lindow, the protagonist uses Resonance to enter Lindow's mind with Ren and free him from the Aragami. During the battle, Ren reveals he is actually a projection of Lindow's God Arc and sacrifices himself to defeat the Aragami. Lindow returns to human form. Lindow marries Sakuya and begins training new-type God Eaters.


==== Part 3 (Resurrection) ====
A new Aragami, remnant of Nova, Arius Nova appears, having devoured various other Aragami. The monster becomes highly resistant to God Arcs, having similar components to the Outer Wall of Fenrir's Far East Branch.
All three units search for Arius Nova, eventually leading to another encounter. The first unit team (the protagonist, Soma, Alisa, and Kota) are all defeated, but an Aragami resembling Shio stops it from killing them. Professor Sakaki and Licca come up with a theory that Arius Nova is increasing its power by consuming Aragami formed by other remnants of Nova, classified as ""Dreadnought"" class. The God Eaters attempt to stymie its growth and assemble a weapon capable of killing it by hunting Dreadnought class Aragami, while encountering various apparitions of Shio in the field. However, Arius Nova kills a Dreadnought Aragami and devours the core, as the baits set up by Sakuya and Lindow didn't distract it. Kota shoots Arius Nova, revealing that the new core introduced into its system makes it vulnerable for a small amount of time. The God Eaters assemble a mass of Dreadnought cores and fire it into Arius Nova, thus crashing its defenses while it metabolizes the cores. They defeat Arius Nova and say their goodbyes to Shio. Shio's apparition returns to the real Shio, who is still on the moon, watching over and protecting humanity from afar.


=== Characters ===
The player (プレイヤー, Pureiyā) is a new recruit on Far East Branch who is assigned as a member of the first unit of God Eaters. The player is also the first New-Type God Eater to join the Far East Branch. In various God Eater media, the male player's default name is revealed to be Yuu Kannagi (神薙 ユウ, Kannagi Yū) while in the anime adaptation, he is named as Lenka Utsugi (空木 レンカ, Utsugi Renka).
Rindo Amamiya (雨宮 リンドウ, Amamiya Rindō, romanized as Lindow Amamiya in the anime version) is the leader of the first unit and boasts the highest survival rate (90%). His God Arc is an Old-Type Long Blade.
Soma Schicksal (ソーマ・シックザール, Sōma Shikkuzāru) is a member of the first unit who avoids interacting with others but have a high survival rate the same as Rindo too. He is also very strong and strangely can regenerate his wounds faster than any other human. His God Arc is an Old-Type Buster Blade.
Sakuya Tachibana (橘 サクヤ, Tachibana Sakuya) is the sub-leader of the first unit. She is a top-rank shooter and her god arc is a sniper (old-type; long range).
Kota Fujiki (藤木 コウタ, Fujiki Kōta) is a member of the first unit who joins the God Eaters at the same time as the player. His god arc is an assault (old type; long range).
Alisa Ilynichna Omela (アリサ・イリーニチナ・アミエーラ, Arisa Irīnichina Amiēra) is the new-type recruit from the Russia branch who has a traumatic history with Aragami. Her god arc is Long Blade Assault (New type). Like the player, Alisa is also a New-Type.
Tsubaki Amamiya (雨宮 ツバキ, Amamiya Tsubaki) is Rindo's sister, who also acts as a supervisor of the first, second, and third units.
Johannes von Schicksal (ヨハネス・フォン・シックザール, Yohanesu fon Shikkuzāru) is the head of the Far Eastern branch of Fenrir, Anagura. With his soft demeanour, he excels in political negotiating between the various branches. He is also the Father of Soma.
Hibari Takeda (竹田 ヒバリ, Takeda Hibari) is a Far East Branch operator, mainly in charge of taking orders for missions and processing rewards. Despite being on the list of Possible Matches for Gods Eaters, she has yet to find a bias factor with a high enough compatibility rate.
Paylor Sakaki (ペイラー・榊, Peirā Sakaki) is a founding member of Fenrir and current Chief Supervisor of its Far East Branch's Aragami Technology Department. He is the one who discovered the Bias Factor.
Aisha Gauche (アイーシャ・ゴーシュ, Aīsha Gōshu) is a founding member of Fenrir and Chief of Aragami Research Lab as well as the deceased wife of Johannes von Schicksal, and the mother of Soma Schicksal.
Licca Kusunoki (楠 リッカ, Kusonoki Rikka) a female mechanic of the God Arc Maintenance Crew.
Tatsumi O'Mori (大森 タツミ, Oomori Tatsumi) a member of the 2nd Unit and leader of the Defense Unit. When not in duty, he's frequently seen hitting on Hibari at her counter. His god arc is a Short Blade (old-type).


== Development ==
The game was directed by Yoshimura Hiroshi, produced by Yosuke Tomizawa. Character designs were provided by Koichi Itakura and Sokabe Shuji.
God Eater was initially announced in July 2009 by Namco Bandai Games. Shortly after the game's Japanese release a North American release was announced by a subsidiary of Namco Bandai Holdings, D3 Publisher, for a Q3 2010 release, but was delayed to sometime in 2011.
Namco Bandai teased a new God Eater project with an event known as God Eater Fes 2010 which was scheduled to take place in Akiba Square on July 11, 2010. However, five days prior to the event, Famitsu revealed God Eater Burst, an ""evolved"" version of the original God Eater. The game was confirmed to contain additional arms, a new story, characters, enemies along with rebalanced gameplay and improved graphics. God Eater Burst was released in Japan in October 28, alongside an expansion pack God Eater Burst: Append Edition adding all the new content of GEB to the original GE game. The North American title was changed to Gods Eater Burst making the word God plural. In addition to the main story arc featured in the original, Gods Eater Burst features an added storyline not featured in the original Japanese release.
A sequel to the game, God Eater 2, is set two years after the first game. It was released on November 14, 2013.


== Related media ==


=== Printed media ===
Several light novel series adaptations have been released. The first novel series was written by Yuurikin, illustrated by Sokabe Shuji, published by Enterbrain and serialized in Famitsu Bunko magazine. The chapters were compiled into a single volume and released on June 30, 2010, under the title God Eater: Kinki o yaburu mono (ゴッドイーター 禁忌を破る者, God Eater: Those Who Break the Taboo). The second is made up of two-volumes: God Eater: Alisa in Underworld (GOD EATER ～アリサ・イン・アンダーワールド～) and God Eater: Knockin 'On Heaven's Door (GOD EATER ～ノッキン・オン・ヘブンズドア～). They were written by Ryuzaki Tsukasa, illustrated by Sokabe Shuji, and published by Kadokawa Shoten. The novels were released on September 18 and December 18 respectively.
The game had also received several manga adaptations written by Namco Bandai. The first is titled God Eater: Kyūseishu no Kikan (GOD EATER -救世主の帰還-, God Eater -Return of the Messaiah-) was illustrated by Osan Eijii, published by Kodansha, and serialized in Rival Comics magazine. As of December 28, 2011, the series was completed and compiled into five volumes. The second is titled God Eater: the spiral fate and was illustrated by Saito Rokuro, published by Dengeki Comics and serialized in Side-B.N Magazine. As of November 27, 2010, the manga was completed and compiled into two volumes. A third manga titled God Eater: the summer wars was illustrated by Okiura, published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in Dragon Age Comics Magazine. The series was completed and compiled into a single volume on May 7, 2012.


=== Anime ===

A twelve-minute prequel original video animation was made by Ufotable and aired on September 28, 2009. An anime television series was also produced by Ufotable. The series is directed by Takayuki Hirao with character designs by Keita Shimizu. The anime began airing on July 12, 2015, after the first episode was delayed by a week due to production issues.


=== Soundtrack ===
The official God Eater Burst Drama and Original Soundtrack (GOD EATER BURST ドラマ&オリジナル・サウンドトラック) was released on a single disc on December 22, 2010.  It was composed by Go Shiina and featured the game's opening and ending theme songs, ""Over the Clouds"" and ""My Life"", both of which are sung by Alan.


=== Other ===
A trading card game was released as God Eater Burst Monster Collection Trading Card Game in September 2011. Two 50-card decks were released as God Eater Burst - God Eater and God Eater Burst - Aragami that included special dice, a reference sheet, and a play mat. A set of nine miniatures featuring the Aragami was released in Japan as Soul of Figuration God Eater. A cell phone game spin off titled, God Eater Mobile was developed by Mobage and released on December 16, 2010, in Japan for the i-mode, EZweb, and Yahoo! Keitai distribution service. Similar to the original PSP game, it features character customization, item purchasing and hunting Aragami.


== Reception ==

The game received mixed reviews, with a 71/100 on Metacritic. The game scored well in Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu, which gave a total score of 34 out of 40(9/9/8/8).


=== Sales ===
The original God Eater sold 295,000 copies in the first week of its Japanese release, and by March 2011 God Eater had sold over 610,000 copies in Japan. The re-release version, God Eater Burst, sold 263,150 copies within the first week of release in Japan. Both versions combined have sold over one million units in Japan.
The 2015 remake, God Eater Resurrection, sold a total of 167,857 copies across both PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 platforms within the first week of release in Japan; the majority of copies sold involved the Vita version, which took the top position within the Japanese software sales charts for that particular week.


== See also ==
God Eater 2
List of Japanese role-playing game franchises


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Official North American site
Official European site Archived 2013-10-31 at the Wayback Machine
Official Japanese site"
Michael Powell,"Michael Latham Powell (30 September 1905 – 19 February 1990) was an English filmmaker, celebrated for his partnership with Emeric Pressburger. Through their production company The Archers, they together wrote, produced and directed a series of classic British films, notably The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943), A Canterbury Tale (1944), I Know Where I'm Going! (1945), A Matter of Life and Death (1946, Stairway to Heaven in the U.S.), Black Narcissus (1947), The Red Shoes (1948) and The Tales of Hoffmann (1951).
His controversial Peeping Tom (1960), which was so vilified on first release that it seriously damaged his career, is now considered a classic, and possibly the earliest ""slasher movie"". Many renowned filmmakers, such as Francis Ford Coppola, George A. Romero, Brian De Palma, Bertrand Tavernier and Martin Scorsese have cited Powell as an influence.
In 1981, Powell and Pressburger received the BAFTA Fellowship, the highest honour the British Academy of Film and Television Arts can bestow upon a filmmaker. Five of their films were featured on the British Film Institute's list of 100 Greatest British films. In 2024, their work was explored in the documentary Made in England: The Films of Powell and Pressburger, narrated by Scorsese. David Thomson writes ""There is not a British director with as many worthwhile films to his credit as Michael Powell.""


== Early life ==
Powell was the second son and youngest child of Thomas William Powell, a hop farmer, and Mabel, daughter of Frederick Corbett, of Worcester, England. Powell was born in Bekesbourne, Kent, and educated at The King's School, Canterbury and then at Dulwich College. He started work at the National Provincial Bank in 1922 but quickly realised he was not cut out to be a banker.


== Film career ==
Powell entered the film industry in 1925 through working with director Rex Ingram at the Victorine Studios in Nice, France (the contact with Ingram was made through Powell's father, who owned a hotel in Nice). He first started out as a general studio hand, the proverbial ""gofer"": sweeping the floor, making coffee, fetching and carrying. Soon he progressed to other work such as stills photography, writing titles (for the silent films) and many other jobs including a few acting roles, usually as comic characters. Powell made his film début as a ""comic English tourist"" in The Magician (1926).
Returning to England in 1928, Powell worked at a diverse series of jobs for various filmmakers including as a stills photographer on Alfred Hitchcock's silent film Champagne (1928). He also signed on in a similar role on Hitchcock's first ""talkie"", Blackmail (1929). In his autobiography, Powell claims he suggested the ending in the British Museum which was the first of Hitchcock's ""monumental"" climaxes to his films. Powell and Hitchcock remained friends for the remainder of Hitchcock's life.
After scriptwriting on two productions, Powell entered into a partnership with American producer Jerry Jackson in 1931 to make ""quota quickies"", hour-long films needed to satisfy a legal requirement that British cinemas screen a certain quota of British films. During this period, he developed his directing skills, sometimes making up to seven films a year.
Although he had taken on some directing responsibilities in other films, Powell had his first screen credit as a director on Two Crowded Hours (1931). This thriller was considered a modest success at the box office despite its limited budget. From 1931 to 1936, Powell was the director of 23 films, including the critically received  Red Ensign (1934) and The Phantom Light (1935).
In 1937 Powell completed his first truly personal project, The Edge of the World. Powell gathered together a cast and crew who were willing to take part in an expedition to what was then a very isolated part of the UK. They had to stay there for quite a few months and finished up with a film which not only told the story he wanted but also captured the raw natural beauty of the location.
By 1939, Powell had been hired as a contract director by Alexander Korda on the strength of The Edge of the World. Korda set him to work on some projects such as Burmese Silver that were subsequently cancelled. Nonetheless, Powell was brought in to save a film that was being made as a vehicle for two of Korda's star players, Conrad Veidt and Valerie Hobson. The film was The Spy in Black, during pre-production of which Powell first met Emeric Pressburger in 1939.


=== Meeting Emeric Pressburger ===

The original script of The Spy in Black followed the book quite closely, but was too verbose and did not have a good role for either Veidt or Hobson. Korda called a meeting where he introduced a diminutive man, saying, ""Well now, I have asked Emeric to read the script, and he has things to say to us.""
Powell then went on to record (in A Life in Movies) how:

Emeric produced a very small piece of rolled-up paper, and addressed the meeting. I listened spellbound. Since talkies took over the movies, I had worked with some good writers, but I had never met anything like this. In the silent days, the top [American] screenwriters were technicians rather than dramatists ... the European cinema remained highly literate and each country, conscious of its separate culture and literature, strove to outdo the other. All this was changed by the talkies. America, with its enormous wealth and enthusiasm and its technical resources, waved the big stick. ... The European film no longer existed. ... Only the great German film business was prepared to fight the American monopoly, and Dr. Goebbels soon put a stop to that in 1933. But the day that Emeric walked out of his flat, leaving the key in the door to save the storm-troopers the trouble of breaking it down, was the worst day's work that the clever doctor ever did for his country's reputation, as he was soon to find out. As I said, I listened spellbound to this small Hungarian wizard, as Emeric unfolded his notes, until they were at least six inches long. He had stood Storer Clouston's plot on its head and completely restructured the film.
They both soon recognised that although they were total opposites in background and personality, they had a common attitude to film-making and that they could work very well together. After making two more films together, Contraband (1940) and 49th Parallel (1941), with separate credits, the pair decided to form a partnership and to sign their films jointly as ""Written, Produced and Directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger.""


=== The Archers ===
Working together as co-producers, writers and directors in a partnership they dubbed ""The Archers"", they made 19 feature films, many of which received critical and commercial success. Their best films are still regarded as classics of 20th-century British cinema. The BFI 100 list of ""the favourite British films of the 20th century"" contains five of Powell's films, four with Pressburger. Thomson writes that Powell and Pressburger ""struggle with great, clashing virtues—with marvelous visual imagination and uneasy, intellectual substance. I Know Where I'm Going is a genuinely superstitious picture; 49th Parallel is a strange war odyssey, with escaping Germans wandering across Canada—naïve, very violent, at times unwittingly comic, but possessed by a primitive feeling for endangered civilization; an interesting sequel is One of Our Aircraft is Missing—English fliers getting out of Holland; A Matter of Life and Death is pretentious in its way, yet very funny and absolutely secure in its dainty stepping from one world to another ... The Thief of Bagdad is delightful, The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp a beautiful salute to Englishness ... Black Narcissus is that rare thing, an erotic English film about the fantasies of nuns.""
The partnership ended after Ill Met By Moonlight.
Although admirers would argue that Powell ought to rank alongside fellow British directors Alfred Hitchcock and David Lean, his career suffered a severe reversal after the release of the controversial psychological thriller film Peeping Tom, made in 1960 as a solo effort. The film was excoriated by mainstream British critics, who were offended by its sexual and violent images; Powell was ostracized by the film industry and found it almost impossible to work thereafter.
The film did, however, meet with the rapturous approval of the young critics of Positif and Midi Minuit Fantastique in France, and those of Motion in England, and in 1965 he was subject of a major positive revaluation by Raymond Durgnat in the auteurist magazine Movie, later included in Durgnat's influential book A Mirror for England.


=== Zoetrope Studios ===
In 1982, Francis Ford Coppola invited Powell to be 'senior director in residence' at his Zoetrope Studios. There, Powell ""pottered around"", including starting to write his autobiography. Powell's films came to have a cult reputation, broadened during the 1970s and early 1980s by a series of retrospectives and rediscoveries, as well as further articles and books. By the time of his death, he and Pressburger were recognised as one of the foremost film partnerships of all time – and cited as a key influence by many noted filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese and Brian De Palma.


== Personal life ==

In 1927 Powell married Gloria Mary Rouger, an American dancer; they were married in France and stayed together for only three weeks. During the 1940s, Powell had love affairs with actresses Deborah Kerr and Kathleen Byron. From 1 July 1943 until her death on 5 July 1983, Powell was married to Frances ""Frankie"" May Reidy, the daughter of medical practitioner Jerome Reidy; they had two sons: Kevin Michael Powell (b. 1945) and Columba Jerome Reidy Powell (b. 1951). He also lived with actress Pamela Brown for many years until her death from cancer in 1975.
Powell was introduced to film editor Thelma Schoonmaker by Martin Scorsese and London-based film producer Frixos Constantine. The couple were married from 19 May 1984 until his own death from cancer on 19 February 1990 at his home in Avening, Gloucestershire. The couple had no children.
His niece was the Australian actress Cornelia Frances, who appeared in bit parts in her uncle's early films.


== Preservation ==
The Academy Film Archive has preserved A Matter of Life and Death and The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger.


== Awards, nominations and honours ==
1943: Oscar nominated for 49th Parallel as Best Picture
1943: Oscar nominated for One of Our Aircraft Is Missing for Best Writing, Original Screenplay. Shared with Emeric Pressburger
1948: Won Danish Bodil Award for A Matter of Life and Death as Best European Film. Shared with Emeric Pressburger
1948 Nominated for The Red Shoes for Venice Film Festival Golden Lion.  Shared with Emeric Pressburger
1949: Oscar nominated for The Red Shoes as Best Picture. Shared with Emeric Pressburger
1951: Cannes Film Festival nominated for The Tales of Hoffmann for Grand Prize of the Festival. Shared with Emeric Pressburger
1951: Won Silver Bear from 1st Berlin International Film Festival for The Tales of Hoffmann as Best Musical. Shared with Emeric Pressburger
1957: BAFTA Award nominated for The Battle of the River Plate as Best British Screenplay. Shared with Emeric Pressburger.
1959: Cannes Film Festival won the Technical Grand Prize for Luna de Miel. Nominated for Golden Palm.
1978: Awarded Hon DLitt, University of East Anglia
1978: Awarded Hon DLitt, University of Kent
1981: Made fellow of BAFTA
1982: Awarded Career Gold Lion from the Venice Film Festival
1983: Made fellow of the British Film Institute (BFI)
1987: Awarded Hon Doctorate, Royal College of Art
1987: Awarded Akira Kurosawa Award from San Francisco International Film Festival
2014: An English Heritage Blue plaque to commemorate Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger was unveiled on 17 February 2014 by Martin Scorsese and Thelma Schoonmaker at Dorset House, Gloucester Place, London NW1 5AG where The Archers had their offices from 1942 to 1947.


== Legacy ==
David Thomson writes: I was fortunate enough to know Michael Powell in the last decade of his life. he was in America a good deal at that time: teaching for a term at Dartmouth; as director emeritus with Coppola's American Zoetrope, as treasured Merlin in the court of Scorsese; and in his marriage to the editor, Thelma Schoonmaker. I had the chance to watch many of his films with him, discussing them and learning the passion of his vision. It is all the more agreeable now to see Michael's influence spreading: the ardent antirealist has inspired so many people; the man in love with color, gesture, and cinema helped to educate viewers as well as filmmakers—not lest in the two volumes of his autobiography, A Life in Movies ... The great Powell and Pressburger films do not go stale; they never relinquish their wicked fun or that jaunty air of being poised on the brink. To put an arrow in our eye—to leave a nurturing wound—that was Michael's eternal thrill. I do not invoke the figure of Merlin lightly: Powell was English but Celtic, sublime yet devious, magical in the absolute certainty that imagination rules.
Cited as a major influence on many film-makers such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, George A. Romero and Bertrand Tavernier. Said Thelma Schoonmaker (Scorsese's long-time film editor and Powell's third wife) of Scorsese, ""Anyone he meets, or the actors he works with, he immediately starts bombarding with Powell and Pressburger movies."" Scorsese and Schoonmaker are working on restoring Powell's films, beginning with The Red Shoes and The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp.
The Michael Powell Award for the Best New British Feature was instigated in 1993 at the Edinburgh International Film Festival (awarded 1993–2010 and 2012–2021). It was sponsored by the UK Film Council and was ""named in homage to one of Britain's most original filmmakers"".
Pinewood Studios, where Powell made many of his most notable films, has named a mixing theatre in the post-production department after him: The Powell Theatre. A giant picture of the director covers the door to the theatre, where many well-known films are mixed.
The Film, Radio and Television Department of Canterbury Christ Church University has its main building named after him: The Powell Building.
He has been played on screen by Alastair Thomson Mills in the award-winning short film Òran na h-Eala (2022) which explores Moira Shearer's life changing decision to appear in The Red Shoes.
A celebration entitled 'Cinema Unbound: The Creative Worlds of Powell and Pressburger' was held by the British Film Institute in 2023, including a UK-wide programme of films and an exhibit of production and promotion materials from The Red Shoes.
Powell's work was explored in the documentary Made in England: The Films of Powell and Pressburger (2024), with narration by Martin Scorsese.


== Filmography ==


== Theatre ==
1944: Directed Ernest Hemingway's The Fifth Column at the Theatre Royal, Glasgow
1944: Directed Jan de Hartog's Skipper Next To God at the Theatre Royal, Windsor
1951: Directed James Forsyth's Heloise at the Golders Green Hippodrome, London
1952: Directed Raymond Massey's Hanging Judge at the New Theatre, London


== Bibliography ==
1938: 200,000 Feet on Foula. London: Faber & Faber. (The story of the making of The Edge of the World. Published as 200,000 Feet – The Edge of the World in the United States and Edge of the World in 1990.
1956: Graf Spee. London: Hodder & Stoughton. (This book contains much information that Powell and Pressburger could not include in their film The Battle of the River Plate.) Also published in the United States as Death in the South Atlantic: The Last Voyage of the Graf Spee and reprinted as The Last Voyage of the Graf Spee for the 1976 second edition.
1975: A Waiting Game. London: Joseph. ISBN 0-7181-1368-3.
1978: (with Emeric Pressburger) The Red Shoes. London: Avon Books. ISBN 0-8044-2687-2. (novelization of the film of the same name)
1986: A Life in Movies: An Autobiography. London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-59945-X.
1992: Million Dollar Movie London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-59947-6.
1994: The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp. (with Emeric Pressburger and Ian Christie) London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-14355-5. (This book includes the screenplay of the 1943 film of the same name.)
Many of these titles were also published in other countries or republished. The list above deals with initial publications except where the name was changed in a subsequent edition or printing.


== References ==
Notes

Citations

Bibliography


== External links ==

BFI Filmography
Michael Powell at IMDb
NFT interviews (audio clips)
Best British Directors on FutureMovies.co.uk
Michael Powell biography on BritMovie.co.uk
Michael Powell at the Powell & Pressburger Pages
Articles about Michael Powell at the BFI's Screenonline:
early work
sense of landscape
work with Pressburger
classic Powell & Pressburger
the war years
later years
Essay, Filmography, Bibliography, Links at Senses of Cinema
Michael Powell discusses his autobiography A Life in Movies on The Leonard Lopate Show
Michael Powell discusses his autobiography A Life in Movies – a British Library sound recording"
BBC Online,"BBC Online, formerly known as BBCi, is the BBC's online service. It is a large network of websites including such high-profile sites as BBC News and Sport, the on-demand video and radio services branded BBC iPlayer and BBC Sounds, the children's sites CBBC and CBeebies, and learning services such as Bitesize and Own It. The BBC has had an online presence supporting its TV and radio programmes and web-only initiatives since April 1994, but did not launch officially until 28 April 1997, following government approval to fund it by TV licence fee revenue as a service in its own right. Throughout its history, the online plans of the BBC have been subject to competition and complaint from its commercial rivals, which has resulted in various public consultations and government reviews to investigate their claims that its large presence and public funding distorts the UK market.
The website has gone through several branding changes since it was launched. Originally named BBC Online, it was rebranded as BBCi (which itself was the brand name for interactive TV services) before being named bbc.co.uk. It was then renamed BBC Online again in 2008, although the service uses the branding ""BBC"".
On 26 February 2010 The Times claimed that Mark Thompson, then Director General of the BBC, proposed that the BBC's web output should be cut by 50%, with online staff numbers and budgets reduced by 25% in a bid to scale back BBC operations and allow commercial rivals more room. On 2 March 2010, the BBC reported that it would cut its website spending by 25% and close BBC 6 Music and Asian Network. On 24 January 2011, the confirmed cuts of 25% were announced, leaving a £34 million shortfall. This resulted in the closure of several sites, including BBC Switch, BBC Blast, 6-0-6, and the announcement of plans to sell the Douglas Adams created site h2g2.


== History ==


=== Early years ===
www.bbc.co.uk was introduced in April 1994 with some regional information and Open University Production Centre (OUPC) content. By September, the first commercial service launched, a transcription service via FTP server. At its peak, it had 122 accounts, including FBI bureaus around the world, taking daily updates from 12 feeds.
Within 12 months, the BBC website offered ""Auntie"" online discussion groups; web pages for select web-related programs and BBC departments; free web pages for associate members.
The BBC Multimedia Centre was a team led by Martin Freeth to introduce new media across the corporation.


=== BBC Networking Club ===

BBC Networking Club www.bbcnc.org.uk (the ""nc"" standing for ""networking club"") was launched by BBC Education on 11 May 1994 as a non-profit paid subscription service. For a joining fee of £25 and a monthly subscription of £12, members of the club were given access to an early type of social networking site featuring a bulletin board for sharing information and real-time conversation, along with a dialup Internet connection service.


=== BBC Online and beeb.com ===

The BBC Director General John Birt sought government approval to direct licence fee revenue into the service, describing planned BBC Internet services as the ""third medium"" joining the BBC's existing TV and radio networks, achieving a change in the BBC Charter. This led to the official launch of BBC Online at the www.bbc.co.uk address in April 1997.
As well as the licence fee funded www.bbc.co.uk, BBC Worldwide launched the commercially funded beeb.com, featuring mostly entertainment focused content, with sites including Radio Times, Top Gear and Top of the Pops. The development of these services formed the basis of a three-year agreement between BBC Worldwide and International Computers Limited, intended to assist the former in exploiting commercial opportunities in the ""new medium"" of the consumer Internet, while permitting the latter to gain commercial and technical experience and to position itself as a supplier to the media industry. Later, BBC Online launched licence-fee funded web sites for Top of the Pops and Top Gear, resulting in some duplication.
Beeb.com was later refocussed as an online shopping guide, and was closed in 2002. beeb.com later redirected to the BBC Shop website, run by BBC Worldwide.
In 1999, the BBC bought the bbc.com domain name, previously owned by Boston Business Computing, for $375,000, but the price of this purchase was not revealed until six years later. As of 2005, www.bbcnc.org.uk no longer exists.


=== BBCi ===

In 2001, BBC Online was rebranded as BBCi; the website launched on 7 November 2001. The BBCi name was conceived as an umbrella brand for all the BBC's digital interactive services across web, digital teletext, interactive TV and on mobile platforms. The use of letter ""i"" prefixes and suffixes to denote information technology or interactivity was very much in vogue at this time; according to the BBC, the ""i"" in BBCi stood for ""interactivity"" as well as ""innovation"".
As part of the rebrand, BBC website pages all displayed a standard navigation bar across the top of the screen, offering category-based navigation: Categories, TV, Radio, Communicate, Where I Live, A-Z Index and a search function. The navbar was designed to offer a similar navigation system to the i-bar on BBCi interactive television.


=== bbc.co.uk and the return of BBC Online ===

After three years of consistent use across different platforms, the BBC began to drop the BBCi brand gradually; on 6 May 2004, the BBC website was renamed bbc.co.uk, after the main URL used to access the site. Interactive TV services continued under the BBCi brand until it was dropped completely in 2008. The BBC's online video player, the iPlayer has, however, retained an i-prefix in its branding.
On 14 December 2007, a beta version of a new bbc.co.uk homepage was launched, with the ability to customise the page by adding, removing and rearranging different categories, such as 'News', 'Weather' and 'Entertainment'. The widget-based design was inspired by sites such as Facebook and iGoogle, and allowed the BBC to add new content to the homepage while still retaining users' customisations. The new homepage also incorporated the clock design used in the 1970s on the BBC's television service into the large header and a box containing featured content of the website. The new BBC homepage left beta on Wednesday, 27 February 2008 to serve as the new BBC Homepage under the same URL as the previous version.
On 30 January 2010, a new webpage design became available as a beta version, that by May 2010, replaced the old homepage. This homepage expanded on the modules idea and the customisation theme. The website allowed certain themes that interested the viewer to be tracked, via a new module. It also included a new 'Media Zone' where featured content could be displayed, with this new featured box being located across the entire top of the webpage, below the header. The Media Zone was also changed so that the content changed by running the mouse over the tabs. The header was again changed to include the headings of the major sections of the website, these being: Home, News, Sport, Weather, iPlayer, TV, Radio and more, spread out evenly across the header. This new header was included across the entire website. Despite the cosmetic appearance of the relaunch, the new website was actually relaunched using a completely different operating system, allowing the site's four different international versions to be more easily altered. It also brought their website layouts and operations closer to that of the main website.
Following the launch of the new BBC News website, which altered the header bar on that site, in October 2010, the new style of header was launched across the whole website, starting off with some of the larger, yet not obvious, sites, such as Doctor Who, first before relaunching all of the sites, including the homepage with the new look. This new style of header included the headings as before, but with the search box redesigned and aligned right, as with the links which are significantly smaller. Other links, such as BBC id login and mobile versions of the website also appear on the header, just to the right of the smaller BBC logo.

On 21 September 2011, a new BBC homepage went into beta testing that was drastically different from those before it. The new homepage was based on feedback that stated that the current page was too narrow in focus and not distinctive enough, with the homepage not displaying the full extend of the BBC Online site and that some did not realise it was the homepage. As a result, they launched a new version that featured as a centrepiece a revolving carousel of content on the BBC Online website, with filters beneath to restrict it to, and to show more of entertainment, lifestyle, knowledge and news and sports topics. At the top of the page, a new header has been inserted giving the date, the time through the use of the vintage BBC clock, as well as weather prospects for the next three days through the use of the traditional weather symbols. Below the carousel, boxes contain links to the most popular video material, web articles and pages on the site, as well as TV and Radio listings alongside an A-Z list of the BBC's top level domains. This new site replaced the previous one on 30 November 2011. In a blog post from the same day, James Thornett explained the changes – while the post attracted complaints from users disliking the refreshed layout, the new-look site was critically acclaimed and nominated by the Design Museum as one of their Designs of the Year in 2012. It also won a Peabody Award in 2011 because it ""continued, expanded and enhanced one of the greatest traditions in electronic media.""


== Content ==
BBC Online contains a variety of content ranging from News, Sport, Music, Science, Technology and Entertainment, amongst other things. The website has a British orientation, although the home page, news section and sports section each provide different content between UK and ""International"" visitors. There are also separate pages for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland written by the BBC Nations.
The website focuses around the primary top level domains of News, Sport, Weather, iPlayer, TV and Radio. These are easily accessible from the taskbar running across the top of all current BBC Online pages. However, other top level domains are also in existence: some are available from a drop down list on the taskbar including CBBC, CBeebies, Comedy, Food, Health, History, Learning, Music, Science and Nature, while other top level domains are only available through the A-Z index on the BBC website. These include Archives, Arts & Culture, Ethics, Gardening, Parenting, Religion and Travel news. However, there are many more top level domains – some 400 in March 2010 however this number has decreased as top level domains now frequently link to a lower domain name – that link to websites for individual services or programmes.


=== News, Sport and Weather ===

One of the most used aspects of the BBC Online website are the sections relating to News content, Sports results and news and Weather forecasts. The BBC News Online subsite launched in 1997 and received around 2 billion page views each month in 2012. The site contains journalistic content from the BBC covering news from the UK, both as a whole as well as regional news from the BBC Nations and Regions, and International content. The site also contains analysis from correspondents and other features from the Magazine section of the website. The BBC Sport Online subsite offers, in a similar way to news, a wide variety of material including sports results, live feeds to on-air programming, sports related news and analysis from commentators and pundits. The BBC Weather subsite primarily focuses on weather forecasts for UK and International locations, but also includes other features including Country guides that detail to geography and climate of each country, winter sports forecasts and during times of unusual or extreme weather, videos are produced explaining the causes for this weather.


=== iPlayer and Programmes sites ===

The BBC iPlayer subsite allows programmes to be viewed again after broadcast over the Internet. This successful site has now been expanded to include mobile views and downloads onto computers and mobiles allowing viewing for up to 30 days after broadcast.
BBC Programmes is a service of BBC Online which provides a page for every television and radio programme broadcast by the BBC in the United Kingdom. It was launched in October 2007 and gives each programme an eight or eleven digit identifier which is used to provide a permanent URL. It currently only holds data from the launch date plus a selection of high-profile programmes (notably Natural History programmes and Radio 4 programmes), but Jana Bennett, Director of BBC Vision, said in June 2008 that the BBC will eventually add a page for each programme it has broadcast over its history to the service.
BBC Programmes is available as HTML and RDF/XML and JSON.
The BBC Programme Catalogue is an internal archive of the BBC back catalogue which was briefly available online to the public in beta.


=== Sounds ===

BBC Sounds is an internet streaming, catchup, radio and Podcast service from the BBC. The service is available on a wide range of devices, including mobile phones and tablets, personal computers, and smart televisions. It was launched in November 2018 and replaces the 'iPlayer Radio' branded service, and the mobile apps currently complement the existing iPlayer Radio native applications, which remain available.


=== Knowledge and learning ===
The BBC also operates numerous sub sites that focus on different topics and subjects to expand the knowledge of the reader. These are mainly centred around the topics of Science, Nature, Arts and Culture, Religion and Ethics, Food and History. Each of these sub sites feature new articles published on the topic and contain other collections relating to the topic.
For example, the Food site contains recipes featured on various BBC cookery programmes, the History site has an interactive timeline of key events and individuals, the Nature site contains a database of creatures, and the Language site teaches phrases and more in 40 languages. Included in this range was the well received Your Paintings website that catalogued every painting in public ownership for view.
Until 2013, the BBC also hosted a health website with detailed information, checked by professionals, of medical conditions and symptoms. However, the BBC withdrew the site as this service is available from other sources on the Internet which did not exist when the Health site launched, the most prominent of which is NHS Choices.
In addition to these subsites, the BBC also runs sites dedicated to education and learning. These include the Bitesize revision website for teenagers and a section with resources for teachers including Learning Zone Class Clips that provides video from educational programmes for use in the classroom.
The BBC plans to merge this content into one easier to access site in the foreseeable future.
BBC Own It is an offshoot that provides online safety advice for parents, teachers, and young people to help them make positive choices online. It follows in the footsteps of other online safety services such as Internet Matters and Childnet.


=== Children's ===
The BBC runs a comprehensive children's website. It includes information on all of CBBC's shows along with several subsites covering art, sport, news, and other current events. Its message boards are especially popular with children who use them to communicate with each other about all of CBBC's output among other salient topics for kids like bullying, books, and personal problems.
In conjunction with the Children's subsite, the BBC also runs an online revision website using the Bitesize brand and also ran a message board for students. This latter service, now called ""BBC Student Life"" and previously called ""Onion Street"", was launched in 2001 and is aimed at young people between the ages of 11 and 16. The site offers a pre-moderated forum discussion on school work, revision and other areas of learning.
The BBC previously ran a page to help young people sort out their life difficulties entitled ""Your Life"". The page featured agony uncle ""Ask Aaron"", a professional psychotherapist who provided regular answers to children's questions across the message boards; after the page's closure, the agony uncle has moved on to Radio One's Sunday Surgery as their mental health expert.
There is integration between television output and website content with aspects of children's programming have follow-up information on their websites.


=== International-only site ===
An international BBC subsite named ""BBC Britain"" is only available to users with IP addresses outside the UK. UK users attempting to visit the site are told: ""We're sorry but this site is not accessible from the UK as it is part of our international service and is not funded by the licence fee."" Additional subsites exist which were initially inaccessible to UK users in the same manner as BBC Britain but have since been made accessible while displaying the following disclaimer: ""This website is produced by BBC Global News Ltd, a commercial company owned by the BBC (and just the BBC). No money from the licence fee was used to create this website. The money we make from it is re-invested to help fund the BBC's international journalism."" These subsites include:

""Culture"" which is a fusion of videos and images coupled with editorial content from a host of well-known and respected journalists and commentators, offering an alternative lens on global trends across the arts.
""Future"" which is universal topics focused on future trends in the worlds of science, technology, environment and health.
""Worklife"" (formerly Capital) which is dedicated to offering a global perspective on economic stories, trends and profiles on a personal level.
""Autos"" which is an entertaining, insightful daily read focused on the passionate side of the motor industry, including design, technology and community.
""Earth"" which is the website of the BBC International channel BBC Earth.
""Travel"" which is a site about all aspects of travel.
""Reel"" which has video features.


=== Former subsites ===


==== BBC Blast ====
BBC Blast was the BBC's network which encouraged teenagers to become creative in music, film, dance, art and fashion. It provided access to mentors online, and at free events and workshops across the UK. The website specifically catered for 13- to 19-year-olds but the BBC Blast project also ran a variety of work experience schemes for young adults between the ages of 18 and 25. Blast was running from 2002 until 2011. It included an online forum where participants could upload videos, audio tracks and images and comment on each other's work. There was an annual season on BBC2 where their films could be shown. The BBC Blast tour built partnerships with local arts organisations around the UK, featuring workshops and talks with stars from a variety of backgrounds, and providing a performance space for participants. These including rapper Akala, director and actor Noel Clarke, the artists Antony Gormley and Jake and Dinos Chapman, BBC Radio 1Xtra DJs Ace and Vis, singer-songwriter Jay Sean, rapper Chipmunk, Panjabi Hit Squad and Yngve & The Innocent. The tour also featured very early performances and interviews by artists such as Rizzle Kicks and Ed Sheeran.
Blast worked with a number of national partners to put on events and give teenagers' content a chance to be used at a higher level. These included the Victoria and Albert Museum, RSC, National Portrait Gallery, National Theatre, Zoo Nation, and the British Film Institute. 
On 24 January 2011, the BBC announced the closure of BBC Blast as part of a 25% cut to the BBC Online budget, resulting in a £34 million shortfall.


==== Cult TV ====
From 1999 to 2005, the BBC ran a popular subsite called Cult TV. This subsite had news, star interviews, trivia, and other content popular with fans of the cult TV shows they covered. Examples of covered TV shows include The X-Files, Doctor Who, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Farscape and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
On 15 July 2005, the BBC announced that the site was closing as of the end of the month, although the Doctor Who section would be unaffected as the series was an ongoing BBC concern. The announcement explained that this was ""part of the restructuring of the BBC's online activities"". It was promised that some of the content would be moved to new places on bbc.co.uk, although as of January 2017 it is currently still all online at the no-longer-updated Cult site. In recent years, some of the content covered in the Cult section was included in the BBC's Archive section, such as content and information on the 25th Anniversary of Children's BBC.


==== BBC Guide to Comedy ====
The BBC Guide to Comedy was an online encyclopaedia based on Mark Lewisohn's 1998 book The Radio Times Guide to Comedy. It offered ""Info on every TV comedy shown in the UK, from 1936 to today..."" and featured articles on almost every comedy programme and sitcom produced by the main channels in the United Kingdom. The site also featured video clips, viewable in RealPlayer, and a small gallery of cast photographs or screenshots. It was replaced by a smaller, less detailed guide in 2007, which only focussed on BBC shows and is also now discontinued.


==== Democracy Live ====
Democracy Live was a subsite of the BBC that contains live streams and recorded programmes from deciding bodies that affect the UK. Launched in November 2009, the site focused around live and recorded debate from the House of Commons and the House of Lords in Westminster, the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, the Northern Ireland Assembly and the European Parliament. While recordings tended to focus on the main debating chambers, the site also hosted video from some committees. The site also included a search facility to find relevant debate, a tool to follow a particular member and see videos of their contributions and other videos of historic events from these institutions. The service also allowed the translation of Welsh Assembly proceedings to and from Welsh. Most of its services are now covered by the Freeview/BBC iPlayer channels BBC Parliament and its website (bbc.co.uk/tv/bbcparliament).


== Funding ==
The BBC's site was initially entirely free from advertising; this was due to the BBC's funding being derived primarily from compulsory television licence fees from UK viewers. BBC Studios who exploit BBC brands commercially have had several attempts at launching services online including Beeb.com in the late 1990s.
In 2006, the BBC began making controversial plans to raise revenue by including advertising on the international version of BBC News Online accessed from outside the United Kingdom. BBC Online is currently freely available worldwide (via various URLs including bbc.com/news) but planned video services and a lower than expected licence fee settlement paid for by UK residents only led to the BBC introducing banner advertisements to the site from November 2007. The BBC Trust approved the plans for introducing advertisements which also involved creating bbc.com as a part of BBC Worldwide. Sir Michael Lyons, Chairman of the Trust, confirmed the BBC would not charge for online news following News International's planned introduction of charges for online content.
Prior to this there had been criticism from some, as web users outside the UK could use the services (including the entire BBC radio services) without having to pay for them. In addition, where rights to sporting events (such as certain football or cricket matches) do not include international online coverage, users from outside the UK are blocked from listening to commentaries.
On 24 January 2011, it was announced that the BBC was to cut its online budget by 25% or £34 million. To cope with this, many BBC websites would be closed including BBC Switch, BBC Blast, 6-0-6, BBC raw, Video Nation, and planned to sell the Douglas Adams created website h2g2, as well as the automation of many programme websites and radio websites.


== Technical details ==


=== Streaming media ===
A service, called BBC iPlayer, was launched in December 2007, which allows users to download both radio and TV content for up to seven days after broadcast. The television version allows users to either stream programmes or to download them using peer-to-peer and DRM technology.
Initially streams were generally broadcast in the RealAudio and RealVideo formats controlled by RealNetworks and the BBC drew criticism with some for using those closed formats which, at the time, could only be played using RealPlayer. In response to such criticisms, the BBC negotiated a deal with RealNetworks a 'cut-down' version of RealPlayer which did not contain as much advertising and marketing.
Windows Media has also been adopted and since Autumn 2006, a Windows Media stream of all national BBC radio stations has been available.
More recently, the BBC has been experimenting with MP3 downloads and podcasting facilities for an increasing number of radio shows, with a high level of success; a less publicised trial of Ogg Vorbis streams for certain programmes was less successful, and has now been discontinued.
During major events, the BBC often features liveblogs which publish the most recent text and image posts from BBC correspondents; particularly significant political events may pair live blogs with live video streams or recorded video loops relevant to the event.


=== Message boards ===
In February 2001, BBC Online incorporated Douglas Adams' previously independent h2g2 project into its group of web sites, and eventually replaced all its existing message boards, which used an archaic system called Howerd, with the DNA software derived from that project. The site's now archived Collective magazine also used the DNA software along with numerous other sites created after the BBC's acquisition of h2g2.


=== Developers ===
The website has extensive technical information available about its operation. The BBC also made some of the content on bbc.co.uk and the BBC News Website available in XML format on the former developer network backstage.bbc.co.uk. Also, through participation in the Creative Archive Licence group, bbc.co.uk allows legal downloads of selected material via the Internet.
In November 2011, the BBC launched the Connected Studio initiative which resulted in the running of workshops for independent web designers to work with the BBC in conceiving new designs and ways for current BBC services to be improved.


=== Tracking cookies and privacy policy ===
BBC Online uses several third-party companies to log information from users, by means of cookies. The BBC lists the companies it uses in its privacy policy:

24/7 Real Media
AOL Advertising
Atlas Solutions (Microsoft Advertising)
Audience Science
Google DoubleClick
Media Mind
Specific Media
Yahoo! Network Plus


=== Vulnerabilities ===
In March 2007, a vulnerability was exposed in the BBC's ""Most Emailed"" and ""Most Read"" news sections which could allow for the popularity of a news article to be exaggerated and thus highlight it to other website visitors.


== Graf report ==
In early 2004, the site was made the focus of a government review, launched by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, led by Philip Graf. Sections of the UK Internet industry had argued that the BBC site offered things that were available in the commercial sector, creating unnecessary competition.
The review was published in July 2004 and it was recommended that the BBC ""prioritise news, current affairs, education and information which is of value to the citizen."" In response the BBC also shut down a small number of sections of the site, including the Soaps section.
In November 2004, the Governors of the BBC announced a newer, much more tightly drawn remit for bbc.co.uk as part of their response to the review. They also announced, as Graf had recommended, a new approach towards external providers which will see bbc.co.uk aiming to spend at least 25% of its eligible budget on content and services through independent commissions by the end of 2006/07.
The implementation of the Graf report has seen the popular message boards in the BBC Sport section shut down, as the BBC tries to promote its 606 brand, but these changes have proved unpopular as the interface has proven unusable and large numbers of content providers have abandoned the BBC site.


== See also ==

BBC News Online
Language education
List of Language Self-Study Programs


== References ==


== External links ==
BBC – official site
Latest on plans for bbc.co.uk including archive (archived 6 July 2008)
Summary of results of Graf Review
BBC's response to Graf review Archived 7 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Press release concerning radio podcasting and download trials
Press release announcing extended trial of iMP
BBC Politics 97 Site—a 1997 BBC web page that is still active
Backstage
BBC Home Archive
Creative Archive Archived 14 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine
BBC Commissioning
Engineering Data"
Educational game,"Educational games are games explicitly designed with educational purposes, or which have incidental or secondary educational value. All types of games may be used in an educational environment, however educational games are games that are designed to help people learn about certain subjects, expand concepts, reinforce development, understand a historical event or culture, or assist them in learning a skill as they play. Game types include board, card, and video games.
As educators, governments, and parents realize the psychological need and benefits that gaming has on learning, this educational tool has become mainstream. Games are interactive play that teach goals, rules, adaptation, problem solving, interaction, all represented as a story. They satisfy a fundamental need to learn by providing enjoyment, passionate involvement, structure, motivation, ego gratification, adrenaline, creativity, social interaction and emotion in the game itself while the learning takes place.


== Video games ==

With the increase and availability of technological devices, there has been a shift in what types of games people play. Video or electronic gaming has become more widely used than traditional board games. Barab (2009) defines conceptual play as ""a state of engagement that involves (a) projection into the role of character who, (b) engaged in a partly fictional problem context, (c) must apply conceptual understandings to make sense of, and ultimately, transform the context"".  The goal of such play spaces is to have the ""gamer"" engage in the narrative while learning cognitive and social skills. The ability to immerse oneself in the gaming process facilitates ""empathetic embodiment"" which occurs when a player learns to identify with the character they have chosen for the game and the virtual environment of the game (Barab, 2009).
Educational video games have been divided into two major categories. ""Edutainment"" games are those that are typically based on drilling fundamental lessons in a linear progression, with added entertainment value. ""Educational video games"" are ones that encourage creative thinking and problem solving.


== Game-based learning ==
Game-based learning (GBL) is a type of game play that has defined learning outcomes. Generally, game-based learning is designed to balance subject matter with gameplay and the ability of the player to retain, and apply said subject matter to the real world. Children tend to spend hours playing hide and seek, learning the steps of digital games, such as chess, and engaging in creative games. Therefore, it can be said that play and learning are synonymous, leading to cognitive and emotional development inside a social and cultural context. For instance, the game of hide and seek: Good hiders need visual and spatial perspective to define the best hiding places, while seekers must be skilled at searching for cues from the surroundings and choosing the most probable location for the hider among various possible places. A systematic review investigated the effects of educational games for mental health students:


== Origins ==
Educational games have historical roots dating back to early civilizations, though their systematic development as teaching tools emerged more recently. As Cheung and Ng (2021) note, educational games gained recognition when ""educators identified the unique capacity of structured play to engage learners in ways traditional instruction could not.""
Educational games evolved alongside advances in learning theories and technologies. According to Li et al. (2024), this evolution reflects ""the growing understanding that effective learning experiences can be both enjoyable and intellectually stimulating when properly designed.""


=== Theory ===
According to Richard N. Van Eck, there are three main approaches to creating software that stimulates cognitive growth in the gamer. These three approaches are: building games from scratch created by educators and programmers; integrate commercial off-the-shelf (COTS); and creating games from scratch by the students. The most time- and cost-effective approach to designing these educational games is to incorporate COTS games into the classroom with the understanding of the learning outcomes the instructor has for the course. This requires the teacher to buy into the positive results of using digital games for education. It also requires teachers to have adequate self-efficacy concerning the use of these games and their technology. The students usually have high amounts of self-efficacy in usage of digital games, while the lack of confidence teachers have in incorporating the digital games usually results in less effective educational use of the games. However, Gerber and Price (2013) have found that teachers' inexperience with digital games does not preclude them from the desire to incorporate them in class instruction, but districts must have in place support through regular professional development, supportive learning communities with their colleagues, and adequate financial support to implement game-based learning in their class instruction.
Games often have a fantasy element that engages players in a learning activity through narrative or storylines. Educational video games can motivate children and allow them to develop an awareness of consequentiality. Children are allowed to express themselves as individuals while learning and engaging in social issues. Today's games are more social, with most teens playing games with others at least some of the time and can incorporate many aspects of civic and political life. In classrooms, social game-based learning platforms are increasing in popularity, as they purport to enable students to reinforce knowledge and develop social and leadership skills.
The success of game-based learning (GBL) strategies owes to active participation and interaction being at the center of the experience, and signals that current educational methods are not engaging students enough. Experience with and affinity for games as learning tools is an increasingly universal characteristic among those entering higher education and the workforce. Game-based learning is an expansive category, ranging from simple paper-and-pencil games like word searches all the way up to complex, massively multiplayer online (MMO) and role-playing games.  The use of collaborative game-based role-play for learning provides an opportunity
for learners to apply acquired knowledge and to experiment and get feedback in the form of consequences or rewards, thus getting the experiences in the ""safe virtual world"".
The built-in learning process of games is what makes a game enjoyable. The progress a player makes in a game is through learning. It is the process of the human mind grasping and coming to understand a new system. The progress of understanding a new concept through gaming makes an individual feel a sense of reward whether the game is considered entertainment (Call of Duty) or serious (FAA-approved flight simulator). Well-designed games that motivate players are what make them ideal learning environments. Real-world challenges are easier faced within a game containing effective, interactive experiences that actively engage people in the learning process. In a successful game-based learning environment, choosing actions, experiencing consequences, and working toward goals allows players to make mistakes through experimentation in a risk-free environment. Games have rules and structure and goals that inspire motivation. Games are interactive and provide outcomes and feedback. Most games also have problem solving situations that spark creativity.
Identification with the character within the video game is an important factor in the learning potential of the gamer. Some of the electronic games allow the gamer to create an avatar that is designed and “owned” by the gamer. This character is an expression of the human creating the virtual character. This has opened a new set of scientific possibilities. The virtual world can be used as a laboratory. The relationships and space within the games can simulate complex societies and relationships without having to truly participate. This application of an avatar in not limited to simulation exercises. According to Bainbridge, interviews and ethnographic research could be conducted within the reality of the game space. This could include experiments in social psychology and cognitive science. The fact that game creators and gamers are wanting new experiences within the games, the introduction of “experiments” could increase the level of play and engagement.


=== Application ===

Traditionally, technology used in school operates usually to solve problems in a fun way, particularly in mathematics. They usually make up case studies designed to introduce students to certain technologies in an effort to prepare them for a future major assignment that requires the aforementioned technology. They have also been developed to work in the virtual world. More recently educational games have been developed for Higher Education students, combining real-world case studies in a virtual environment for students to have a consistent, 24/7 educational 'virtual' experience. In some public schools implementing Common Core Standards, game-based learning programs are utilized by educators to supplement their teaching programs. According to a recent case study by an ed tech-based nonprofit organization, teachers find some digital learning games help address issues with alignment in Common Core.
In the future, technology and games are expected to be used in simulation environments to simulate real world issues. In the professional sector, such as flight training, simulations are already used in an effort to prepare pilots for training before actually going out into planes. These training sessions are used to replicate real life stresses without the risk factor associated with flying. Simulation-games are used in other professional areas as well; a spy-themed learning game has been used to improve sales skills at Avaya and a 3D simulation game has been used to train New York City emergency responders.
Before deciding how to use game-based learning, the trainer must first determine what they would like the trainees to learn. A trainer that fails to focus training around a central idea runs the risk of using a game that fails to connect with the learners. To prevent this, tailor the material to the demographic (age group, familiarity, educational pre-text) so that the material is neither too difficult for, nor too familiar to the learner. Gathering ideas from children early in the design process has yielded useful insights into what children want in technology in general or in a specific type of application. Children's early involvement in requirements gathering has revealed clues about gender differences in preferences related to technology, children's navigation skills, ways of presenting textual information, application-specific content-related preferences, the variety of elements to be included in user interfaces and their structures, and children's desire to personalize their applications. Multiplayer role playing games (MMO's) provide opportunities for players to improve such skills as, “complex learning, thinking, and social practices”. MMO's also provide a social network which can favor collaborative gaming and learning and contribute to the formation of teams, communication within a group and help strengthen individual and communal identities.


== See also ==


== Footnotes ==


== References ==
Shatz, Itamar (2015). Using Gamification and Gaming in Order to Promote Risk Taking in the Language Learning Process (PDF). MEITAL National Conference. Haifa, Israel: Technion. pp. 227–232. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
""Video games 'stimulate learning'"". BBC News. March 18, 2002.
Dostál, J. (2009). ""Educational software and computer games - tools of modern education"". Journal of Technology and Information Education. 1 (1). Palacký University, Olomouc: 24–28. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.164.4054. doi:10.5507/jtie.2009.003. ISSN 1803-537X.
Lin, G. H. C.; Kung, T. W. T.; Chien, S. C. (2011). Computer Games Functioning as Motivation Stimulants (PDF). International Conference on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL).


== Further reading ==
James Paul Gee (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6169-3."
Data-intensive computing,"Data-intensive computing is a class of parallel computing applications which use a data parallel approach to process large volumes of data typically terabytes or petabytes in size and typically referred to as big data.  Computing applications that devote most of their execution time to computational requirements are deemed compute-intensive, whereas applications are deemed data-intensive if they require large volumes of data and devote most of their processing time to input/output and manipulation of data.


== Introduction ==
The rapid growth of the Internet and World Wide Web led to vast amounts of information available online.  In addition, business and government organizations create large amounts of both structured and unstructured information, which need to be processed, analyzed, and linked.  Vinton Cerf described this as an “information avalanche” and stated, “we must harness the Internet’s energy before the information it has unleashed buries us”. An IDC white paper sponsored by EMC Corporation estimated the amount of information currently stored in a digital form in 2007 at 281 exabytes and the overall compound growth rate at 57% with information in organizations growing at even a faster rate.  In a 2003 study of the so-called information explosion it was estimated that 95% of all current information exists in unstructured form with increased data processing requirements compared to structured information. The storing, managing, accessing, and processing of this vast amount of data represents a fundamental need and an immense challenge in order to satisfy needs to search, analyze, mine, and visualize this data as information. Data-intensive computing is intended to address this need.
Parallel processing approaches can be generally classified as either compute-intensive, or data-intensive.  Compute-intensive is used to describe application programs that are compute-bound.  Such applications devote most of their execution time to computational requirements as opposed to I/O, and typically require small volumes of data.  Parallel processing of compute-intensive applications typically involves parallelizing individual algorithms within an application process, and decomposing the overall application process into separate tasks, which can then be executed in parallel on an appropriate computing platform to achieve overall higher performance than serial processing.   In compute-intensive applications, multiple operations are performed simultaneously, with each operation addressing a particular part of the problem.  This is often referred to as task parallelism.
Data-intensive is used to describe applications that are I/O bound or with a need to process large volumes of data.  Such applications devote most of their processing time to I/O and movement and manipulation of data.  Parallel processing of data-intensive applications typically involves partitioning or subdividing the data into multiple segments which can be processed independently using the same executable application program in parallel on an appropriate computing platform, then reassembling the results to produce the completed output data. The greater the aggregate distribution of the data, the more benefit there is in parallel processing of the data.  Data-intensive processing requirements normally scale linearly according to the size of the data and are very amenable to straightforward parallelization.  The fundamental challenges for data-intensive computing are managing and processing exponentially growing data volumes, significantly reducing associated data analysis cycles to support practical, timely applications, and developing new algorithms which can scale to search and process massive amounts of data. Researchers coined the term BORPS for ""billions of records per second"" to measure record processing speed in a way analogous to how the term MIPS applies to describe computers' processing speed.


== Data-parallelism ==
Computer system architectures which can support data parallel applications were promoted in the early 2000s for large-scale data processing requirements of data-intensive computing.  Data-parallelism applied computation independently to each data item of a set of data, which allows the degree of parallelism to be scaled with the volume of data.  The most important reason for developing data-parallel applications is the potential for scalable performance, and may result in several orders of magnitude performance improvement.  The key issues with developing applications using data-parallelism are the choice of the algorithm, the strategy for data decomposition, load balancing on processing nodes, message passing communications between nodes, and the overall accuracy of the results.  The development of a data parallel application can involve substantial programming complexity to define the problem in the context of available programming tools, and to address limitations of the target architecture.  Information extraction from and indexing of Web documents is typical of data-intensive computing which can derive significant performance benefits from data parallel implementations since Web and other types of document collections can typically then be processed in parallel.
The US National Science Foundation (NSF) funded a research program from 2009 through 2010. Areas of focus were:

Approaches to parallel programming to address the parallel processing of data on data-intensive systems
Programming abstractions including models, languages, and algorithms which allow a natural expression of parallel processing of data
Design of data-intensive computing platforms to provide high levels of reliability, efficiency, availability, and scalability.
Identifying applications that can exploit this computing paradigm and determining how it should evolve to support emerging data-intensive applications
Pacific Northwest National Labs defined data-intensive computing as “capturing, managing, analyzing, and understanding data at volumes and rates that push the frontiers of current technologies”.


== Approach ==
Data-intensive computing platforms typically use a parallel computing approach combining multiple processors and disks in large commodity computing clusters connected using high-speed communications switches and networks which allows the data to be partitioned among the available computing resources and processed independently to achieve performance and scalability based on the amount of data.  A cluster can be defined as a type of parallel and distributed system, which consists of a collection of inter-connected stand-alone computers working together as a single integrated computing resource. This approach to parallel processing is often referred to as a “shared nothing” approach since each node consisting of processor, local memory, and disk resources shares nothing with other nodes in the cluster.  In parallel computing this approach is considered suitable for data-intensive computing and problems which are “embarrassingly parallel”, i.e. where it is relatively easy to separate the problem into a number of parallel tasks and there is no dependency or communication required between the tasks other than overall management of the tasks.  These types of data processing problems are inherently adaptable to various forms of distributed computing including clusters, data grids, and cloud computing.


== Characteristics ==
Several common characteristics of data-intensive computing systems distinguish them from other forms of computing:

The principle of collection of the data and programs or algorithms is used to perform the computation.  To achieve high performance in data-intensive computing, it is important to minimize the movement of data.  This characteristic allows processing algorithms to execute on the nodes where the data resides reducing system overhead and increasing performance.  Newer technologies such as InfiniBand allow data to be stored in a separate repository and provide performance comparable to collocated data.
The programming model utilized.  Data-intensive computing systems utilize a machine-independent approach in which applications are expressed in terms of high-level operations on data, and the runtime system transparently controls the scheduling, execution, load balancing, communications, and movement of programs and data across the distributed computing cluster.  The programming abstraction and language tools allow the processing to be expressed in terms of data flows and transformations incorporating new dataflow programming languages and shared libraries of common data manipulation algorithms such as sorting.
A focus on reliability and availability.  Large-scale systems with hundreds or thousands of processing nodes are inherently more susceptible to hardware failures, communications errors, and software bugs.  Data-intensive computing systems are designed to be fault resilient.  This typically includes redundant copies of all data files on disk, storage of intermediate processing results on disk, automatic detection of node or processing failures, and selective re-computation of results.
The inherent scalability of the underlying hardware and software architecture.  Data-intensive computing systems can typically be scaled in a linear fashion to accommodate virtually any amount of data, or to meet time-critical performance requirements by simply adding additional processing nodes.  The number of nodes and processing tasks assigned for a specific application can be variable or fixed depending on the hardware, software, communications, and distributed file system architecture.


== System architectures ==
A variety of system architectures have been implemented for data-intensive computing  and large-scale data analysis applications including parallel and distributed relational database management systems which have been available to run on shared nothing clusters of processing nodes for more than two decades. 
However, most data growth is with data in unstructured form and new processing paradigms with more flexible data models were needed. Several solutions have emerged including the MapReduce architecture pioneered by Google and now available in an open-source implementation called Hadoop used by Yahoo, Facebook, and others.  LexisNexis Risk Solutions also developed and implemented a scalable platform for data-intensive computing which is used by LexisNexis.


=== MapReduce ===
The MapReduce architecture and programming model pioneered by Google is an example of a modern systems architecture designed for data-intensive computing.  The MapReduce architecture allows programmers to use a functional programming style to create a map function that processes a key–value pair associated with the input data to generate a set of intermediate key–value pairs, and a reduce function that merges all intermediate values associated with the same intermediate key.  Since the system automatically takes care of details like partitioning the input data, scheduling and executing tasks across a processing cluster, and managing the communications between nodes, programmers with no experience in parallel programming can easily use a large distributed processing environment.
The programming model for MapReduce architecture is a simple abstraction where the computation takes a set of input key–value pairs associated with the input data and produces a set of output key–value pairs.  In the Map phase, the input data is partitioned into input splits and assigned to Map tasks associated with processing nodes in the cluster.  The Map task typically executes on the same node containing its assigned partition of data in the cluster.  These Map tasks perform user-specified computations on each input key–value pair from the partition of input data assigned to the task, and generates a set of intermediate results for each key.  The shuffle and sort phase then takes the intermediate data generated by each Map task, sorts this data with intermediate data from other nodes, divides this data into regions to be processed by the reduce tasks, and distributes this data as needed to nodes where the Reduce tasks will execute.  The Reduce tasks perform additional user-specified operations on the intermediate data possibly merging values associated with a key to a smaller set of values to produce the output data.  For more complex data processing procedures, multiple MapReduce calls may be linked together in sequence.


=== Hadoop ===
Apache Hadoop is an open source software project sponsored by The Apache Software Foundation which implements the MapReduce architecture.  Hadoop now encompasses multiple subprojects in addition to the base core, MapReduce, and HDFS distributed filesystem.  These additional subprojects provide enhanced application processing capabilities to the base Hadoop implementation and currently include Avro, Pig, HBase, ZooKeeper, Hive, and Chukwa.  The Hadoop MapReduce architecture is functionally similar to the Google implementation except that the base programming language for Hadoop is Java instead of C++.  The implementation is intended to execute on clusters of commodity processors.
Hadoop implements a distributed data processing scheduling and execution environment and framework for MapReduce jobs.  Hadoop includes a distributed file system called HDFS which is analogous to GFS in the Google MapReduce implementation.  The Hadoop execution environment supports additional distributed data processing capabilities which are designed to run using the Hadoop MapReduce architecture.  These include HBase, a distributed column-oriented database which provides random access read/write capabilities; Hive, which is a data warehouse system built on top of Hadoop that provides SQL-like query capabilities for data summarization, ad hoc queries, and analysis of large datasets;  and Pig – a high-level data-flow programming language and execution framework for data-intensive computing.
Pig was developed at Yahoo! to provide a specific language notation for data analysis applications and to improve programmer productivity and reduce development cycles when using the Hadoop MapReduce environment.  Pig programs are automatically translated into sequences of MapReduce programs if needed in the execution environment.  Pig provides capabilities in the language for loading, storing, filtering, grouping, de-duplication, ordering, sorting, aggregation, and joining operations on the data.


=== HPCC ===
HPCC (High-Performance Computing Cluster) was developed and implemented by LexisNexis Risk Solutions. The development of this computing platform began in 1999 and applications were in production by late 2000.  The HPCC approach also utilizes commodity clusters of hardware running the Linux operating system.  Custom system software and middleware components were developed and layered on the base Linux operating system to provide the execution environment and distributed filesystem support required for data-intensive computing.  LexisNexis also implemented a new high-level language for data-intensive computing.  
The ECL programming language is a high-level, declarative, data-centric, implicitly parallel language that allows the programmer to define what the data processing result should be and the dataflows and transformations that are necessary to achieve the result.  The ECL language includes extensive capabilities for data definition, filtering, data management, and data transformation, and provides an extensive set of built-in functions to operate on records in datasets which can include user-defined transformation functions.  ECL programs are compiled into optimized C++ source code, which is subsequently compiled into executable code and distributed to the nodes of a processing cluster.
To address both batch and online aspects data-intensive computing applications, HPCC includes two distinct cluster environments, each of which can be optimized independently for its parallel data processing purpose.  The Thor platform is a cluster whose purpose is to be a data refinery for processing massive volumes of raw data for applications such as data cleansing and hygiene, extract, transform, load (ETL), record linking and entity resolution, large-scale ad hoc analysis of data, and creation of key data and indexes to support high-performance structured queries and data warehouse applications.  A Thor system is similar to the Hadoop MapReduce platform in its hardware configuration, function, execution environment, filesystem, and capabilities but provides higher performance in equivalent configurations.  The Roxie platform provides an online high-performance structured query and analysis system or data warehouse delivering the parallel data access processing requirements of online applications through Web services interfaces supporting thousands of simultaneous queries and users with sub-second response times.  A Roxie system is similar in its function and capabilities to Hadoop with HBase and Hive capabilities added, but provides an optimized execution environment and filesystem for high-performance online processing.  Both Thor and Roxie systems utilize the same ECL programming language for implementing applications, increasing programmer productivity.


== See also ==
Implicit parallelism
Massively parallel
Supercomputer
Graph500


== References =="
Real Betis,"Real Betis Balompié, known as Real Betis (pronounced [reˈal ˈβetis]) is a Spanish professional football club based in Seville, Andalusia, Spain. It plays in La Liga, the top flight of Spanish football. It plays home games at the 60,721-seat Estadio Benito Villamarín.
Real Betis won the league title in 1935 and the Copa del Rey in 1977, 2005 and 2022. Given the club's tumultuous history and many relegations, its motto is ¡Viva el Betis manque pierda! (Long live Betis even if they lose!).


== History ==

The name ""Betis"" is derived from Baetis, the Roman name for the Guadalquivir river which passes through Seville and which the Roman province there was named after. Real ('Royal') was added in 1914 after the club received patronage from King Alfonso XIII.


=== Foundation ===

Betis' city rivals Sevilla were the first club in Seville, founded in October 1905, while a second club, España Balompié were established in September 1907. ""Balompié"" translates literally as ""football"", as opposed to the most commonly adopted anglicised version, ""fútbol"". Balompié was founded by students from the local Polytechnic Academy, and were in operation for one year before being officially recognised in 1909 as Sevilla Balompié; despite this, 1907 remains the official foundation date of the club.
Following an internal split from Sevilla FC, another club was formed, Betis Football Club. In 1914, they merged with Sevilla Balompié. The club received its royal patronage in the same year, and therefore adopted the name Real Betis Balompié. Fans continued to refer to the club as Balompié and were themselves known as Los Balompedistas until the 1930s, when Betis and the adjective Béticos became common terminology when discussing the club and its followers.
Real Betis originally played in all blue jerseys and white shorts, for no other reason than the easy availability of such plain colours. However, one of the club's founders and team captain, Manuel Ramos Asensio, was keen to take advantage of his relationships made while studying in Scotland, contacted Celtic (whose green and white colours matched the Andalusian regional flag) and obtained the same fabric to make kits for his own club. Ramos had the lines re-orientated from horizontal 'hoops' into vertical stripes to make the shirts (no other Spanish club used the combination at the time). There is no mention of Celtic or Scotland in the history of Betis on the club's official website, but in 2017 the club officially acknowledged the link by producing a special hooped kit to coincide with Andalusia Day. The blue colour is still often used in away kit designs.


=== 1930s: promotion, championship and relegation ===
During the Spanish Second Republic (1931–1939), royal patronage of all organisations was nullified, and thus the club was known as Betis Balompié until after the Spanish Civil War when it would revert to the full name. The club reached the Copa del Presidente de la República final for the first time on 21 June 1931, when it lost 3–1 to Athletic Bilbao in Madrid. Betis marked their 25th anniversary year by winning their first Segunda División title in 1932, finishing two points ahead of Real Oviedo, thus becoming the first club from Andalusia to play in La Liga.
On 28 April 1935, under the guidance of Irish coach Patrick O'Connell, Betis won La Liga, to date their only top division title. They topped the table by a single point over Madrid FC. A year later Betis went down to seventh. This was due to the dismantling of the championship-winning team because of the club's poor economic situation and the arrival of the Civil War, meaning that just 15 months after winning the league title only two players who won in 1935 were left: Peral and Saro. No official league was held during the Civil War between 1936 and 1939, until its resumption for the 1939–40 season and the first year back highlighted Betis' decline as exactly five years after winning the title the club was relegated.


=== Darkest period ===
Despite a brief return to the top division which lasted only one season, the club continued to decline and in 1947 an all-time low was reached when the club were relegated to Tercera División. Many fans see the ten years they spent in the category as key to the ""identity"" and ""soul"" of the club. During this time, Betis earned a reputation for filling its stadium and having massive support at away matches, known as the ""Green March"".
When the side returned to the second level in 1954, it gained the distinction of being the only club in Spain to have won all three major divisions' titles. Much of the credit for guiding Betis through this dark period and back into the Segunda lies with chairman Manuel Ruiz Rodríguez.


=== Benito Villamarín ===
In 1955, Manuel Ruiz Rodríguez stepped down from running the club believing he could not offer further economic growth, he was replaced by Betis most famous former president, Benito Villamarín. During his reign Betis returned to the top division in 1958–59 and finished in third place in 1964. His purchase of the Estadio Heliópolis in 1961 is seen as a key point in the history of the club – the grounds were named after him as Estadio Benito Villamarín. In 1965, Villamarín stepped down from his position after ten years at the helm of the club.
Just one year after Villamarín's departure, the club would again be relegated to division two, then rising and falling almost consecutively until consolidating their place in the top level in 1974–75.


=== First Copa del Rey Title and European Qualification ===

On 25 June 1977, Betis played Athletic Bilbao at the Vicente Calderón Stadium in the Copa del Rey final. The match finished 2–2, with Betis winning 8–7 after a staggering 21 penalties taken to win its first ever Copa del Rey title. This rounded off a solid season in which the club finished fifth in the league.
After that triumph, Betis competed in the European Cup Winners' Cup: after knocking out Milan 3–2 on aggregate in the first round, the side reached the quarter-finals, where they lost to Dynamo Moscow. Despite their strong performance in Europe, the team suffered league relegation.
The following year, Betis returned to the top flight and ushered in a period of ""good times"" for the club, with the next three seasons seeing three top-six finishes, as well as UEFA Cup qualification in 1982 and 1984.
During the summer of 1982, the Benito Villamarín hosted two matches as part of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, and also witnessed the Spain national team's famous 12–1 hammering of Malta to qualify for UEFA Euro 1984.


=== Economic crisis and Manuel Ruiz de Lopera ===

In 1992, Betis found itself subject to new league rules and regulations due to its restructuring as an autonomous sporting group (SAD), requiring the club to come up with 1,200 million pesetas, roughly double that of all the first and second division teams, despite being in level two at the time.
In just three months, the fans raised 400 million pesetas with then vice-president Manuel Ruiz de Lopera stepping in to provide an economic guarantee while himself becoming majority shareholder as the team narrowly avoided relegation.
On 11 September 1994, Real Betis played its 1,000th game in La Liga.


=== Serra Ferrer success ===
After another three seasons in the second division, with the club managed by Lorenzo Serra Ferrer, Betis returned to the top flight for the 1994–95 season, subsequently achieving a final third position, thus qualifying to the UEFA Cup.In the European campaign, Betis knocked out Fenerbahçe (4–1 on aggregate) and 1. FC Kaiserslautern (4–1) before losing to defeated finalists Bordeaux (3–2). In 1997, 20 years after winning the trophy for the first time, the club returned to the final of the Copa del Rey – again held in Madrid, although this time at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium – losing 2–3 against Barcelona after extra time.
Incidentally, Barça was the club Serra Ferrer would leave Betis for that summer, to be replaced by former player Luis Aragonés. Aragonés would only last one season with the club, leading the side to the eighth position and to the quarter-finals in the Cup Winners' Cup, where they would lose 2–5 on aggregate to eventual winners Chelsea.
Aragonés was followed by the controversial reign of Javier Clemente, who spat on a fan and implied Andalusia was ""another country!"". The team slipped down the table, finishing 11th and being knocked out of the UEFA Cup by Bologna in the third round. For the next couple of seasons, Betis went through numerous managers, a relegation and a promotion, after which the team finished sixth in the league with Juande Ramos at the helm.
Ramos was gone after just one season, however, being replaced by former Cup Winners' Cup-winning manager Víctor Fernández. He led the team to eighth and ninth in the league and the third round of the 2002–03 UEFA Cup, being knocked out by Auxerre (1–2 on aggregate), during his two-year reign.
For 2004, Fernández was replaced by the returning Serra Ferrer, who guided the team to the fourth position in the top flight. They also returned to the Vicente Calderón on 11 June 2005 for the Copa del Rey final, lifting the trophy for only the second time after an extra-time winner by youth graduate Dani in a 2–1 win against Osasuna.
The league finish meant Betis became the first Andalusian team to compete in the UEFA Champions League, and it reached the group stage after disposing of Monaco in the last qualifying round (3–2 on aggregate). Drawn in Group G, and in spite of a 1–0 home win against Chelsea, the club eventually finished third, being ""demoted"" to the UEFA Cup, where it would be ousted in the round of 16 by Romanian club Steaua București with a 0–3 home loss. Compared to the previous season, the league campaign was disappointing, with the club finishing in 14th place, just three points off the relegation zone.


=== Centenary celebrations ===

Betis celebrated their centenary year in 2007. The festivities included a special match against Milan, the reigning European Champions, on August 9, with the hosts winning 1–0 thanks to a Mark González penalty early in the second half. Seven days later, the club won the Ramón de Carranza Trophy held in neighbouring Cádiz, beating Real Zaragoza on penalties in the final, having defeated Real Madrid in the semi-finals.
Surrounding the celebration, it was a time of great change in terms of the playing and technical teams, with eight new signings replacing 14 departures. In the summer of 2006, Serra Ferrer was replaced by Luis Fernandez for the 2006–07 season. However, the two seasons that encompassed the centenary year (2006–07 and 2007–08) were disappointing, with the club having four different managers and barely avoiding relegation in both seasons.


=== Relegation ===
After many years of staving off relegation, Betis' 2008–09 season culminated with a 1–1 draw against Real Valladolid at home. As a result, the club finished 18th in the table and consequently was relegated to the second division on goal difference.
On 15 June 2009 over 65,000 Beticos, including icons such as Rafael Gordillo, Del Sol, Hipólito Rincón, Julio Cardeñosa and others, joined the protest march in Sevilla with the slogan ""15-J Yo Voy Betis"" to let the majority owner Ruiz de Lopera know that it was time to put his 54% share of the club on the market for someone, some entity or the Betis supporters to buy those shares and remove Lopera from the day-to-day operations of the club.
Despite the protests, no upper management changes were made during the season, which would ultimately see Betis fail to gain promotion back to the top level.


=== Lopera court action and sale ===
Seville judge Mercedes Alaya was investigating links between Betis and other Ruiz de Lopera-owned businesses, leading to him being formally charged with fraud. On 7 July 2010, one week before the start of preliminary court proceedings, Lopera sold 94% of the shares that he owned (51% of Betis total shares) to Bitton Sport, fronted by Luis Oliver, for the surprisingly low figure of €16 million, leaving Lopera with only minor shares; Oliver had already reportedly taken two football clubs, Cartagena and Xerez, to the brink of bankruptcy.
Before the sale could be officially sanctioned, however, Ayala froze Lopera shareholdings. Left with nothing, despite putting down a €1 million deposit, Oliver hastily bought a nominal number of shares from a third party and was voted onto the board of directors by the existing members (all former cohorts of Lopera), allowing him to carry on running the club. In response to this, the judge appointed well-respected former Betis, Real Madrid and Spain national team legend Rafael Gordillo to administer Lopera's shares to ensure Lopera was not still running the club and that decisions made were for the benefit of the club not individual board members.


=== La Liga return ===

Again under Pepe Mel, Betis started 2011–12 with four wins in as many games, with Rubén Castro retaining his goal scoring form from the previous season, where he scored 27 goals. Betis finished 13th in their first season since returning to La Liga.
In the 2012–13 season, Betis finished seventh in La Liga and qualified for the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, the first European qualification for the club since the 2005–06 Champions League. This European campaign ended in the quarter-finals after losing on penalties to local rivals Sevilla. Betis were relegated from La Liga with three games still to play in the 2013–14 season, but returned immediately as champions with two games to spare.


=== Back into UEFA competitions ===
In the 2017–18 season, under Quique Setién, Betis finished sixth in La Liga and earned a spot in the Europa League. The 2018–19 campaign was very positive; the club reached the Copa del Rey semi-finals and topped their group in the Europa League, before eventually being knocked out by Stade Rennais in the round of 32.
On 9 July 2020, Manuel Pellegrini was appointed as Betis manager ahead of the 2020–21 season. Pellegrini guided Betis to a sixth-place finish and a Europa League spot, an improvement since the previous season (2019–20) which saw Betis finish 15th.
On 23 April 2022 Betis won the Copa del Rey final against Valencia after drawing 1–1 after 120 minutes and winning 5–4 on penalties. It was the first trophy after 17 years, since they won their second Copa del Rey on 2005 against Osasuna (2–1).
The club displayed consistency under Pellegrini's management by qualifying for the UEFA Europa League for three consecutive seasons, finishing fifth and sixth in the 2021-22 and 2022-23 seasons, respectively. The club qualified for the Conference League after a seventh-place finish in 2023-24 season and reached the club's first ever European final the following season. However, they lost to Chelsea 1-4.


== Seville derby ==

Betis have a long-standing rivalry with city neighbours Sevilla FC. The two have met 114 times in official competition, with Sevilla holding a 45% win ratio over Betis (31%).
The first match between the two clubs took place on 8 February 1915, with Sevilla winning 4–3. The match was not completed, as high tensions led an aggressive crowd to invade the pitch, forcing the referee to abandon the match.
In 1916, the first Copa Andalucía was held, this being the first official derby of the Sevilla area. Of the 17 runnings of the cup, Sevilla were victorious 14 times, to Betis' one sole conquest; this included a 22–0 routing after the latter sent their youth team, in 1918.
The first time the teams met in league, in Segunda, happened in 1928–29, with both teams winning their home matches (3–0 and 2–1). They played for the first time in the Spanish top division during the 1934–35 season, with a 0–3 home defeat for Sevilla and a 2–2 draw at Betis, with the latter winning the national championship.
On 17 January 1943, Betis lost 5–0 at Sevilla, eventually being relegated. In the first game held at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium, on 21 September 1958, the Verdiblancos won it 4–2.
In later years, several matches were also marred by violence, including: a security guard attacked by a Sevilla fan with a crutch (that he did not require to walk), Betis goalkeeper Toni Prats being attacked and Sevilla manager Juande Ramos being struck by a bottle of water; the latter incident led to the 2007 Copa del Rey match being suspended, being played out three weeks later in Getafe with no spectators.
On 7 February 2009 Betis won 2–1 at the Pizjuán, but was eventually relegated from the top flight, while Sevilla finished in third position.
On 9 November 2019 more than 10,000 Betis fans visited the team training before the last derby in 2019.


=== Statistics ===
As of 28 April 2024


== History in European competitions ==

Accurate as of 28 May 2025

Source: UEFA.comPld = Matches played; W = Matches won; D = Matches drawn; L = Matches lost; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; GD = Goal difference. 


== Team statistics ==


=== Season to season ===

60 seasons in La Liga
28 seasons in Segunda División
7 seasons in Tercera División (as third tier)
Participations in UEFA Champions League: 1
Participations in UEFA Cup: 7
Participations in UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 2


=== Recent La Liga seasons ===
Real Betis were relegated from La Liga in both the 1999–2000 and 2013–14 seasons but were promoted back on their first attempt each time.


== Players ==


=== First-team ===
As of 21 May 2025

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.


=== Reserve team ===

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.


=== Out on loan ===

Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.


=== Retired numbers ===

26  Miki Roqué (deceased) (2009–12)


== Player records ==


=== Most appearances ===


=== Most goals ===


== Personnel ==


=== Board of directors ===
President: Ángel Haro García
Vice-president: José Miguel López Catalán
Board members: José Montoro Pizarro, Tomás Solano Franco, Ernesto Sanguino Gómez, José Maria Pagola Serra, Adrián Fernández Romero, María Victoria López Sánchez, Rafael Salas Garcia, Ramón Alarcón Rubiales, Cayetano García de la Borbolla Carrero
Ambassadors: Rafael Gordillo, Andrés Saavedra


=== Technical staff ===
Director of Football: Manu Fajardo
Assistant Director of Football: Alexis Trujillo
Head Scout: Vasiliki Pappa
Scouting: Jakob Friis-Hansen, Vlada Stošić, Carlos Vargas, Adrian Espárraga and Paulo Meneses
Technical Analysis Department: Tino Luis Cabrera (Head) and Jaime Quesada
Scouting U20s: Juan José Cañas (Head) and Pedro Morilla


=== Coaching staff ===
As of July 9, 2020
Head coach: Manuel Pellegrini
Assistant coach: Rubén Cousillas
Fitness coach: José Cabello, Félix Fernández
Goalkeeper coach: Toni Doblas


=== Medical staff ===
Head of Medical Services: Tomás Calero
Physiotherapists: Fran Molano, José Manuel Pizarro, Manuel López, Manuel Alcantarilla
Nurse: José María Montiel


== Honours ==
 Real Betis Balompie has won all the national championships there are.


=== Leagues ===
La Liga
Winners (1): 1934–35
Segunda División
Winners (7): 1931–32, 1941–42, 1957–58, 1970–71, 1973–74, 2010–11, 2014–15
Tercera División
Winners (1): 1953–54


=== Cups ===
Copa del Rey
Winners (3): 1976–77, 2004–05, 2021–22
Copa Federación de España
Winners (1): 1953–54


=== European competitions ===
UEFA Conference League
Runners-up (1): 2024-25


=== Others ===
Campeonato Regional Sur (defunct)
Winners (1): 1927–28


== Coaches ==


== Presidents ==


== Records ==


=== Club records ===
Best La Liga position: 1st (1934–35)
Worst La Liga position: 20th (1990–91, 2013–14)
Biggest home win: Betis 7–0 Zaragoza (1958–59)
Biggest away win: Cádiz 0–5 Betis (1977–78)
Biggest home defeat: Betis 0–5 Real Madrid (1960–61, 2013–14), Betis 0–5 Osasuna (2006–07), Betis 0–5 Barcelona (2017–18)
Biggest away defeat: Athletic Bilbao 9–1 Betis (1932–33)
Biggest comeback for: Betis – Barcelona: 0–2 to 3–2 (2007–08), Betis – Alavés: 0–2 to 3–2 (2020–21), Celta Vigo – Betis: 2–0 to 2–3 (2020–21)
Biggest comeback against: Betis – Espanyol: 2–0 to 2–5 (1999–2000)


=== Player records ===
Most appearances:  José Ramón Esnaola – 574
Most official appearances:  José Ramón Esnaola – 460
Most appearances in La Liga:  José Ramón Esnaola – 378
Most appearances in Copa del Rey:  José Ramón Esnaola – 64
Most appearances in European competitions:  Joaquín – 23
Top goalscorer (La Liga):  Hipólito Rincón – 78
Top goalscorer (overall): Rubén Castro – 148
Top goalscorer (European competitions):  Alfonso – 8
Most red cards:  Jaime Quesada – 7
First to play for Spain:  Simón Lecue – 1934
Most capped for Spain:  Rafael Gordillo – 75
Spanish internationals: 27


== Stadium ==

Upon Real Betis' formation, the club played at the Campo del Huerto de Mariana. In 1909, Betis moved to the Campo del Prado de Santa Justa, moving to the Campo del Prado de San Sebastián, sharing the site with rivals Sevilla two years later. In 1918, Real Betis moved to the Campo del Patronato Obrero, with the first game at the ground coming against rivals Sevilla on 1 November 1918, resulting in a 5–1 loss for Real Betis. During the 1920s, the ground was redeveloped numerous times by club president Ignacio Sánchez Mejías. After the construction of the Estadio de la Exposición, the former name of Betis' current home, in 1929, Real Betis moved into the site officially in 1936, after playing a number of games at the stadium since its construction.
With a 60,720-seat capacity, the Estadio Benito Villamarín is the home ground of Real Betis. It was named Estadio Manuel Ruiz de Lopera during the 2000s after the club's owner, who decided to build a new stadium over the old one.
Despite much planning, the stadium's renovation plans were constantly postponed, and half of it remained unchanged. On 27 October 2010, it returned to its first denomination after a decision by the club's associates.


== Colours ==


=== Evolution ===

In its initial years, Sevilla Balompié dressed in blue shirts with white shorts, which represented the infantry at the time. From late 1911, the team had adopted the shirts of Celtic, at that time vertical stripes of green and white, that were brought over from Glasgow by Manuel Asensio Ramos, who had studied in Scotland as a child. On 28 February 2017, on the 37th Andalusia Day, Real Betis wore Celtic-inspired hoops against Málaga CF.
When the team became Real Betis Balompié in 1914, various kits were used, including: yellow and black stripes; green T-shirts and a reversion to the blue top and white shorts uniform. By the end of the 1920s, Betis was once again sporting green and white stripes, around this time the Assembly of Ronda (1918) saw the Andalusian region formally adopt these colours, not being known how much the two are linked.
Since then, this remained Betis' shirt, despite several versions (including wider stripes).
Together with the basic green-and-white shirt, Betis has wore both black and green shorts in addition to white shorts.


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website (in Spanish and English)
Real Betis at La Liga (in English and Spanish) (archived)
Real Betis at UEFA (in English and Spanish)"
"Gilman, Taylor County, Wisconsin","Gilman is a village in Taylor County, Wisconsin, United States, located between the towns of Aurora and Ford. Its population was 378 at the 2020 census. 


== Geography ==
The village is in southwest Taylor County adjacent to the intersection of highways 64 and 73. It also lies on the Yellow River and the Canadian National rail line. The Chequamegon–Nicolet National Forest lies three miles to the east.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.34 square miles (6.06 km2), all of it land.


== History ==
Before logging and settlers, the land around Gilman was covered with a mosaic of forest and swamps, drained by the Yellow River. Native Americans travelled along the river, at times portaging over to the Big Rib River to reach the Wisconsin River valley. By 1800, the area around Gilman was dominated by Ojibwe people, but Dakota, Ho-Chunk and Menominee were not far away. In 1837 the U.S. forced the Ojibwe to cede much of northern Wisconsin, including the area that would become Gilman, in the White Pine Treaty. Government surveyors came through in 1847 and again in 1854, marking section lines and assessing timber and mill sites.
Some time after that, the river-transport phase of logging began, in which loggers felled pine trees within a few miles of the Yellow River and its streams, skidded them to the stream banks, and floated the logs downriver past the future site of Gilman in spring log drives.: 18–19  By 1880 a ""Winter Road"" followed the river through the vicinity of what would become Gilman, heading for logging operations upstream. No one lived at Gilman itself until 1902 or 1903, though settlers had spread up the river west of Gilman as near as four miles by 1888.
In 1902 and 1903 the rails of the Stanley, Merrill and Phillips Railway crossed the Yellow River into what would become Gilman, heading for Jump River and beyond. The SM&P was a subsidiary of the Northwestern Lumber Company, constructing its railroad primarily to haul logs from Northwestern's timber lands to its big mill in Stanley. This began the railroad-transport phase of logging, in which pine more than a few miles from streams was hauled out by rail, as well as hardwoods which didn't float well. The SM&P built a section house and water tower where the line crossed the river, and that was the start of Gilman. It was initially named Moorhouse for the superintendent of the SM&P, but was renamed Gilman for Sally Gilman, the wife of the president of Northwestern Lumber.: 16  The SM&P ran generally north through town, passing east of the current school. It carried some passengers and freight, but mainly transported logs. Around 1905, the Wisconsin Central Railway built a separate line northwest through town, heading from Owen to Ladysmith and eventually Superior. This line later became the Soo Line Railroad and was eventually acquired by the Canadian National Railway, which still operates on the track.
The stump-ridden little community where the railroad crossed the river grew fast. In 1904 Northwestern Lumber platted a few blocks of village lots east of what is now 8th Avenue.: 6  That year a small school was established. The following year a bigger four-room school was built, and Mrs. Case started a boarding house to serve railroad workers, lumberjacks, and new arrivals. Also established in that first ten years: a small jail, a livery house, saloons, the McSloy Hotel, Crum's general store, a barber, a post office, a feed and flour store, a warehouse, a hardware store,: 12–13  and Kapszukiewicz's Market. The Wisconsin Central Railroad built its own depot on the west side of town. In 1907 Roy Heagle and others started a stave and heading mill called Gilman Manufacturing Company on the south side of town near the river. It made barrels from local basswood and by 1912 it employed as many as sixty men. Heagle also ran a planing mill and a lath mill in Gilman. Another mill made hubs for wagon wheels.: 12–13 
Gilman incorporated as a village in 1914.: 13  Early priorities of the village board included liquor licenses, street lights, organizing a volunteer fire department, and an ordinance to ban cattle, horses and pigs from running loose in the village. Also in 1914, Gilman's first Bank was established, which would evolve into the State Bank of Gilman.: 46  In 1915 the park was started, with the swinging bridge and a dance pavilion. That same year the Catholic Church was organized. Other denominations followed shortly. 1915 also added a new sawmill, a potato warehouse, and a physician - Dr. Slinker. In 1916 three gas lights lit the streets at night - the only street lights between Owen and Ladysmith at the time. A high school was started in 1917 with 31 students.: 13-14 
During World War I the  stave and heading mill ran around the clock making barrels for ammunition. After the war, in 1919, construction began on a new high school. Timber in the area was beginning to dwindle, but still it is said that in 1921 two million feet of logs were brought in to be processed by the Gilman mills. As the timber was cut off, the lumber companies began selling the cut-over forties in the surrounding country to settler families who gradually wrestled small farms out of the stumplands, and Gilman began to shift to serving those farmers.: 14 
In Easter Sunday of 1922 a fire destroyed much of Gilman's business district. Some of the businesses rebuilt and others were replaced by new businesses - some choosing masonry construction over wood. Around 1926 Gilman gained electrical service, largely driven by the Gilman Booster Club. As markets changed, Gilman's mills gradually closed. The stave and heading mill ran until 1935, then tried making toys for a few years, then closed during the Great Depression. In the late 1930s the municipal water system was installed, financed by the New Deal WPA. The first part of the sewer system was installed in 1946. A new village hall, library and fire department building were built around 1947.: 14–15 
Two miles to the south, the village of Polley had grown through much of this same time, also on the SM&P railroad. It had its own school, a hotel-saloon, a general store, a forty-man sawmill, a barber, a cheese factory, a millinery shop, and a newspaper. But the SM&P shut down in the 1930s and Polley gradually declined until today only a bar and some homes and farms remain. The Polley cheese factory closed too and in 1932 its owner bought the cheese factory in Gilman - eventually called Drangle's and Gilman Cheese - which has been a major employer for many years since the mills closed.
In the 1950s Gilman High became the central high school for all of western Taylor County, leading to additions to the complex in years that followed.: 15  Since then the primary schools have been centralized at Gilman too.
Today Gilman is smaller than it once was, but it has a hardware store, a few cafes, a bank, and other services. Major employers in town are the school and Gilman Cheese. The major events each year are the Fall Fest and Snieg (Polish for snow) Fest in February, which features snow sculpting and a frying pan toss.


== Demographics ==


=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 410 people, 187 households, and 97 families residing in the village. The population density was 175.2 inhabitants per square mile (67.6/km2). There were 218 housing units at an average density of 93.2 per square mile (36.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 99.5% White, 0.2% from other races, and 0.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.5% of the population.
There were 187 households, of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.9% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 48.1% were non-families. 43.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.06 and the average family size was 2.89.
The median age in the village was 47.8 years. 21.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 19.5% were from 25 to 44; 26.3% were from 45 to 64; and 27.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.


=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 474 people, 185 households, and 110 families residing in the village. The population density was 202.8 people per square mile (78.2/km2). There were 209 housing units at an average density of 89.4/sq mi (34.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 97.89% White, 0.42% Asian, 1.48% from other races, and 0.21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.69% of the population.
There were 185 households, out of which 24.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.5% were non-families. 36.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.97.
In the village, the population was spread out, with 19.8% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 28.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $32,708, and the median income for a family was $50,833. Males had a median income of $29,875 versus $22,083 for females. The per capita income for the village was $18,075. About 7.8% of families and 14.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 30.8% of those age 65 or over.


== Landmarks ==
The historic Gilman swinging bridge is a landmark of the community


== See also ==
List of villages in Wisconsin


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website
Plat map of Gilman from 1914"
Lego Pirates of the Caribbean,"Lego Pirates of the Caribbean (stylized as LEGO Pirates of the Caribbean) is a discontinued Lego theme that is based on the film series of the same name. It is licensed from Walt Disney Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer Films. There are nine known sets. The first wave was released in May 2011 with the second wave coming out in November 2011. In November 2010, it was officially announced by Lego that the video game Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game was in production. It was released on May 10, 2011, in North America. The series acts as a thematic replacement for the popular Lego Pirates theme, featuring many of the same elements. Most of the sets are similar to the Lego Pirates theme. The theme was first introduced in 2011 and discontinued in 2017.


== Overview ==
Lego Pirates of the Caribbean is based on the film. The product line focuses on the Jack Sparrow and Will Turner as they rescue the kidnapped Elizabeth Swann from the cursed crew of the Black Pearl, captained by Hector Barbossa, who become undead skeletons at night. Lego Pirates of the Caribbean aimed to recreate the main characters in Lego form, including Jack Sparrow, Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann.
In addition, the film's Academy Award-winning production designer John Myhre was also on hand as guests were treated to the reveal of a life-sized figure of Captain Jack Sparrow standing a full six feet tall and made of 150,000 Lego bricks.


== Development ==
Before the launch of the Lego Pirates of the Caribbean range, The Lego Pirates theme was released in 1989. This theme featured pirates, soldiers from the Napoleonic Wars, Pacific Islanders, sailing ships, and buried treasure, being influenced by the late Golden Age of Piracy. These themes eventually resulted in the introduction of the Lego Pirates of the Caribbean theme, which included some of the original concepts of the Lego Pirates theme, such as pirates and soldiers, but also introduced 17th century elements.
Lego Pirates of the Caribbean was inspired by the film series Pirates of the Caribbean. The Lego construction toy range was based on the film series and developed in collaboration with Disney Consumer Products. The construction sets were designed to recreate the story and characters of the film series in Lego form. Jill Wilfert, Vice President of licensing and entertainment stated, ""The pirate theme is always a strong player in the Lego portfolio, and the Pirates of the Caribbean brand offers the quintessential pirate experience with familiar characters, stories and scenes, allowing us to develop even more authentic and exciting models for children and collectors.""


== Launch ==
Lego Pirates of the Caribbean was launched at the American International Toy Fair in 2011. As part of the marketing campaign, The Lego Group released eight Lego sets based on the Pirates of the Caribbean film. Each set featured different mill, pirate ship, fountain of youth and Whitecap Bay.


== Characters ==

Jack Sparrow: An eccentric pirate characterized by his slightly drunken swagger, slurred speech and awkwardly flailing hand gestures. He has gained a reputation with made-up stories of how he escaped from the deserted island he was put on. He is determined to regain the Black Pearl, which he captained ten years before.
Barbossa: The captain of the Black Pearl, he was Captain Jack Sparrow's first mate before he led a mutiny ten years before. He and his crew stole cursed Aztec gold, for which they are cursed to walk the earth forever.
Will Turner: A blacksmith's apprentice working in Port Royal, he is in love with Elizabeth Swann. Will struggles with the fact his father, ""Bootstrap"" Bill, was a pirate, unable to reconcile that he was a good man too.
Elizabeth Swann: The daughter of Governor Weatherby Swann, Elizabeth has been fascinated with pirates since childhood. She is the main protagonist of the film. During the Black Pearl's attack on Port Royal, she gives her name as Turner and is mistaken for ""Bootstrap"" Bill's child. She also is in love with Will Turner.
Norrington: An officer in the Royal Navy who is in love with Elizabeth and has a deep-seated dislike for pirates.
Joshamee Gibbs: Jack Sparrow's friend and first mate, he was once a sailor for the Royal Navy. He is usually the one who tells the legends of Jack Sparrow.
""Bootstrap Bill"" Turner: A crewman aboard the Flying Dutchman who so happens to be Will Turner's father. He was cursed by the Aztec gold on Isla de Muerta (along with Hector Barbossa's crew). Thrown overboard after refusing to take part in the mutiny against Jack led by Barbossa, he spent years bound to a cannon beneath the crushing ocean. Found by Davy Jones, he swore to servitude aboard the Flying Dutchman crew and escaped death.
Davy Jones: Captain of the Flying Dutchman. Davy Jones was once a human being. Unable to bear the pain of losing his true love, he carved out his heart and put it into the Dead Man's Chest, then buried it in a secret location. He has become a bizarre creature – part octopus, part crab, part man – and collects the souls of dead or dying sailors to serve aboard his ship for one hundred years.
Blackbeard: Legendary pirate, and captain of the Queen Anne's Revenge.
Angelica: Jack's former love interest, and daughter of Blackbeard.
Philip Swift: A missionary, kept prisoner aboard Blackbeard's ship.
Syrena: A mermaid captured by Blackbeard, and love interest of Swift.
Scrum: A self-serving member of Blackbeard's crew.
Captain Armando Salazar: The undead Captain of the Silent Mary who seeks revenge on Jack Sparrow and attempts to steal the Trident of Poseidon to kill every pirate at sea. Bardem set out to imbue the character with ""a rage based on dented pride,"" owing to his spectacular fall, from a high-ranking commander of a Spanish fleet to being betrayed and trapped in hell by Jack. With Salazar's body language, he tried to convey a bull in an arena, ""full of rage and need of vengeance, but also wounded.""
Henry Turner: The son of Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann who vows to break his father's curse by searching for the Trident.
Carina Smyth: A headstrong, altruistic astronomer who was wrongly accused of being a witch.


== Toy line ==


=== Construction sets ===
According to BrickLink, The Lego Group released a total of 17 Lego sets and promotional polybags as part of Lego Pirates of the Caribbean theme. The product line was eventually discontinued by the end of 2017.
In 2011, The Lego Group had a partnership with Walt Disney Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer Films. It had announced that the eight sets based on the Pirates of the Caribbean film would be released on April 25, 2011. The eight sets being released were Isla De Muerta (set number: 4181), The Cannibal Escape (set number: 4182), The Mill (set number: 4183), Captain's Cabin (set number: 4191), Fountain of Youth (set number: 4192), The London Escape (set number: 4193), Whitecap Bay (set number: 4194) and Queen Anne's Revenge (set number: 4195). The largest sets was Queen Anne's Revenge (set number: 4195) which included 1,094 pieces and nine minifigures. In addition, the four polybag sets have been released as a promotions are Mini Black Pearl (set number: 30130), Jack Sparrow with Raft (set number: 30131), Captain Jack Sparrow (set number 30132) and Jack Sparrow (set number: 30133) in various countries around the world and the Pirates of the Caribbean Battle Pack (set number: 853219) which included five minifigures was released around the same time as the main sets. Later, The Black Pearl (set number: 4184) would be released on  October 15, 2011, which included 804 pieces and six minifigures.
In April 2017, Silent Mary (set number: 71042) would be released on April 2, 2017, which included 2,294 pieces and eight minifigures. All sets will be based on the films The Curse of the Black Pearl, Dead Man's Chest,  On Stranger Tides and Dead Men Tell No Tales. The sets were designed primarily for children aged 6 to 16 years old.
The Lego Group have also released accompanying products branded under the Lego Pirates of the Caribbean theme. These include a magnet set consisting of the Jack Sparrow, Hector Barbossa and Gunner minifigures each attached to a magnetized brick and three key chains with a key chain attached to the minifigures of Jack Sparrow, Elizabeth Swann, and Hector Barbossa. They have also released two clocks in the shape of the Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa minifigures and two watches based on Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa which both include a minifigures.


=== Lego Brickheadz sets ===
Captain Jack Sparrow (set number: 41593) and Captain Armando Salazar (set number: 41594) were released on April 2, 2017, as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme. Captain Jack Sparrow (set number: 41593) consists of 109 pieces, a sword and 1 baseplate. Captain Armando Salazar (set number: 41594) consists of 118 pieces, a sword and 1 baseplate.


== Web short ==


=== Captain Jack's Tall Tales (2011 short) ===
Captain Jack's Tall Tales released a short film via YouTube, on June 25, 2011, that is inspired by both Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides film as well as the Lego Pirates of the Caribbean toyline.


== Video game ==


=== Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game (2011) ===

In May 2011, Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game was released on the Mac OS X, Nintendo 3DS, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Wii, Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360. The game was developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Disney Interactive Studios and incorporates storylines from the first four films in the franchise.


== Reception ==
In 2011, The Lego Group reported that due to the Lego Toy Story, Lego Prince of Persia, Lego Pirates of the Caribbean and Lego Cars 2 lines, it had for the first time in its 50-year history in the American market surpassed $1.0 billion in consumer sales of Lego products, reaching its highest share of construction toys and total U.S. toy market ever.
In 2018, the Toy Retailers Association listed The Silent Mary (set number: 71042) on its official list of 2018 Toy of the Year Awards Gala.


== See also ==
Lego Pirates
Lego Avatar
Lego The Simpsons
Lego Toy Story
Lego Cars
Lego Prince of Persia
Lego The Lone Ranger
Lego Disney


== References ==


=== Bibliography ===
Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game: Prima's Official Game Guide. Authored by Michael Knight and Nick von Esmarch. Published by Dorling Kindersley, 2011. ISBN 0-30789-125-9


== External links ==
Official site Archived December 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine"
Barakat Foundation,"The Barakat Foundation  (Persian: بنیاد برکت lit. The Blessing Foundation) is a charitable trust in Iran (a bonyad) focused on economic development projects in rural areas. It also has stakes in Iran's pharmaceutical industry. It is affiliated to the Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order which is controlled by Seyyed Ali Khamenei.
In 2013, one of its senior officials stated that during the last five years, the foundation had invested more than $1.6 billion in development projects, as well as building 200 schools, 400 homes and health clinics; and “nearly 100 percent of the income of Setad and the Tadbir Group is placed at the disposal” of the foundation; however, these claims are impossible to verify because its accounts are not publicly available.


== History ==
The Barakat Foundation was established on 11 December 2007, two months after Mohammad Mokhber was elected as the leader of Setad, in order to perform activities in fields of entrepreneurship and the social and economic development in the deprived areas. The foundation was formerly managed by  Aref Norouzi. The current manager is Amir Hosein Madani.
Following the statement by Khamenei, the current Supreme Leader of Iran, i.e. “solve the problems of 1,000 villages. It would be good to develop 1,000 places or to build 1,000 schools. Prepare this organisation for this task”, Barakat was created as the affiliated department to Setad. The organization aimed to carry out construction projects in underdeveloped regions of the country as a “Leader’s gift to people living in these regions”, according to the IRNA.


== Activity ==
Barakat Foundation aims to provide sustainable employment and facilitate process in villages.
As the head of the foundation's board of directors mentioned, Barakat Foundation is going to  provided 10,000 jobs in rural and deprived regions of Iran till March 2019.
In Sistan and Baluchestan province, Barakat Foundation is going to establish two factories for packaging and processing dates to support farmers.
During five years Barakat has been supported several economic development projects, such as building schools, roads, housing units and mosques, as well as providing water and electricity.
In 2024, 217 job-creating enterprises across the country have been supported by the Barekat Foundation.
The Barekat Foundation, with an investment of 21 trillion tomans in Khuzestan province, is implementing extensive programs aimed at poverty alleviation and job creation. Among its key achievements is the completion of the North Yaran oil field development project, which involved a $585 million investment and has a daily production capacity of 30,000 barrels of crude oil. By utilizing domestic technology and equipment, this project marks a significant step toward self-sufficiency in the oil industry and creates employment opportunities. Furthermore, initiatives are underway to address war-related damages and bolster the resistance economy.


=== Construction of schools ===
According to the report of the International Quran News Agency, the Barkat Foundation has built 2,000 schools in cooperation with the Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order, and the 2,000th school was opened in March 2023. Among its other activities is the operation of 500 water supply projects to 500 deprived villages in the country. Likewise, According to the CEO of this foundation: ""Building schools with Iranian Islamic identity is on the agenda of Barkat Foundation.""
The Barekat Foundation has contributed to developing educational infrastructure in deprived areas by inaugurating 4,635 schools, converting container schools into permanent ones, establishing vocational schools, distributing stationery packages, and launching educational systems.


=== Health services ===
The Foundation has prepared health services for deprived populations and has supported over 60,000 cancer patients by building equipped cancer clinic type 3. The Foundation has carried out 482 economic and entrepreneurship projects for 198,000 people who need a job in 31 provinces of the country. Six pharmaceutical companies affiliated to setad, under the administration of the Barakat Foundation is spending their income in for charitable movement.
According to published reports, the establishment of mobile hospitals in various regions, such as the 92-bed mobile Barakat Hospital in Khuzestan, the implementation of support programs for cancer patients and their companions, as well as assisting in equipping infertility treatment centers, are among other initiatives of the Barakat Foundation in the healthcare sector.


==== Telehealth ====
The Barakat Foundation and Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order (in cooperation with the Ministry of Health) have pursued/implemented the issue of Telehealth. According to the minister of Health, Saeed Namaki: ""... This great scientific work helps us in order to utilize a tool called ""telemedicine"" in these (far) areas of the country. This new approach (telemedicine) allows us to increase productivity in Islamic Republic of Iran's specialized manpower and have health justice in the farthest areas of Iran. He also added, ""it began in the farthest and most deprived parts of the country.""
In February 2023, the Barkat Cancer Specialist and Subspecialty Hospital began operations as a state-of-the-art facility dedicated to oncology. This center, recognized as a super-specialized treatment institution, was established with an investment of approximately 1,200 billion Tomans. It offers a comprehensive range of services, including cancer screening, diagnosis, and treatment, while also providing training for specialists and utilizing cutting-edge treatment equipment. Among the advanced technologies employed at this center are linear accelerators, CyberKnife systems, tomotherapy, and CT simulators. These devices have been introduced in a treatment center for the first time in West Asia, enabling precise and personalized treatment options. The center leverages modern technologies and advanced scientific methodologies to enhance the quality of treatment and research services in oncology.


=== Services in Arba'een pilgrims ===
Among the activities of this foundation is related to its participation in infrastructure development and providing services to Arba'een pilgrims at the borders.


=== Projects ===
According to the CEO of Barkat Foundation: 57,000 construction projects have been initiated in Barkat Foundation and nearly 52,000 of them have come to fruition.


=== COVID-19 Vaccine ===

COVIran Barekat, the first COVID-19 vaccine produced by Iranian researchers has been produced by Shifa-Pharmed Company (a subsidiary of Barakat Pharmaceutical Group). The human-injection of the first phase of clinical studies of the Iranian corona vaccine on December 29, 2020; The first phase of human testing of the vaccine began with the injection for 56 volunteers. The second group of the volunteers was also injected with the vaccine. According to the head of the vaccine production team at the Setad, the results show that this vaccine also neutralizes the British mutated COVID-19 virus. The vaccine has passed the phase(s) 2 and 3 of clinical studies; and currently it has reached its final phase. The production line of 25 million doses per month of the vaccine was discharged on 26 April 2021.
With the signing of a memorandum (of understanding) of cooperation between the Barakat Foundation and the Deputy Minister of ""Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism"", the process of creating 3,000 jobs began with the support of 1,000 handicraft production projects with priority given to the victims of COVID-19. According to the Deputy Coordinator of the Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order: On 27 July 2021, about 5 million doses of Iran Barakat vaccine have been produced in Shafa-farmad factory so far.
According to IRNA, quoting the spokesman of the National Corona Headquarters and the Deputy Minister of ""Ministry of Health and Medical Education"": ""Barakat Iranian vaccine is (also) produced exclusively for Omicron.""


== Ehsan-Barakat Charity foundation ==

Ehsan-Barakat Charity foundation associated to Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order and Barekat Foundation was founded in order to request of current Supreme Leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei to provide more quickly help for individual cases (needy people). As Mokhber, the chief of Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order nominated, the activities which be performed by the Charity relies on people's help.
According to Mohammad Vudud Madani, the manager of Ehsan-Barakat in May 2018,  3 trailer equipped with medical equipment and 2 service trailers, as well as 10 tents with a capacity of 140 hospital beds, were prepared and sent for deprived areas. The Charity organized that 8000 needy people who live in deprived areas including Helmand region, Hamoun and Nimroz in Sistan and Baluchestan province, cities from South Khorasan province  and Ahmadfedaleh Rural District, travel to Karbala in Arba'een as the special campaign called ""the Visa of Paradise"".


== Barakat Tel ==
The Barakat Tel Company is one of the companies affiliated with the Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order, funded by Barakat Foundation as a designer and executor of the Electronic Health Program to develop services at the deprived areas of the country in the field of public health. The company provides 18 types of electronic services during the Electronic Health Program.


== Barkat Pharmaceutical Group ==

The Barkat Pharmaceutical Group is a subsidiary of the Setad, which was established in 2010 under the name of ""New Technologies of Tedbir Pharmaceutical Technologies"".
The company provides services through cooperation with Knowledge enterprises and the world's medical scientists.


== Barkat Ventures ==
Barkat Ventures is the part of  Setad for New Technologies and the Development of Knowledge Economy. Its duties are introduced based on Iranian-Islamic pattern in establishing and expanding the ecosystem and infrastructure for the development of knowledge and activities of Knowledge enterprise.


== See also ==

Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order
Bonyad
Economy of Iran
Barkat Ventures
15 Khordad Foundation


== References =="
Change Your Mind (Steven Universe),"""Change Your Mind"" is the series finale of the American animated television series Steven Universe; a 44-minute quadruple-length episode, it is counted as the 29th to 32nd episode of the series' fifth season and as the 157th to 160th episodes of the series overall. The only 44-minute episode of the series, it was directed by Joe Johnston and Kat Morris, with art direction by Liz Artinian, and written and storyboarded by Johnston, Morris, Lamar Abrams, Miki Brewster, Danny Kilgore, Hilary Florido, Ian Jones-Quartey, Christine Liu, Jeff Liu, Katie Mitroff, Paul Villeco, and series creator and executive producer Rebecca Sugar.
The conclusion of the original storyline conceived by Sugar when developing Steven Universe, the episode serves as the culmination of the story arcs developed over the course of the series, most notably the Crystal Gems' conflict with the Gem Homeworld and the healing of the monstrous corrupted Gems. It also features the debut of new designs for most of the main characters and several previously unseen fusions. In ""Change Your Mind"", Steven must reunite with the Crystal Gems and open the eyes of the three Diamonds to the dysfunctionality of their family dynamic.
Officially promoted under the alternative title ""Steven Universe: Battle of Heart and Mind"", the episode premiered on Cartoon Network on January 21, 2019. It received a viewership of 0.989 million people and was acclaimed by critics, with most praise going to its themes, scale, animation, writing, and voice performances, as well as White Diamond's treatment, characterization, and confrontation with Steven. Reviewers unanimously agreed that ""Change Your Mind"" felt like a crucial turning point for the series that could effectively serve as a series finale, with The Post stating ""Steven Universe can never go back to how it was before.""
The series was followed by the television film Steven Universe: The Movie (2019) and the epilogue limited series Steven Universe Future (2019–2020), both of which take place two years after the events of ""Change Your Mind"".


== Plot ==
Imprisoned in a tower on the Gem Homeworld, Steven (Zach Callison) dreams a memory of his mother, Pink Diamond, being scolded by Blue Diamond (Lisa Hannigan) millennia ago. When he wakes up, Blue, thinking he is Pink Diamond, arrives to scold him again. However, he helps her understand that Pink abandoned the Diamonds because of their dysfunctional family dynamic, and she decides to help the Crystal Gems escape. Yellow Diamond (Patti LuPone) tries to stop them, but Steven helps her realize that deferring to White Diamond's perfectionism has made her miserable. Steven and Connie (Grace Rolek) prepare to escape with the dormant gems of Garnet (Estelle), Amethyst (Michaela Dietz), and Pearl (Deedee Magno Hall), but are intercepted by White Diamond's spaceship.
Shortly thereafter, Bismuth (Uzo Aduba), Lapis Lazuli (Jennifer Paz), and Peridot (Shelby Rabara) arrive from Earth in Yellow and Blue's repaired spaceships, and attack White's ship. After a brief battle, Yellow and Blue finally tell White about how they feel, but she responds by turning them into colorless drones acting as extensions of herself. Steven accidentally drops Amethyst, Pearl, and Garnet's gems, but dives after them and helps them regenerate their bodies by briefly fusing with each. Ultimately, all four fuse into Obsidian to reach White's chamber.
White Diamond (Christine Ebersole) turns Garnet, Amethyst, and Pearl into drones, and tries to convince Steven that he really is Pink Diamond, wrongly convincing herself that she is someone else. Attempting to restore Pink to her true self, White pulls Steven's gem from his body. It regenerates a body in Steven's form, which rebukes White by yelling ""She's GONE!"" and blocks White's attempts to control it. Connie carries Steven's weakened human body over to his Gem counterpart, and the two fuse back into Steven. White refuses to acknowledge that Pink is gone, saying that Pink is just ""acting like a child""; Steven responds, ""I am a child—what's your excuse?"" White blushes in embarrassment, releasing the others from her control. As White, realizing for the first time she is fallible, suffers an existential crisis, Steven suggests that she should let everyone, including herself, ""be whoever they are"".
The Crystal Gems and Diamonds travel back to Earth. Shortly after they arrive, Steven's friend Lars (Matthew Moy) arrives as well, in his starship crewed by Off-Color rebel Gems. The Diamonds help Steven heal the corrupted Gems that the Crystal Gems have spent centuries capturing, including Jasper. The episode ends with Steven spending a peaceful evening with his friends and family; he sings the song ""Change Your Mind"", celebrating his newfound emotional security.


== Production ==


=== Writing, art and animation ===
The episode was directed by supervising directors Joe Johnston and Kat Morris and art director Liz Artinian, and written and storyboarded by Johnston, Morris, Lamar Abrams, Miki Brewster, Danny Kilgore, Hilary Florido, Ian Jones-Quartey, Christine Liu, Jeff Liu, Katie Mitroff, Paul Villeco, and series creator and executive producer Rebecca Sugar. Former supervising director Jones-Quartey, who had departed from the series to create OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes, returned to storyboard a brief segment of the episode. This marked the most writers/storyboard artists credited for a single episode; they were credited in the alphabetical order of their last names. The sequence in which Steven's Gem and human bodies reunite was animated by guest animator James Baxter, a veteran of Disney animated films.
The episode features the debut of three new fusions: Steven fuses for the first time with Pearl, forming ""Rainbow Quartz 2.0"" (voiced by Alastair James), and with Garnet, forming Sunstone (voiced by Shoniqua Shandai). Shortly afterwards, all four main Crystal Gems fuse to form Obsidian.
In October 2020, Sugar said that she hoped that the episode is ""relatable to a lot of LGBTQIA+ kids and teens"" with those in places of authority telling you something that isn't true and thinking they are at fault, instead of it being something bigger.


=== Music ===
""Change Your Mind"" features three songs; the first two are new versions of previously-heard songs from the series. When the Crystal Gems and Diamonds return to Earth, Sadie (Kate Micucci) and her band are performing ""Let me Ska My Van Into Your Heart"", a ska cover of ""Let Me Drive Me Van Into Your Heart"", a song from ""Laser Light Cannon"", the second episode of the series. Over a montage in which the corrupted Gems are cured, Steven sings a reprise of ""We Are the Crystal Gems"", the main theme song of the show, with a new verse celebrating the success of the Crystal Gems' philosophy of peaceful coexistence.
The third song is an original song titled ""Change Your Mind"" and written by Sugar; the episode concludes with Steven performing the song for Garnet, Amethyst and Pearl on vocals and ukulele. When the song is performed, the four main characters mirror the pose they take at the end of the opening credits in every episode. Sugar originally wrote the song as an expression of her own feelings while fighting with Cartoon Network for the right to include a same-sex wedding in the episode ""Reunited"" earlier in the season.


=== Promotion ===
The episode was promoted by Cartoon Network as ""Steven Universe: Battle of Heart and Mind"". It was the last part of a five-week story arc revolving around White Diamond and the Gem Homeworld titled Diamond Days, which started with the TV premiere of ""Legs from Here to Homeworld"" on December 17, 2018. The official synopsis was ""Steven faces his biggest challenge yet.""


== Release and reception ==


=== Viewership ===
""Change Your Mind"" first aired on Cartoon Network on January 21, 2019, when it was seen by 0.989 million viewers and gained a 0.30 in the 18-49 demographic.


=== Critical reception ===
""Change Your Mind"" was acclaimed by critics. The handling of the episode's themes was largely praised in regard to the overall themes of the series, particularly during the final face-off between Steven and White Diamond. The scale, animation, writing, and voice performances, particularly of Christine Ebersole as White Diamond, were also highly praised. Despite this, some minor criticism was made towards the pacing of its first half and resolution.
In a positive review published at Polygon, Eric Thurm called the episode ""an impressive feat of compassion, and the narrative endpoint of 156 episodes of television"", praising how the episode illustrated the evolution of Steven from being ""irritating"" and ""a huge goofball incapable of taking anything seriously"" at the beginning of the series to ""a remarkably mature, emotionally intelligent person"", stating ""Steven Universe isn’t about Steven discarding the things that made, and still make, him childish — it’s about figuring out how to use them in more specific, salutary ways."" Writing for The A.V. Club, Thurm called it ""a pretty damn good and impressive episode, and a really wonderful, hectic capper to Era Two of Steven Universe. [...] And beyond all of this plot, thematic material, and character development, ""Change Your Mind"" is still an animated episode of television—one with some pretty visually stunning sequences."" He praised White Diamond's character and  Christine Ebersole's performance, calling White ""the perfect villain"" for the series' themes, and called the moment White removes Steven's gem ""the best, most gut-wrenching moment of the episode, and probably of the series"". He also stated ""Do [the Diamonds'] epiphanies happen too quickly? Maybe! As thrilling as all of this is, and as bold as it is that it’s all happening at once, there are some moments in 'Change Your Mind' that veer a little too much into outright corniness, above and beyond the normal level we should expect from the show.”
In a highly positive review for The Post Joseph Stanichar stated: ""The first half of 'Change Your Mind' is action-packed and filled to the brim with answers to fans' pleas. Chances are, if fans have been wanting to see something in Steven Universe, they will finally see it in 'Change Your Mind.'"" The Mary Sue's Vrai Kaiser praised the episode, calling it ""the proper conclusion of the story. [...] What’s important is that the overall tone is a hopeful one. Each plot thread we see touched on is heading in a positive direction, implying it will continue in that vein."" Shamus Kelley at Den of Geek! gave a positive review, stating ""The animation, especially in the final White Diamond climax, is movie level. The music, the acting, the staging, everything is incredible"" but being critical of the ending, giving the episode a 3.5 rating out of 5.  Writing for Bubble Blabber, Noelle Ogawa also gave a highly positive review, and gave the episode a 9.5/10 rating.


=== Analysis ===


==== White Diamond confrontation ====
Several media outlets analyzed the episode, in particular the treatment and characterization of White Diamond, and the climax of the episode, interpreted as a confrontation between her ideology and Steven's, as Steven's emotion-based personality, focused on empathy and open-mindedness, eventually wins her over despite her originally unshakeable positions on right and wrong and disregard for feelings.
Polygon largely praised how the confrontation with White Diamond emphasized the series' theme of understanding and empathy, as ""the ostensibly villainous Gems, from Peridot to Lapis Lazuli to the Diamonds themselves, are just misguided people who could use a friend. [...] Instead of punching White Diamond in retaliation or giving in to her manipulation, Steven remains insistently himself — even as White Diamond does the unthinkable and removes Steven’s Gem from his body. [...] She has, essentially, been infected with Steven’s feelings, and with her own. He’s won.""
The Post stated that despite the large battle preceding it, ""it isn’t until when the Crystal Gems finally reach White Diamond (Christine Ebersole) that things truly get serious. White Diamond doesn’t throw a single punch or kick, but instead fights with her mind and words. After draining the color from Steven’s friends, new and old, and possessing them, White digs into Steven’s greatest insecurities, both about himself, his friends and about his past as Rose [and Pink Diamond]. Steven perseveres, though. Following a traumatic series of events, Steven resolves his dedication to his friends, positivity in the face of danger, and most of all, accepting himself as his own person. 'I’ve always been me,' Steven tells White Diamond. This pure love exposes White as imperfect, and she finally gives up, agreeing to help Steven.""
Bubble Blabber stated: ""White is stuck in her head, yes, but it is because of a sense of responsibility she feels. She sees herself as the ultimate being, and so she doesn’t really believe in the abilities of anyone other than herself. It’s the ‘if you want to do it right, do it yourself’ taken to extremes, because she believes that she has no flaws, and by contrast, is very aware of everyone else’s. This includes independent thought, personality traits, and really anything that makes someone beyond a function, but an actual person. White fundamentally doesn’t trust other people, and so she can’t imagine ideas that don’t match her own.""


==== Story arcs conclusion ====
""Change Your Mind"" marks the conclusion of the story arcs originally conceived by Rebecca Sugar when she first created the series. Reviewers unanimously agreed that it felt like a landmark and turning point for Steven Universe, as it completed all the ongoing storyline arcs for the series up until then, and that the episode would have been a fitting series finale; as such, it also led them to question the direction the show was going to take afterwards.
The Post called ""Change Your Mind"" ""the end of an era. With a new revelation nearly every second of the episode’s 45-minute runtime, Steven Universe can never go back to how it was before. [...] Steven Universe is not over, but what it was certainly is. It’s future is uncertain, and it’s hard to even imagine the show continuing from what was once intended to be the series’ definitive end. But even if by some disaster the show goes to crap after this, at least this era of the series ended with not with a bang — although there were plenty of those along the way — but with a song. A song of love."" Analyzing the ending of the episode, they concluded that ""Steven Universe has been rightly hailed as a haven for the LGBTQ community, and others who have been demonized or ostracized by society. Paralleling Steven’s message to the Diamonds, [the 'Change Your Mind' song] makes one last plea to those who still won’t accept these people. Not all of them will listen. But maybe, in time, those of future generations will.""
Bubble Blabber stated ""We know that a sixth season is confirmed, but what could that entail? A lot of the major plot points have been wrapped up, and this seemed like as good of an ending as we’d get. More problems could occur, of course, but the big issues that had been set up since the start have now been resolved. What else is there left to do?"" Polygon stated ""In this week’s episode, 'Change Your Mind,' which marks the conclusion of creator Rebecca Sugar’s originally planned five-season arc for the series (but is not the series finale), Steven prevails over the entire Gem empire by flexing his sentimental muscles. The bulk of the hour (also dubbed the Battle of Heart and Mind) is devoted to Steven opening the eyes of the three other Diamond rulers of the Gem civilization to his, and his mother Pink’s, view of humanity. It’s an impressive feat of compassion, and the narrative endpoint of 156 episodes of television.""
The Mary Sue stated ""This certainly had the feel of things coming to an end [...] When an hour-long special closes the book on the show’s major antagonists and ends by mirroring the final shot of the show’s opening theme, it’s hard not to call it an ending of sorts, even if more content arrives at a later date. As a finale, it’s in fine form."" Questioning the future of the series, they claimed that ""If the show wants to carry on, it has to open [its own] questions back up and answer them. Where are the corrupted gems going to go? How far have the Diamonds actually come in dismantling millennia of toxic mentalities, which 'Change Your Mind' only really has to represent as a one-off change of heart done in an intense moment of connection rather than the hard day-to-day work of becoming a better person. And what about that oppressive totalitarian regime, though?""


==== Other themes ====
The A.V. Club stated ""The nature of White’s ability, and the way her character forms around it (or vice versa), are the cause of so many small, careful moments of storytelling in 'Change Your Mind' that it feels like a daunting task to list even half of them. She forces Pearl to fight Connie, forcing the student to confront the master. [...] Her Pearl, we learn, was originally Pink’s Pearl—a neat piece of writing, given the way the episode starts. And her ability is a kind of combination of Yellow’s force blasts and Blue’s empathetic field, transforming other Gems into puppet-like extensions of her own being. And she first does this to Yellow and Blue after they express their feelings, in a scene that also confirms the Diamonds’ redemption as Steven refers to them with the formal Crystal Gems salutation, 'Guys?' [...] The show’s position has long been that no one in its universe is fundamentally evil, and that just talking to people is often enough to get them to open up—especially for Steven, who is inhumanly kind and understanding.""
Cord Cutters believed that the fact that Peridot and Lapis Lazuli do not perform fusion in the episode despite their strong relationship was a meaningful choice from the crew of Steven Universe: ""Lapis Lazuli was in an abusive relationship for months before she was set free by Steven and the Crystal Gems. Peridot, on the other hand, was someone who never got to learn how to love herself because she spent most of her life being looked down on or forced to think logically to the point of self-deprivation. Now look at them. Lapis stands tall while sporting a smile instead of cowering with her arms folded across her chest. Peridot never stops trying to do better things and smiles with her friends instead of finding the little moments to be useless. These gems now have confidence and love for themselves.""
Despite being very positive about the episode, Den of Geek! heavily criticized the lack of nuance of the ending and a perceived absolute redemption of the villains, stating ""Jasper was a horrific abuser. The Diamonds murdered so many people. Are we just supposed to forget about that? How do the other Gems feel? What about the rest of Crystal Gem society? It leaves the episode on a sour note, which is unfortunate because the rest is so good. [...] Not everyone can be reasoned with. Not everyone will come around to your side. It’s a nice aspirational idea but not practical. Steven Universe should be better than this.""
Steven's efforts to get the Diamonds to recognize his identity has been interpreted as an allegory for transgender individuals struggling to get their families to accept their gender identity. Eric Thurm of The A.V. Club notes ""When Blue forcefully tells Yellow, 'She prefers to be called Steven,' she’s finally listening to Steven when he says that he’s not his mom—but she could just as easily be talking about a trans relative asking to be called by their chosen name""; and Julie Muncy at io9 also identifies White Diamond's assumption that Steven is ""just an expression of Pink’s own psychological issues"" as ""a rhetorical gesture that’s bound to be sadly familiar to a lot of trans viewers"".


== Notes ==


== References =="
"American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees","The American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) is the largest trade union of public employees in the United States. It represents 1.3 million public sector employees and retirees, including health care workers, corrections officers, sanitation workers, police officers, firefighters, and childcare providers. Founded in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1932, AFSCME is part of the AFL–CIO, one of the two main labor federations in the United States. AFSCME has had four presidents since its founding.
The union is known for its involvement in political campaigns, almost exclusively with the Democratic Party. AFSCME was one of the first groups to take advantage of the 2010 Citizens United decision, which allowed unions and corporations to directly finance ads that expressly call for the election or defeat of a candidate. Major political issues for AFSCME include single-payer health care, protecting pension benefits, increasing the minimum wage, preventing the privatization of government jobs, and expanding unemployment benefits.
AFSCME is divided into approximately 3,400 local unions in 46 U.S. states, plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.


== History ==

AFSCME was formed out of the Wisconsin State Employees Association (WSEA), which was founded in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1932 to represent approximately 50 Wisconsin civil service employees. The WSEA was launched amid fears of politically based firings within the state, the possible elimination of the civil service and a return to patronage jobs. Arnold Zander, Wisconsin's state personnel administrator, emerged as one of the early leaders of the union. Soon after its formation, WSEA was granted an American Federation of Labor charter as Federal Labor Union 18213.
One of its first projects was to protect civil service jobs in Wisconsin after a newly elected Democratic legislature revealed its intention to eliminate Republicans from the civil service. The group succeeded, with assistance from the American Federation of Labor (AFL).
AFSCME's history is documented through its archives at the Walter P. Reuther Library in Detroit, Michigan.


=== Arnold Zander presidency (1936–1964) ===
In 1935, after meetings between Zander and AFL President William Green, AFSCME became a chapter within the American Federation of Government Employees. AFSCME received a separate charter from the AFL in 1936.
In the 1930s, AFSCME was primarily a union for white-collar civil service workers, including librarians, social workers and clerical staff. These workers were legally without the right to collectively bargain, let alone strike—rights which Zander did not support.

The union grew slowly over the next several decades, gradually changing from an association formed to protect civil service systems to a union interested in collective bargaining.
In August 1936, AFSCME had 119 locals with just under 4,000 members, expanding to 9,737 by the end of 1936. By 1940, AFSCME had nearly 30,000 members. AFSCME innovated the revival of police unionism in the late 1930s, organizing police officers and employees at correctional facilities.


=== Jerry Wurf presidency (1964–1981) ===
In 1964, Jerry Wurf defeated Zander as the union's international president. AFSCME was racially integrated in the 1960s under Wurf and began to grow more quickly. Under Wurf, who initiated the most aggressive unionizing campaign in the organization's history, AFSCME broke from earlier patterns of civil service reform and initiated a more militant form of unionization designed to achieve parity with private sector workers.  During Wurf's tenure, AFSCME became known as a pioneer in aggressively recruiting women and black workers.
In 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated while in Memphis, Tennessee to support a strike by the African-American sanitation workers' union, AFSCME Local 1733.
By 1969, AFSCME was unionizing 1,000 new workers each day. The organization saw its greatest period of growth in the 1970s. In 1973, AFSCME concluded a three-year organizing campaign of 75,000 Pennsylvania employees. It was the largest organizing campaign in U.S. labor history. During Wurf's presidency, AFSCME's membership grew from 200,000 to approximately one million. The union eclipsed the one-million-member mark in 1978.
AFSCME set up its first political action committee in 1971. AFSCME supported George McGovern's 1972 presidential bid as well as Jimmy Carter's successful presidential bid in 1976.


=== Gerald McEntee presidency (1981–2012) ===
Gerald McEntee was elected president of AFSCME following Wurf's death in 1981. AFSCME continued to grow in the 1980s, unionizing university employees and nursing home staff and merging with other unions. In 1982, the union voted to endorse the passage of federal, state, and local legislation to extend civil rights to gay and lesbian citizens. In 1989, a third of the locals and the headquarters of the dissolving National Union of Hospital and Health Care Employees (NUHHCE) joined AFSCME. In 1992, AFSCME was the first national union to back Bill Clinton in his presidential bid. AFSCME led an effort to oppose Clinton's signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement. In the late 1990s, AFSCME expanded its membership into Puerto Rico and Panama. The union was an early supporter of Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign.
In 2011, McEntee announced his intention to retire from the union, declining to run for another term as president in 2012. McEntee was paid a gross salary of $1,020,751 in 2012, his last year on the job. McEntee's use of $325,000 in union money to charter private jets in 2010 and 2011 became an issue in the campaign to succeed him.


=== Lee Saunders presidency (since 2012) ===
At the 2012 AFSCME Convention in Los Angeles, Lee Saunders was elected president of AFSCME. Laura Reyes was elected secretary-treasurer. Saunders defeated Civil Service Employees Association president Danny Donohue with 54% of the votes and was re-elected without opposition in July 2016. Previously, Saunders had been elected as secretary-treasurer in 2010 after Bill Lucy retired. During Saunders' tenure, the union has increased its membership and its political involvement.
Reyes stepped down as secretary-treasurer in 2017. AFSCME's International Executive Board elected Elissa McBride to the position in March 2017.


== Leadership and operations ==
According to AFSCME, the union has approximately 3,400 local unions and 58 councils and affiliates in 46 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Every local union writes its own constitution, designs its own structure, elects its own officers and sets its own dues. The Washington, D.C.–based AFSCME headquarters coordinates the union's actions on national political and policy issues. AFSCME holds a biennial International Convention at which basic union policies are decided.
Every four years, AFSCME elects a union president, secretary-treasurer and 35 regional vice presidents.
Notable Secretary-Treasurers include Gordon Chapman (1937–1944, 1948–1961, 1962–1966), Joseph Ames (1966–1972) and William Lucy (1972–2010).


== Union organizing campaigns ==

Starting in the 2000s, AFSCME began campaigns to organize home-based family child care providers. In 2005, when Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich signed an executive order allowing home child care providers to collectively bargain with the state, a turf war broke out between AFSCME and the Service Employees International Union for the exclusive right to organize them. SEIU filed charges with the AFL–CIO against AFSCME, resulting in SEIU winning the right to unionize Illinois's home healthcare workers and AFSCME dropping its bid to do so.
AFSCME represents 24,000 custodians, food workers, gardeners, and other campus service workers in the University of California system. In 2007, AFSCME resolved a two-year dispute with the University of California that raised pay for the system's lowest paid workers.


== Political activity ==
Since the late 1960s, AFSCME has become one of the most politicized unions in the AFL–CIO. Since 1972, AFSCME has been a primary force within the progressive wing of the Democratic Party, playing a major role in setting the legislative agenda and in choosing Democratic presidential candidates. In the 1990s, AFSCME was the top U.S. donor to Bill Clinton.

According to OpenSecrets, AFSCME is the United States' fifth largest organizational contributor to federal campaigns and parties, having donated more than $126 million since the 1990 election cycle. The organization contributes almost exclusively to Democratic Party campaigns; since 1990 the ratio of Democratic to Republican contributions by the AFSCME has exceeded 99:1. In addition to combating privatization of public sector jobs, key political objectives for the group include raising the minimum wage and opposing the substitution of vacation time for overtime pay due workers. In June 2008, AFSCME, along with MoveOn.org, spent over US$500,000 on a television advertisement, Not Alex, critical of the presumptive Republican presidential nominee John McCain.
Until the 2010 Citizens United decision, funding for political campaigns came from voluntary contributions to a political action committee called AFSCME PEOPLE (""Public Employees Organized to Promote Legislative Equality""). With the loosening of restrictions by this Supreme Court case, AFSCME has widened its political funding base through the use of member dues. AFSCME is not required to publicly disclose the identity of its donors, or the size of their contributions.
AFSCME was the biggest outside spender in the 2010 midterm elections, spending a total of $87.5 million in support of Democratic Party candidates. AFSCME led the failed 2012 recall effort against Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker.
In 2014, AFSCME cut ties with the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) after UNCF accepted a $25 million contribution from Charles and David Koch. Starting in 2003, AFSCME had supported UNCF with annual donations of $50,000–60,000.
In 2012, AFSCME, SEIU, and the American Federation of Teachers agreed on a politics-only alliance for the 2012 national election campaign. In 2016, AFSCME and SEIU announced an extension of that agreement, leading to speculation about a possible future merger.


== See also ==

American Federation of Government Employees


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website
Official AFSCME Historic Archives
Find your AFSCME Local"
Freestyle skydiving,"Freestyle skydiving is a competitive skydiving discipline where one member of a two-person team performs acrobatic manoeuvres in free fall while the other one films the performance from a close distance using a helmet-mounted camera.


== History ==
The first ever international skydiving competition was held in 1990 and was directed by World Freestyle Federation. In 1995 the sport gained much popularity across the world and had 62 teams from over 24 countries participating in this competition. This soon made way for World Cup of Skydiving in 1996. Freestyle was first performed by Deanna Kent and others for her husband Norman Kent's 1989 film ""From Wings Came Flight"". It became a competitive skydiving discipline in the early 1990s and became an official FAI sport in 1996.


== Indoor freestyle skydiving ==
Indoor freestyle skydiving, also known as skydancing, is another form of the sport, made possible since the development of vertical wind tunnels in 1964.
The 1st competition to create a mandatory routine with music was at the Wind Games 2016. Lise Hernandez Girouard, who was the pioneer of this new performing art, was invited by Windoor to help organize this 1st freestyle competition. She wrote the rules, guided the athletes and the tunnel on how to set up and use the equipment, also she was the head judge. International competitors Leonid Volkov (Russian) took gold, Maja Kuczyńska (Poland) took Silver and Guillaume Boileau (Canadian) took bronze. Although the movements appear fluid and effortless, they require great strength and control. During this competition, there wasn’t mandatory movements to perform. It consisted of 3 routines. The 1st one was executed at low speed flow. A second routine at a high speed and the third routine music should be included. Among the judges they included professional dancers to be able to evaluate the musical performance. The routines include gymnastic moves, balletic type Ts, somersaults, twists and splits.
Amy Watson was entered into the] at age 11 by completing 44 360-degree horizontal spins in one minute.


=== Competitions ===
On March 23, 2014, at the 2nd Canadian Indoor Skydiving Championships at SkyVenture Montreal, Lise Hernandez Girouard performed the first ever wind tunnel dancing performances, live and synchronized with music that she, the audience and the judges listened to during the competition.
A number of competitions based on indoor skydiving have emerged, such as the FAI] since 2015 and the Windoor Wind Games since 2014. There are also efforts underway to bring Bodyflying to the Olympics.


== The Sky Dancers: How Music Took Flight in Freestyle Indoor Skydiving ==
The evolution of human flight has been a story of relentless innovation, often driven by practical needs, yet frequently blossoming into unexpected forms of recreation and artistry. Freestyle indoor skydiving, a discipline that blends the athleticism of aerial acrobatics with the grace of dance, all set to music, stands as a vibrant testament to this trajectory. Its creation was not a single event but a confluence of technological advancements, pioneering spirit, and the artistic desire to push the boundaries of human movement. This report traces the journey from the first vertical wind tunnels to the emergence of ""skydancing"" as a captivating competitive art form.


== I. Overture: The Dawn of Indoor Flight and Artistic Expression ==
The ability for humans to fly, unencumbered, within an indoor space is a relatively recent phenomenon, born from scientific inquiry and later adapted for thrill-seekers and athletes.


=== A. From Research Tools to Recreational Skies: The Birth of Vertical Wind Tunnels ===
Vertical wind tunnels (VWTs) were not initially conceived for human flight as a sport. Their origins lie in the early 20th century, serving as tools for scientific and military aerodynamic research. A significant, albeit isolated, early instance of human flight within such a device occurred in 1964, when a NASA scientist involved in the Apollo Space Programme experimented with flight in a VWT at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. While this event demonstrated the possibility of human suspension in a vertical column of air, it was decades before the concept was harnessed for recreation.
The true genesis of recreational indoor skydiving can be traced to Canadian paratrooper and inventor Jean St-Germain. Motivated by a desire to provide a safer and more effective freefall practice environment for his children and parachute students, St-Germain constructed the world's first VWT specifically for recreational human flight in either 1978 or 1979 near Montreal.""How Indoor Skydiving Works: The Science & History of Vertical Wind Tunnels"". Skydive Perris. 13 May 2016. Retrieved 2025-05-17.</ref> His design thoughtfully included a central air column with a padded area around it to ensure flyers' safety should they exit the airflow. The name for this innovative venture, ""AERODIUM,"" was affectionately coined by St-Germain's own children, underscoring the family aspect of its inception.
These early commercial tunnels, like St-Germain's, often utilized a simple mechanism, such as a DC-3 engine powering a single propeller from below, with enthusiasts paying a few dollars for a minute of flight. A pivotal technological advancement came later with SkyVenture's innovation: a system employing multiple propellers placed above the flight chamber. This design pulled air through a closed chamber, creating a more consistent and wall-to-wall airflow. The first commercial SkyVenture wind tunnel, embodying this improved technology, opened its doors in Florida in 1999. This technological leap was crucial; the refined, stable airflow provided by such systems was a non-negotiable prerequisite for the intricate body control demanded by freestyle maneuvers, especially those synchronized with music. The earlier, likely more turbulent, tunnels would have made such precision nearly impossible. Furthermore, the advent of these advanced tunnels allowed skydivers to train extensively, often ""24/7"", dramatically accelerating skill development and paving the way for indoor skydiving to evolve into a distinct sport. Today, companies like iFLY are globally recognized for their leadership in VWT technology.


=== B. Taking Flight: The Emergence of Bodyflight as a Sport ===
The act of flying a person's body within this artificially created atmosphere is termed ""bodyflight"". It is a sophisticated skill, relying on subtle changes in body shape and muscle engagement to navigate the air column vertically and horizontally, and to execute various maneuvers or ""tricks"". The wind tunnel environment offers a unique advantage over traditional skydiving: the ability to practice bodyflight skills for extended periods, unconstrained by the brief freefall time of an actual jump. This extended practice transformed the VWT from a simple freefall simulator into a dynamic ""movement laboratory."" Here, flyers could experiment, refine techniques, and push the boundaries of human aerial capability in ways previously unimaginable. This intensive experimentation was a direct precursor to the development of complex freestyle routines.
Foundational body positions such as ""Boxman, Mantis, Sit-Fly, and Head-Down"" became the building blocks of this new aerial vocabulary. Initially, VWTs were often utilized by outdoor skydivers to ""correct or improve stable bodyflight issues"" experienced during jumps. However, the unique properties of the tunnel environment soon fostered a shift. It became clear that the tunnel was not merely a tool for fixing outdoor skydiving problems but a space for exploring entirely new dimensions of human flight. This exploration led to the birth of ""freeflying""—where skydivers use their bodies in numerous orientations, not just the traditional belly-down position—as indoor skydiving began to influence its outdoor counterpart.


=== C. Freestyle in the Open Sky: The Roots of Aerial Acrobatics ===
The concept of freestyle, or acrobatic flight, first took root in the open skies. Freestyle skydiving as a distinct discipline emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, characterized by one member of a two-person team performing acrobatic maneuvers while the other filmed the performance with a helmet-mounted camera. Deanna Kent, often known as ""Skydancer,"" is widely recognized as a key pioneer. Her 1989 film ""From Wings Came Flight"" showcased a departure from conventional freefall positions, which until then were primarily belly-to-earth or a simple tuck. Kent's creative exploration of human flight ""paved the way for other disciplines"".
Around the same time, Olav Zipser was also experimenting with non-traditional forms of body flight, founding the Free Fly Clowns in 1992 and later opening the first school dedicated to modern skyflying. The nascent discipline quickly gained traction, with the first international freestyle skydiving competition being held in 1990 under the aegis of the World Freestyle Federation. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for air sports, officially recognized freestyle as a sport in 1996, hosting its first World Cup that year and the inaugural World Championships in 1997.
Interestingly, these early outdoor freestyle experimentations drew inspiration from established aesthetic sports, with skydivers adapting maneuvers from acrobatics and ice-skating. This demonstrates a common thread in the evolution of artistic sports: the adaptation of existing artistic vocabularies to new environments and mediums. Furthermore, the integral role of the cameraflyer in outdoor freestyle, whose footage was essential for judging, underscored the visual and performative nature of the discipline from its very inception. This early emphasis on visual spectacle was a precursor to the spectator-focused appeal of indoor freestyle performed with music.


== II. The Wind Tunnel Canvas: Freestyle Moves Indoors ==
As vertical wind tunnel technology matured and facilities became more widespread, the artistic and acrobatic elements pioneered in the open sky naturally found a new home indoors.


=== A. Adapting Artistry: Early Indoor Freestyle ===
The controlled and repeatable conditions of the VWT proved ideal for refining the complex maneuvers of freestyle. This transition was not merely an adaptation but a catalyst for further evolution. Indoor skydiving began to significantly influence traditional outdoor skydiving, with the development of ""Freeflying""—utilizing the body in a multitude of orientations beyond the conventional belly-to-earth position—being a direct outcome of this crossover. This created a dynamic interplay, a symbiotic evolution where the intensive practice within tunnels fostered skills and styles that were then taken back to the sky, pushing the boundaries in both environments.
Indoor freestyle, sometimes referred to as ""skydancing"", began to carve out its own identity. The unique advantages of the VWT—freedom from weather constraints, parachute deployment concerns, and the severe time limitations of an actual skydive—allowed for an unparalleled focus on pure bodyflight artistry. This specialized environment naturally led to the development of distinct indoor disciplines, including ""Solo Freestyle"" as a competitive event. The very existence of disciplines ""specially developed for indoor skydiving competitions,"" such as Dynamic, further highlights this trend of specialization driven by the unique characteristics of the tunnel environment.


=== B. Pioneers of Indoor Aerial Dance (Pre-Music Focus) ===
While Deanna Kent and Olav Zipser laid the foundational groundwork for freestyle and freeflying in the open sky, the specific individuals who first translated these complex aerial ballets into the purely indoor realm, before the formal integration of music, are less explicitly chronicled in broad historical accounts. However, their work built directly upon the innovations of their outdoor counterparts. The development and refinement of various bodyflight forms, such as the ""Boxman, Mantis, Sit-Fly, and Head-Down"" positions, by numerous flyers contributed to the expanding vocabulary of indoor freestyle.
It is evident that a period of gradual adaptation and intense experimentation occurred as flyers brought outdoor freestyle concepts into the VWTs. While not always individually named in overarching histories, these athletes collectively constructed the bridge from acrobatic skydiving in the open air to dedicated indoor freestyle. The accounts of skydivers using tunnels to train ""24/7,"" leading to the birth of freeflying, imply a phase of focused development of non-traditional flying techniques within the tunnels, setting the stage for the next artistic leap.


== III. A New Rhythm: The Genesis of Musical Freestyle Indoor Skydiving ==
The fusion of music with the already artistic movements of indoor freestyle marked a transformative moment, elevating the discipline to a new level of expressive potential and audience engagement.


=== A. The Visionary Spark: Lise Hernandez Girouard's Pioneering Performances with Music ===
Lise Hernandez Girouard, a Canadian flyer, stands out as the pivotal figure in the creation of musical freestyle indoor skydiving, effectively birthing the concept of ""skydancing"" as a new performing art. Her journey to integrate music was characterized by bold initiative and persistent advocacy.
The first widely recognized public performance of indoor freestyle synchronized with music occurred on March 23, 2014. Competing in the Neo-Freestyle category at the 2nd Canadian Indoor Skydiving Championships held at SkyVenture Montreal, Girouard took a daring step: she ""surprised judges, competitors and the spectators by hacking the sound system, playing her music inside and outside the tunnel while she performed"". This act of audacious, unsanctioned innovation was more than just a performance; it was a powerful proof of concept that dramatically demonstrated the viability and profound appeal of flying to music. It forced the idea into visibility.
Undeterred and passionate about the potential of this fusion, Girouard continued to champion the concept. In November 2014, she performed with music at the 1st FAI World Cup of Indoor Skydiving in Austin, Texas. This more formal presentation on an international stage had a significant impact: following this event, music was officially adopted as an optional element in the FAI's freestyle rules. Lise Hernandez Girouard's progression from a grassroots, disruptive demonstration to influencing the regulations of international governing bodies underscores the profound impact a single, dedicated visionary can have in shaping a new artistic sport. Her contribution went beyond performance; she was an architect of the emerging discipline.


=== B. The Crescendo Moment: The Wind Games 2016 – Music Takes Center Stage ===
While music had become an option in FAI events, it was The Wind Games, an annual tournament organized by Windoor [2, 3], that provided the stage for the true breakthrough of musical freestyle. In January 2016, The Wind Games, held in Empuriabrava, Spain, became the first major international competition to mandate a routine performed to music in its freestyle indoor skydiving event.
Recognizing her pioneering work, Windoor, particularly Pro Flyer manager Anne Maxwell, invited Lise Hernandez Girouard to play a crucial role in organizing this landmark competition. Girouard helped write the rules for the musical freestyle event, guided athletes and tunnel operators on equipment setup, and served as the head judge. This decision by Windoor, heavily influenced by Girouard's vision, acted as a powerful ""forcing function."" By making music a requirement, the competition compelled athletes to actively engage with musicality, choreograph routines, and develop innovative ways of flying that harmonized with rhythm and melody. This significantly accelerated the development of ""skydancing"" as a defined and distinct discipline.
Leonid Volkov (skydiver) freestyle competition featured a unique three-round format: one round at low speed, another at high speed, and a third where music was to be included. Crucially, the judging panel for the musical round included professional dancers alongside technical skydiving experts. Among the judges were Adam Mattacola, a freeflyer with technical knowledge, Dolo Yglesias, a dance performer and instructor bringing artistic expertise, and Lise Hernandez Girouard herself, bridging both worlds. This interdisciplinary judging panel was a clear statement of intent: musical freestyle was to be evaluated not only on technical flying prowess but also on artistic merit, interpretation, and the crucial harmony between movement and music. This legitimized the ""dance"" aspect of this burgeoning art form.
The event was a resounding success, with Leonid Volkov of Russia capturing Gold, Maja Kuczyńska of Poland taking Silver, and Guillaume Boileau of Canada earning Bronze. The performances, particularly those by Volkov and Kuczyńska, were not just technically impressive but also deeply emotive and captivating, leading to viral online sensations. Volkov's winning routine, for instance, utilized a combination of three distinct musical pieces: a waltz from the movie ""A Hunting Accident,"" the soundtrack ""Clubbed to Death"" from ""The Matrix,"" and ""Lux Aeterna"" from ""Requiem for a Dream"". As reported, ""Just 36 hours after the event, over 28 million people had watched the video of Leo Volkov's winning performance... Maja's video went crazy, with 20 million views on one Facebook page alone"". This sudden and widespread global exposure catapulted the new discipline into public consciousness far beyond the traditional skydiving community, acting as a massive promotional catalyst and solidifying the appeal of musical freestyle.


=== C. Formalizing the Art: The FAI and the Inclusion of Music in Competitions ===
Following Lise Hernandez Girouard's influential performance at the 1st FAI World Cup of Indoor Skydiving in Austin in 2014, music was integrated as an optional component for freestyle routines within FAI-sanctioned competitions. The FAI World Cup of Indoor Skydiving series, which commenced in 2015, along with other significant events like The Wind Games, began to provide regular international platforms for this evolving discipline.
Current FAI rules for Artistic Events, specifically Solo Freestyle, stipulate that a competitor can choose to fly their free routine to music. The FAI Solo Freestyle rules, exemplified by the 2022 version, detail the parameters for the ""Free Routine: a routine composed of moves chosen entirely by the Performer. The competitor may choreograph the routine to a chosen music."" These rules also specify the working time for free routines that incorporate music, typically ranging from 75 to 90 seconds.
The FAI's approach to incorporating music was notably more gradual, with an initial optional inclusion, compared to The Wind Games' decisive mandating of a musical round. This reflects a common dynamic in sports development where independent events can often be more agile and experimental in driving innovation, with larger governing bodies subsequently adopting successful changes into broader official frameworks. While event-specific mandates like that of The Wind Games 2016 were hugely influential, they did not immediately translate to universal compulsion in the FAI's overarching rules, where music in free routines remains an athlete's choice, albeit a popular and defining one.


== IV. Choreographing the Competition: Evolution of Rules and Judging for Musicality ==
The introduction of music necessitated new frameworks for competition and evaluation, blending technical aerial skill with artistic interpretation.


=== A. Defining ""Skydancing"": Early Judging Criteria for Music and Artistry ===
The pivotal Wind Games in 2016 served as the crucible for defining how musical freestyle would be judged. Lise Hernandez Girouard was instrumental in drafting these initial rules and establishing the judging criteria. The composition of the judging panel itself was a novel approach, designed to balance the multifaceted demands of the new discipline. It included Adam Mattacola, a freeflyer providing technical expertise; Dolo Yglesias, a dance performer and instructor offering artistic insight; and Girouard, whose experience spanned both domains. This diverse panel was crucial for navigating the inherent subjectivity that arises when judging artistic sports, ensuring that both the difficulty of the aerial maneuvers and their harmony with the music were given due consideration.
The FAI's general approach to scoring Artistic Events like Solo Freestyle involves awarding points, typically on a scale of zero to ten, for both technical performance and artistic presentation. These scores are then combined, with significant weight given to creativity, overall artistry, and the performer's appropriate use of the available space and time. Notably, the 2016 Wind Games did not prescribe mandatory movements for the musical round; the focus was on the holistic performance across the three distinct routines (low speed, high speed, and the musical interpretation). The very inclusion of music as a central element pushed athletes beyond merely executing difficult tricks. It encouraged them to consider flow, rhythm, emotional expression, and even storytelling in their routines, as exemplified by Leonid Volkov's performance, described as a ""theatrical one-man production"" with ""extraordinary musicality"". This mirrors observations in other disciplines, such as aerobatic model aircraft flying, where music guides pilots to develop aerial sequences that specifically complement their chosen soundtrack.


=== B. The Ongoing Development of Musical Freestyle as a Competitive Discipline ===
Since those formative events, the rules and structures for musical freestyle in indoor skydiving have continued to evolve. Current FAI Solo Freestyle regulations, such as those from 2022, now incorporate both Compulsory Routines and Free Routines. The Compulsory Routines consist of pre-defined sequences of moves and are performed without music, providing a standardized baseline for assessing technical skill across all competitors. The Free Routines, in contrast, are composed entirely of moves chosen by the performer, and it is here that music can be optionally integrated, allowing for maximum creative expression. This dual structure—compulsory elements for objective technical comparison and free routines for artistic freedom—is a common evolutionary path for artistic sports seeking to balance fairness in judging with the encouragement of innovation.
To aid in the judging process, performers are now typically required to submit videos of their Free Routine(s) to the judging panel in advance of the competition. This allows judges to familiarize themselves with the planned content and complexity of the routines. The FAI continues to sanction World Indoor Skydiving Championships for Artistic Events, solidifying freestyle with music as a recognized and respected international discipline.
Beyond the competitive sphere, the artistic potential of flying to music has spurred further conceptual developments. The idea of ""Atmodance"" (Atmospheric dance) has emerged, described as a unique fusion of wind tunnel flying and modern dance. Atmodance emphasizes the ""harmony of the music, the lights and movement"" to create a ""hypnotic effect on the viewer,"" aiming to make ""everyone's oldest dream, flying comes true in front of the viewers' eyes"". This concept, along with mentions of efforts to bring Bodyflying to the Olympic Games, suggests an underlying ambition for broader mainstream recognition. Music plays a critical role in this pursuit, making the sport more accessible, emotionally engaging, and ultimately more captivating for a wider audience.


== V. Encore: The Legacy and Impact of Music in Indoor Skydiving ==
The integration of music has irrevocably transformed indoor freestyle skydiving, elevating it from a display of technical skill to a rich and expressive performing art.


=== A. How Music Transformed the Sport and Spectator Experience ===
Music infused indoor freestyle with new layers of artistry, emotion, and narrative potential. It was the catalyst that transformed a series of technical maneuvers into what is now aptly called ""skydancing"" or even ""Atmodance"". For the athletes, music provides more than just a background; it offers a framework for choreography, influences the rhythm and flow of their movements, and can significantly enhance motivation and attentional focus during performance. The process of selecting music and developing aerial sequences to complement it becomes an integral part of the artistic creation.
For spectators, the impact has been equally profound. Music makes the performances more engaging, relatable, and emotionally resonant. The synergy of movement with melody and rhythm can create a powerful, almost ""hypnotic effect,"" drawing the audience into the performance on a deeper level. The viral success of early musical freestyle performances, such as those by Leonid Volkov and Maja Kuczyńska at the Wind Games, vividly demonstrated music's power to captivate a global audience, many of whom had no prior connection to skydiving. Music, in this context, acts as an ""emotional amplifier"" and a ""narrative guide,"" capable of transforming abstract aerial movements into a tangible story or an evocative emotional expression, making the spectacle far more accessible and memorable than purely technical displays of skill.
This co-evolution of athletic skill and musical sophistication continues. As flyers become more technically proficient and comfortable with performing to music, the complexity of their musical choices and the depth of their choreographic integration naturally increase. Early performances might have used music more as an accompaniment, but mature routines now often demonstrate a profound symbiosis between movement and sound, with athletes and choreographers exploring intricate musical structures, rhythms, and emotional nuances that demand the highest levels of both technical execution and artistic interpretation. Leonid Volkov's use of three distinct and evocative musical tracks in his 2016 Wind Games performance hinted at this sophisticated approach to musical storytelling from a very early stage in the discipline's formalization.


=== B. The Birth of a New Performing Art ===
Freestyle indoor skydiving performed with music is more than just an evolution of a sport; it represents the emergence of a new and unique performing art form. It is a discipline that demands an extraordinary combination of extreme athleticism—requiring immense strength, precision, and control —with the grace, expressiveness, and choreographic intelligence of dance.
Pioneering athletes like Lise Hernandez Girouard, Leonid Volkov, and Maja Kuczyńska were instrumental not only in developing the techniques but also in showcasing this new art to the world, capturing imaginations with their aerial ballets. The vision for organizations such as ""Indoor Sky Dancing,"" a concept aimed at the further development of this performing art, indicates a commitment to nurturing its artistic dimensions.
This new art form inherently challenges traditional notions of dance by liberating it from the ground and launching it into a three-dimensional air column. It redefines the ""stage"" and expands the known possibilities of human movement in harmony with music. While rooted in the niche world of skydiving, the sheer visual beauty, innovative movement vocabulary, and profound artistic expression of musical indoor freestyle give it a compelling potential to appeal to audiences far beyond sports enthusiasts, reaching those who appreciate dance, gymnastics, and other forms of performance art. The comparisons to ""gymnastics or synchronized swimming routines, but, oh-so-amazingly suspended in air"" highlight this broader artistic connection and suggest a promising pathway to wider cultural relevance.


== References ==


== See also ==
Bodyflight
Freeflying
Parachute
Skydiving
Dropzone


== External links ==
[1]- winddance.com
[2]
Danser dans le vide… made in Montréal- Journal Metro de Montreal
[3] - How did World Cups and World Championships in INDOOR skydiving become accepted by the International Parachute Commission (IPC) and the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).
[4]- 2nd Canadian Indoor Skydiving Championships at SkyVenture Montreal. Firrst ever wind tunnel dancing performances, live and synchronized with music.
Catching up with Lise Hernandez- Skydivemag.com
Artistic Events - FAI international parachuting commission (Freestyle Skydiving, Sky surfing & Free flying)"
Spanish March,"The Spanish March or Hispanic March was a march or military buffer zone established c. 795 by Charlemagne in the eastern Pyrenees and nearby areas, to protect the new territories of the Christian Carolingian Empire—the Duchy of Gascony, the Duchy of Aquitaine, and Septimania—from the Muslim Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus.
In its broader meaning,  the Spanish March sometimes refers to a group of early Iberian and trans-Pyrenean lordships or counts coming under Frankish rule. As time passed, these lordships merged or gained independence from Frankish imperial rule.


== Geographical context ==
The area of the Spanish March broadly corresponds to the eastern regions between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. The local population of the march was diverse. It included Basques in its northwestern valleys, the Jews of Occitania, and a large Occitano-Romance-speaking population governed by the Visigothic Code, all of them under the influence of al-Andalus since their lords had vowed allegiance to the Umayyad Córdoban rulers in 719, until King Pepin the Short of Francia conquered Septimania in 759. The Pyrenean valleys started to switch loyalties after 785 (Girona, Ribagorza, etc.).
The territory of the Spanish March changed with the fortunes of the empires and the feudal ambitions of those, whether counts or walis, who were appointed to administer the counties. Though owing loyalty to the Carolingian monarch, the counts became largely autonomous. Out of the welter of counties in the march, many would be absorbed by more powerful counties, leading to the predominance of the County of Barcelona, from which, along with its vassal counties, would emerge the Principality of Catalonia centuries later. Other Spanish March counties would later be absorbed into the kingdoms of Aragon or France. Only Andorra, between modern France and Spain, retained its independence. 
Counties that at various times formed part of the Spanish March included Ribagorza (initially including Pallars), Urgell, Cerdanya, Peralada, Empúries, Besalú, Osona, Barcelona, and Girona. The Gothic March included Conflent, Roussillon, Vallespir and Fenouillet. 
The nominal boundaries attributed to the Spanish and Gothic marches vary in time and not without confusion. Also, Navarre and Aragon have sometimes been depicted as being within the Spanish March, but formally they were not. However, they came under Carolingian overlordship between 794 and 806 as part of the Duchy of Vasconia (Gascony).


== History ==

By 716, under the pressure of the Umayyad Caliphate from the south, the Kingdom of the Visigoths had been rapidly reduced to the province of Narbonensis (Septimania), a region which corresponds approximately to the modern Languedoc-Roussillon. With the exception of the Visigothic province of Septimania and some territories in the mountains of northern Hispania, the Umayyad conquest of the Visgothic Kingdom of Hispania was largely complete by 718. In 719, the Umayyad forces of al-Samh ibn Malik bypassed the Pyrenees by marching along the Mediterranean coast to conquer Septimania and established a fortified base at the city of Narbonne. Umayyad control of this frontier province was secured by offering the local population generous terms, intermarriage between ruling families, and treaties. Further Umayyad expansion northward was halted by al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlanis defeat at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. Wālis were installed in Girona and Barcelona.
In 725, his successor, Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi, besieged the city of Carcassonne, which had to agree to cede half of its territory, pay tribute, and make an offensive and defensive alliance with Muslim forces. Nîmes and all the other main Septimanian cities fell too under the sway of the Umayyads. In the 720s the savage fighting, the massacres and destruction particularly affecting the Ebro valley and Septimania unleashed a flow of refugees who mainly found shelter in southern Aquitaine across the Pyrenees, and Provence. Peace was signed in 730 between the victor at Toulouse, the Duke of Aquitaine, and Munuza, a Berber rebel Muslim lord based in Cerdanya (in current-day Catalonia), a region that could act as a buffer zone against Umayyad expansionism. The peace treaty was sealed with the marriage of the Duke’s daughter to Munuza. However, Munuza was defeated by an Umayyad military expedition in 731 during another Umayyad expansion.
The Spanish March was to be the result of the southward expansion of the Frankish realm from its heartland in Neustria and Austrasia starting with Charles Martel in 732 after various decades of fighting between the Franks and Umayyads or ""Saracens"".
The Dukes of Aquitaine (including Vasconia) pledged formal allegiance to the kings of the Franks several times, Odo the Great in 732 and Hunald I in 736 after being defeated, but remained independent. In 737, Charles Martel led an expedition to the lower Rhône and Septimania, possibly seeing that the Umayyad thrust was threatening his grip on Burgundy, which had just been subdued in 736, but he failed to keep the region.
Both Aquitaine and Septimania were still out of Frankish control after Charles's death, but Pepin the Short was determined to subdue southern Gaul. In 759, after conquering Septimania from the Umayyads, the Carolingian king focused all his might in crushing Aquitanian resistance to central Frankish power. After a ruthless war of eight years, Aquitainian independence came to an end. Toulouse was now under the grip of the new Carolingian king, Charlemagne, and access to al-Andalus was open to him despite sporadic rebellions in Vasconia over the next two decades (Basques subdued in 790 by Charlemagne's new loyal strongman in Toulouse, William of Gellone).
The first county to be established by the Franks from the territory taken from the Muslims was Roussillon (with Vallespir) circa 760. In 785 the county of Girona (with Besalú) to the south of the Pyrenees was taken. Ribagorza and Pallars were linked to Toulouse and were added to this county circa 790. Urgell and Cerdanya were added in 798. The first records of the county of Empúries (with Perelada) are from 812 but the county was probably under Frankish control before 800.
Pepin's son, Charlemagne, fulfilled the Carolingian goal of extending the defensive boundaries of the empire beyond Septimania, creating a strong barrier between the Umayyad Caliphate and Francia, besides tightening control over the Duchy of Vasconia by establishing the Kingdom of Aquitaine, ruled by his son Louis the Pious in 781.
After a series of struggles the County of Barcelona (with Ausona) was taken by Frankish forces in 801. A number of castles were established in Aragon between 798 and 802 (appointment by Count Aureolus). After subduing the Basques to the north of the Pyrenees (790), Frankish overlordship expanded to the upper Ebro (794) and Pamplona (798), when Alfonso II of Asturias also came under Charlemagne's influence. Sobrarbe was not incorporated into the march, as it appears later in history and was probably within the area of influence of the County of Aragon.
The death of Charlemagne (814) was followed by a scene of open revolt and Carolingian setbacks around the Pyrenees. After being defeated by the Moors in the 816 Battle of Pancorbo, Pamplona, now led by the Basque lord Iñigo Arista broke away from the Spanish March, with the County of Aragon following suit shortly thereafter in 820. The counties to the south, which were used by the Moors to enter and overrun Visigothic Septimania in 719, became, at this point, a natural extension of the March of Gothia ruled by local counts under the Carolingian Empire.


== Structure ==
The local population of the Spanish March was diverse. The majority were Hispano-Romans (Goths) and Basques but there were also Muslims, and Jews from Septimania who repopulated the Frankish conquered easternmost territories of present-day northern Spain and a small portion of southern France. The area changed with the fortunes of the empires and the feudal ambitions of the counts appointed to administer the counties. As Frankish imperial power waned, the rulers of the March of Hispania became independent fiefs. Most of the region would later become part of Catalonia.
Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious took Barcelona from its Moorish ruler in 801, thus securing Frankish power in the borderland between the Franks and the Moors. The Counts of Barcelona then became the principal representatives of Frankish authority in the Spanish March. The march included various outlying smaller territories, each ruled by a lesser miles with his armed retainers and who theoretically owed allegiance through the count to the emperor.
The rulers of the counties were called counts and when they governed several counties they often took the title of duke (Dux Gothiae). When the county formed the border with the Muslim Kingdom, the Frankish title marquis (Marquis de Gothie) was chosen. Besides, certain counts aspired to the Frankish title ""Prince of Gothia"". A margrave or Marcgravi is a Graf (""duke"") of the March. The later Toulousain and Catalan lords, such as Bernard of Septimania, Humfrid, Bernard of Gothia, Borrell II, and Ramon Borrell, inherited these titles.
In the early 9th century, Charlemagne began issuing a new kind of land grant, the aprisio, which reallocated land previously held by the imperial crown fisc in deserted or abandoned areas. This included special rights and immunities that allowed considerable independence from the imperial control. Historians have interpreted the aprisio both as an early form of feudalism and in economic and military terms as a mechanism to entice settlers to a depopulated border region. Such self-sufficient landholders would aid the counts in providing armed men to defend the Frankish frontier. Aprisio grants (the first ones were in Septimania) were given personally by the Carolingian king, so that they reinforced loyalty to central power, to counterbalance the local power exercised by the march's counts.
However poor communications and a distant central power allowed these basic feudal, heavily agrarian entities to be self-sufficient. Each was ruled by a small hereditary military elite. For example, the first Count of Barcelona Bera was appointed by the King in 801, however subsequently strong heirs were able to inherit the title such as Sunifred, fl. 844–848. This gradually became custom until countship became hereditary (for Wifred the Hairy in 897). The County of Barcelona became de facto independent under count Borrell II, when he ceased to request royal charters after the kings Lothair and Hugh Capet failed to assist him in the defense of the county against Muslim leader al-Mansur, although the change of dynasty may have played a part in that decision; meanwhile other counties maintained links with the Frankish crown for a longer time. 
The early history of Andorra in the Pyrenees provides a fairly typical example of a lordship of the region, as Andorra is the only part of the Spanish March that was never incorporated into either France or Spain, a feat mentioned in its national anthem, El Gran Carlemany.


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Chandler., Cullen J. (2019). ""Creating the Spanish March, 778–840"". Carolingian Catalonia: Politics, Culture, and Identity in an Imperial Province, 778–987. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–110. doi:10.1017/9781108565745.004. ISBN 9781108565745.
Freedman, Paul (2003). ""Spanish March"". In Gerli, E. Michael (ed.). Medieval Iberia : an encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93918-6. OCLC 50404104.


== External links ==
Ian Meadows, ""The Arabs in Occitania""
Archibald R. Lewis, ""The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050"""
Food extrusion,"Extrusion in food processing consists of forcing soft mixed ingredients through an opening in a perforated plate or die designed to produce the required shape. The extruded food is then cut to a specific size by blades. The machine which forces the mix through the die is an extruder, and the mix is known as the extrudate. The extruder is typically a large, rotating screw tightly fitting within a stationary barrel, at the end of which is the die. In some cases, ""extrusion"" is taken as synonymous with extrusion cooking, which cooks the food with heat as it is squeezed through the die.
Extrusion enables mass production of food via a continuous, efficient system that ensures uniformity of the final product. Products made through extrusion (without simultaneous cooking) include pasta, breads (croutons, bread sticks, and flat breads), pre-made cookie dough, and sausages. Products made through extrusion cooking include many breakfast cereals and ready-to-eat snacks, confectionery, some baby foods, full-fat soy flour, textured vegetable protein, some beverages, and dry and semi-moist pet foods. Food products manufactured using extrusion usually have a high starch content.


== Process ==


=== Extrusion cooking ===
In the extrusion cooking process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size, usually the consistency of coarse flour. The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, in which other ingredients are added depending on the target product; these may be liquid sugar, fats, dyes, meats or water. Steam is injected to start the cooking process, and the preconditioned mix (extrudate) is then passed through an extruder. The extruder is a large, rotating screw tightly fitting within a stationary barrel, at the end of which is the die. The extruder's rotating screw forces the extrudate towards and through the die. The extrudate is in the extruder for the residence time.
Many extruded products puff and change texture as they are extruded because of the reduction of forces and release of moisture and heat. The extent to which it does so is known as the expansion ratio. The extrudate is cut to the desired length by blades at the output of the extruder, which rotate about the die openings at a specific speed. The product is then cooled and dried, becoming rigid while maintaining porosity.
Cooking takes place within the extruder, where the product produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (10–20 bar). The process can induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization under some conditions.
Many food extrusion processes involve a high temperature for a short time. Important factors of the extrusion process are the composition of the extrudate, screw length and rotating speed, barrel temperature and moisture, die shape, and rotating speed of the blades. These are controlled based on the desired product to ensure uniformity of the output.
Moisture is the most important of these factors, and affects the mix viscosity, acting to plasticize the extrudate. Increasing moisture will decrease viscosity, torque, and product temperature, and increase bulk density. This will also reduce the pressure at the die. Most extrusion processes for food processing are carried out at low to intermediate moisture (moisture level below 40%). High-moisture extrusion is known as wet extrusion, but it was not used much before the introduction of twin screw extruders (TSE), which have a more efficient conveying capability. The most important rheological factor in the wet extrusion of high-starch extrudate is temperature.
The amount of salt in the extrudate may determine the colour and texture of some extruded products. The expansion ratio and airiness of the product depend on the salt concentration in the extrudate, possibly as a result of a chemical reaction between the salt and the starches in the extrudate. Colour changes as a result of salt concentration may be caused by ""the ability of salt to change the water activity of the extrudate and thus change the rate of browning reactions"". Salt is also used to distribute minor ingredients, such as food colours and flavours, after extrusion; these are more evenly distributed over the product's surface after being mixed with salt.


== History ==

The first extruder was designed to manufacture sausages in the 1870s. Dry pasta has been produced by extrusion since the 1930s, and the method has been applied to tater tots (first extruded potato product: Ore-Ida in 1953). Some domestic kitchen appliances such as meat grinders and some types of pasta makers use extrusion. Pastry bags (piping bags), squeezed by hand, operate by extrusion.
The first extrusion cooking machine was the expanding pelleting machine from Wenger Mixer Manufacturing from 1954. Its first mentioned use seems to be with Purina in 1957, which developed extruded food for dogs, monkeys, and fish. In 1963, the USDA and UNICEF tested a full fat soy flour produced from extrusion-cooked soybeans as a source of nutrients for children. Milk substitutes were later developed from this flour. In 1966, the US government started providing a CSM (Corn-Soya-Milk) formula to protein-deficient children in the Third World. The later Meals for Millions project also prominently featured soy flour in its Multi-Purpose Food (MPF), a high-protein food supplement that could be made for just three cents per meal.
The idea of using extrusion cooking to produce breakfast cereal has been mentioned since the Wegner patent of 1960. In 1970, the Israeli Shefa Protein Industries introduced a line of breakfast cereal called Krunch, made from cereal flour and full-fat soy flour. It's unclear whether there has been an earlier breakfast cereal made from extruded products. Meat analogues have been made through extrusion since 1969.


== Effects ==
Extrusion enables mass production of food via a continuous, efficient system that ensures uniformity of the final product. This is achieved by controlling various aspects of the extrusion process. It has also enabled the production of new processed food products and ""revolutionized many conventional snack manufacturing processes"".


=== Chemical changes with cooking ===
Extrusion cooking results in ""chemical reactions that occur within the extruder barrel and at the die"" like most other forms of cooking. Extrusion enables mass production of some food, and will ""denature antinutritional factors"" while destroying toxins or killing microorganisms. It may also improve protein quality and digestibility and affects the product's shape, texture, colour, and flavour. Changes associated with extrusion include:

Destruction of certain naturally occurring toxins and antinutrients (including trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinins, tannins and phytates)
All four listed antinutrients reduce the absorption of protein. Phytate and tannins also reduce the absorption of minerals.
Reduction in the level of microorganisms in the final product.
Partial destruction of heat-liable vitamins (A, B, C, and E).
Moderate increase in protein digestibility, due to protein protein denaturation and the inactivation of antinutrients.
Maillard reactions, which reduce the available amounts of certain amino acids, including the essential amino acid lysine. Lysine loss can be reduced by using wetter mixtures.
Breakdown of complex carbohydrates (starches and non-starch polysaccharides) into simpler components. Part of this action is caused by amylase from the cereal themselves.
This increases glycemic index and creates starches more likely to cause and insulin resistance. The ""extrusion process significantly increased the availability of carbohydrates for digestion"".
This may also lead to higher tooth decay.
On the other hand, this breakdown converts insoluble fibers into soluble fibers.
Binding and volatization of flavor compounds.
Gelatinization of starch.
An increase in iron content due to the wearing of machine components. No significant change in zinc absorption.
As of 1998, little is known about the stability or bioavailability of phytochemicals involved in extrusion. Phenols appear to be decreased.
Overall, the effects of ""extrusion cooking on nutritional quality are ambiguous"", as extrusion may change carbohydrates, dietary fibre, the protein and amino acid profile, vitamins, and mineral content of the extrudate in a manner that is beneficial or harmful. Nutritional quality has been found to improve with moderate conditions (short duration, high moisture, low temperature), whereas a negative effect on nutritional quality of the extrudate occurs with a high temperature (at least 200 °C), low moisture (less than 15%), or improper components in the mix. High-temperature extrusion for a short duration ""minimizes losses in vitamins and amino acids"". 
A 2012 research paper indicates that use of non-traditional cereal flours, such as amaranth, buckwheat or millet, may be used to reduce the glycemic index of breakfast cereals produced by extrusion. The extrudate using these cereal flours exhibits a higher bulk and product density, has a similar expansion ratio, and has ""a significant reduction in readily digestible carbohydrates and slowly digestible carbohydrates"". A 2008 paper states that replacing 5% to 15% of the wheat flour and white flour with dietary fibre in the extrudate breakfast cereal mix significantly reduces ""the rate and extent of carbohydrate hydrolysis of the extruded products"", which increased the level of slowly digested carbohydrates and reduced the level of quickly digested carbohydrates.


=== Texture ===
The material of which an extrusion die is made can affect the final product. Rough bronze dies on pasta extruders produce a rougher surface than smooth stainless steel dies, considered to make more liquid pasta sauces adhere better; pasta made this way is labelled ""bronze die"" pasta to indicate a premium product.
	Pasta dies
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== Products ==
Extrusion has enabled the production of new processed food products and ""revolutionized many conventional snack manufacturing processes"".

The various types of food products manufactured by extrusion typically have a high starch content.  Directly expanded types include breakfast cereals and corn curls, and are made in high-temperature, low-moisture conditions under high shear. Unexpanded products include pasta, which is produced at intermediate moisture (about 40%) and low temperature. Texturized products include meat analogues, which are made using plant proteins (""textured vegetable protein"") and a long die to ""impart a fibrous, meat-like structure to the extrudate"", and fish paste. 
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
Some processed cheeses and cheese analogues are also made by extrusion. Processed cheeses extruded with low moisture and temperature ""might be better suited for manufacturing using extrusion technology"" than those at high moisture or temperature. Lower moisture cheeses are firmer and chewier, and cheddar cheese with low moisture and an extrusion temperature of 80 °C was preferred by subjects in a study to other extruded cheddar cheese produced under different conditions. An extrudate mean residence time of about 100 seconds can produce ""processed cheeses or cheese analogues of varying texture (spreadable to sliceable)"".
Confectionery made via extrusion includes chewing gum, liquorice, and toffee.  Other food products often produced by extrusion include some breads (croutons, bread sticks, and flat breads), various ready-to-eat snacks, pre-made cookie dough, some baby foods, some beverages, and dry and semi-moist pet foods. Specific examples include cheese curls, macaroni, Fig Newtons, jelly beans, sevai, and some french fries.
Extrusion is also used to modify starch and to pellet animal feed.


== See also ==
Flash pasteurization


== References ==


== Further reading ==

Edwin van Onna; Brigitte van Mechelen; Matthew Stewart; Shonquis Moreno; Chris Scott; Sarah Martin Pearson; Joeri Bruyninckx; Masaaki Takahashi (1993). The technology of Extrusion Cooking. Springer. ISBN 9780834213401.
Guy, R. C. E. (2003). ""EXTRUSION COOKING/Principles and Practice"". Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. pp. 2222–2227. doi:10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00434-X. ISBN 9780122270550."
The Destroyer (novel series),"The Destroyer is a series of paperback novels about a U.S. government operative named Remo Williams, originally by Warren Murphy and Richard Sapir.  The first novel was published in 1971, although the manuscript was completed on June 25, 1963. Over 150 novels have been published. The main characters were adapted to film in Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins (1985).


== Authors ==
The series was initially co-authored by Warren Murphy and Richard Sapir, with each writing a portion of each book separately. In the late 1970s, the relationship between the two became tense, and Sapir withdrew. In the early 1980s, Murphy began using ghostwriters to help with the series, among them his wife Molly Cochran. In the mid-1980s, Sapir returned to participating in the series.
In the late 1980s, Will Murray took over the sole responsibility of writing the series with #74, having written several previous books with Murphy (and one with Cochran). After Sapir's death, Murray continued the series until the late 1990s. When Murray left after novel #107, three novels were written by interim ghostwriters (#108 & #110 by Mike Newton; #109 by Alan Philipson). Jim Mullaney took over for novels #111-#131, followed by two more by Newton. Tim Somheil was ghostwriter from #134 through #145. Marvel Comics writer Doug Murray wrote two related novels in the series, both involving the Destroyer's battle with a werewolf.
The last Gold Eagle Publishing book, Dragon Bones, was released in October 2006. On July 11, 2006, it was announced that The Destroyer would be moving to Tor Books. Somheil was replaced by Mullaney, who co-wrote the new novels with Warren Murphy. The first Tor novel, The New Destroyer: Guardian Angel, was published in May 2007, accompanied by a re-release of three older novels collected as The Best of the Destroyer. There were a total of four (4) novels in 2007-2008 (#s 146-149), listing Murphy & Mullaney as authors.  'The End of the World' (#150) did not come out until 2013 and lists Murphy as sole author; this book and many reprints marked the start of Destroyer Books as the franchise's own publication company.  The last three books (so far), cover the period of 2016-2019 and listed Murphy and R.J. Carter as authors.
In 2002 Murphy started his own publishing house, Ballybunion, as a vehicle for Destroyer spin-off books. Ballybunion, now known as Destroyer Books, has reprinted The Assassin's Handbook, as well as the original works Destroyer World: The Assassin's Handbook II , Destroyer World: The Movie That Never Was (a screenplay he and Richard Sapir wrote for a Destroyer movie that was never optioned), The Way of the Assassin (the wisdom of Chiun), and New Blood, a collection of short stories written by fans of the series.
In 2011 the rights to most of The Destroyer novels reverted to Warren Murphy. They are being released as e-books. Murphy is also reissuing many of the older titles in print format.
In 2017 Gene Donovan Press began publishing new books in the series (starting with Bully Pulpit) written by author R.J. Carter. #151 and #152 show a writing credit of ""Warren Murphy with R.J. Carter"" while #153 shows ""R.J. Carter with Warren Murphy and Richard Sapir"".
In 2024, Bold Venture Press published a new anthology produced under license from Warren Murphy Media, LLC. Remo Williams, The Destroyer: The Adventures Continue features 11 new stories by various authors (several of who were ghost writers for Warren Murphy, or previously considered as ghost writers). A twelfth story, ""Terminal Philosophy"" by Warren Murphy and Will Murray, was originally published in All-Star Action Heroes #1 (Starlog Group, 1989), and previously unreprinted.


== Description ==
The series' hero is Remo Williams, a Newark cop framed for a crime and sentenced to death. His death is faked by the government so he can be trained as an assassin for CURE, a secret organization set up by President Kennedy to defend the country by working outside the law. The head of CURE is Harold W. Smith, a man selected by the President not only for his brilliant mind but also because of his integrity. Smith is a former law instructor at Yale and served in the Office of Strategic Services during World War II.
Remo's trainer and father figure is Chiun, a deadly assassin and the last Master of Sinanju. It has also emerged that Remo is the Avatar of Shiva, as prophesied in the legends of Sinanju. In 1985, a revision of The Assassin's Handbook was published as Inside Sinanju, a companion book to the series. This is narrated primarily in the first person, from Chiun's perspective. It covers anecdotes as well as information on the various villains and history of the series.
The series' basic formula had taken shape by about the third book, but many elements have been introduced into later stories about the early days of Remo's training. In the first book, the word Sinanju is not used at all to describe the martial arts that Chiun teaches Remo.  Zen, karate, aikido and judo are used instead. Remo has many trainers for other aspects of being an undercover operative; he is taught to use different types of firearms, and trained in close-quarters assassination.  He smokes tobacco, drinks alcohol, and eats red meat, all activities that would later prove harmful or impossible as his body was changed by the harsh Sinanju training regimen. Remo uses a gun to shoot somebody, although it is only to wound, and all his actual kills are hand-to-hand. He does make a conscious choice not to use weapons, after a fight in which he kills a man who had been pointing a gun at him. He realizes that Chiun never carried a gun and is over 70, whereas MacCleary, who had told him to always carry a gun, is dead. The retelling of Remo's origin in the story ""The Day Remo Died"" in The Assassin's Handbook and in The Destroyer #120-121 and #128 resolve later developments more fully with his origins. 


== Villains ==
Remo and Chiun have encountered a number of colorful villains, both human and superhuman.  Their foes have run the gamut of pulp fiction, from mobsters to mad scientists to satires of famous real people.  Notable examples include:

Mr. Gordons, a shapeshifting android created by NASA with limited emotional capabilities.
Cartoonist Uncle Sam Beasley, revived from cryogenic sleep and armed with an animatronic eye and hand.
Super-soldier Elizu Roote, a cyborg with electricity-based superpowers.
Friend, an artificial intelligence dedicated to making as much money as possible.
Nuihc (""Chiun"" reversed) the Renegade, Chiun's first pupil and nephew. Once trained, Nuihc deserted his duty of providing for the village of Sinanju to seek personal profit.  This forced Chiun out of retirement to train Remo Williams.
Jeremiah Purcell (a.k.a. the Dutchman), Nuihc's protege and a strong psychic and pyrokinetic.
Kali, the Hindu goddess who is linked to Remo.
The Master (also called The Leader), a Chinese vampire and vegetarian who is the current head of an ancient blood-drinking cult.
Wu Ming Shi (a.k.a. Dr. Fu Manchu)
Sagwa, the bodyguard and right-hand man of Wu Ming Shi, a pastiche of martial artist Bruce Lee
Rasputin, an undead Russian monk.
Dr. Judith White, a scientist specializing in genetic engineering who changed herself into a weretiger.
The Krahsheevah, a Russian soldier with the ability to walk through walls and transmit his physical form by converting into energy and traveling on phone lines, as well as other unique powers.
Given Remo and Chiun's talents as assassins, few of their enemies have survived their initial encounter with them, but some of the above have managed to escape and return in subsequent stories.


== Other media ==


=== Film ===

In 1985, The Destroyer concept was adapted for the theatrical movie Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins, starring Fred Ward as Williams, Joel Grey as Chiun and Wilford Brimley as Harold W. Smith. The film shows the first meeting of Remo and Chiun, and centers on a corrupt weapons manufacturer who is selling guns to the US Army.
In 2014 Sony Pictures hired director Shane Black, a fan of the book series, to begin work on a script by Jim Uhls and The Destroyer series co-author James Mullaney. In a 2018 interview Black said the project was ""still very much in play"", and he planned to work on the script with Fred Dekker and Jim Mullaney. He praised Mullaney's books in the series as equal to those of Warren Murphy and Richard Sapir's.


=== Television ===

In 1988, an American television pilot, Remo Williams, aired but did not lead to a series. It was a follow-up to the first movie incorporating footage from the movie in the opening credits.  It starred Jeffrey Meek as Williams, Roddy McDowall as Chiun, and Stephen Elliott as Harold W. Smith and is loosely based on the novella ""The Day Remo Died"". Set one year after the events of the feature film, the pilot episode (titled ""The Prophecy"") was directed by Christian I. Nyby II and the teleplay written by Steven Hensley and J. Miyoko Hensley. The episode featured guest stars Carmen Argenziano, Judy Landers, and Andy Romano. Craig Safan, who scored the movie, returned to provide the music for the pilot; his score was later released by Intrada Records (paired with Safan's score for the TV movie Mission of the Shark: The Saga of the U.S.S. Indianapolis).
The television pilot had not been seen since 1988 until the Encore cable television channel began airing it in the summer of 2009.
On December 8, 2022, it was announced that Gordon Smith will be adapting a TV series version of The Destroyer for Sony Pictures Television with Adrian Askarieh executive producing.


=== Comic books ===
There have been several Destroyer comic book and magazine series published by various companies including Marvel.


=== Audio book ===
Books 95–122 in the series were released in audiobook format by GraphicAudio.
Books 3, 12 and 19 in the series were also released in audiobook format.  These were produced by Speaking Volumes, LLC.
Assassin's Playoff was published by Speaking Volumes (ISBN 978-1-935138-02-0), number 20 in the list of audiobook format. Not sure if the three book numbers are incorrect or if there was a fourth release.


== Series listing ==

The Assassin's Handbook (1983) features a novella The Day Remo Died. It was republished in 1985 as Inside Sinanju.
Remo: The Adventure Begins... (1985): a novelization of the script by Christopher Wood
Destroyer World: New Blood (originally published in 2005, republished on May 21, 2010): an anthology of Destroyer stories written by both Warren Murphy and fans alike.
The Best of the Destroyer (May 1, 2007): a collection of three early Destroyer books: Chinese Puzzle, Slave Safari, and Assassin's Playoff.
More Blood: A Sinanju Anthology (December 7, 2014): another anthology and sequel to New Blood.
Remo Williams, The Destroyer: The Adventures Continue (November 1, 2024): another anthology.
In 2007, Tor Books published four books in the series; due to contractual issues, the titles were changed to ""The New Destroyer"", although the characters were unchanged. The numbering also restarted, so the first book is called ""The New Destroyer #1"", rather than ""Destroyer #146"".

Guardian Angel (May 2007)
Choke Hold (October 2007)
Dead Reckoning (April 2008)
Killer Ratings (July 2008)
The series also includes several novellas, now available online from many of the different e-reader companies:

The Day Remo Died (a reissue of the story from The Assassin's Handbook)
Destroyer World: The Way Of The Assassin
Savage Song (March 2012)
Number Two (October 2012)
Rising Son: The Ascension of Chiun (June 26, 2024)
Starting in November 21, 2012, the Legacy spin-off series, featuring Remo's father (Bill ""Sunny Joe"" Roam), Remo's son (Stone Smith), and Remo's daughter (Freya Williams; Stone's half-sister), was introduced. It was co-written by Warren Murphy and Gerald Welch until Murphy's death in 2015, after which Gerald Welch continued it on his own:

Forgotten Son (November 21, 2012)
The Killing Fields (July 29, 2013)
Overload (May 7, 2014)
Trial and Terror (October 30, 2014)
Mother Mine (December 4, 2015)
Laughing Matter (January 13, 2017)
100 Proof (August 18, 2018)
Homecoming (May 15, 2021)
Even though both of the original creators have been deceased since 2015, new books in the Destroyer series are still being published:


== See also ==
Able Team
Death Merchant
Nick Carter-Killmaster
Phoenix Force
Mack Bolan


== References ==


== External links ==
DestroyerBooks.com — the official site of the Destroyer series
JamesMullaney.com - James Mullaney, co-author of The New Destroyer series
WarrenMurphy.com - Series Co-Creator and Co-Author
Sinanju.com - Book series site
Sinanju.net - Destroyer Fan Site
TheNewDestroyer.com - New Book series site
MrSinanju.Tripod.com - Created, The Destroyer Webpage
MrGordons.Tripod.Com - Created, The Destroyer Page
DestroyerClub.Com - Destroyer Fan Site"
Flamingo International Airport,"Flamingo International Airport (IATA: BON, ICAO: TNCB), also called Bonaire International Airport, is an international airport located near Kralendijk on the island of Bonaire in the Caribbean Netherlands. It was once the hub for BonaireExel and CuraçaoExel before they were rebranded as Dutch Antilles Express, and served as a secondary hub for Dutch Antilles Express and Insel Air. The airport is the fourth largest in the Dutch Caribbean, after Queen Beatrix International Airport on Aruba, Princess Juliana International Airport on Sint Maarten and Curaçao International Airport on Curaçao and is now the largest airport in the Caribbean Netherlands, with F. D. Roosevelt Airport in Sint Eustatius being the second largest and Juancho E. Yrausquin Airport in Saba being the smallest.
American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, KLM, TUI Airlines Netherlands and United Airlines are currently the largest airlines that operate scheduled flights to and from Bonaire. Beginning on November 5, 2024, JetBlue Airways started serving the island as well. The airport is capable of handling wide-body aircraft up to the Boeing 747, though the largest type to operate to Bonaire currently is the Airbus A330, operated by KLM. The airport is currently a hub for Z Air and once served as a hub for BonaireExel/BonaireExpress, CuracaoExel/Curacao Express, Dutch Antilles Express and KLM. It also serves as a focus city for Divi Divi Air and also served for the aforementioned Dutch Antilles Express prior to ceasing operations, as well as Air ALM, Dutch Caribbean Airlines and Insel Air.


== History ==
Bonaire's first airport was located near Tra'i Montaña near Subi Blanku and crossed the current road from Kralendijk to Rincon. It was only a landing strip and a shelter. It was built in 1936 and is considered the location of the beginning of aviation on Bonaire.
The construction work for this airport began on September 23, 1935. The intention was to make a longer runway, but it proved impossible to construct more than 475 meters because the eastern portion of the land was very low. Part of the field had to be modified, in particular where aircraft met or left the ground during landing and take-off. This area covered more than 100 metres of the runway, and had to be paved with a mixture of sand and stone.
KLM decided on May 9, 1936, to route-test the first flight to Bonaire from Curaçao. The Oriol (Fokker F-XVIII ""Snip"") was chosen for this test. The first experimental landing was successful and also a historic moment. KLM made the first official flight with passengers on May 31, 1936.
American soldiers arrived on Bonaire in the second half of 1943 and their commander stated that a new airport had to be built. In December 1943, construction began in the vicinity of where the airport is today. The new airport, named ""Flamingo Airport"", was put into use in 1945. This was a big step forward for Bonaire and its aviation. A small terminal was built that was suitable for the number of passengers at the time. This building was used until 1976.
The construction of a new runway began in the last months of 1953 and was completed in 1955. The small terminal had been extended with a terrace where luggage could be delivered. The runway was extended and expanded several times. In 1960, the runway had a length of 1,430 meters and a width of 30 meters. Hotels and interested parties on the island continued to push for a further extension of the runway so that charter flights from the United States were able to land here. Those flights were typically operated with McDonnell Douglas DC-8 or Boeing 707 aircraft.
In 1970 the runway was extended to a length of 1,750 meters and a width of 30 meters, enough for a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 to land and take off fully loaded. On June 7, 1974, a public tender for the construction of a new terminal building was made. The building became operational in 1976. Meanwhile, hotels and foreign investors continued to insist that the runway be extended further. This was needed before any more hotels could be built. In 1980 the runway was again extended to 2400 meters long and 45 meters wide, and in October 2000 another extension was carried out, resulting in the current runway length of 2,880 meters to facilitate the largest airliners on intercontinental flights.
The Dutch national carrier, KLM, used the airport to refuel planes en route from Amsterdam to Ecuador and Peru, using MD-11 and Boeing 747 between 1997 and 2011.


== Airport information and facilities ==


=== Overview ===

The first Bonaire-Miami flight took place on April 19, 1980, which was permitted due to the runway extension of that year. The current runway of 2880m is long enough for flights to Europe with a maximum take-off weight. KLM began with flights to Peru and later to Ecuador with a fuel stop on Bonaire in 2002. In recent years, the facilities at the airport have been modernized and expanded. There is a new departure hall, a new platform for wide body aircraft and a fuel farm. As of 2009, Flamingo Airport is a full service stop for transit flights and the destination for many tourist flights, with air-conditioned offices, a restaurant, a departure hall and stores.
The airport registered a more than 10% increase in passengers in the first quarter of 2008. The increase has much to do with the Delta and Continental Airlines flights. Compared to the same period last year also the local passengers increased by 10.6%. International traffic increased by 8.8% which is breakthrough for the airport.
Since November 2005, visitors and tourists arriving at Bonaire are welcomed to a vibrant new Business and Tourism Showcase. A variety of colorful murals, vivid flat-panel displays, and high-profile sponsored windsurfing sails will showcase all that the island of Bonaire has to offer. Pennsylvania-based Interspace Airport Advertising, through its subsidiary, Interspace Airport Advertising Curaçao, N.V., created the new terminal-wide advertising display program. Interspace will also manage the program through a 10-year partnership with the airport authority.
The airport has two main ramps. The smaller ramp, which is situated in front of the airport building, consists of 4 Parking Positions (PP1, PP2, PP3 and PP4) and is mainly used by smaller operating aircraft such as those of Divi Divi, EZAir, and Insel Air, as well as private aircraft with short ground times, along with the larger Delta, United and Arkefly aircraft when the larger apron is in use by another large aircraft. The larger ramp is used for wide bodied aircraft such as KLM and Arkefly, but is also used by United, Delta and Insel Air when vacant. The larger ramp consist of two parking spots (PP5 and PP6). The management of the airport is currently working on the apron to allow two wide-bodied aircraft to park alongside each other, with the use of pushback cars, when ready for departure. At the beginning of the runway lies the General Aviation ramp, where mostly private aircraft are located. Due to overcrowding of the GA Ramp, some private aircraft utilize the larger ramp at PP6 to park when overnighting and long stays.
In the past, the airport has been served by Air ABC, Air ALM, Air Aruba, Air Europe (Italy), Air Jamaica, American Eagle (Executive Airlines), Avensa, Avior Airlines, BonAir/Chapi Air, Bonaire Express/Curaçao Express (later Dutch Antilles Express), Canada 3000, Cats Air, Dutch Caribbean Airlines, E-Liner Airways, Insel Air, Kavok Airlines, LASER Airlines, Línea Turística Aereotuy, Martinair, Miami Air International, Rainbow Air, Royal Aruban Airlines, Servivensa, Sobelair, Surinam Airways (currently operates seasonal charters), Tiara Air and Transaven.
Both BonAeroClub and Falki Aviation Center offers sightseeing opportunities and also flight lessons with their fleets of Cessna 172's.


=== Parking system and charges ===
In May 2008, the parking places at Flamingo Airport were renovated. The airport introduced short and long-term paid parking. Financial manager Gerard Chin-A-Lien indicated that the project will cost US$2.1 million. Most of this money will be spent on paving, installing the automatic parking system, landscaping, and lighting. This service officially started on 5 September 2008. It is not possible to drop off passengers for free since August 2009 as you have to pay 1 guilder for the first 30 minutes and 1 guilder for each 30 minutes after that with a maximum of 20 guilders per day. Long parking costs 10 guilders per day. According to security manager Tico Wanga, a lot of attention is paid to safety with sufficient lights and cameras everywhere, and patrolling security personnel.


=== Check-in system and airport tax fee ===
In October 2008, Bonaire introduced a Common Use Terminal Equipment system from SITA. This is a common use system whereby all airlines can use each of the 12 available check-in counters at Flamingo Airport. More flexibility is obtained while the processing capacity of passengers at the check-in counters is increased and made more efficient. The older check-in system worked with so-called dedicated check-in counters which were usable by only one particular airline and could not be used by other airlines, thus restricting processing capacity.
Due to the introduction of this new system, Bonaire International Airport began charging each departing passenger a service charge, starting December 1, 2008. This service charge amounts to 3.00 guilders (about US$1.69) and is added to the existing passenger facility charge (airport tax).
As of October 2010, all airport taxes have been integrated within all purchased tickets for all airlines.


== Plans ==
It is planned to expand the current airport building, including the current arrival and departure hall, as more airlines and tourists come to Bonaire. It is also planned to repair the airport's runway after certain speculations that the runway had a crack in it. The Dutch Transport Minister, Camiel Eurlings, calculates that it will cost about €20 million (57 million guilders) to repair the airport's worn-out runway.
The management of the airport is drawing up a master plan to comply with international requirements. There are three important projects planned which include:

Maintenance and complete renovation of the runway, as mentioned above (completed in 2011),
Moving the fire station to the middle of the runway (completed in 2016),
Purchasing two push-back cars for the heavy jets (One already purchased and in-use with KLM flights)
In 2008, Bonaire International Airport began realizing its 15-year master plan, which was adopted by the island government in 2009, and Phase 1 (complete runway renovation) was completed in 2011. Phase 2A included the construction of a new Air Traffic Control Tower, which is now completed. Phase 2B will bring a new apron and two taxiways to the runway. Phase 3 will be a new passenger terminal. Phases 2B and 3 are planned to be conducted simultaneously. Currently, additional scenarios are also being reviewed.
Work on the new Rescue & Fire Fighting Station began on October 9, 2014, and was officially introduced in 2016, while the new control tower was finalized in 2017. The old control tower was torn down in mid-2017.
Although a new passenger terminal and apron were in plans to be built, the airport has opted to work on the current building by expanding the departure hall due to the growth in passenger movements in recent years. The current departure hall will be almost doubled in size to handle 500 instead of 300 passengers per hour. Although work is being done on the departure hall only, plans include expansion of the arrival as well, depending on the airport's ability to be able to pay for the expenses.


== Airlines and destinations ==
While not connected globally, Bonaire is served year-round service by airlines from the Caribbean, the Netherlands and the United States, as well as seasonal direct services from Canada. Private aircraft also serve the island of Bonaire. The following airlines operate regular scheduled and seasonal services to and from Bonaire:

Notes
^1  Corendon Dutch Airlines flights will operate from Amsterdam to Bonaire via Curaçao. However, the airline will not have cabotage rights to transport passengers solely between Bonaire and Curaçao. The flight will continue from Bonaire to  Amsterdam directly.
^2  KLM flights operate from Amsterdam to Bonaire via Aruba. However, the airline does not have cabotage rights to transport passengers solely between Aruba and Bonaire. The flight continues from Bonaire to Amsterdam directly.
^3  TUI fly Netherlands flights operate to and from Amsterdam to Bonaire via Curaçao on selected days. However, the airline does not have cabotage rights to transport passengers solely between Bonaire and Curaçao.
^4  Winair operates flights from and to Sint Maarten but both flights have a stopover Curaçao. Certain flights are operated directly to Sint Maarten on occasion.


== Statistics ==


=== Annual statistics ===
This is a table of annual statistics at the airport since 2000.


== Runway and approach ==
The single runway 10/28 is 2,880 m × 45 m (9,449 ft × 148 ft). The actual heading is 92° or 272°. For runway 10 a Simple Approach Landing System is in place, for runway 28 no visual approach aids are available. Lighting of runway complies with all current regulations and back-up power system is available.
Reported/official runway-dimensions:

See for explanation of used terms article on runway

Flamingo International Airport operates a Non-directional beacon on 321 kHz and a VHF Omnidirectional Range on 115 MHz


== General aviation facilities ==


=== Catering ===
Apart from the passenger terminal Bonaire Airport has facilities for freight and mail.
Catering is available since Goddard Catering opened an airline kitchen on the island in 2003 offering complete airline catering. The Aruba kitchen uses ready-made imported frozen hot meals and locally made salads and appetizers. Since March 31, 2015, Goddard Catering has closed down its operations in Bonaire as KLM made a decision to move all of its catering services to Aruba.


=== Ground handling ===
Three local ground handlers operate at Bonaire airport.

Air Handling Service Bonaire (also known as AHS or AHSB), is the ground handling agent for Delta Air Lines, Insel Air, Sky High Aviation Services, United Airlines as of October 2016 and Winair. It was also the agent for American Eagle before they discontinued their flights from and to San Juan and Dutch Antilles Express before halting operations in 2013. They also provide handling services to private jets.
Bonaire Air Services (also known as BAS), is the ground handling agent for Air France-KLM, American Airlines and TUI Airlines Netherlands (formerly Arkefly/Arke) as well as Sunwing Airlines during their winter season flights as well as some cargo services (such as Amerijet, Aerosucre and Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas). It was also the agent for Air Jamaica prior to their discontinued flight to Bonaire and, United Airlines (formerly known and operated as Continental Airlines). BAS is also the ground handler for charter flights operated by Aerolíneas Estelar, Conviasa, LASER Airlines and Surinam Airways.
Progressive Air Services (also known as PAS), is currently the ground handling agent for Aruba Airlines and was for Rainbow air, Tiara Air until their discontinued flights and is a partnership with BonAir. Progressive Air Services also provides handling service to various private jets that visit the island as well as cargo services (such as Ameriflight). It was also the ground handling agent for Kavok Airlines and Transaven. PAS was also the ground handler for charter flights operated by Línea Turística Aereotuy.
Swissport also served as one of the cargo and aircraft ground handling services on the island. Swissport was the ground handling agent for Arkefly (Curaçao), DAE (Curaçao) & Insel Air (Curaçao) before the handling of DAE & Insel Air has been later handled by Air Handling Services Bonaire and Arkefly is being handled by Bonaire Air Services.
As of 2018, Bonaire also has services for private aircraft by Bonaire Jet Center' which is part of the CATS Group whom also has services in Cuba, Curacao and Venezuela.
Divi Divi Air and EZAir are the only airlines with their own handling services and employees.


=== Fuel ===
Aviation Jet A1 fuel is available 24 hours a day via Valero Bonaire Fuels Co N.V., owned by Valero Energy Corporation. On-site capacity of the tank-farm consists of two storage tanks of 630,000 gallons each. Every other week jet fuel is delivered to the island via a tanker from their own refinery at Aruba. Valero operates a direct pipeline from their landing-jetty to the airport.
Two refueller trucks each with 15.000 gallons and one with 10,000 gallons are available.


=== Emergency equipment ===
The airport is categorized as Fire Category 9 and on-site equipment includes four crashtenders and one rapid-intervention unit.


== Incidents and accidents ==
On November 3, 2003, a Mitsubishi MU-2 twin-engine turboprop crashed while on final approach after reporting an emergency with its engines. The tower received the message from the pilot, Hans van Gijn, 57, flying aircraft registration number N630HA, reporting engine problems and that ditching in the sea was a possibility. It had departed Bonaire earlier in the day to pick up a medical patient in Aruba for transport to Barranquilla, Colombia. After dropping off the patient and a male nurse in Barranquilla, the plane headed back to Bonaire. Minutes before it was due to land both engines stopped. The powerless plane glided over the shoreline and almost made it to the runway. It appeared that the undercarriage of the plane snagged on the cyclone fence bordering the shore road and flipped over. There was no fire. The plane was completely mangled except for the passenger compartment. The pilot survived and from the wreckage it appeared that he exited through the cockpit door.
On October 14, 2009, a single-engined private plane exploded in mid-air while flying over Bonaire. Witnesses near the west coast of the island witnessed a ball of fire falling from the sky at around 9 pm. The bodies of the pilot and a passenger were recovered along with bales of drugs. The bodies, aircraft type and drug type have yet to be identified.
On October 21, 2009, a Britten-Norman Islander BN-2A flight operated by local commuter airline, Divi Divi Air Flight 014 lost an engine while in flight to Bonaire and had to ditch in the sea south-west of Klein Bonaire and five minutes out from Bonaire. Pilot Robert Mansell, 32, managed to successfully ditch the plane in the water but was knocked unconscious on impact. The passengers tried to undo his safety harness, but the plane was sinking too fast and he went down with the aircraft, but rescue boats managed to pick up all of the nine passengers that were on board. The aircraft involved was registered as PJ-SUN


== References ==


== External links ==
Official website
Accident history for BON at Aviation Safety Network"
Post-consumer waste,"Post-consumer waste is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream; that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product.
The terms of pre-consumer and post-consumer recycled materials are not defined in ISO standard number 14021 (1999), but pre-consumer and post-consumer materials are. These definitions are the most widely recognized and verified definitions as used by manufacturers and procurement officers worldwide.
Quite commonly, it is simply the waste that individuals routinely discard, either in a waste receptacle or a dump, or by littering, incinerating, pouring down the drain, or washing into the gutter. Things that are used by a consumer and then recycled instead of being permanently disposed of are also considered post consumer waste, even though they are meant to be repurposed. [1]
Post-consumer waste is distinguished from pre-consumer waste, which is the reintroduction of manufacturing scrap (such as trimmings from paper production, defective aluminum cans, etc.) back into the manufacturing process. Pre-consumer waste is commonly used in manufacturing industries, and is often not considered recycling in the traditional sense.
It should also be noted that post-consumer waste should not be equated with post-consumer material. Post-consumer material is post-consumer waste that is diverted from landfills and reprocessed into new material to reenter the production cycle. [2]
Post-consumer waste is associated with a cradle to grave or linear cycle of production. In this system goods are created using standards of what is the easiest and most cost effective instead of using standards focused on creating recyclable and reusable materials. Instead of being sent back to the industrial sector to be repurposed into new products, the material is sent to the “grave” or landfills/open dumps. [3]


== Types ==
Post-consumer waste consists of:

packaging
parts that are not needed, such as fruit skins, bones in meat, etc.
undesired things received, e.g.:
advertising material in the mailbox
a flyer received in the street without having the opportunity to refuse
dust, weeds, fallen leaves, etc.
things one no longer needs, e.g. a magazine that has been read, things replaced by new versions, clothes out of fashion, remaining food that one cannot keep or does not want to keep
broken things, things no longer working, spoiled food, worn-out clothes, clothes which no longer fit
outgrown items toys, clothing, books, schoolwork
disposables such as Kleenex and finished batteries
human waste, waste of pets, waste water from various forms of cleaning
leftover materials from single use commodities
plastic grocery bags
plastic water bottles
cardboard boxes
""post-life waste""
one's body or ashes
things people do not want and cannot sell
broken/unused cars
items that cannot be used


== Legal issues ==
In many countries, such as the United States, there is no reasonable expectation of privacy in post-consumer waste once it leaves the consumer's home. Anyone can search it, including the police, and any incriminating evidence recovered can be used at trial. This doctrine was established in The California v. Greenwood case, in which the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials. This has since led people to argue the legality of taking post-consumer waste for salvage value.[4]
There has also been controversy over the fact that these laws have caused many arrests for the use of illicit substances. After California v. Greenwood there were many cases of individuals having been convicted on evidence that was found in the trash of growing or processing illegal substances, most often marijuana. [5] The post-consumer waste in question varies from drug paraphernalia to full marijuana plants in some cases. This has caused some to wonder about who holds the legal responsibility towards and ownership of post-consumer waste.
According to the decision of California v. Greenwood, the consumer relinquishes ownership and responsibility of their refuse. [6] The verdict of this was intended to address cases like those mentioned above. But it also brings up questions of whether or not people are responsible for their own post consumer waste and the damage that it causes. There have been several cases in the wake of Greenwood questioning this very thing, such as if it is legal for third parties other than trash collectors to lay claim to someone's refuse or if someone is responsible for hazardous post-consumer waste they disposed of once it enters public landfills. [7]


== Excessive waste ==
Especially within the food system, there is a lot of waste occurring at the consumer end. Post-consumer waste accounts for a large proportion of food that is wasted. This can be attributed to many reasons, including the way in which food is labeled. According to a study published in 2020, the confusing labeling of ""use by"", ""consume by"", or ""sell by"" dates is a significant reason why food is wasted at such a high volume when the food is otherwise entirely edible.[8] Another reason is the way that food is used once it reaches the average consumer household due to many factors, with the main factors being social, behavioral, and personal purchasing habits. Additionally, each of those factors influences each other and affects the amount of food that is wasted per person.[9] Food waste from production to land use changes adds to the worldwide carbon footprint with the amount between 2000 and 3600 kg CO2-eq. The focus should be on prevention from within households as each generation are massively increasing their food waste. Multiple studies have shown that the greenhouse gases caused by our food waste at times can be more harmful to the environment than coal power plants.
This is part of a longstanding belief that manufacturers are responsible for the prevalence of post-consumer waste. Many people accused manufacturers for being responsible for its prevalence due to the many materials not being made with recycling or reuse in mind. Additionally products often have excessive packaging serving no real purpose other than being useful for marketing. [10] In recent years there has been increased regulation regarding the subject, such as in the EU where new regulations are being passed in order to support more sustainable packaging use and create a cradle-to-cradle material flow. [11] The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) discovered that 1/3 of all made food is wasted each year adding up to about 1.3 billion tons of food that was edible.


== Avoiding post-consumer waste ==
As previously mentioned, current systems of consumer waste use a cradle-to-grave or linear model of waste management. This is a model of the lifecycle of a product that results in the product reentering the supply chain instead of being disposed of. [14] This system allows for greater reduction of waste as a large section of the waste produced would be able to enter the supply chain.
There are many ways for individuals to participate in the process of reducing post consumer waste, especially in communities where local governments encourage processes that reduce post consumer waste and promote the cradle-to-cradle structure. The most productive activities to do this are to reuse materials that a person already owns instead of disposing of them, learning methods of repairing and repurposing materials that no longer function, and when buying items is necessary buying those items that will not break or lose functionality after a small number of uses. [16]
This process is often quite difficult as products are often not designed to be reused. This has led to many individuals blaming the producers of these products for the excess amounts of post-consumer waste. This accusation has been held against manufacturers for many years, claiming that retailers incentivized short term profits over the long term safety of the environment. One study shows how as far back as the 1990s, many large scale retailers were claiming to understand their responsibility to waste management, but offered no policies or initiatives to cut back on the amount of waste that is inevitably produced by the consumer [13]
To combat this, some governments and private institutions have attempted to find new ways of avoiding excessive post-consumer waste. In the European Union, one project is being developed which uses enzymes to dissolve plastic and cardboard waste into basic materials that can be remade into new products for consumer use. [15] In the United States there are organizations such as the Vermont Journal of Environmental Law which holds an annual conference to discuss how best to combat the excessive post consumer waste issue in the United States. [12] Strategies like this allow for greater control over the issue of post consumer waste without changing the supply chain as a whole.


== See also ==
Retail hazardous waste


== References ==
“What Is Post-Consumer Waste?” Pro Environmental Services Ltd, Pro Environmental Services, 14 Feb. 2020, www.proenvironmentalltd.co.uk/what-is-post-consumer-waste.
“What Is ‘Post-Consumer Waste?’” Mass.Gov, Massachusetts State Government, 8 Nov. 2017, [1] (post consumer materials).
“Cradle-to-Grave in LCA: What Is It & How Does It Work?” Ecochain, 22 Mar. 2024, ecochain.com/blog/cradle-to-grave-in-lca/
↑ ""Legality of Scrapping Metal"". Retrieved 2010-10-04.
Welty, Jeff. “Does a Dirty Trash Pull Provide Probable Cause to Search a Residence?” North Carolina Criminal Law, UNC School of Government, 20 Nov. 2022, nccriminallaw.sog.unc.edu/does-a-dirty-trash-pull-provide-probable-cause-to-search-a-residence/.
Line, Julie A. “Fourth Amendment: Further erosion of the warrant requirement for unreasonable searches and seizures: The Warrantless Trash Search Exception.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), vol. 79, no. 3, 1988, p. 623, https://doi.org/10.2307/1143534.
Manning, Colleen H. ""California v. Greenwood: Did the United States Supreme Court Trash the Fourth Amendment."" Criminal Justice Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, Fall-Winter 1988, pp. 267–284. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/tjeflr11&i=273.
↑ Toma, Luiza; Font, Montserrat Costa; Thompson, Bethan (2020). ""Impact of Consumers' Understanding of Date Labelling on Food Waste Behaviour"". Operational Research. 20 (2): 543–560. doi:10.1007/s12351-017-0352-3. hdl:1842/33150. S2CID 158834200.
↑ Roodhuyzen, D.M.A.; Luning, P.A.; Fogliano, V.; Steenbekkers, L.P.A. (October 2017). ""Putting together the puzzle of consumer food waste: Towards an integral perspective"". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 68: 37–50. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2017.07.009. Retrieved 1 December 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Wheeler, David. “Why Retailers Should Take Responsibility for Post-Consumer Waste.” Greener Management International, no. 9, 1995, pp. 95–105. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45259130. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
“Revision of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive.” Revision of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive, European Union Parliament, Nov. 2023, www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/745707/EPRS_BRI(2023)745707_EN.pdf.
Backsen, Megan, and Jack Hornickel. “Cradle-to-Cradle: The Elimination of Waste Introduction.” Vermont Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 16, no. 4, 2015, pp. 572–74. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/vermjenvilaw.16.4.572. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
Wheeler, David. “Why Retailers Should Take Responsibility for Post-Consumer Waste.” Greener Management International, no. 9, 1995, pp. 95–105. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45259130. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
“Cradle-to-Cradle: What Is It & How Does It Work in LCA?” Ecochain, 19 Mar. 2024, [2].
“Home.” REPURPOSE, www.repurposeproject.eu/. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.
“Reuse & Buy Recycled.” Milpitas CA Public Works Footer, www.milpitas.gov/615/Reuse-Buy-Recycled. Accessed 1 Apr. 2024.


== See also ==
Retail hazardous waste


== References =="
Ana Maria Popescu,"Ana Maria Popescu, formerly known as Ana Maria Brânză (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈana maˈri.a ˈbrɨnzə], born 26 November 1984), is a Romanian left-handed épée fencer.
Popescu is a four-time team European champion, 2013 individual European champion, and two-time team world champion.
A five-time Olympian, Popescu is a two-time individual Olympic silver medalist and 2016 team Olympic champion.


== Personal life ==
Popescu was born in 1984 in the Rahova district of Bucharest, the second of two children. A very energetic child, she was pushed by her parents towards sport. She first tried tennis because the courts were not far from home, but she left after one year because she was the only left-handed player and because of the lack of competitive events. When she was ten, her elder brother Marius, who played football for a school team of CSA Steaua București, took her to his club's fencing hall in Ghencea. She did not care much for the idea at first, as she was not a fan of The Three Musketeers, but she was attracted to the sport as soon as she set foot in the fencing hall. She turned to épée because there was no other left-handed weapon available in the club when she began training.
Popescu became the champion of Romania for her age group after only six months of training. She was noticed by national coach Dan Podeanu, who after a trial selected her for centralized training. At 13 years old, at the beginning of class VIII, she left her family and moved to Craiova to train at the Junior Olympic Centre for épée with other athletes, much of which were older than her. She pursued her studies at the Petrache-Trișcu Sports High School, which later gave her name to one of its alleys. The high school offers a specific curriculum for young athletes with three or four class hours a day, the rest being devoted to sport, but the sports facilities were in a rather run-down state in post-Ceaușescu Romania. Because of the lack of a dedicated building, they first held their training sessions in the community hall of the high school. As there was no locker room, they had to change behind curtains.
After her bacalaureat she was offered an athletic scholarship from an American university, but she chose to stay in Romania. She first hoped to study psychology at university, before setting for the Faculty of sports and physical education of the University of Craiova, where she obtained a master in 2007. The same year she was awarded the title of master emeritus in sports (Maestru Emerit al Sportului).
She joined in 2001 one of the main Romanian sport clubs, CSA Steaua, which is run by the Ministry of National Defence of Romania, and received the grade of sergeant. She is however under no military obligation and is seconded full-time to her sport. Being from a military family–her grandfather, father and brother served in the army–, she regularly appears in uniform in the media. She was promoted to lieutenant after her studies, and as of 2015 holds the grade of major.
Popescu supports AITA, an association for autistic children in Bucharest. From September 2013 to November 2014 she ran the campaign Aleargă de ziua ta! (""run on your birthday"") which encouraged people to celebrate their birthday by engaging in physical activity and gathering funds for a charitable cause.
Popescu voice acted in the Romanian language dub of the movie Rise of the Guardians.
In August 2015, she married Pavel Popescu, who plays water polo for CSA Steaua, and announced her intention to change her name for competition.


== Career ==


=== 2001–2004 ===
Popescu won her first senior national championship at the age of fifteen. She attended her first international competitions as a member of CSM–LPS Craiova. She took part in the 1999 Cadet World Championships in Keszthely, finishing only 28th, but the confrontation with fencers from countries with better training conditions spurred her to train harder: ""I saw kids from France wearing immaculate white outfits, while I had a yellowed kit and sneakers ripped up at the toe. But I went after them to defeat them.""
She joined in 2001 the fencing section of CSA Steaua under coach Cornel Milan. The same year she posted her first significant result with a gold medal at the Cadet World Championships and a team silver medal at the Junior World Championships, both in Gdańsk. These achievements prompted the Romanian media to compare her to Olympic foil champion Laura Badea-Cârlescu, but she took exception to the comparison, claiming she wanted to do better than Badea.
In 2002, Popescu won the gold medal at the Junior World Championships in Antalya after prevailing over China's Tan Li. She was praised for ""a remarkable tactical mastery for a seventeen and a half year old girl"". The same year she took part in her first senior major competitions. At the European Championships in Moscow she reached the quarter-finals before being eliminated 9–15 by Lyubov Shutova. At the World Championships in Lisbon she made it to the semi-finals, where she was defeated 6–15 by Germany's Imke Duplitzer and came away with a bronze medal. She would later call it her fondest victory, because she was very young at the time and was there without her coach, with only her sabre colleagues as companions.
Having reached the top quickly, she lost her previous fearlessness and began to feel apprehensive before her bouts: ""When you get on the piste, it looks to you like your opponent is out to steal your dreams."" She struggled throughout the 2002–03 season, managing only a quarter-finals finish in Prague. A double gold medal haul at the Junior European Fencing in Poreč helped her overcome the hurdle. That season saw also the first apparition of the Romanian women's épée team in senior competitions, namely the 2003 World Fencing Championships, where they finished 8th.
In April 2004, she won the Junior World Championships again after defeating Bianca Del Carretto 15–14 in the final. She reached the quarter-finals in the senior European Championships in Copenhagen. She qualified for the 2004 Summer Olympics by earning a silver medal at the zonal qualifying tournament in Ghent, seeing off top-seed Sophie Lamon of Switzerland in the table of 16, but losing in the final to Sonja Tol of the Netherlands. For her Olympic début in Athens, Popescu managed to beat experienced fencer Adrienn Hormay of Hungary, but stumbled in the table of 16 against China's Zhang Li and finished 16th. She later explained she felt overwhelmed by the Olympic experience and like a child lost amongst big-name athletes.


=== 2004–2008 ===
In the 2004–05 season, she reached her first podium in the Fencing World Cup with a silver medal at the Budapest Grand Prix. This result, along with a quarter-final place at the 2005 World Championships in Leipzig, where she lost to Estonia's Maarika Võsu, allowed her to close the season in the Top 10 for the first time in her career. The next season she won her first World Cup title in Budapest and posted four top-eight finishes. At the European Championships in İzmir she was defeated in the second round by teammate Iuliana Măceșeanu. In the team event Romania prevailed 45–43 over Russia and met Hungary in the final. Brânză defeated Tímea Nagy in the last leg, allowing Romania to edge out a 33–32 win. This victory over a double Olympic champion encouraged her to think she could become a champion in her own right. She reached the quarter-finals again at the 2006 World Championships in Turin, but yielded to Nagy this time.
In the 2007–08 season, Popescu claimed the gold medal at the St Petersburg World Cup, the silver in Budapest and Havana, and the bronze in Luxembourg and Barcelona. She climbed to the second place in world rankings, gaining qualification to the women's individual épée event of the 2008 Summer Olympics– women's team épée did not feature on the Olympic programme for that edition. The 2008 European Championships held in Kyiv in July were the last rehearsal before the Olympic Games. Popescu reached the semi-finals, where she saw off Russia's Anna Sivkova. In the final she lost 15–10 to Hormay, whom she had defeated at the Athens Olympics, and came away with the silver–her first individual European medal. In the team event Romania overcame Poland and Hungary, then largely prevailed over Germany in the final to earn their second continental title.
In August, the Romanian delegation arrived in Beijing two weeks ahead of the competition. Being the only Romanian epeeist at the Games, she trained with foilists Cristina Stahl and Virgil Sălișcan. As No.2 seed she received a bye in the first round. She then disposed 15–11 of Japan's Megumi Harada and beat 15–13 Russia's Lyubov Shutova to reach the semi-finals, where she met experienced, 39-year-old Ildikó Mincza-Nébald of Hungary. After a very balanced bout where no fencer managed to gain more than a two-hit advantage, Popescu struck the decisive hit to win her ticket to the final. After a brief respite, she met world No.1 Britta Heidemann of Germany, who acquired an early four-hit lead. Popescu rallied to 10–12 in the third and last period, but the German struck three hits in a row, closing the bout 11–15 with a double touche. Popescu attributed Heidemann's victory to her superior physical condition, explaining that the German had ""fenced like a man"".
For her silver medal, Popescu was awarded the Romanian order for sports merit (Ordinul ""Meritul Sportiv""), second class. She finished first in the overall women's épée World Cup for two consecutive seasons, 2007–2008 and 2008–2009. She was designated a member of the athletes commission of the International Fencing Federation by its executive committee for the period 2009–2013.


=== 2008–2012 ===
After the Olympics, Popescu began to complain of tendon pain in her weapon hand, but the competition rhythm did not allow her to attend to it. At the 2009 European Championships in Plovdiv she was defeated in the second round by fellow Romanian Anca Măroiu, but secured her third continental team title after Romania defeated successively Russia, Germany and Poland. Teammate Simona Gherman jokingly referred to the team as the ""Power Praf girls"", after the Powerpuff Girls anime, because of the hardships of the match against Russia. The nickname stuck. They would later incorporate it in their pre-match battle cry: ""We're the Powerpuff Girls and we'll make mincemeat of you!"" (Romanian: Suntem fetițele PowerPraf și am venit să vă facem pilaf!)
Popescu was rested for the Romanian national championships to spare her hand. She arrived with a No.1 ranking to the World Championships in Antalya, but warned beforehand that she was only fencing at 50 to 60% of her ability due to her wrist problems. She was eliminated 9–10 in the table of 16 by Canada's Sherraine Schalm. Romania were defeated in the first round by Italy, again by a single hit, and finished sixth after the placement matches.
After this failure, Popescu resolved to address her wrist issues. Medical investigations in Romania and in France showed that her condition was operable, but that the surgery would likely end her fencing career. She chose instead to take a break in her career to follow a strict recovery program. After a pause of several months, she earned a gold medal in her first two competitions, the Florina and Nanjing 2010 World Cup events. Up to 2012 she suffered from left-wrist pains and had to get medical attention after each competition.

In the 2010 World Fencing Championships in Paris, Popescu was again eliminated early in the individual event, but won the first Romanian team gold in épée with Simona Gherman, Loredana Dinu and Anca Măroiu. Popescu contributed more than half the hits scored by Romania in the final against Germany. Her last relay against Imke Duplitzer, which she won 18–10, was described as ""a real example of technique and tactical intelligence"" in an otherwise ""quite monotonous"" match.
In 2011, Popescu took the bronze medal in the individual event of the 2011 European Fencing Championships in Sheffield and the gold medal in the team event after defeating Russia 45-31. The victory ceremony was marred by an incident when Trei culori, the former, communist-era national anthem of Romania, was played instead of the current Deșteaptă-te, române! Brânză decided to walk off in protest and convinced her teammates of following her.
At the 2011 World Fencing Championships in Catania, Popescu was stopped in the semifinals by Sun Yujie of China and was doomed to a bronze medal, the second World Championships medal in her career. In the team event, the ""Power Praf girls"" saw off easily Great Britain then Poland, but Popescu was hit on her weapon hand during the quarter-finals against Poland and had to get medical attention. She fenced with a bandaged hand and only one relay in the semifinal against Germany, which Romania won with a tight score of 24–23. She was to be rested during the final against China, but was called eventually to replace a stressed out Măroiu. She lost her first relay 1–4 to Sun Yujie, but her 4–1 against Xu Anqi contributed to Romania's sudden-death victory. Popescu was crowned team world champion for the second time in a row. For this performance she, Măroiu and Alexandru, as members of the military club CSA Steaua, received the emblem of honour of the Romanian Army (Romanian: emblema de onoare a Armatei României) and all members of the team received honorary citizenship of Craiova.
In May 2012, the Romanian team received new kit from their equipment sponsor PBT, including red, yellow, and blue coloured masks which allow them to form as a team the tricolour flag of Romania. Because nobody else wanted it, Popescu opted for the yellow mask, which has since become her trademark. She was considered to carry the flag for Romania at the Olympics, but she declined, citing her left hand problem.
Number 1 in world rankings in April 2012, she went for gold in the London 2012 Summer Olympics, but she was beaten 14–13 in the round of 16 by Ukraine's Yana Shemyakina, who eventually took the gold medal. The top-seed Romanian team she led was defeated 45–38 by 10th-ranked South Korea in the quarter-finals and fell short of the podium too. Popescu was quoted saying: ""This is the most painful moment in my life."" After the Games three Romanian team members retired from sport, but Brânză decided to continue her career and announced her new goal was the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. After the resignation of her lifelong coach Dan Podeanu, she began training under Octavian Zidaru.


=== After the London Games ===

In the 2012–13 season, Popescu made the podium in six out of eight entries in World Cup events, including gold medals in the Challenge International de Saint-Maur and the Havana Grand Prix. She led CSA Steaua to a silver medal in the European Champion Clubs' Cup in Naples. In May, she won her 8th national title as well as the team event.
Number one in the FIE world rankings, she went to the 2013 European Fencing Championships as favourite. She had a tight 15–14 win in the table of 32 against 17-year-old Alona Komarov of Israel. Her later bouts were easier victories and she eventually earned the gold after defeating Italia's Francesca Quondamcarlo 15–11 in the final. In the team event, she led a largely renewed Romanian side, now nicknamed ""Poky Power"", scoring the decisive hit in the 44–43 quarter-final against Sweden; Romania then disposed of Hungary, but failed against Estonia in the final and came away with a silver medal.
During the 2013 World Fencing Championships in Budapest, Popescu made her way comfortably to the table of eight, but she was defeated in a tight 14–15 bout by Estonia's Julia Beljajeva, who eventually won the competition. In the team event, Romania defeated successively Denmark, Venezuela, and South Korea, reaping revenge on the defeat in the Olympic Games. They were stopped in the semifinals by Russia, which largely prevailed with a 44–33 victory. Romania then fought France in the match for the third place; Brânză entered the last leg on a 25–25 draw and beat Joséphine Jacques-André-Coquin 8–3 to secure the bronze medal. Popescu was also elected a member of the athletes' commission in the elections held during the world championships. She finished the year No.1 for a record-equalling third time and received a gold medal from the FIE during its centenary gala dinner in Paris at the Automobile Club de France on 30 November 2013.

In the 2013–14 season, Popescu took part in the World Combat Games in Saint-Petersburg, but failed to earn a medal after defeats against Emese Szász and Xu Anqi. She finished fifth in the first World Cup event of the season in Doha after Julianna Révész defeated her 7–8 in quarter-finals, but won the gold medal in the team event, scoring the decisive hit in additional time in the last three matches. She went on to win the Budapest Grand Prix, prevailing 15–7 against Irina Embrich in the final. She later earned a bronze medal in Saint-Maur after being stopped in semifinals by China's Xu Anqi, who eventually won the competition. After three podiums in Barcelona in 2011, 2012, and 2013, she exited the competition in the table of 8 after a 15–11 defeat against Qin Xue of China. In the team event, she led her team to the semi-finals, where Romania were defeated 35–20 by Russia. Romania then met the United States; Brânză scored the winning hit in additional time to earn bronze. The rest of the season brought her no podium placings and she lost in May her world No.1 ranking to Emese Szász.
At the European Championships in Strasbourg, Popescu could not defend her title as she was beaten 8–9 in the table of 32 by teammate Simona Gherman, who eventually won a bronze medal. In the team competition, No.2 seed Romania received a bye, then disposed of Ukraine 45–31, beat Italy 29–24 in the semi-final and overcame Russia 38–34 in a very tight and tactical final, allowing Popescu to win her fifth team European gold. The World Championships in Kazan proved very disappointing as Popescu was stopped in the table of 16 by Estonia's Irina Embrich and slid to the fifth place in FIE rankings. In the team event, Romania prevailed over Germany, but were defeated in the table of 8 by Italy. Popescu entered on 25–24 for Italy in the last leg and was overcome 16–8 by newly crowned World champion Rossella Fiamingo. Romania entered the placement rounds and first defeated China, then the United States to take the fifth place in the competition. Following this failure, Octavian Zidaru was replaced as coach by Dan Podeanu, whom Brânză regards as a second father and who was persuaded to come back for a second stint.
Popescu entered the 2014–15 season with a silver medal at the Legnano World Cup after a 13–12 defeat in additional time against Ukraine's Anfisa Pochkalova. In the team event, she scored the winning hit in extra time in the semi-finals against Italy, but Romania were overcome by Estonia in the final and doomed to silver. She posted another second place in Xuzhou after failing in the final against Emese Szász. At the Doha Grand Prix, her way to the podium was again blocked by Gherman, who defeated her 4–3 in the quarter-finals.
The Barcelona World Cup in January 2015 proved disappointing as Brânză lost in the second round to Poland's Renata Knapik-Miazga, ranked 57th in the world. She subsequently slid to the 8th place in FIE rankings. In the team event, Romania saw off Israel, then China in the quarter-finals. However, Brânză injured her weapon hand after Sun Yujie accidentally collided with her. She fenced only part of the semifinal with Sweden, which overcame Romania 45-33. She did not fence at all in the small final, where a last-bout rally by Gherman allowed Romania to take the bronze medal. After being rested for ten days, she reached the quarter-finals in the Buenos Aires World Cup, but lost to Korea's Shin A-lam. In the team event, Romania prevailed over Venezuela and Estonia, then crushed Russia 45–24 before yielding 30–26 to Italy. Their silver medal allowed them to climb to the third place in the World rankings. In March, Popescu earned the silver medal at the Budapest after losing again to Shin in the final.
 She subsequently reached the third place in FIE rankings. In May, she was defeated by Anca Măroiu in the Romanian national championship and came away with a bronze medal. She was rested for the Rio de Janeiro Grand Prix, but Shin A-lam's average result at the competition allowed Popescu to reach the second place in world rankings.
At the 2015 European Championships in Montreux, Popescu switched her yellow mask for a tricolour one bearing Romanian colours. In the individual event, she stopped short of the podium after a defeat in the quarter-finals to world No.1 Emese Szász. In the team event, Romania saw off Ukraine, then met Sweden, coached by Romanian Adrian Pop. Popescu entered the last relay on a draw and defeating Sweden's captain Emma Samuelsson to bring her team in the final. As in the 2013 edition they met Estonia, which they defeated this time on 45-30. Brânză claimed her sixth continental title, a record in women's épée. A few weeks later, she reached the final at the 2015 European Games in Baku after a sudden-death victory over Estonia's Erika Kirpu. She proceeded to defeat Russia's Yana Zvereva, winning Romania's first gold medal at the Games. In the team event, Romania reached the final, where they met the same Estonian team as at the European Championships and produced a repeat performance to allow Brânză a double gold haul.
At the 2015 World Championships in Moscow, Popescu was eliminated in the second round by Estonia's Katrina Lehis, whom she had always defeated before. In the team event Romania defeated successively Turkey, Switzerland, Hungary and Ukraine to meet China in the final. Popescu opened the match against Xu Anqi, but failed to find an edge and was defeated 2-5. The following bouts proved as difficult and Popescu entered the last relay on 28-36. She could not bridge the gap and Romania lost eventually on 36-45, taking the silver medal. Popescu finished the season World No.4.


== Medal record ==


=== Olympic Games ===


=== World Championship ===


=== European Championship ===


=== Grand Prix ===


=== World Cup ===


=== Military sport ===


==== Military World Games/Military World Fencing Championships ====
 Team gold, 2011 Rio de Janeiro
 Team gold, 2010 Caracas
 Individual gold, 2006 Bucharest
 Team gold, 2005 Bucharest
 Individual gold, 2005 Grosseto
 Individual bronze, 2010 Caracas
 Team bronze, 2005 Grosseto


==== Military European Fencing Championships ====
 Individual gold, 2009 Gothenburg
 Team gold, 2009 Gothenburg


=== Cadet and junior ===


==== Junior World Fencing Championships ====
 Individual gold, 2004 Plovdiv
 Individual gold, 2002 Antalya
 Team silver, 2001 Gdańsk (with Loredana Iordăchioiu and Iuliana Măceșeanu)
 Team bronze, 2004 Plovdiv (with Loredana Iordăchioiu and Simona Alexandru)


==== Junior European Fencing Championships ====
 Individual gold, 2003 Poreč
 Team gold, 2003 Poreč


==== Cadet World Fencing Championships ====
 Individual gold, 2001 Gdańsk


== Awards and honours ==

Order for sports merit (Ordinul ""Meritul Sportiv""), second class
Honorary citizen (cetățean de onoare) of Craiova and Bușteni
Aspen ""Sports and Society Leadership"" Award, 2013


== References ==


== External links ==

Ana Maria Popescu at the International Fencing Federation
Ana Branza at the European Fencing Confederation
Ana Maria Brânză-Popescu at Olympedia 
Ana Maria Popescu at Olympics.com
Ana Maria Florentina Brânză at the Comitetul Olimpic și Sportiv Român (in Romanian) (archive)"
Single combat,"Single combat is a duel between two single combatants which takes place in the context of a battle between two armies.
Instances of single combat are known from Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The champions were often combatants who represented larger, spectator groups. Such representative contests and stories thereof are known worldwide.
Typically, it takes place in the no-man's-land between the opposing armies, with other warriors watching and themselves refraining from fighting until one of the two single combatants has won. Often, it is champion warfare, with the two considered the champions of their respective sides.
Single combat could also take place within a larger battle. Neither ancient nor medieval warfare always relied on the line or phalanx formation. The Iliad notably describes the battles of the Trojan war as a series of single encounters on the field, and the medieval code of chivalry, partly inspired by this, encouraged the single combat between individual knights on the battlefield, in which the loser was not usually killed but taken captive for ransom. However, the use of the longbow and the pike square against mounted knights (as at the battles of Crécy and Laupen) ended this tradition in the 14th century, although it was continued away from the battlefield, with the pas d'armes and the early modern duel.


== Antiquity ==

An important episode in ""The Tale of Sinuhe"", one of the most well-known works of Ancient Egyptian literature, concerns the protagonist – an Egyptian exile in Upper Retjenu (Canaan) – defeating a powerful opponent in single combat.
Duels between individual warriors are depicted in the Iliad, including those between Menelaus and Paris and later between Achilles and Hector. The Hebrew Bible also includes a few accounts of single combat, the most famous being David versus Goliath.
Single combat is mentioned quite frequently in the history of ancient Rome – Romulus defeated Acro, king of Caenina for the spolia opima; the Horatii's defeat of the Alba Longan Curiatii in the 7th century BC is reported by Livy to have settled a war in Rome's favor and subjected Alba Longa to Rome; Aulus Cornelius Cossus defeated Lars Tolumnius, king of the Veientes in single combat and took the spolia opima. In the 3rd century BC; Marcus Claudius Marcellus took the spolia opima from Viridomarus, king of the Gaesatae, at the Battle of Clastidium (222 BC); and Marcus Licinius Crassus from Deldo, king of the Bastarnae (29 BC).
Depictions of single combat also appear in the Hindu epics of the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana. Single combats are often preludes to battles in the Chinese epic Romance of the Three Kingdoms and are featured prominently throughout the epic.


== Middle Ages ==
According to the Byzantine historians Nikephoros and Theophanes the Confessor, during the Battle of Nineveh - climactic battle of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 - the Persian general Rhahzadh challenged the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius to single combat with the hope of forcing the Romans to flee. Heraclius accepted the challenge and spurred his horse forward and with a single blow struck off Rhahzadh's head, taking from the dead Persian his shield of 120 gold plates and gold breastplate as trophies. With Rhahzadh's death perished the Persians' hopes of victory: seeing their brave commander and many other high-ranking officers being slain by Heraclius and his household troops, the Persian troops lost heart and were slaughtered suffering around 6,000 casualties. 
In The Cattle Raid of Cooley, a famous episode of Irish mythology, all the warriors of Ulster but Cúchulainn are made sick by a curse and unable to fight the invading army of Queen Maeb, leaving Cúchulainn to fight a whole series of single combats by himself until they recover. The Welsh mythological tale, the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, depicts a single combat between the southern prince Pryderi and the northern magician Gwydion, to determine the victor of a war between the two kingdoms.
Many battles depicted in the medieval Chanson de Roland consist of a series of single combats, as are battles in the early Russian epic poem The Tale of Igor's Campaign (the basis of Borodin's Opera Prince Igor) and the battles depicted in various tales of the Arabian Nights.
Guy of Warwick, the legendary English Romance hero, is depicted as defeating in single combat the Viking giant Colbrand; the story is set in the time of Athelstan of England, but actually reflects the society of the late Middle Ages.
An important episode in Geoffrey of Monmouth's legendary History of the Kings of Britain  is the single combat between prince Nennius of Britain and Julius Caesar.
Single combat was also a prelude to battles in pre-Islamic Arabia and early Islamic battles. For example, the Battle of Badr, one of the most important in the early history of Islam, was opened by three champions of the Islamic side (Ali, Ubaydah, and Hamzah) stepping forward, engaging and defeating three of the then-Pagan Meccans, although Ubaydah was mortally wounded. This result of the three single combats was considered to have substantially contributed to the Muslim victory in the overall battle which followed. Duels were also part of other battles at the time of Muhammad, such as the battle of Uhud, battle of the Trench and the battle of Khaybar.
In the early Muslim conquest the Muslim commander would often duel with the enemy commander, for example, Khalid ibn al-Walid and Hormozd in the battle of the chains.
Single combats were characteristic of the Samurai fighting tradition and known as Ikki-uchi. As each samurai commanded his unit of retainers, successfully challenging and defeating the opposing samurai by a single combat can force the entire unit to retreat minimizing casualties and changing the course of battle. Those seeking a suitable opponent, frequently used Nanori to issue a challenge by announcing his name and bravery as well as ridiculing opponents to boost morale of his side as well as enrage the opponent to force the combat. As this is a high-risk-low-return strategy for the winning side, already defeated side, or ill-matched opponent (difference of personal standing or martial reputation) it was acceptable to decline or elude the single combat. An example of single-combat with the tragic result for the victor is told in Heike Monogatari as Kumagai Naozane defeated Taira no Atsumori at the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani. It could be banned by the overall commander as needed and notably during Mongol invasions of Japan, particularly during the second invasion in 1281, samurai fought as massed mounted archer/warrior with the annihilation of enemy as the goal. This tradition declines and disappears during the Sengoku period as each side prepared trained armies in thousands or even tens of thousands making the single combat have a limited, if any, effect on the outcome of the battle.
In Russia, single combat is known as  bash na bash (an old Russian expression meaning ""one-on-one""), substituting a fight between champions for a full-scale battle was a traditional way to avoid the bloodshed of an internecine war. The leaders of the opposing druzhinas or other armed groups either rode towards the centre of the battlefield or sent messengers to negotiate whether the two most skilled fighters or the leaders themselves would engage in single combat, usually to the death. The outcome of the champions' fight would then be taken as a sign of which side the higher powers favoured, and could have political consequences similar to the result of a full battle.
The oldest written account of such a fight is found in Nestor's Primary Chronicle; it describes a duel between a Kievan champion and the Pechenegs' best fighter. The most well-known fight, however, was that between Prince Mstislav the Brave of Tmutarakan and the Kasog Prince Rededia in 1022, in which Mstislav defeated Rededia and killed him with a dagger. According to the Primary Chronicle, Mstislav's victory allowed him to take tribute from the Kasogs and to have a church built; he also took Rededia's wife and two sons and had them baptised into Christianity, upon which he had his daughter married to Rededia's son according to the tradition of the times. Although Rededia had been killed, he was honoured by Mstislav, and his family joined the ranks of the Russian nobility.
The semi-legendary Tale of the Destruction of Ryazan includes an extensive account of the  combat between the Russian hero Evpaty Kolovrat and the Tatar warrior Hostovrul. Kolovrat splits his opponent in half with his sword and wins the duel. However, Kolovrat is then attacked and killed from a distance by Tatar stone throwers. The Mongol ruler Batu Khan, impressed with his bravery, honours his body.

Sometimes however, such single combat would merely initiate a battle rather than prevent it. The most famous example of this was the duel between Russian monk Alexander Peresvet and the Golden Horde champion Chelubey or Temir-Murza at the beginning of the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The champions killed each other in the first run, though according to Russian legend, Peresvet did not fall from the saddle, while Temir-Murza did.
In the 16th century Horn of Africa, during a confrontation between the armies of the Ethiopian Empire and those of the Adal Sultanate, emir Mahfuz of the Adal Sultanate sent a challenge into the Ethiopian Christian camp, offering to fight any warrior from among the Christians in single combat. This was to be done provided that the victory should be accounted to belong to the army whose champion was victorious, and that both sides should withdraw their troops without further confrontation. The challenge was accepted by the enemy. Gabriel Andreas, a soldier of tried valour was chosen as the champion of the Christians by general consensus. The two champions met and the fight began. During the ensuing combat, Gabriel struck Mahfuz between his neck and shoulders, nearly cleaving his body in two. The Emir thus fell dead on the ground. Gabriel then cut Mahfuz's head off and took it to the Christian army's ranks. As he threw the severed head at the emperor’s feet, he exclaimed ""There is the Goliath of the infidels."", thereby signalling his brothers-in-arms to charge into the Adalite lines. The charging Christinas defeated their enemies and launched a massive raid into Adalite territory.
In Kerala, India, duelling between warriors was used to settle conflicts between local rulers.
The prime martial caste of Kerala, Nairs, and some prominent Ezhava families made up the Chekavars (which literally means ""those who are prepared to die"" in the   Malayalam language). Some prominent warriors who took part in such ankam (duels) were Thacholi Othenan, Unniarcha, Aromal Chekavar, whose legends are described in the Vadukkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads). The Mamankam Festival held by the Zamorin ruler in the kingdom of modern-day Kozhikode, was a ritual which glorified the martial traditions of warrior families in the Malabar. The ritual ended after the Zamorin was overthrown. The Kerala practice was discontinued in the 19th century under the British Raj.
In Southeast Asia, formal elephant duels were sometimes contested between opposing army leaders to determine the outcome of a conflict, in lieu of full-on fighting by their armies.


== Modern examples ==

Captain John Smith of Jamestown is reputed in his earlier career as a mercenary in Eastern Europe to have defeated, killed and beheaded Turkish commanders in three single combats, for which he was knighted by the Transylvanian Prince Sigismund Báthory and given a horse and coat of arms showing three Turks' heads.
Dramatist Ben Jonson, in conversations with the poet William Drummond, recounted that when serving in the Low Countries as a volunteer with the regiments of Francis Vere, he had defeated an opponent in single combat ""in view of both armies"" and stripped him of his weapons.
In more recent times, single combats have become iconic – though often apocryphal – elements of aerial dogfights, with the idea, if not the practice, of single combat in the skies particularly prevalent during the First World War with the air forces' emphasis on a sort of individualism and chivalry. Manfred von Richthofen, the infamous ""Red Baron"", is recorded as writing ""If I am alone with an opponent ... only a jammed gun or an engine problem can prevent me from shooting him down.""


== See also ==
Duel
Hand-to-hand combat
History of fencing
Mard o mard
Trial by combat


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003), Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-81459-6
Norwich, John Julius (1997), A Short History of Byzantium, Vintage, ISBN 978-0-679-77269-9


== External links ==
 Media related to Single combat at Wikimedia Commons
Champions and Tradition: Single Combat in the Late Roman World"
Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war,"The origins of the Sri Lankan civil war lie in the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Sri Lankan Tamils. The war has been described by social anthropologist Jonathan Spencer as an outcome of how modern ethnic identities have been made and re-made since the colonial period, with the political struggle between minority Tamils and the Sinhalese-dominant government accompanied by rhetorical wars over archeological sites and place name etymologies, and the political use of the national past.


== Colonial period ==
The roots of the conflict have been traced back to Sri Lanka's colonial era. Some observers claim that British colonial rule used ""divide and rule"" strategy and its policies exacerbated ethnic tensions. Tamils were overrepresented in the civil service jobs due to the advantage of English language educational resources being allegedly disproportionately allocated to them. However, English language schools were established in the Tamil-majority Jaffna by American missionaries since the British wanted to prevent conflict with the English missions in the south. Since Jaffna soil was economically unproductive unlike the south, Tamils there invested more heavily in education to secure government jobs. A small section of the Jaffna society benefited from this while most of the Tamil areas remained backward. The British selected their candidates for the civil service on a merit basis through civil service examination without an ethnic quota. Therefore, historian E. F. C. Ludowyk explained the Tamil overrepresentation in civil service in terms of ""their greater industry and thrift"". S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, the fourth Prime Minister of the Dominion of Ceylon, stated that the Tamils gained a ""dominant position in the public services"" due to their hard work and merit in passing the qualifying examinations. Upon independence, the ruling Sinhalese elite would vilify Tamils as having been favoured by the British to justify discriminatory policies against them. Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism sparked by the grievances of the majority against the domination of a Westernized elite would lead to ethnic polarization.


== Lead up to armed struggle ==
A primary contributor to the development of political awareness amongst Tamils during the European colonial rule was the advent of Protestant missionaries on a large scale from 1814. Missionary activities by missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Methodists and Anglican churches led to a revival amongst Hindu Tamils who built their own schools, temples, societies and published literature to counter the missionary activities. The success of this effort led the Tamils to think confidently of themselves as a community and prepared the way for self-consciousness as a cultural, religious and linguistic community in the mid-19th century.
Great Britain, which had come to control the whole of the island in 1815, instituted a legislative council in 1833 with three Europeans and one each for Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils and Burghers. This council's primary requirement was to play an advisory role to the Governor. These positions eventually came to be elected. From the introduction of the advisory council to the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 until the Soulbury Commission in 1947, the main dispute between the Sinhalese and Tamils elites was over the question of representation and not on the structure of the government. The issue of power sharing was used by the nationalists of both communities to create an escalating inter-ethnic rivalry which has continually gained momentum ever since.
There was initially little tension amongst Sri Lanka's two largest ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was appointed representative of the Sinhalese as well the Tamils in the national legislative council. However, the British Governor William Manning actively encouraged the concept of ""communal representation"" and created the Colombo seat which alternated between the Tamils and the Sinhalese. 
Subsequently, the Donoughmore Commission strongly rejected communal representation, and brought in universal franchise. The decision was strongly opposed by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in parliament, according to the proportion of the population they make up. G. G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil community, proposed to the Soulbury Commission that there should be 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese, 50% for all other ethnic groups, including Tamils) in the proposed independent Ceylon – a proposal that was rejected. In 1936, a Pan-Sinhala Board of Ministers was created which excluded non-Sinhala members, and further divided the Sinhala and Tamil elites. The Second World War served as an interregnum where the adroit politics of D. S. Senanayake successfully balancing the polarising tendencies of the Sinhalese as well as Tamil nationalists. Following independence in 1948, G. G. Ponnambalam and the party he founded, the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (Tamil Congress), joined D. S. Senanayake's moderate, Western-oriented, United National Party Government. This Government pass the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948, which denied citizenship to Sri Lankans of Indian origin and resulted in Sri Lanka becoming a majoritanian state.  Sri Lanka's government represented only the majority community, the Sinhalese community, and had marginalized the minorities, causing a ""severe degree of alienation"" among the minority communities. When this Act was passed, the Tamil Congress was strongly criticized by the opposition Marxist groups and the newly formed Sri Lankan Tamil nationalist Federal Party (FP). S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, the leader of this new party, contested the citizenship act before the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, and then in the Privy council in England, on grounds of discrimination towards minorities, but he did not prevail in overturning it. The FP took two seats in the 1952 election, against the Tamil Congress' four, but in the 1956 election, it became the dominant party in the Tamil districts and remained so for two decades. The FP's came to be known for its uncompromising stand on Tamil rights. In response to the parliamentary act that made Sinhala the sole official language in 1956, Federal MPs staged a non violent sit in (satyagraha) protest, but it was broken up by a nationalist mob. The police and other state authorities present at the location failed to take action to stop the violence. The FP was cast as scapegoats and were briefly banned after the 1958 riots, in which many were killed and thousands of Tamils forced to flee their homes.
Another point of conflict between the communities was state sponsored colonization schemes that had the effect of changing the demographic balance in the Eastern province in favor of majority Sinhalese that the Tamil nationalists considered to be their traditional homeland. It has been perhaps the most immediate cause of inter-communal violence.
In the 1970s, importing Tamil-language films, books, magazines, journals, etc. from the cultural hub of Tamil Nadu, India was banned. Sri Lanka also banned local groups affiliated with groups such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and the Tamil Youth League. Foreign exchange for the long established practice of Tamil students going to India for university education was stopped.  Equally, examinations for external degrees from the University of London were abolished. This had the effect of culturally cutting off the links between Tamil Sri Lankans and Tamils from India. The then government insisted that these measures were part of a general program of economic self-sufficiency as part of its socialist agenda and not targeted against the Tamil minority.
The policy of standardization was a policy implemented by the Sri Lankan government in 1971 to curtail the number of Tamil students selected for certain faculties in the universities.
In 1973, the Federal Party decided to demand for a separate state. To further their nationalistic cause they merged with the other Tamil political parties to become the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) in 1975. On 1976, after the first National convention of the Tamil United Liberation Front, the Ceylon Tamils moved towards a morphed nationalism which meant that they were now unwilling to live within a confined single island entity. Chelvanayakam and the Federal Party had always campaigned for a united country and thought that partitioning of the country would be “suicidal” up until 1973. However policies by the various governments that was considered to be discriminatory by Tamil leadership modified the stand to Tamil independence.


== Rise of militancy ==

Since 1948, when Sri Lanka became independent, successive governments have adopted policies that had the effect of net preference to the majority Sinhalese at the expense of the minority Sri Lankan Tamils. The governments adopted these policies in order to assist the Sinhalese community in such areas as education and public employment. But these policies severely curtailed the middle class Tamil youth, who found it more difficult during the 1970s and 1980s to enter a university or secure employment. These individuals belonging to this younger generation, often referred to by other Tamils as ""the boys"" formed many militant organizations. The most important contributor to the strength of the militant groups was the Black July pogrom which was perceived have been an organized event in which over 1000 Sri Lankan Tamil civilians were killed  prompting many youth to prefer the armed path of resistance.
By the end of 1987, they had fought not only the Sri Lankan security forces but also the Indian Peace Keeping Force. They also fought among each other, as well, with equal if not greater brutality. The main group: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a rebel group, decimated most of the others. They represented intergenerational tensions as well as caste and ideological differences. Except the LTTE, many of the remaining organizations have morphed into minor political parties within the Tamil National Alliance or as standalone political parties. Some also function as paramilitary groups within the Sri Lankan military.


== Denial of citizenship to Indian Tamils ==

There is a sizable population of Tamils in the Central Province, plantation laborers brought down from India by the British colonial authorities in the 19th and 20th centuries. These Indian Tamils (or Estate Tamils), as they are called, still work mainly in Sri Lanka's tea plantations. They have been locked in poverty for generations and continue to experience poor living conditions. Although they speak dialects of the same language, they are usually considered a separate community from the Sri Lankan Tamils of the North and East.
The government of D.S. Senanayake passed legislation stripping the estate Tamils of their citizenship in 1949, leaving them stateless.
The effect was to tilt the island's political balance away from the Tamils. In 1948, at independence, the Tamils had 33% of the voting power in Parliament.. Upon the disenfranchisement of the estate Tamils, however, this proportion dropped to 20%. The Sinhalese could and did obtain more than a 2/3 majority in Parliament, making it impossible for Tamils to exercise an effective opposition to Sinhalese policies affecting them. The main reason for the imbalance was that several multi-member constituencies elected a Tamil member of Parliament in a majority Sinhalese electorate. The idea in having multi-member constituencies was to prevent domination of minorities by a future nationalist government.
Not content with stripping their citizenship, successive governments tried to remove the estate Tamils from the country entirely. In 1964, Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike signed an agreement with Indian Prime Minister L.B. Shastri. A second agreement was signed three years later with Indira Gandhi. These provided that 600,000 of the estate Tamils would be expelled and sent to India over a 15-year period, and 375,000 would be restored their Sri Lankan citizenship. Not all of the former group actually returned to India, and remained in Sri Lanka without the ability to vote, travel abroad, or participate fully in Sri Lankan life. It was not until 2003 that full citizenship rights were restored to the remaining Tamils in the hill country.


== Language policy ==

The detailed reports of the Kandyan Peasantry commission (1947), the Buddhist commission (1956), as well as statistics of preponderant admissions of Tamil speaking students to the university provided a basis for these Sinhalese activists who ensured S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike won a landslide victory in 1956, campaigning on a strong Sinhalese nationalist platform.
Ethnic conflict was aggravated by the Sinhala Official Language Act of 1956. General consensus existed that English should be replaced as the country's official language. In the Act, the Sri Lankan government replaced English with Sinhala which deprived the Tamils of their right to deal with government institutions in their language as well as limited their opportunity to join government service. By 1956, approximately 75% of the population maintained fluency in the Sinhala language, approximately 15% were proficient in Tamil and the remaining ethnic groups spoke mainly English including the Burghers and Muslims. Multi-linguism was not common-spread, although many Sri Lankans had knowledge of at least two of the three main languages.
The Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) government led by Solomon Bandaranaike was sworn into office on a platform that of helping the growing population of unemployed youth who were disenfranchised by the Sinhala Official Language policy. A majority of civil servants under colonial rule were Tamil whose positions benefited from free English-medium missionary schools in the north and east of the island. The Tamil Federal Party led a group of Tamil volunteers and staged a sit-down satyagraha (peaceful protest).
The Sinhala Official Language policy was gradually weakened by all subsequent governments and in 1987, Tamil was made an official language of Sri Lanka, alongside Sinhala. English has remained the de facto language of governance; government activity continues to be carried out in English, including the drafting of legislation.


== 1958 riots ==

In the 1958 riots, 150–200 people were killed, primarily Tamils and thousands more were assaulted and Tamil property looted. Over 25,000 Tamil refugees were relocated to the North. Similarly, a large number of Sinhalese were killed or expelled from the North and East of country and were relocated in the South.


== 1970 – Banning of Tamil media and literature importation ==
Importing Tamil-language films, books, magazines, journals, etc. from the cultural hub of Tamil Nadu, India was banned in 1970. This was perceived by some minority Sri Lankan Tamil politicians as directed against their cultural survival. Sri Lanka also banned groups such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Tamil Youth League. Culturally, Tamil Sri Lankans were cut off from Tamil Nadu. But some argue that it led to native Sri Lankan Tamil literature and media to thrive without competition from India.
Foreign exchange for the long established practice of Tamil students going to India for university education was stopped. Equally, examinations for external degrees from the University of London were abolished. The government insisted this was a part of a general program of economic self-sufficiency, part of its socialist agenda, however most of the Tamil population did not accept nor believe this.


== 1971 – Universities Act ==

During the 1970s, university admissions were standardized. The Policy of standardisation was a policy implemented by the Sri Lankan government in 1971 to curtail the number of Tamil students selected for certain faculties in the universities.
Under the British, English was the state language and consequently greatly benefited English speakers. However, the majority of the Sri Lankan populace lived outside urban areas and did not belong to the social elite, and therefore did not enjoy the benefits of English-medium education. The issue was compounded further by the fact that in the Jaffna district, where a largely Tamil speaking populace resided, students had access to English-medium education through missionary schools. This created a situation where a large proportion of university students enrolled in professional courses such as medicine and engineering were English speaking Tamils.


== Rise of separatism ==
At first, Tamil politicians pushed for a federal system through the Federal Party. This was met with suspicion and resistance from many Sinhalese.  In the 1960s, the government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike proceeded to nationalize most missionary schools in the country, secularizing them and changing the language of instruction from English to Sinhala only.  After this, it became rare for Sinhalese and Tamil children to attend school together. Unable to speak Sinhalese, it became increasingly difficult for Tamil youth to gain access to civil service jobs or attend universities, and unemployment rose.
The name of the country was changed from Ceylon to Sri Lanka in 1970, a name of Sanskrit origin that angered and alienated many Tamils.


=== Vaddukoddai Resolution ===
The concept of a separate nation, Tamil Eelam, was proposed by the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) in the Vaddukoddai Resolution in 1976. TULF was a coalition of parties who went on to campaign in the 1977 elections for an independent state for Tamils in Sri Lanka. They won most of the Tamil seats, but the government later banned them from Parliament for advocating an independent state. Tamil Separatists led by LTTE took over leadership of the Tamils during the course of the Sri Lankan Civil War.


== 1981 – Destruction of the Jaffna Public Library ==

A Sinhalese mob went on a rampage on the nights of May 31 to June 2, burning the market area of Jaffna, the office of the Tamil Newspaper, the home of the member of Parliament for Jaffna, the Jaffna Public Library and killing four people. The destruction of the Jaffna Public Library was the incident which appeared to cause the most distress to the people of Jaffna. The 95,000 volumes of the Public Library destroyed by the fire included numerous culturally important and irreplaceable manuscripts. Witnesses reported the presence of uniformed police officers in the mob and their involvement in the deaths of four individuals.


== Outbreak of war ==


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Aspinall, Edward; Jeffrey, Robin; Regan, Anthony, eds. (2013). Diminishing Conflict in Asia and the Pacific. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136251139."
Pompeii,"Pompeii (  pom-PAY(-ee); Latin: [pɔmˈpei̯.iː]) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and many surrounding villas, the city was buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of volcanic ash and pumice in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
Largely preserved under the ash, Pompeii offers a unique snapshot of Roman life, frozen at the moment it was buried, as well as insight into ancient urban planning. It was a wealthy town of 10,000 to 20,000 residents at the time it was destroyed. It hosted many fine public buildings and luxurious private houses with lavish decorations, furnishings and artworks, which were the main attractions for early excavators; subsequent excavations have found hundreds of private homes and businesses reflecting various architectural styles and social classes, as well as numerous public buildings. Organic remains, including wooden objects and human bodies, were interred in the ash; their eventual decay allowed archaeologists to create moulds of figures in their final moments of life. The numerous graffiti carved on outside walls and inside rooms provide a wealth of examples of the largely lost Vulgar Latin spoken colloquially at the time, contrasting with the formal language of classical writers.
Following its destruction, Pompeii remained largely undisturbed until its rediscovery in the late 16th century. Major excavations did not begin until the mid-18th century, which marked the emergence of modern archeology; initial efforts to unearth the city were haphazard or marred by looting, resulting in many items or sites being damaged or destroyed. By 1960, most of Pompeii had been uncovered but left in decay; further major excavations were banned or limited to targeted, prioritised areas. Since 2018, these efforts have led to new discoveries in some previously unexplored areas of the city.
Pompeii is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, owing to its status as ""the only archaeological site in the world that provides a complete picture of an ancient Roman city."" It is among the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors annually.


== Name ==
Pompeii in Latin is a second declension masculine nominative plural noun (Pompeiī, -ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, ""The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or perhaps it was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia).""


== Geography ==
Pompeii was built approximately 40 m (130 ft) above sea level on a coastal lava plateau created by earlier eruptions of Mount Vesuvius (8 km or 5 mi distant). The plateau fell steeply to the south and partly to the west into the sea. Three layers of sediment from large landslides lie on top of the lava, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall. The city, once by the shoreline, is today circa 700 m (2,300 ft) inland. The mouth of the navigable Sarno River, adjacent to the city, was protected by lagoons and served early Greek and Phoenician sailors as a haven port, later developed by the Romans.
Pompeii covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (160 to 170 acres) and was home to 11,000 to 11,500 people, based on household counts.


== History ==

Although best known for its Roman remains visible today, dating from AD 79, it was built upon a substantial city dating from much earlier times. Expansion of the city from an early nucleus (the old town) accelerated after 450 BC under the Greeks following the Battle of Cumae.


=== Early history ===

The first stable settlements on the site date to the 8th century BC when the Oscans, a population of central Italy, founded five villages in the area.
With the arrival of the Greeks in Campania from around 740 BC, Pompeii entered the orbit of the Hellenic people. The most important building of this period is the Doric Temple, built away from the centre in what would later become the Triangular Forum.: 62  At the same time the cult of Apollo was introduced. Greek and Phoenician sailors used the location as a safe port.
In the early 6th century BC, the settlement merged into a single community centred on the important crossroad between Cumae, Nola, and Stabiae and was surrounded by a tufa city wall (the pappamonte wall). The first wall (which was also used as a base for the later wall) unusually enclosed a much greater area than the early town together with much agricultural land. That such an impressive wall was built at this time indicates that the settlement was already important and wealthy. The city began to flourish and maritime trade started with the construction of a small port near the mouth of the river. The earliest settlement was focused in regions VII and VIII of the town (the old town) as identified from stratigraphy below the Samnite and Roman buildings, as well as from the different and irregular street plan.
By 524 BC the Etruscans had settled in the area, including Pompeii, finding in the river Sarno a communication route between the sea and the interior. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans did not conquer the city militarily, but simply controlled it, and Pompeii enjoyed a sort of autonomy.: 63  Nevertheless, Pompeii became a member of the Etruscan League of cities. Excavations in 1980–1981 have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC necropolis. Under the Etruscans, a primitive forum or simple market square was built, as well as the Temple of Apollo, in both of which objects including fragments of bucchero were found by Maiuri. Several houses were built with the so-called Tuscan atrium, typical of this people.: 64 

 
The city wall was strengthened in the early 5th century BC with two façades of relatively thin, vertically set slabs of Sarno limestone some four metres (13 ft) apart filled with earth (the orthostate wall).
In 474 BC, the Greek city of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae and gained control of the area.


=== The Samnite period ===

The period between about 450–375 BC witnessed large areas of the city being abandoned while important sanctuaries such as the Temple of Apollo show a sudden lack of votive material remains.
The Samnites, people from the areas of Abruzzo and Molise, and allies of the Romans, conquered Greek Cumae between 423 and 420 BC. It is likely that all of the surrounding territory, including Pompeii, was already conquered around 424 BC. The new rulers gradually imposed their architecture and enlarged the town.
From 343 to 341 BC in the Samnite Wars, the first Roman army entered the Campanian plain bringing with it the customs and traditions of Rome, and in the Roman Latin War from 340 BC, the Samnites were faithful to Rome. Although governed by the Samnites, Pompeii entered the Roman orbit, to which it remained faithful even during the third Samnite war and in the war against Pyrrhus. In the late 4th century BC, the city began expanding from its nucleus into the open-walled area. The street plan of the new areas was more regular and more conformal to Hippodamus's street plan. The city walls were reinforced in Sarno stone in the early 3rd century BC (the limestone enceinte, or the ""first Samnite wall""). It formed the basis for the currently visible walls with an outer wall of rectangular limestone blocks as a terrace wall supporting a large agger, or earth embankment, behind it.
After the Samnite Wars from 290 BC, Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socii of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy.
From the outbreak of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in which Hannibal's invasion threatened many cities, Pompeii remained faithful to Rome unlike many of the southern cities. As a result, an additional internal wall was built of tufa and the internal agger and outer façade raised, resulting in a double parapet with a wider wall-walk. Despite the political uncertainty of these events and the progressive migration of wealthy men to quieter cities in the eastern Mediterranean, Pompeii continued to flourish due to the production and trade of wine and oil with places like Provence and Spain, as well as to intensive agriculture on farms around the city.
In the 2nd century BC, Pompeii enriched itself by taking part in Rome's conquest of the east, as shown by a statue of Apollo in the Forum erected by Lucius Mummius in gratitude for their support in the sack of Corinth and the eastern campaigns. These riches enabled Pompeii to bloom and expand to its ultimate limits. The Forum and many public and private buildings of high architectural quality were built, including The Large Theatre, the Temple of Jupiter, the Basilica, the Comitium, the Stabian Baths, and a new two-story portico.


=== The Roman period ===

Pompeii was one of the towns of Campania that rebelled against Rome in the Social Wars and in 89 BC it was besieged by Sulla, who targeted the strategically vulnerable Porta Ercolano with his artillery as can still be seen by the impact craters of thousands of ballista shots in the walls. Many nearby buildings inside the walls were also destroyed. Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. The result was that Pompeii became a Roman colony named Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Many of Sulla's veterans were given land and property in and around the city, while many who opposed Rome were dispossessed of their property. Despite this, the Pompeians were granted Roman citizenship and quickly assimilated into the Roman world. The main language in the city became Latin, and many of Pompeii's old aristocratic families Latinized their names as a sign of assimilation.
The area around Pompeii became very prosperous due to the desirability of living on the Bay of Naples for wealthy Romans and due to the rich agricultural land. Many farms and villas were built nearby, outside the city and many have been excavated. These include the Villa of the Mysteries, Villa of Diomedes, several at Boscoreale, Boscotrecase, Oplontis, Terzigno, and Civita Guiliana.
The city became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way. Many public buildings were constructed or refurbished and improved under the new order; new buildings included the Amphitheatre of Pompeii in 70 BC, the Forum Baths, and the Odeon. In comparison, the Forum was embellished with the colonnade of Popidius before 80 BC. These buildings raised the status of Pompeii as a cultural centre in the region as it outshone its neighbours in the number of places for entertainment which significantly enhanced the social and economic development of the city.
Under Augustus, from about 30 BC, a major expansion in new public buildings, as in the rest of the empire, included the Eumachia Building, the Sanctuary of Augustus and the Macellum. From about 20 BC, Pompeii was fed with running water by a spur from the Serino Aqueduct, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
In AD 59, there was a serious riot and bloodshed in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and Nucerians (which is recorded in a fresco) and which led the Roman Senate to send the Praetorian Guard to restore order and to ban further events for ten years.


==== AD 62–79 ====

The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor earthquakes (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors ""were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania""), but on 5 February 62 a severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between 5 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale.
On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named Pater Patriae (""Father of the Country"") and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake; fires caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake added to the panic. The nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected.
Between 62 AD and the eruption in 79 AD, most rebuilding was done in the private sector and older, damaged frescoes were often covered with newer ones, for example. In the public sector, the opportunity was taken to improve buildings and the city plan, e.g. in the Forum.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were restored between the earthquake of 62 and the eruption. It was thought until recently that some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption, but this is doubtful as the evidence of missing forum statues and marble wall veneers are most likely due to robbers after the city's burial. The public buildings on the east side of the Forum were largely restored and were enhanced by beautiful marble veneers and other modifications to the architecture.
Some buildings like the Central Baths were only started after the earthquake and were built to enhance the city with modern developments in their architecture, as had been done in Rome, in terms of wall-heating and window glass, and with well-lit spacious rooms. The new baths took over a whole insula by demolishing houses, which may have been made easier by the earthquake that had damaged these houses. This shows that the city was still flourishing rather than struggling to recover from the earthquake.
In about 64, Nero and his wife Poppaea visited Pompeii and made gifts to the temple of Venus (the city's patron deity), probably when he performed in the theatre of Naples.
By 79, Pompeii had a population of 20,000, which had prospered from the region's renowned agricultural fertility and favourable location, although more recent estimates are up to 11,500 based on household counts.


=== Eruption of Vesuvius ===

The eruption lasted for two days. The first phase was of pumice rain (lapilli) lasting about 18 hours, allowing most inhabitants to escape. Only approximately 1,150 bodies have so far been found on site, which seems to confirm this theory, and most escapees probably managed to salvage some of their most valuable belongings; many skeletons were found with jewellery, coins, and silverware.
At some time in the night or early the next day, pyroclastic flows began near the volcano, consisting of high speed, dense, and scorching ash clouds, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating the remaining population and altering the landscape, including the coastline. By the evening of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.
A multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 °C (480 °F) hot pyroclastic flows at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings. The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of tephra, in total, up to 6 metres (19.7 ft) deep. Archaeology in 2023 showed that some buildings collapsed due to one or more earthquakes during the eruption, killing the occupants.
Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum, but it was written approximately 27 or 28 years after the event. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events ""Plinian"". It had long been thought that the eruption was an August event based on one version of the letter, but another version gives a date of the eruption as late as 23 November. A later date is consistent with a charcoal inscription at the site, discovered in 2018, which includes the date of 17 October and which must have been recently written. A collaborative study in 2022 determined a date of 24–25 October.
An October/November eruption is clearly supported by many pieces of evidence: the fact that people buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; the fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form; nuts from chestnut trees were found at Oplontis, which would not have been mature before mid-September; wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September.


=== Rediscovery and excavations ===

Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise a relief effort while donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. He visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year but no work was done on recovery.
Soon after the city's burial, survivors and possibly thieves came to salvage valuables, including the marble statues from the Forum and other precious materials from buildings. There is wide evidence of post-eruption disturbance, including holes made through walls. The city was not completely buried, and the tops of larger buildings would have been visible above the ash, making it obvious where to dig or salvage building material. The robbers left traces of their passage, as in a house where modern archaeologists found a wall graffito saying ""house dug"".
Over the following centuries, its name and location were forgotten, though it still appeared on the Tabula Peutingeriana of the 4th century. Further eruptions, particularly in 471–473 and 512, covered the remains more deeply. The area became known as the La Civita (the city) due to the features in the ground.

The next known date that any part was unearthed was in 1592, when architect Domenico Fontana, while digging an underground aqueduct to the mills of Torre Annunziata, ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. His aqueduct passed through and underneath a large part of the city and would have had to pass through many buildings and foundations, as they still can be seen in many places today. However, he kept the finding secret.
In 1689, Francesco Picchetti saw a wall inscription mentioning decurio Pompeiis (""town councillor of Pompeii""), but he associated it with a villa of Pompey. Francesco Bianchini pointed out the true meaning, and he was supported by Giuseppe Macrini, who in 1693 excavated some walls and wrote that Pompeii lay beneath La Civita.
Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738 by workers digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon. Due to the spectacular quality of the finds, the Spanish military engineer Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre made excavations to find further remains at the site of Pompeii in 1748, even if the city was not identified. Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the finds, even after leaving to become king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced Naples' political and cultural prestige. On 20 August 1763, an inscription [...] Rei Publicae Pompeianorum [...] was found and the city was identified as Pompeii.
Karl Weber directed the first scientific excavations. He was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega, who was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804.
There was much progress in exploration when the French occupied Naples in 1799 and ruled over Italy from 1806 to 1815. The land on which Pompeii lies was confiscated, and up to 700 workers were employed in the excavations. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected. Parts of the Via dell'Abbondanza were also exposed in the west–east direction, and for the first time, an impression of the size and appearance of the ancient town could be appreciated. In the following years, the excavators struggled with a lack of money. Excavations progressed slowly, but with significant finds such as the houses of the Faun, of Menandro, of the Tragic Poet and the Surgeon.

Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made greater progress. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. Fiorelli realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies, and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.
Fiorelli also introduced scientific documentation. He divided the city into today's nine areas (regiones) and blocks (insulae) and numbered the entrances of the individual houses (domus). Fiorelli also published the first periodical with excavation reports. Under his successors, the entire west section of the city was exposed.


=== Modern archaeology ===

After those of Fiorelli, excavations continued in an increasingly more systematic and considered manner under several directors of archaeology though still with the main interest in making spectacular discoveries and uncovering more houses rather than answering the main questions about the city and its long term preservation.
In the 1920s, Amedeo Maiuri excavated older layers beneath those of 79 AD for the first time to learn about the settlement history. Maiuri made the last excavations on a grand scale in the 1950s, and the area south of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the city wall was almost completely uncovered, but they were poorly documented scientifically. Preservation was haphazard, and his reconstructions were difficult to distinguish from the original ruins, which is a great handicap for studying genuine antique remains. Questionable reconstruction was also done after the severe earthquake of 1980, which caused great destruction. Since then, work has been confined to the excavated areas except for targeted soundings and excavations. Further excavations on a large scale are not planned, and today archaeologists are more engaged in reconstructing, documenting and slowing the decay of the ruins.
In December 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of harnessed horses in the Villa of the Mysteries.

Under the 'Great Pompeii Project' over 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of ancient walls within the city were relieved of danger of collapse by treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts in order to increase drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls, a problem especially in the rainy season. These excavations resumed on unexcavated areas of Regio V. In November 2020 the remains of two men, thought to be a rich man and his slave, were found in a 2 m-thick (6.6 ft) layer of ash. They appeared to have escaped the first eruption but were killed by a second blast the next day. A study of the bones showed that the younger one appeared to have done manual labour and hence was likely a slave.
In December 2020, a thermopolium, an inn or snack-bar, was excavated in Regio V. In addition to brightly coloured frescoes depicting some of the food on offer, archaeologists found eight dolia (terracotta pots) still containing remnants of meals, including duck, goat, pig, fish, and snails. They also found a decorated bronze drinking bowl known as a patera, wine flasks, amphorae, and ceramic jars used for cooking stews and soups. One fresco depicts a dog with a collar on a leash, possibly reminding customers to leash their pets. The complete skeleton of a tiny adult dog was also discovered, measuring only about 20–25 cm (7.9–9.8 in) at the shoulder, which provides evidence of the highly selective breeding of dogs in Roman times.
In January 2021 a well-preserved ""large, four-wheel ceremonial chariot"" was uncovered in the portico of the luxurious villa in Civita Giuliana, north of Pompeii, where a stable had previously been discovered in 2018. The carriage is made of bronze and black and red wooden panels, with engraved silver and bronze medallions at the back. It is now thought to be an elaborate and unique bridal carriage called a pilentum and in 2023 has been restored for display at the Baths of Diocletian. Nearby the bodies of two fugitives had been found using plaster casts, and in a stable the remains of horses, one still in harness.
In 2021, an exceptional 1st century AD painted tomb of a freed slave, Marcus Venerius Secundio, containing mummified human remains, was discovered outside the Porta Sarno gate. Its inscription records he achieved custodianship of the Temple of Venus and membership of the Augustales, priests of the Imperial Cult. Also, he organised Greek and Latin performances lasting four days, the first evidence of Greek cultural events in Pompeii.
In April 2024, a dining hall lined with rare frescoes was excavated as part of a broader project aimed at shoring up the front of the perimeter between the excavated and unexcavated area of the site. One fresco presents Helen of Troy and Paris, and another depicts Apollo and Princess Cassandra, with Apollo trying to attract the princess's attention. The hall, measuring 15 by 6 meters, was located in a house on Via di Nola—one of the main city streets in the famous Regio IX area. The room walls were painted black, perhaps to hide the traces of soot from the lighting fixtures.
In June 2024, a shrine with rare blue-painted walls covered with paintings of females thought to represent the four seasons (Horae) was discovered. 15 amphorae, two bronze jugs and two bronze lamps were among the findings. The 8 m2 (86 sq ft) room is thought to be a sacrarium (the sanctuary of a church).


=== Conservation ===

Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years as the lack of air and moisture allowed little to no deterioration. However, Pompeii has been exposed to natural and anthropic deterioration following excavation.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. The lack of adequate weather protection for all but the most interesting and important buildings has allowed original interior decoration to fade or be lost. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.
Furthermore, during World War II many buildings were badly damaged or destroyed by bombs dropped in several raids by the Allied forces.
The conservation concern has constantly worried archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii ""desperately need[ed] repair"" and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation. The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
The Schola Armatorum ('House of the Gladiators') collapsed in 2010 caused by heavy rainfall and lack of proper drainage. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.
Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. A 2012 study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.
In June 2013, UNESCO warned that if restoration and preservation works ""fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years,"" Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger. A ""Grande Progetto Pompei"" project of about five years had begun in 2012 with the European Union and included stabilization and conservation of buildings in the highest risk areas. In 2014, UNESCO headquarters received a new management plan to help integrate the property's management, conservation, and maintenance programs.
In 2020 many domus gardens, orchards and vineyards were carefully recreated using depictions in frescoes and archaeological finds to give better insights into what they were like before the catastrophe. These include the House of Julia Felix, the House of the Golden Cupids, the House of Loreius Tiburtinus, the House of Cornelius Rufus and the Garden of the Fugitives.
In 2021 several long-closed domus were re-opened after restoration including the House of the Ship Europa, House of the Orchard and House of the Lovers. Also the newly excavated House of Leda and the Swan has opened.


== Roman city development ==

Owing to its wealth and its Greek, Etruscan and Roman history, Pompeii is of great interest for the study of Ancient Roman architecture in terms of building methods and urban planning. However, it was a relatively small provincial city and, except for the Amphitheatre, it did not have large monuments on the scale of other Roman cities. It also missed the large building schemes of the early Empire and kept much of its urban architecture dating from as early as the 4th century BC.
The evolution of Pompeii's private and public buildings is often unclear because of the lack of excavations beneath the levels of 79. It is, however, clear that by the time of the conquest by Sulla in 89 BC, the development of the street layout was largely complete, and most of the insulae were built.


=== Public buildings ===

Under the Romans, Pompeii underwent a process of urban development which accelerated in the Augustan period from about 30 BC. New public buildings included the Amphitheatre with palaestra or gymnasium with a central natatorium (cella natatoria) or swimming pool, two theatres, the Eumachia Building and at least four public baths. The amphitheatre has been cited by scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.
Other service buildings were the Macellum (""meat market""); the Pistrinum (baker); the thermopolia (inns or snack-bars that served hot and cold dishes and drinks), and cauponae (""pubs"" or ""dives"" with a seedy reputation as hangouts for thieves and prostitutes). At least one building, the Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution. A large hotel or hospitium (of 1,000 m2) was found nearby at Murecine/Moregine, when the Naples-Salerno motorway was being built, and the Murecine Silver Treasure and the Tablets (providing a unique record of business transactions), as well as the Moregine bracelet, were discovered there.
An aqueduct provided water to the public baths, to more than 25 street fountains, and to many private houses and businesses. The aqueduct was a branch of the great Serino Aqueduct built to serve the other large towns in the Bay of Naples region and the important naval base at Misenum. The castellum aquae is well preserved and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.


=== Shops and workshops ===

There were at least 31 bakeries in the town, each with wood-burning ovens, millstones and a sales counter. The Modestus bakery, or House of the Oven, was the largest in the city and Sotericus's bakery, also among the largest, preserves the room for kneading bread.
Thermopolia were inns or snack-bars in which hot food and drinks were sold and in Pompeii there were nearly 100. The thermopolium of Vetutius Placidus overlooked the street directly, had a counter and several dolia, as well as a room behind the shop where customers could eat their meals: the lararium with frescoes of the Lares and Mercury and Dionysus and a triclinium decorated in the Third style. In the thermopolium of Asellina, with three sales counters and a lararium with depictions of Mercury and Bacchus, numerous furnishings have been found, both in bronze and terracotta, as well as 683 sesterces; the external façade bears a representation of jugs and funnels and an electoral inscription referring to Asellina, probably the owner of the inn.
Wool processing was well developed with 13 workshops that worked the raw material, seven that did the spinning, nine the dyeing, and 18 the washing: the Building of Eumachia, from the name of the priestess who built it, was the wool market, or the seat of the fullers guild; construction took place after 62 and was entirely in brickwork. Inside it has numerous niches in which statues were housed, mostly concerning the imperial family, a colonnade, and near the entrance, there was a jar in which urine was collected for use as a detergent for clothes. The fullonica of Stephanus, named after the owner or manager, was originally a house that was transformed into a workshop for the processing of fabrics: on the lower floor the working and washing activities took place, carried out in large tanks with water, soda and urine while on the upper floor the clothes were dried.
The garum workshop made the sauce obtained from the fermentation of the entrails of fish; in the building some containers were found, closed by lids, with the sauce inside while in the nearby garden was a large deposit of amphorae.


=== Lists of buildings ===


=== Agriculture and horticulture ===
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples of Pompeii's economy. Pompeii had fertile soil for crop cultivation. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius preceding its eruption had good water-retention capabilities, implying productive agriculture. The Tyrrhenian Sea's airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate. Barley, wheat, and millet were produced along with wine and olive oil, for export to other regions.

Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii's economy. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produce a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum; otherwise, the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient and often capable of largely exceeding these requirements, providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. While wine was exported for Pompeii's economy, most other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities sufficient for the city's consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in the Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy.
Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens have been found in gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and a Roman villa at Torre Annunziata. They revealed that emmer wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All but the dates could have been produced locally.


=== Erotic art ===

The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma stemming from the clash of cultures between the mores of sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his grotesquely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away ""out of prudishness"" and opened only on request – and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall. In 2018, an ancient fresco depicting an erotic scene of ""Leda and the Swan"" was discovered at Pompeii.
Many artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he had it locked away in a ""secret cabinet"" (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to ""people of mature age and respected morals"". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the Naples ""Secret Museum"" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.


== Tourism ==
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years; it was on the Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of Italy's most popular tourist sites. It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei', has begun issuing new tickets that allow tourists to visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii. In 2024, the site's management announced that it would limit daily sales to a maximum of 20,000 personalised tickets per day and introduce timed entry schemes in the peak summer season.
Pompeii is a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality industry, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters, or hotel staff.
Excavations at the site have generally ceased due to a moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. The site is generally less accessible to tourists than in the past, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s available for public viewing today.


=== Antiquarium of Pompeii ===
Originally built by Giuseppe Fiorelli between 1873 and 1874, the Antiquarium of Pompeii began as an exhibition venue displaying archaeological finds that represented the daily life of the ancient city. The building suffered extensive damage in 1943 during the World War II bombings and again in 1980 due to an earthquake. The museum was closed to the public for 36 years before reopening in 2016 as a space for temporary exhibitions. The museum was re-opened on 25 January 2021 as a permanent exhibition venue. Visitors can see archaeological discoveries from the excavations, casts of the victims of the Mount Vesuvius eruption as well as displays documenting Pompeii's settlement history before becoming a thriving Roman city.


== In popular culture ==

The 1954 film Journey to Italy, starring George Sanders and Ingrid Bergman, includes a scene at Pompeii in which they witness the excavation of a cast of a couple who perished in the eruption.
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series Up Pompeii! and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, named ""The Fires of Pompeii"", which featured Caecilius as a character.
The rock band Pink Floyd filmed a 1971 live concert, Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, in which they performed six songs in the city's ancient Roman amphitheatre. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.
Siouxsie and the Banshees wrote and recorded the punk-inflected dance song ""Cities in Dust"", which describes the disaster that befell Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79. The song appears on their album 1985 Tinderbox. The jacket of the single remix of the song features the plaster cast of a chained dog killed in Pompeii.
Pompeii is a 2003 Robert Harris novel featuring an account of the aquarius's race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days before the eruption of Vesuvius. Actual events and people inspired the novel.
""Pompeii"" is a 2013 song by the British band Bastille. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Pompeii is a 2014 German-Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.
45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, guitarist David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphitheatre in 2016 to perform a live concert for his Rattle That Lock Tour. This event was considered the first in the amphitheatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.


== Documentaries ==
In Search of...'s episode No. 82 focuses entirely on Pompeii; it premiered on 29 November 1979.
The National Geographic special In the Shadow of Vesuvius (1987) explores the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviews (then) leading archaeologists, and examines the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
Ancient Mysteries: Pompeii: Buried Alive (1996), an A&E television documentary narrated by Leonard Nimoy.
Pompeii: The Last Day (2003), an hour-long drama produced for the BBC that portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
Pompeii and the AD 79 eruption (2004), a two-hour Tokyo Broadcasting System documentary.
Pompeii Live (28 June 2006), a Channel 5 production featuring a live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time (2013), a BBC One drama documentary presented by Margaret Mountford.
The Riddle of Pompeii (23 May 2014), Discovery Channel.
Pompeii: The Dead Speak (8 August 2016), Smithsonian Channel.
Pompeii's People (3 September 2017), a CBC Gem documentary presented by David Suzuki.


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== See also ==

Foreign influences on Pompeii
Mastroberardino, a project with the Italian winery Mastroberardino to replant the vineyards of Pompeii
Robert Rive, 1850s photographer of Pompeii
Luigi Bazzani: Watercolours of Pompeii when first excavated
Volcanic destruction
Armero tragedy, a city in Colombia that suffered a similar fate in 1985
Akrotiri, in Santorini, Greece, excavated ruins of a city that suffered a similar fate to Pompeii more than 3000 years ago
Joya de Cerén, a pre-Columbian farming village in El Salvador known as the ""Pompeii of the Americas""
Plymouth, Montserrat, former capital city buried by volcanic ash from the Soufrière Hills volcano in the 1990s
Saint-Pierre, Martinique, town similarly destroyed by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee, in 1902


== References ==


== Further reading ==


== External links ==

Official website 
Data on new excavations from the International Association for Classical Archaeology (AIAC)
World History Encyclopedia – Pompeii
Archaeological Park of Pompeii on Google Arts and Culture platform
Pompeii project by CyArk
N. Purcell; R. Talbert; T. Elliott; S. Gillies. ""Places: 433032 (Pompeii)"". Pleiades. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
Pompeii, Scientific American historical article, 26 May 1877, pp. 326–27"
The Squirrels,"The Squirrels are a novelty pop band based in Seattle, Washington. Founded in 1984 by lead vocalist Rob Morgan (founder, as well, of the Poplust zine), the band went through numerous lineups, but has stuck to the aesthetic that Peter Blecha describes as ""cross-pollinat[ing] bubblegum sensibilities with punk attitudes.""
Although most of the Squirrels material has been, technically speaking, cover versions, they are by no means a typical cover band. They have a theatrical stage sense derived from Alice Cooper and The Tubes (for a while in the mid-1990s, their stage paraphernalia included a working guillotine), and an approach to arrangements that Morgan has described as ""... the Frankenstein method of song arrangement... 'Well, we like these verses, but the chorus on that song is way better. So we'll just graft it right on there, make a whole new beast.' We just start fooling around, and then we go 'Hey, this Alice Cooper song fits right on there, and to hell with the chorus. Let's put the chorus of ""Runaway"" by Del Shannon in there because it's better!'""
In late 2008, the Squirrels announced a year ahead of time that they would be breaking up the band and referred to their last year's gigs as the ""Death With Dignity Tour""; their last show in that era was the December 12, 2009 20th Annual XXXmas show. The band returned to the stage in 2017.


== History ==

Rob Morgan arrived in Seattle in 1977 from Edmonds, Washington, and lived initially in the same University District party house that spawned The U-Men and The Look. His first band, The Fishsticks (1979), was a rather chaotic and amateurish affair, but its successor, The Pudz (1980–1982), became a Seattle legend: in an exhibit at the Experience Music Project, Mark Arm narrates the story of The Pudz warming up at Seattle's Showbox for a gig by UK punk band 999. As The Pudz played their set, performing the likes of The Ohio Express' ""Yummy, Yummy, Yummy"" and the R. B. Greaves hit ""Take a Letter, Maria"", a group of people in front of the stage jeered and pelted them. Arm's version of the story suggests a large group of hecklers, but according to Morgan it was ""a small group... trying desperately to out 'punk rock' each other, while the rest of the audience... smart enough to realize that punk was much more of a mindset than a hairstyle & a jacket... looked on in befuddled amusement—""
The Pudz' sole single—a Dave Locksley original called ""Take Me To Your, (Leader)"" b/w ""Take A Letter Maria""— was as close to a ""hit"" as one could have in the DIY era, receiving airplay on college radio up and down the West Coast. The single sold out quickly and was later incorporated into The Squirrels' CD Scrapin' For Hits. In 2000, ""Leader"" was included in an Experience Music Project 2-CD retrospective of Northwest Rock, which also featured more famous groups like The Sonics, Paul Revere & The Raiders, Heart and Pearl Jam.
The Pudz broke up when lead guitarist Dave Locksley left town; Rob briefly put together a band called The Pamona Boners, then in 1984 he managed to draft the Young Fresh Fellows (YFF) to back him under the name Ernest Anyway and the Mighty, Mighty Squirrels, seen in retrospect as the first Squirrels lineup.

This proved to be only a temporary expedient: most of the Fellows chose to concentrate on their own band, leaving Rob & YFF drummer Tad Hutchison to put together a new lineup that they christened New Age Urban Squirrels. This lineup, featuring Rob's high school buddy and fellow Fishstick Eric Erickson on guitar, really began to develop the band's cut-and-paste method of arranging, welding songs on top of songs live onstage a good two decades before the current DJ craze of mash ups. In 1986 local label PopLlama Records released an album split evenly between the first two Squirrels lineups, with the Mighty Squirrels side consisting entirely of covers of songs by seminal British rockers Johnny Kidd and the Pirates, a band that most Americans had never heard of.
Over the next few years the band ran through numerous names: Squirrels Group '87, Ron Voyage and the New Squirrels, Squirrels Live Unit—one lineup that included longtime bassist Kevin Crosby and drummer Nate Johnson went by ""Crosby, Squirrels, and Nate""—before finally settling down to just The Squirrels. The equally varied lineups intersected such Seattle groups as YFF, The Fastbacks, The Dynette Set, The Posies, and Pure Joy, and included several people with extensive musical theater experience. Guitarist/vocalist Joey Kline, who joined in 1985 and would become a long-term Squirrel, often ""borrowed"" musicians for the Squirrels from his many other musical projects.
Other than Morgan and Kline, the band has had considerable turnover, with many musicians coming and going several times over the years. Erickson died of leukemia in 1996. Among the other frequent contributors have been jazz and soul guitarist Jimmy ""J.T."" Thomas, drummers Hollis the Bug & James ""Cookie"" Cookman, guitar wiz Aaron ""A.T."" Taylor, and bassist Matt Fox; for a time, a woman named Mary K. would show up on stage for every show and (almost inaudibly) ""play"" a slinky. The band has also had guest appearances by the likes of Re Styles of the Tubes, Roy Loney of Flamin' Groovies, Tortelvis of Dread Zeppelin, and Skerik of Critters Buggin'. By 2005, the band had taken on more of a ""hobby rocker"" status: with the band performing only a handful of shows a year, almost entirely within the Seattle city limits. Still, they maintained a steady & fairly rabid fanbase, with fans routinely flying in from all over the country for the band's annual XXXmas X-travaganza, an institution since 1990 that featured the Drunken Angel Bodyguards.
After a long hiatus, the band revived in 2017 in the wake of the election of Donald Trump for a ""Squirrels Trump Hate"" tour. At this time Adam McKinney described them in the Weekly Volcano as ""musical anarchists"" and ""a huge point of pride for the Puget Sound music scene."" Andrew Hamlin, writing in Seattle weekly The Stranger described them as ""still one of the city's greatest bands, now and forever. ... Rob Morgan... knows every rock-and-roll song ever recorded and can kill on at least five of them at the same time.""


== Music ==

Many of the songs the Squirrels perform live have never been released, because their tendency to combine elements of multiple songs raises issues with copyright law and tests the limits of fair use. Nonetheless, they have released numerous recordings over the years, some of them in general releases, others in limited editions.
The Squirrels' single ""Oz On 45"" (1988) was a ""Stars on 45""-style reworking of songs from The Wizard of Oz (and a fragment of a song about Oz by Mark Nichols). It was one of the 142 seven-inch records that British DJ John Peel had set aside in a box, to be grabbed if his house ever caught fire and he had to abandon the rest of his collection. (It had a typically eccentric B-side: Gilbert O'Sullivan's ""Alone Again (Naturally)"".)

Perhaps the most widely respected Squirrels album is The Not-So-Bright Side of the Moon (2000), a song-by-song cover of the Pink Floyd album The Dark Side of the Moon, described by Jim DeRogatis, of the Chicago Sun-Times as a ""...brilliant through-the-looking-glass reimagining of Pink Floyd's classic...""
The best recorded evidence of the Squirrels recombinant approach can be found on their Christmas recordings, such as ""Smoke on the Housetop"" (combining Deep Purple's ""Smoke on the Water"" with B.R. Hanby's ""Up on the Housetop""), ""Peaceful Easy Town of Bethlehem"" (combining The Eagles' ""Peaceful Easy Feeling"" with ""O Little Town of Bethlehem""), or the lyrics of the carol ""Joy to the World"" sung to the tune of the Three Dog Night song of the same name.


== Discography ==

The Pudz, ""Take a letter Maria"" b/w ""Take me to your (leader)"". 1981 Teenie Wompum Records (45 RPM); ""Take me to your, (leader)"" was also included in the 1981 Engram Records compilation Seattle Syndrome Volume One and in Wild And Wooly-The Northwest Rock Collection, 2000 Experience Music Project/Sub Pop double CD.
New Age Urban Squirrels, ""Get Down"" (Gilbert O'Sullivan) on 1986 Popllama sampler 12 Inch Combo Deluxe.
New Age Urban Squirrels Five Virgins, Ernest Anyway and the Mighty, Mighty Squirrels Sing the Hits of Johnny Kidd and the Pirates; 1986 ""split"" LP, PopLlama
The Squirrels Group ""Oz on 45"" b/w ""Alone Again (Naturally)"" 1988 Popllama (45 RPM)
Mark Nichols / Puddletown Youth Symphony, ""Little Boy Goes to Hell"" 1988 Popllama
A musical by Nichols; released as a box set of four 7-inch 45 RPM records with book illustrated by Rob Morgan; cast included Morgan, Kline, Nichols, Tad Hutchinson, Tom Vail (all sometime Squirrels) and many others.
The Mighty Squirrels, ""Game of Love"" and ""Laughin' Your Head Off""; on compilation Oh, GOD! My Mom's on Channel 10!, 1989 Nardwuar the Human Serviette (Canada) LP
The Squirrels Group, What Gives? (15 Big Ones), 1990 Popllama CD
The Squirrels, ""Beautiful Sunday / Seasons in the Sun / The Hustle""; split 7-inch EP with Show Business Giants (Blobs, Vol. 2), 1991 Way Out! Records (Canada)
The Squirrels, ""Betsy"", on compilation Clam Chowder and Ice vs. Big Macs and Bombers, 1992 Nardwuar the Human Serviette (Canada) LP
The Squirrels, ""Seasons in the Sun / The Hustle"", on compilation 20 More Explosive Fantastic Rockin' Mega Smash Hit Explosions, 1992 Pravda Records CD
The Squirrels, Don't Fear The Snowman (The Squirrels' Christmas Album) 1992 Popllama cassette
The Squirrels, Harsh Toke of Reality 1993 Popllama CD
The Squirrels, ""Let It Be"" on compilation The EXOTIC BEATLES part 2, 1994 Exotica Records (United Kingdom)
The Squirrels, Son of Snowman / Don't Fear the Snowman (Expanded Xmas album!) 1994 Poplust Audio/PopLlama cassette
Roy Loney & the Longshots, Full Grown Head 1994 Shake Records (Canada), 1995 Real Cool Records (Japan)
Band includes Joey Kline, Jimbo Sangster, Scott McCaughey, Tad Hutchison, all sometime Squirrels;  Rob Morgan is ""guest vocalist"" on 2 tracks.
The Squirrels, ""Too Bad"", on compilation Peace Wave (Seattle Peace Concerts compilation CD Vol. 2) 1996 Seattle Peace Concerts CD
The Squirrels, Scrapin' for Hits (27 song ""Best Of"" CD), 1996 Poplust Audio CD
The Squirrels, ""With All My Might"", on Sparks tribute Amateur Hour-When Do I Get To Do It My Way; AAIIEE (with Rob Morgan on vocals) ""At Home At Work At Play""; 1999 Fan Mael Records (The Netherlands)
The Squirrels, The Not-So-Bright Side Of The Moon, 2000: Popllama Products
The Squirrels, Digital Snowman (expanded CD-R version of the Christmas album) 2000 Poplust Audio
The Squirrels, Live Bootleg Vol. One (limited edition CD-R, booklet) 2001 Poplust Audio Archival Series
The Squirrels, ""Hawaii Take 5-0"", on compilation Hold The Vocals: A Tribute to the Instrumental Hits of the 50s 60s 70s 2001 GO-Kustom Rekords
The Squirrels, Rock Polisher, recorded 2002, not yet released.
The Squirrels, SQ/25, 2009 Spirderdog Records/Rancho Canyon Music, under license from Poplust Audio


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Stephen Tow, The Strangest Tribe: How a Group of Seattle Rock Bands Invented Grunge (2011), Sasquatch Books (Seattle), especially p. 56-64, ""Pop Lust for Life: Rob Morgan and the Squirrels"". ISBN 1570617430.


== External links ==

Former Official site Archived 2006-08-30 at the Wayback Machine
Semi-official site on band-member Jimmy Thomas's domain
Dennis R. White, Rob Morgan and The Squirrels, Jive Time Records Northwest Music History
YouTube channel of band member Jimmy Thomas contains several Squirrels videos, mostly live footage but also two ""The Squirrels From Home"" videos produced during the COVID-19 pandemic."
Daniel Butterfield,"Daniel Adams Butterfield (October 31, 1831 – July 17, 1901) was a New York businessman, a Union general in the American Civil War, and Assistant Treasurer of the United States.
After working for American Express, co-founded by his father, Butterfield served in the Civil War, where he was soon promoted brigadier general, and wounded at Gaines' Mill. While recuperating, he either wrote or re-wrote a popular bugle-call for burials, called Taps. He commanded a division at Fredericksburg, and then became General Joseph Hooker's chief of staff for the Army of the Potomac, sharing both the credit for improved morale and responsibility for the licentious behavior that Hooker tolerated in camp. He also became embroiled in Hooker’s political feuds with Generals Ambrose Burnside and George Gordon Meade.  When Meade took over the Army from Hooker, he attempted to replace Butterfield, but his chosen candidates preferred to stay in their current assignments, so Butterfield stayed on as chief of staff, to Meade's dissatisfaction.
Wounded at Gettysburg, Meade sent Butterfield away to recuperate.  He then served in William T. Sherman’s Atlanta campaign, before retiring from front-line service through illness. He later received the Medal of Honor.
In Ulysses S. Grant's presidential administration, he was Assistant Treasurer of the United States, abusing that position to manipulate the price of gold, and being forced to resign. He then resumed his business career. 
Butterfield’s extensive war archives are displayed at Cold Spring, New York.


== Early life ==
Butterfield was born on October 31, 1831, in Utica, New York. He attended Union Academy and then graduated in 1849, from Union College in Schenectady, New York, where he became a member of the Sigma Phi Society. That same year, his father, John Warren Butterfield, founded the express company of Butterfield, Wasson, and Co., which later became the American Express Company. After graduating, Daniel studied law but as he was too young to sit the New York bar exam, he toured the country instead. Upon his return to Utica, he joined the Utica Citizen’s Corps as a private. He was employed in various businesses in New York and the South, including the American Express Company, which had been co-founded by his father, an owner of the Overland Mail Company, stage-coaches, steamships and telegraph lines.


== Civil War ==

Butterfield went to New York City as superintendent of the eastern division of his father's company. There, he joined the Seventy-First regiment of New York militia as a captain. Shortly after the fall of Fort Sumter, Butterfield joined the Clay Guards of Washington, D.C., as a first sergeant, but subsequently transferred to the 12th New York Volunteer Infantry as a colonel.
He was commissioned brigadier and major general of the Volunteers and commanded a division of the V Corps. He fought at the First Battle of Bull Run on 21 July 1861. He wrote the 1862 Army field manual, Camp and Outpost Duty for Infantry.
Butterfield joined Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac for the Peninsula Campaign in the V Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter.  In the Seven Days Battles, at Gaines' Mill on June 27, 1862, he was wounded but demonstrated the bravery that was eventually recognized in 1892, with the Medal of Honor.
Butterfield continued in brigade command at the Second Battle of Bull Run and the Battle of Antietam, became division commander and then V Corps commander for the Battle of Fredericksburg. His corps was one of those assaulting through the city before facing an assault from Marye's Heights. After the debacles of Fredericksburg and the Mud March, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker replaced Ambrose Burnside as Army of the Potomac commander and Butterfield became Hooker's chief of staff in January 1863. Butterfield was promoted to major general of volunteers in March 1863, with a date of rank of November 29, 1862.
Hooker and Butterfield developed a close personal and political relationship. To the disgust of many army generals, their headquarters were frequented by women and liquor, being described as a combination of a ""bar and brothel"". Political infighting became rampant in the high command and Butterfield was widely disliked by most of his colleagues. However, in the spring of 1863, the two officers managed to turn around the poor morale of the army and greatly improved food, shelter and medical support. During this period Butterfield introduced another custom that remains in the Army today: the use of distinctive hat or shoulder patches to denote the unit to which a soldier belongs, in this case the corps. He was inspired by the division patches used earlier by Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, but extended those to the full army; Butterfield designed most of the patches himself.
Hooker was replaced after the Battle of Chancellorsville by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, just before the Battle of Gettysburg. Meade distrusted Butterfield, but retained him as chief of staff. Butterfield was wounded at Gettysburg on July 3, 1863, and left active duty to convalesce. Meade removed him as chief of staff on July 14, 1863.  On July 1, 1863, Butterfield was appointed as colonel of the 5th United States Infantry.
After Gettysburg, Butterfield actively undermined Meade in cooperation with Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, another crony of Hooker's. Although the battle was a great Union victory, Sickles and Butterfield testified to the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War that Meade vacillated and planned as early as July 1, to retreat from Gettysburg, thus damaging his reputation. Butterfield's chief evidence for this assertion was the Pipe Creek Circular that Meade had his staff prepare before it became apparent there would be a battle at Gettysburg.
Butterfield returned to duty that fall as chief of staff once again for Hooker, now commanding two corps in the Army of the Cumberland at Chattanooga, Tennessee. When these two depleted corps (the XI and XII Corps) were combined to form the XX Corps, Butterfield was given the 3rd Division, which he led through the first half of Sherman's Atlanta Campaign. Illness prevented his continuing with Sherman, resulting in Butterfield's assuming light duties at Vicksburg, Mississippi, followed by recruiting and the command of harbor forces in New York.


=== Taps ===
While the Union Army recuperated at Harrison's Landing, Virginia, from its grueling withdrawal during the Seven Days Battles, Butterfield experimented with bugle calls and is credited with the composition of ""Taps"". He wrote ""Taps"" to replace the customary firing of three rifle volleys at the end of burials during battle. ""Taps"" also replaced Tattoo, the French bugle call to signal ""lights out"". Butterfield's bugler, Oliver W. Norton of the 83rd Pennsylvania Volunteers, was the first to sound the new call. Within months, ""Taps"" was played by buglers in both the Union and Confederate armies. This account has been disputed by some military and musical historians, who maintain Butterfield merely revised an earlier call known as the Scott Tattoo and did not compose an original work.


=== Medal of Honor ===

Rank and organization: Brigadier General, U.S. Volunteers. Place and date: At Gaines Mill, Va., June 27, 1862. Entered service at: Washington, D.C. Born: October 31, 1831, Utica, N.Y. Date of issue: September 26, 1892.
The 1896 Pattern Medal of Honor was awarded to Daniel Butterfield, “for distinguished gallantry in action at Gaines Mills, Va. June 27, 1862”.
Citation: ""Seized the colors of the 83d Pennsylvania Volunteers at a critical moment and, under a galling fire of the enemy, encouraged the depleted ranks to renewed exertion.""


== Life after the Civil War ==
After the war, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Butterfield Assistant Treasurer of the United States, based on a recommendation by Abel Corbin, Grant's brother-in-law. Butterfield agreed to tell Corbin and speculators Jay Gould and James Fisk when the government was planning to sell gold, a market that Fisk and Gould wanted to corner. Butterfield accepted $10,000 from Gould, which Butterfield said was ""to cover expenses"". Butterfield later testified to Congress that it was an unsecured real estate loan. If Butterfield tipped them off, then Fisk and Gould would sell their gold before the price dropped. The scheme was uncovered by Grant, who sold $4,000,000 of government gold without telling Butterfield, resulting in the panic of collapsing gold prices known as Black Friday, on September 24, 1869.
Butterfield resigned from the Treasury Department in October 1869.  He then became active in business and banking, including an executive position with American Express.  He was also active in Union College's alumni association and several veterans organizations, including the Grand Army of the Republic.
On September 21, 1886, Butterfield married Mrs. Julia Lorrilard Safford James of New York in a ceremony in London. The Butterfields built a summer residence, Craigside, across the Hudson River from West Point in Cold Spring, New York, where Daniel Butterfield died on July 17, 1901. He was buried with an ornate monument in the West Point Cemetery at the United States Military Academy, although he had not attended that institution. Taps was sounded at his funeral.


== Legacy ==
The Butterfield Paramedic Institute in Cold Spring, New York, which was once a hospital, is named for him.


=== Archives ===
The Julia L Butterfield Memorial Library in Cold Spring, New York is named for Butterfield's wife. The General Daniel Butterfield Civil War Collection is located there and include correspondence from Union generals, telegrams from Secretary of War Stanton and Gen. Sherman as he approached Atlanta, a battle map of Gettysburg, handwritten casualty lists, a manuscript by a field officer detailing the Battle of Gettysburg, and other material.
Bequeathed to the library by his widow in 1927, the collection's historical significance was not known until April 2011 when the West Point Museum Director and Chief Curator David Reel reviewed the collection.  According to Reel, ""The historical importance of the collection is unquestionable as a comprehensive archive of a major figure of the American Civil War and contains documents and letters, telegrams from 1861-64 that are irreplaceable and significant in content. . . No doubt, scholars of United States History and specifically the American Civil War will find a treasure trove of original, period material within the archive.""
There is a statue of the general by Gutzon Borglum in Sakura Park in Manhattan.


=== Cragside ===
A part of the Butterfield estate, ""Cragside"", is named for the rocky cliffs on the property. The house was built from the rock quarried on the property. The property was by all accounts a beautiful estate with elaborate gardens. Some of the stables from the estate are still standing and used by the Haldane Central School District. Cragside was purchased around 1931 by the Fathers of Mercy. Founded in France in early 19th-century, the congregation established the parish of St. Vincent de Paul Church in Manhattan in 1841 for French-speaking Catholics. The Cold Spring property was the location of St. Joseph's Novitiate. The structure was destroyed by fire in the late 1970s. The property was later sold, and eventually acquired by the Haldane Central School District. Haldane's high school building was built on the property and opened in 2005.


== In popular culture ==
Butterfield appears in the Civil War novel The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara – a character in the 20th Maine claims that their brigade bugle call was written by Butterfield and is based on his own name.
He was also referenced in the movie Glory.


== See also ==

List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F
List of American Civil War generals (Union)


== References ==
Notes

Bibliography

Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
Hyde, Bill. The Union Generals Speak: The Meade Hearings on the Battle of Gettysburg. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-8071-2581-6.
Smith, Jean Edward. Grant. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-84927-5.


== External links ==

Works by or about Daniel Butterfield at the Internet Archive
""Account of Taps that disputes Butterfield's composition"". Retrieved September 27, 2010.
""Report of Brig. Gen. Daniel Butterfield, U. S. Army, commanding Third Brigade, of engagement May 27, 1862"", United States War Dept., 1884"
Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient,"The Corps Expéditionnaire d'Orient (Oriental Expeditionary Force) (CEO) was a French expeditionary force raised for service during the Gallipoli Campaign in World War I. The corps initially consisted of a single infantry division, but later grew to two divisions. It took part in fighting around Kum Kale, on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, at the start of the campaign before being moved to Cape Helles where it fought alongside British formations for the remainder of the campaign. In October 1915, the corps was reduced to one division again and was finally evacuated from the Gallipoli peninsula in January 1916 when it ceased to exist.


== Formation ==
Initially, the force consisted of 16,700 troops organised into one division, made up of two brigades, which included ""metropolitan"" French, and colonial troops. The so-called metropolitan units included two battalions of zouaves, mainly recruited from French settlers (Pieds-Noirs) in Algeria and Tunisia, plus one battalion of the Foreign Legion, both troop types associated with the 19th Military District of Metropolitan France, known as the Armee d'Afrique. They were joined by the 175th regiment of French line infantry, its troops provided by the other 18 military districts of (mainland) Metropolitan France. The colonial troops consisted of both West African Tirailleurs Senegalais and white regulars of colonial infantry (""marsouins""), amounting to four and two battalions respectively.  The force had a strong divisional artillery, consisting of six field and two mountain batteries, but having been raised quickly, it received only limited training as a formation. With only two brigades it was smaller than the British divisions that took part in the campaign, having a strength of 16,762 men.
Later in the campaign, the corps was expanded to include a second division. Supporting Corps troops and additional artillery were subsequently shipped to Gallipoli. Four squadrons of cavalry were also present, the unit being renamed as the 8th provisional regiment of Chasseurs d'Afrique on 29 July 1915.

Troops assigned to the corps wore varying coloured uniforms, even in combat, in contrast to those worn by some of the other nations which they fought alongside. War correspondent Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett, writing from Gallipoli, provides this account of a scene around Krithia in May 1915: ""Neither was the picturesque element of colour absent from the scene, as in most modern battles, for amidst the green and yellow of the fields and gardens the dark blue uniforms of the Senegalese, the red trousers of the Zouaves, and the new light blue uniform of the Infantry showed up in pleasant contrast amidst the dull-hued masses of the British brigades.""


== Operational service ==

Following the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war on the Central Powers side in late 1914, the Allies began preparations to capture the Dardanelles in order to secure a supply route to Russia. As part of these preparations, the Corps Expeditionnaire d'Orient was raised on 22 February 1915 under the command of General Albert d'Amade, who had previously served in Morocco and the Western Front.
Throughout February and March, Anglo-French naval forces attempted to penetrate the Dardanelles, aided by small landing parties that were put ashore to destroy Ottoman fortifications. Several small-scale operations were undertaken, starting on 19 February, but they were hampered by bad weather which delayed the main attack until 18 March. Entering the straits in broad daylight, the force was heavily engaged by Ottoman shore batteries and following heavy losses from mines and shelling, they were forced to turn back. After this, the Allied strategy to capture the Dardanelles turned towards a large-scale landing.

Hastily formed, after assembling on Lemnos there had been no time for the corps to undertake large-scale training before it was committed to the land campaign. During the initial Allied landing on 25 April, the corps undertook a diversionary landing on the Dardanelles Asiatic coast around Kum Kale, to divert Ottoman forces away from the main landings on the Gallipoli Peninsula, and to disrupt Ottoman artillery that could have fired upon the main landings. The 6th Mixed Colonial Regiment led the division ashore, supported by three battleships and a Russian warship. Part of the first wave was turned back by heavy fire, but the rest managed to get ashore and they proceeded to secure the village and an Ottoman fort. Throughout the course of 26 April, the Ottoman 3rd Division counterattacked, but the following day, having lost over 2,200 killed or wounded, the Ottomans began surrendering to the French in large numbers. Nevertheless, the French were withdrawn shortly afterwards, having lost about 300 killed and 500 wounded.
Following this, the French force re-embarked and was landed at Cape Helles, where they took up a position on the right flank around 'S' Beach. On 28 April, the commander of the C.E.O. set up the French headquarters at the old castle situated at Sedd el Bahr. With a strength of 24 companies, they subsequently took part in the First Battle of Krithia on 28 April. In early May, the Ottoman forces launched a heavy counterattack on the Allied positions with a force of over 16,000 men. The attack was beaten back, but the French division suffered heavy casualties – up to 2,000 men – and at the height of the assault some of the Senegalese and Zouaves ""broke and ran"". As a result, the 2nd Naval Brigade from the British Royal Naval Division, had to take over some of their positions. Reinforcements were brought in, including a second French division, which arrived between 6 and 8 May, although they did not arrive in time to take part in the Second Battle of Krithia, during which the 1st Division  attacked towards the Kereves Dere gully, and although they made slow progress they eventually managed to secure the high ground overlooking this position before the attack petered out.

D'Amade was replaced as commander of the corps in late May when he was dismissed and recalled to France. He was replaced by General Henri Gouraud. On 4 June, both divisions took part in the Third Battle of Krithia, once again forming the right of the Allied line as part of the effort to take Achi Baba, a high feature that dominated the Allied position. The six French batteries were detached to support the British, while the infantry were tasked with attacking the Haricot Redoubt, overlooking the Kereves Dere spur. Attacking in daylight, but possessing a numerical superiority, the Allies made ground across a broad front, before the French were forced back by an Ottoman counterattack, and suffering 2,000 casualties. Regaining positions on the right, the Ottomans were able to enfilade the British positions and eventually they too were forced back, and the attack ultimately failed. In preparation for the August Offensive, minor attacks continued around Helles, and the French undertook further attacks on the Haricot Redoubt, which they subsequently took on 21 June albeit with heavy casualties. In the four days fighting, from 21 to 25 June, the French suffered over 2,500 killed and wounded. 
On 30 June, command of the corps changed again when Gouraud, who had been viewed with considerable respect by the British commander, Ian Hamilton, was wounded while touring the front line to boost the morale of his troops. He was replaced by Maurice Bailloud, who had previously commanded one of the corps' divisions. On 12 July, an allied attack at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost 2,500 casualties out of 7,500 men; the Royal Naval Division had 600 casualties and French losses were 800 men. Ottoman losses were about 9,000 casualties and 600 prisoners.


== Corps expéditionnaire des Dardanelles ==

A period of stalemate followed, and after the August Offensive failed to break the deadlock, the Allied commanders at Gallipoli requested heavy reinforcements. The French initially proposed to send a further four divisions, but following Bulgaria's entry into the war, this was cancelled, and in late September one of the corps' divisions was diverted to Salonika, on the Macedonian front. On 24 September, a secret telegram was despatched from the French Minister of War to Bailloud. He was ordered to prepare a division of the C.E.O. composed exclusively of metropolitan units to be sent to aid Serbia. Bailloud and the reconstituted division commenced embarkation on 30 September. The division resumed its nomenclature of 156th Infantry Division, and was no longer referred to as the 2nd Division of the C.E.O. thereafter. At the same time, the 10th (Irish) Division was also shipped from Gallipoli, to counter the threat from Bulgaria.
As the French began to refocus their actions in the Mediterranean around Salonika, the Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient was renamed the ""Corps expéditionnaire des Dardanelles"" on 4 October. Notwithstanding the reduction in troop levels, a total of 21,000 French troops remained on the peninsula to show political support to the British nevertheless. There were 8,599 men in the 12 infantry battalions as at 1 October 1915, according to the first report from the C.E.D.'s new commander. The attrition through combat deaths and sickness due to the poor sanitary conditions meant that none of the four infantry regiments had maintained their establishment strength of 120 officers and 3,150 other ranks. The corps remained in existence until 6 January 1916 when, following the evacuation of French forces from the peninsula, it was subsumed into the larger Army of the Orient serving in Salonika.  

In the autumn of 1915, there were concerns as to the ability of the Senegalese to cope with the winter weather, and their withdrawal from Gallipoli was proposed, once the British agreed to replace them. In order to facilitate this, the 57th and 58th regiments were to be composed of Senegalese, with the 54th and 56th composed of Marsouins. This reconstitution took place on 11 December 1915. Similarly, five companies of creoles were detached from the 54th and 56th in order to be sent to a wintering camp. The plan did not go ahead. The creole companies of the 54th were detached on 15 December, and returned to their unit on 22 January 1916. The two locations for the ""wintering"" were either Egypt or Algeria. For political reasons, it was deemed inappropriate to send  them there, but to keep them on Lesbos. It was usual practice for Senegalese to be sent to Fréjus for a period of ""wintering"" (hivernage), but this location did not get proposed as an alternative, notwithstanding its previous mention by General Joffre. The men of the 58th were evacuated in batches between 16 December and 5 January, whilst the 57th were evacuated by a convoy of several ships on 13 December 1915. The marsouins of the 54th and the 56th were evacuated on 2 and 3 January 1916 respectively. Six older artillery pieces were destroyed and abandoned, two 140 mm guns (modèle 1884) and four 240 mm guns (modèle 1876), given that it was not possible to embark all of the heavy guns.
At its height, following the deployment of its second division in May, the corps' strength was around 42,000 men. Overall, 79,000 men served in the corps throughout the duration of the campaign. Casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000 killed, wounded or sick. Of these, 27,169 were specifically killed, wounded or missing with an implied 20,000 who fell sick. Out of 6,092 missing men, less than one percent were taken prisoner. There is a sole French cemetery on the peninsula, situated to the north of Morto Bay. Veterans were eligible for the Dardanelles campaign medal that was authorised on 15 June 1926.


== Order of battle ==
Sources:  

1st Division (renamed as fr:17e division d'infanterie coloniale on 6 January 1916) under Jean-Marie Brulard

1st Metropolitan Brigade
175th Regiment
three battalions of metropolitan infantry
1st Provisional African Regiment
composed of a Foreign Legion battalion and two Zouave battalions. 
2nd Colonial Brigade
4th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two Senegalese battalions and one European battalion
6th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two Senegalese battalions and one European battalion
Divisional Troops
Groupe Holtzapfel – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 1st Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Major Holtzapfel
Groupe Charpy – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 8th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Major Charpy
Groupe Benedittini – 2 batteries (4x 65 mm mountain guns apiece) of the 2nd Mountain Artillery Regiment commanded by Major Benedittini (succeeded by Major Grépinet)
Supporting elements for engineering, logistical and medical services

2nd Division (156th Infantry Division (France)) under Maurice Bailloud, which disembarked in May 1915

3rd Metropolitan Brigade
176th Regiment
three battalions of metropolitan infantry
2nd Provisional African Regiment
composed of three Zouave battalions
4th Colonial Brigade
7th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two Senegalese battalions and one European battalion
8th Mixed Colonial Regiment
mixed composition of two European battalions and one Senegalese battalion
Divisional Troops
Groupe Deslions – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 17th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Deslions 
Groupe Mercadier – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 25th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Mercadier (succeeded by Captain Salin) 
Groupe Roux – 3 batteries (4x 75mm field guns apiece) of the 47th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Roux (succeeded by Major Mercadier)
Supporting elements for engineering, logistical and medical services

Corps Troops

Corps Artillery:
1 Heavy Battery of 120 mm field artillery commanded by Captain Delval 
1 Heavy Battery of 155 mm field artillery
1 Heavy Battery of 6x 155 mm howitzers of the 2nd Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Gavois
1 Heavy Battery of 6x 155 mm howitzers of the 48th Field Artillery Regiment commanded by Captain Kolyczko 
1 Siege gun battery of 2x Canon de 240 mm mle 1884 sur affût à échantigolles
1 Siege gun battery of 4x 240 mm mle 1876 on a pivoted firing platform
Battery of naval guns of 2 Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1891 and 2 Canon de 140 sur affut-truc mle 1884
Corps Cavalry
4 squadrons of Chasseurs d'Afrique
Miscellaneous
1 squadron of supply train
4 sections to support the Artillery park
1 field company of Engineers
Signallers, comprising two detachments of telegraphists, and one of radio-telegraphy
2 detachments of Military Police
Escadrille MF98T situated at Tenedos airfield
Rear echelon support units at Mudros base
Rear echelon support units at Cape Helles base 


== Notes and citations ==
Notes

Citations


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Cassar, George H. (2019). Reluctant Partner: The Complete Story of the French Participation in the Dardanelles Expedition of 1915. Warwick: Helion. ISBN 978-1-911628-92-7.
Cooper, Augustus Richard (2016). ""6 With the Foreign Legion in Gallipoli"". In Bilton, Rachel (ed.). In the Trenches: Those Who Were There. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-6715-4.
Dardanelles, Orient, Levant: 1915–1921 Ce que les combattants ont écrit [Dardanelles, Orient, Levant: 1915–1921 A compendium of veterans' eyewitness accounts] (in French). Preface written by Michèle Alliot-Marie. Paris: Association nationale pour le souvenir des Dardanelles et fronts d'Orient. 2005. ISBN 2-7475-7905-0.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: others (link)
Ferreira, Sylvain (2015). L'Expédition française aux Dardanelles - Avril 1915 - Janvier 1916. Collection Illustoria. Clermont-Ferrand: Lemme Edit. ISBN 978-2-917575-59-8.
Jauffret, Jean-Charles [in French] (2000) [1996]. ""The Gallipoli Campaign: the French point of view"" [L'expédition des Dardanelles vue du côté français]. In Gilbert, Martin (ed.). The Straits of War. The Gallipoli Memorial Lectures 1985–2000. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-2408-5.
Horne, John (2019). ""A Colonial Expedition? French Soldiers' Experience at the Dardanelles"". War and Society. 38 (4): 286–304. doi:10.1080/07292473.2019.1643493. S2CID 201420971.
Saint-Ramond, Francine (2019). Les Désorientés: Expériences des soldats français aux Dardanelles et en Macédoine, 1915-1919 (in French). Presses de l’Inalco. ISBN 978-2-85-831299-3.
Vassal, Joseph (1916). Uncensored Letters from the Dardanelles: Written to His English Wife by a French Medical Officer. Preface written by Albert d'Amade. London: William Heinemann. OCLC 800491901."
List of Chrysotus species,"This is a list of 560 species in Chrysotus, a genus of long-legged flies in the family Dolichopodidae.


== Chrysotus species ==

Unrecognised species:

Chrysotus basalis Philippi, 1865
Chrysotus bicolor Macquart, 1827
Chrysotus chinensis Wiedemann, 1830
Chrysotus concinnarius Say, 1829
Chrysotus deremptus (Walker, 1849)
Chrysotus incertus Walker, 1849
Chrysotus nigripes (Fabricius, 1794)
Chrysotus nubilus Say, 1829
Chrysotus rufipes Meigen, 1838
Chrysotus virescens von Roser, 1840
Chrysotus viridifemora Macquart, 1850
The following species are synonyms of other species:

Chrysotus albifacies (Parent, 1929): Synonym of C. aldrichi (Van Duzee, 1915)
Chrysotus alterum Becker, 1922: Synonym of C. alternus Becker, 1922
Chrysotus amplicornis Kowarz, 1874: Synonym of C. obscuripes Zetterstedt, 1838
Chrysotus amplicornis Zetterstedt, 1849: Synonym of C. laesus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus andorrensis Parent, 1938: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus andreji Negrobov, 1986: Synonym of C. andrei Negrobov, 1986
Chrysotus angulicornis Buchmann, 1961: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus approximatus (Aldrich, 1896): Synonym of C. spectabilis (Loew, 1861)
Chrysotus arvernicus Vaillant & Brunhes, 1980: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus atripes von Roser, 1840: Synonym of C. cupreus Macquart, 1827
Chrysotus azoricus Frey, 1945: Synonym of C. elongatus Parent, 1934
Chrysotus brevispina Van Duzee, 1933: Synonym of C. brevicornis Van Duzee, 1933
Chrysotus callidus Parent, 1944: Synonym of C. cilipes Meigen, 1824
Chrysotus ciliatus Malloch, 1914: Synonym of C. choricus Wheeler, 1890
Chrysotus cobaltinus Van Duzee, 1924: Synonym of C. discolor Loew, 1861
Chrysotus communis Van Duzee, 1932: Synonym of C. vanduzeei (Robinson, 1964)
Chrysotus copiosus Meigen, 1824: Synonym of C. neglectus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus costatus Van Duzee, 1915: Synonym of C. costalis Loew, 1861
Chrysotus diligens Parent, 1931: Synonym of C. viridis Becker, 1922
Chrysotus dubius Van Duzee, 1924: Synonym of C. hirtipes Van Duzee, 1924
Chrysotus enderleini Parent, 1938: Synonym of C. laesus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus exiguus Van Duzee, 1924: Synonym of C. parvicornis Van Duzee, 1924
Chrysotus exunguis (Thomson, 1869): Synonym of C spectabilis (Loew, 1861)
Chrysotus facialis Gerstäcker, 1864: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus fascialis Becker, 1918: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus femoralis Meigen, 1824: Synonym of C. neglectus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus flavipalpis Van Duzee, 1930: Synonym of C. ochropus Thomson, 1869
Chrysotus flavohirtus Robinson, 1970: Synonym of C. fulvohirtus Van Duzee, 1915
Chrysotus gramineus Meigen, 1838: Synonym of C. varians Kowarz, 1874
Chrysotus infuscatus (Van Duzee, 1915): Synonym of C. leucostoma (Loew, 1861)
Chrysotus insularis (Parent, 1933): Synonym of C. insularis (Lamb, 1933)
Chrysotus intermedius Frey, 1945: Synonym of C. polychaetus Frey, 1945
Chrysotus kowarzi Lundbeck, 1912: Synonym of C. obscuripes Zetterstedt, 1838
Chrysotus laesus (Fallén, 1823): Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus latifacies Van Duzee, 1933: Synonym of C. brevicornis Van Duzee, 1933
Chrysotus licenti Parent, 1944: Synonym of C. femoratus Zetterstedt, 1843
Chrysotus longipalpus Edwards, 1932: Synonym of C. longipalpus Aldrich, 1896
Chrysotus longipes Van Duzee, 1927: Synonym of C. parvulus (Aldrich, 1896)
Chrysotus lundbladi Frey, 1939: Synonym of C. neglectus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus magnipalpus Van Duzee, 1927: Synonym of C. crosbyi Van Duzee, 1924
Chrysotus melanopus Parent, 1926: Synonym of C. cupreus Macquart, 1827
Chrysotus mexicanus Robinson, 1967: Synonym of C. brevicornis Van Duzee, 1933
Chrysotus microcerus Kowarz, 1874: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus minimus (Meigen, 1830): Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus minor Frey, 1945: Synonym of C. polychaetus Frey, 1945
Chrysotus miritibia Parent, 1933: Synonym of C. brevitibia Van Duzee, 1927
Chrysotus neotropicus Dyte, 1980: synonym of C. hirsutus Aldrich, 1896
Chrysotus nigerrimus Becker, 1918: Synonym of C. alpicola Strobl, 1893
Chrysotus nigripes Meigen, 1824: Mixed species – C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823), C. laesus (Wiedemann, 1817) and C. varians Kowarz, 1874
Chrysotus pallidipalpus Van Duzee, 1933: Synonym of C. longipalpus Aldrich, 1896
Chrysotus plagius (Vanschuytbroeck, 1952): Synonym of C. upembaensis (Vanschuytbroeck, 1952)
Chrysotus pratincola Wheeler, 1890: Synonym of C. subcostatus Loew, 1864
Chrysotus pulvillatus Parent, 1920: Synonym of C. varians Kowarz, 1874
Chrysotus romanicus Pârvu, 1995: Synonym of C. viridifemoratus von Roser, 1840
Chrysotus sagittarius Van Duzee, 1924: Synonym of C. longipalpus Aldrich, 1896
Chrysotus setosus Van Duzee, 1931 (preoccupied by C. setosus Giebel, 1856): synonym of C. hirsutus Aldrich, 1896
Chrysotus spinifer Malloch, 1914: Synonym of C. palpiger (Wheeler, 1890)
Chrysotus subciliatus Frey, 1945: Synonym of C. elongatus Parent, 1934
Chrysotus taeniomerus Meigen, 1830: Synonym of C. neglectus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus varians Kowarz, 1874: Synonym of C. gramineus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus viridulus (Fallén, 1823): Synonym of C. neglectus (Wiedemann, 1817)
Chrysotus vittatas (Van Duzee, 1915): Synonym of C. leucostoma (Loew, 1861)
Chrysotus vittatus (Van Duzee, 1915): Synonym of C. leucostoma (Loew, 1861)
Chrysotus vulgaris Van Duzee, 1933 (preoccupied by C. vulgaris Van Duzee, 1924): Synonym of C. longipalpus Aldrich, 1896
Chrysotus wisconensis Foot et al, 1965: Synonym of C. wisconsinensis Wheeler, 1890
Chrysotus zlobini Negrobov, 2000: Synonym of C. zlobiniani Negrobov & Maslova, 1995
The following species were moved to other genera:

Chrysotus abdominalis Say, 1829: moved to Thrypticus
Chrysotus albisignatus Becker, 1924: moved to Sympycnus
Chrysotus americanus (Wheeler, 1896): moved to Achradocera, synonym of Achradocera barbata (Loew, 1861)
Chrysotus angustifacies (Becker, 1922): moved to Achradocera, synonym of Achradocera apicalis (Aldrich, 1896)
Chrysotus annulatus Macquart, 1842: moved to Lyroneurus
Chrysotus apicalis Aldrich, 1896: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus arcuatus Van Duzee, 1924: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus barbatus (Loew, 1861): moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus basilaris Curran, 1924: moved to Sympycnus
Chrysotus brasiliensis Van Duzee, 1933: moved to Micromorphus
Chrysotus chilensis Van Duzee, 1930: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus cinerellus Zetterstedt, 1838: moved to Sympycnus, synonym of Sympycnus pulicarius (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus concinnarius Say, 1829: moved to Diaphorus
Chrysotus contractus Van Duzee, 1929: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus cupreus (Macquart, 1839): moved to Campsicnemus
Chrysotus distendens Meigen, 1824: moved to Nematoproctus
Chrysotus diversus Zetterstedt, 1843: moved to Chrysotimus, synonym of Chrysotimus molliculus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus divisus Strobl, 1880: moved to Thrypticus
Chrysotus edwardsi Van Duzee, 1930: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus exactus Walker, 1859: moved to Asyndetus
Chrysotus excavatus Van Duzee, 1924: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus femoralis (Becker, 1922): moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus femoratus Bigot, 1890: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus flavipes von Roser, 1840: moved to Medetera, synonym of Medetera insignis Girschner, 1888
Chrysotus flaviventris von Roser, 1840: moved to Chrysotimus
Chrysotus flavus Aldrich, 1896: moved to Xanthina
Chrysotus hawaiiensis Grimshaw, 1901: moved to Eurynogaster
Chrysotus incumbens Becker, 1924: moved to Diaphorus
Chrysotus insignis (Parent, 1933): moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus laetus Meigen, 1824: moved to Chrysotimus, synonym of Chrysotimus molliculus (Fallén, 1823)
Chrysotus lividiventris Becker, 1924: moved to Diaphorus
Chrysotus longiseta (Parent, 1933): moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus luctuosus Bigot, 1888: moved to Sympycnus
Chrysotus magnicornis Zetterstedt, 1843: moved to Rhaphium
Chrysotus meridionalis (Becker, 1922): moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus molliculus (Fallén, 1823): moved to Chrysotimus
Chrysotus niger Loew, 1869: moved to Acropsilus
Chrysotus nigricilius Loew, 1871: moved to Melanostolus
Chrysotus nigricosta von Roser, 1840: moved to Teuchophorus
Chrysotus parthenus Hardy & Kohn, 1964: moved to Diaphorus
Chrysotus parvus Van Duzee, 1924: moved to Telmaturgus
Chrysotus pumilus (Meigen, 1824): moved to Syntormon
Chrysotus quadratus Van Duzee, 1924: moved to Thinophilus, synonym of Thinophilus viridifacies Van Duzee, 1924
Chrysotus rhaphioides Zetterstedt, 1838: moved to Hercostomus, synonym of Hercostomus metallicus (Stannius, 1831)
Chrysotus satrapa (Wheeler, 1890): moved to Diaphorus
Chrysotus saxatilis Grimshaw, 1901: moved to Elmoia
Chrysotus shannoni Van Duzee, 1930: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus signatus Zetterstedt, 1849: moved to Telmaturgus, synonym of Teuchophorus nigricosta (von Roser, 1840)
Chrysotus spiniger Grimshaw, 1901: moved to Eurynogaster
Chrysotus superbus Vanschuytbroeck, 1951: moved to Telmaturgus, synonym of Telmaturgus munroi (Curran, 1925)
Chrysotus thoracicus Philippi, 1865: moved to Achalcus
Chrysotus tuberculatus Van Duzee, 1931: moved to Achradocera
Chrysotus validus Loew, 1861: moved to Achradocera, synonym of Achradocera barbata (Loew, 1861)
†Chrysotus decorus Meunier, 1907: moved to Plesiomedetera
†Chrysotus lepidus Meunier, 1907: moved to Plesiomedetera
†Chrysotus praeconcinnus Evenhuis, 1994 (= Chrysotus concinnus Meunier, 1907): moved to Palaeomedeterus
The following species were renamed:

Chrysotus aldrichi Van Duzee, 1924: renamed to C. vockerothi Pollet in Pollet, Brooks & Cumming, 2004
Chrysotus annulatus Van Duzee, 1924: renamed to C. millardi Meuffels & Grootaert, 1999
Chrysotus apicalis Parent, 1932: renamed to C. parapicalis Bickel & Dyte, 1989
Chrysotus bicolor Vanschuytbroeck, 1951: renamed to C. pauli Meuffels & Grootaert, 1999
Chrysotus caudatus Van Duzee, 1931: renamed to C. caudatulus Van Duzee, 1932
Chrysotus disjunctus Van Duzee, 1924: renamed to Diaphorus millardi Meuffels & Grootaert, 1999
Chrysotus flavus Vanschuytbroeck, 1957: renamed to C. madagascariensis Dyte & Smith, 1980 (now in Peloropeodes)
Chrysotus infirmus Wei, Zhang & Zhou, 2014: renamed to C. weii Zhou, 2016
Chrysotus magnicornis Parent, 1928: renamed to C. grandicornis Parent, 1930
Chrysotus magnicornis Van Duzee, 1924: renamed to C. megaloceras Meuffels & Grootaert, 1999
Chrysotus minimus Robinson, 1975: renamed to C. microtatus Meuffels & Grootaert, 1999
Chrysotus nudus Harmston & Knowlton, 1963: renamed to C. harmstoni Meuffels & Grootaert, 1999
Chrysotus parvulus Van Duzee, 1924: renamed to C. milvadu Runyon, 2020
Chrysotus quadratus Wang & Yang, 2006: renamed to C. liui Wang & Yang, 2008
Chrysotus vicinus Parent, 1933: renamed to C. kallweiti Capellari & Amorim, 2014
The following species are unplaced in the family Dolichopodidae:

†Chrysotus setosus Giebel, 1856
The following species are nomina nuda:

†Chrysotus antipellus Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus apicalis Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus ciliatus Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus dasycerus Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus delecocerus Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus furcatus Keilbach, 1982
Chrysotus ringdahli Ringdahl, 1928
Chrysotus rotundus Wei, Zhang & Zhou, 2014
†Chrysotus semiciliatus Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus stylatus Keilbach, 1982
†Chrysotus terminaeus Keilbach, 1982
Chrysotus tibialis Stephens, 1829


== References =="
Luca Guadagnino's unrealized projects,"Over the course of his career, Italian filmmaker Luca Guadagnino has amassed a number of projects he worked on that never progressed beyond the pre-production stage under his direction. Some of these projects fell in development hell or were cancelled, while others were abandoned during pre-production.


== 1990s ==


=== American Psycho ===
After the 1991 publication of Bret Easton Ellis's American Psycho in Italy, Guadagnino himself wrote a script adaptation of the novel. ""I was obsessed with the book,"" he later said. ""I was very sad when they made the movie because I wanted to make the movie."" In October 2024, Guadagnino was entering final negotiations to direct a ""new interpretation"" of American Psycho, with Scott Z. Burns adapting for Lionsgate. It was rumored that Jacob Elordi would star in the lead role as Patrick Bateman, however that December, Variety confirmed that Austin Butler would be playing Bateman. At CinemaCon 2025, Guadagnino updated that ""the script is coming out very handsomely"" and that he was ""in conversation with very exciting performers to play the leads.""


=== The Penny Arcade Peep Show ===
In the early 1990s, Guadagnino wrote a script for a short film he wanted to do ""on [the subject of] the male body"", based on the ""Penny Arcade Peep Show"" excerpt from The Wild Boys: A Book of the Dead by William S. Burroughs. By late 1993, he sent British actress Tilda Swinton a letter via her agent, hoping to solicite her collaboration on the basis of her performances in Caravaggio and Orlando. After receiving no response back, a few months later, Guadagnino read that she would be in Rome for a panel about the late film director Derek Jarman. He accosted her outside the theater following the event, asking her to appear in the short film. ""He said, 'I never made the film, because you never replied',"" Swinton later recalled. She agreed, and stayed at Guadagnino's student house in Rome for a couple of days over the summer. ""She was incredibly cool. The coolest,"" said Guadagnino. ""After three days, she said, 'We are going to be partners in crime and the crime is cinema.'"" While voice recordings of Swinton exist, and some footage allegedly shot, the film was abandoned and never completed after they ran out of money. The two would later instead go on to collaborate on his feature debut, the pseudo-documentary The Protagonists.


== 2000s ==


=== Auntie Mame ===
In 2009, following their collaboration on I Am Love, Guadagnino and star Tilda Swinton had ""high hopes"" to reunite for a Hollywood remake of 1958's Auntie Mame. Guadagnino stated to Variety that they both envisioned their version being set in the present-day and done as a ""rock-n-roll, super funny, super mainstream movie"", adding that only Swinton could ""do justice"" to the story. The project has been described as one of his ""dearest desires"" as a director. Plans for the remake with Guadagnino attached were in place as of December 2011. However, by 2016, Swinton was presumably moving forward without his involvement, enlisting the duties of Annie Mumolo to write the adaptation.


== 2010s ==


=== Corsica '72 ===
In late 2010, Guadagnino signed on to direct the mafia thriller Corsica '72 for Ruby Films. The screenplay by writing duo Neal Purvis and Robert Wade was featured on The Black List in 2009 and is based on the true story of a stand-off between two former best friends, one a local man and the other, head of the Mafia. The director's position was preceded by Oliver Hirschbiegel and was succeeded by Park Chan-wook, though the film was never made.


=== Untitled English-language thriller film ===
In 2011, it was reported that Guadagnino was to make his English-language film debut for Scott Free Productions and StudioCanal, based on his original screenplay. Set on the island of Pantelleria, Guadagnino described the film as ""a rock 'n' roll anthem of sex, love, murder and emotional rescue: A dive into the politics of desire between man and woman where one plus one makes four on the raw island of Pantelleria, lost in the Mediterranean."" StudioCanal, who was providing financing, confirmed that the budget was under $30 million. It was set to feature both a U.S. and European cast. Though untitled, the project was referred to as a thriller in subsequent reports. Principal photography was reportedly set for 2012, but no further announcements followed. Guadagnino would later utilize the setting of Pantelleria for his remake of La Piscine, A Bigger Splash.


=== The Big Nowhere ===
In 2012, Guadagnino was reportedly in discussions with financiers to direct an adaptation of the James Ellroy novel The Big Nowhere, to be produced by Heyday Films' David Heyman and Jeffrey Clifford, along with Maurizio Grimaldi.


=== Body Art ===
In January 2013, it was reported by Variety that Guadagnino would direct Body Art, his screenplay adaptation of Don DeLillo's The Body Artist with Isabelle Huppert, Denis Lavant and David Cronenberg lined up to star. Sigourney Weaver joined the cast the following month. Shooting was scheduled for summer that year. Benoît Jacquot signed on to direct a new adaptation in 2015 and the film, titled Never Ever, was released the next year but without the involvement of Guadagnino or his cast.


=== A Reliable Wife ===
In 2014, Sony Pictures hired Guadagnino to replace Sam Taylor-Johnson as director on a film adaptation of Robert Goolrick's romantic period thriller novel A Reliable Wife, written by Andrew Kevin Walker. It was planned to be shot in winter that year.


=== Rio ===
In May 2017, it was announced Guadagnino was attached to direct Rio from a screenplay by Steven Knight, with Benedict Cumberbatch and Jake Gyllenhaal to star. In November 2017, Michelle Williams joined the project. However, in a profile for The New Yorker, Guadagnino said that the timing did not work out and he subsequently left the project.


=== Swan Lake ===
In July 2017, Guadagnino signed up to direct a pitch from Kristina Lauren Anderson inspired by the classic ballet story Swan Lake, with Felicity Jones in the lead role. Several studios including Universal, Paramount and TriStar bid for the film rights to the project, which was described as a ""tentpole adaptation"" of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet, that would follow the material closely.


=== Find Me ===
Guadagnino first alluded to making a sequel to Call Me by Your Name in November 2017, and confirmed in March 2018 he was working on the story with writer André Aciman. Timothee Chalamet would announce in October that same year he and Armie Hammer were intending to return for the sequel, and Guadagnino would approach Dakota Johnson for a role. In a March 2020 interview, Guadagnino reiterated that the film, entitled Find Me, was set to be made, with Michael Stuhlbarg and Esther Garrel also set for role reprisals. However plans were put on hold as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2021, Guadagnino would cast doubts on the film being made as a result of his and Chalamet's other commitments, in addition to several abuse allegations being levied against Hammer.
In 2022 Guadagnino implied that he still liked the idea of following Elio's story. That same year he told Variety, ""I would love to make a second and third and fourth chapter of all my movies, Why? Because I truly love the actors I work with, so I want to repeat the joy of doing what we did together."" Adding, ""there is no hypothesis, so there is no movie. It’s a wish and a desire, and I have not made up my mind about what would be the story.""


=== Buddenbrooks ===
In the autumn/winter 2017 issue of Fantastic Man, Guadagnino stated that his dream project was an adaptation of Thomas Mann's 1901 novel Buddenbrooks, and that making it ""would in a way encompass all my themes in one story."" In 2024, Guadagnino announced officially that he was developing Buddenbrooks (alongside writer Francesca Manieri), which he saw as a companion piece to his film Queer.


=== Salah Abdeslam biopic ===
In the same Fantastic Man interview, Guadagnino also spoke of wanting to make a film about Islamic terrorist Salah Abdeslam; ""There's something interesting about him. [...] I think it'd be a great film, but I need the right person to write it with me.""


=== Burial Rites ===
In December 2017, it was reported that Guadagnino would direct Jennifer Lawrence in a film of Burial Rites, based on the true story of Agnes Magnúsdóttir who was accused of murder in a small Icelandic village in 1830.


=== Blood on the Tracks ===
Guadagnino told The New Yorker in October 2018 that he was planning to turn Bob Dylan's album Blood on the Tracks into a feature film, with Richard LaGravenese writing the screenplay. That December, Guadagnino revealed that Chloë Grace Moretz had been cast in an ""important"" role. According to New York Times reporter Kyle Buchanan, Guadagnino couldn't get the budget he wanted for it from the studio. He was still hoping to one day make a film of LaGravenese's script as of 2022.


=== Wartime Lies ===
It was additionally announced by The New Yorker in October 2018 that Guadagnino ""desperately wanted"" to direct Stanley Kubrick's abandoned project based on Louis Begley's Holocaust novel Wartime Lies. He asked David Kajganich to write the screenplay based on Kubrick's research materials. In September 2020, Guadagnino reaffirmed his intentions to make a film of Wartime Lies, stating that he had examined Kubrick's papers in the director's archive at University of the Arts London. Guadagnino's continued interest in the film has been acknowledged as of 2024, though other projects may have put it on temporary hold.


=== Lord of the Flies ===
In July 2019, Deadline Hollywood reported Guadagnino entered negotiations to direct a new adaptation of William Golding's Lord of the Flies for Warner Bros. The project would find a screenwriter in April 2020, with Patrick Ness hired. No additional announcements were made on the project until September 2023, where producer Lindsey Anderson Beer would reveal Guadagnino was still involved.


=== Suspiria Part Two ===
Guadagnino's 2018 film Suspiria, a remake of Dario Argento's 1977 film of the same name was initially set up to be part one of a series, with the title initially set to include Part One as a subtitle. However Guadagnino would ultimately rule out a sequel in November 2020 as a result of the first film's poor box office performance.


=== Intimacy ===
As early as 2019, Guadagnino had begun work on a documentary called Intimacy, filmed in 35 mm, about ""the state of exception that has been established"" in the years following the attacks of the Bataclan in Paris. He interviewed a ""vast number"" of theoreticians for the project, including Alain Badiou.


== 2020s ==


=== Scarface ===
In May 2020, Guadagnino was hired to direct a new version of Scarface for Universal Pictures, with Joel and Ethan Coen writing the screenplay. In September 2022, Guadagnino expressed his hopes for the film, emphasizing that he wants his version of Tony Montana to be ""current"", and the film to be ""shocking"". In November 2023, he revealed he was no longer involved in the project.


=== Scotty Bowers biopic ===
In July 2020, a narrative feature biopic about Hollywood hustler Scotty Bowers was announced to be in development at Searchlight Pictures, based on the 2017 documentary Scotty and the Secret History of Hollywood which the rights had been acquired for the year prior. Guadagnino was hired to direct the adaptation, with Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg writing the script. That September, Guadagnino told Kyle Buchanan of The New York Times that he had been approached about the project a couple years prior but stressed that ""it should be a comedy, a really great comedy."" As a result, the first writers he tasked with the script were Goldberg and Rogan, feeling they would both properly understand Bowers' ""generosity and nonjudgementalness"" as a person. Guadagnino viewed Bowers as a ""beautifully paradoxical"" figure, akin to Chauncey Gardiner, Peter Sellers' character from Being There.


=== Untitled Frank Ocean music video ===
In August 2020, Guadagnino told Kyle Buchanan of The New York Times that he'd recently worked with Frank Ocean on a secret project, which was likely hamstrung as result of the COVID-19 pandemic. ""We were collaborating on a music video that never happened,"" he said.


=== Brideshead Revisited miniseries ===
On November 6, 2020, the BBC was reported to be adapting Evelyn Waugh's novel with Guadagnino set to write and direct, and Ralph Fiennes, Cate Blanchett and Andrew Garfield named as potential members of the cast. Guadagnino would confirm the cast, in addition to Harry Lawtey and Rooney Mara, in September 2022, but revealed that as a result Guadagnino needing $110 million to make the series and not being able to compromise on this, BBC and HBO would shelve the project.


=== Leading Men ===
On November 23, 2020 it was reported that Matthew López was set to write an adaptation of Christopher Castellani's novel Leading Men, with Guadagnino and Peter Spears producing and Searchlight Pictures distributing. On September 9, 2024 it was reported that Guadagnino was also set to direct the film.


=== Audrey Hepburn biopic ===
It was announced in January 2022 that Apple Studios had entered development with Guadagnino on a Audrey Hepburn biopic, with Rooney Mara cast to star as Hepburn. Filming had been slated to begin in late 2023, however Mara would announce in February 2024 that Guadagnino had exited the project.


=== The Shards miniseries ===
In June 2023 during an interview with the Spanish publication, El Independiente, Bret Easton Ellis confirmed that Guadagnino would direct an upcoming TV series adaptation of his novel The Shards for HBO with Ellis himself saying that he may direct some episodes as well. This would have been Guadagnino's second project for HBO after We Are Who We Are. However, in May 2024, it was announced that Kristoffer Borgli would be directing and executive producing the series, with no mention of Guadagnino still being involved.


=== Separate Rooms ===
In March 2024, Guadagnino told la Repubblica his next project would be Separate Rooms, a film adaptation of Pier Vittorio Tondelli's 1989 novel Camere separate. A few days later, Variety reported Josh O'Connor was in talks to star. In April, Léa Seydoux was cast as the female lead, opposite O'Connor. In May 2025, O'Connor confirmed he was no longer attached to the project, saying ""He may well do it, but unfortunately it won’t be with me"".


== References =="
Deonna Purrazzo,"Deonna Lynn Purrazzo (born June 10, 1994) is an American professional wrestler. She is signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW). 
Purrazzo began training in December 2012, and then started wrestling in various independent promotions the following year, eventually appearing in national companies TNA and ROH. She also worked for the Japanese promotion World Wonder Ring Stardom from 2017 to 2018. After making various appearances for WWE beginning in 2014, she signed with the company in 2018 and was appointed to its developmental brand NXT, yet she was released in 2020. Purrazzo then re-signed with TNA, which had been renamed to Impact Wrestling in 2017, and quickly rose through the ranks in the women's division, and she also appeared in AAA through a partnership with Impact. After leaving Impact at the end of 2023, Purrazzo signed with AEW that same month.


== Early life ==
Deonna Lynn Purrazzo was born on June 10, 1994, in Livingston, New Jersey. She is of Italian descent and has a twin brother named Dominic; Deonna was born first. Purazzo grew up in Jefferson Township, New Jersey, and attended Jefferson Township High School.


== Professional wrestling career ==


=== Early career (2012–2016) ===

Purrazzo started training at the now defunct D2W Pro Wrestling Academy in December 2012 after she spotted an advertisement for it. She made her in-ring debut in 2013. Purrazzo left D2W in 2014, alongside trainer Damian Adams. Both continued training at Team Adams Training facility in Northern New Jersey. She has attended extra training sessions alongside Rip Rogers at Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) in Louisville, Kentucky.
On October 17, 2015, at the East Coast Wrestling Association (ECWA)'s second annual Super 8 ChickFight Tournament, Purrazzo won the tournament and the ECWA Women's Championship after defeating Tessa Blanchard in the finals. On October 22, 2016, Purazzo, still being the ECWA Women's Champion, won the third Super 8 ChickFight Tournament after defeating Karen Q in the finals, being the first wrestler in ECWA's history to win the tournament back-to-back. On June 17, 2017, Purrazzo vacated the championship after defeating Karen. On October 21, at the fourth Super 8 ChickFight Tournament, Purrazzo advanced to the finals, where she faced against Karen and Santana Garrett in a three-way match, which was won by Karen.


=== Ring of Honor (2015–2018) ===
Purrazzo is co-credited with starting the ""rebirth"" of Ring of Honor (ROH)'s women's division (officially called Women of Honor), as her ROH debut match against Mandy Leon (in Baltimore, Maryland on July 25, 2015) was ROH's first women's match in roughly a decade. Although losing the contest, this match set the tone for what was to come in WOH. In December 2015 at the 2300 Arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Purrazzo teamed with Hania ""The Howling Huntress"" in another losing effort against Mandy Leon and Sumie Sakai. Purrazzo made an appearance at the Ring of Honor Supercard of Honor X in April 2016 where she teamed with Amber Gallows in a tag team match against Solo Darling and Mandy Leon, but lost via submission. On the December 14 episode of ROH's Women of Honor Wednesday webseries, Purrazzo returned to face off against Sumie Sakai in a winning effort. Purrazzo made her first appearance on ROH TV episode that aired on December 10, 2016. Purrazzo defeated Candice LeRae.
On June 23, 2017, at Best in the World, Purrazzo teamed with Mandy Leon in a losing effort against Kris Wolf and Sumie Sakai. During the following night's TV tapings, Purrazzo wrestled a three-way match against Karen Q and Kelly Klein, and was pinned by Karen Q. On the July 29 tapings (uploaded on YouTube on September 6), Purrazzo lost a singles match to Klein, following interference from Karen Q, who attacked Purrazzo during and after the match. On October 13, at Global Wars: Pittsburgh, Purrazzo teamed with Leon and Jenny Rose in a winning effort, against Britt Baker, Faye Jackson and Sumie Sakai.
On January 11, 2018, Purrazzo signed a contract with ROH.
Purrazzo was a featured participant in the Women of Honor Championship tournament, held in the spring of 2018. At ROH Manhattan Mayhem 2018 she won together with Tenille Dashwood in a tag team match against Jenny Rose and Sumie Sakai. Purrazzo advanced to the quarterfinals of the Women Of Honor Championship tournament by defeating Holidead, then was eliminated by World Wonder Ring Stardom's Mayu Iwatani.
Purrazzo left ROH on July 1, 2018, her final match came in a loss against Kelly Klein.


=== Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2014–2017) ===
Purrazzo made her TNA wrestling debut during the May 10, 2014, taping of Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, losing a singles match against Brooke at Knockouts Knockdown II. Deonna returned to TNA on January 8, 2016, at the One Night Only: Live PPV and participated in a number one contender's gauntlet match, where she was eliminated by Awesome Kong. She made a third appearance on March 17, 2016, at Knockouts Knockdown IV where she lost to Madison Rayne. On the January 19, 2017 edition of Impact Wrestling, Purrazzo faced Brooke in a losing effort. Purrazzo was also featured in an Xplosion match, losing to Laurel Van Ness.


=== World Wonder Ring Stardom (2017–2018) ===

Purrazzo made her World Wonder Ring Stardom debut, on January 29, 2017. Purrazzo teamed with Christi Jaynes and Shayna Baszler in a six-woman tag team match, with the trio defeating Oedo Tai Kagetsu, Kris Wolf and Viper.
On February 4, Purrazzo teamed once again with Baszler and Jaynes in another winning effort against Arisu Nanase, Jungle Kyona and Natsuko Tora. On February 11, Purrazzo and Baszler defeated Queen's Quest (HZK and Io Shirai) and Toni Storm and Zoe Lucas, in a three-way tag team match. On February 18, Purrazzo teamed with Baszler and Jaynes in a winning effort against AZM, HZK and Shirai in a six-woman tag team match. On February 23, Purrazzo unsuccessfully challenged Storm for the SWA World Championship.
Purrazzo returned to Stardom on June 3, 2018, where she teamed with Lucas and Storm in a losing effort against Io Shirai, Konami and Momo Watanabe. On June 23, Purrazzo unsuccessfully challenged Watanabe for the Wonder of Stardom Championship.


=== WWE (2014–2020) ===


==== Early appearances (2014–2017) ====
In 2014, Purrazzo started working as extra talent for WWE appearing in several skits with Adam Rose as a ""Rosebud"".
She appeared on the November 11, 2015, episode of NXT where she was defeated by Nia Jax. On the November 19 episode of NXT, Purrazzo lost to Asuka. On the January 13, 2016, episode of NXT, she participated in a battle royal to determine the number one contender for the NXT Women's Championship. She kept appearing throughout 2016, losing to the likes of Asuka, Emma, Nia Jax, and Bayley.
On the December 13, 2016, episode of SmackDown Live, Purrazzo was set to face SmackDown Women's Champion Alexa Bliss, however, Bliss attacked her before the match began.
In 2017, WWE selected Purrazzo as an alternate for its inaugural Mae Young Classic tournament. She wrestled on night two of the tournament in a dark match, teaming with Jessica James to defeat Nicole Matthews and Barbi Hayden.


==== NXT (2018–2020) ====
In early April 2018 during the “WrestleMania Weekend”, WWE offered Purrazzo a contract backstage at a Shimmer Women Athletes show. Though Purrazzo was still under contract to Ring of Honor, she accepted and pulled out of her match at that summer's All In pay per view (a record-setting independent wrestling event produced by what would become AEW). Purrazzo's WWE signing was reported on May 31; that same week, WWE announced she would appear in the second Mae Young Classic. On August 22, Purrazzo fought Bianca Belair in a losing effort. During the Mae Young Classic, Purrazzo advanced to the tournament's quarterfinals, defeating Priscilla Kelly and Xia Li before losing to Io Shirai. On December 26, Purrazzo made her NXT UK debut, where she unsuccessfully challenged Rhea Ripley for the NXT UK Women's Championship, after the match, Ripley attacked Purrazzo until she was rescued by Toni Storm. The following week, Purrazzo fought Storm, where, Storm managed to defeat her. On December 16, 2019, Purrazzo appeared on Raw in a singles match against Asuka, where she was defeated. On the January 15, 2020 episode of NXT, Purrazzo attacked Shotzi Blackheart upon being eliminated from a battle royal by her, also turning heel. Purrazzo had an unsuccessful match with Blackheart on January 29. Purrazzo also fought Tegan Nox for the chance to qualify in a number one Contender's Ladder Match, but Nox defeated her. Purrazzo appeared on the April 6 episode of Raw in a squash match against the returning Nia Jax, where she was defeated. On April 15, WWE released Purrazzo and nearly two dozen other wrestlers and producers. During Purrazzo's 2-year WWE run, she had only 16 televised matches. According to Purrazzo, WWE's creative team believed she was not yet ready for television.


=== Return to Impact Wrestling (2020–2023) ===


==== Knockouts World Champion (2020–2022) ====
After Purrazzo's WWE release, Impact Wrestling wrestler/producer Madison Rayne contacted her. One month after, Purrazzo appeared on the May 26 episode of Impact! in a taped promo introducing herself as ""The Virtuosa"", a wrestler possessing immense technical skill and certainty of her future success. Purrazzo's in-ring debut was on the June 9 episode of Impact!, attacking Knockouts Champion Jordynne Grace and by placing her in the Fujiwara armbar to establish herself as a heel. On July 18 at Slammiversary, Purrazzo defeated Grace by submission to win the championship. On August 24, during the second night of the Emergence special, Purrazzo made her first successful title defense against Grace in the first Knockouts 30-minute Iron Man match in Impact history, winning two falls to one. At Victory Road, she had another successful title defense against Susie. On October 21, it was confirmed that Purrazzo had signed a long-term deal with Impact Wrestling.
At Bound for Glory, Purrazzo was scheduled to defend the Knockouts Championship against Kylie Rae, however, Rae was injured which Impact had not provided an explanation for her absence during the show. Su Yung was the replacement for Rae and defeated Purrazzo, ending her reign at 98 days. On November 14, at Turning Point, Purrazzo won back the title from Yung in a no disqualification match. After she and Kimber Lee were eliminated in the first round of the Knockouts Tag Team Championship Tournament, Purrazzo feuded with Rosemary and Taya Valkyrie, beating them in successful title defenses at Final Resolution and Hard To Kill respectively. On March 13, 2021, at Sacrifice, she defeated ODB to retain her Knockouts title. On April 10, at Hardcore Justice, Purrazzo defeated Jazz in a Title vs. Career match, ending Jazz's in-ring career. At Rebellion, she retained her title against Tenille Dashwood. On May 15, at Under Siege, Purrazzo defeated Havok by submission to successfully retain her title. On June 12, at Against All Odds, Purrazzo defeated Rosemary again to successfully retain her Knockouts Championship.
At Slammiversary, Purrazzo was scheduled to face a mystery opponent, who was revealed to be Thunder Rosa, however, Purrazzo defeated her and retained her title. After the match, National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) executive producer Mickie James invited Purrazzo to defend the title at NWA EmPowerrr, but Purrazzo give her disrespect and James kicked Purrazzo in the face. At Homecoming, Purrazzo teamed with Matthew Rehwoldt and defeated Hernandez and Alisha Edwards in the first round, Matt Cardona and Chelsea Green in the semifinals, and Decay (Crazzy Steve and Rosemary) in the final to become the Homecoming King and Queen. At Emergence, Purrazzo and Rehwoldt defeated Trey Miguel and Melina. Purrazzo eventually accepted Mickie James' invite, successfully defending the Knockouts Championship against Melina at NWA EmPowerrr. At Knockouts Knockdown, Purrazzo defeated Masha Slamovich, James' handpicked opponent. At Bound for Glory on October 23, Purrazzo lost the title to James, ending her reign at 343 days. At Turning Point, Purrazzo attacked James after she retained the title against Mercedes Martinez, and announced that she would invoke her rematch clause at Hard To Kill. At the event, on January 8, 2022, Purrazzo failed to regain the title, losing to James in a Texas Deathmatch.This was the first time the Knockouts main evented a PPV.


==== Championship reigns (2022–2023) ====
On the January 10, 2022, episode of Impact!, Purrazzo defeated Rok-C in a Winner Takes All match to retain her AAA Reina de Reinas Championship and also win the ROH Women's World Championship. At Slammiversary, she competed in the inaugural Queen of the Mountain match for the Knockouts World Championship, which was won by Jordynne Grace.
On the July 21 episode of Impact!, Purrazzo alongside Chelsea Green, now collectively known as VXT, faced the Knockouts World Champion Jordynne Grace and Mia Yim, which they were victorious. Ten days later, at Ric Flair's Last Match event, she competed in a three-way match for the title, which was won by Grace after she made Rachael Ellering submit. On August 12, at the Countdown to Emergence pre-show, VXT defeated Rosemary and Taya Valkyrie to win the Impact Knockouts World Tag Team Championship. They lost the titles on October 7 at Bound for Glory to The Death Dollz (Jessicka, Rosemary and Valkyrie), ending their reign at 56 days.
On the January 9, 2023 episode of Impact!, Purrazzo confronted Gisele Shaw for mentioning Chelsea Green. Shaw got a bowl of food and was about to throw it at Purrazzo but she saw it coming and threw it all over Shaw's face. Purrazzo thought it was hilarious, turning face in the process, so Santino Marella stepped in and said that they could settle their differences at No Surrender. On February 24, 2023, at the event, Purrazzo was defeated by Shaw. In March 2023, the rematch between Purrazzo and Shaw was set to take place at Sacrifice. On March 24, Purrazzo defeated Shaw in a rematch at Sacrifice. Six days later at Multiverse United, Purrazzo defeated Masha Slamovich, Miyu Yamashita and Shaw, who Purrazzo pinned, in a four-way match to be added to Impact Knockouts World Championship match at Rebellion.
Purrazzo went on to beat Jordynne Grace at Rebellion to win the title for the third time (defending champion Mickie James has vacated the title due to injury, with Purrazzo and Grace competing to become the new champion). On the April 27 episode of Impact!, during the main event, Purrazzo had her first successful title defense after submitting Taylor Wilde. Post-match, Purrazzo was attacked by Wilde and her accomplice KiLynn King before being saved by Grace. On the May 11, 2023, episode of Impact!, Purrazzo and Grace challenged The Coven for their title, but were unsuccessful. Post-match, Purrazzo and Grace was attacked by The Coven until Trinity runs down to the ring and makes the save. On May 26 at Under Siege, Purrazzo successfully retained the title against Grace. Since Grace lost, she can no longer challenge for the title as long as Purrazzo is champion.
On the June 1 episode of Impact!, Trinity challenged Purrazzo for her title at Slammiversary which Purrazzo accepted, however, both were attacked by Gisele Shaw and Savannah Evans afterwards. On June 9, at Against All Odds, Purrazzo teamed with Trinity defeating Evans and Shaw. On July 15 at Slammiversary, Purrazzo lost her title to Trinity via submission, ending her reign at 90 days. Four days later, on the subsequent episode of Impact!, Purrazzo, furious that Grace's return announcement came after she lost the Knockouts World Championship, challenged Grace to a match at Victory Road. At the event, Purrazzo lost to Grace. at Turning Point, Purrazzo lost to Trinity in a Last Chance match failing to win the championship. After the match, she attacked Trinity from behind only to be laid out by special guest referee Gail Kim.
At Final Resolution on December 9, Purrazzo teamed with Gisele Shaw losing to Trinity and Jordynne Grace. After the match, she offered Shaw a handshake which was accepted by Shaw, but was laid out afterwards. This marked Purrazzo's final appearance with the company as her contract was set to expire by the end of the year.


=== Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2021–2023) ===
On May 1, 2021 (through Impact's talent sharing agreement with AAA), Purrazzo made her Mexican wrestling and AAA debut challenging Faby Apache at Triplemanía XXIX. Purrazzo won this Champion vs. Champion match, winning the AAA Reina de Reinas title while defending the Impact Knockouts Championship. On April 23, 2022, at Rebellion, she lost the title to Taya Valkyrie, ending her reign at 252 days. On March 19, 2023, Purrazzo alongside Jordynne Grace and Kamille, representing the United States, won the women's Lucha Libre World Cup after defeating Team Mexico (Flammer, La Hiedra and Sexy Star II) in the finals.


=== All Elite Wrestling (2022; 2024–present) ===


==== One night appearance (2022) ====
On April 1, 2022, Purrazzo was also booked for the Multiverse of Matches at WrestleCon, which was held on the same night as ROH's Supercard of Honor XV; as such, she was unable to attend the latter event. Mercedes Martinez then became interim champion of the ROH Women's World Championship by defeating Willow Nightingale during the event, setting up for a championship unification match with Purrazzo. The match took place on the May 4 episode of Dynamite, where Martinez defeated Purrazzo in the main event.


==== The Vendetta (2024–present) ====
On the January 3, 2024 episode of Dynamite, Purrazzo made her official company debut by confronting Mariah May and officially announced that she was signed to AEW, establishing herself as a face in the process, targeting  former friend Toni Storm's AEW Women's World Championship. On the January 13 episode of Collision, Purrazzo made her official AEW in-ring debut by defeating Red Velvet. On March 3 at Revolution, Purrazzo unsuccessfully challenged ""Timeless"" Toni Storm for the AEW Women's World Championship. Following her match with Thunder Rosa on the April 27 episode of Rampage, Purrazzo turned heel by attacking her after the match. Purrazzo continued her feud with Rosa, defeating her in a singles bout on May 26 at Double or Nothing and in a no disqualification match on June 15 during the one year anniversary of Collision. Purrazzo participated in the Women's Owen Hart Foundation Tournament, where she was defeated by Hikaru Shida in the first round on the June 29 episode of Collision.
Purrazzo continued her feud with Thunder Rosa, attacking her on the July 12 episode of Rampage after her match with Rachael Ellering. On the following week's Collision, she defeated Rosa for the third time in a lumberjack match following assistance from Taya Valkyrie. On the August 3 episode of Collision, Purrazzo accepted Rosa's challenge for a Texas bullrope match on next week's Collision, which she lost. In late 2024, Purrazzo formed an alliance with Valkyrie, later known as ""The Vendetta"".
On January 25, 2025 at Collision: Homecoming, Purrazzo competed in a four-way match to determine the number one contender to Mercedes Moné's AEW TBS Championship, which was won by Yuka Sakazaki who pinned Purrazzo following a distraction by Harley Cameron.


== Professional wrestling style and persona ==

Purrazzo describes her style as ""very meticulous and very methodical"", looking for her Fujiwara armbar submission hold, being called ""The Fujiwara Armbar Specialist"". She is also nicknamed ""The Virtuosa"", a nickname she chose since she was looking for a moniker that would not only reflect her technical abilities in the ring, but also gave femininity, elegance, and grace to her persona.


== Personal life ==
In 2020, she began dating fellow professional wrestler and New Jersey native Stephen Kupryk, better known as Steve Maclin. On February 12, 2022, Purrazzo announced that she and Kupryk were engaged. They were married on November 10, 2022.
On August 1, 2023, Purrazzo revealed that she received her Bachelor of Arts degree in history after graduating from Southern New Hampshire University.


== Championships and accomplishments ==
Dynamite Championship Wrestling
DCW Women's Championship (1 time)
East Coast Wrestling Association
ECWA Women's Championship (1 time)
ECWA Super 8 ChickFight Tournament (2015, 2016)
ECWA Year-End Award (4 times)
Match of the Year (2016) – vs. Karen Q on October 22
Most Popular Wrestler (2016)
Most Shocking Moment (2016) – for winning back to back ECWA Women's Super 8 Tournaments
Wrestler of the Year (2016)
ESPN
Ranked No. 25 of the 30 best Pro Wrestlers Under 30 in 2023
Game Changer Wrestling
GCW Women's Championship (1 time)
Impact Wrestling
Impact Knockouts Championship (3 times)
Impact Knockouts World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Chelsea Green
Homecoming King and Queen Tournament (2021)  – with Matthew Rehwoldt
Impact Year End Award (4 times)
Knockout of the Year (2020, 2021)
Wrestler of the Year (2020)
Knockouts Match of the Year (2021) vs. Mickie James at Bound for Glory
Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide
AAA Reina de Reinas Championship (1 time)
Lucha Libre World Cup: 2023 Women's division – with Jordynne Grace and Kamille
Monster Factory Pro Wrestling
MFPW Girls Championship (1 time)
New York Wrestling Connection
NYWC Starlet Championship (1 time)
Paradise Alley Pro Wrestling
Center Ring Divas Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked No. 3 of the top 150 female wrestlers in the PWI Women's 150 in 2021
Ranked No. 7 of the top 250 women's wrestlers in the PWI Women's 250 in 2023
Ring of Honor
ROH Women's World Championship (1 time)
ROH Year-End Award (1 time)
WOH Wrestler of the Year (2017)


== References ==


== External links ==

Deonna Purrazzo's profile at WWE.com , Cagematch.net , Wrestlingdata.com , Internet Wrestling Database 
Deonna Purrazzo on Twitter 
Deonna Purrazzo at IMDb"
Beechcraft King Air,"The Beechcraft King Air is a line of American utility aircraft produced by Beechcraft. The King Air line comprises a number of twin-turboprop models that have been divided into two families. The Model 90 and 100 series developed in the 1960s are known as King Airs, while the later T-tail Model 200 and 300 series were originally marketed as Super King Airs, with the name ""Super"" being dropped by Beechcraft in 1996 (although it is still often used to differentiate the 200 and 300 series King Airs from their smaller stablemates).
The King Air was the first aircraft in its class and was produced continuously from 1964 to 2021. It outsold all of its turboprop competitors combined. It has recently faced competition from light jet aircraft such as the Embraer Phenom 100, Honda HA-420 HondaJet and Cessna Citation Mustang; as well as from newer turboprop aircraft including the Piaggio P180 Avanti, and single-engine Piper Malibu Meridian, Pilatus PC-12, and Socata TBM.


== Development ==


=== Model 90 series ===

The Model 90 King Air was conceived as the Model 120 in 1961.  In its original planned configuration, the Model 120 was to have been powered by two 917 shp (684 kW) Turbomeca Bastan VI engines.  On May 15, 1963, Beechcraft began test flights of the proof-of-concept Model 87, a modified Queen Air with Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-6 engines. On July 14, Beech announced a new type, and a month later began accepting orders for the ""King Air"", with deliveries to commence in Autumn 1964. On January 24, 1964, the first definitive prototype, by now designated Model 65-90 and also fitted with PT6A-6 engines, flew for the first time. After 10 months of test flying, in 1964 the Model 87 was delivered to the United States Army as the NU-8F. The first production aircraft was delivered on October 8, and by the end of the month, 152 aircraft had been ordered; by year's end, seven had been built.
In 1966, after 112 65-90s were completed, production switched to the Model 65-A90 with PT6A-20 engines. As a measure of the type's popularity, 206 65-A90s were built in less than two years when production switched to the Model B90, the first of these rolling off the production line in 1968. Military versions built during these years included the 65-A90-1, 65-A90-2, 65-A90-3, and 65-A90-4, all being unpressurised models based on the Model 87. These were produced for the US Army which designated them U-21s of various sub-models; many were fitted out for electronic battlefield surveillance. A total of 162 of these were built between 1967 and 1971.
A total of 184 B90 models were produced before the Model C90 was introduced in 1971, with wingspan increased over earlier models by 4 ft 11 in (1.50 m) to 50 ft 3 in (15.32 m), Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) increased by 350 lb (160 kg) to 9,650 lb (4,378 kg), and PT6A-20A engines. The broadly similar Model E90 was introduced the following year, with PT6A-28 engines; the two were produced in parallel. Further refinement of the 90 series resulted in the Model F90 and follow-on Model F90-1. The F-models featured the T-tail of the Model 200 mated to the fuselage and wings of the E90, with PT6A-135 engines of 750 shp (560 kW) driving four-bladed propellers. The F90 prototype flew on January 16, 1978, and 203 production versions followed between 1979 and 1983, when the F90 was superseded by the F90-1. The F90 prototype was re-engined with Garrett AiResearch TPE-331 engines to test the feasibility of a Model G90, but this model was not put into production.
The Model C90-1 entered production in 1982 after 507 C90s and 347 E90s had been built, and featured PT6A-21 engines and improvements to the pressurization system. 54 were built. The following year the F90-1 was put into production with redesigned engine cowlings, upgraded PT6A-135A engines, hydraulic landing gear, and triple-fed electrical bus; only 33 were built by the time production terminated in 1985. The C90-1 was soon followed by the Model C90A, which featured the redesigned engine cowlings of the F90-1. The C90A received an increase in MTOW in 1987, being certified to 10,100 lb (4,580 kg). The C90A model was in production until 1992, by which time 235 had been built, all but 74 with the increased MTOW.
Only two C90As were built in 1992, the Model C90B followed that year with airframe improvements, four-bladed propellers, and propeller synchrophasing, all in an effort to reduce cabin noise. This model also had PT6A-21s; the first production C90B was fitted with the 10,000th PT6 engine delivered to Beechcraft. In 1994 a cheaper version was introduced as the C90SE (Special Edition), with three-bladed propellers, standardised interior and mechanical instruments instead of the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) fitted to the C90B. A total of 456 C90Bs and C90SEs were delivered by the time production of these models ended in late 2005.
In July 2005, during the Oshkosh Airshow, Beechcraft introduced the C90GT. The C90GT was fitted with 750 shp (560 kW) PT6A-135As, flat rated to the same 550 shp (410 kW) as the earlier King Airs. This engine change increased performance due to lower operating temperatures, improving both cruise speed and climb rate. With a 275 kt (509 km/h, 316 mph) cruise speed, the C90GT was highly competitive with the new generation of Very Light Jets over short to medium distances, while providing a larger and more luxurious cabin. C90GT deliveries commenced at the beginning of 2006. On May 21, 2007, during the 7th Annual European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition in Geneva, Beechcraft announced the Model C90GTi updated version of the C90GT, featuring the Rockwell Collins Proline 21 avionics package previously only offered for the B200 and B300 King Airs. Deliveries commenced in 2008 after 97 C90GTs were delivered to customers over the previous two years. In 2015, the C90GTx was introduced with additional upgrades. In 2019, the C90 unit cost was US$2.75M, and $4.2M (~$4.94 million in 2023) for the C90GTi.
In March 2021, Beechcraft discontinued the C90GTx, thus ending the Model 90 production run. Textron, Beechcraft's parent company, stated that it intends to support the existing 90 series fleet indefinitely given the large number of aircraft being actively operated.


=== Model 100 series ===

The Model 100 is a stretched derivative of the Model 90 featuring five cabin windows instead of the Model 90's three; MTOW increased by 1,300 lb (590 kg) over the 90, to 10,600 lb (4,810 kg). The 100 used the wings, tail, and engines (two PT6A-28 engines, although rated at 680 shp) from the Model 99 airliner, itself a development of the Queen Air (as was the Model 90).
The Model 100 was flown for the first time on March 17, 1969, and unveiled to the public in May. A total of 89 Model 100s were built before it was superseded by the Model A100 in 1972, with a further increase in MTOW to 11,500 lb (5,220 kg), fuel capacity increased by 94 US gallons (360 L), and four-bladed propellers. A total of 157 A100s were built by the time production of this model ceased in 1979. The next in the series was the B100, which featured 715 shp (533 kW) Garrett AiResearch TPE-331 engines as an alternative to the Pratt & Whitneys offered on other King Airs, and another increase in MTOW to 11,800 lb (5,350 kg). The B100 was introduced in 1976 and was produced concurrently with the A100 for several years; manufacture ceased in 1983 after 137 were built. The Model 200 Super King Air was developed from the Model 100, with the same fuselage design being used for both models (with some differences, mainly associated with the different tails). The Model 200 had different wings and a T-tail and entered service in 1974.


=== Military King Air versions ===


==== Japan ====
The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) has operated a total of 40 C90 and C90A King Airs, with deliveries beginning in 1973. These have been given various designations by the JMSDF and consist of 34 TC-90 trainers, five LC-90 transports, and a single UC-90 which is configured for photographic aerial survey. The TC-90s and the UC-90 are operated by the 202nd Naval Air Training Squadron (JMSDF) based at Tokushima Air Base, while the LC-90s are attached to various Lockheed P-3 Kokutai (Squadrons) and Air Transport Squadron 61 as liaison aircraft. In late 2005, the JMSDF marked 500,000 accident-free flying hours of the TC-90 trainer fleet. Philippine maintenance staff will also be trained.
The JMSDF made plans to lease at least five TC-90 aircraft to the Philippines to conduct maritime patrols. Two aircraft were transferred free of charge in March 2017. From November 2016 to November 2017, six Philippine Navy pilots were trained to fly the aircraft at Tokushima Airport. Maintenance staff are also being trained. There are plans to transfer three more aircraft.


==== United States ====

The U.S. military has used King Air 90s in various roles, primarily VIP and liaison transport, with designations including the VC-6A, the T-44 Pegasus, and the U-21 Ute. The U-21 Ute used by the US Army was the most common version.
Most U-21s were unpressurized Model 87 derivatives, but there were also five U-21Fs based on the A100 King Air; and three U-21Js, which Beechcraft designated Model A100-1, but were actually the first three production Model 200 Super King Airs (C/Ns BB-3, BB-4 and BB-5, after prototypes C/N BB-1 and BB-2 had been built). The majority of U-21s were delivered as U-21As (102 65-A90-1s), but there were also four RU-21As (65-A90-1s), three RU-21Bs (65-A90-2s), two RU-21Cs (65-A90-3s), 18 RU-21Ds (65-A90-1s), 16 RU-21Es (65-A90-4s), and 17 RU-21Gs (65-A90-1s). The RU-21Es (except one written off) were later converted to U-21Hs and RU-21Hs, with two U-21Hs and an RU-21H being further converted to JU-21Hs. In 1993, the three surviving RU-21As that remained in military service were retired and sent to JW Duff Aircraft Salvage in Denver. On November 14, 2015, one of aircraft, (67-18113) was donated by Dynamic Aviation to the 138th Aviation Company Memorial to restore the aircraft to be displayed at Orlando International Airport. The majority of the U-21 series were retired in the second half of the 1990s and most are now owned by Dynamic Aviation of Bridgewater, Virginia. Some have been modified as spraying aircraft and are used on insect control work.
The T-44A Pegasus is a trainer version, designated the Model H90 by Beechcraft, used to train United States Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and Air Force (USAF) pilots to fly multi-engine aircraft. A total of 61 were delivered to the US Navy between 1977 and 1980. In August 2006, the Navy announced that after 29 years of operation, the T-44A fleet would be upgraded with modernized avionics systems, and redesignated T-44Cs.
Two VC-6A aircraft were operated by the US military. One was a Model 65-A90 operated by the US Army and serialled 66-15361, the other a B90, designated as a VC-6A (66-7943), was operated by the USAF and used by President Lyndon Johnson.


===== Air Force One =====

During the administration of Lyndon Johnson, the USAF acquired a commercial off-the-shelf Model B90 King Air. With the military designation VC-6A, the aircraft, serialled 66-7943, was used to transport President Johnson between Bergstrom Air Force Base (near Austin) and the Johnson family ranch near Johnson City, Texas. When Johnson was aboard, the aircraft used the callsign Air Force One. After Johnson left office, the aircraft continued to serve in the 89th Military Airlift Wing as a VIP transport until its retirement in 1985. This aircraft is now on display, with other presidential aircraft, at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton.


=== Modification and upgrade programs ===

A number of aftermarket modifications and upgrades are available for 90 and 100 Series King Airs. An engine upgrade involves earlier-build 90 Series aircraft being re-engined with the PT6A-135A engines of the C90GT. A more radical re-engining program involves the replacement of the PT6s in C90 and E90 King Airs with TPE-331s.

Among the numerous airframe modifications available: a cargo conversion for the 90 model, the CargoLiner, which replaces the rear door with a large pallet accessible cargo door, a heavy duty floor structure and cabin cargo liner, also a crew hatch for cockpit access for the crew in the 90, 100, and 200; a Wing Front Spar Reinforcement Kit for both 90 and 100 Series aircraft, a modification for the entire King Air line that entails reworking and extending the nose to house a baggage compartment as well as the avionics normally found in the noses of King Air aircraft. Modifications available for the King Air 100 include a belly cargo pod similar to those fitted to the Beech 99 and the Model 1300 version of the King Air 200 series.


== Operators ==

In addition to its use by military and government users, the King Air is also used by many non-governmental organizations, as well as by corporate and private users. This includes commercial use by air-taxi and air charter companies.
The Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia previously operated a large number of 90 Series King Airs, but retired the last example in 2006, standardizing on the King Air 200 Series and the Pilatus PC-12 for its fleet requirements.


== Accidents and incidents ==
On November 19, 1996, a Beechcraft King Air collided on a runway with a United Express 1900C at Quincy Regional Airport in Illinois, killing all 14 people on board both aircraft.
On October 25, 2002, a Beechcraft A100 King Air crashed in Minnesota, killing U.S. Senator Paul Wellstone and 7 others.
On January 19, 2017, a Beechcraft C90GT King Air crashed in Paraty, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, killing Teori Zavascki, the Minister of the Supreme Court of Brazil and 4 other people.
On June 28, 2018, a Beechcraft King Air C90 crashed in a suburb of Mumbai, India, killing all four aboard and one on the ground; three people sustained injuries.
On November 5, 2021, a Beechcraft C90A King Air crashed in Caratinga, Minas Gerais, Brazil, killing 3 passengers and 2 crew members, including Brazilian singer Marília Mendonça.
On February 7, 2025, a Beechcraft F90 King Air crashed in São Paulo, São Paulo State, Brazil, killing the owner and the pilot.


== Variants ==

A total of more than 3,100 King Air 90 and 100 series aircraft have been delivered as of August 2008:


=== Beechcraft designations ===
Model 87
""Proof-of-concept"" test aircraft based on the Model A80 with PT6A-6 turboprops; one built.
Model 65-90
Based on the Model 88 with two PT6A-6 turboprops and a 9000lb Take Off Gross Weight (TOGW); 112 built.
Model 65-A90
Model 90 with TOGW increased to 9300lb, two 550shp PT6A-20 engines, redesigned flightdeck and a new engine de-ice system, 206 built.
Model 65-A90-1
Based on the Model 87, unpressurised with square windows and 550shp PT6A-20 engines, 141 built and delivered to the US Army with the designation U-21A.
Model 65-A90-2
Specialised electronic warfare variant of the A90-1 with five seats, three built as U-21Bs (later RU-21B).
Model 65-A90-3
Variant of the A90-2 with improved electronic equipment, two-built for the US Army with the designation RU-21C.
Model 65-A90-4
Project Guardrail variant of the A90-2, strengthened airframes and higher gross weight, 16 built for the US Army.
Model B90
based on the A90 with a 9650 TOGW, improved ailerons and increased wing span, improved instrumentation and pressurization and an extra side window, 184 built.
Model C90
Based on the B90 but using the Model 100 cabin environment and pressurization system, 550shp PT6A-21 engines, 507 built.
Model C90-1
Improved C90 with an E90 tailplane and improved power output, increased maximum cabin pressure differential, 54 built in 1982 and 1983.
Model C90A
Improved C90-1 improved landing gear retraction, improved electrical system and using F90-1 pressurization and heating system, 235 built between 1984 and 1992. Two Pratt & Whitney PT6A-21 reverse-flow, free-turbine turboprop engines; 550 shp each.
C90B and C90SE
Marketing names for updated versions of C90A produced between 1992 and 2005, 456 built B-model has Maximum Take-off Weight of 10 100 lb (4585 kg), quieter Hartzell four-blade, constant-speed, full-reversing 90-in diameter propellers and dynamic (passively resonating) vibration absorber (DVA) system. The King Air C90SE is the 'poor man’s' version of the Beech C90B with three-bladed props and “mechanical” instruments.
Model C90GT
Version with PT6A-135A engines, 750 shp flat rated to 550 shp, for better climb and cruise performance, 97 built.
Model C90GTi
Variant of C90GT with ""glass cockpit"" Collins Proline 21 avionics suite; at least 90 built
Model C90GTx
Marketing name for version of C90GTi introduced in 2010 with winglets added as factory-standard, Maximum Take-off Weight increased to 10 485 lb (4756 kg) for better full-fuel payload flexibility.
Model D90
Not built, one prototype abandoned.
Model E90
C90 with 680shp PT6A-28 engines and 10100lb TOGW, first flown in 1972, 347 built.
Model F90
C90 with T-tail and Model 200 wings, two 750shp PT6A-135 engines with four-bladed propellers, 196 built.
Model F90-1
F90 with PT6A-135A engines, 32 built.
Model G90
F90 prototype re-engined with Garrett TPE-331s in place of the Pratt & Whitney PT6s originally fitted.
Model H90
C90 modified for as a pilot trainer for the United States Navy with 750shp PT6A-34B engines, 61 built.
Model 100
B90 with a 50-inch fuselage stretch, larger vertical tail, two 680shp PT6A-28 engines, first flown in 1969, 89 built.
Model A100
Model 100 with additional fuel capacity, four-bladed propellers and two extra side windows, 157 built.
Model A100-1
Designation for procurement reasons of three Model 200 battlefield surveillance variants for the United States Army as the RU-21J.
Model A100A
A100 with PT6A-28A engines and 11800lb TOGW.
Model A100C
A100A with 750shp PT6A-36 engines.
Model B100
A100A with two 715shp Garrett TPE-331 engines instead of Pratt & Whitney PT6s fitted to previous models; 137 built.
Model C100
B100 with 750shp PT6A-135 engines.  Eight converted from A100s, but all later converted back due to tail flutter issues.
Nextant G90XT
remanufactured by Nextant Aerospace with GE H75 engines, Garmin G1000 cockpit and a new cabin.


=== Military designations ===
YU-21
Modification of L-23 Seminole with PT6A-6 turboprops. One converted.
U-21A Ute
Utility aircraft for US Army, with fuselage of Queen Air 65-80 and wings of King Air 65-90, powered by 550 hp (410 kW) PT6A-20s. Beechcraft Model 65-A90-1. 141 built.
EU-21A
Conversion of at least five U-21As as radio relay aircraft for use over Vietnam. Later re-converted to U-21A standard.
JU-21A
Conversion of three U-21As with Left Jab Signals intelligence (SIGINT) system. One of the system aircraft, (67-18065) with callsign ""Vanguard 216"" was shot down by a Surface to Air Missile near the DMZ on March 4, 1971. All 5 crew members were declared KIA Bodies Not Recovered. Two later re-converted to U-21A standard.
RU-21A
Conversion of four U-21As to carry Direction finding equipment as part of Cefirm Leader program, to work with RU-21B and RU-21C aircraft.
RU-21B
Signals intercept aircraft as part of Cefirm Leader program. Powered by 620 hp (462 kW) PT6A-29s and with modified undercarriage. Beechcraft Model 65-A90-2. Three built.
RU-21C
Similar to RU-21B, but carrying jamming equipment as part of Cefirm Leader. Beechcraft model 65-A90-3. Two built.
RU-21D
SIGINT aircraft system known as ""Laffing Eagle"" ""V-Scan"", deployed to Vietnam, after the war many were converted to Guardrail RU-21H models, and others having their electronic equipment removed to become U-21D utility aircraft. Beechcraft Model 65-A90-1. 18 built.
RU-21E
ELINT version with Guardrail II, IIA or IV systems. Beechcraft Model 65-A90-4. 16 built.
U-21F
Five King Air A100s used by US Army as transport/utility aircraft.
U-21G Ute
U-21A with modified cockpit, mainly used as utility aircraft, 17 conversions.
RU-21G
Three U-21Gs fitted with Guardrail I ELINT system.
RU-21H
Conversion of 21 RU-21D, E and F aircraft to carry Guardrail V ELINT system. Higher gross weight.
U-21H Ute
Modification of 23 RU-21E and G aircraft replaced in the ELINT role by later aircraft to utility aircraft.
JU-21H
Two former RU-21Es converted as test aircraft.
VC-6A
Two B90 King Airs, powered by 550 shp (410 kW) PT6A-20s. One used as transport by US Army, and one by USAF as VIP transport for President Lyndon B. Johnson.
T-44A Pegasus
Model H90 as a Multi-engine training aircraft for US Navy, 61 built.
T-44C Pegasus
T-44A upgraded with the Rockwell Collins Pro Line 21 series avionics suite. 25 upgraded.
B.PhTh.3
(Thai: บ.ผท.๓) Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the Model E90.


=== Other information ===
The ICAO designator, such as might be used in a PIREP or a flight plan, for the various King Airs are BE9T (F90 and F90-1), BE9L (all other model 90s), and BE10 (model 100). With the exception of the F90 and F90-1, all 90 Series King Airs have been produced under the same Type Certificate (Number 3A20) used for Queen Air production. All 100 Series King Airs were produced under the same Type Certificate (Number A14CE) used for Model 99 production.


== Specifications ==


== See also ==

Related development

Beechcraft Queen Air
Beechcraft Super King Air
Beechcraft Model 99
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Cessna 425
Cessna 441
Mitsubishi MU-2
Piaggio P.180 Avanti
Piper PA-31T Cheyenne
Embraer EMB 121 Xingu
Swearingen Merlin


== References ==


=== Notes ===


=== Bibliography ===


== External links ==

King Air C90GTx
Beech VC-6A – National Museum of the United States Air Force
Beech King Air timeline from Wings of Kansas"
Chirp spectrum,"The spectrum of a chirp pulse describes its characteristics in terms of its frequency components.   This frequency-domain representation is an alternative to the more familiar time-domain waveform, and the two versions are mathematically related by the Fourier transform.  The spectrum is of particular interest when pulses are subject to signal processing.    For example, when a chirp pulse is compressed by its matched filter, the resulting waveform contains not only a main narrow pulse but, also, a variety of unwanted artifacts many of which are directly attributable to features in the chirp's spectral characteristics.
A simple way to derive the spectrum of a chirp using a computer is to sample the time-domain waveform at a frequency well above the Nyquist limit and use an FFT algorithm to obtain the desired result.  As this approach was not an option for the early designers, they resorted to analytic analysis, or and to graphical or approximation methods. These early methods still remain helpful, however, as they give additional insight into the behavior and properties of chirps.


== Chirp pulse ==
A general expression for an oscillatory waveform, centered on frequency ω0 is

  
    
      
        s
        (
        t
        )
        =
        a
        (
        t
        )
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        (
        
          ω
          
            0
          
        
        ⋅
        t
        +
        θ
        (
        t
        )
        )
        ]
      
    
    {\displaystyle s(t)=a(t)\cdot \exp[j(\omega _{0}\cdot t+\theta (t))]}
  

where 
  
    
      
        a
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle a(t)}
  
 and θ(t) give the amplitude and phase variations of the waveform 
  
    
      
        s
      
    
    {\displaystyle s}
  
, with time. 
The frequency spectrum of this waveform is obtained by calculating the Fourier Transform of 
  
    
      
        s
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle s(t)}
  
, i.e.

  
    
      
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            −
            ∞
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        s
        (
        t
        )
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        (
        −
        j
        ω
        t
        )
        ⋅
        d
        t
        =
        
          ∫
          
            −
            ∞
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        a
        (
        t
        )
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        (
        
          ω
          
            0
          
        
        t
        +
        θ
        (
        t
        )
        )
        ]
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        (
        −
        j
        ω
        t
        )
        ⋅
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle S(\omega )=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }s(t)\cdot \exp(-j\omega t)\cdot dt=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }a(t)\cdot \exp[j(\omega _{0}t+\theta (t))]\cdot \exp(-j\omega t)\cdot dt}
  

 so 

  
    
      
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            −
            ∞
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        a
        (
        t
        )
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        
          {
          
            (
            
              ω
              
                0
              
            
            −
            ω
            )
            ⋅
            t
            +
            θ
            (
            t
            )
          
          }
        
        ]
        ⋅
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle S(\omega )=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }a(t)\cdot \exp[j\left\{(\omega _{0}-\omega )\cdot t+\theta (t)\right\}]\cdot dt}
  

In a few special cases, the integral can be solved to give an analytical expression, but often the characteristics of 
  
    
      
        a
        (
        t
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle a(t)}
  
 and θ(t) are such that the integral can only be evaluated by an approximation algorithm or by numerical integration.


== Linear chirp ==
In the special case where s(t) is constrained to be an up-chirp, flat topped pulse with its instantaneous frequency varying as a linear function of time, then an analytical solution is possible.
For convenience, the pulse is considered to have unit amplitude and be of duration T, with the amplitude and phase defined over the time interval -T/2 to +T/2.  The total frequency sweep is ΔF, varying in a linear manner from -ΔF/2 to +ΔF/2 in the defined time interval.
When the frequency is a linear function of time, the phase is a quadratic function, and s(t) can be written

  
    
      
        s
        (
        t
        )
        =
        1
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        (
        Δ
        Ω
        ⋅
        t
        +
        
          
            
              Δ
              Ω
            
            
              2
              T
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          t
          
            2
          
        
        )
        ]
        
        
          where
        
        
        Δ
        Ω
        =
        2
        π
        ⋅
        Δ
        F
        
        
          and
        
        
        
          
            
              −
              T
            
            2
          
        
        <
        t
        <
        
          
            T
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle s(t)=1\cdot \exp[j(\Delta \Omega \cdot t+{\frac {\Delta \Omega }{2T}}\cdot t^{2})]\qquad {\text{where}}\quad \Delta \Omega =2\pi \cdot \Delta F\qquad {\text{and}}\quad {\frac {-T}{2}}<t<{\frac {T}{2}}}
  

The spectrum of this linear FM signal is

  
    
      
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            −
            T
            
              /
            
            2
          
          
            T
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        exp
        ⁡
        
          [
          
            j
            (
            Δ
            Ω
            ⋅
            t
            +
            
              
                
                  Δ
                  Ω
                
                
                  2
                  T
                
              
            
            ⋅
            
              t
              
                2
              
            
            )
          
          ]
        
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        (
        −
        j
        ω
        ⋅
        t
        )
        ⋅
        d
        t
        =
        
          ∫
          
            −
            T
            
              /
            
            2
          
          
            T
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        exp
        ⁡
        
          [
          
            j
            
              {
              
                (
                Δ
                Ω
                −
                ω
                )
                ⋅
                t
                +
                
                  
                    
                      Δ
                      Ω
                    
                    
                      2
                      T
                    
                  
                
                ⋅
                
                  t
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
              }
            
          
          ]
        
        ⋅
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle S(\omega )=\int _{-T/2}^{T/2}\exp \left[j(\Delta \Omega \cdot t+{\frac {\Delta \Omega }{2T}}\cdot t^{2})\right]\cdot \exp(-j\omega \cdot t)\cdot dt=\int _{-T/2}^{T/2}\exp \left[j\left\{(\Delta \Omega -\omega )\cdot t+{\frac {\Delta \Omega }{2T}}\cdot t^{2}\right\}\right]\cdot dt}
  

By completing the square and using the Fresnel integrals C(X) and S(X),: 35 : 300  defined by

  
    
      
        C
        (
        X
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            X
          
        
        cos
        ⁡
        
          
            
              π
              ⋅
              
                y
                
                  2
                
              
            
            2
          
        
        ⋅
        d
        y
        
        
          and
        
        
        S
        (
        X
        )
        =
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            X
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        
          
            
              π
              ⋅
              
                y
                
                  2
                
              
            
            2
          
        
        ⋅
        d
        y
      
    
    {\displaystyle C(X)=\int _{0}^{X}\cos {\frac {\pi \cdot y^{2}}{2}}\cdot dy\qquad {\text{and}}\qquad S(X)=\int _{0}^{X}\sin {\frac {\pi \cdot y^{2}}{2}}\cdot dy}
  

the expression can be evaluated: 138  to give:

  
    
      
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    π
                    ⋅
                    T
                  
                  
                    Δ
                    Ω
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        
          [
          
            −
            j
            
              (
              
                (
                ω
                −
                Δ
                Ω
                
                  )
                  
                    2
                  
                
                ⋅
                
                  
                    T
                    
                      2
                      ⋅
                      Δ
                      Ω
                    
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        ⋅
        [
        C
        (
        
          X
          
            1
          
        
        )
        +
        j
        ⋅
        S
        (
        
          X
          
            1
          
        
        )
        +
        C
        (
        
          X
          
            2
          
        
        )
        +
        j
        ⋅
        S
        (
        
          X
          
            2
          
        
        )
        ]
      
    
    {\displaystyle S(\omega )={\sqrt {\left({\frac {\pi \cdot T}{\Delta \Omega }}\right)}}\cdot \exp \left[-j\left((\omega -\Delta \Omega )^{2}\cdot {\frac {T}{2\cdot \Delta \Omega }}\right)\right]\cdot [C(X_{1})+j\cdot S(X_{1})+C(X_{2})+j\cdot S(X_{2})]}
  

where 
  
    
      
        
          X
          
            1
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{1}}
  
 and 
  
    
      
        
          X
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{2}}
  
 are given by   

  
    
      
        
        
          X
          
            1
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                
                  
                    Δ
                    Ω
                  
                  2
                
              
              +
              (
              ω
              −
              Δ
              Ω
              )
            
            
              
                
                  π
                  ⋅
                  Δ
                  Ω
                
                T
              
            
          
        
        
        
          and
        
        
        
          X
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                
                  
                    Δ
                    Ω
                  
                  2
                
              
              +
              (
              Δ
              Ω
              −
              ω
              )
            
            
              
                
                  π
                  ⋅
                  Δ
                  Ω
                
                T
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \quad X_{1}={\frac {{\frac {\Delta \Omega }{2}}+(\omega -\Delta \Omega )}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi \cdot \Delta \Omega }{T}}}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad X_{2}={\frac {{\frac {\Delta \Omega }{2}}+(\Delta \Omega -\omega )}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi \cdot \Delta \Omega }{T}}}}}
  

The linear FM spectrum can be considered to have three major components, namely

an Amplitude Term,      
  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          |
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                π
                ⋅
                T
              
              
                Δ
                Ω
              
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            [
            
              
                
                  (
                  
                    C
                    (
                    
                      X
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    )
                    +
                    C
                    (
                    
                      X
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                  )
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                
                  (
                  
                    S
                    (
                    
                      X
                      
                        1
                      
                    
                    )
                    +
                    S
                    (
                    
                      X
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                  )
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
            ]
          
          
            
              1
              2
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S(\omega )|={\sqrt {\frac {\pi \cdot T}{\Delta \Omega }}}\cdot \left[\left(C(X_{1})+C(X_{2})\right)^{2}+\left(S(X_{1})+S(X_{2})\right)^{2}\right]^{\frac {1}{2}}}
  

a Square Law Phase term,       
  
    
      
        
        −
        
          Φ
          
            1
          
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        (
        ω
        −
        Δ
        Ω
        
          )
          
            2
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            T
            
              2
              ⋅
              Δ
              Ω
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \quad -\Phi _{1}(\omega )=(\omega -\Delta \Omega )^{2}\cdot {\frac {T}{2\cdot \Delta \Omega }}}
  

and a Residual Phase Term      
  
    
      
        
        
          Φ
          
            2
          
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        arctan
        ⁡
        
          [
          
            
              
                S
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    1
                  
                
                )
                +
                S
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    2
                  
                
                )
              
              
                C
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    1
                  
                
                )
                +
                C
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    2
                  
                
                )
              
            
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \quad \Phi _{2}(\omega )=\arctan \left[{\frac {S(X_{1})+S(X_{2})}{C(X_{1})+C(X_{2})}}\right]}
  

The ratio 
  
    
      
        
          [
          
            
              
                S
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    1
                  
                
                )
                +
                S
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    2
                  
                
                )
              
              
                C
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    1
                  
                
                )
                +
                C
                (
                
                  X
                  
                    2
                  
                
                )
              
            
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \left[{\frac {S(X_{1})+S(X_{2})}{C(X_{1})+C(X_{2})}}\right]}
  
   is approximately unity over a large part of frequency range of interest so Φ2 approximates to a constant phase angle π/4 there.
If a frequency scaling term n is introduced, where 
  
    
      
        n
        =
        2
        ⋅
        
          
            
              (
              ω
              −
              
                ω
                
                  0
                
              
              )
            
            
              Δ
              Ω
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle n=2\cdot {\frac {(\omega -\omega _{0})}{\Delta \Omega }}}
  
, then the expressions for the Fresnel arguments become

  
    
      
        
          X
          
            1
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              T
              ⋅
              Δ
              F
            
            
              2
            
          
        
        ⋅
        (
        1
        +
        n
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{1}={\frac {\sqrt {T\cdot \Delta F}}{\sqrt {2}}}\cdot (1+n)}
  
 and

  
    
      
        
          X
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              T
              ⋅
              Δ
              F
            
            
              2
            
          
        
        ⋅
        (
        1
        −
        n
        )
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{2}={\frac {\sqrt {T\cdot \Delta F}}{\sqrt {2}}}\cdot (1-n)}
  

The spectra are now functions of the  product T.ΔF, independent of any particular values of center frequency and bandwidth. This product, T.ΔF, is often referred to as the time-bandwidth product of the chirp.
Tables of the Fresnel integrals have been published,: 32–35 : 321–322  together with mathematical routines with which to compute the integrals manually or by means of a computer program.  In addition, a number of mathematical software programs, such as Mathcad, MATLAB and Mathematica have built-in routines to evaluate the integrals, either as standard functions or in extension packages.
Some plots of the power spectrum |S(ω)|2 as a function of frequency are shown, for time-bandwidth products of 25, 100, 250 and 1000.  When the product is small, the Fresnel ripples are very much in evidence, but the spectrum does tend to a more rectangular profile for larger values.

In the case of the plots of residual phase, Φ2(ω), the profiles tend to be very similar over a wide range of time-bandwidth products.  Two examples, for TxB = 100 and 250 are shown below.   They have a phase angle close to a value of π/4 within the chirp range 
  
    
      
        
          ω
          
            0
          
        
        ±
        Δ
        Ω
        
          /
        
        2
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega _{0}\pm \Delta \Omega /2}
  
 and they only start to change significantly for frequencies beyond this range.

Consequently, for frequencies within the sweep range of the chirp, it is the square-law phase term Φ1(ω) and its group delay function ( = -dΦ1/d(ω) ) that are of most interest.   There is a plot of the group delay shown below.  Both this function and the phase  Φ1(ω) are independent of the value of the time-bandwidth product.   As expected, the group delay is a linear function with a duration T secs, over a frequency sweep of ΔΩ rads.

The residual phase term adds only minor perturbations to this characteristic within the frequency range 
  
    
      
        Δ
        Ω
        ±
        Δ
        Ω
        
          /
        
        2
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta \Omega \pm \Delta \Omega /2}
  
.  At frequencies outside this range, Φ2(ω) deviates rapidly from π/4, and so the total phase will deviate seriously from a square law there.   Fortunately, the energy content of the chirp spectrum is  very small at these frequencies (as is demonstrated in a later section).


== Non-linear chirps ==
When the Frequency-Time characteristic is non-linear, the Fourier integral is difficult to evaluate.  In such cases, it is possible to resort to an approximation method such as the stationary phase approximation, or to use numerical methods.


=== Via stationary phase method ===
Often (as in radar applications) a(t) is a slowly varying function of time and the phase θ(t) is oscillatory and varies rapidly, over the range of integration.   With such waveforms, the stationary phase approximation can be used to investigate the spectrum.: 34    The method relies on the fact that the major contributions to the Fourier integral come from the region where the rate of change of phase is minimal, i.e. when

  
    
      
        
          
            d
            
              d
              t
            
          
        
        [
        (
        
          ω
          
            0
          
        
        −
        ω
        )
        t
        +
        θ
        (
        t
        )
        ]
        =
        0
        
        o
        r
        
        (
        ω
        −
        
          ω
          
            0
          
        
        )
        −
        
          θ
          ′
        
        (
        t
        )
        =
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}[(\omega _{0}-\omega )t+\theta (t)]=0\qquad or\qquad (\omega -\omega _{0})-\theta '(t)=0}
  

Unless θ(t) is a constant, the point in time ts at which the phase is stationary will vary according to the instantaneous frequency ωs.
Expressing the difference between (ωs-ω0).t and θ(t) as a Taylor series about the time ts, but discarding all but the first three terms (of which the second term is zero, here), the Fourier integral can be written, approximately, as

  
    
      
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        ≊
        a
        (
        
          t
          
            s
          
        
        )
        
          ∫
          
            
              t
              
                s
              
            
            −
            δ
          
          
            
              t
              
                s
              
            
            +
            δ
          
        
        exp
        ⁡
        
          [
          
            −
            j
            
              {
              
                (
                
                  ω
                  
                    s
                  
                
                −
                
                  ω
                  
                    0
                  
                
                )
                ⋅
                t
                −
                θ
                (
                
                  t
                  
                    s
                  
                
                )
                −
                
                  
                    
                      
                        θ
                        ″
                      
                      (
                      
                        t
                        
                          s
                        
                      
                      )
                    
                    2
                  
                
                ⋅
                (
                t
                −
                
                  t
                  
                    s
                  
                
                
                  )
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
              }
            
          
          ]
        
        ⋅
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle S(\omega )\approxeq a(t_{s})\int _{t_{s}-\delta }^{t_{s}+\delta }\exp \left[-j\left\{(\omega _{s}-\omega _{0})\cdot t-\theta (t_{s})-{\frac {\theta ''(t_{s})}{2}}\cdot (t-t_{s})^{2}\right\}\right]\cdot dt}
  

In this equation ts represents a constant time point, so terms depending on ts alone may be taken outside the integral.   The expression simplifies to: 39  

  
    
      
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        ≊
        
          
            2
            π
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            
              a
              (
              
                t
                
                  s
                
              
              )
            
            
              
                |
              
              
                θ
                ″
              
              (
              t
              )
              
                |
              
            
          
        
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        
          [
          
            j
            
              {
              
                (
                
                  ω
                  
                    0
                  
                
                −
                
                  ω
                  
                    s
                  
                
                )
                t
                +
                θ
                (
                
                  t
                  
                    s
                  
                
                )
                +
                
                  
                    π
                    4
                  
                
              
              }
            
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S(\omega )\approxeq {\sqrt {2\pi }}\cdot {\frac {a(t_{s})}{\sqrt {|\theta ''(t)|}}}\cdot \exp \left[j\left\{(\omega _{0}-\omega _{s})t+\theta (t_{s})+{\frac {\pi }{4}}\right\}\right]}
  
 
so 

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        
          ω
          
            t
          
        
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        ≊
        2
        π
        ⋅
        
          
            
              
                a
                
                  2
                
              
              (
              t
              )
            
            
              
                |
              
              
                θ
                ″
              
              (
              t
              )
              
                |
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S(\omega _{t})|^{2}\approxeq 2\pi \cdot {\frac {a^{2}(t)}{|\theta ''(t)|}}}
  

where ωt is used to indicate the dependence of the frequency variable on t.   
This is a very useful expression linking, as it does, the spectrum profile to the amplitude and phase characteristics of the chirp.
To carry out the inverse process, i.e. to find the time domain function s(t) given frequency domain data, the inverse Fourier transform is derived.

  
    
      
        s
        (
        t
        )
        =
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        
          ∫
          
            −
            ∞
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          |
        
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        (
        Φ
        (
        ω
        )
        +
        ω
        ⋅
        t
        )
        ]
        ⋅
        d
        ω
      
    
    {\displaystyle s(t)={\frac {1}{2\pi }}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }|S(\omega )|\cdot \exp[j(\Phi (\omega )+\omega \cdot t)]\cdot d\omega }
  

where Φ(x) is the phase function of the spectrum.    The stationary phase points for this integrand are located at

  
    
      
        
          Φ
          ′
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        −
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi '(\omega )=-t}
  

and the corollary relationship, equivalent to that derived for the spectrum, can be obtained by the stationary phase method, and is

  
    
      
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        (
        
          t
          
            ω
          
        
        )
        ≊
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            
              
                |
              
              S
              (
              ω
              )
              
                
                  |
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
            
              
                |
              
              
                Φ
                ″
              
              (
              ω
              )
              
                |
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle a^{2}(t_{\omega })\approxeq {\frac {1}{2\pi }}\cdot {\frac {|S(\omega )|^{2}}{|\Phi ''(\omega )|}}}
  

In effect, stationary phase analysis gives the following (approximate) Fourier pair relationships:: 43 

  
    
      
        a
        (
        t
        )
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        θ
        (
        t
        )
        ]
        ≊
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          ∫
          
            −
            ∞
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          |
        
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        {
        Φ
        (
        ω
        )
        +
        ω
        ⋅
        t
        }
        ]
        ⋅
        d
        ω
      
    
    {\displaystyle a(t)\cdot \exp[j\theta (t)]\approxeq {\frac {1}{2\pi }}\cdot \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }S(\omega )|\cdot \exp[j\{\Phi (\omega )+\omega \cdot t\}]\cdot d\omega }
  
 
and 

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          |
        
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        j
        Φ
        (
        ω
        )
        ]
        ≊
        
          ∫
          
            −
            ∞
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        a
        (
        t
        )
        ⋅
        exp
        ⁡
        [
        −
        j
        {
        ω
        t
        −
        θ
        (
        t
        )
        }
        ]
        d
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S(\omega )|\cdot \exp[j\Phi (\omega )]\approxeq \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }a(t)\cdot \exp[-j\{\omega t-\theta (t)\}]dt}
  

Consequently, approximate expressions for a(t) and θ(t) can be obtained when the spectrum, including its phase function Φ(ω) is given and, similarly, approximate expressions for |S(ω| and Φ(ω) can be obtained when the signal characteristics are given.  Several examples of the procedure are given in the literature: 43 
Although the relationships are only approximate, their accuracy improves as the time-bandwidth product increases.   In cases where the signal envelope and spectrum modulus are defined by smoothly varying Gaussian function then a T.ΔF product as low as 15 will give acceptable results, but if both a(t) and |S(ω)| are defined by rectangular functions, then the product T.ΔF needs to be much greater, typically over 100.: 49 

Examples
Typically, in the radar case, a(t) is a constant over the duration of the signal and, for convenience, is assumed here to be unity.  So the phase and amplitude characteristics, in the frequency domain, are related by

  
    
      
        
          Φ
          ″
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        ±
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Phi ''(\omega )=\pm {\frac {1}{2\pi }}\cdot |S(\omega )|^{2}}
  

There are two solutions for Φ(ω), which are complex conjugates of each other.   The two filters with these characteristics can be used as the transmitter and receiver filters of a radar system and are interchangeable.
The group delay characteristic D(ω), (where D(ω)=-dΦ/dω), is

  
    
      
        D
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        −
        
          Φ
          ′
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        −
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          Φ
          ″
        
        (
        ω
        )
        ⋅
        d
        ω
        +
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle D(\omega )=-\Phi '(\omega )=-\int _{0}^{\infty }\Phi ''(\omega )\cdot d\omega +K}
  
 
so 

  
    
      
        D
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        ±
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          ∫
          
            0
          
          
            ∞
          
        
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        ⋅
        d
        ω
        +
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle D(\omega )=\pm {\frac {1}{2\pi }}\cdot \int _{0}^{\infty }|S(\omega )|^{2}\cdot d\omega +K}
  

So in the case of a rectangular time envelope, the dispersive delay characteristic is given by the integral of the square of the envelope.   If the positive sign is taken, then the group delay increases with increasing frequency and vice versa.  The result is only approximate, but is more accurate for large values of the time bandwidth product.
Consider, as an example, the case of a spectrum that is uniform over the range -ωmax/2 to ωmax/2, then

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        A
        
        f
        o
        r
        
        
          |
        
        ω
        
          |
        
        <
        
          
            
              ω
              
                m
                a
                x
              
            
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S(\omega )|^{2}=A\qquad for\qquad |\omega |<{\frac {\omega _{max}}{2}}}
  
  
so

  
    
      
        D
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        
          
            1
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        ∫
        A
        ⋅
        d
        ω
        +
        K
        =
        
          
            A
            
              2
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        ω
        +
        K
      
    
    {\displaystyle D(\omega )={\frac {1}{2\pi }}\cdot \int A\cdot d\omega +K={\frac {A}{2\pi }}\cdot \omega +K}
  

Put D(-ωmax/2) = 0 and D(ωmax/2) = T, where T is the pulse duration, then K = T/2 and A = (2πT)/ωmax
so, finally 

  
    
      
        D
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        T
        ⋅
        
          [
          
            
              
                1
                2
              
            
            +
            
              
                ω
                
                  ω
                  
                    m
                    a
                    x
                  
                
              
            
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle D(\omega )=T\cdot \left[{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {\omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right]}
  

As expected, a flat topped frequency spectrum corresponds to a linear frequency sweep.
The linear chirp is just one special case which, in any case, can be calculated more precisely by the methods of the earlier section.  The particular usefulness of the stationary phase method lies in its ability to provide results when the frequency sweep is non linear.  In such cases the spectral response can be shaped to meet some desired design criteria, for example, low side-lobes when a chirp is compressed.  One such family of spectral functions that has been studied: 51  is given by

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          A
          
            n
          
        
        ⋅
        c
        o
        
          s
          
            n
          
        
        
          (
          
            
              
                π
                ω
              
              
                ω
                
                  m
                  a
                  x
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        
        w
        h
        e
        r
        e
        
        
          |
        
        ω
        
          |
        
        <
        
          
            
              ω
              
                m
                a
                x
              
            
            2
          
        
        
        a
        n
        d
         
        n
         
        i
        s
         
        a
        n
         
        i
        n
        t
        e
        g
        e
        r
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S(\omega )|^{2}=A_{n}\cdot cos^{n}\left({\frac {\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)\qquad where\qquad |\omega |<{\frac {\omega _{max}}{2}}\qquad and\ n\ is\ an\ integer}
  

It is possible to find the group delay characteristics of these functions in a similar manner to that carried out above and the results for n = 1 to 4 have been calculated.: 51  
Although these cosine functions are amenable to mathematical manipulation, they are rarely chosen to define the spectral characteristics of a chirp, in practice, because when compressed they give broad main pulses with high side-lobe levels.   A better characteristic (among many) is the Hamming function, given by

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        S
        (
        ω
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        A
        ⋅
        
          [
          
            0.54
            +
            0.46
            ⋅
            c
            o
            s
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    2
                    π
                    ω
                  
                  
                    ω
                    
                      m
                      a
                      x
                    
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
        =
        A
        ⋅
        
          [
          
            0.08
            +
            0.92
            ⋅
            c
            o
            
              s
              
                2
              
            
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    π
                    ω
                  
                  
                    ω
                    
                      m
                      a
                      x
                    
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |S(\omega )|^{2}=A\cdot \left[0.54+0.46\cdot cos\left({\frac {2\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)\right]=A\cdot \left[0.08+0.92\cdot cos^{2}\left({\frac {\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)\right]}
  

A plot of this characteristic is shown, plotted over the range -ωmax/2 to ωmax/2.
Applying the equations given above, the group delay characteristic which achieves this spectral shape can be obtained.   It is

  
    
      
        
          D
          
            H
          
        
        (
        ω
        )
        =
        T
        ⋅
        
          [
          
            
              
                1
                2
              
            
            +
            
              
                ω
                
                  ω
                  
                    m
                    a
                    x
                  
                
              
            
            +
            
              
                1.7037
                
                  4
                  π
                
              
            
            ⋅
            s
            i
            n
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    2
                    π
                    ω
                  
                  
                    ω
                    
                      m
                      a
                      x
                    
                  
                
              
              )
            
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle D_{H}(\omega )=T\cdot \left[{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {\omega }{\omega _{max}}}+{\frac {1.7037}{4\pi }}\cdot sin\left({\frac {2\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)\right]}
  

Now because the principle of stationary phase shows that there is a direct relationship between elapsed time and the instantaneous signal delay then, for the Hamming window, t/T can be related to ω/ωmax by

  
    
      
        
          
            t
            T
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            2
          
        
        +
        
          
            ω
            
              ω
              
                m
                a
                x
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            1.7037
            
              4
              π
            
          
        
        ⋅
        s
        i
        n
        
          (
          
            
              
                2
                π
                ω
              
              
                ω
                
                  m
                  a
                  x
                
              
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {t}{T}}={\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {\omega }{\omega _{max}}}+{\frac {1.7037}{4\pi }}\cdot sin\left({\frac {2\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)}
  

This characteristic which is time as a function of frequency is shown here.  Inverting the plot gives the more usual (and more useful) plot of frequency as a function of time, which is also shown.

Other spectral shapes can be investigated in the same way and the results, although approximate, are surprisingly accurate, especially when the time bandwidth product of the pulse is high.
The stationary phase method does not predict or deal with Fresnell ripples, so it is unable to offer any means by which these ripples can be minimized.   As an example, the figure below shows a chirp spectrum with T.ΔF =250 obtained for a non-linear chirp aiming to match the Hamming window, using the methods described above.  The figure shows that the spectral profile matches the Hamming characteristic quite well, but Fresnell ripples, not predicted by the method, are very much in evidence. 


=== Via numerical methods ===


==== Sampling ====
Whenever a Fourier integral cannot be evaluated by analytical means, an approximate solution is usually possible by numerical analysis.   Such a procedure requires the function to be sampled, usually at equi-spaced intervals in time.
One consequence of sampling is that the resultant spectrum is periodic in the frequency domain.   In addition to the (desired) baseband spectrum, additional versions of the spectrum occur, centered on multiples of the sampling frequency.   To ensure that there is no overlapping of frequency data (i.e. no aliasing) the Nyquist sampling theorem must be satisfied.  In practice, a sampling rate substantially higher than that dictated by the sampling theorem is advisable: 11 


==== Spectrum of a sampled Signal - the Fourier transform of a discrete time signal ====
A straightforward way to approximate an integral, such as a Fourier integral, is to use the standard 'rectangle rule' for numerical integration.   The method assumes the signal value taken at a sample instant remains constant for one sampling interval, until the next sample is taken.  This procedure is sometimes referred to as a 'box-car generator', or a zero order sample and hold.: 114 : 34    If the time interval between samples is W, then sn = s(nW), and the desired integral is obtained, approximately, by summing the rectangular areas.
The result so obtained is the convolution of a rectangular pulse with step size W with the impulses located at the sampling instants with weights equal to the sample values.: 12    In consequence, the spectrum of interest will have superimposed upon it the frequency response of the sample and hold,: 135 : 36  and the spectrum of the sampled signal Ss is given by:: 12 

  
    
      
        S
        s
        (
        ω
        )
        )
        =
        W
        
          
            
              sin
              ⁡
              (
              ω
              W
              
                /
              
              2
              )
            
            
              ω
              W
              
                /
              
              2
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          [
          
            
              ∑
              
                n
                =
                −
                ∞
              
              
                ∞
              
            
            
              s
              
                n
              
            
            ⋅
            exp
            ⁡
            (
            −
            j
            n
            ω
            W
            )
          
          ]
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Ss(\omega ))=W{\frac {\sin(\omega W/2)}{\omega W/2}}\cdot \left[\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }s_{n}\cdot \exp(-jn\omega W)\right]}
  

The first part of the expression, i.e. the 'sin(x)/x' part, is the frequency response of the sample and hold.  Its amplitude decreases with frequency and it falls to 63% of its peak value at half the sampling frequency and it is zero at multiples of that frequency (since fs =1/W).
The second term in the equation is called the Fourier transform of the discrete signal sn.: 12   It is a continuous function over all ω and involves an infinite number of summations.   In practice the summation process can be truncated to a finite number of samples, N, possibly because the waveform is periodic or zero outside the range of samples.   Furthermore, because the same spectrum is endlessly repeated, it is possible to confine interest to spectral data within the range -ωs/2 to +ωs/2.
As an example, an exponential chirp (with its top frequency well below the Nyquist limit) is sampled at 256 points, as shown.

The sampled spectrum, Ss(ω) of this waveform, calculated using the equation given above, is shown.  To simplify the plot, only the results at positive frequencies have been displayed.  The influence of the frequency spectrum of the zero order hold circuit is clearly seen in the diagram.

The baseband portion of the spectrum is shown in more detail in the next figure and the response shows a distinct slope, being significantly lower at the higher frequencies.

Although the characteristic of the zero order hold has a small influence on this result, the slope is mainly due to the properties of the chirp.  The waveform sweeps relatively quickly over the high frequencies and spends more time sweeping the low frequencies, consequently there is less energy content at the high frequencies with more at the lower ones.  (A linear chirp, on the other hand, has a nominally flat spectrum because its frequencies are swept at the same rate, as shown in some earlier plots).


==== Via the discrete Fourier transform ====
If we limit interest in the output spectrum to a finite number of discrete data points (= N), at frequencies ωm given by 

  
    
      
        
          ω
          
            m
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              2
              π
              m
            
            
              N
              W
            
          
        
        
        f
        o
        r
        
        m
        =
        0
        ,
        1
        ,
        2
        ,
        .
        .
        .
        N
        −
        1
      
    
    {\displaystyle \omega _{m}={\frac {2\pi m}{NW}}\qquad for\qquad m=0,1,2,...N-1}
  

then the formula for calculating the discrete Fourier transform is

  
    
      
        S
        
          s
          
            m
          
        
        
        =
        S
        s
        
          (
          
            j
            
              
                
                  2
                  π
                  m
                
                
                  N
                  W
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        
        =
        
        
          ∑
          
            n
            =
            0
          
          
            N
            −
            1
          
        
        
          s
          
            n
          
        
        ⋅
        e
        x
        p
        (
        −
        j
        
          (
          
            
              
                2
                π
                m
                n
              
              N
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle Ss_{m}\quad =Ss\left(j{\frac {2\pi m}{NW}}\right)\quad =\quad \sum _{n=0}^{N-1}s_{n}\cdot exp(-j\left({\frac {2\pi mn}{N}}\right)}
  

The calculations can be carried out by means of a straightforward computer algorithm,: 21  but this is not very efficient in computer usage.  Consequently, more efficient algorithms have been developed, especially fast Fourier transforms (FFT).   Computer programs which implement the FFT are widely available in the literature: 54 : 119, 412  and in proprietary CAD programs such as Mathcad, MATLAB, and Mathematica. 
In the following example a linear chirp with time bandwidth product of 25 is sampled at 128 points (i.e. N = 128).  In the figure samples of the real part of the waveform are shown - note that these are samples in the time domain.  The FFT process assumes the waveform is cyclic, so these 128 data points can be considered to be part of an endlessly repeating sequence in time.

By calculating the N-point FFT of this data, the discrete spectrum of the sequence is obtained.   The magnitude of this spectrum is shown in the attached figure, where these data points are samples in frequency.  The data is cyclic so, in the plot, the zero frequency point is at n = 0 and also at n = 128 (i.e. both points are the same frequency).   The point n = 64 corresponds to +fs/2 (and also to -fs/2).

To display the spectrum in more detail (but not necessarily with more resolution), the time sequence can be extended by zero padding.: 80–85   For example, extending the 128 point time sequence with zeros to give N = 4096 results in that part of the spectrum originally presented in 16 samples, now being presented in 512 samples, as shown. 


== Spectral spread ==
There is very little spectral content beyond the sweep frequency range of a chirp pulse and this is especially true for waveforms where the time-bandwidth product is large.   The full line on the graph of the adjacent figure shows results for linear chirps.  It shows, for example, that only about 2% of the total power resides at frequencies outside the sweep range ΔF when the time-bandwidth is 100, and it is less than 1/2% when T.ΔF is 500. 
In the case of a non-linear chirp, or a linear chirp shaped by amplitude weighting, the fraction of power outside ΔF is even lower, as is shown on the graph, where the dashed line is for spectra with Hamming profiles.
This low spectral spread is particularly significant when baseband signals are to be digitized since it permits a sampling frequency to be chosen which is only slightly higher than twice the maximum frequency excursion of the chirp.


=== Reducing Spectral Ripple ===
The Fresnel ripples on a chirp spectrum are very obtrusive, especially when time-bandwidth products are low (under 50, say) and their presence leads to high time sidelobe levels when chirps are subject to pulse compression as in radar and sonar systems.  They arise because of the sudden discontinuities in the chirp waveform at the commencement and termination of the pulse.
Although there are a number of procedures that can be applied to reduce the ripple levels,  they are not all equally effective.   Furthermore, some of the methods require amplitude shaping, or amplitude modulation, of the chirp pulse and this makes those methods unsuitable when, for example, the chirp pulses are to be transmitted by a power amplifier operating in a near-limiting condition.  For such systems only the methods using frequency (or phase) pre-distortion are appropriate.


==== Introducing Rise and Fall Times of Finite Duration ====
If the transitions at the start and end of the chirp are made less sudden (or more 'rounded'), then a reduction in ripple amplitude is achieved.: 213   The durations of the two transition regions need only be a small fraction of the pulse duration, and suggested values are between 2/ΔF and 3/ΔF  but, as expected, when the time-bandwidth product of the pulse is small, longer transition periods are needed.  The actual profiles of these rise and fall regions of a pulse do not seem to be critical and may be provided, for example, by band limiting filters in analogue implementations and a linear slope in digital ones.
Two examples show the spectra of linear chirps with finite rise-times.  The first is for a chirp with time-bandwidth of 250, where the rise and fall times are 4% of the total pulse duration and the second is for a chirp with time-bandwidth of 25, where the rise and fall times are 10% of the total.  These two spectra show a marked reduction in ripple amplitude compared to the spectra of unmodified linear chirps shown earlier. 


==== Applying Phase or Frequency Distortion to the Chirp Pulse ====
A analogous technique can be applied to the frequency characteristic of the chirp waveform by adding linear FM distortion segments (quadratic phase modulation distortion) to the frequency characteristic of the chirp, as shown. The method is effective because amplitude and phase distortions having functional similarity can produce similar effects when the distortion factors are small.

This added distortion is referred to as 'predistortion'.  Suggested values for these distortion regions, to achieve good results, were initially determined to be:

  
    
      
        Δ
        
          f
          
            p
          
        
        =
        0.75
        Δ
        F
        
        a
        n
        d
        
        δ
        =
        1
        
          /
        
        Δ
        F
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta f_{p}=0.75\Delta F\qquad and\qquad \delta =1/\Delta F}
  

In 1988, later work proposed slightly different values, namely: 

  
    
      
        Δ
        
          f
          
            p
          
        
        =
        0.73
        Δ
        F
        
        a
        n
        d
        
        δ
        =
        0.86
        
          /
        
        Δ
        F
      
    
    {\displaystyle \Delta f_{p}=0.73\Delta F\qquad and\qquad \delta =0.86/\Delta F}
  

The outcomes can be further improved by optimizing values for each particular situation.
Below are two plots showing the effects of frequency pre-correction, for time bandwidths of 25 and 250. These can be compared to the results in the earlier sections.

The ripple reduction achieved by frequency pre-correction, although significant, is seen to be less successful than that achieved by the amplitude modulation methods of the previous section.  However, it has been suggested that by implementing cubic (rather than quadratic) phase pre-correction, comparable results can be achieved.


==== Deriving a Waveform from a Target Frequency Spectrum ====
This method uses an inverse Fourier transform in order to derive a waveform which has a spectrum with the phase characteristic of a chosen chirp but a new amplitude profile which is rectangular and ripple free.   The method is very effective but, unfortunately, the waveform that is so derived has a semi-infinite time duration.  If, for convenience, the newly derived waveform is truncated to a practical length, then some ripple is reintroduced onto the spectrum.
As an example, a linear chirp waveform with a time bandwidth of 25 is shown together with its spectrum magnitude (shown by a full line) which, as demonstrated earlier, has a large ripple component.  It is possible to find, by means of an inverse FFT, a chirp waveform which, in the frequency domain, has the same phase characteristic as before, but with the rectangular magnitude characteristic shown by the dashed line on the plot.  The chirp waveform resulting from this process has a very long time duration, but when it is truncated to say, a length 2T, then the spectrum acquires some ripple once more, as  shown.


==== Applying Window Functions ====
There are many applications in which a spectrum with a rectangular magnitude profile is not ideal.  For example, when a chirp waveform is compressed by means of its matched filter, then the resultant waveform approximates to the sinc function and, consequently, has annoyingly high sidelobes.   Often, to improve the characteristics of the pulse and lower the sidelobe levels, its spectrum is modified, typically to a bell-shaped profile.
Similar problems arise in digital signal processing where the spectral shaping is provided by a window function, a process sometimes called apodization.  In the case of an antenna array, similar profiling by ""weighting functions"" is used to reduce the spatial sidelobes of the radiation pattern.
Although spectral shaping of a chirp could be applied in the frequency domain, better results are obtained if the shaping is carried out in the time domain. Examples of this process are shown for linear chirps with time-bandwidth products of 250 and 25.  They have been shaped by a 3-term Blackman-Harris window given by 

  
    
      
        
          |
        
        U
        (
        ω
        )
        
          
            |
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        0.42323
        −
        0.49755
        cos
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                2
                π
                ω
              
              
                ω
                
                  m
                  a
                  x
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        +
        0.07922
        cos
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                4
                π
                ω
              
              
                ω
                
                  m
                  a
                  x
                
              
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle |U(\omega )|^{2}=0.42323-0.49755\cos \left({\frac {2\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)+0.07922\cos \left({\frac {4\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)}
  
 
The spectra, now bell-shaped, are seen to be free of ripples.

Non-linear chirps can be devised that have a bell shaped spectrum, such as the Blackman-Harris window just discussed, and consequently will exhibit reduced ripple compared to the linear chirp. By means of the stationary phase method described earlier, an approximate relationship between time and frequency can be obtained:

  
    
      
        
          
            t
            T
          
        
        =
        
          
            1
            2
          
        
        +
        
          
            ω
            
              ω
              
                m
                a
                x
              
            
          
        
        +
        0.1871
        sin
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                2
                π
                ω
              
              
                ω
                
                  m
                  a
                  x
                
              
            
          
          )
        
        +
        0.014895
        sin
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                4
                π
                ω
              
              
                ω
                
                  m
                  a
                  x
                
              
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {t}{T}}={\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {\omega }{\omega _{max}}}+0.1871\sin \left({\frac {2\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)+0.014895\sin \left({\frac {4\pi \omega }{\omega _{max}}}\right)}
  
 
Rearranging the equation, one can plot frequency against time, which looks roughly as shown to the right.
Non-linear chirps with spectral profiles of a Blackman-Harris window show ripple reduction, but can have disappointing performance due to amplitude profiles with fast rise and fall times.
As examples, below are two plots of the spectral magnitudes of such chirps, with time-bandwidth products of 250 and 25, respectively.  These chirps have reduced energy content in their outer frequency regions, but still show less than ideal performance.


== See also ==
Pulse compression, a process which uses frequency or phase coded waveforms to improve the signal to noise of received signals.
Chirp compression, a compression process for chirps only.


== References =="
Southern torrent frog,"The southern torrent frog (Arthroleptides yakusini) is a species of frog in the family Petropedetidae endemic to Tanzania, where it is found in the Uluguru, Udzungwa, and Mahenge Mountains. It is one of many, often taxonomically unrelated, frogs referred to as torrent frogs. It occurs mainly around rocky montane streams surrounded by mature forest at elevations of 300–2,800 m (984.3–9,186.4 ft) above sea level, but also can be found on the forest floor away from water, and may be tolerant of open woodland environments. While it is sometimes claimed to be found in the Nguru Mountains as well, molecular evidence shows that this population may instead represent an unnamed species.
This frog is a nocturnal species, spending the daytime hidden away under rocks and emerging to feed after nightfall. It can grow over 70 mm (2.8 in) in snout-vent length, with males commonly growing larger than females. With its wide jaws, it is believed to prey on smaller frogs. The upper side of its body is mainly gray-brown with mottled patterns and an orange-reddish stripe stretching across each eye, camouflaging it against the leaf litter, while the underside is pale. During the breeding season, mature males produce advertisement calls to attract mates and develop a number of secondary sexual characteristics, including swollen forearms, spines on the throat and chin, knobs on the metacarpal area and a soft protrusion called a tympanic papilla on each tympanum. Eggs are laid on rocks over which a film of water is present, either in small clusters of four to five eggs or large groupings of about 200. The tadpoles remain attached to the rocks, developing out of water for 8 to 10 weeks until their metamorphosis is complete.
This species was named and described in 2002, with an adult male specimen collected in 1995 being designated as the holotype. Prior to this, it was thought to represent a population of the Usambara torrent frog, now known to be a closely related yet separate species. The specific name originates from the Swahili words ""ya kusini"" which mean ""of the south"", and the common name ""southern torrent frog"" has been given to this species, though this common name is also used for the unrelated Asian species Amolops australis. This African species has been listed as Endangered by the IUCN, as it has a severely fragmented distribution and its forest habitat is under threat from encroaching agriculture. Various diseases such as strongyloidiasis and chytridiomycosis are known to occur in this frog, the latter of which is known to cause drastic amphibian population declines, though these illnesses are not always fatal to the infected frog.


== Taxonomy ==
Prior to 2002, it was thought that all Tanzanian frogs belonging to the genus Arthroleptides were part of a single species, the Usambara torrent frog (A. martiensseni). However, a study was published that year based on fieldwork conducted from 1999 to 2001 which found that individuals from the Udzungwa and Uluguru mountains were consistently distinguishable from those found in the Usambara Mountains further north (where the type specimen of the Usambara torrent frog was collected). Therefore, the southern form was described as a new species and given the scientific name Arthroleptides yakusini, with the specific name being derived from the Swahili words ""ya kusini"", meaning ""of the south"" and referencing how this species occurs south of the range of the Usambara torrent frog. The holotype specimen is an adult male collected along the Njokomoni River in Udzungwa Mountains National Park on 8 December 1995, and three other individuals collected at the same site and time were designated as paratypes. These specimens, along with seven others of the same species, were sent to the American Museum of Natural History and were the subjects of a study published in 1998, prior to the recognition of this species, in which they were wrongly referred to as A. martiensseni. The common name ""southern torrent frog"" has been given to A. yakusini, though this name has also been proposed in 2018 for Amolops australis, an unrelated frog species discovered in Malaysia.
A paper published in 2005 concluded that the genus Arthroleptides is a junior synonym of Petropedetes, and therefore this species was renamed as Petropedetes yakusini. However, a 2014 study resurrected the former genus as a valid taxon, thus reinstating the original scientific name of the species. Both Arthroleptides and Petropedetes belong in the family Petropedetidae, and the two genera were found to be the closest known relatives of each other. The following cladogram shows the position of the southern torrent frog among its closest relatives according to said study:


== Distribution and habitat ==

The southern torrent frog is endemic to Tanzania, where it occurs in mountain ranges from 300–2,800 m (984.3–9,186.4 ft) above sea level. It was first discovered in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountain ranges, and in 2004 it was reported to occur in the Mahenge Mountains as well. Though sometimes claimed to also be found in the Nguru Mountains, molecular evidence suggests this population actually represents a separate, currently unnamed species within the same genus. The southern torrent frog mostly inhabits rocky streams surrounded by montane forest, with a preference for mature forest (though it may tolerate open woodland habitats more than the related Usambara torrent frog), and has an estimated extent of occurrence of 3,113.18 km2 (1,202.0 sq mi). It can also occur further from these streams, with adults sometimes being found some distance away from water on the forest floor.


== Description ==

A large species of frog, the snout-vent length of the southern torrent frog commonly exceeds 54 mm (2.1 in), and reaches over 70 mm (2.8 in) in some exceptionally large males. Unusually for a frog, the males tend to grow larger than the females. This species has countershading coloration, with the upper surface of the body being gray-brown with mottled dark patterns while the belly and chest are pale. The limbs have similarly pale undersides, while the back of the thighs have white speckles over a darker background color. The throat is dark with speckled pale patterns, and an orange-reddish stripe passes through the upper part of the eye in many individuals. Smaller individuals may have transverse bands of color on their backs.
This frog has wide jaws, the width of which ranges between 40 and 44% of the individual's snout-vent length, and nostrils located near the front of the snout. The eyes cannot be seen when the frog is viewed from below. The tympana are dark and round, and in large males the width of each tympanum is slightly less than the distance between the front corners of the eyes. However, females and smaller males have proportionally much smaller tympana, with the width of each being only about 20% of the distance between the eyes. A fold of skin known as the supratympanic ridge covers the hind part of the upper margin of the tympana, and is almost straight when seen from the animal's side. The tips of the digits are widened into broad discs, each divided into two parts by a groove and possessing scutes on the upper surface. The lengths of the tibia and the fourth toe are about 60% and over 50% of the snout-vent length respectively. The hind feet are webbed and each have five toes with tubercles on their undersides. The webbing reaches or extends pass the proximal tubercles of the first four toes and the middle tubercle of the fifth toe, a feature distinguishing this species from the closely related Usambara torrent frog (in which the webbing extends around half as far).

Mature breeding males of this species develop notable secondary sexual characteristics, which include spines on the throat and chin, hypertrophy of the forearms, an enlarged knob on the metacarpal area, a ring of knobs around each tympanum and a protrusion of soft tissue on each tympanum known as a tympanic papilla. These features are absent in females, smaller males and males collected outside of the breeding season. The forearms are so swollen in breeding males that they can be 1.5 times wider than the frog's eye, whereas individuals lacking these secondary sexual characteristics tend to have arm widths less than their eye diameter.


=== Tadpoles ===
The tadpoles of the southern torrent frog are semiterrestrial, hatching from eggs laid on wet rock faces outside of water and developing there rather than directly in the water like the tadpoles of most frog species. They largely resemble the tadpoles of the related Usambara torrent frog, which are also semiterrestrial. The upper surface is a dark color with pale spots and darker patterns, and nine saddle-like patches of light color stretch across the top of the tail to the sides. The underside is white, with some fine spots speckled across the belly, and the belly muscles are just clear enough that the coiled gut with five spirals is visible through them.
The main body (excluding the tail) is oval shaped, being widest in the hind area when viewed from above, and the large eyes bulge above the rest of the body. A single spiracle is visible as a small vertical slit on the left side of the body. The vent tube is rounded and located on the midline of the tadpole's underside, extending slightly beyond the hind limbs, and its opening is unconnected to the muscles of the tail. The tail of a southern torrent frog tadpole is very long, with one Gosner stage 37 tadpole measuring 27.4 mm (1.08 in) in total length having a 18.7 mm (0.74 in)-long tail, making up over 68% of its total length. At this development stage, the tail has only a very reduced dorsal fin and no ventral fin, and no external gills are present, whereas both these fins are better developed and external gills can be seen in younger tadpoles such as a Gosner stage 23 individual. Both the upper and lower jaws bear curved keratinous sheaths, with the jaws closing such that the lower jaw sheath fits within the upper sheath, similarly to the beak of a parrot. The oral disc bears lip-like flaps known as labia, which have rows of teeth. There are three upper tooth rows and three lower tooth rows, each having about 52 teeth per mm (0.039 in), with the upper rows being split in the middle to accommodate the large jaw sheath. When the oral disc is closed, the upper labium flexes to cover the lower labium, and the middle teeth of the first upper row (the A-1 row) overlap. At the hind margin of the oral disc, there is a double row of short, rounded protrusions known as papillae, which merges into a single row towards the jaw angle.


== Biology ==
The southern torrent frog is a nocturnal animal, emerging after nightfall and spending the daytime hidden in deep cracks under large rocks, with larger individuals being particularly likely to hide away in this manner at day. Based on its wide jaws, it is believed to be a predator of smaller frogs such as the common squeaker, which is common within the leaf litter of the southern torrent frog's habitat. The adult frogs can occur near stream banks or away from the water on the leaf litter of the forest floor, where their coloration provides excellent camouflage. They are capable of large leaps and sometimes seen sitting on rocks covered with shallow water in fast-flowing streams, where they can quickly flee with the current downstream if threatened. Smaller, non-adult frogs can be found near streams in small pools, on the leaves of plants or in the crevices of vertical rock or soil faces, and have been noted to peer at observers and move deeper into these crevices upon being disturbed. Subadult and juvenile individuals are reportedly active mostly in rivers and on the forest floor, though one has been seen perched 1 m (3 ft 3 in) above the ground in a small tree.
A variety of diseases are known to occur in this species, with one study sampling 60 southern torrent frogs from Kihansi gorge in the Udzungwa Mountains and finding that 60% of these individuals had some form of disease condition. The most prevalent condition among this species was strongyloidiasis, a disease caused by nematode worms parasitizing the intestines, occurring in over 20% of the sampled southern torrent frogs. Viral and fungal infections were also recorded, including chytridiomycosis, a disease caused by fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis that has caused a drastic decline in amphibian populations worldwide. However, these diseases are not always fatal to the amphibian, and healthy southern torrent frogs have been found with infections of this fungus, suggesting that some individuals can harbor the pathogen without developing the disease. Nutritional status is also known to be linked to the outcome of nematode infection in amphibians, and the wide range of diet resources available to wild southern torrent frogs likely helps them avoid developing nematode-related clinical diseases.


=== Life cycle ===
After the short rains begin in November, adult males of this species start producing advertisement calls at night to attract mates, and may do so from the ground or atop rocks or fallen tree trunks. The advertisement call is made up of a series of ""wauk"" sounds, which are repeated at long intervals of as much as 25 seconds. Four to eight pulses comprise the call, which last from 30.6 to 81.2 milliseconds, and ranges from 1.2 to 1.4 kilohertz in emphasized frequency. The female lays her eggs on vertical or sloping rock surfaces covered with a film of water, which may be produced either by the drifting spray of a waterfall or natural drainage. The eggs are dark in color, camouflaging them against the dark rocks they are deposited on, and occur either in small clusters of four to five or large aggregations of around 200. Each egg measures about 2 mm (0.079 in) in diameter and is enclosed in a 4 mm (0.16 in) capsule. After hatching, the tadpoles do not directly enter the water and instead remain on the wet rocks, where they graze on algae and may occur in densities as high as 22 individuals per square meter (10.764 square feet). At the age of 8 to 10 weeks, metamorphosis is complete and the tail is reabsorbed, at which point the juvenile frogs move into forest leaf litter and vegetation near streams after leaving their nursery rock.


== Conservation ==

The conservation status of the southern torrent frog was assessed by the IUCN in 2013, and it was listed as an Endangered species. Although the species remains locally common in areas of suitable habitat and parts of the frog's range have been designated as protected areas including the Mkingu Nature Forest Reserve, Uluguru Nature Forest Reserve and Udzungwa Mountains National Park, its distribution is severely fragmented and the extent of available forest habitat in its range is declining due to the encroachment of agriculture. The pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which causes the disease chytridiomycosis in infected amphibians, has been recorded in southern torrent frogs, though at least some individuals appear to be capable of harboring the fungus without falling ill. Still, populations of this frog will require close monitoring to consider the potential impact of the disease.


== See also ==

Wildlife of Tanzania


== References ==


== External links =="
Recurso de amparo,"In most legal systems of the Spanish-speaking world, the writ of amparo (""writ of protection""; also called recurso de amparo, ""appeal for protection"", or juicio de amparo, ""judgement for protection"") is a remedy for the protection of constitutional rights, found in certain jurisdictions. The amparo remedy or action is an effective and inexpensive instrument for the protection of individual rights.
Amparo, generally granted by a supreme or constitutional court, serves a dual protective purpose: it protects the citizen and their basic guarantees, and protects the constitution itself by ensuring that its principles are not violated by statutes or actions of the state that undermine the basic rights enshrined therein. It resembles, in some respects, constitutional remedies such as the tutela available in Colombia, the writ of security (Mandado de Segurança) in Brazil and the constitutional complaint (Verfassungsbeschwerde) procedure found in Germany.
In many countries, an amparo action is intended to protect all rights that are not protected specifically by the constitution or by a special law with constitutional rank, such as the right to physical liberty, which may be protected instead by habeas corpus remedies. Thus, in the same way that habeas corpus guarantees physical freedom, and the ""habeas data"" protects the right of maintaining the integrity of one's personal information, the amparo protects other basic rights. It may therefore be invoked by any person who believes that any of his rights, implicitly or explicitly protected by the constitution, another law (or by applicable international treaties), is being violated.


== Origins in Mexico ==
The Mexican amparo has inspired many and served as a model in other judicatures. In the Philippines, Chief Justice Reynato Puno noted that the model for amparo used there was borrowed from Mexico: the writ of amparo is a Mexican legal procedure to protect human rights. Amparo literally means ""protection"" in Spanish. De Tocqueville's Democracy in America became available in Mexico in 1837, and its description of judicial review practice in the U.S. appealed to many Mexican jurists. Mexican justice Manuel Crescencio Rejón, drafted a constitutional provision for his native state, Yucatán (threatening independence from Mexico), which empowered jurists to protect all persons in the enjoyment of their constitutional and legal rights. This was incorporated in 1847 into the national constitution. The great writ proliferated in the Western Hemisphere, slowly evolving into various fora. Amparo became, in the words of a Mexican Federal Supreme Court Justice, Mexico’s “task of conveying to the world's legal heritage that institution which, as a shield of human dignity, her own painful history conceived.”
Amparo's evolution and metamorphosis had been witnessed, for several purposes: ""(1) amparo de libertad for the protection of personal freedom, equivalent to the habeas corpus writ; (2) amparo contra leyes for the judicial review of the constitutionality of statutes; (3) amparo-casación for the judicial review of the constitutionality and legality of a judicial decision; (4) amparo administrativo for the judicial review of administrative actions; and (5) amparo agrario ejidal o comunal for the protection of peasants’ rights derived from the agrarian reform process.""
Mexico's ""recurso de amparo"" is found in Articles 103 and 107 of the Mexican Constitution —the judicial review of governmental action—to empower state courts to protect individuals against state abuses. Amparo was sub-divided into five legal departments:

(a) the Liberty Amparo (amparo de libertad)
(b) the Constitutionality Amparo (amparo contra leyes)
(c) the Judicial or “Cassation” Amparo, aimed at the constitutionality of a judicial interpretation
(d) the Administrative Amparo (amparo como contencioso-administrativo); and
(e) the Agrarian Amparo (amparo en materia agraria, ejidal y comunal).


== Extension to Latin America ==
Amparo was also legally enshrined in Latin American legal systems. It is now an extraordinary legal remedy in Bolivia, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Brazil and Argentina.


=== Argentina ===
Amparo in Argentina is a limited, summary, emergency procedure, and merely supplementary, requiring previous exhaustion of administrative remedies before rendition of judgment of mandamus or injunction. The decision bars monetary awards and penal provisions except contempt or declaration of unconstitutionality. The 1994 constitution establishes the right to amparo in article 43.


=== Chile ===

In Chile, the term recurso de amparo (""amparo remedy"") refers to what is known in comparative law as habeas corpus. Chile's equivalent of amparo is the recurso de protección (""protection remedy"").


=== Colombia ===
In Colombia the Constitution of 1991 implemented a system named Acción de tutela (Tutelage action). The legal procedure resembles the Amparo law but is modified to be implemented in instances of imminent risk for any individual within the Colombian population. According to the Constitutional Court (Sentence T-451 of July 10, 1992) whether a right is to be judged as fundamental or not may be determined in a case-by-case basis; this means that the Constitution acknowledges that it can't be determined what are the corresponding fundamental rights therefore they may not only include the ones implicitly addressed by the Constitution of 1991 in Chapter I Title II.


=== Haiti ===
Jurists in Haiti, close to the Collectif des Juristes Progressistes Haitiens (Progressive Lawyers' Network), learning from the Filipino experience, are said to be preparing propositions for the Government to introduce a writ of amparo as a safeguard against frequent kidnappings and arbitrary arrests and torture cases.


== Extension to the world ==
Universal Declaration of Human rights (UDHR)
The inclusion of human rights in the UDHR is largely attributable to Latin America and NGOs forcing its inclusion into the Charter of the United Nations, at the San Francisco Conference, after the Great Powers at Dumbarton Oaks had made only one reference to human rights. When the UDHR was negotiated, Mexico successfully had amparo included in the UDHR, as Article 8.
""Article 8 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law."" The right to an effective remedy is included in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in its article 2, Paragraph 3:

3. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes:
(a) To ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as herein recognized are violated shall have an effective remedy, notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by persons acting in an official capacity; (b) To ensure that any person claiming such a remedy shall have his right thereto determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State, and to develop the possibilities of judicial remedy; (c) To ensure that the competent authorities shall enforce such remedies when granted.
This is usually referred to as the ""substantive"" procedural right, the flipside of the ""fair procedure"" contained in Article 14 of ICCPR.[In the USA the two together make up ""due process""]
States ratifying ICCPR ""undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such laws or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the present Covenant."" (Article 2)
Therefore, when there is a gap between a state's amparo remedies and ICCPR, the state is obliged to adapt amparo up to ICCPR's minimum standards, unless there is a legitimate reservation when ratifying, or what is known as derogation, or limitation or restriction.
Limitations/restrictions must be authorised by the article itself: See Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation of Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Annex, UN Doc E/CN.4/1984/4 (1984)


=== Spain ===
Under the current Spanish Constitution of 1978, a writ of amparo may be filed by any natural or legal person, domestic or foreign, as well by the Public Prosecutor and the Ombudsman, at the Constitutional Court. Its function is to protect the rights enshrined in the constitution-the fundamental rights contained in the Preliminary Title and First Section of Chapter II of Title I, to protect rights recognized in the Articles 14 to 29 of the Constitution and as well as conscientious objection to military service under Article 30.
It is a subsidiary remedy that requires all alternative relevant avenues have been exhausted in ordinary courts before turning to the Constitutional Court.


=== The Philippines ===

The writs of amparo and habeas data are prerogative writs introduced in the Philippines to supplement the inefficacy of habeas corpus (Rule 102, Revised Rules of Court). Amparo means protection, while habeas data is access to information. Both writs were conceived to solve the extensive Philippine extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances since 1999.
On July 16, 2007, Philippine Chief Justice Reynato Puno and Justice Adolfo Azcuna officially declared the legal conception of the Philippine writ of amparo – ""recurso de amparo"", at the historic Manila Hotel National Summit on Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances.
On August 25, 2007, Reynato Puno (at the College of Law of Silliman University in Dumaguete) declared the legal conception of amparo's twin, the supplemental Philippine Habeas Data. Puno by judicial fiat proclaimed the legal birth of these twin peremptory writs in October 2007, as his legacy to the Filipino nation. Puno admitted the inefficacy of habeas corpus, under Rule 102, Rules of Court, since government officers repeatedly failed to produce the body upon mere submission of the defense of alibi.
By invoking the right to truth, habeas data will not only compel military and government agents to release information about the desaparecidos but require access to military and police files. Reynato Puno's writ of amparo—Spanish for protection—will bar military officers in judicial proceedings to issue denial answers regarding petitions on disappearances or extrajudicial executions, which were legally permitted in habeas corpus proceedings.
The Supreme Court of the Philippines announced that the draft guidelines (Committee on Revision of Rules) for the writ of amparo were approved on September 23, to be deliberated by the en banc court on September 25.


== See also ==
Writ of security
Verfassungsbeschwerde
Habeas corpus


== References ==


== External links ==
The Argentine amparo
The Mexican amparo
""Amparo"" from the Global Legal Information Network Subject Term Index


== Bibliography ==
Sagües, Néstor P. (2007). La Acción de Amparo (5th ed.). Buenos Aires: Editorial Astrea. ISBN 978-950-508-762-4.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: publisher location (link)"
Constant Nieuwenhuys,"Constant Anton Nieuwenhuys (21 July 1920 – 1 August 2005), better known as Constant, was a Dutch painter, sculptor, graphic artist, author and musician.


== Early period ==
Constant was born in Amsterdam on 21 July 1920 as the first son of Pieter Nieuwenhuijs and Maria Cornelissen. Their second son, Jan Nieuwenhuys, was born a year later. Both sons became artists although their parents had no apparent interest in art.
As a young child Constant drew passionately and showed great talent. He read literature with a special preference for poetry and played musical instruments. During his teenage years he learned to sing and to read music while in the church choir at the Ignatius Gymnasium, a prestigious Jesuit school in Amsterdam. In his later years, greatly inspired by gypsy music, he only played improvised music. He played guitar, violin and at 45 years of age also mastered playing the cimbalon.
Constant painted his first oil painting, De Emmaüsgangers, at age sixteen. It depicted the revelation of Jesus to two of his followers in Emmaus. With no money to buy materials he painted this painting on a jute sugar bag with pigments he had bought from a house painter. Many of Constant's early drawings and paintings are religiously inspired, due to his Jesuit schooling. Yet at the age of twenty Constant turned his back on Catholicism.
After one year studying at the Kunstnijverheidsschool (Arts and Crafts School), Constant attended the Rijksakademie voor Beeldende Kunst (State Academy of Fine Arts) from 1939 to 1941. This education in craftmanship was put to use especially during his ""New Babylon"" period, when Constant built many constructions and models.
Constant lived and worked in Bergen from 1941 to 1943. Through the Bergense School he was introduced to the work of Paul Cézanne, which impacted him deeply, as evident in Zelfportret (Self Portrait), 1942. On 13 July 1942 he married Matie van Domselaer, the daughter of the composer Jakob van Domselaer.
The city of Bergen was evacuated by the Germans in 1943 and so Constant and Matie moved back to Amsterdam. During this period Constant went into hiding and refrained from registering at the Kulturkammer (Nazi Chamber of Culture) to avoid the Arbeitseinsatz (labour supply for the Germans). Because of this he was unable to conventionally exercise his craft or to buy art supplies. To paint Constant used tablecloths and bed linen and had to rinse them out to start again.
During the war Constant's brother in law, Jaap van Domselaer, moved into the apartment to hide from the 'Arbeitseinsatz.' He introduced Constant to Plato, Spinoza, Descartes, Kant, Hegel and Marx. Especially the latter provided great inspiration to Constant regarding his later ideas on art and society.
During the winter famine of 1944 Constant's first son, Victor Nieuwenhuys, was born. After the war, Constant, his wife and son moved back to Bergen only to return to Amsterdam in 1946 where they lived in an apartment across from the zoo Artis. When the war ended Constant was able to expand and grow as an artist after years of captivity and limitations. He liberated himself artistically and experimented with multiple techniques of art-making. He was inspired by Cubism, especially by Georges Braque. In 1946 his daughter Martha was born, followed by his daughter Olga in 1948.


== CoBrA ==
In 1946 Constant travelled to Paris for the first time where he met the young Danish painter Asger Jorn. The friendship between Jorn and Constant later formed the basis for the avant-garde movement CoBrA.
July 1948 Constant founded Reflex Experimentele Groep in Holland with Corneille, Karel Appel and his brother Jan Nieuwenhuys. The first edition of the magazine Reflex was published with a manifesto written by Constant. For Constant art had to be experimental. He had deducted this from the French word 'expérience' and believed that art springs from experience of the artist and is continuously changing. In the manifesto he stated that the process of creation is more important to the experimental artist than the work itself; it is a means to reach spiritual and mental enrichment. Also, the work of experimental artists is a mirror image of changes in the general perception of beauty.
Constant, Corneille and Appel, three totally different characters and artists, were united in their quest for innovation. They exhibited their work together and were often seen together in the European art scene. The wanderlust of the three is especially notorious.
Later in the year 1948 on the terrace of café Notre Dame in Paris the Experimentele Groep in Holland linked up with Christian Dotremont and Joseph Noiret from Belgium and Asger Jorn from Denmark to form CoBrA, a name which was made by Dotremont, formed by the first letters of their hometowns: Copenhagen, Brussels and Amsterdam. The members opposed aesthetics in painting and bourgeois art in general.
Constant had already outlined their ideas in his manifesto in Reflex magazine. This manifesto contains another of his famous quotes: ""A painting is not a structure of colours and lines, but an animal, a night, a cry, a man, or all of these together"".
Constant was productive during the CoBrA period. White Bird (1948), Ladder (1949) and Scorched Earth I (1951) are some of his noted works from this period. At this time CoBrA published bulletin additional artists from several different disciplines joined their ranks. In 1948 Constant, together with poet Gerrit Kouwenaar, published a poetry album Goede Morgen Haan. Additionally there were two large CoBrA exhibitions, one in Amsterdam in 1949 and one in Liège in 1951.
The director of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam (Municipal Museum of Amsterdam), Willem Sandberg, was very supportive of young artists and fully supported the CoBrA group by giving them seven large rooms to exhibit their work in. Most of the CoBrA works had been fairly small due to their lack of money and so Sandberg gave the artists an advance to create some larger works in the week before the exhibition. Constant, Corneille, Appel and Eugène Brands created several large pieces of art that have become iconic for the movement. The architect Aldo van Eyck was commissioned to shape the exhibition. The works of art as well as the way they were presented give rise to harsh critique from press and public. A critic from Het Vrije Volk wrote: ""Geklad, geklets en geklodder in het Stedelijk Museum"" (""Smirch, twaddle and mess in the Municipal Museum""). The CoBrA artists were considered scribblers and con artists.
In the Liège exhibition in 1951, even larger than the Stedelijk exhibition, the CoBrA group dissolved itself and with its tenth edition bulletin publication. As Christian Dotremont, the international secretary, stated in Museum News in 1962 the group would rather ""mourir en beauté"" (die in beauty) than become a regular artist interest group.


== Situationist International ==

After CoBrA Constant's work became more abstract. Back in Amsterdam in the summer of 1952 he developed an interest in spatial architecture and three-dimensional works. With Aldo van Eyck, whom he met during his CoBrA time, he created a space for the exhibition 'Man and House' at the Urban Museum Amsterdam from 1952-1953. In 1954 he worked on a project with Gerrit Rietveld. Together they created a model house for warehouses de Bijenkorf.
In 1952 Constant received a scholarship from the Arts Council of Great Britain to study in London for three months. There he met, amongst others, Henry Moore, Anthony Hill, Kenneth Martin, Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Roger Hilton and Victor Pasmore. He found the art climate in London very welcoming. As opposed to Paris, Constant felt that art was judged more objectively.
At that time Constant lived near Kensington Gardens and as he walked through the bombed city every day he started to wonder how people live and how cities should be built. His stay in London raised his awareness of how the constructions that surround us influence us. He felt that the constructions of his time were mostly practical, immensely dull and provided no room to develop playful and creative lifestyles.
In the summer of 1956 Asger Jorn invited Constant to Alba, Piedmont, Italy, for a congress dedicated to 'Industry and the Fine Arts' initiated by 'Mouvement pour un Bauhaus Imaginiste' (International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus). At this congress Constant presented his lecture Demain la poésie logera la vie in which he pleaded for a free architecture which could stimulate a creative lifestyle rather than impede it. In 1952 Debord had founded the Lettrist International for which he was a writer, filmmaker and strategic activist. The 'Lettrist International' were also at the Alba congress and they pleaded for a unitary urbanism (the synthesis of art and technology). Later that year Constant visited Debord in Alba, which proved to be an inspiration for both.
Debord wanted to establish an even more radical movement which would totally abandon the arena of fine art while solely focusing on questions of psychogeography, a total dissolution of boundaries between art and life. In 1957 he and Asger Jorn brought together the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus and the Lettrist International by establishing Situationist International. They specifically denied their status as an art movement.
Constant did not join SI at that time. He objected to the SI on the ground that the movement seemed to be established mainly by artists who have their own interest at heart more than a common goal. When SI openly pleaded for 'unitary urbanism', as defined by Constant and Debord, Constant joined. An intensive correspondence between him and Debord followed. Constant wrote several theoretical articles for the French SI journal and staged events at several museums in Paris as well as the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, where he showed his New Babylon series in 1959.
The success of the New Babylon show in 1959 prompted SI to plan a group exhibition there in April–May 1960. This exhibition would never take place. Disagreements in the group resulted in a split and several expulsions. In 1960 Constant left the group for the same reason he initially objected to joining. By 1961 no one remained of the original artistic core or tendency except Debord himself. though members more allied to the SI's political tendency remained.


== New Babylon ==

Back in Amsterdam after his stay in London, Nieuwenhuys started to focus mainly on architecture and the urban environment. The focal point of his work was finding out what potential added value art can provide in intensifying daily life, in which there is room for creative expression. He abandoned painting to work solely on his New Babylon project from 1956 to 1974.
With New Babylon Nieuwenhuys envisioned a ""world wide city for the future"" where land is owned collectively, work is fully automated and the need to work replaced with a nomadic life of creative play. New Babylon is inhabited by homo ludens, who, freed from labor, will not have to make art, for he can be creative in the daily practice of his life.
In Nieuwenhuys' own words:

The project of New Babylon only intends to give the minimum conditions for a behaviour that must remain as free as possible. Any restriction of the freedom of movement, any limitation with regard to the creation of mood and atmosphere, has to be avoided. Everything has to remain possible, all is to happen, the environment has to be created by the activity of life, and not inversely.
The New Babylon project consisted of a series of models, constructions, maquettes, collages, drawings, graphics and texts expressing Constant's theories of urban development and social interaction. A few examples of spatial constructions for which he used modern materials like stainless steel, aluminum and perspex are Het Ruimtecircus (1956) (Spatial Circus) and Het Zonneschip (1956) (Sunvessel).
In 1974 the New Babylon project officially came to an end with a large exhibition in the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag. Because he lacked room to store the vast collection of constructions, maquettes, maps and structures he sold them all to the museum. In 1999 Constant's New Babylon: City for Another Life, opened at the Drawing Center in New York. It was his first solo exhibition in the United States and was curated by Mark Wigley. There was a symposium conducted in conjunction with the exhibition.
According to the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas, Nieuwenhuys has made a lot of architects think with his New Babylon: ""He was an example of courage"".


== Colorism ==
Constant returned to painting, watercoloring and graphics in 1969. Until the mid-1970s, the subjects of his imaginary world New Babylon still crowded his work. However, more and more, he was inspired by contemporary and political issues, including such things as the Vietnam War, African famine and Kosovo refugees. Marxism was a strong influence. Rudi Fuchs said in his foreword to the Catalogue of Constant Paintings in 1995: ""there are people who consider Constant's later work as a return to tradition. I, however, do not share this opinion. Because I consider his later development from the 1970s as greater penetration into the garden of painting.""
In the tradition of the Venetian Renaissance painters, Titian and Tintoretto, Constant applied himself to the technique of colorism. Following this technique the artist doesn't make use of charcoal or pencil sketches but applies colour directly on the canvas with the paintbrush, constructing soft transitions instead of sharp contours. The most important feature of this technique is the way light is expressed in the painting by integrating it into the colour. This technique is laborious. The painting comes to life layer by layer. Constant painted with oil on canvas and every layer he applied then needed to dry. In this period Constant produced a mere three to four paintings per year.


== Public space ==

In 1949 Constant decorated a garden wall in Tibirkelunde, Sjelland, Denmark.
In 1963 The Gate of Constant was placed at the entry of a sports park in the west side of Amsterdam. Constant designed the forty-foot-high concrete structure as a commission for the Municipality of Amsterdam. For almost three decades the structure adorned the entry in anonymity until Rita Doets, a former employee of the municipality, left money in her legacy to construct an information sign next to the gate. Constant's widow, Trudy Nieuwenhuijs, was present at the inauguration.
In 1966 Constant designed a fountain for the Kooiplein in Leiden. For years the structure didn't function and slowly withered. When the square was redesigned in 1999, the fountain was repaired. New equipment made sure that the shoppers were not bothered by the water.


== Death ==
Constant died on 1 August 2005 and was survived by his son and his three daughters, and by his widow and her daughter.


== Films ==
Gyromorphosis (1958), 7 min - In Gyromorphosis, film maker Hy Hirsh strives to display the kinetic qualities of the New Babylon structures of Constant Nieuwenhuys. One by one he puts parts of the structures in motion and films the details with colored lighting having them overlap each other, appear and disappear. He creates a sensation of acceleration and suspense suggested by the work itself.
Accompanying Simon Vinkenoog to Constant's New Babylon (1962), 15 min - Lies Westenburg visits Constant at his studio with writer Simon Vinkenoog. Simon Vinkenoog and Constant discuss the ideas behind the New Babylon project.
Constant oder der Weg nach New Babylon (1968), 55 min - For ten years Constant worked on his New Babylon project as a reaction to the architectural and social reality. Film maker Carlheinz Caspari follows Constant and his visions.
Cobra, a revolt against order (1986), 50 min - Documentary by Jan Vrijman about the meaning and influence of the COBRA group, then and now.
Constant, Avant le Départ (2005), 82 min - Constant died in the summer of 2005. Thomas Doebele and Maarten Schmidt filmed the artist during the last months of his life. They followed him and his dog, Tikus, on their daily stroll to the artist's studio, where he finished his last painting Le Piège.
New Babylon de Constant (2005), 13 min - New Babylon visually captured by Constant's son Victor Nieuwenhuijs and Maartje Seyfert.


== Exhibitions ==
This is an incomplete list of Constant's exhibitions over the years:

1940 at the Aalderink art gallery in Amsterdam (together with Hans Wiesman, first exhibition for Constant)
1947 Santee Landweer art gallery in Amsterdam (first solo exhibition for Constant)
1953 For a spatial colorisme in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam Constant with Aldo van Eijck
1956 XXVIII Esposizione Biennale Internazionale d'Arte, Venice
1959 II. Documenta, Kassel
1959 Constant. Constructions and models Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
1961 Niw (sic!) Babylon in the Stedelijk Museum Schiedam
1964 4. Documenta, Kassel
1964 Académie Royale, Kopenhagen
1964–1965  '45-'85 Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1966 New Babylon at the Biennale of Venice (Constant represented the Netherlands)
1967 New Babylon in Kunstnernes Hus, Oslo
1974 New Babylon, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1974–1975 Constant. An illustration of freedom [drawings 1945-74], Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
1978 Constant. Paintings 1969-77, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
1980 Constant. Paintings 1940-1980, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1985 Work from the period 1975-1985, Centraal Museum in Utrecht
1985 Arbeiten auf Papier 1948-1985, in Kultur-historischen Museum der Stadt Bielefeldt
1986 Constant 1945-1983, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn
1993 Constant. Drawings, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1994 Constant. Models / Constructions, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
1994–1995 Constant. Œuvreprijs 1994, Chabot Museum, Rotterdam
1996 Constant: paintings 1948-1995, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam & Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum Ålborg
1997 Situacionistes. Art, politica, urbanisme, Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona (MACBA)
1998 Constant, etchings and lithographs, Museo de Bellas Artes de Caracas, Venezuela
1998–1999 Constant - New Babylon, Witte de With (Centrum voor hedendaagse kunst), Rotterdam
1999 Another City for Another Life: Constant's New Babylon, The Drawing Center, New York
2001 Constant, une rétrospective, Musée Picasso Antibes
2002 Constant. New Babylon, Documenta 11, Platform 5, Kassel Hauptbahnhof
2004 Constant graphic, Cobra Museum
2005–2006 Tribute to Constant, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag
2006 Play! The art of play, Cobra Museum
2008–2009 Constant. In his studio, Stedelijk Museum Schiedam
2009 Time as Matter. MACBA collection. New Acquisitions, Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona
2009 Intensely Dutch, Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia
2011 Klee und Cobra. Ein Kinderspiel, Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Switzerland
2012 Klee and Cobra. A Child's Play, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebaek and Cobra Museum


== Public collections ==
Constant's artworks can be found in the following public collections.
Dutch museums

European museums

Museums outside Europe

MoAFL, Museum of Art Fort Lauderdale, US
SFMOMA, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, US


== Awards ==
This is a list of awards granted to Constant.

1960 Sikkens Award (together with Aldo van Eyck)
1966 Premio Cardazzo at the Venice Biennale
1971 Royal decoration of 'Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau' (refused)
1974 David Röell Award for his work as a draughtsman
1985 Singer Award for his entire body of work
1991 Resistance Award of the Foundation Artist Resistance 1942-1945
1994 Oeuvre Award from Foundation Fund for Fine Arts, Design & Engineering


== Further reading ==
This list does not include Constant's own writings.

Klee and Cobra. A Child's Play. Michael Baumgartner en Kirsten Degel, Ludion, Amsterdam, 2012
Constant. The late period. Trudy van der Horst, BnM publishers, 2008
In Girum Imus Nocte et Consumimur Igni. The Situationist International (1957–1972). JRP|Ringier, Zürich, 2006
Constant. Grafics. Waanders uitgevers/Editions Cercle d'Art, Zwolle/Paris, 2004
CoBrA. The color of freedom. The Schiedam collection. NAi publishers, Rotterdam, 2003
Après nous la Liberté. Constant and the artistic avant-garde in 1946-1960. Marcel Hummelink, academic thesis privately published, 2002
The Activist Drawing Retracing. Situationist Architectures from Constant's New Babylon to Beyond. Edited by Catherine de Zegher and Mark Wigley, The Drawing Center, New York, 2001
Constant. Une rétrospective. Musée Picasso, Antibe, 2001
Constant. L'atelier d'Amsterdam. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 2000
The Child in Cobra. Cobra Museum for modern art, Amstelveen, 2000
Constant's New Babylon. The hyper-architecture of desire. Mark Wigley, Zero, Rotterdam, 1998
The A of COBRA in word en image. 50 years Cobra. Jaski Art Gallery, Amsterdam, 1998
Cobra. Copenhague. Bruxelles. Amsterdam. Art éxperimental 1948-1951. Musée cantonal des Beaux-Arts et Hirmer Verlag, Munich, 1997
Constant. Schilderijen/Paintings 1948-195. Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, 1996
Constant. Aquarellen/Watercolors 1975-1995. Haags Gemeentemuseum, 1996
Constant. Les Aquarelles. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1994
Cobra. Richard Miller, Nouvelles Éditions Françaises, Paris, 1994
Constant. Les trois escpaces. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1992
New Babylon. Constant. Art et Utopie. Jean-Clarence Lambert, Editions Cercle d'Art, Paris, 1992
Documents Relatifs À La Fondation De L'Internationale Situationiste 1948-1957. Éditions Allia, Paris, 1985
Cobra 1948-1951. Éditions Jean-Michel Place, Paris, 1980
Cobra. History, foreplay and meaning of a movement in art after the second world war. Willemijn Stokvis, De Bezige Bij, Amsterdam, 1980


== References ==


== External links ==
website bij Constant's son and his film 'New Babylon de Constant', bio with photos
management foundation Stichting ""Fondation Constant"" with bio and photos
Constants works and photos at 'not bored' a situationist site
Interview with Constant, 2003
Constants works at Tate Gallery
Constant texts on New Babylon Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine a situationist site"
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America,"Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America is the extraction, purification and alloying of metals and metal crafting by Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to European contact in the late 15th century. Indigenous Americans had been using native metals from ancient times, with gold artifacts from the Andean region being dated to 2155–1936 BC,
and North American copper artifacts being dated to approximately 5000 BC.
The metal would have been found in nature without the need for smelting, and shaped into the desired form using hot and cold hammering without chemical alteration or alloying. As of 1999, ""no one has found evidence that points to the use of melting, smelting and casting in prehistoric eastern North America.""(p 136)
In South America the case is quite different. Indigenous South Americans had full metallurgy with smelting and various metals being purposely alloyed. Metallurgy in Mesoamerica and western Mexico may have developed following contact with South America through Ecuadorian marine traders.


== South America ==

South American metal working seems to have developed in the Andean region of modern Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina with gold and native copper being hammered and shaped into intricate objects, particularly ornaments.
Recent finds date the earliest gold work to 2155–1936 BC. and the earliest copper work to 1432–1132 BC.
Ice core studies in Bolivia suggest copper smelting may have begun as early as 700 BC, over 2700 years ago. By 1410–1090 BC, gilding was practiced in coastal Peru.
Further evidence for this type of metal work comes from the sites at Waywaka (near Andahuaylas in southern Peru), Chavín and Kotosh,
and it seems to have been spread throughout Andean societies by the Early horizon (1000–200 BC).
Unlike other metallurgy traditions where metals gained importance through practical use in weaponry and everyday utensils, metals in South America (and later Central America) were mainly valued as adornments and status objects. Though also functional objects were produced, even in the metallurgically advanced Andean cultures of the Inca era stone tools were never completely replaced by bronze items in everyday life.
During the Early horizon, advances in metal working produced spectacular and characteristic Andean gold objects made by the joining of smaller metal sheets, and also gold-silver alloy appeared.
Two traditions seem to have developed alongside each other – one in northern Peru and Ecuador, and another in the Altiplano region of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile. There is evidence for smelting of copper sulphide in the Altiplano region around the Early horizon. Evidence for this comes from copper slag recovered at several sites,
with the ore itself possibly coming from the south Chilean-Bolivian border. Near Puma Punku, Bolivia, and at three additional sites in Peru and Bolivia, portable smelting kilns were used to cast I-shaped ""cramps"" (fasteners) in place, to join large stone blocks during construction. Their chemical analysis shows

The estimated date of these pours lies between 800 and 500 BC.
Evidence for fully developed smelting, however, only appears with the Moche culture (northern coast, 200 BC – 600 CE).
The ores were extracted from shallow deposits in the Andean foothills. They were probably smelted nearby, as pictorially depicted on the metal artifacts themselves and on ceramic vessels. Smelting was done in adobe brick furnaces with at least three blow pipes to provide the air flow needed to reach the high temperatures. The resulting ingots would then have been moved to coastal centers for shaping in specialised workshops.
Two workshops studied were near the administrative sections of their towns, again showing the prestige of metal. Analysis of a Moche statue composed of numerous thin metal layers revealed complex plating and gilding involving a combination of immersion in acidic solutions and the application of extreme heat.
The objects themselves were still mainly adornments, now often being attached to beads. In fact, in the Lambayeque and Chimu cultures (750–1400 CE), a wide range of functional metal items were produced such as bowls, plates, drinking vessels, boxes, plates, models, scales and especially beakers (acquillas), but mostly for ceremonial or elite use.
Some functional objects were fashioned, but they were elaborately decorated and often found in high-status burials, seemingly still used more for symbolic than for practical purposes. The appearance of gold or silver seems to have been important, with a high number of gilded or silvered objects as well as the appearance of Tumbaga, an alloy of copper and gold, and sometimes also silver. Arsenic bronze
was also smelted from sulphidic ores, a practice either independently developed or learned from the southern tradition. The earliest known powder metallurgy, and earliest working of platinum in the world, was apparently developed by the cultures of Esmeraldas (northwest Ecuador) before the Spanish conquest
Beginning with the La Tolita culture (600 BC – 200 CE), Ecuadorian cultures mastered the soldering of platinum grains through alloying with copper, gold and silver, producing platinum-surfaced rings, handles, ornaments and utensils. This technology was eventually noticed and adopted by the Spanish c. 1730.
Coastal communities in the Atacama Desert, as exemplified by those near Tocopilla, produced their own metal objects for practical use in the 900–1400 CE period.

Metallurgy gradually spread north into Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica, reaching Guatemala and Belize by 800 CE. By c. 100–700 CE, depletion gilding was developed by the Nahuange culture of Colombia to produce ornamental variations such as rose gold.
Muisca goldworking, from modern Colombia, made a wide variety of small ornamental and religious objects from about 600 CE onwards. The gold Muisca raft is probably the best-known single object. This is in the Gold Museum, Bogotá, the largest of the six ""gold museums"" owned by the Central Bank of Colombia displaying gold from the Muisca and other pre-Columbian cultures in the country.
Many copper objects produced in the Tiwanaku polity (c. 600–c. 1000) are alloys that are characterized by having approximately 5% arsenic and 4% nickel.


=== Inca Empire ===
Only with the Incas would metals really come into practical use. At Machu Picchu and other sites, metal was used for bolas, plumb bobs, chisels, gravers, pry bars, tweezers, needles, plates, fish hooks, spatulas, ladles, knives (tumi), bells, breastplates, lime spoons, mace heads, ear spools, bowls, cloak pins (tupus), axes, and foot plough adzes.
Nonetheless, they remained materials through which to display wealth and status. The characteristic importance placed on colour, which had led to some of the earlier developments, was still present (sun/moon association with gold/silver). Metals other than gold also had an intrinsic value, with axe pieces being of particular note in this regard. With the spread of metal tools by the Incas, it is thought possible that a more Old World use of metals would have become more common. In any case, as Bruhns notes, ""[b]ronze can be seen as an expensive substitute for the equally efficient stone"".(p 183) However, sediment research in Bolivia has revealed that metals such as silver were smelted on a very large scale, thousands of tons, from late Tiwanaku to Inca times (1000–1530 CE), which suggests that the paucity of metal (particularly precious metal) at Inca sites is more likely caused by Spanish acquisition and export than by limited pre-colonial use.
It has been claimed that the Inca Empire expanded into Diaguita lands in what is now north-central Chile because of its mineral wealth, but that view is rejected by some scholars.
Further, an additional possibility is that the Incas invaded the relatively well-populated Eastern Diaguita valleys (present-day Argentina) to obtain labor to send to Chilean mining districts. The Incas influenced Diaguitas, who adopted Incan metalworking techniques.
Farther south in Chile, Mapuche tribes within or near the Incan Empire paid tributes in gold. Incan yanakuna are believed by archaeologists Tom Dillehay and Américo Gordon to have extracted gold south of the Incan frontier in free Mapuche territory. Following that thought, the main motive for Incan expansion into Mapuche territory would have been to access gold mines.
Among the Mapuche people of central and south-central Chile, gold had an important cultural significance that predates Inca contact.
At the time of the Spanish conquest of Chile, Mapuches are reported by various chroniclers to use gold ornaments. According to historian Osvaldo Silva gold ornaments of the Mapuche of the Concepción area evidence some kind of interaction between the Mapuche and the Inca that may have been trade, gifts, or spoils of war taken from a defeated Inca army.
Pre-Hispanic Mapuche tools are known to have been relatively simple and made of wood and stone, but a few of them were actually made of copper and bronze.


=== Iron ===
Iron was never smelted by Native Americans, thus the New World never entered a proper ""Iron Age"" before European contact, and the term is not used of the Americas. But there was limited use of native (unsmelted) iron ore, from magnetite, iron pyrite and ilmenite (iron–titanium), especially in the Andes (Chavin and Moche cultures) and Mesoamerica, after 900 BC and until c. 500 CE. Various forms of iron ore were mined,
drilled and highly polished. There is considerable evidence that this technology, its raw materials and end products were widely traded in Mesoamerica throughout the Formative era (2000–200 BCE).
Lumps of iron pyrite, magnetite, and other materials were mostly shaped into mirrors, pendants, medallions, and headdress ornaments for decorative and ceremonial effect.
However, concave iron ore mirrors were apparently used for firing and optical purposes by the Olmec (1500–400 BCE) and Chavin (900–300 BCE) cultures,
and ilmenite ""beads"" may have served as hammers for fine work.
The Olmec and Izapa (300 BCE – 100 CE) also seem to have used iron magnetism to align and position monuments.
They may have developed a zeroth-order compass using a magnetite bar.
Some Mesoamerican uses of native iron seem to have been military. Steven Jones proposed that the Olmec sewed ilmenite ""beads"" into protective mail armour or helmets. Iron pyrite mosaics and plates formed protective tezcacuitlapalli (mirrored back flap shields) and breastplate ornaments in the military attire of the Teotihuacan (100 BCE – 600 CE), Toltec (800–1150 CE) and Chichen Itza (800–1200 CE) cultures.


=== Lead ===
Lead ore (galena) in relatively pure form is present geologically in a number of places in North America.  Some native populations mined and used the lead.  


== Central America and Caribbean ==

Gold, copper and tumbaga objects started being produced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300–500 CE. Open-molded casting with oxidation gilding and cast filigrees were in use. By 700–800 CE, small metal sculptures were common and an extensive range of gold and tumbaga ornaments constituted the usual regalia of persons of high status in Panama and Costa Rica.
The earliest specimen of metalwork from the Caribbean is a gold-alloy sheet carbon dated to 70–374 CE. Most Caribbean metallurgy has been dated to between 1200 and 1500 CE and consists of simple, small pieces such as sheets, pendants, beads and bells. These are mostly gold or a gold alloy (with copper or silver) and have been found to be largely cold hammered and sand-polished alluvial nuggets, although a few items seem to have been produced by lost wax casting. It is presumed that at least some of these items were acquired by trade from Colombia.


== Mesoamerica ==

Metallurgy only appears in Mesoamerica in 800 CE with the best evidence from West Mexico. Much like in South America, fine metals were seen as a material for the elite. Metal's special qualities of colour and resonance seemed to have appealed most and then led to the particular technological developments seen in the region.
Exchange of ideas and goods with peoples from the Ecuador and Colombia region (likely via a maritime route) seems to have fueled early interest and development. Similar metal artifact types are found in West Mexico and the two regions: copper rings, needles, and tweezers being fabricated in the same ways as in Ecuador and also found in similar archaeological contexts. A multitude of bells were also found, but in this case they were cast using the same lost-wax casting method as seen in Colombia. During this period, copper was being used almost exclusively.
Continual contact kept the flow of ideas from that same region and later, coinciding with the development of Andean long distance maritime trade, influence from further south seems to have reached the region and led to a second period (1200–1300 CE to the Spanish arrival). By this time, copper alloys were being explored by West Mexican metallurgists, partly because the different mechanical properties were needed to fashion specific artifacts, particularly axe-monies – further evidence for contact with the Andean region. However, in general the new properties such alloys introduced were developed to meet regional needs, especially wirework bells, which at times had such high tin content in the bronze that it was irrelevant for its mechanical properties but gave the bells a golden colour.
The actual artifacts and then techniques were imported from the south, but west Mexican metallurgists worked ores from the abundant local deposits; the metal was not being imported. Even when the technology spread from West into north-eastern, central and southern Mexico, artifacts that can be traced back to West Mexican ores are abundant, if not exclusive. It is not always clear if the metal reached its final destination as an ingot, an ore or a finished artifact. Provenance studies on metal artifacts from southern Mesoamerica cast with the lost wax technique and dissimilar to west Mexican artifacts have shown that there might have been a second point of emergence of metallurgy into Mesoamerica there since no known source could be identified.
In the Tarascan Empire, copper and bronze was used for chisels, punches, awls, tweezers, needles, axes, discs, and breastplates.
The Aztecs did not initially adopt metal working, even though they had acquired metal objects from other peoples. However, as conquest gained them metal working regions, the technology started to spread. By the time of the Spanish conquest, a  bronze-smelting technology had already been developed. Spanish conquistadors used indigenous smelting technology to produce weapons and tools.


== Northern America ==
Archaeological evidence has not revealed metal smelting or alloying of metals by pre-Columbian native peoples north of the Rio Grande; however, they did use native copper extensively.


=== Old Copper Culture ===

 
Pure native copper was abundant in the Great Lakes region, particularly Michigan, but Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Manitoba as well. The last glacial period had left copper bearing rock exposed and scoured bare. Once the ice retreated, loose pieces were readily available in a variety of sizes for use. Copper was cold hammered into objects from very early in the (Archaic period in the region: 8000–1000 BC). There is also evidence the indigenous people of the Old Copper Complex mined copper veins in the rock, but disagreement exists as to when.
Extraction would have been extremely difficult. Hammerstones may have been used to break off pieces to be worked. This labor-intensive process might have been eased by building a fire on top of the deposit, then quickly dousing the hot rock with water fracturing the metal.
The copper could then be cold-hammered into shape, which would make it brittle, or hammered and heated in an annealing process to avoid this. The final object would then have to be ground and sharpened using native sandstone. Numerous bars have been found with no identified purpose like trade or barter.

Great Lake artifacts found in the Eastern Woodlands of North America seem to indicate there were widespread trading networks by 1000 BC. Progressively the usage of copper for tools decreases with more jewelry and adornments being found. This is believed to be indicative of social changes to a more hierarchical society. Thousands of copper mining pits have been found along the shores of Lake Superior, and Isle Royale. These pits may have been in use as far back as 8,000 years ago. This copper was mined and then made into objects such as heavy spear points and tools of all kinds. It was also made into crescent objects similar to bannerstones that some archaeologists believe were for religious or ceremonial purposes. The crescents were too delicate for utilitarian use.  Many have 28 or 29 notches along the inner edge, the approximate number of days in a lunar month.The Old Copper Culture flourished mainly in the Lake Superior region.  The Milwaukee Public Museum has an extensive display of objects.  At least 50 Old Copper items, including spear points and ceremonial crescents have been discovered in Manitoba. A few more in Saskatchewan, and at least one, a crescent, has turned up in Alberta, 2,000 kilometres from its origin in Ontario. It is most likely that these copper items arrived in the plains as trade goods rather than people of the Old Copper Culture moving into these new places. However from one excavated site in eastern Manitoba it can be seen that some people were moving northwest. At a site near Bissett archaeologists have found copper tools, weapons, and waste material of manufacture, along with a large nugget of raw copper. This site however was dated to around 4,000 years ago, a time of cooler climate when the boreal forest's treeline moved much further south. Though if these migrants moved with their metallurgy up the Winnipeg River at that time they may have continued to Lake Winnipeg, and the Saskatchewan River system.
The Old Copper Culture did not develop advanced metallurgy like the principle of creating alloys. This means that many, though they could make metal objects and weapons, continued to use their flint, which could maintain a sharper edge for much longer. The unalloyed copper could simply not compete in daily utilization. In the later days of the Culture the metal was almost exclusively used for ceremonial items.

However, Lake Superior, as a unique source of copper for over 6,000 years has recently come into some criticism, particularly since other deposits have been found that other archaic cultures mined on a much smaller scale.


=== Copper in the Mississippian culture ===
During the Mississippian period (800–1600 CE, varying locally), elites at major political and religious centers throughout the midwestern and southeastern United States used copper ornamentation as a sign of their status by crafting the sacred material into representations connected with the Chiefly Warrior cult of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (S.E.C.C.).
This ornamentation includes Mississippian copper plates, repousséd plates of beaten copper now found as far afield as Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Some of the more famous of the plates are of raptorial birds and avian-themed dancing warriors. These plates, such as the Rogan plates from Etowah, the Spiro plates from the Spiro in Oklahoma, and the Wulfing cache from southeast Missouri, were instrumental in the development of the archaeological concept known as the S.E.C.C.
The only Mississippian culture site where a copper workshop has been located by archaeologists is Cahokia in western Illinois, where a copper workshop dating to the Moorehead Phase (c. 1200 CE) was identified at Mound 34. Gregory Perino identified the site in 1956 and archaeologists subsequently excavated it.

Numerous copper fragments were found at the site; metallographic analysis indicated that Mississippian copper workers worked copper into thin sheet through repeated hammering and annealing, a process that could be successful over open-pit wood fires.
After the collapse of the Mississippian way of life in the 1500s with the advent of European colonization, copper still retained a place in Native American religious life as a special material. Copper was traditionally regarded as sacred by many historic period Eastern tribes. Copper nuggets are included in medicine bundles among Great Lakes tribes. Among 19th century Muscogee Creeks, a group of copper plates carried along the Trail of Tears are regarded as some of the tribe's most sacred items.


=== Iron in the Pacific Northwest ===

Native ironwork in the Northwest Coast has been found in places like the Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site, where iron chisels and knives were discovered. These artifacts seem to have been crafted around 1613, based on the dendrochronological analysis of associated pieces of wood in the site, and were made out of drift iron from Asian (specifically Japanese) shipwrecks, which were swept by the Kuroshio Current towards the coast of North America.
The tradition of working with Asian drift iron was well-developed in the Northwest before European contact, and was present among several native peoples from the region, including the Chinookan peoples and the Tlingit, who seem to have had their own specific word for the metallic material, which was transcribed by Frederica De Laguna as gayES. The wrecking of Japanese and Chinese vessels in the North Pacific basin was fairly common, and the iron tools and weaponry they carried provided the necessary materials for the development of the local ironwork traditions among the Northwestern Pacific Coast peoples,
although there were also other sources of iron, like that from  meteorites, which was occasionally worked using stone anvils.


== See also ==
Copper Inuit
Mapuche silverwork


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Leibsohn, Dana; Mundy, Barbara E. (2015). ""The Mechanics of the Art World"". Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820 (Report). New York, NY: Fordham University."
Class conflict,"In political science, the term class conflict, class struggle, or class war refers to the economic antagonism and political tension that exist among social classes because of clashing interests, competition for limited resources, and inequalities of power in the socioeconomic hierarchy. In its simplest manifestation, class conflict refers to the ongoing battle between the rich and poor.
In the writings of several leftist, socialist, and communist theorists, notably those of Karl Marx, class struggle is a core tenet and a practical means for effecting radical sociopolitical transformations for the majority working class. It is also a central concept within conflict theories of sociology and political philosophy.
Class conflict can reveal itself through: 

Direct violence, such as assassinations, coups, revolutions, counterrevolutions, and civil wars for control of government, natural resources, and labor;
Indirect violence, such as deaths from poverty, malnutrition, illness, and unsafe workplaces;
Economic coercion, such as boycotts and strikes, the threat of unemployment and capital flight, the withdrawal of investment capital;
Political machinations through lobbying (legal and illegal), bribery of legislators, voter suppression and disenfranchisement;
Ideological struggle by way of propaganda and political literature.
In the economic sphere, class conflict is sometimes expressed overtly, such as owner lockouts of their employees in an effort to weaken the bargaining power of the employees' union; or covertly, such as a worker slowdown of production or the widespread, simultaneous use of sick leave (e.g., ""blue flu"") to protest unfair labor practices, low wages, poor work conditions, or a perceived injustice to a fellow worker.


== Usage ==

When Marxists speak of class struggle, they define a class primarily in economic terms, i.e., by its relationship to the means of production. When anarchists like Bakunin speak of class struggle, they have a broader definition of ""social class"" which encompasses ""notions of domination and privilege"" in the political and cultural spheres as well as the economic. Bakunin believed the successful struggle of the dominated classes would achieve a revolution to depose the ruling elites and create a stateless or libertarian socialism, and that a prerequisite for successful revolution is class solidarity.
Marx's theory of history asserts that in the history of economic systems such as capitalism and feudalism, class struggle is ""the central fact of social evolution."" Indeed, the first sentence of Chapter 1 of the Communist Manifesto reads: ""The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."" Marxists view the struggle's resolution in favor of the working class to be inevitable under plutocratic capitalism.


== Oligarchs versus commoners in Ancient Greece ==
Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of social production and distribution, class structures arise and are thus coeval with civilization itself. The rise of class structures eventually leads to class conflict. It is a pattern that has repeated since at least European classical antiquity as illustrated in the Conflict of the Orders and the slave revolt led by Spartacus.


=== Thucydides ===
In his History, Thucydides describes a civil war in the city of Corcyra between the pro-Athens party of the common people and their pro-Corinth oligarchic opposition. Near the climax of the struggle, ""the oligarchs in full rout, fearing that the victorious commons might assault and carry the arsenal and put them to the sword, fired the houses round the market-place and the lodging-houses, in order to bar their advance.""
The historian Tacitus would later recount a similar class conflict in the city of Seleucia, in which disharmony between the oligarchs and the commoners would typically lead to each side calling on outside help to defeat the other. Thucydides believed that ""as long as poverty gives men the courage of necessity, [...] so long will the impulse never be wanting to drive men into danger.""


=== Aristotle ===
In the Politics, Aristotle describes the basic dimensions of class conflict: ""Again, because the rich are generally few in number, while the poor are many, they appear to be antagonistic, and as the one or the other prevails they form the government."". Aristotle also commented that ""poverty is the parent of revolution"", but did not consider poverty to be the only cause of revolution. In a society where property is distributed equally throughout the community, ""the nobles will be dissatisfied, because they think themselves worthy of more than an equal share of honors; and this is often found to be a cause of sedition and revolution."" Moreover, Aristotle said that it was wrong for the poor to seize the wealth of the rich and divide it among themselves, but he said that it is wrong for the rich to impoverish the multitude.
Moreover, Aristotle further discussed a middle way, between laxity and cruelty, in the treatment of slaves by their masters, averring that ""if not kept in hand, [slaves] are insolent, and think that they are as good as their masters, and, if harshly treated, they hate and conspire against them.""


=== Socrates ===
Socrates was the first Greek philosopher to describe class conflict. In the Republic, by Plato, Socrates said that ""any city, however small, is in fact divided into two, one the city of the poor, the other [the city] of the rich; these [cities] are at war with one another."" Socrates disapproved of oligarchies, in which members of a small class of wealthy property owners take positions of political power in order to dominate the large social class of impoverished commoners; and used the analogy of a maritime pilot, who, like the power-holder in a polis, ought to be chosen for political office for his skill, not for the amount of property he owns.


=== Plutarch ===

The historian Plutarch recounts how the Greek people participated in the class conflict between the aristocrats and the common folk. Financially oppressed by their indebtedness to the aristocrats, the mass of Athenians chose Solon to be the lawgiver to lead them to freedom from their creditors. The philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said that Solon's constitution of the Athenian popular assembly created a political sphere that balanced the competing socio-economic interests of the social classes of Athens:

The wealthy aristocratic party of the plain
The poor common party of the mountains
The moderate party of the coast
Participating in a war among the social classes of Ancient Greece was a dangerous political endeavour. In his book Parallel Lives, Plutarch wrote of two Spartan kings, Agis and Cleomenes, who  ""being desirous to raise the people, and to restore the noble and just form of government, now long fallen into disuse, [they] incurred the hatred of the rich and powerful, who could not endure to be deprived of the selfish enjoyment to which they were accustomed.""


== Patricians versus plebeians in Ancient Rome ==
It was similarly difficult for the Romans to maintain peace between the upper class, the patricians, and the lower class, the plebs. French Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu notes that this conflict intensified after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy.
In The Spirit of Laws he lists the four main grievances of the plebs, which were rectified in the years following the deposition of King Tarquin:

The patricians had much too easy access to positions of public service.
The constitution granted the consuls far too much power.
The plebs were constantly verbally slighted.
The plebs had too little power in their assemblies.


=== Camillus ===
The Senate had the ability to give a magistrate the power of dictatorship, meaning he could bypass public law in the pursuit of a prescribed mandate. Montesquieu explains that the purpose of this institution was to tilt the balance of power in favour of the patricians. However, in an attempt to resolve a conflict between the patricians and the plebs, the dictator Camillus used his power of dictatorship to coerce the Senate into giving the plebs the right to choose one of the two consuls.


=== Marius ===
Tacitus believed that the increase in Roman power spurred the patricians to expand their power over more and more cities. This process, he felt, exacerbated pre-existing class tensions with the plebs, and eventually culminated in a civil war between the patrician Sulla and the populist reformer Marius. Marius had taken the step of enlisting capite censi, the very lowest class of citizens, into the army, for the first time allowing non-land owners into the legions.


=== Tiberius Gracchus ===

Of all the notable figures discussed by Plutarch and Tacitus, agrarian reformer Tiberius Gracchus may have most challenged the upper classes and most championed the cause of the lower classes. In a speech to the common soldiery, he decried their lowly conditions:

""The savage beasts,"" said he, ""in Italy, have their particular dens, they have their places of repose and refuge; but the men who bear arms, and expose their lives for the safety of their country, enjoy in the meantime nothing more in it but the air and light; and having no houses or settlements of their own, are constrained to wander from place to place with their wives and children.""
Following this observation, he remarked that these men ""fought indeed and were slain, but it was to maintain the luxury and the wealth of other men."" Cicero believed that Tiberius Gracchus's reforming efforts saved Rome from tyranny, arguing:

Tiberius Gracchus (says Cicero) caused the free-men to be admitted into the tribes, not by the force of his eloquence, but by a word, by a gesture; which had he not effected, the republic, whose drooping head we are at present scarce able to uphold, would not even exist.
Tiberius Gracchus weakened the power of the Senate by changing the law so that judges were chosen from the ranks of the knights, instead of their social superiors in the senatorial class.


=== Julius Caesar ===
Contrary to Shakespeare's depiction of Julius Caesar in the tragedy Julius Caesar, historian Michael Parenti has argued that Caesar was a populist, not a tyrant. In 2003 The New Press published Parenti's The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome. Publishers Weekly said ""Parenti [...] narrates a provocative history of the late republic in Rome (100–33 BC) to demonstrate that Caesar's death was the culmination of growing class conflict, economic disparity and political corruption."" Kirkus Reviews wrote: ""Populist historian Parenti... views ancient Rome's most famous assassination not as a tyrannicide but as a sanguinary scene in the never-ending drama of class warfare.""


=== Coriolanus ===

The patrician Coriolanus, whose life William Shakespeare would later depict in the tragic play Coriolanus, fought on the other side of the class war, for the patricians and against the plebs. When grain arrived to relieve a serious shortage in the city of Rome, the plebs made it known that they felt it ought to be divided amongst them as a gift, but Coriolanus stood up in the Senate against this idea on the grounds that it would empower the plebs at the expense of the patricians.
This decision would eventually contribute to Coriolanus's undoing when he was impeached following a trial by the tribunes of the plebs. Montesquieu recounts how Coriolanus castigated the tribunes for trying a patrician, when in his mind no one but a consul had that right, although a law had been passed stipulating that all appeals affecting the life of a citizen had to be brought before the plebs.
In the first scene of Shakespeare's Coriolanus, a crowd of angry plebs gathers in Rome to denounce Coriolanus as the ""chief enemy to the people"" and ""a very dog to the commonalty"" while the leader of the mob speaks out against the patricians thusly:

They ne'er cared for us yet: suffer us to famish, and their store-houses crammed with grain; make edicts for usury, to support usurers; repeal daily any wholesome act established against the rich, and provide more piercing statutes daily, to chain up and restrain the poor. If the wars eat us not up, they will; and there's all the love they bear us.


=== Landlessness and debt ===

Enlightenment-era historian Edward Gibbon might have agreed with this narrative of Roman class conflict. In the third volume of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, he relates the origins of the struggle:[T]he plebeians of Rome [...] had been oppressed from the earliest times by the weight of debt and usury; and the husbandman, during the term of his military service, was obliged to abandon the cultivation of his farm. The lands of Italy which had been originally divided among the families of free and indigent proprietors, were insensibly purchased or usurped by the avarice of the nobles; and in the age which preceded the fall of the republic, it was computed that only two thousand citizens were possessed of an independent substance. Hegel similarly states that the 'severity of the patricians their creditors, the debts due to whom they had to discharge by slave-work, drove the plebs to revolts.' Gibbon also explains how Augustus facilitated this class conflict by pacifying the plebs with actual bread and circuses.
The economist Adam Smith noted that the poor freeman's lack of land provided a major impetus for Roman colonisation, as a way to relieve class tensions at home between the rich and the landless poor. Hegel described the same phenomenon happening in the impetus to Greek colonisation.


== Enlightenment era ==
Writing in pre-capitalist Europe, the Swiss philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Federalist statesman James Madison across the Atlantic Ocean made significant remarks on the dynamics of class struggle. Later, German idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel would also contribute his perspective to the discussion around class conflict between employers and employees.


=== Jean-Jacques Rousseau ===

It was with bitter sarcasm that Rousseau outlined the class conflict prevailing in his day between masters and their workmen: You have need of me, because I am rich and you are poor. We will therefore come to an agreement. I will permit you to have the honour of serving me, on condition that you bestow on me the little you have left, in return for the pains I shall take to command you.
Rousseau argued that the most important task of any government is to fight in class warfare on the side of workmen against their masters, who he said engage in exploitation under the pretence of serving society. Specifically, he believed that governments should actively intervene in the economy to abolish poverty and prevent the accrual of too much wealth in the hands of too few men.


=== Thomas Jefferson ===
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) led the U.S. as president from 1801 to 1809 and is considered one of America's Founding Fathers. Regarding the interaction between social classes, he wrote:

I am convinced that those societies (as the Indians) which live without government enjoy in their general mass an infinitely greater degree of happiness than those who live under the European governments. Among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep. I do not exaggerate. This is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention. Do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the public affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. It seems to be the law of our general nature, in spite of individual exceptions; and experience declares that man is the only animal which devours his own kind, for I can apply no milder term to the governments of Europe, and to the general prey of the rich on the poor.


=== James Madison ===
In his Federalist No. 10, James Madison revealed an emphatic concern with the conflict between rich and poor, commenting that ""the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination."" He welcomed class-based factions into political life as a necessary result of political liberty, stating that the most important task of government was to manage and adjust for 'the spirit of party'.


=== Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ===
In his Philosophy of Right, Hegel expressed concern that the standard of living of the poor might drop so far as to make it even easier for the rich to amass even more wealth. Hegel believed that, especially in a liberal country such as contemporary England, the poorest will politicise their situation, channelling their frustrations against the rich:Against nature man can claim no right, but once society is established, poverty immediately takes the form of a wrong done to one class by another.


== Capitalist societies ==
Class conflict is most commonly described as occurring within capitalist societies. The conflict manifests itself as clashes between the capitalist class and working class, and takes the form of disputes over hours of work, amount paid in wages, division of profits, culture in the workplace, cost of consumer goods, cost of rent, control over parliament or government bureaucracy, and economic inequality. Even a seemingly benign humanitarian program such as government-provided disaster relief can exacerbate class conflict if the relief is seen as being unequally distributed depending on the recipient's class.


=== Adam Smith ===


==== Inequality in the distribution of wealth ====
Like Rousseau, the classical liberal Adam Smith believed that the amassing of property in the hands of a minority naturally resulted in a disharmonious state of affairs. He said that ""avarice and ambition in the rich, in the poor the hatred of labour and the love of present ease and enjoyment, are the passions which prompt to invade property"", requiring a government to protect property rights:Wherever there is a great property, there is great inequality. For one very rich man, there must be at least five hundred poor, and the affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many. The affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor, who are often both driven by want, and prompted by envy to invade his possessions. It is only under the shelter of the civil magistrate, that the owner of that valuable property, which is acquired by the labour of many years, or perhaps of many successive generations, can sleep a single night in security. He is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies, whom, though he never provoked, he can never appease, and from whose injustice he can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate, continually held up to chastise it.Writing The Wealth of Nations, Smith's concern was the welfare of the ordinary workers who make up society and provide for it:No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and miserable. It is but equity, besides, that they who feed, clothe, and lodge the whole body of the people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labour as to be themselves tolerably well fed, clothed, and lodged.
Regarding the extravagant consumption of the aristocracy, he remarked that:All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind.


==== Violence against commoners by feudal lords ====
In the third book of The Wealth of Nations, Smith explains that in the medieval period, after the fall of the Roman Empire, governments were unable to protect commoners, and their property, from the ""violence of the great lords"":In order to understand this, it must be remembered, that, in those days, the sovereign of perhaps no country in Europe was able to protect, through the whole extent of his dominions, the weaker part of his subjects from the oppression of the great lords. Those whom the law could not protect, and who were not strong enough to defend themselves, were obliged either to have recourse to the protection of some great lord, and in order to obtain it, to become either his slaves or vassals; or to enter into a league of mutual defence for the common protection of one another. The inhabitants of cities and burghs, considered as single individuals, had no power to defend themselves; but by entering into a league of mutual defence with their neighbours, they were capable of making no contemptible resistance.Residents of the cities were able to establish their freedom and security of property long before those of the country, which enabled a gradual increase in their prosperity:Order and good government, and along with them the liberty and security of individuals, were in this manner established in cities, at a time when the occupiers of land in the country, were exposed to every sort of violence. But men in this defenceless state naturally content themselves with their necessary subsistence; because, to acquire more, might only tempt the injustice of their oppressors. On the contrary, when they are secure of enjoying the fruits of their industry, they naturally exert it to better their condition, and to acquire not only the necessaries, but the conveniencies and elegancies of life.


==== Distribution of incomes into wages, profit and rent ====
In Book I Chapter 6, Smith explained how income is distributed between workers and their employers:The value which the workmen add to the materials, therefore, resolves itself in this case into two parts, of which the one pays their wages, the other the profits of their employer upon the whole stock of materials and wages which he advanced. He could have no interest to employ them, unless he expected from the sale of their work something more than what was sufficient to replace his stock to him; and he could have no interest to employ a great stock rather than a small one, unless his profits were to bear some proportion to the extent of his stock.Smith said that while a worker is paid wages in proportion to their ""dexterity and ingenuity"", as well as for ""superior hardship and superior skill"", this is not the case for the profit of their employers: The profits of stock [capital], it may perhaps be thought, are only a different name for the wages of a particular sort of labour, the labour of inspection and direction. They are, however, altogether different, are regulated by quite different principles, and bear no proportion to the quantity, the hardship, or the ingenuity of this supposed labour of inspection and direction.He added that the work of management is often performed by other employees, rather than the business owner themselves:In many great works, almost the whole labour of this kind is committed to some principal clerk. His wages properly express the value of this labour of inspection and direction. Though in settling them some regard is had commonly, not only to his labour and skill, but to the trust which is reposed in him, yet they never bear any regular proportion to the capital of which he oversees the management; and the owner of this capital, though he is thus discharged of almost all labour, still expects that his profit should bear a regular proportion to his capital.In Chapter 9, Smith notes that: ""The increase of stock, which raises wages, tends to lower profit. When the stocks of many rich merchants are turned into the same trade, their mutual competition naturally tends to lower its profit"". He says that ""high profits tend much more to raise the price of work than high wages"", because ""the rise of wages operates in the same manner as simple interest"", while ""the rise of profit operates like compound interest"". He concludes the chapter:Our merchants and master manufacturers complain much of the bad effects of high wages in raising the price [of commodities], and thereby lessening the sale of their goods, both at home and abroad. They say nothing concerning the bad effects of high profits; they are silent with regard to the pernicious effects of their own gains; they complain only of those of other people.


==== Wage negotiations and trade unions ====
Concerning wages, he explained the conflicting class interests between the owners of capital and workers, who he said were often compelled to form trade unions for fear of suffering starvation wages, as follows:What are the common wages of labour, depends everywhere upon the contract usually made between those two parties, whose interests are by no means the same. The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as little, as possible. The former are disposed to combine in order to raise, the latter in order to lower, the wages of labour.
It is not, however, difficult to foresee which of the two parties must, upon all ordinary occasions, have the advantage in the dispute, and force the other into a compliance with their terms. The masters, being fewer in number, can combine much more easily: and the law, besides, authorises, or at least does not prohibit, their combinations, while it prohibits those of the workmen. We have no acts of parliament against combining to lower the price of work, but many against combining to raise it.
Smith was aware of the main advantage of employers over workers, in addition to state protection:In all such disputes, the masters can hold out much longer. A landlord, a farmer, a master manufacturer, or merchant, though they did not employ a single workman, could generally live a year or two upon the stocks, which they have already acquired. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, and scarce any a year, without employment. In the long run, the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him; but the necessity is not so immediate.


==== Conflict between classes ====
Smith observed that, outside of colonies where land is cheap and labour expensive, both the masters who subsist by profit and the masters who subsist by rents will work in tandem to subjugate the class of workmen, who subsist by wages. Moreover, he warned against blindly legislating in favour of the class of merchants and manufacturers who subsist by profit, since, as he said, their intention is to gain as large a share of their respective markets as possible, which naturally results in monopoly prices or close to them, a situation harmful to the other social classes.

In the conclusion of the first book of The Wealth of Nations, Smith assessed the knowledge and interests of capitalists in comparison to that of the landed aristocracy:Merchants and master manufacturers are, in this order [those who live by profit], the two classes of people who commonly employ the largest capitals, and who by their wealth draw to themselves the greatest share of the public consideration. As during their whole lives they are engaged in plans and projects, they have frequently more acuteness of understanding than the greater part of country gentlemen. As their thoughts, however, are commonly exercised rather about the interest of their own particular branch of business than about that of the society, their judgment, even when given with the greatest candour (which it has not been upon every occasion), is much more to be depended upon with regard to the former of those two objects, than with regard to the latter. Their superiority over the country gentleman is, not so much in their knowledge of the public interest, as in their having a better knowledge of their own interest than he has of his. It is by this superior knowledge of their own interest that they have frequently imposed upon his generosity, and persuaded him to give up both his own interest and that of the public, from a very simple but honest conviction, that their interest, and not his, was the interest of the public.In the final words of the first book, he suggested how the public should consider the political agenda of this class:The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never to be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention. It comes from an order of men, whose interest is never exactly the same with that of the public, who have generally an interest to deceive and even to oppress the public, and who accordingly have, upon many occasions, both deceived and oppressed it.


=== Karl Marx ===

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German born philosopher who lived the majority of his adult life in London, England. In The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx argued that a class is formed due to changes in the mode of production. Members of a class may become aware of their position within it, achieving what is known as class consciousness. For the working classes this happens when their members become aware of their exploitation at the hands of the ruling class. According to Marx, the working class then takes action against the ruling class, and vice versa.
What Marx points out is that members of each of the two main classes have interests in common. These class or collective interests are in conflict with those of the other class as a whole. This in turn leads to conflict between individual members of different classes.
Marxist analysis of society identifies two main social groups:

Labour (the proletariat or workers) includes anyone who earns their livelihood by selling their labor power and being paid a wage or salary for their labor time. They have little choice but to work for capital, since they typically have no independent way to survive.
Capital (the bourgeoisie or capitalists) includes anyone who gets their income not from labor as much as from the surplus value they appropriate from the workers who create wealth. The income of the capitalists, therefore, is based on their exploitation of the workers (proletariat).
Not all class struggle is radical, violent or aggressive, as in the case of strikes, lockouts and workplace sabotage. Class antagonism can also surface in minor acts of pilferage, low worker morale, and individual worker resistance to petty authority and hoarding of information. On the employers' side, lobbying for anti-union laws and against minimum wage increases, and hiring union-busting legal firms are expressions of class antagonism. On a larger scale, workers engage in class struggle when they agitate for systemic change via socialist or populist parties.
But not every instance of class struggle from below constitutes a grave threat to capitalism, or even to the authority of an individual capitalist. A narrow struggle for higher wages by a small sector of the working class, what is often called ""economism"", hardly threatens the status quo. In fact, by applying the craft-union tactics of excluding other workers from skilled trades, an economistic struggle may even weaken the working class as a whole by dividing it. Class struggle becomes more important in the historical process as it becomes more general, as industries are organized rather than crafts, as workers' class consciousness rises, and as they self-organize away from political parties. Marx referred to this as the progress of the proletariat from being a class ""in itself"", a position in the social structure, to being one ""for itself"", an active and conscious force that could change the world.
Marx focuses on the capital industrialist society as the source of social stratification, which ultimately results in class conflict. He states that capitalism creates a division between classes which can most clearly be seen in factories. The proletariat is separated from the bourgeoisie because production becomes a social enterprise. Contributing to their separation is the technology that is in factories. Technological advances de-skill and alienate workers as they are no longer viewed as having a specialized skill. Another effect of technology is a homogenous workforce that can be easily replaceable. Marx believed that this class conflict would result in the overthrow of the bourgeoisie and that the private property would be communally owned. The mode of production would remain, but communal ownership would eliminate class conflict.
Even after a revolution, the two classes would struggle, but eventually the struggle would recede and the classes dissolve. As class boundaries broke down, the state apparatus would wither away. According to Marx, the main task of any state apparatus is to uphold the power of the ruling class; but without any classes there would be no need for a state. That would lead to the classless, stateless communist society.


=== John Stuart Mill ===
Adam Smith was not the only classical liberal political economist concerned with class conflict. In his Considerations on Representative Government, John Stuart Mill observed the complete marginalisation of workmen's voices in Parliament, rhetorically asking whether its members ever empathise with the position of workmen, instead of siding entirely with their masters, on issues such as the right to go on strike. Later in the book, he argues that an important function of truly representative government is to provide a relatively equal balance of power between workmen and masters, in order to prevent threats to the good of the whole of society.

During Mill's discussion of the merits of progressive taxation in his essay Utilitarianism, he notes as an aside the power of the rich as independent of state support:People feel obliged to argue that the State does more for the rich than for the poor, as a justification for its taking more [in taxation] from them: though this is in reality not true, for the rich would be far better able to protect themselves, in the absence of law or government, than the poor, and indeed would probably be successful in converting the poor into their slaves.


=== Max Weber ===
Max Weber (1864–1920) agreed with the fundamental ideas of Karl Marx about the economy causing class conflict, but claimed that class conflict can also stem from prestige and power. Weber argued that classes come from the different property locations. Different locations can largely affect one's class by their education and the people they associate with. He also stated that prestige results in different status groupings. This prestige is based upon the social status of one's parents. Prestige is an attributed value and many times cannot be changed. Weber stated that power differences led to the formation of political parties. Weber disagreed with Marx about the formation of classes. While Marx believed that groups are similar due to their economic status, Weber argued that classes are largely formed by social status. Weber did not believe that communities are formed by economic standing, but by similar social prestige. Weber did recognize that there is a relationship between social status, social prestige and classes.


=== Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer ===
Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer argued that class struggle came from factions that managed to gain control of the state power. The ruling class are the groups that seize the power of the state to carry out their political agenda, the ruled are then taxed and regulated by the state for the benefit of the ruling classes. Through taxation, state power, subsidies, tax codes, laws, and privileges the state creates class conflict by giving preferential treatment to some at the expense of others by force. In the free market, by contrast, exchanges are not carried out by force but by the non-aggression principle of cooperation in a win-win scenario.


=== Other perspectives ===

One of the first writers to comment on class struggle in the modern sense of the term was the French revolutionary François Boissel. Other class struggle commentators include Henri de Saint-Simon, Augustin Thierry, François Guizot, François-Auguste Mignet and Adolphe Thiers. The Physiocrats, David Ricardo, and after Marx, Henry George noted the inelastic supply of land and argued that this created certain privileges (economic rent) for landowners. According to the historian Arnold J. Toynbee, stratification along lines of class appears only within civilizations, and furthermore only appears during the process of a civilization's decline while not characterizing the growth phase of a civilization.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, in What is Property? (1840) states that ""certain classes do not relish investigation into the pretended titles to property, and its fabulous and perhaps scandalous history."" While Proudhon saw the solution as the lower classes forming an alternative, solidarity economy centered on cooperatives and self-managed workplaces, which would slowly undermine and replace capitalist class society, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, while influenced by Proudhon, insisted that a massive class struggle by the working class, peasantry and poor was essential to the creation of libertarian socialism. This would require a final showdown in the form of a social revolution.
One of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, and how inheritance produces early class divisions and conflict.
Fascists have often opposed 'horizontal' class struggle in favour of vertical national struggle and instead have attempted to appeal to the working class while promising to preserve the existing social classes and have proposed an alternative concept known as class collaboration.


== Twentieth and twenty-first centuries ==


=== Soviet Union and similar societies ===
A variety of thinkers, mostly Trotskyist and anarchist, argue that class conflict existed in Soviet-style societies. Their arguments describe as a class the bureaucratic stratum formed by the ruling political party (known as the nomenklatura in the Soviet Union), sometimes termed a ""new class"", that controls and guides the means of production. This ruling class is viewed to be in opposition to the remainder of society, generally considered the proletariat. This type of system is referred by them as state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism or new class societies. Marxism was already a powerful ideological power in Russia before the Soviet Union was created in 1917, since a Marxist group known as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party existed. This party soon divided into two main factions; the Bolsheviks, who were led by Vladimir Lenin, and the Mensheviks, who were led by Julius Martov.
However, many Marxists argue that unlike in capitalism, the Soviet elites did not own the means of production, or generate surplus value for their personal wealth as the generated profit from the economy was equally distributed into Soviet society. Even some Trotskyists like Ernest Mandel criticized the concept of a new ruling class as an oxymoron, saying: ""The hypothesis of the bureaucracy's being a new ruling class leads to the conclusion that, for the first time in history, we are confronted with a 'ruling class' which does not exist as a class before it actually rules.""


=== United States ===
Class conflict was present in the earliest days of the U.S. with the struggles between slaveowners and slaves. Since the abolition of slavery, class conflict is more often noted in labor-management disputes. As far back as 1933, representative Edward Hamilton of the Airline Pilot's Association used the term ""class warfare"" to describe airline management's opposition at the National Labor Board hearings in October of that year. Apart from day-to-day forms of class conflict, there are also periods of crisis or revolution when class conflict takes on a violent nature and involves repression, assault, restriction of civil liberties, and assassinations or death squads.

The investor, billionaire, and philanthropist Warren Buffett, one of the wealthiest people in the world, voiced in 2005 and once more in 2006 his view that his class, the ""rich class"", is waging class warfare on the rest of society. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN: ""It's class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldn't be."" In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that ""[t]here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the rich class, that’s making war, and we’re winning.""
Noam Chomsky, American linguist, philosopher, and political activist, has spoken out on the topic of class conflict in the United States:

Well, there’s always a class war going on. The United States, to an unusual extent, is a business-run society, more so than others. The business classes are very class-conscious – they’re constantly fighting a bitter class war to improve their power and diminish opposition. Occasionally this is recognized... The enormous benefits given to the very wealthy, the privileges for the very wealthy here, are way beyond those of other comparable societies and are part of the ongoing class war. Take a look at CEO salaries....The 2024 killing of United Healthcare CEO Brian Thompson was seen by some as a class struggle event. Luigi Mangione was charged with the killing, and a manifesto attributed to Mangione criticized the health insurance industry. According to NBC, highly engaged posts on social media appeared celebrating the shooter, and mentioning other powerful figures as potential targets. In particular, some called it the opening blow of a class war.


=== Post-2008 financial crisis ===

Class conflict intensified in the period after the 2008 financial crisis, which led to a global wave of anti-austerity protests, including the Greek and Spanish Indignados movements and later the Occupy movement, whose slogan was ""We are the 99%"", signalling a more expansive class antagonist against the financial elite than that of the classical Marxist proletariat.
In the speech ""The Great American Class War"" (2013), the journalist Bill Moyers asserted the existence of social-class conflict between democracy and plutocracy in the U.S. Chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called ""Let's Get This Class War Started"", which was a play on Pink's song ""Let's Get This Party Started."" In a 2022 piece ""America's New Class War"", Hedges argues that increased class struggle and strikes by organized workers, often in defiance of union leadership, is the ""one last hope for the United States.""
Historian Steve Fraser, author of The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power, asserted in 2014 that class conflict is an inevitability if current political and economic conditions continue, noting that ""people are increasingly fed up [...] their voices are not being heard. And I think that can only go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle, class warfare.""


=== Arab Spring ===
Often seen as part of the same ""movement of squares"" as the Indignado and Occupy movements, the Arab Spring was a wave of social protests starting in 2011. Numerous factors have culminated in the Arab Spring, including rejection of dictatorship or absolute monarchy, human rights violations, government corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables), economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors, such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth within the population. but class conflict is also a key factor. The catalysts for the revolts in all Northern African and Persian Gulf countries have been the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades, insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the status quo.


== Relationship to race ==

Some historical tendencies of orthodox Marxism reject racism, sexism, etc. as struggles that essentially distract from class struggle, the real conflict. These divisions within the class prevent the purported antagonists from acting in their common class interest. However, many Marxist internationalists and anti-colonial revolutionaries believe that sex, race and class are bound up together. Within Marxist scholarship there is an ongoing debate about these topics.
According to Michel Foucault, in the 19th century, the essentialist notion of the ""race"" was incorporated by racists, biologists, and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of ""biological race"" which was then integrated into ""state racism"". On the other hand, Foucault claims that when Marxists developed their concept of ""class struggle"", they were partly inspired by the older, non-biological notions of the ""race"" and the ""race struggle"". Quoting a non-existent 1882 letter from Marx to Friedrich Engels during a lecture, Foucault erroneously claimed Marx wrote: ""You know very well where we found our idea of class struggle; we found it in the work of the French historians who talked about the race struggle."" For Foucault, the theme of social war provides the overriding principle that connects class and race struggle.
Moses Hess, an important theoretician and labor Zionist of the early socialist movement, in his ""Epilogue"" to ""Rome and Jerusalem"" argued that ""the race struggle is primary, the class struggle secondary. [...] With the cessation of race antagonism, the class struggle will also come to a standstill. The equalization of all classes of society will necessarily follow the emancipation of all the races, for it will ultimately become a scientific question of social economics.""
W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain certain aspects of black political economy. Patricia Hill Collins writes: ""Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power."": 44 
In modern times, emerging schools of thought in the U.S. and other countries hold the opposite to be true. They argue that the race struggle is less important, because the primary struggle is that of class since labor of all races face the same problems and injustices.


== Chronology ==
Nationalist movements are not included.


== See also ==
Class collaboration
Class consciousness
Classicide
Classism
Criticism of capitalism
Critique of political economy
Critique of work
Economic stratification
Master-slave dialectic


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Abidor, Mitchell, ed. (2016). Death to Bourgeois Society: The Propagandists of the Deed. PM Press. ISBN 978-1629631127.
Adamic, Louis (1934). Dynamite: The Story of Class Violence in America (Revised ed.).
Antell, Gerson; Harris, Walter (2007). Economics For Everybody. Amsco School Publications. ISBN 978-1-56765-640-4.
Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class & Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804705615. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) (also available in hardback as ISBN 0804705607, 1131155734).
Faux, Jeff (2006). The Global Class War: How America's Bipartisan Elite Lost Our Future and What It Will Take to Win It Back. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0471697619.
Klein, Matthew C.; Pettis, Michael (2020). Trade Wars Are Class Wars: How Rising Inequality Distorts the Global Economy and Threatens International Peace. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300244175.
Li Yi (2005). The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-3331-4.
Maavak, Mathew (December 2012). ""Class Warfare, Anarchy and the Future Society"" (PDF). Journal of Futures Studies. 17 (2): 15–36. SSRN 2226762.
Ness, Immanuel, ed. (2009). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest: 1500 to the Present. Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons.
Ness, Immanuel (2014). New Forms of Worker Organization: The Syndicalist and Autonomist Restoration of Class-Struggle Unionism. PM Press. ISBN 978-1604869569. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
Tranjan, Ricardo (2023). The Tenant Class. Between the Lines. ISBN 978-1771136228.
Vasudevan, Ramaa (2019). ""The Global Class War"". Catalyst. 3 (1): 110–139.
Zeilig, Leo, ed. (2002). Class Struggle and Resistance in Africa. New Clarion Press.


== External links ==

2008-2010 Study: CEOs Who Fired Most Workers Earned Highest Pay – video report by Democracy Now!
How a Real Class War, Like with Guns, Could Actually Happen. Vice, 26 November 2018."
Monk's-Hood,"Monk's-Hood is a medieval mystery novel by Ellis Peters, set in December 1138. It is the third novel in The Cadfael Chronicles. It was first published in 1980 (1980 in literature).
It was adapted for television in 1994 by Central for ITV.
Gervase Bonel dies from monkshood oil put in his food. Brother Cadfael made the oil. Who used it as poison? Cadfael assesses the motives of Bonel's family and household staff, including his Welsh natural son and his stepson, and deals with Bonel's widow who was once Cadfael's sweetheart long ago. The sergeant views the case differently from Cadfael.
This novel received the Silver Dagger Award in 1980 from the UK's Crime Writers Association. The author was commended by one reviewer for her ability to draw characters who are distinctly medieval, ""not modern men and women masquerading in medieval garb,"" while dealing with fine points of medieval Welsh law. Another reviewer missed the lively character of the second novel, Hugh Beringar, wishing him to be more involved in this plot, yet saying ""Peters does wonders with the medieval scene and with complex character relationships.""


== Plot summary ==
In early December 1138, Abbot Heribert of Shrewsbury Abbey is summoned to a Legatine council in London and his authority is suspended. The Abbey's business is also postponed, with one exception: Gervase Bonel, who has ceded his manorial estate at Mallilie to the Abbey in return for a small house where his needs in retirement will be provided, is allowed to move his household before the charter is signed. All expect that Heribert or his successor will complete the agreement after the council.
Prior Robert is left in charge of the Abbey. He receives gifts meant for the Abbot, including a fat partridge which he shares with Bonel, having his cook send a portion with dinner. Bonel is taken ill immediately after eating it. Brother Cadfael the herbalist and Brother Edmund the infirmarer run to his aid but cannot save him. Cadfael recognises Bonel's widow as Richildis Vaughan, to whom he was informally betrothed over 40 years earlier. He realises that the sauce in which the partridge was served was poisoned by a liniment he made. Its active ingredient is monkshood (Wolfsbane), deadly if ingested.
The murder is reported to Shrewsbury Castle. Sheriff Prestcote sends the unsubtle Sergeant Will Warden to investigate. As Prior Robert ate the other half of the partridge without ill effects, suspicion falls on Bonel's household. Richildis was never alone with the partridge. Aelfric, who carried the dishes from the kitchen, bears a grudge as Bonel deprived him of free status and made him a villein. Neither the maid, Aldith, nor Meurig, an illegitimate son of Bonel who is apprenticed to Richildis' son-in-law master carpenter Martin Bellecote, have any apparent motive. Edwin Gurney, Richildis' son from her first marriage, was present at part of the meal, but stormed out after a quarrel before Bonel ate the partridge. He and Meurig had come separately from the Abbey's infirmary, where Meurig used the monkshood oil to massage his great uncle, the aged Brother Rhys. Edwin's motive for murdering Bonel is plain to the sergeant. Because the charter with the Abbey is not completed, Edwin will inherit Mallilie.
Warden fails to find Edwin. Late that night Edwin and his same-age nephew, Edwy Bellecote, meet Cadfael in his workshop. By pretending that Bonel was attacked with a sword or dagger, Cadfael establishes that Edwin does not know how Bonel died and is innocent of poisoning him. He disguises Edwin in a monk's habit and conceals him in one of the Abbey's barns. Cadfael suggests that Warden search for the vial which the murderer used to carry the oil. Warden reports that Edwin was seen to throw something glittery into the River Severn. Cadfael questions Edwin, who says that he threw a carved wooden reliquary, a gift intended for Bonel, into the river after their quarrel.
That night, Cadfael visits Richildis to ask if there are other legitimate heirs. If Edwin does not inherit, Mallilie would revert to Bonel's overlord. Richildis reminisces about her former relations with Cadfael. Brother Jerome, Prior Robert's sanctimonious clerk, is eavesdropping outside the door. At Chapter, Jerome betrays Cadfael's and Richildis' former relationship. Prior Robert forbids Cadfael, who is bound by his vow of obedience, to leave the Abbey's precincts.
The same morning, Edwin is discovered in the barn by Abbey servants, and flees on Bonel's fine horse. The boy on the horse is captured after a chase lasting all day. Summoned to give spiritual comfort to the boy, Cadfael finds Edwy Bellecote, who distracted the authorities while Edwin escaped. Deputy Sheriff Hugh Beringar allows Edwy to return to his family on parole. Cadfael sends his assistant, Brother Mark, to search around Bonel's house for any bottle which might have held the poison. Mark finds it in a place where Edwin Gurney could not have thrown it, further proving his innocence to Cadfael.
The Abbey's steward at Mallilie sends word that a brother at a remote sheepfold at Rhydycroesau in Wales has fallen ill. Cadfael realises that Mallilie's location near or within Wales alters motives. Before departing to tend the sick brother, he questions the aged Brother Rhys, uncle to Meurig's mother, about local customs around Mallilie. Beringar is absent, searching for the reliquary which Edwin threw into the river, and Cadfael does not confide his discoveries to the sceptical Sergeant Warden.
At Rhydycroesau, the ailing brother soon recovers. Cadfael visits the manor at Mallilie and then kinfolk of Brother Rhys. At the house of Rhys's brother-in-law, Ifor ap Morgan, he discovers Edwin in hiding. Sergeant Warden follows Cadfael from Mallilie, and takes Edwin into custody. Cadfael now has one chance to get justice for Gervase Bonel, at the Commote court at Llansilin the next day.
At the court, Meurig makes his claim for Mallilie, producing written proof of his paternity. The manor lies within Wales; under Welsh law, a recognised son, born in or out of wedlock, has an over-riding claim to his father's property. Cadfael intervenes, stating that Meurig cannot inherit as he murdered Bonel. He produces the vial and challenges Meurig to display his scrip (linen pouch) to show where the strongly scented oil leaked into it. Meurig flees. Cadfael asks the court to send word of Meurig's guilt to Shrewsbury and returns to Rhydycroesau.
As Cadfael expects, Meurig is waiting for him armed with a knife. Meurig does not take his revenge on Cadfael, but instead confesses to Bonel's murder. He knew from an early age that he would inherit Mallilie under Welsh law, but Bonel's agreement to hand it to Shrewsbury Abbey would put it out of reach. Wanting to gain the manor before the charter was signed, he took some of Cadfael's rubbing oil from the infirmary. Having overheard Aldith say that the partridge was a gift for Bonel, he added the oil to the sauce while briefly alone in the kitchen of Bonel's house. After Warden left the house to search for Edwin, he threw the vial out of the window of the house. Not wanting to take a life for a life, Cadfael tells him his penance is to live a long life, doing as much good as he can. He directs Meurig to escape on the horse at the sheepfold.
Three days after Christmas, Cadfael returns to Shrewsbury to find the monks eagerly awaiting Abbot Heribert's return. When Heribert arrives, he says he has returned as a humble brother to end his days there. He then dashes Prior Robert's hopes of succeeding him by introducing Radulfus, their new Abbot appointed by the Legatine Council. The new abbot lets Edwin declare Aelfric free, but the steward will run Mallilie until Edwin is of age to inherit it. Cadfael is content that Edwin and his mother will move there, and depart from his life.


== Characters ==
Brother Cadfael: Herbalist monk at Shrewsbury Abbey, a skill he learned over time, along with ""medicining"". His past before becoming a Benedictine monk includes his story of the one time he considered marrying. As he once expected, she has children and grandchildren, who he meets in his new life. He is age 58 in this story.
Abbot Heribert: Head of the Abbey of Saint Peter and Saint Paul for eleven years. He is a gentle and peaceful man. When King Stephen reclaimed Shrewsbury Castle and Shropshire for his own in summer, Heribert did not act quickly enough to officially recognise Stephen as King, earning some bad feeling from the King. Heribert is called to a Legatine Council, at which he anticipates rebuke and perhaps a change in his status at the Abbey – to return as Abbot or a simple monk. Introduced in A Morbid Taste for Bones. Real historical person.
Prior Robert Pennant: Priest and monk at the Abbey. He is ambitious, patrician, and devoted to the rules. He often ""looks down his long patrician nose"" at others. He is 51 years old, with little change in his appearance in ten years – tall, silvery haired. He expects to be named replacement for Heribert, but never says so, though he moves into the Abbot's lodging rather quickly. He wrote a book on Saint Winifred, the saint specially honoured at the Abbey, with a reliquary and her own altar, as told in A Morbid Taste for Bones. Real historical person.
Brother Jerome: Clerk to Prior Robert. He is one to curry favour with the Prior, doing tasks for him as requested or anticipated. Like all the monks in titled positions, he was first named in A Morbid Taste for Bones.
Brother Richard: Sub-prior. He is an easygoing man, who takes over the Prior's duties while Heribert is away. Introduced in A Morbid Taste for Bones.
Brother Petrus: Cook for the Abbot's house. He prepared the fat partridge in spiced wine sauce, and was the first suspect to be cleared.  Petrus was attached to Heribert, and spared no dislike for Prior Robert.
Brother Edmund: Infirmarer, in charge of the Abbey's hospital.
Brother Mark: A novice recently assigned to Cadfael as his assistant in the herbarium. He is about 18 years old. He was mentioned by description, not by name, at the end of A Morbid Taste for Bones. Now he is becoming more at ease with life, his vocation in the monastery and with Cadfael. He lived with an uncle who did not like him, and sent him to the monastery at age 16. Young as he is, his talents and insights lead Cadfael to think that Mark will be a monk and also train to be a priest.
Alberic of Ostia: Benedictine monk and Cardinal-bishop of Ostia, legate come from Rome to show papal approval of King Stephen as sovereign of England, and convene a legatine council in London to reorganise the local church, including election of a new archbishop for Canterbury. He is a real historical person and the council did occur.
Gervase Bonel: Second husband of the widowed Richildis, stepfather to her son. He is the lord of Mallilie manor in the north of the county with tenants, and long widowed with no legitimate children when he married for the second time. He wants to give over his manor to the Abbey in return for a messuage at the Abbey plus meals, linen, clothing, and stabling for a horse provided. Moves house before the final charter is signed, a week after Heribert left for London. He is a man of angry and provocative temper, who dies from poison in his food.
Richildis, Mistress Bonel: Wife of Gervase Bonel these three years and mother of married daughter Sibil and much younger son Edwin. In her teens (42 years earlier) as Richildis Vaughan, she was secretly engaged to Cadfael, who took up the cross for the Crusade, so she married Eward Gurney, a carpenter and father to her two children. She was widowed five years earlier. When she remarried, her second husband, lacking a legitimate heir, promised to leave his manor to his stepson. She is the same age as Cadfael, 58 years old, who recognises her on first sight. She agrees with Cadfael that in her second marriage she had married ""out of her kind"", from tradespeople to lord of a manor.
Aelfric: Man servant to the Bonel household. He came to the herbarium to get herbs for cooking when the monk's hood ointment was handed out, and normally fetches the family meal from the Abbot's kitchen. He was born free, forced by lawsuit to villein status by Bonel. He is about 25 years old.
Aldith: Serving girl to the Bonel household. She is distant kin to Richildis, who took her in two years earlier when the girl was orphaned. She prepares meals, keeps the Abbey-provided meals warm enough. She is a pretty young woman. She likes Aelfric.
Edwin Gurney: The brown-eyed son of Richildis and her first husband. He is at odds with his stepfather. He is training with his brother-in-law, carpenter Martin Bellecote, and friends with Meurig. He is 17 years younger than his sister, and 14 years old as this story unfolds. He is presumed guilty by the sergeant sent to start the investigation.
Brother Rhys: Older monk of Welsh birth and still speaks the language, with kin connected to the Bonel household, and originally from the area near Mallilie. His grand nephew Meurig gives him a massage with the ointment of ground root of monk's hood in oil, a true kindness. In Wales, his family history is Rhys ap Griffith (Rhys, son of Griffith), and he is near 80 years old. Introduced in A Morbid Taste for Bones.
Meurig: Young man 24 or 25 years old, born to a Welsh mother and English father. He is journeyman to a master carpenter in town (Martin Bellecote). Prior to the story he worked at Mallilie manor. His late mother was niece to Brother Rhys, and worked at Mallilie. He considers his kin to be his Welsh side. His father was Gervase Bonel, thus his ""by-blow"" or natural son.
Gilbert Prestcote: Sheriff of Shropshire. He dispatched a sergeant to hear the story at Bonel's death. Introduced in One Corpse Too Many.
Sibil Bellecote: Wife of Martin, daughter of Richildis and Eward Gurney. She has four children: son Edwy, 14; daughter Alys, age 11; son Thomas, age 8; daughter Diota, age 4. She is about 32 years old
Martin Bellecote: Master carpenter in Shrewsbury. He trained under Eward Gurney, is married to his daughter Sibil, and father to their four children. He is in his late thirties.
Edwy Bellecote: Son of Martin and Sibil Bellecote, born 4 months before his uncle Edwin Gurney. He is 14 years old, with brown hair and hazel eyes. He and his uncle were raised together as friends, look much alike, and are great partners in play and in work.
Hugh Beringar: Recently appointed Deputy Sheriff of Shropshire by King Stephen. He already has Cadfael's respect. He is a young nobleman with manors in the north of the shire at Maesbury. He enters the case when the Sheriff is away to visit King Stephen for the Christmas feast. Cadfael says of Hugh, that he is ""a decent, fair-minded man who’ll not tolerate injustice"". He finds the wood reliquary. He is about 23 years old. Introduced in One Corpse Too Many.
Sergeant William Warden: Officer of the law sent by Sheriff Prestcote when Bonel was found murdered. He is a diligent officer, but rather more interested in closing a case than finding full justice, and a bit pompous.
Lay Brothers Barnabas and Simon: Two men living at an Abbey sheepfold near Rhydycroesau, by Oswestry. Barnabas fell ill; Simon sought help by sending a message via the steward from the Abbey now at Mallilie, a nearby manor.
Cynfrith ap Rhys: A first cousin of Brother Rhys, but much younger, perhaps by 20 years. Brother of Owain ap Rhys. He is pleased to receive the greetings of his cousin from Cadfael.
Ifor ap Morgan: Brother-in-law of Brother Rhys and grandfather to Meurig. Cadfael visits him while nearby at the sheepfold, to relay greetings from Rhys. He finds more than Ifor at his home.
Owain ap Rhys: Brother to Cynfrith, cousin of Brother Rhys. He has dealings in the Welsh court regarding his property boundaries while Cadfael is yet aiding Barnabas and Simon.
Father Radulfus: Introduced to the monks by Heribert as both return from the Legatine Council three days after the Christmas feast, just as Cadfael returns from Rhydycroesau. The Council selected Radulfus as the next Abbot. This is a very brief introduction; he is tall, hair still dark around his tonsure. Based on the real abbot who succeeded Heribert.


== Title ==
There is a bit of word play in the book's title in English, Monk's Hood. First is what seems the most direct meaning, the ground up root of the plant in the liniment that gets used as a poison in food, the plant having the common name from the appearance of its flower. It refers to another plot element as well, the monk's hood that briefly hides the untonsured head of the innocent boy who is the number one suspect for the sergeant.  Last, it is the symbol of the monk's robe with its hood that Cadfael wears all the time.
The author does make a point of using herbs and medicinal plants of that era, accurately. One book discusses the series from the perspective of the herbs. In an interview in 1993, Peters said she used Culpepper and an untitled book from the 15th century for information on the herbs, and typical medicines. Herbs play a supporting role in most of the novels, but ""In Monk’s Hood, of course, that was the poison. I haven’t done much with herbs that have mixed properties—either beneficial or poisonous, depending on their use. I’d like to get back to using herbs more in my plots. I haven’t used them so much in the last few books"".


== Background and setting in history ==
Although the characters and events in the novel are invented, Heribert and Radulfus were real abbots of Shrewsbury Abbey, and Radulfus really did replace Heribert in 1138. There really was a legatine conference in Westminster in 1138 led by Alberic of Ostia, a Benedictine monk and cardinal-bishop of Ostia, sent by the Pope to recognise King Stephen and to elect a new archbishop for Canterbury. Prior Robert Pennant is also a real person, who eventually succeeded Radulfus in 1148.
The places named in the story are real, including Shrewsbury Abbey, Shrewsbury Castle, the river Severn that winds around the town and separates the Abbey from the town proper. Oswestry and the nearby village of Rhydycroesau are real. The latter strides the modern border between England and Wales. Llansilin was the town where court was held for the commote of Cynllaith. Croesau Bach (cy) was then in Wales, and is now part of Shropshire (as described in Welsh Wikipedia). Cadfael describes his own home in Wales as ""The vale of Conwy is my native place, near by Trefriw."" The chase of the sergeant's men to capture the boy on the fine horse went from the ford at Uffington, through Atcham, Cound and Cressage, ending in the woods near Acton, all real places and quite a ride. Meurig left traces of himself as he followed out his penance to live. There was a message from the monastery at Beddgelert where he left the horse to be returned to Rhydycroesau; his written confession sent from Penllyn (now split between Llanystumdwy and Criccieth in Gwynedd) via Bangor on account of the heavy snows around the Christmas feast, sent by coastal ship east to Chester, then by land to the Sheriff of Shrewsbury. Cadfael wonders, will he travel up to one of the ports Clynnog or Caergybi to take ship for Ireland, or stay in Wales. The start of the route follows Cadfael's initial advice for him to cross the mountains west from their encounter in the sheep barn to reach Gwynedd where he is not known. Then he can make his decisions where to proceed, having made his confession and sent the written copy in a way his whereabouts could not be traced, and all guilt is removed from those remaining in Shrewsbury.

The plant monkshood is truly poisonous in all its parts, though its flowers are attractive, with the upper petals in a shape reminiscent of the hood worn by the Benedictine monks.
This is one of the five Cadfael books (in the series of twenty Chronicles) in which Cadfael's Welsh background, with his knowledge of the language, and the customs and laws of Wales, are important to the plot. Lands along the border of England and Wales were sometimes subject to cases in English courts under English law, or courts under Welsh law (the laws of Hywel Dda), as the claimants preferred. In the situation of the son of a Welsh mother, acknowledged by his non-Welsh father in writing, the Welsh court offered the best promise of a resolution in his favour, to inherit the land where he was born. English courts did not recognise him as a son to his father, the lord of that manor, Mallilie.
Although Cadfael has withdrawn from most worldly concerns by entering the Benedictine order, he retains a shrewd appreciation of Welsh customs and character, and his fluency in the Welsh language.
The book highlights the degree to which family and blood relationships were important in the Middle Ages; the dead man Bonel, his wife's family, his natural son, a host of smallholders in Wales, and the aged Brother Rhys in Shrewsbury Abbey are connected by blood or marriage. The motive for murder was love of the land, the land where he was born, for the son of a Welsh mother.


== Reviews and awards ==
Kirkus Reviews finds it superior entertainment but misses a character from the prior novel:

Brother Cadfael, worldly-wise and gentle herbalist at the 12th-century Shrewsbury Abbey, returns for a third adventure—which takes place after King Stephen's victory in the recent civil war. ... So, with the help of faithful apprentice Mark and old chum Hugh Beringer, Cadfael follows a series of hard-won clues to the Welsh border and there, in a daring confrontation, tags the true culprit. As before, Peters does wonders with the medieval scene and with complex character relationships; unfortunately, however, lively Hugh Beringar (a major presence in One Corpse Too Many) makes only a brief appearance here, so this is slightly less sprightly than its predecessors. Still—superior entertainment for historically inclined mystery fans. Pub Date: 14 May 1981 Publisher: Morrow
Mystery author, librarian and medieval historian Dean James finds Ellis to be strong in her ability to draw characters who are distinctly medieval, not modern. Cadfael can be trusted by the reader to ""have the wisdom and compassion to do everything within his power to set the disordered situation to rights.""

Peters offers her readers a view of medieval England during a particular time in its history, but she also provides a fascinating introduction to medieval culture and intellectual life as well. Many of the books in the series present various medieval ideas which are quite different from modern thinking, but Peters explains them easily. integrating them into the plots of her novels. For example, in The Sanctuary Sparrow (Morrow, 1984), the jongleur Liliwin seeks sanctuary from his pursuers in the abbey church. The Pilgrim of Hate (Morrow, 1985) involves miracles and a pilgrimage; Monks-Hood (Morrow, 1981) explores some thorny points in medieval Welsh law. Two recent novels in the series address more complex issues: The Heretic's Apprentice (Mysterious Press, 1989) deals with heresy and its suppressions by the Church, and The Potter's Field (Mysterious Press, 1990) uses the medieval concept of the wheel of fate.
The characters ... are recognizably different; they are distinctly medieval in what they do and how they think. These are not modern men and women masquerading in medieval garb. Peters [is]... to be celebrated for [her]... achievement... in bringing the Middle Ages vividly to life in ... crime fiction. Lovers of medieval myster[ies] can read Peters... and enjoy them for their differences and revel in the vast panorama of life in Medieval England.
Monk's Hood won an award from the Crime Writers' Association in 1980, the CWA Silver Dagger award.


== Publication history ==
Monk's Hood was first published in the UK by Macmillan in August 1980, ISBN 0333294106 / 9780333294109 (UK edition). The US hardback edition was published in April 1981. Two large print editions were issued in June 1982 and January 1998.
Nine paperback editions were issued in the US and the UK, the first in 1982, and the most recent in April 2010 by Sphere.
Fifteen audio book editions have been issued on cassette and CD. Chivers issued the first in September 1990; the most recent is from ISIS in April 2012.
The novel has been published in French, German, Italian, Dutch, and Portuguese, listed at Goodreads. It was also published in Danish.

French: Le capuchon du moine (Frère Cadfael, #3), Published 2001 by 10/18, Mass Market Paperback, 287 pages ISBN 2264033363 (9782264033369)
German:  Bruder Cadfael und das Mönchskraut, Ein mittelalterlicher Kriminalroman Published 2002 by Heyne, 254 pages, Eva Malsch (Übersetzerin) ISBN 3453186648 (9783453186644)
Italian:  Il cappuccio del monaco, Paperback, Published 1 January 1992 by Tea, 204 pages ISBN 8878192252 (9788878192256)
Dutch:  Het gemene gewas, Paperback, Published 1995 by De Boekerij, 213 pages, Pieter Janssens (Translator) ISBN 9022508390 (9789022508398)
Portuguese: Justiça à Moda Antiga [Old Fashioned Justice], Paperback, Published 1984 by Europa-América
Danish: Stedsønnen fra Mallilie [Stepson from Mallilie], by Ellis Peters, (Translator or narrator) Søren Elung Jensen 2000 Copenhagen Danmarks Blindebibliotek (audiobook, OCLC 473817503)


== Adaptations ==


=== Radio ===
Monk's Hood was the third Cadfael book to be adapted for BBC Radio, in sequence with the publication of the novels. The radio adaptation was written by Bert Coules, and starred Philip Madoc as Brother Cadfael and Geoffrey Whitehead as Prior Robert. It was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1991, in five parts:

Troubled Times
The Inheritance
Hunted
Mallilie
Judgement
It has since been re-broadcast on BBC Radio 7, then BBC Radio 4 Extra, and released as an audio book (and reviewed).


=== Television ===

The book was the fourth to be adapted for television by Central and Carlton Media for distribution worldwide, in 1994. It was out of sequence as two later books in the series preceded it on the screen. The ""Cadfael"" television series eventually extended to thirteen episodes, all of which starred Sir Derek Jacobi as the sleuthing monk. The series was filmed mostly in Hungary.
The television adaptation for Monk's Hood stuck fairly closely to the original novel. Although several Welsh actors appeared, Jacobi retained an educated English accent.


== References ==


== External links ==
Monk's Hood at IMDb 
The Crime Writers Association
Mystery Scene Magazine's official website"
"History of education in Dedham, Massachusetts","The history of education in Dedham, Massachusetts covers schools and schooling from the establishment of the first public school in America to the present. It includes the history of the Dedham Public Schools, several Catholic schools, and other private schools. It also includes two institutions of higher education.


== First public school ==

On January 1, 1644, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first U.S. taxpayer-funded public school; ""the seed of American education."" Its first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. John Thurston was commission by the town to build the first schoolhouse in 1648 for which he received a partial payment of £11.0.3 on December 2, 1650. The details in the contract require him to construct floorboards, doors, and ""fitting the interior with 'featheredged and rabbited' boarding"" similar to that found in the Fairbanks House.
By the later part of the century, however, a sentiment of anti-intellectualism had pervaded the town. Residents were content to allow the minister to be the local intellectual and did not establish a grammar school as required by law. As a result, the town was called into court in 1675 and then again in 1691.
Other schools, including Boston Latin School and the Town of Rehoboth have claimed to be the first public school, but Dedham's was the first to be supported exclusively by tax dollars. Lt. Governor Roger Wolcott led a committee that heard the claims of several cities and towns, including the presentation made by Dedham's Don Gleason Hill and Rev. Carlos Slafter. Governor Frederic T. Greenhalge and the Governor's Council. confirmed that Dedham's was the first. On June 17, 1898, a monument was unveiled on the grounds of the First Church Green, near the site of the original schoolhouse.


=== First schoolhouse ===
The first classes were likely in the meetinghouse. The first schoolhouse was built in present-day Dedham Square near the First Church and Parish in Dedham by Thomas Thurston at a cost of £11 3 pence. Approved at a town meeting in January 1648–9, it measured 15' by 18' with two windows and a fireplace. Each boy was responsible for providing his share of firewood during the colder months. The building likely resembled contemporary schools in the English countryside with a raised platform, wooden wainscoting, and high windows. The teacher's desk would look like a pulpit and students would sit on plank seats.
The schoolhouse also included a watchtower at one end to prevent Indian attack. Placing the school next to the church was deliberate and symbolized the need for both academic and moral instruction. It stood for nearly 50 years, although in 1661 school was kept in the house of the teacher, Francis Chickering.


=== Other early educational efforts ===
The early residents of Dedham were so committed to education that they donated £4.6.6 to Harvard College during its first eight years of existence, a sum greater than many other towns, including Cambridge itself.
On March 16, 1695, Dedham and several other towns established a 300-acre School Farm in what is today Wellesley, Massachusetts, near Wellesley College.  It did not prove to be profitable, and so it was sold on March 13, 1699, for 50 pounds.


== Dedham Public Schools ==

On January 2, 1643, the Town Meeting set aside land for three public purposes: a school, a church, and a training field. Two years later, on January 1, 1645, by unanimous vote, the Town of Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school in the United States. It is believed the success of Dedham's school helped convince the Great and General Court to enact a law mandating schools in every community. Dedham's delegates to that body also served on the local School Committee.
School was held year round, with students attending from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. in the summer and 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. in the winter. Initially held in the village center, the school began travelling around town as families moved to outlying areas. From 1717 to 1756, school was held in different parts of town according to population and taxation. In 1762, for example, it was held in the village for 166 days, in South Dedham for 79 days, in Clapboard Trees, for 69 days, and in the West Precinct for 52 days. When in the outer precincts, classes were often held in private homes, but in some parts of Dedham residents privately built schoolhouses. One such school, in Springfield, was built by residents before that part of town had even organized as a parish. In addition, both boys and girls attended dame schools.
Many schools were built in the years following 1897, and were adorned through purchase and donation with a number of works of art. In 1896, the Avery School began running a program to teach illiterate adults how to read. There was also in the 1840s a Lyceum that put on plays in addition to the usual public education programs.


=== Establishment of a high school ===

As early as 1827 the Commonwealth of Massachusetts required all towns with more than 500 families to establish a free public high school.  Beginning in 1844 the School Committee repeatedly began recommending that the town establish a high school.  It wasn't until 1850 when, under threat of a lawsuit, that the town meeting voted to ""instruct the Town's School Committee to hire a building and teacher, and establish a High School according to law."" A sum of $3,000 was appropriated to support it.


=== Kindergartens ===
A kindergarten supported by private subscription was established at the Ames School in 1893 and ran until 1896. In that year the town appropriated money for kindergartens at the Ames, Avery, and Oakdale Schools, but they did not last long.


=== Teachers ===
The first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. Descendants of these students would become presidents of Dartmouth College, Yale University, and Harvard University.
Michael Metcalf was hired as a teacher in 1656 at the age of 70 and John Swinerton was hired in 1663. Joshua Fisher and Thomas Battle also taught during the early years of the school. Battle, Metcalf, and Fisher were all farmers who stepped in to teach when a professional teacher could not be found. As they had their own farms to manage in addition, their pay was not docked unless they missed an entire week's worth of classes. Until he left to minister to the people of the new community of Wrentham in 1671, Rev. Samuel Man also served as teacher.
Sir Joseph Belcher, the son of Rev. Joseph Belcher, was the first teacher to travel to the various precincts to hold classes. In 1766, Manasseh Cutler, a future congressman and ""father of Ohio University,"" began teaching.
Charles J. Capen started a private school in 1849 and then became the first high school teacher when it was established the following year.


=== School Committee and administration ===
The school was originally controlled by the town meeting but, in 1652, it was put under the control of the Selectmen. In 1789, as the town was split into districts, a school committee was formed. Clergymen were elected to oversee the schools. In the mid-1800s, the school committee consisted of Rev. Alvan Lamson, Rev. Samuel Babcock, and Rev. Calvin Durfee.
While living in Dedham, Horace Mann served on the School Committee.
In 1880, the growth of the schools required that a professional superintendent of schools be hired to oversee them. I. Freeman Hall, who had previously taught in Quincy, was hired. His successors through 1936 include Abner J. Phipps, Henry E. Crocker, Guy Channel, Oscar S. Williams, Roderick W. Hine, and John C. Anthony.
From 1956 to 2004, the administration's offices were housed in the ""White House"" originally built by Charles and Mary Shaw at the corner of East Street and Whiting Avenue. In 2004 they moved to the B-wing of Dedham High School as the house was razed to make room for the new Dedham Middle School.


=== Finances ===
The teacher's salary was paid by taxes. For every boy between the ages of four and 14, a tax of between three-and-a-half to five shillings was assessed, depending on how far from the school the family lived. Families who lived more than 2.5 miles from the meetinghouse were exempt from the tax until their children started attending. This covered between 25% and 50% of the total cost, with the rest made up by a tax on the estates of the entire population. In the years following the passage of the Old Deluder Satan Law, Dedham was occasionally fined for not spending enough money of its school but, for the most part, the appropriations to the school were generous.
The schoolmaster's salary was initially set at £20 and was raised in 1695 to £25. As there was little specie in the colony at the time, salaries were instead paid in wheat and corn. Michael Metcalf, for example, received five pounds of each crop at every six months. Not until 1696 did teachers receive actual money for their labor. While the salary was not high, teachers earned a great deal of respect. Records show that teachers were given the honorary title of ""sir"" at a time when most men were not even referred to as ""mister.""
The first donation to the school was made by Dr. Henry Deengaine of Roxbury. His deathbed will, taken verbally by John Eliot and approved by Governor John Winthrop,  left £3 to the school. In 1680, Dr. William Avery gave £60, and the Honorable Samuel Dexter left $170 in his will. Dexter requested that his bequest, along with several other sums previously donated for the school but were used to hire soldiers instead, be returned to the school. The town agreed to the terms but this fund, along with other school funds, subsequently disappeared. A fund established by Deacon Nathaniel Kingsbury in 1749 had a corpus of £100, the interest of which was to be used for the schools.
On January 1, 1744–5, school trust funds had a balance of £236, 2s, 8d. By 1749–50, the account had £345, 8s, which was loaned out to 12 men in sums between £5 and £100.


=== Districts ===
With the town growing and multiple schoolhouses being built, the school was essentially split into districts in 1756. The districts were not established by law, however, until 1789. As early as 1848, Rev. Dr. Alvan Lamson of the First Church and Parish in Dedham was making the argument that the districts should be abolished and Horace Mann said that the law allowing districts was ""beyond comparison, the most pernicious law ever pass in the Commonwealth on the subject of schools."" The districts were discontinued in 1866 when the Town purchased all 11 buildings for a total of $49,180 and returned their value to the taxpayers of the respective districts.


== Catholic schools ==


=== St. Mary's School and Asylum ===

In 1866 the Sisters of Charity founded the St. Mary's School and Asylum at what was formerly the Norfolk House.  The property was sold to them for $1 by Martin Bates who, out of a ""spirit of vindictiveness,"" gave it to the Sisters because the Town of Dedham would not purchase the run down building from him at his asking price. Bates, who was not Catholic, had previously tried selling the building at auction, but could find no buyer willing to pay a price equal to his mortgage.  At news of the sale, the Dedham Gazette wrote in an editorial:

Whatever prejudices may naturally exist against the establishment of a Roman Catholic School in so central a location, the community cannot but feel that the transformation of a building recently used only for the indiscriminate sale of liquors into an institution founded for 'promoting virtue, learning and piety in the town of Dedham' is an object worthy only of the most exalted motives, and in this view should be accepted as a public blessing.
The school was situated far away from the homes of many parishioners of the local Catholic Church, St. Mary's, and thus they did not send their children to it. Since they did not send their children to it, they did not support it financially either. The school held a number of fundraisers, but with the heavy debt of the parish the school closed on June 27, 1879.  It would have cost the parish $1,500 a year to keep it open. The closure was intended to be temporary, but it never reopened.  The building was sold in 1905.


=== St. Mary's Parish School ===

Rev. Robert J. Johnson, pastor of St. Mary's Church, the parish purchased a large lot of land to one day be used as a school. Several decades later, a parochial school was started in 1932 by Father George P. O'Connor and run by the Sisters of St. Joseph.
For the first few years the school was limited by the lack of space, and classes were held in the convent.  On June 16, 1935, the cornerstone for a new school was laid using the same golden trowel with ivory handle that was used in 1880 for the church.  A crowd of 500 attended the ceremony.
In September 1936, the new building on High Street was open. On Sunday, January 24, 1954, it was announced that an increase in the school population required more space.  The new school was constructed on the Greenhood Estate on High Street, which had been purchased several years before.  The cost of the 16-room school was estimated to be $450,000.
A new addition was constructed in 1958, and the student population grew to 650. In 1966 it had over 800 students. It was in the 1960s that the 8th grade was added.  The school had two classes per grade, with both nuns and laity as teachers.  The school had a debt of $250,000, but it was paid off by 1966.
In December 1973, the pastor, Monsignor Charles Dewey, announced the school would close in 1975. At the time, 9 nuns taught 16 classes comprising 525 students. The graduating class had 85 students and two teachers. The building was razed in 2010.


=== Ursuline Academy ===

The first Ursuline Academy in the Boston area opened in Charlestown in 1819.  In 1957, the growing school relocated to a 28-acre campus on Federal Hill in Dedham. It provides education in all areas and offers over 20 clubs and 15 varsity sports. The Boston Globe has praised Ursuline's athletes, the Bears, as winning the Singelais Award for maintaining a 3.0 GPA or higher and excelling in their chosen activity.
On October 18, 2024, a mass was held in the gymnasium at the Academy to mark the transfer of sponsorship from the Ursuline Sisters to the Ursuline Education Foundation, a lay-led organization. During the mass, a silver ciborium was transferred from Sister Elisa Ryan, the prioress of the Ursuline Sisters of the Central Province, to Kate Levesque, the head of school. 
The ciborium was originally used by the French Navy in the 1700s and eventually was given to a Boston priest, possibly Bishop Jean-Louis Lefebvre de Cheverus. It was used by the sisters in Charlestown before the Ursuline Convent riots in 1834, and was saved when a group of sisters hid it below a clump of asparagus in the garden. It eventually made its way into the Boston College archives before being returned to Ursuline Academy for the transfer of sponsorship.


== Other private schools ==


=== East Dedham evening schools ===


==== 1870s ====
In 1870, an evening school was established in East Dedham for those who could not attend the day school because they were busy working in the mills along Mother Brook. Students ranged in age from nine to 35 years old, and met on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday evenings for an hour and a half.
Some students were learning to read and write for the first time, and others were learning English. During the first seven weeks it was offered, there was an average of 120 students attending each session. This was approximately 25% of the entire workforce in the mills. Royal O. Storrs, the overseer of the mills, was a major contributor to the school.


==== 1880s ====
In 1882, there was a public debate about whether or not the Town should provide an evening school in East Dedham. There was a general reluctance to pay for a school in the neighborhood that would educate immigrants and their children. 
Volunteers began a night school at the Avery School two nights a week from January to March, when the reduced daylight resulted in shorter hours at the mills. Students, between the ages of 15-40, were limited to 40 though 86 expressed a desire to attend. Each paid 10 cents per class with the money raised was used to purchase stationary.  
Attendance began to drop, however, as the volunteer teachers were not reliably attending. It was argued that if they were being paid, perhaps they would show up as ""regularly as the scholars under their instruction."" One letter to the editor of the Dedham Transcript arguing that the Town should pay for such a school said that 

When eighty-six young men from one mill, in one section of town... declare their desire to brave the stormy nights of winter, each after a hard day's work that they may attend an irregular evening schoool, it convinces me... that this is a real bone fide desire on their part to devote themselves to improvement, and to become good, intelligent, qualified, citizens. 

A Town-funded evening school was established in Mechanic's Hall a few years later but, pay records for the teachers show ""suggest that it was very irregular, at best.""


=== The Dedham Inn ===
Until the Dedham Inn burned down in 1939, Barbara Thorley taught a kindergarten in the building.


=== Dedham Country Day School ===
Frances L. Faulkner founded The Norfolk School in 1903 as a kindergarten and primary school near the Dedham-Westwood line. Students could attend the school through the 8th grade by 1922. It changed its name to the Dedham Country Day School in 1930 and the cornerstone of the present building was laid on Sandy Valley Road in 1949.


=== Noble and Greenough School ===

Noble and Greenough was founded in 1866 by George Washington Copp Noble, in Boston, Massachusetts, as an all-boys preparatory school for Harvard University. It became known as Noble & Greenough in 1892. In 1922, the school moved from Boston to its current location in Dedham. The property had previously been the estate of Albert W. Nickerson. The grounds were designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. The school discontinued its lower school at this time, which caused parents to start the Dexter School, to fill the gap created. In 1975, Nobles began admitting girls.


=== Rashi School ===

The Rashi School, an independent, Reform Jewish private school was founded in 1986. In 1998, they moved to the St. Mary's Parish School building. They moved to Newton in 2000, but opened a permanent campus in 2010. The school in on a wooded site on the banks of the Charles River, within Newbridge on the Charles Campus for Hebrew Senior Life.


=== British International School of Boston ===

In September 2000, the British International School of Boston opened in the St. Mary's Parish School building. Just 10 days after it opened, the headmistress was killed by a drunk driver.  In 4 years the enrollment jumped from 25 to 250 students, and the school moved to a location in Jamaica Plain.


== Higher education ==

The Society of African Mission's American Province was established in 1941 amidst significant growth in vocations. In 1945, the society had acquired land in Dedham, Massachusetts to hold a new minor seminary, a location chosen because of its proximity to Boston, which had a large Catholic population.
Queen of Apostles Seminary was incorporated on 26 December 1945 by the SMA's inaugural US provincial superior Ignatius Lissner and opened in 1946 to educate and train college-age SMA seminarians. Fr. James McConnell, SMA, was the seminary's first president, and Fr. Michael Moran, SMA, initially served as treasurer and clerk.
The seminary closed in the early 1960s and was used to house an art collection owned by the Society, which still maintained a priest residence across the street. In the late 1980s, the building was purchased by Northeastern University and has served ever since as the university's Dedham satellite campus. The Northeastern Huskies field hockey and track and field teams compete at a sports complex on the site.


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Works cited ==
Austin, Walter (1912). Tale of a Dedham tavern: history of the Norfolk hotel, Dedham, Massachusetts. Riverside Press.
Byrne, William; Leahy, W. A.; Dowling, Austin; Young, E. J. A.; Finen, J. E. (1899). Introductory. The Hurd & Everts co. pp. 323–324.
Clarke, Wm. Horatio (1903). Mid-Century Memories of Dedham. Dedham Historical Society.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Hanson, Robert Brand (1976). Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890. Dedham Historical Society.
Hurd, Duane Hamilton (1884). History of Norfolk County, Massachusetts: With Biographical Sketches of Many of Its Pioneers and Prominent Men. J. W. Lewis & Company.
Lockridge, Kenneth (1985). A New England Town. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-95459-3.
Neiswander, Judith (2024). Mother Brook and the Mills of East Dedham. Damianos Publishing. ISBN 978-1-941573-66-2.
Parr, James L. (2009). Dedham: Historic and Heroic Tales From Shiretown. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-750-0.
Slafter, Carlos (1905). A Record of Education: The Schools and Teachers of Dedham, Massachusetts 1644-1904. Dedham Transcript Press. 1642-3.
Smith, Frank (1936). A History of Dedham, Massachusetts. Transcript Press, Incorporated. Retrieved July 18, 2019."
Arthur Digby,"Arthur Digby is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City, played by actor Rob Ostlere. He first appeared in the series fifteen episode ""Blood Ties"", broadcast on 2 January 2013. Arthur arrives at Holby City hospital to start his first year of the Foundation Programme. To prepare for the role Ostlere visited a hospital and shadowed a registrar and foundation doctors on their rounds. He has been described by Holby City's publicity department as ""naïve and socially awkward"" plus holding an ""encyclopaedic knowledge"" on unusual subjects. Ostlere's first days on-set influenced various aspects of Arthur's characterisation such as his ""preppy attire"", fidgeting with his glasses and his clumsy nature. Arthur is a talented doctor and his skills are awarded the medical prize titled, Junior Doctor of the Year. Arthur's storylines have focused on his career on the hospital's Keller and AAU wards, alongside the various characters that staff them. In his first year on-screen he works closely with mentor Antoine Malick (Jimmy Akingbola) and staff nurse Chantelle Lane (Lauren Drummond). The latter he develops romantic feelings for which are not reciprocated. Their friendship dominates his initial story and together they become victims of a vicious mugging and a car crash which is caused by Arthur.
His second year saw him working alongside F1 doctors Dominic Copeland (David Ames) and Zosia March (Camilla Arfwedson) while remaining on Keller. This trio dynamic proved popular with viewers and producers made the difficult decision to split them up. The move was labelled as an attempt to reflect reality as Junior Doctors generally progress to different wards and specialities. Arthur began his CT1 training on AAU where he is entrusted with mentoring Morven Shreve (Eleanor Fanyinka). Writers then introduced an issue lead storyline for the character as Arthur begins to behave anxiously, self medicating and finally being diagnosed with General Anxiety Disorder (GAD).
After three years in the role Ostlere decided to leave Holby City. The decision was made to kill the character off and producers planned a terminal cancer storyline. It also highlighted the importance of skin checks to detect melanoma and helped raise awareness for a British charity. The character died during the episode titled ""I'll Walk You Home"", broadcast on 7 June 2016. Ostlere reprised the role for guest appearances in 2017 and 2022. Critics of the show have often commented on Arthur's professional skills. Katy Moon of Inside Soap said that Arthur's bedside manner is non-existent. Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror branded him ""very bright"" but lacking surgical excellence when under pressure.


== Casting ==
Rob Ostlere passed the early stages of auditioning and was invited to complete an on-set audition at the BBC Elstree Studios. The actor felt nervous because it was the first time he had managed to secure an audition in the actual setting of a show. His casting was publicised a week before he appeared on-screen. Arthur is introduced into the series during the same episode as Gemma Wilde (Ty Glaser). Ostlere and Glaser prepared for their new roles by observing a surgical team in a real hospital. They also worked alongside a registrar and foundation doctors, the latter Glaser believed they ""learnt a lot from"". Ostlere also had a friend in medical training and sought advice from them.


== Development ==


=== Characterisation and introduction ===
Naïve and socially awkward, Arthur often has trouble understanding the subtleties of the human psyche. But his overwhelming enthusiasm is infectious and has made him an instant hit on the Keller ward. He reads voraciously and has an encyclopaedic knowledge of specific and often unusual areas of life. Arthur approaches patient cases with over-analytical enthusiasm, forgoing the bedside manner for piles of medical journals and unusual diagnoses.
Arthur is characterised as having his own sense of logic that differs to the rest of the hospital staff. Ostlere told a BBC Online reporter that ""he can react in his own unique way"" and he enjoys trying to decipher his character's reactions. He is not a mean or spiteful character but genuinely believes he is right. Arthur also plays a comedic role in the show because of his clumsy nature and initially was shown to fall over things on the wards. Osltere also claims to be clumsy and when he made mistakes while filming directors would choose to keep it in. Arthur is played as being insensitive in social situations and remains oblivious to other people's feelings. He is also very career ambitious and pressurises himself to succeed. He is good with the medical side of the occupation but fails to behave confidently when conversing with patients and staff. Arthur acknowledges that he lacks social skills but this makes him doubt his abilities. He is also enthusiastic about Napoleonic history but Ostlere did not need to research it because he was already knowledgeable in the field of history. Ostlere worried that he was similar to his character. This was made worse following his first day on-set when Producers mistook Ostlere's bag for an acting prop belonging to Arthur because it fitted their vision of the character. Arthur is stylised with a ""preppy look"" and the costume department bought in some ""out there"" costumes for him to wear. Arthur's glasses form part of his image. When Ostlere was on-set filming his initial episodes the glasses were loosely fitted and he had to keep adjusting them. This suited the character and became a permanent trait during the actor's portrayal. Arthur also has panic attacks and Ostlere found the scenes challenging and scary to film.
Arthur begins his career at Holby City hospital as junior doctor on beginning the foundation programme. He is placed on the Keller Ward under the supervision of Consultant Antoine Malick (Jimmy Akingbola), but fails to impress him. Glaser told Melanie Hancill of The People her character Gemma and Arthur share a competitive relationship because they are trying to earn the same role and the F1 prize in the hospital. He later becomes very stressed despite securing the aforementioned prestigious medical prize. Arthur struggles to live up to his new-found reputation, especially when he fails to reach a diagnosis for a patient and hastily dismisses a staff nurse's accurate findings. Arthur carries on his rotation of Keller Ward and learns that he has progressed well becoming the top performing F1. Consultant general surgeon Michael Spence (Hari Dhillon) decides to reward Arthur by placing him in charge of the ward. But this proves to be a mistake as he loses control of the ward.


=== Chantelle Lane ===
Arthur forms a friendship with staff nurse Chantelle Lane (Lauren Drummond) and he develops romantic feelings for her. Producers discussed Chantelle at length with Ostlere during the audition process. This made him believe that the two character would form a romance quickly, but this was not to be the case. The show play out a typical soap opera ""will-they-won't-they?"" story between them. The actors also had to re-shoot scenes together because Producers felt that their relationship appeared to be progressing faster than they had liked. An ex-boyfriend of Chantelle's, Rhys Hopkins (Gareth David-Lloyd), was introduced and Drummond believed that her character was still in love with Rhys. She told Katy Moon from Inside Soap that Chantelle loves Arthur as a friend only. Despite this Drummond perceived them to be a ""cute"" on-screen pairing, adding ""it will take time for things to develop between them"". She concluded that her character should give Arthur a chance, but noted he does not have the skills to impress her and should try to ""man-up"". When Arthur is in charge of Keller Ward he mistreats Chantelle and she accuses him of singling her out because she rebuffed his romantic intentions. He then has to attempt to repair their friendship.
Arthur and Chantelle are mugged by a mystery assailant and in the wake of their ordeal he feels guilty for being unable to protect her. When a patient named Cameron Pollins (Sam Jackson) begins acting strange Arthur realises he is their attacker. He threatens Chantelle and grabs her by the neck, but Arthur defends her and they share a kiss. Ostlere said that viewers see a change in Arthur and branded it the first time he managed to ""man-up"". Writers created a car crash storyline for the character, Arthur accidentally crashes his car into the back of a lorry with Chantelle and a colleague as his passengers. Ostlere told Moon (Inside Soap) that the crash episode is ""shocking"" with a ""very tense"" aftermath. Chantelle is critically injured in the accident and he rescues her from the wreckage, the actor added that ""it's emotional for him seeing the girl he loves in danger."" Arthur tries to compensate and fight his guilt by helping during Chantelle's operation. The scenes were filmed on a disused rail track near Luton which was made-up to look like a country road. Filming car crash sequences often requires the vehicle to be placed on a conveyor belt track. But Ostlere was allowed to drive the car with two high-tech cameras attached and he recalled having to be careful as not to break them.
Drummond decided to leave the series and producers devised an exit storyline centric to Arthur. Chantelle organises a birthday party for Arthur, but on that day Cameron is admitted to the hospital. Arthur mistreats Cameron because of the mugging attack. He forgets to order a scan and Cameron has a heart-attack and dies. Chantelle offers her support to Arthur, Drummond explained that her and Ostlere's characters are brought to the realisation that their close bond is not helping them overcome their ordeals. She decides to distance herself from Arthur by going travelling. But Drummond believed that ""there's a hint that things aren't over between the two."" Ostlere branded it a ""relationship that has never quite happened"" which made it more interesting. He also admitted that Arthur's feelings for Chantelle compromised his ability as a doctor.


=== Dominic Copeland and Zosia March ===
Following the departures of Drummond and Akingbola, Ostlere began working closely with David Ames and Camilla Arfwedson who play F1 doctors Dominic Copeland and Zosia March respectively. Ames was a former guest cast member and his reintroduced character Dom is an enemy of Arthur because he tried to ruin Malick's career. Working together on Keller Ward proves problematic because Arthur and Malick were close colleagues so his return inevitably causes friction. Ames told a BBC Online reporter that ""Dom has a long way to go before Arthur even begins to consider them equals, let alone friends. Arthur is a faithful old Labrador."" While Ostlere and Ames were interviewed by Lorraine Kelly, Ames explained that Arthur ""is very suspicious about Dominic but he cannot convince Sasha"" of his rival's true self. Sacha refuses to believe Arthur because he views them to be working well together, mostly due to Dom manipulating Sacha. Dom becomes bored of Arthur being difficult and decides to create tension for entertainment value. In an interview published by What's on TV, Ames stated ""there's clearly a lot of friction between them and Dom likes to push Arthur's buttons, not least just to entertain himself."" Their rivalry is clearly played out during scenes in which they treat the same patient. Arthur takes control of Keller on Sacha's orders, but an opportunistic Dom makes him appear unable to manage the situation. Ames explained his character's scheming against Arthur is motivated by Dom's career driven nature. He is willing to say and do anything and ""will put his own job above anyone else's job"".
Meanwhile, Arthur's flatmate Zosia becomes best friends with Dom despite Arthur's warnings. A dismissive Zosia then invites Dom to move into their flat. Holby City is usually confined to the hospital set but does often show Arthur, Dom and Zosia in their shared flat. The set is named ""Arthur's flat"" and often film in dressing gowns and Ostlere uses the on-set bed to rest, learn his lines and tried to spend more time there.
Arthur struggles to control Zosia increasing outlandish behaviour on the ward. Ostlere explained that Zosia has a dominant personality his character cannot handle because he is too socially awkward. When Zosia treats a cancer stricken patient similar to her mother she and Dom get drunk and return to the ward. Ostelere said that Arthur would have reported their behaviour but is compromised because he cares about Zosia and Dom. The scenes depict Arthur losing his good doctor image and turning into a rule-breaker as Zosia suffers a drug overdose resulting Arthur stealing hospital drugs in an effort to save her life. Fearing they will all be struck-off the medical register the trio make a pact to conceal the incident.
In 2015, Producer Simon Harper decided to split up the trio having Dom staying on Keller, Zosia moving to Darwin and Arthur working on AAU. Harper said it was a difficult decision to make and it was discussed at length with executive producer Oliver Kent. But Harper wanted to tell stories reflecting real medical careers. He noted that ""as they mature and progress, [they] would go on to their separate disciplines and wards [...] What's great about the changes is that gives them different stories.""


=== General anxiety disorder ===
Arthur begins to suffer from extreme anxiety. Following an explosion at the hospital he struggled to control his anxiety and stole medication to help suppress his fears. Morven Shreve (Eleanor Fanyinka) caught him taking hospital drugs for his own use and realised that he had been self-medicating. When Arthur made a mistake during treatment of a patient, Morven ended up getting blamed and she began to consider her future at the hospital. Arthur was later diagnosed with Generalized anxiety disorder. He took time off work to confront his GAD and returned to work when he felt he had overcome his problems. Ostlere told Bill Gibb from The Sunday Post that Arthur's storyline was realistic because of the demands junior doctors face in the NHS. It is plausible for many to develop the condition in such a pressured environment.
Ostlere learned that many people in society experience anxiety and believed that it was an important subject matter for Holby City to portray. It was also important for the show to make the storyline accurate for instance having ""full-blown panic attacks"" and more subtle moments with Arthur struggling to control it inside. They also ensured other characters were understanding of his condition to set an example to viewers. He also received much positive feedback from viewers and people with GAD. Dom decides to take Arthur to a seaside resort to give him a break and help him recover following the orders of concerned CEO Henrik Hanssen (Guy Henry). The pair argue over Dom's estranged father Barry Copeland (Nicholas Ball) after Arthur goes fishing with him. But Arthur defends his friend when he witnesses Barry being homophobic; but when Barry chokes on a peanut Arthur helps save his life. The incident brings Arthur to the realisation that his natural instinct is to be a doctor and decides to return to work. Following his return Dom forces Arthur to remove his ""geek look"" and try out a new look to aid his recovery. Ostlere told Gibb that ""the idea is that he'll get over his anxiety by seeming more confident and putting on a bit of a show."" He found it odd adjusting to his character's new look because he was so used to Arthur's glasses and attire. He added ""Arthur's in a bit of a confused state at the moment and I found that a bit with the new look, too.""
Arthur later returned to the hospital, but struggled to settle back into his daily routine. He was also disappointed to learn that he was no longer Morven's mentor, and that he had a lot of work to do to repair their working relationship. After his professional hero Professor Walter Dunn (Philip Fox) was admitted to AAU with issues related to alcoholism, Arthur received ""a massive wake-up call"" during a conversation with Guy Self (John Michie).


=== Cancer and death ===
Ostlere decided to leave Holby City after three years in the role. He felt that it was a ""difficult decision"" to leave but wanted to find new challenges. He was then informed that his character would be killed off following a diagnosis of terminal cancer. The actor viewed it as ""a great opportunity"" to be able to portray the disease. Producer Simon Harper gave Ostlere the option of his character not being killed off. When he discussed plans to kill off Arthur, Harper was surprised by the actor's reaction. He told Ostlere that he could create an alternate story enabling Arthur to depart the series alive. Ostlere went off and thought about the proposal and later gave his approval for the terminal cancer story. To prepare for the story Ostlere discussed cancer with an oncologist named Bruce. The professional also worked with the writing team to guide them. The actor also talked to his friends who had survived cancer about their experiences. The actor avoided watching other fictional portrayal of the illness such as film and television. He did not want to be influenced and copy stories from other works and preferred to draw from real-life experiences and scripts.
The cancer storyline was first publicised in advance spoilers released in February 2016. They detailed that Essie Harrison (Kaye Wragg) would find a mole on Arthur's back and notice characteristics associated with melanoma. She contacts Henrik to give Arthur further examinations to determine a prognosis. The examination is a result of Arthur being tested for compatibility to become a live liver donor for Morven's ill father Austin Shreve (Clinton Blake). When Morven's ex-boyfriend Ulysses Barnes (Rupert Lazarus) is admitted to Keller ward, he offers to become a donor. This upsets Arthur who wants to be the one to help Morven's family. Ostlere explained that his character is insecure because Ulysses is everything Arthur is not. Arthur is proven to be a match for Morven and he is ""thrilled"" to tell Morven because he ""wants to be her hero"". But Essie notices the irregular mole and Arthur dismisses her concern as being ""over-protective"". He added ""he's never really noticed the mole before and reckons it's probably nothing."" He really doesn't want to be dealing with this right now – he just wants to push on with being the saviour of the day, which he's never been before."" Henrik orders that the mole be removed and examined. Ostlere believed that his character was shocked and his plans for Austin are put on hold. He added that Arthur ""shuts down and doesn't tell anyone about it... especially Morven.""
Ostlere later spoke in support of Melanoma Awareness Month and discussed the importance of a once-a-month skin check. He stated that playing the melanoma story made him increasingly aware that regular skin checks aid in the early detection of skin cancer. Gillian Nuttall, founder of Melanoma UK praised Holby City for raising awareness of the condition and credited them with an increase in callers to their helpline. Nuttall added ""Rob Ostlere's portrayal of a patient has resonated with a number of melanoma sufferers.""
Arthur's mole is removed and is told that the melanoma has been dealt with. The following month Arthur coughs blood and asks Dom to examine him. Dom orders a CT scan which reveals that he has secondary tumours on his lungs. Arthur tells Morven about his condition and accepts he must endure a tough course of chemotherapy. After undergoing chemotherapy Arthur is hopeful that his illness will be cured. He and Morven decide to get married the same day to celebrate his optimism. But Arthur is told by Sacha that his cancer has spread to his stomach and is terminal. Ostlere said Arthur was scared and turned to Sacha for ""peace of mind"" but did not expect to be told that he will die. Arthur is left in a ""state of denial, anger and fear"". He and Morven agree to cancel their wedding until Arthur has ""a moment of clarity"" and realises he wants to marry Morven more than anything else. The two go on and marry in a ceremony at the hospital surrounded by friends. The actor explained that ""the wedding is about two people doing what they can to carry on and have an amazing day with all their family and friends. It's the best day of Arthur's life... but also the worst.""
On 7 June 2016, Sara Wallis from the Daily Mirror revealed that ""I'll Walk You Home"" would be Arthur's final episode. It featured Arthur and Morven intending to leave Holby to travel before Arthur dies. Dom believes Arthur is being selfish and Arthur re-evaluates his choice and decides to stay. For Arthur's final episode Akingbola and Drummond reprised their roles as Malick and Chantelle. Malick appeared during a Skype conversation and Chantelle appeared in dream sequences envisioned by Arthur as he lay dying. George Rainsford also guest starred as Ethan Hardy, a character from its sister-show Casualty. Ostlere and Rainsford were long-time friends and had petitioned producers to enable their character to share a scene. Arthur collapses and falls unconscious. Nothing can be done to save his life as his cancer is too advanced. While unconscious Arthur has visions of his loved ones and hears Morven deliver her final words to him. He then dies surrounded by his friends.


=== Returns ===
Ostlere reprised his role in 2017 for Fanyinka's departure. He appeared as a vision to Morven as she decides whether to leave Holby with Cameron Dunn (Nic Jackman). Arthur appears in the series seventeen episode ""Always and Forever"", first broadcast on 19 December 2017.
Holby City was cancelled in June 2021 after 23 years on air with the final episode due to be broadcast in March 2022. Producers invited multiple former cast members to reprise their roles during the show's final series. Ostlere's return was announced on 9 March 2022 and Arthur appears in episode 1100, first broadcast on 15 March 2022. Arthur returns alongside Essie and Jasmine Burrows (Lucinda Dryzek); they all appear as a vision to Jac Naylor (Rosie Marcel), who is terminally ill and fears dying.


== Reception ==
Inside Soap's Moon described Arthur stating ""geeky Arthur Digby is a master at cracking medical conundrums - but when it comes to bedside manner, he'd have better luck at solving a Rubik's Cube in the dark than finding the appropriate words of comfort!"" The Holby City audience viewed Arthur, Dom and Zosia as the show's ""dream team"" and were sad when they furthered their careers separately. Flynn Sarler from Radio Times criticised the show for being miserable. He targeted Arthur as being one of the causes, adding ""oh yes, and if this weren't bad enough, our beloved Dr Digby starts down a very dodgy road."" A Coventry Evening Telegraph writer said that Arthur was constant proof that ""nice guys always come last"" in life.
A reporter of the South Wales Echo found it odd that the ""scarily confident"" Zosia and ""dear little Digby"" had so much in common as friends despite being ""complete opposites"". Their colleague criticised Arthur's awarding of the Junior Doctor of the Year award, labelling it a ""source of embarrassment"" and ""odd"" that he received it despite endangering fellow character's lives in the car accident. Another opined that Arthur and Dom's feud is the type of behaviour likely to make viewers research private health care rather than use the NHS. Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror questioned Arthur's surgical skills. She judged that ""Arthur's a nice guy, and all that, and very bright but I'm not sure how pleased Elliot would be at having his brain being used as a learning experience. Let's also not forget that it was Digby who cost Malick his hand so I don't know how he'd ever live with himself if he wrecked Professor Hope's brain too.""
Sara Williams of the Daily Mirror branded Arthur's exit ""particularly gritty and gruelling"". Sarah Deen from the Metro said that his death ""might be one of its saddest episodes ever"". Kayleigh Dray from Closer said that Arthur was a popular character and his death made ""tearjerking scenes"".


== References ==


== External links ==
Arthur Digby at BBC Online
Arthur Digby on IMDb"
Faith in Nyingma Buddhist Dharma,"In the Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist Dharma teachings faith's essence is to make one's being, and perfect dharma, inseparable. The etymology is the aspiration to achieve one's goal. Faith's virtues are like a fertile field, a wishing gem, a king who enforces the law, someone who holds the carefulness stronghold, a boat on a great river and an escort in a dangerous place.  Faith in karma causes temporary happiness in the higher realms. Faith is a mental state in the Abhidharma literature's fifty-one mental states. Perfect faith in the Buddha, his Teaching (Dharma) and the Order of his Disciples (Sangha) is comprehending these three jewels of refuge with serene joy based on conviction. The Tibetan word for faith is day-pa (Tib. དད་པ་གསུམ་, dépa sum; Wyl. dad pa gsum), which might be closer in meaning to confidence, or trust.
According to Chogyam Trungpa (1939 to 1987), faith means ""accepting what is there"" or ""accepting what has been taught"" unselfishly. It is feeling unshakably steady and confident as well as knowing what to cultivate and what to avoid. It means dedication to and conviction in one's own intelligence, which begins to manifest with one's guru, teacher, spiritual friend; this is awakened faith, real faith based on someone else acknowledging your existence. Genuine faith is without expectations, it is developed with renunciation. Emptiness is based on faith, with the idea of not getting anything in return. Right faith develops trust in all sentient beings who are worthy to be objects of compassion. Faith in knowing the right path based on actual experience, one has a sense of being with forward vision, it also involves delightfulness and the first perception.
In the Nyingma ""Vast Expanse Heart Essence"" preliminary teachings, teacher Patrul Rinpoche (1808–1887) has faith preceding refuge. It is the first step opening the refuge gateway to the three jewels of faith: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. It is also the first of the seven noble signs of wealth (faith with the six perfections). Having the ability to turn to the Dharma is the advantage of faith, among the five individual advantages. Lasting and stable faith is important and there are three main kinds: vivid faith, eager faith, and confident faith. A fourth to be aimed for is irreversible faith, when it becomes integral to the person and is refuge's cause, like a house's foundation serving the Dharma's three jewels.  While lacking faith is one of the six stains in which the antidotes are the kinds of faith. Faith is a jewel that comes before all else blossoming in the heart's center. It is the essence of the Three Roots outer support power and it is Dharma's root.

For anyone, man or woman, who has faith in me, I, the Lotus Born, have never departed — I sleep on their threshold.
I am present in front of anyone who has faith in me, just as the moon casts its reflection, effortlessly, in any vessel filled with water.
What is faith? It is trust, longing, and clarity regarding the cause and result, truths and the Three Jewels.


== Nature, categories, forms and characteristics ==
There are seven parts to developing faith according to Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje's (1904 -1987) preliminary practices of the Profound and Secret Heart Essence of the Dakini. Faith's nature is in the root of every kind of virtuous practice. Its nature is a clear, untroubled mind, discriminating and aware of what should be adopted and avoided. Faith is the cause that gives rise to interest and happiness, it is an antidote to laziness.
 Intelligent faith and devotion brings trust when developed from shamatha, vipashyana and tonglen practice. In general, the sutra teachings speak of four faith types: inspired faith, aspiring faith, confident faith and irreversible faith.


=== Three categories ===
Vivid faith - A clear fresh feeling of joy and devotion untainted by guile.
Eager faith - Yearning to rid cyclic existence of suffering and to attain liberation and enlightenment. Comparable to the quest for riches.
Confident faith - Confident that cyclic existence is to be emptied and Dharma will not fail.
Cultivating firm faith through meditation on impermanence, and devotion to a teacher can lead to positive signs. It gives protection and clears away sufferings of cyclic existence as it is the first step on the path to liberation when aroused intensely with the determination to be free.


=== Six forms ===
According to the Nyingma school's Choying Tobden Dorje (1787–1848), the ennobling positive six forms of faith are:

Yearning faith stimulating renunciation of rebirth desire to attain awakening freedom. Arising from disillusionment from life's suffering.
Devoted faith leading to a dedication to supreme ideals. Arising from disillusionment from evil companion's behavior.
Respectful faith in body, speech, and mind with outstanding conscientiousness. Arising from disillusionment from life's appearances.
Lucid faith that uplifts the mind's positive qualities. Arising from contact with those who represent supreme ideals.
Trusting (confidence) faith that ends doubts concerning the teaching's base, path, and result. Arising from hearing of the principle of karma.
Certainty in faith toward the doctrine, leading to the application, reflecting, and meditating upon it. Arising from hearing and reflecting on Dharma.


=== Characteristics ===
Inspired faith is a sublime quality, indestructible, indomitable and an inexhaustible treasure of good qualities. People who have immutable faith in the three jewels are extremely rare and exalted, as the Sutra of the Precious Lamp points out its characteristics:

Faith gives birth to delight in the Buddha's Teaching, Faith points the way to the city of happiness and excellence, Faith banishes lack of opportunity, it is the best of all freedoms.  Faith turns one from the path of demons, Faith is what makes one attain Buddhahood.  Among the hosts of ordinary beings, Rare are those who have such faith in the Dharma.
Unless we have faith, however many other good qualities we might have, they will not be of much use to us - as though we were very beautiful, but blind. So we have to make an effort to develop faith - by meditating on impermanence four times a day; by reflecting minutely on actions and their effects; by reflecting on the positive aspects of everything; by reflecting on how rare the Dharma is; by thinking of our teacher's kindness; by thinking of the excellent qualities of the Buddha. It is important to consider that other people - all of them - marvelous, and to be free of partiality and notions of high or low status, thus making a habit of faith and taming your own mind.
Faith is like a wheel, always ready to roll along the road; if you have it, you can make internal progress at any time. Faith is an inexhaustible treasure of good qualities. It is a vehicle carrying you along the path to omniscience, and outstretched hand drawing you to all good qualities.  The extent to which spiritual qualities can be internalized depends on faith.
Reflective wisdom in Buddhism says beliefs should not be accepted with blind faith. Such means to consider the evidence of things, and irrefutable proof upon reflection on the intended meaning, so that a conclusion may arrive. Advanced meditation invites faith based on insight.
Reflecting on the Dharma's and the teacher's good qualities can remedy lack of faith. Ardent faith in the Dharma will arise by stressing lineage. Faith comes in the aftermath of doubt and vice versa but, in the end both are abandon. Single-pointed faith in your teacher can burn away ignorance and obscurations (temporary blindness), but if it is inadequate, you can be burned yourself. Bodhisattvas appear as spiritual friends to those with faith. Faith comes because the vajra master is capable of ransacking kleshas.


== Support power ==
Gyatrul Rinpoche (b. 1924), a Payul lineage mediator, in a commentary on the work of Chagmé (Wylie: Kar-ma Chags-med, fl. 17th century) says, faith power enables eliminating the two types of obscurations (i.e. conflicting emotions and obscuration concerning the knowable).  Through the power of faith both ontological and phenomenological knowledge arises. Also, both the common and uncommon siddhis arise. He conveys the importance of faith for qualifying disciples who ""listen"" to the Dharma. This pertains to teaching Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna, and to Atiyoga in particular. Those without faith who are completely involved in the eight mundane concerns are not suitable vessels, and they should not be taught these kinds of Dharma.
Believing that the teacher knows best and arousing sublime bodhichitta is part of the inner power of support - faith, taking refuge and arousing bodhicitta - within the extraordinary or inner preliminaries of the Longchen Nyingthig Ngondro. Singular faith in the teacher seen as Buddha has greater benefit that the actual teaching.
Many factors may instill genuine faith, among these, four crucial circumstances are: 1) an authentic spiritual master attendance, 2) wholesome friends, 3) the three jewels and 4) reflection on existence's round of misery, according to Jigme Lingpa. Khenpo Namdrol says the bodhisattva on the accumulation path has faith and so with joining the five powers and five strengths In The Thirty-Seven Factors of Enlightenment, a commentary on the Rigdzin Dupa terma (The Gathering of the Vidyadharas revealed by Jigme Lingpa), which is an inner Guru Rinpoche ritual practice from the Longchen Nyingtik.
It is easier to have faith in religious instruction when it has a sense of the sacred. The thousand-petaled lotuses of faith and wisdom bloom. Signs that one is on the right track to accomplishment can be known through experiencing: faith, compassion and wisdom, automatically increasing, so that realization will come easily and few difficulties are experienced. Faith in mantra is more important that how it is pronounced.
Without faith in an afterlife, people may live lives deprived of ultimate meaning. Students who have emotional faith in the guru instead of understanding wisdom are not properly qualified to take teachings.
Enduring faith in the vinaya and the three baskets of the lamrim.
Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo states unequivocally that the Great Perfection can be penetrated with faith alone when being shown the nature of mind itself awakening (i.e. bodhicitta).
When the Buddha taught, he always began by introducing the wheel of faith, which opens the way to the Dharma, like the precious wheel of a universal ruler's power.
Faith and a strong determination to leave samsara develop in places that resemble where the Buddha gained enlightenment. Offering unceasing and unconquerable faith are the greatest offerings.


== References =="
29th Weapons Squadron,"The 29th Weapons Squadron is a United States Air Force unit, stationed at Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas.  It is assigned to the USAF Weapons School at Nellis Air Force Base. The mission of the squadron is to provide advanced Lockheed C-130J Hercules instructional flying.
The squadron was first activated in 1942 as the 29th Transport Squadron.  After training in the United States, it deployed to the Mediterranean Theater of Operations as the 29th Troop Carrier Squadron.  The squadron dropped paratroopers in the invasions of Sicily and Italy before moving to England.  From England it participated in Operation Overlord.  The 29th earned two Distinguished Unit Citations for combat actions.  Following VE Day, the squadron returned to the United States where it was inactivated in September 1945.
The squadron was activated again in September 1946 and served with the occupation forces in Italy and Austria before returning to the United States in 1947.  In 1948 the squadron moved to Germany, where it participated in the Berlin Airlift until being inactivated in 1949 as American airlift forces in Germany were reduced after the blockade of Berlin was ended.  The squadron was activated again at Mitchel Air Force Base in February 1953, when it assumed the resources of the 335th Troop Carrier Squadron, a reserve unit that had been activated for the Korean War, and which was returning to reserve status.  The squadron was inactivated in June 1955.
The squadron was again activated in October 1964 at Forbes Air Force Base, Kansas.  In December 1965, the squadron moved to Clark Air Base, Philippines, from which it deployed its Lockheed C-130 Hercules transports to support the Vietnam War.  In 1971, it moved on paper to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, where it again worked up on the C-130.  Shortly after it became combat ready, however, it was inactivated and its personnel and aircraft were transferred to the 38th Tactical Airlift Squadron, which was simultaneously activated.


== Mission ==
The 29th Weapons Squadron conducts graduate-level instruction in weapons and tactics employment with the Lockheed C-130J Hercules. A detachment of the squadron at Rosecrans Field performs the same mission for Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve C-130H crews.


== History ==


=== World War II ===

The squadron was activated as the 29th Transport Squadron in March 1942 as the original squadron of the 313th Transport Group. The group was expanded from a headquarters and a single squadron in June, when the 47th, 48th, and 49th Transport Squadrons were activated to fill out the 313th. The 29th trained under Air Transport Command (later I Troop Carrier Command) and equipped with Douglas C-47 Skytrain aircraft and other military models of the Douglas DC-3, including the C-53 Skytrooper in the southeastern United States.


==== Mediterranean operations ====
The squadron, now named the 29th Troop Carrier Squadron, moved to Oujda Airfield, French Morocco after the Operation Torch landings.  It performed airlift of supplies and personnel to ground forces advancing through Algeria into Tunisia as part of Twelfth Air Force.  The unit also evacuated wounded personnel to rear areas.
The 29th, along with the 47th and 48th Squadrons of the 313th Group, took part in Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily.  Although blown far off course on the first airdrops on the island by strong winds, the squadron managed to drop their paratroops near Avola, where they were able to assist British forces in seizing that town. Two days later, 11 July 1943, the squadron was part of a formation of troop carrier units of the 52d Troop Carrier Wing bringing reinforcements, planning to drop paratroops near Gela.  Planes of the 313th Group led the stream of troop carriers.  However, attacks in the Gela area by enemy aircraft had sunk two ships and forced other ships in the invasion force to disperse.  The heaviest enemy attack came at 2150 hours.  Fifty minutes later, the first 313th Group aircraft approached the drop zone.  The 48th was able to successfully make its drop on Farello Airfield.  Mistaking the troop carriers for another enemy attack, ships of the assault force and antiaircraft units ashore began a heavy fire on squadron's C-47s as they departed.  Of the 144 planes of the 52d Wing that participated in the mission, 23 were shot down and an additional 37 were heavily damaged. For its completion of this mission the squadron earned its first Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC).
It moved to Sicily for Operation Avalanche, the invasion of Italy. It dropped paratroopers of 82d Airborne Division south of Salerno on the night of 13 September 1943 and flew a reinforcement mission the following night.


==== European operations ====

In February 1944, the squadron moved to RAF Folkingham, England, where it became part of IX Troop Carrier Command and began training for the assault on the continent of Europe.  On D-Day the squadron dropped paratroopers near Picauville, Normandy and dropped reinforcements the following day.  The squadron's efforts during Operation Overlord earned it a second DUC.
On 17 September, the squadron participated in Operation Market Garden, the airborne assault on the Netherlands, when it dropped troopers near Arnhem and Nijmegen.  In February 1945, the squadron moved to Achiet Airfield in France, where it began converting to Curtiss C-46 Commandos in preparation for Operation Varsity, the airborne assault across the Rhine.  On 24 March 1945 it dropped elements of the 17th Airborne Division near Wesel.
The squadron continued to operate from Achiet during 1945, performing transportation of personnel and supplies within Europe.  It evacuated wounded and former prisoners of war and brought gasoline, ammunition to forward areas.  After V-E Day, it continued to transport medical equipment and other supplies.  In September, the squadron's personnel returned to the United States and it was inactivated on arrival at the port of embarkation.
In August 1945 the squadron returned to the United States, and was inactivated at the port of embarkation in September.


=== Army of Occupation and Berlin Airlift ===

The squadron was activated at Capodichino Airport near Naples, Italy at the end of September 1946, absorbing the mission, personnel and equipment of the 305th Troop Carrier Squadron, which was simultaneously inactivated. It once again was equipped with C-47s.  The squadron briefly moved to Tulln Air Base, Austria in the spring of 1947.
The squadron transferred without personnel and equipment to the States in June 1947. At Bergstrom Field, Texas it trained with Fairchild C-82 Packets and gliders.  The squadron departed Bergstrom for in late October 1948 for Germany, arriving in early November to reinforce airlift units in Operation Vittles, the Berlin airlift as winter approached and the demand for supplies increased.  Operating from a Royal Air Force base because of congestion at United States Air Forces Europe bases in Germany, the unit used Douglas C-54 Skymasters to transport cargo including coal, food, and medicine into West Berlin.  As airlift forces in Europe were reduced following the lifting of the Soviet blockade, and faced with President Truman’s smaller 1949 defense budget, the Air Force was required to reduce the number of its groups to 48.  The squadron was inactivated in September 1949.


=== Cold War ===

The squadron was activated at Mitchel Air Force Base, New York in February 1953, assuming the personnel and Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars of the 335th Troop Carrier Squadron, an Air Force Reserve unit that had been called to active duty for the Korean War and was transitioning to the C-119 from the Curtiss Commando. The squadron trained to maintain combat readiness in tactical airlift operations.  It was inactivated on 8 June 1955.


=== Vietnam War ===

The squadron was reactivated at Forbes Air Force Base, Kansas in 1964, flying Lockheed C-130 Hercules. In March 1965, the 29th became the first combat-ready unit of Tactical Air Command at Forbes. It then assumed a commitment to rotate aircraft to the Panama Canal Zone.  The squadron frequently deployed to support airlift requirements of overseas commands, participate in tactical exercises and disaster relief.
In December 1965 the squadron left Forbes for Clark Air Base, Philippines, arriving in late January 1966 to perform theater airlift in Southeast Asia as part of 315th Air Division. The unit deployed aircraft and crews to provide intra-theater airlift for United States military civic actions, combat support and civic assistance throughout the Republic of Vietnam, particularly from the C-130 operating location at Tan Son Nhut Airport outside Saigon.  In May 1969, the unit assumed the Commando Vault mission, dropping a 10,000-pound bomb designed to clear helicopter landing zones out of jungle from its cargo bay. The squadron was inactivated in October 1970 and its remaining aircraft and crews were distributed among the 463d Tactical Airlift Wing's other squadrons.
The squadron was reactivated in April 1971 at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia and began training with C-130s.  Shortly after becoming combat ready, in November its mission, equipment and personnel were transferred to the 38th Tactical Airlift Squadron and the 29th was inactivated.


=== Weapons system training ===
The squadron was redesignated the 29th Weapons Squadron and reactivated in June 2003 at Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas as part of the USAF Mobility Weapons School and equipped with C-130 Hercules. The squadron was reassigned to the USAF Weapons School at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada in 2006. In August 2014 the squadron established a detachment at Rosecrans Field, Missouri to conduct the Weapons Instructor Course for Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve aircrews flying the C-130H. This allowed the elements at Little Rock the ability to focus primarily on the C-130J.


== Lineage ==
Constituted as the 29th Transport Squadron on 28 January 1942
Activated on 2 March 1942
Redesignated 29th Troop Carrier Squadron on 4 July 1942
Inactivated on 22 September 1945
Activated on 30 September 1946
Redesignated: 29th Troop Carrier Squadron, Heavy on 30 July 1948
Redesignated: 29th Troop Carrier Squadron, Special on 1 February 1949
Inactivated on 18 September 1949
Redesignated 29th Troop Carrier Squadron, Medium on 26 November 1952
Activated on 1 February 1953
Inactivated on 8 June 1955
Activated on 15 June 1964 (not organized)
Organized on 1 October 1964
Redesignated 29th Troop Carrier Squadron on 1 January 1967
Redesignated 29th Tactical Airlift Squadron on 1 August 1967
Inactivated on 31 October 1970
Activated on 1 April 1971
Inactivated on 15 November 1971
Redesignated 29th Weapons Squadron on 30 May 2003
Activated on 1 June 2003


=== Assignments ===
313th Transport Group (later 313 Troop Carrier Group), 2 March 1942 – 22 September 1945
313th Troop Carrier Group, 30 September 1946 – 18 September 1949
313th Troop Carrier Group, 1 February 1953 – 8 June 1955
Tactical Air Command, 15 June 1964 (not organized)
313th Troop Carrier Wing, 1 October 1964
315th Air Division, 27 January 1966
463d Troop Carrier Wing (later 463d Tactical Airlift Wing), 25 March 1966 – 31 October 1970
316th Tactical Airlift Wing, 1 April – 15 November 1971
USAF Mobility Weapons School, 1 June 2003
USAF Weapons School, 5 July 2006 – present


=== Stations ===


=== Aircraft ===
Douglas C-47 Skytrain, 1942–1945, 1946–1948
Douglas C-53 Skytrooper, 1942–1943
Curtiss C-46 Commando, 1945, 1953
Fairchild C-82 Packet, 1947–1948
Douglas C-54 Skymaster, 1948–1949
Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar, 1953–1955
Lockheed C-130 Hercules, 1964–1970, 1971, 2003–present


== See also ==
List of Douglas C-47 Skytrain operators
List of Lockheed C-130 Hercules operators
List of United States Air Force airlift squadrons
List of United States Air Force squadrons


== References ==


=== Notes ===


=== Citations ===


=== Bibliography ===
 This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency

Anderson, Capt. Barry (1985). Army Air Forces Stations: A Guide to the Stations Where U.S. Army Air Forces Personnel Served in the United Kingdom During World War II (PDF). Maxwell AFB, AL: Research Division, USAF Historical Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2016.
Garland, Lt Col Albert N.; Smyth, Howard McGaw (1993) [1964]. Sicily and the Surrender of Italy (PDF). United States Army in World War II: The Mediterranean Theater of Operations (50th Anniversary Commemorative ed.). Washington DC: Center of Military History. ISBN 978-1508422389. LCCN 64-60002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2012.
Haulman, Daniel L. (2000). ""Berlin Airlift: Operation Vittles"". In Warnock, A. Timothy (ed.). Short of War: Major USAF Contingency Operations 1947–1997. Maxwell AFG, AL: Air University Press. ISBN 978-0-16050411-2.
Johnson, 1st Lt. David C. (1988). U.S. Army Air Forces Continental Airfields (ETO) D-Day to V-E Day (PDF). Maxwell AFB, AL: Research Division, USAF Historical Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2015.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Knaack, Marcelle Size (1978). Encyclopedia of US Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems (PDF). Vol. 2, Post-World War II Bombers 1945–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-59-5.
Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1983) [1961]. Air Force Combat Units of World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-02-1. LCCN 61060979. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016.
Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982) [1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-405-12194-6. LCCN 70605402. OCLC 72556. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016.
McGowan, Sam (2011). Trash Haulers: The story of the C-130 Troop Carrier/Tactical Airlift Mission. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1468501902. (self published)
Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947–1977. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-12-9.
Watkins, Robert (2008). Battle Colors. Vol. III Insignia and Markings of the Ninth Air Force in World War II. Atglen, PA: Shiffer Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7643-2938-8.
Warren, John C. (September 1955). ""Airborne Missions in the Mediterranean, 1942–1945, USAF Historical Study No. 74"" (PDF). Research Studies Institute, USAF Historical Division, Air University. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
Further reading
Harkiewicz, Joseph (1990). We Are the 29th Troop Carrier Squadron, WW II. Orlando, FL. OCLC 22904015.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (self published)


== External links ==
""New commander leads 29th Weapons Squadron"". 19th Airlift Wing Public Affairs. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
""463rd Troop Carrier/Tactical Airlift Wing"". Sam McGowan. 27 June 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2016."
"Grace Cathedral, San Francisco","Grace Cathedral is an American cathedral of the Episcopal Church in San Francisco, California. On top of Nob Hill, Grace is the cathedral church of the Episcopal Diocese of California, led by Bishop Austin Keith Rios since 2024, while the cathedral's local parish has been led by Dean Malcolm Clemens Young since 2015.
The parish, founded in 1849, lost its previous church building in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The parish opened a temporary facility in 1907, raised enough funds to start construction of the present cathedral in 1927, started using it in 1934, and completed final construction in 1964. The cathedral is known for its murals by Jan Henryk De Rosen, a replica of Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise, two labyrinths, varied stained glass windows, Keith Haring AIDS chapel altarpiece, Our Lady of the Flowers by David LaChapelle, and medieval and contemporary furnishings, as well as its forty-four bell carillon, three organs, and choirs.


== History ==
The cathedral's ancestral parish, Grace Church, was founded in 1849 during the California Gold Rush. Little Grace Pro-Cathedral (1907) was built on the new site, flanking Taylor Street near California Street, and a cathedral design by noted English Gothic Revival architect George Frederick Bodley was accepted. Little Grace was built on Powell near Jackson, across the street from the first Episcopal church in San Francisco, Trinity Church. After Trinity Church moved away, Grace Church moved into the larger building; this third church, unofficially referred to as Grace ""Cathedral"" because of its size. In 1862, construction began at California and Stockton. The new church was consecrated on May 3, 1868. Prominent members of San Francisco society joined the parish in the third church, including Leland Stanford and William Henry Crocker.
In 1865, Mark Twain published in The Californian newspaper purported private correspondence between himself and potential short-term rectors, satirizing the church's somewhat unsuccessful efforts to find a short-term rector in the 1860s and 1870s, ""stating"" that he had written to one New York priest who had already turned down Grace's offer of $7,000 per year (equivalent to $144,000 in 2024): ""A word in your ear: say nothing to anybody - keep dark - but just pack up your traps and come along out here... They never expected you to clinch a bargain like that. I will go to work and get up a little competition among the cloth"". Among the short-term rectors were roll film inventor Hannibal Goodwin and James Smith Bush, the great-grandfather of former US President George H. W. Bush and great-great-grandfather of former US President George W. Bush.

When the 1862 building was destroyed in the fire following the 1906 earthquake,: 2  the Grace parish opened a temporary facility in 1907. The family of railroad baron and banker William Henry Crocker donated the site of their ruined Nob Hill property (on the block bounded by California, Jones, Sacramento, and Taylor) for a diocesan cathedral, which took its name and founding congregation from the nearby Grace parish.
Dean J. Wilmer Gresham nurtured the young cathedral and work began on the present structure with the laying of the cornerstone in 1910. The cathedral was designed in English Gothic style by George Frederick Bodley in London, who died in 1907, with Lewis P. Hobart of San Francisco completing the plans thereafter. The parish raised enough funds to build a few small portions, moving the parish services into a small completed section in 1912,: 3  then moving into the larger crypt, when that was completed in 1914.: 4  At a dinner event in 1927, Bishop Edward L. Parsons told the audience that the Episcopal Diocese of California was launching a fundraising effort in 1928, looking to raise $3.6 million (equivalent to $65.9 million in 2024) to complete the full cathedral.: 4 
Over the next six years, the cathedral continued to expand, though the Great Depression hampered fundraising. By 1934, Grace parish was able to move its services into the chancel and partially complete nave of the cathedral.: 6  Further construction was put on hold until 1960, with the exception of one (of the two) bell towers, which was addressed whenever funds allowed, taking over seven years (1936–1943) to complete. Grace Cathedral remained in this state, with a large vacant space between the partial section of nave and the single bell tower, for the next 17 years. Once construction restarted in 1960, the cathedral quickly advanced, and was completed in 1964 as the third largest Episcopal cathedral in the nation.
On March 28, 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. gave a sermon at Grace Cathedral as part of the festival celebrating its completion and consecration.: 12  The service took place on the Fourth Sunday of Lent. Approximately 5,000 people were present to hear King's sermon. It was the largest gathering at the cathedral for the next 36 years, until the September 11, 2001, memorial service took place.


== Design and features ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		

The initial plans were drawn up by George Bodley and redesigned by his partner Cecil Hare after Bodley's death; Hobart, acting as Hare's local agent, completed the design. The cathedral was built using ferroconcrete over four campaigns, lasting from 1928 to 1930, 1931–34, 1939–43, and 1961–64. From 1914 to 1930, the congregation met in the present basement of the nave, now named the Founders Crypt. Services moved to the present Chapel of Grace in 1930, and by 1934, work on the Cathedral had been sufficiently completed to allow services to move there. Further work on the building was suspended by the Great Depression; the north tower was completed in 1943, followed by a long suspension in construction until 1960, when work on the final tower was started. The completion of the final tower in 1964 marked the end of structural construction, although much of the interior finish remains incomplete.
The overall plan and exterior of the French Gothic cathedral is inspired by cathedrals at Amiens, Paris, Beauvais, and Chartres. The interior features are inspired by the Aragon Palma Cathedral, and the Chapel of Grace is drawn from the Sainte-Chapelle. Overall, Grace Cathedral is 329 ft (100 m) long, 162 ft (49 m) wide at the transepts, with a central spire (flèche) rising 247 ft (75 m) above street level. The towers are 174 ft (53 m) above street level. The entry floor of the cathedral is itself 20 ft (6.1 m) above street level, and the sanctuary floor is 299.5 ft (91.3 m) above sea level. Under the original Bodley plans, Grace Cathedral would have been smaller and more square, 275 ft (84 m) long and 180 ft (55 m) wide.


=== Works by Jan Henryk De Rosen ===
Grace Cathedral has a significant collection of varied works by Jan Henryk De Rosen. Among these are a faux-tile mural behind the Chapel of Grace reredos from 1932, the mural in the Chapel of the Nativity's Adoration from 1946 showing the Holy Family with the magi and shepherds. At the donor's request, the original angels hovering above were removed by the artist, however constellations still mark their place. De Rosen also included a little image of his boyhood home in Warsaw in the mural. On a smaller scale, De Rosen painted exquisite panels for the original old high altar which is now in the Chapel of St. Francis columbarium.
The most visible works of De Rosen in Grace Cathedral are the historical aisle murals that were painted in 1949 and 1950 and composed in a style blending elements of the early Italian masters Giotto and Mantegna.


=== Ghiberti doors ===

The cathedral entrance has a large pair of doors, often called the ""Ghiberti doors"". They are reproductions of the doors of the Florence Baptistery by Lorenzo Ghiberti, also dubbed the ""Gates of Paradise"".

In 1943, the Nazi occupation government ordered the original doors to be removed from the Florence baptistery, along with other portable artworks, to protect them from bombing and possibly to give Hermann Göring a chance to add them to his collection. They were hidden in a disused railway tunnel until 1944, and latex casts were made after their rediscovery. The replica doors were cast in 1956 from molds of the original doors and were destined for a war memorial, but when financing for the memorial fell through, San Francisco philanthropist Charles D. Field bought these replicas, and they were then shipped to San Francisco and installed on the newly completed church in time for its official dedication in 1964.
The original Ghiberti doors are no longer installed in the baptistery as corrosion and weathering led conservators to decide that they must be preserved in a museum under a totally dry and controlled atmosphere. The doors now in the baptistery are more modern replicas installed in 1991.


=== Labyrinths ===

Laid out on the floor of Grace Cathedral is a labyrinth based on the famous medieval labyrinth of The Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres located in Chartres, France. There is also another labyrinth outside in the courtyard of the cathedral close.: 28 


=== Windows ===
Contained in the cathedral are 7,290 square feet (677 m2) of stained glass windows by noted artists that depict over 1100 figures ranging from Adam and Eve to Albert Einstein. Thirty-two windows or window groups, dating from 1930 to 1966, were designed by American Charles Connick and his Boston studio. This includes the Chapel of Grace and baptistery window series that contains over 32,000 pieces of glass and covers nearly 833 square feet (77.4 m2). The cathedral also contains 24 faceted windows by Gabriel Loire of Chartres, France, including the Human Endeavor series depicting John Glenn, Thurgood Marshall, Jane Addams, Robert Frost, and Einstein. Between 1995 and 1998, several of the cathedral's choir and aisle windows were restored by Reflection Studios of Emeryville, California.


=== Carillon ===
The carillon was the gift of Nathaniel T. Coulson, a San Francisco dentist and realtor who came from Lostwithiel in Cornwall. When Coulson first arrived in San Francisco in 1875, he found his way to Grace Church, which lacked a bell tower. Although a Methodist, he vowed to provide bells for the church and eventually spent his life savings to realize his dream and to erect the Singing (north) Tower to house them. The carillon consists of forty-four bronze bells, cast and tuned at the Gillett & Johnston Foundry of Croydon, England, in 1938. The bells arrived before the cathedral tower was completed, so they spent their first years on Treasure Island in San Francisco Bay as the centerpiece of the 1939-40 Golden Gate International Exposition. The carillon was first played from its Singing Tower home on Christmas Eve, 1940, and was formally dedicated in 1943. The bells have been rung to mark a number of important events, including D-Day and the centenary of the San Francisco cable car system.


=== Our Lady of the Flowers ===
by David LaChapelle
Chromogenic print. Anonymous gift, 2022
Inspired by the Virgin Mary, this work by the American photographer David LaChapelle celebrates faith and positivity in humanity. LaChapelle grew up during the AIDS epidemic and his early work was deeply influenced by ideas of life, death, and the metaphysical. The model is Haitian-born Guetcha Tondreau.


=== Cathedral School for Boys ===
In 1957, the Cathedral School for Boys was opened in the cathedral's bell towers. It was founded by the then dean, Julian Bartlett, in response to parents seeking an alternative to the other private schools in San Francisco. A permanent building was opened in June 1965, forming part of the cathedral close. Thanks in part to the presence of the school, the cathedral has one of only a handful of remaining Episcopal men and boys cathedral choirs, the Grace Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys; the 24 boys of the choir attend the Cathedral School for Boys, while the 12 men are a professional ensemble.


== In popular culture ==

Photographer Ansel Adams produced a series of photographs of the incomplete cathedral in 1935.
Jazz pianist Vince Guaraldi composed and recorded a Mass for jazz trio and choir. The performance at the cathedral on May 21, 1965, was released as At Grace Cathedral.
Duke Ellington performed his televised Concert of Sacred Music at the cathedral on September 26, 1965.
Art Garfunkel's 1973 solo album Angel Clare was recorded at Grace Cathedral.
""Grace Cathedral Park"" is the first song on Red House Painters' 1993 self-titled album, their second.
""Grace Cathedral Hill"" is track 7 on the Decemberists' 2003 Castaways and Cutouts album. It recounts a New Year's Eve experience in which the singer and his sullen (presumably grieving) female companion visit the church to light candles.
Grace Cathedral has appeared in a number of feature films. Alfred Hitchcock filmed an abduction scene for his final film, Family Plot, in the cathedral in 1975. Some other film appearances include The Pleasure of His Company (1961), Bullitt (1968), Time After Time (1979), Bicentennial Man (1999), Milk (2008), and Venom: Let There Be Carnage (2021). The short epilogue of the 1962 film How the West Was Won shows sweeping views of how the West had evolved into its modern self, including an aerial shot of San Francisco that flies directly over Grace Cathedral, showing some of its ongoing construction.
Armistead Maupin's 1978–2014 Tales of the City book series has an Episcopal cannibal cult operating out of Grace Cathedral as one of its sub-plots. In the TV adaptation, Maupin plays a cameo role as a priest of Grace Cathedral, but the cathedral interiors were actually filmed in Montreal.
Fort Point Beer Company's beer can for their KSA beer features a graphic illustration of Grace Cathedral.


== List of deans ==
As of 2020 Grace Cathedral has had nine deans, the chief resident cleric of the cathedral rector of the parish.

J. Wilmer Gresham (1928–1939)
Thomas Wright (1941–1943)
Bernard Lovgren (1946–1951)
C. Julian Bartlett (1956–1975)
Stanley Rodgers (1975–1977)
David Gillespie (1978–1985)
Alan Jones (1985–2009)
Jane Shaw (2010–2014)
Malcolm Clemens Young (2015–present)
Dean Alan Jones, who retired in 2009, had also served as the moderator of The Forum at Grace Cathedral. Dean Jane Shaw left Grace Cathedral in September 2014 to become Dean for Religious Life and Professor of Religious Studies at Stanford University.


== See also ==

List of the Episcopal cathedrals of the United States
List of cathedrals in the United States


== References ==


== External links ==

Grace Cathedral website
Cathedrals of California website
Panorama

QTVR panorama from the nave"
Red envelope,"A red envelope, red packet, lai see (Chinese: 利是; Cantonese Yale: laih sih), hongbao or ang pau (traditional Chinese: 紅包; simplified Chinese: 红包; pinyin: hóngbāo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: âng-pau) is a gift of money given during holidays or for special occasions such as weddings, graduations, and birthdays. It originated in China before spreading across parts of Southeast Asia and other countries with sizable ethnic Chinese populations.
In the mid-2010s, a digital equivalent to the practice emerged within messaging apps with mobile wallet systems localized for the Chinese New Year, particularly WeChat.


== Usage ==
Red envelopes containing cash, known as hongbao in Mandarin and laisee in Cantonese, are gifts presented at social and family gatherings such as weddings or holidays such as Chinese New Year; they are also gifted to guests as a gesture of hospitality. The red color of the envelope symbolizes good luck and wards off evil spirits. In Chinese, the red packet is also called ""money warding off old age"" (壓歲錢; yāsuì qián) for Chinese New Year.
The act of requesting red packets is normally called tao hongbao (Chinese: 討紅包; pinyin: tǎo hóngbāo) or yao lishi (Chinese: 要利是; pinyin: yào lìshì), and, in the south of China, dou lishi (Chinese: 逗利是; pinyin: dòu lìshì; Cantonese Yale: dauh laih sih). Red envelopes are usually given out to the younger generation who are normally in school or unmarried.
The amount of money contained in the envelope usually ends with an even digit, following Chinese beliefs; odd-numbered money gifts are traditionally associated with funerals. An exception exists for the number nine, as the pronunciation of nine (Chinese: 九; pinyin: jiǔ) is homophonous to the word long (久; jiǔ), and is the largest single digit. In some regions of China and among the Chinese diaspora, odd numbers are favored for weddings because they are difficult to divide. One widespread tradition is that money should not be given in fours, or the number four should not appear in the amount, such as in 40, 400, and 444, as the pronunciation of the word four (四; sì) is similar to the word death (死; sǐ). When giving money, new bills are favored over old bills. It is common to see long bank queues before Chinese New Year holding people waiting to acquire new bills.
At wedding banquets, the amount offered is usually intended to cover the cost of the attendees as well as signify goodwill to the newlyweds. The amounts given are often recorded in ceremonial ledgers for the new couple to keep.
In southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the married to the unmarried during Chinese New Year, mostly to children. In northern and southern China, red envelopes are typically given by the elders to those under 25 (30 in most of the three northeastern provinces), regardless of marital status. The money is usually in the form of notes to make it difficult to judge the amount before opening. In Malaysia it is common to add a coin to the notes, particularly in hongbao given to children, signifying even more luck.
It is traditional to avoid opening the envelopes in front of the relatives out of courtesy. However, to receive an envelope, the youth kowtow to thank their elders. In Hong Kong, red envelopes are traditionally opened on or after the 7th day of the Lunar New Year.
During Chinese New Year supervisors or business owners give envelopes to employees.
In Suzhou, children keep the red envelope in their bedroom after receiving it. They believe that putting the red envelope under their bed can protect the children. This action relates to the Chinese ""壓 yā"". Those yasui qian would not be used until the end of Chinese New Year. They also receive fruit or cake during the celebration.
It is traditional to give an actor a red packet when he or she is to play a dead character, or pose for a picture for an obituary or a grave stone.
Red packets are also used to deliver payment for favorable service to lion dance performers, religious practitioners, teachers, and doctors.
Red packets as a form of bribery in China's film industry, were revealed in 2014's Sony hack.
In the Chinese communities of Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong and Macao, it is also customary for red packets to be given to service staff, such as security guards, cleaners, domestic helpers and doormen during the first few days of the Lunar New Year.


=== Virtual red envelopes ===
Virtual red envelopes are available on mobile payment platforms. During the Chinese New Year holiday in 2014, the messaging app WeChat introduced the ability to distribute virtual red envelopes of money to contacts and groups via its WeChat Pay platform. The launch included an on-air promotion during the CCTV New Year's Gala — China's most-watched television special — where viewers could win red envelopes as prizes.
WeChat Pay adoption increased following the launch, and over 32 billion virtual envelopes were sent over the Chinese New Year holiday in 2016 (a tenfold increase over 2015). The feature's popularity spawned imitations from other vendors; a ""red envelope war"" emerged between WeChat owner Tencent and its historic rival, Alibaba Group, who added a similar function to its competing messaging service and held similar promotions. Analysts estimated that over 100 billion digital red envelopes would be sent over the New Year holiday in 2017. One study reported that this popularization of virtual red packets comes from their contagious feature—users who receive red packets feel obligated to follow. Since 2020, brands such as HeyTea, Tencent Video, Disney, and the Palace Museum have used custom WeChat red envelope covers to promote seasonal themes, product launches, or cultural IP. These covers often incorporate zodiac motifs, New Year greetings, or brand mascots, allowing users to share branded visuals during gift-giving, thus turning red envelopes into tools of viral marketing and cultural engagement.


== History ==
The history of the red packet dates to the Han dynasty. People created a type of coin to ward off evil spirits, ""yasheng qian"" (Chinese: 压胜钱; pinyin: yāshèng qián), which was inscribed with auspicious words, such as ""May you live a long and successful life"". It was believed to protect people from sickness and death.
In the Tang dynasty, the Chinese New Year was seen as the beginning of spring, and in addition to congratulations, elders gave money to children to ward off evil spirits.
After the Song and Yuan dynasties, the custom of giving money in the Spring Festival evolved into the custom of giving children lucky money. The elderly would thread coins with a red string.
The Ming and Qing dynasties featured two kinds of lucky money. One was made of red string and coins, sometimes placed at the foot of the bed in the shape of a dragon. The other was a colorful pouch filled with coins.
In Qing dynasty, the name ""yāsuì qián"" (压岁钱) emerged. The book Qīng Jiā Lù (清嘉录) recorded that ""elders give children coins threaded together by a red string, the money is called yasui qian.""
From the Republic of China (1912–1949) era, it evolved into 100 coins wrapped in red paper, meaning ""May you live a hundred years!"". Due to the lack of holes in modern-day coins, red envelopes became more prevalent. Later, people adopted banknotes instead of coins.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the custom of the elders giving the younger generation money continued.


== Other customs ==

Other similar traditions also exist in other countries in Asia.


=== Ethnic Chinese ===
In Thailand, Myanmar (Burma), and Cambodia, the Chinese diaspora and immigrants introduced the practice of red envelopes.


=== Cambodia ===
In Cambodia, red envelopes are called ang pav or tae ea (""give ang pav""). Ang pav are delivered with best wishes to younger generations. Ang pav is an important gift as a symbol of good luck from the elders. Ang pav can be presented on the day of Chinese New Year or Saen Chen, when relatives gather. The gift is kept as a worship item in or under the pillowcase, or somewhere else, especially near the bed of young while they are sleeping. Ang pav can be either money or a cheque, and more or less according to the donors.
Ang pav are not given to someone in family who has a career, while such a person has to gift their parents and/or their younger children or siblings.
At weddings, the amount offered is scaled to cover the cost of the attendees as well as help the newlyweds.


=== Vietnam ===

Red envelopes are a traditional part of Vietnamese culture. They are considered to be lucky money and are typically given to children during Vietnamese New Year. They are generally given by elders and adults, where a greeting or offering health and longevity is exchanged. Common greetings include ""Sống lâu trăm tuổi"" (𤯩𥹰𤾓歲), ""An khang thịnh vượng"" (安康興旺), ""Vạn sự như ý"" (萬事如意) and ""Sức khỏe dồi dào"" (飭劸洡𤁠), wishing health and prosperity. The typical name for lucky money is lì xì (利市) or, less commonly, mừng tuổi (𢜠歲).


=== South Korea ===
In South Korea, a monetary gift is given to children by their relatives during the New Year period. Bags known as bokjumeoni (복주머니) are used instead of red envelopes.


=== Japan ===
Monetary gifts called otoshidama (お年玉) are given to children during the New Year period. White or decorated envelopes (お年玉袋, otoshidama-bukuro) are used instead of red, with the name of the receiver usually written on the front. A similar practice, shūgi-bukuro (祝儀袋), is observed for Japanese weddings, but the envelope is folded rather than sealed, and decorated with an elaborate bow, called mizuhiki (水引).


=== Philippines ===
In the Philippines, Chinese Filipinos (known locally as ""Filipino-Chinese"") exchange red envelopes (termed ang pao) during the Lunar New Year or ""Chinese New Year"". Red envelopes have gained acceptance in the broader Philippine society. Filipinos with no Chinese heritage appropriated the custom for occasions such as birthdays and in giving monetary aguinaldo during Christmas and New Year. Due to the phonetics of most Philippine languages, red envelopes are nowadays more well known as ampaw.


=== Green envelope ===

Malay Muslims in Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore adopted the Chinese custom as part of their Eid al-Fitr (Malay: Hari Raya Aidilfitri) celebrations, but instead of red packets other colored envelopes are used, most commonly green. Customarily a family gives (usually small) amounts of money in green envelopes, and may send them to friends and family unable to visit. Green is used for its traditional association with Islam. The adaptation of the red envelope is based on the Muslim custom of sadaqah, or voluntary charity. While present in the Qur'an, sadaqah is less formally established than the sometimes similar practice of zakat, and in many cultures this takes a form closer to gift-giving and generosity among friends than charity. I.e. no attempt is made to give more to guests ""in need"", nor is it a religious obligation. Among the Sundanese people, a boy who had been recently circumcised is given monetary gifts known as panyecep or uang sunatan.


=== Purple envelope ===
The tradition of ang pao was adopted by local Indian Hindu populations of Singapore and Malaysia for Deepavali. They are known as Deepavali ang pow (in Malaysia), purple ang pow or simply ang pow (in Singapore). Yellow colored envelopes for Deepavali were give in the past.


== See also ==
Chinese marriage
Chinese social relations
Color in Chinese culture
Eidi
Gift economy
Hell money


== References ==


== Sources ==
Chengan Sun, ""Les enveloppes rouges : évolution et permanence des thèmes d'une image populaire chinoise"" [Red envelopes : evolution and permanence of the themes of a Chinese popular image], PhD, Paris, 2011.
Chengan Sun, Les enveloppes rouges (Le Moulin de l'Etoile, 2011) ISBN 978-2-915428-37-7.
Helen Wang, ""Cultural Revolution Style Red Packets"", Chinese Money Matters, 15 May 2018.


== External links ==

How to Give Lai See in Hong Kong
Red Packet: Sign of Prosperity
Gallery: Chinese New Year Red Envelopes
Will The Paper Red Packet Be Replaced By An Electronic Red Envelope?
A red envelope with a collection of value-Lai See
Money envelopes in the British Museum Collection"
Tiger Stadium (Detroit),"Tiger Stadium, previously known as Navin Field and  Briggs Stadium, was a multi-use stadium located in the Corktown neighborhood of Detroit, Michigan, United States. The stadium was nicknamed ""The Corner"" for its location at the intersection of Michigan and Trumbull Avenues. It hosted the Detroit Tigers of Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1912 to 1999, as well as the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL) from 1938 to 1939, 1941 to 1974. Tiger Stadium was declared a State of Michigan Historic Site in 1975 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989. 
The last Tigers game at the stadium was held on September 27, 1999. In the decade after the Tigers vacated the stadium, several rejected redevelopment and preservation efforts finally gave way to demolition. The stadium's demolition was completed on September 21, 2009, though the playing field remained until 2018, when the site was redeveloped for youth sports as the Corner Ballpark.


== History ==


=== Origins ===
In 1895, Detroit Tigers owner George Vanderbeck had a new stadium built at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull avenues. That stadium was called Bennett Park and featured a wooden grandstand with a wooden peaked roof in the outfield. At the time, some places in the outfield were only marked off with rope.
In 1911, new Tigers owner Frank Navin ordered a new steel-and-concrete baseball park to be built on the same site that would seat 23,000 to accommodate the growing numbers of fans. Navin Field opened on April 20, 1912, the same day as Fenway Park in Boston. While constructed on the same site as Bennett Park, the diamond at Navin Field was rotated 90°, with home plate located in what had been left field at Bennett Park. Cleveland Naps player ""Shoeless"" Joe Jackson, later banned from baseball for life following the Black Sox Scandal, scored the first run at Navin Field.

Over the years, expansion continued to accommodate more spectators. In 1935, following Navin's death, new owner Walter Briggs Sr. oversaw the expansion of Navin Field to a capacity of 36,000 by extending the upper deck to the foul poles and across right field. By 1938, the city had agreed to move Cherry Street, allowing the left-field seats to be double-decked, and the now-renamed Briggs Stadium had a capacity of 53,000. In 1961, new owner John Fetzer took control of the stadium and gave it its final and longest-lasting name: Tiger Stadium.
A fire gutted the press box on the evening of February 1, 1977. In 1977, the Tigers sold the stadium to the city of Detroit, which then leased it back to the Tigers. As part of this transfer, the green wooden seats were replaced with blue and orange plastic ones, and the stadium's interior, which was green, was painted blue to match.
By the early 1990s, it was clear that Tiger Stadium was at the end of its useful life. Both the city and Tigers ownership wanted a new park, but many campaigned to save the old stadium. While a plan to modify and maintain Tiger Stadium as the home of the Tigers, known as the Cochrane Plan, was supported by many in the community, it was never seriously considered by the city or the Tigers. Ground was broken for the new Comerica Park on October 29, 1997.


=== Features ===

Tiger Stadium had a 125-foot (38 m) tall flagpole in fair play, to the left of dead center field near the 440-foot (134 m) mark. The same flag pole was to be brought to Comerica Park, but this never happened. A new flagpole in the spirit of Tiger Stadium's pole was positioned in fair play at Comerica Park until the left field fence was moved in closer prior to the 2003 season. 
When it closed, Tiger Stadium was tied with Fenway Park as the oldest stadium in Major League Baseball; the two parks opened on the same date in 1912. Taking predecessor Bennett Park into account, Tiger Stadium was the oldest Major League Baseball site in use in 1999.
When the park was expanded in 1936, a second deck was added over the right field pavilion and bleachers. To fit as many seats as possible in the expansion, the second deck was extended over the fence by 10 feet (3 m). The overhang would occasionally turn some extremely high arced fly balls into home runs. Spotlights were added above the warning track to illuminate the area beneath the overhang. 
Like other older baseball stadiums such as Fenway Park and Wrigley Field, Tiger Stadium offered ""obstructed view"" seats, some of which were directly behind a steel support column; while others in the lower deck had sight lines obstructed by the low-hanging upper deck. By making it possible for the upper deck to stand directly above the lower deck, the support columns allowed the average fan to sit closer to the field than at any other ballpark.
For a time after it was constructed, the right field upper deck had a ""315"" marker at the foul pole (later painted over), with a ""325"" marker below it on the lower deck fence (which was retained). The Texas Rangers claimed that the design of the right field section was copied and used in the construction of what is now Choctaw Stadium, but in fact the upper deck did not actually extend over the right field fence, but was set back by several feet.
Due to then-owner Walter Briggs's dislike of night baseball, lights were not installed at the stadium until 1948. The first night game at the stadium was held on June 15, 1948. Among major league parks whose construction predated the advent of night games, only Wrigley Field went longer without lights (1988).
Tiger Stadium featured an upper and lower deck bleacher section that was separated from the rest of the stadium. Chain link and at one time, a barbed wire fence, separated the bleachers from the reserved sections and was the only section of seating not covered by at least part of the roof. The bleachers had their own entrance, concession stands and restrooms.
In 1999, its final season, only this ballpark and Bank One Ballpark had a dirt path that ran from the pitcher's mound to home plate. It originally had one before it was removed.


=== Professional football ===
Tiger Stadium was home of the Detroit Lions from 1938 to 1939, 1941 to 1974. The stadium hosted two NFL Championship Games in 1953 and 1957. The football field ran mostly in the outfield from the right field line to left center field parallel with the third base line. The benches for both the Lions and their opponents were on the outfield side of the field. 
In the early 1970s, the city of Pontiac and its community leaders made a presentation to the Metropolitan Stadium Committee of a 155-acre (0.63 km2) site on the city's eastern boundary, north of M-59 and near the intersection with Interstate 75 (I-75). Initially, a dual stadium complex was planned that included a moving roof that was later scrapped due to high costs and the lack of a commitment from the Tigers. The Metropolitan Stadium Committee voted unanimously for the Pontiac site. In 1973, ground was broken for a stadium to exclusively house the Lions.
The Lions played their final game at Tiger Stadium on Thanksgiving Day, November 28, 1974, against the Denver Broncos.


=== Other events ===
In 1939, boxer Joe Louis defended his world heavyweight title with an eleventh-round knockout of Bob Pastor at the stadium.
On October 5, 1951, the University of Notre Dame played the University of Detroit at Briggs Stadium before a capacity crowd of 52,000. It was the first Notre Dame football game to be played at night. The Fighting Irish won, 40–6.
Northern Irish professional soccer club Glentoran F.C. called the stadium home in the late 1960s. The team played as the Detroit Cougars in the United Soccer Association.
Kiss played their first date of the Alive/Worldwide Tour on June 28, 1996. It was the first concert with the original lineup since 1979.


== Notable moments and facts ==

When Ty Cobb played at Navin Field, the area of dirt in front of home plate was kept wet by the groundstaff to slow down Cobb's bunts and cause opposing infielders to slip as they fielded them. The area was nicknamed ""Cobb's Lake"".
On July 18, 1921, Babe Ruth hit what is believed to be the longest verified home run in Major League Baseball history. The home run went to straightaway center field, clearing the stadium and landing into the street. The distance of the home run has been estimated at up to 575 feet (175 m). On July 13, 1934, at the stadium, Ruth hit his 700th career home run off Tigers' pitcher Tommy Bridges. 
On May 2, 1939, ailing New York Yankees first baseman Lou Gehrig voluntarily benched himself at Briggs Stadium, ending his streak of consecutive games at 2,130. Due to the progression of the disease named after him, it was the final game of his career.
The last scoreless tie in the NFL was played at Tiger Stadium between the Detroit Lions and New York Giants on November 7, 1943.
The stadium hosted the 1941, 1951 and 1971 MLB All-Star Games. All three games featured home runs. Ted Williams won the 1941 game with a walk-off three-run home run. The ball was also carrying well in the 1951 and 1971 games. Of the many home runs in those games, the most often replayed is Reggie Jackson's drive to right field that hit so high up in the light tower that the TV camera lost sight of it, until it dropped to the field below. Jackson dropped his bat and watched it sail, seemingly astonished at his own power.
Toward the end of the Lions' game against the Chicago Bears at the stadium on October 24, 1971, Lions wide receiver Chuck Hughes collapsed and later died of a heart attack, making Hughes the only NFL player to date who died during a game.
On April 7, 1986, Dwight Evans hit a home run on the first pitch of Opening Day. This was also the first game on MLB's schedule that season, giving Evans the record for the earliest home run to start a season in terms of at bats.

There were over 30 home runs hit onto the right field roof over the years. It was a relatively soft touch compared to left field, with a 325-foot (99 m) foul line and with a roof that was in line with the front of the lower deck. In left field, it was 15 feet (4.6 m) farther down the line, and the roof was set back some distance. Only four of the game's most powerful right-handed sluggers (Harmon Killebrew, Frank Howard, Cecil Fielder and Mark McGwire) reached the left field rooftop. In his career, Norm Cash hit four home runs over the Tiger Stadium roof in right field and is the all-time leader.
Tiger Stadium saw exactly 11,111 Major League home runs.


=== The final game ===

On September 27, 1999, the final Tigers game was held at Tiger Stadium; an 8–2 victory over the Kansas City Royals, capped by a late grand slam by Robert Fick, which hit the right field roof. It was the final Major League hit, home run, and RBI in Tiger Stadium's history. Following the game, an emotional ceremony with past and present Tigers greats was held to mark the occasion. The Tigers moved to the newly constructed Comerica Park for their 2000 season, leaving Tiger Stadium unused.


== Final years ==
On July 24, 2001, the day Detroit celebrated its 300th birthday, a Great Lakes Summer Collegiate League game between the Motor City Marauders and the Lake Erie Monarchs was played at Tiger Stadium. It was an effort by a local sports management company to bring a Frontier League franchise to Detroit.
In February 2006, a tent on Tiger Stadium's field played host to Anheuser-Busch's Bud Bowl 2006. Among performers at the nightclub-style event was Snoop Dogg. Anheuser-Busch promoted the event as Tiger Stadium's Last Call.
In 2006, the feature-length documentary Stranded at the Corner: The Battle to Save Historic Tiger Stadium was released. Funded by local businessman and ardent stadium supporter Peter Comstock Riley, and directed by Gary Glaser, it earned solid reviews and won three Telly awards and two Emmy awards for the film's writer and co-producer, Richard Bak, a local journalist and the author of two books about the stadium. It was also shown at the inaugural National Baseball Hall of Fame Film Festival in November 2006.


=== Demolition ===

There were many proposals to redevelop the site. By 2006, however, demolition appeared inevitable when then-Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick announced the stadium would be razed. In June 2007, the Detroit Economic Growth Corporation approved a plan to demolish the stadium, which needed approval from Detroit City Council. In July 2007, Detroit City Council voted 5–4 in approval of the demolition. 
In October 2007, an online auction of the stadium's memorabilia was held by Schneider Industries, which drew $192,729. The city used the proceeds to defray the demolition costs. 
The Detroit Economic Growth Corporation awarded the demolition contract on April 22, 2008, with the speculation that demolition revenue would come from the sale of scrap metal. Demolition began on June 30, 2008. A week into demolition, it was announced that the field, foul poles, and flagpole would be preserved.
After a hiatus wherein various plans to preserve portions of the stadium were considered, demolition was completed on September 21, 2009.


=== Redevelopment ===
During the summer of 2010, a group calling itself ""The Navin Field Grounds Crew"" began maintaining the playing field and hosting vintage baseball, youth baseball, and softball games at the site. There was at one time also a sign on the enclosing fence labeling the site ""Ernie Harwell Park"". 
On December 16, 2014, a $33 million project by Larson Realty Group to redevelop the old Tiger Stadium site was approved by Detroit's Economic Development Corporation. Development plans included a four-story building along Michigan Avenue with about 30,000 square feet (2,800 m2) of retail space and 102 residential property rental units, each averaging 800 square feet (74 m2). Along Trumbull Avenue, 24 town homes were planned for sale. Detroit's Police Athletic League (PAL) headquarters would relocate to the site and maintain the field. PAL would build its new headquarters and related facilities on the western and northern edges of the site while preserving the historic playing field for youth sports, including high school and college baseball. Construction of the project began in June 2016.
In 2018, the Corner Ballpark opened at the site.


== Films and television ==
The stadium was seen in the 1980 feature film Raging Bull where it was the site of two of Jake LaMotta's championship boxing matches.
It was depicted in Disney's award-winning Tiger Town, a 1983 made-for-television baseball film written and directed by Detroit native, Alan Shapiro, starring Roy Scheider, Sparky Anderson, Ernie Harwell and Mary Wilson. It was also seen in Renaissance Man and Hardball. 
In the summer of 2000, the HBO movie 61* was filmed at Tiger Stadium. The film dramatized the efforts of New York Yankees teammates Mickey Mantle and Roger Maris during the 1961 season to break fellow Yankee Babe Ruth's single-season home run record of 60. For the film, computer-generated visual effects were used to make Tiger Stadium resemble Yankee Stadium in 1961. Yankee Stadium is listed in the credits at the end of the film as being played by Tiger Stadium. 
During the last days in which part of Tiger Stadium was still standing, scenes for the film Kill the Irishman, which were used to depict Cleveland Stadium, were shot at the stadium. 
The pilot of the HBO series Hung featured the stadium's demolition in its opening scene.


== In popular culture ==
Artist Gene Mack, who drew a series of pictures of several figures and ballparks, mentioned a bone that Ty Cobb used to ""bone"" his bats as part of his care for them. The bone stayed in the clubhouse after he left the Tigers in 1926 and, indeed, after he retired in 1928.
In the music video for rapper Eminem's song ""Beautiful"", Eminem can be seen walking through the stadium, showing the destruction of the stadium.
The site was filmed for the Hung episode ""Fat Off My Love or I'm the Allergen"".


== Seating capacity ==


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== References ==


== External links ==

Aerial Views, Demolition of Tiger Stadium 2008 – 2009
A documentary on the battle to save Tiger Stadium
Tiger Stadium Demolition News & Videos
1950 Sanborn map showing Briggs Stadium"
Action of 16 October 1799,"The action of 16 October 1799 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of British Royal Navy frigates and two frigates of the Spanish Navy close to the Spanish naval port of Vigo in Galicia. The Spanish ships were a treasure convoy, carrying silver specie and luxury trade goods across the Atlantic Ocean from the colonies of New Spain to Spain. Sighted by British frigate HMS Naiad enforcing the blockade of Vigo late on the 15 October, the Spanish ships were in the last stages of their journey. Turning to flee from Naiad, the Spanish soon found themselves surrounded as more British frigates closed in.
Although they separated their ships in an effort to split their opponents, the Spanish captains were unable to escape: Thetis was captured after a short engagement with HMS Ethalion on the morning of 16 October, while Santa Brigida almost reached safety, only being caught on the morning of 17 October in the approaches to the safe harbour at Muros. After a short engagement amid the rocks she was also captured by an overwhelming British force. Both captured ships were taken to Britain, where their combined cargoes were transported with great fanfare to the Bank of England. The eventual value of their cargo was assessed as at least £618,040, resulting in one of the largest hauls of prize money ever awarded.


== Background ==
In 1796, following the secret terms of the Treaty of San Ildefonso, the Kingdom of Spain suddenly reversed its position in the French Revolutionary Wars turning from an enemy of the French Republic into an ally. The Spanish declaration of war on Great Britain forced the British Mediterranean Fleet to abandon the Mediterranean Sea entirely, retreating to ports at Gibraltar and Lisbon. This force now concentrated against the Spanish Navy, most of which was stationed at the main fleet base of Cádiz in Southern Spain. A British blockade fleet won a significant victory over the Spanish at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797, dissuading the Spanish fleet from playing a significant role in the ongoing war.
Other Spanish ports were also blockaded with the intention of limiting Spanish trade and movement and intercepting treasure convoys from the colonies of New Spain and South America. Vast quantities of gold, silver and valuable trade goods crossed the Atlantic in regular armed frigate convoys. To intercept and seize these shipments the Royal Navy dispatched their own frigates to patrol the Spanish coast. To encourage their sailors, the Royal Navy distributed prize money to the value of the ships and material captured and the seizure of a Spanish treasure fleet could yield spectacular amounts of money: particularly large sums had been captured during previous wars in 1656, 1744 and 1762, but during the first three years of conflict between Great Britain and Spain only one treasure convoy had been intercepted, near Cádiz at the action of 26 April 1797, and on that occasion the treasure was smuggled ashore before the convoy was seized.


== Pursuit ==
On 21 August 1799, a convoy of two 34-gun frigates, Thetis under Captain Don Juan de Mendoza and Santa Brigida under Captain Don Antonio Pillon, sailed from Vera Cruz in New Spain with a cargo that included cochineal, indigo dye, cocoa and sugar but which principally consisted of more than two million silver Spanish dollars. The passage across the Atlantic was uneventful and by the afternoon of 15 October the convoy, under orders to make any Spanish port, was nearing its destination at Vigo, a fortified port city in Galicia just south of Cape Finisterre at the most northwestern point of Spain. The ports of Northern Spain were blockaded by British frigates sailing independently, crossing the approaches in search of enemy shipping and it was one such ship, the 38-gun HMS Naiad under Captain William Pierrepont, that sighted the Spanish convoy in position 41°01′N 12°35′W at 20:00 on 15 October. Turning away to the southeast, the Spanish ships then made all sail northeast in search of a safe harbour, with Pierrepont in pursuit.
At 03:30 on 16 October, another sail was spotted to the southwest, rapidly revealed to be a second British frigate, the 38-gun HMS Ethalion under Captain James Young. Ethalion joined the chase and at dawn two more sails were sighted, the 32-gun HMS Alcmene under Captain Henry Digby to the west and 32-gun HMS Triton under Captain John Gore to the north. With four British frigates now in full pursuit, the Spanish captains sought to split their enemy and divided, at which Pierrepont directed Ethalion, the closest British ship, to pursue the faster Thetis. Young complied, firing long-range shot in Santa Brigida's direction at 09:00, driving Pillon's ship further from his companion.


== Battle ==
As Naiad, Triton and Alcmene streamed past in pursuit of Santa Brigida, Young focused his attention on Thetis, coming within range at 11:30. Mendoza, seeing that battle was inevitable, bore up across Ethalion's bows in an effort to rake Young's ship. Young turned in order to thwart the manoeuvre and fired two rapid broadsides into Thetis, which responded in kind. For an hour the frigates exchanged running fire until Mendoza, realising escape was impossible, surrendered. Thetis had lost one man killed and nine wounded in the exchange while Ethalion had suffered no casualties.
As Ethalion subdued Thetis the remainder of the British squadron continued southwards in pursuit of Santa Brigida. Pillon was an experienced officer with a good knowledge of the Northern Spanish coast and he intended to lose his pursuers in the rocky channels of Cape Finisterre. Early on 17 October he reached Spanish coastal waters, rounding Finisterre just beyond the Monte Lora rocks. Captain Gore on Triton, which was in full flow at seven knots, was unaware of the obstacle and at 05:00 crashed into them, coming to a juddering halt and inflicting severe damage to his ship's hull. Gore was able however to bring Triton off soon afterwards and continued pursuit, assisted by Digby on Alcmene who was able to block Pillon's route into Porte de Vidre. Both frigates opened fire on Santa Brigida at 07:00 as the Spanish ship sought shelter in the rocks at Commarurto close to the safe harbour at Muros, Pillon's movement hampered by the coastal rias that blocked the wind. After an hour of resistance, with Naiad belatedly approaching, Pillon was forced to surrender his ship to superior British forces. Santa Brigida had lost two men killed and eight wounded, Alcmene one killed and nine wounded and Triton a single man wounded.


== Aftermath ==
As the British force took control of Santa Brigida, a Spanish squadron of four ships sailed from Vigo with the appearance of intending to bring Pierrepont's squadron to battle. Pierrepont immediately issued orders for his ships to meet with the Spanish who promptly turned about and returned to port without coming within range. A shore breeze enabled the British ships and their prize to extricate themselves from the Commarurto rocks without further damage. They then sailed directly for the fleet base at Plymouth, arriving on 22 October to find that Thetis and Ethalion had reached the port the day before. Dispatches were sent to Lord Bridport, commander of the Channel Fleet, which were then forwarded to the Admiralty and revealed the scale of the prize.
Aboard Thetis was found a quantity of trade cocoa and a series of boxes containing coin, including 333 boxes of 3,000 dollars each, four boxes of 2,385 dollars each, 94 boxes containing 4,000 dollars each and two golden doubloons and 90 golden half-doubloons. This totalled 1,385,292 silver dollars, with a sterling value of £311,690. On Santa Brigida were trade cocoa, sugar, indigo and cochineal worth in total about £5,000 as well as 446 boxes containing 3,000 dollars each, 59 bags and three kegs of dollars and numerous loose coins, for  a total value of at least 1,338,000 silver dollars or £301,350. Altogether the sterling value of the cargo was calculated as not less than £618,040 (the equivalent of £76,699,000 in 2025). The captured ships however were written off as worthless, although some additional money was made auctioning off their naval stores. In the aftermath, the sailors of the squadron were noted in the streets of Portsmouth wearing ""bank notes stuck in their hats, buying watches for the fun of frying them, and issuing laws that any of their crew who appeared without a gold-laced hat should be cobbed, so that the unlucky man who appeared in silver could only escape by representing that the costlier articles were all bought up, but he had compelled the shopkeeper to take money for gold lace.""
This vast sum of money was transported through Plymouth on 63 wagons, guarded by armed sailors and Royal Marines and accompanied by musical bands and cheering crowds to the security of the Royal Citadel. It remained in Plymouth until November when it was removed to London with considerable ceremony and placed at the Bank of England. The sums awarded as prize money, distributed in equal proscribed shares among the crews of Ethalion, Naiad, Alcmene and Triton were among the largest ever recorded. Each captain was given £40,730 (of which a third was due to the admiral in command), each lieutenant £5,091, each warrant officer £2,468, each midshipman £791  and each sailor or marine £182. For the regular seamen, this total was 15 times their annual pay of £12. As historian James Henderson noted ""even the humblest seaman could set himself up with a cosy pub"". For the captains, normally paid £150 a year, this was more money than they could make in 270 years. On the only subsequent occasion when a Spanish treasure fleet was successfully intercepted, at the Battle of Cape Santa Maria in October 1804, an even greater haul was captured. On that occasion however the Admiralty used an obscure regulation to seize the bulk of the prize and the captains only received around £15,000 each.  Captain John Gore, commanding first HMS Triton and later HMS Medusa, received a share of the money on both occasions.
Historian Richard Woodman has noted that this action illustrates both the dominance of the Royal Navy and its high standards at this stage in the war, stating that ""The coincidental appearance of four frigates in the vast Atlantic testifies to the enormous resources the British put into the prosecution of the war. That the four frigate captains proceeded to act in such perfect concert is further evidence, if it were needed, of the shared standards of mutual help and assistance"".


== Notes ==


== References ==
Clowes, William Laird (1997) [1900]. The Royal Navy, A History from the Earliest Times to 1900, Volume IV. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-013-2.
Gardiner, Robert, ed. (2001) [1996]. Fleet Battle and Blockade. Caxton Editions. ISBN 978-1-84067-363-0.
Hannay, David (1886). Admiral Blake. New York: D. Appleton and Company. ISBN 978-1-44378-410-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Henderson CBE, James (1994) [1970]. The Frigates. Leo Cooper. ISBN 0-85052-432-6.
James, William (2002) [1827]. The Naval History of Great Britain, Volume 2, 1797–1799. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-906-9.
Woodman, Richard (2001). The Sea Warriors. Constable Publishers. ISBN 1-84119-183-3."
L. Mendel Rivers,"Lucius Mendel Rivers (September 28, 1905 – December 28, 1970) was a Democratic U.S. Representative from South Carolina, representing the Charleston-based 1st congressional district for nearly 30 years. As chair of the House Armed Services Committee, Rivers developed a reputation for his unwavering support of American involvement in the Vietnam War. His reputation suffered as the American public at large turned against further escalation in the Vietnam War. In 1968, Rivers condemned American servicemen who attempted to stop the My Lai massacre, labeling them as ""traitors"". Rivers served in the House until his death in 1970.


== Early life and education ==
Mendel Rivers was born in Gumville, South Carolina, to Lucius Hampton Rivers and Henrietta Marion McCay. The family moved to a farm in St. Stephen in 1907 and lived comfortably until 1915. That year the father Lucius died from pneumonia. Mendel's older brother Earle was put in charge of running the farm, but was not interested in agriculture. At the same time, agriculture suffered financial pressures and the family's assets declined. Eventually, they moved to North Charleston, where they opened a boarding house on O'Hear Avenue.
Rivers attended local public schools. He took six years to graduate from Charleston High School in 1926. He attended the College of Charleston for three years and the University of South Carolina School of Law for two years, graduating from neither. The law school dean at the University of South Carolina advised Rivers to take up another profession because, although he knew the assignments, he suffered from stage fright. Rivers was determined to become a lawyer so he returned to College of Charleston, took classes to prepare himself for the bar examination.


== Career ==
After passing the bar exam in 1932, he was unable to find work in Charleston law firms during the Great Depression, so he started his own practice.


== Entry into politics ==
Rivers first became involved in politics in 1930 when he participated in Ed Pritchard's unsuccessful campaign for the state legislature against Russell McGowan. He was an active member of the Charleston Young Democrats club and shortly after passing the bar, Rivers decided to run for one of the twelve state representative spots from Charleston County. County politics in the 1930s were controlled by the political machine of Charleston mayor Burnet R. Maybank, and gaining his endorsement was crucial to winning an election. Rivers sought the mayor's blessing, but was rejected because he was an unknown candidate from North Charleston. He ran as an Independent Democrat and was defeated in his bid for election.
A vacancy on the Charleston County delegation arose in 1933 when Ben Scott Whaley resigned to join the staff of Senator James Francis Byrnes. Rivers won the special election by running against Charleston and campaigning on the slogan ""Give the Northern End of the County Representation."" In 1934, Rivers ran for re-election and received the most votes of any state House candidate on the Charleston County ticket, making him chairman of the county delegation. As a state Representative, Rivers served on the Judiciary and Education committees. He became the state president of the Young Democrats in 1935 and was a delegate to the 1936 Democratic National Convention.
The rapid ascendancy of Rivers attracted the attention of 1st district Congressman Thomas S. McMillan who became worried when Rivers requested papers from the state Democratic secretary in 1936 to run for office. McMillan arranged a meeting with Rivers and offered him a position as a Special Assistant to the Attorney General of the United States. Rivers accepted and worked throughout the South collecting unpaid criminal fines and forfeited bail bonds.


=== 1940 election ===
On September 29, 1939, McMillan died and Rivers immediately made plans to run for Congress. He quit his federal job in February 1940 and opened a law practice in Charleston to provide a base for his campaign. His opponent in the Democratic primary was Alfred von Kolnitz, who had the backing of the Charleston political establishment and Thomas McMillan's widow, Clara. Rivers knew that he was not going to win the vote in Charleston, so he tried to maximize his vote outside of Charleston by making the theme of his campaign about the chicanery of the city. Furthermore, with World War II raging in Europe, Rivers played up von Kolnitz's German name to make him appear as if a Nazi sympathizer. He was aided in this effort by the fact that von Kolnitz was outspokenly antisemitic, and was in favor of isolationism (von Kolnitz advocated that the U.S. not help the United Kingdom in the British war effort against the Nazis). On August 27, Rivers won the Democratic primary election by running up a huge margin in the counties outside of Charleston, which offset his loss in Charleston County. In those days, victory in the Democratic primary was tantamount to election in South Carolina, and Rivers took office on January 3, 1941. Making good on his pro-British campaign rhetoric, Rivers voted in favor of the first Lend Lease Act in 1941 to lend material military aid to the British Army and Royal Navy, as well as food aid for British soldiers and civilians. He then voted to extend the lend lease act in 1944.


== Congressional career ==


=== Domestic legislation ===
Once in Congress, Rivers sought a seat on the Agriculture committee, but it was full and he was instead placed on the Merchant Marine and Fisheries committee. In March, he was appointed to the Naval Affairs committee which was later combined with the Military Affairs committee to form the House Armed Services Committee. His first legislative success was in 1942 when he authored a bill to build an oil pipeline from Mississippi to the Southeast coast to reduce the transportation costs of the product. The bill was passed by Congress and signed by President Roosevelt, but Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes refused to construct the pipeline because of the opposition by Big Oil.
Rivers's first major success was the repeal of the federal tax on colored oleomargarine. The tax was first implemented because margarine was a much cheaper substitute of butter which threatened the interests of the dairy farmers. When Rivers first introduced the bill in 1944 to repeal the tax, it was vigorously opposed by Midwestern Representatives and the bill died in the agriculture committee. Undeterred, Rivers reintroduced the bill every year and made so many speeches in favor of the repeal of the tax that he was nicknamed ""Oleo"" Rivers. In 1949, he circulated a petition in the House to force the bill out of the agriculture committee and to the full House for a vote. The bill passed the House and then the Senate and was signed into law by President Truman in 1950. The manufacturers of margarine were forever grateful to Rivers and sent him complimentary boxes of oleo until the day he died.


=== Views regarding race ===
Like most South Carolinian Democrats from his era, Rivers, who became of member of the Citizens' Councils, was an ardent segregationist. Rivers and the entire South Carolina delegation signed the Southern Manifesto in 1956. Rivers voted against the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968 as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Rivers attempted to have Charleston federal district court judge J. Waties Waring impeached for having ruled that blacks had to be allowed to vote in the Democratic primary and that segregated schools were unconstitutional. In South Carolina in the 1940s the Democratic Party had all-white primary elections, which was contested in the court case Elmore v. Rice where George Elmore was represented by Harold Boulware and Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP. Judge Waring ruled in favor of Elmore in 1947, but the ruling was rebuffed by South Carolina outside of Richland County. In a second case Brown v. Baskin (1948), Judge Waring once again ruled that the South Carolina Democratic Party must hold primaries that are ""freely open to all parties... without discrimination of race, color or creed."" Judge Waring was eventually forced to leave South Carolina after his dissenting opinion in Briggs v. Elliot (1951), which challenged segregation in public schools, eventually becoming one of five cases that was seen by the U.S. Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education. Despite Rivers' fundraising campaign against him, Judge Waring was not impeached, but he eventually moved to New York to continue his work as a federal judge where he died in 1968. Judge Waring was buried in Magnolia Cemetery on Meeting Street in Charleston and his funeral was attended by more than 200 blacks and less than a dozen whites. When President Truman integrated the U.S. Army in 1948, Rivers called him a ""dead chicken"" and a ""bankrupt politician"". Rivers was so incensed by Truman that he supported Strom Thurmond in the 1948 Presidential election. After Truman's victory, he lost his patronage privileges and was lucky to retain his seat on the Armed Services Committee.
Rivers attended the 1952 Democratic National Convention and believed that Adlai Stevenson would reverse the policies of Truman by returning to traditional Democratic principles. However, Rivers became disillusioned with Stevenson and he openly supported Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower in the 1952 Presidential election because he said that he would be sensitive to Southern concerns. Rivers's long-held distrust of Republicans was reinforced shortly after Eisenhower became president when he ordered the desegregation of all schools on military bases and did not grant Rivers patronage privileges, despite Rivers being the only Democrat to support Eisenhower in 1952. Eisenhower's continual push for integration infuriated Rivers. When asked if he would back Eisenhower again in 1956, Rivers later claimed to have responded ""Hell no! Ain't no education in the second kick of a mule.""
In the 1960s, Rivers softened his vocal opposition to civil rights legislation. He had risen in the ranks and his power in the House depended upon the continual support of national Democrats. Rivers shifted his approach from defending segregation to the maintenance of law and order. He found a kindred spirit in George Wallace and he attended one of Wallace's fundraising dinners in 1968. Wallace asked Rivers in July to be his running mate for the 1968 Presidential election, but Rivers dared not risk losing his chairmanship of the House Armed Services Committee and declined the offer.


=== House Armed Services Chairman ===

Rivers became the chairman of the House Armed Services Committee in 1965 following the retirement of Carl Vinson. Upon moving into the Rayburn House Office Building, Rivers placed a plaque of Article 1, Section 8 of the United States Constitution that specified the role of the legislative process with the military. He felt that the Congress should not delegate its powers to the President nor the Secretary of Defense, and that a vigorous Congress would make the President perform his job better. As Rivers inspected the committee room, he became incensed when he discovered there were cloakrooms adjoining the chamber for use by Democratic and Republican Party members to discuss their strategies. Viewing national defense as a non-partisan issue, Rivers had the cloakrooms turned into offices.
By the time Rivers became the chairman, he was well known for being a strong supporter of the American military in general, and of enlisted military service members in particular. In 1963 he established, through the vehicle of the House–Senate Conference Committee, the principle of linking military retired pay to increases in the Consumer Price Index (CPI), similar to the practice for retired federal civil servants. In 1964 he championed the cause of ""hospital rights,"" guaranteeing medical care in military hospitals for military retirees and their dependents.
After becoming chairman, in 1965 he helped secure the first military pay raise since 1952, despite opposition from the Secretary of Defense McNamara and President Johnson. Rivers was instrumental in establishing the additional enlisted pay grade of E-9, and he helped secure mobile home allowances and cheap air fares for soldiers returning from Vietnam.
Rivers strongly supported the constant upgrading of US military preparedness, regardless of the cost. He supported making all US Navy ships nuclear powered, and he championed development of the US Air Force's C-5A Galaxy military airlift jet, despite huge cost overruns. In his last speech to his colleagues in the US House of Representatives on December 7, 1970, delivered just before he departed for Birmingham, Alabama to have heart surgery, he stated, ""While we debate the question of maintaining our military capability, the Soviet Union forges ahead. We seem hell-bent on national suicide....We cannot as a nation afford to spend one penny less on national defense than that amount which is required to insure that you and I, and our children, can convince the Soviets they dare not pull the trigger when a Soviet gun is placed against our heads.""
In that same speech, he delivered the quote for which he is best remembered: ""The final measure of our ability to survive as a nation in a hostile world will not be how well we have managed our domestic resources and domestic programs, but whether or not we have avoided and frustrated the forces of evil which would draw us into the crucible of war with the Soviet Union. If we fail in that endeavor, we will have failed in everything.""


=== Vietnam War, and cover-up of My Lai massacre ===
Rivers was initially skeptical of the administration's escalation of the Vietnam War and its decision to send combat troops to Vietnam, but later became one of the strongest Congressional supporters of the war. He enjoyed referring to himself as ""The Granddaddy of the War Hawks."" He urged the President to use nuclear weapons against the North Vietnamese and to invade and occupy Hanoi, and once said that the United States should ""flatten Hanoi and tell world opinion to go fly a kite.""
During a Congressional investigation of the 1968 My Lai massacre, Rivers criticized Army helicopter pilot CW2 (later Major) Hugh Thompson, Jr. for giving the order to his men to fire upon American soldiers at Mỹ Lai if they continued to shoot unarmed Vietnamese civilians, calling him a traitor and saying he should be prosecuted. Rivers was unable to believe that American soldiers would do such a thing and denied that any massacre ever happened. He attempted to protect Army 2nd Lt. William Calley, later convicted of 22 killings at Mỹ Lai, by quickly holding hearings of his subcommittee on Mỹ Lai. He called every major witness to the event (including Thompson) before the subcommittee, and then refused to release the transcripts of the testimony. This meant that military prosecutors would be prohibited from calling those persons as witnesses at Calley's court martial.  For this, Rivers is remembered as a Congressman who tried to cover up a massacre in the Vietnam war and court-martial the man who stopped it.


== Death and burial ==

In November 1970, Rivers was elected to his 16th term in Congress. He died of heart failure in Birmingham, Alabama, on December 28, 1970. It was 17 days after he had undergone surgery to replace a leaking mitral valve at the University of Alabama Hospital.  He was buried at St. Stephen Episcopal Church Cemetery in St. Stephen, South Carolina.


== Personal life ==
Rivers married Margaret Middleton (called Marguerite by Mendel, but Marwee by family and friends) on September 1, 1938. They had first met in 1930 at Camp Kanuga, near Hendersonville, North Carolina. Mendel had impressed Marwee by being elected Best Boy Camper, although he was a 24-year-old law student. The couple had three children: Peggy in 1939, Marion in 1943, and Mendel Jr. in 1947.
Rivers belonged to the Episcopal Church. In fraternal societies, he was a member of the Freemasons (Landmark Lodge No. 76, A.F.M.), the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, and the Exchange Club. He was an enthusiast of boxing, and was friends with both Jack Dempsey and Gene Tunney. He enjoyed playing baseball and he batted well over .300 in the Congressional Baseball Games.
According to journalists, Rivers struggled with alcoholism for much of his life. He was said to be the ""binger"" variety of alcoholic, one who is generally sober but relapses periodically. Washington syndicated columnist Drew Pearson called him a ""security risk"" because of this. He devoted eight pages to Rivers in his book The Case Against Congress (1968).


== Honors ==
In 1948, a stretch of highway, from the crossing of U.S. Route 78 over Meeting Street (known as the Five-Mile Viaduct) to where U.S. Route 52 meets the Berkeley County line, was named as Rivers Avenue. Rivers had been key in getting funds from Congress to pave it as the first four-lane road in North Charleston.
In 1964 the town of St. Stephen held a day-long celebration for Rivers, naming as Mendel Rivers Road the secondary road that ran from St. Stephen's Episcopal Church to his childhood home.
In 1964 a seven-story office building, located across Meeting Street from Marion Square, was informally named the L. Mendel Rivers Federal Building. It was later adapted as a hotel.
The L. Mendel Rivers Elementary School in Altus, Oklahoma was named for Rivers because he prevented the Altus Air Force Base from being closed.
Charleston Southern University honored Rivers's support of the institution by naming its college library as the L. Mendel Rivers Library in October 1970.
US soldiers referred to a road in Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam as called the Mendel Rivers Parkway. Soldiers gave Rivers a captured Viet Cong carbine that he prominently displayed in his office. For obtaining reduced air fares for soldiers on furlough, they gave him a cap with six stars and ""The Big Boss"" inscribed on it, indicating that Rivers outranked all military officials.
After his death, in 1971 the Navy honored him by naming a submarine USS L. Mendel Rivers (SSN-686).
Friends of Rivers raised funds to create a small park in downtown Charleston and commissioned a bust of him to be placed adjacent to the O.T. Wallace County Office Building.
Rivers was named as one of the ""Magnificent Ten Charlestonians Who Shaped the 20th Century"" by Charleston Magazine in December 1999 for his success in expanding the military in his congressional district.


== See also ==
NASCAR National Commissioner
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1950–99)


== Notes ==


== References ==
Ravenel, Marion Rivers (1995). Rivers Delivers. Wyrick & Company. ISBN 0-941711-24-2.
Rivers, Margaret Middleton; Margaret M.R. Eastman; L. Mendel Rivers Jr (2007). Mendel & Me: Life With Congressman L. Mendel Rivers. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-288-8.


== External links ==
United States Congress. ""L. Mendel Rivers (id: R000280)"". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
The Citadel Archives: L. Rivers Mendel Collection"
Bully (mascot),"Bully is the official mascot of the Mississippi State University Bulldogs in Starkville, Mississippi, and the name is given to both the costumed mascot and the live bulldog that appears at State games. The live mascot Bully is an American Kennel Club registered English Bulldog, and each dog is given the inherited title of ""Bully"". The name ""Bully"" is traditionally considered a title and not the official name of the specific dog that holds it.


== Association with the Bulldog ==
Mississippi State's athletics teams have had a variety of different nicknames throughout the years. The teams were called the ""Aggies,"" as a reference to the school's agricultural roots as Mississippi A&M College. When the school officially became Mississippi State College in 1932, the teams adopted the nickname ""Maroons,"" as that was the color of their uniforms. ""Bulldogs"" became the official nickname for State teams after the school was granted university status in 1961, but use of the nickname dates back to at least 1905.


== Ptolemy ==
In 1935, Mississippi State head football coach Major Ralph Sasse acquired an English Bulldog in an effort to inspire his team. The dog was named ""Ptolemy"" (after the Greek mathematician and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy), and was affectionately nicknamed ""Tol."" The dog was ""rented"" from the Edgar Webster family in Memphis to serve as the team's mascot.
After Tol's arrival, Mississippi State defeated both Army (a college football powerhouse during that era) and Alabama. After the team posted an 8–3 record, State fans agreed that bringing on a mascot had been a good move, so Joe Rice Dockery (an alumnus and the proprietor of Dockery Farms), bought a bulldog named ""Bully,"" a littermate of Ptolemy, and presented him to the school as a gift.


== Bully ==
Ptolemy's littermate became the first mascot called ""Bully"" shortly after Sasse's team beat mighty Army 13–7 at West Point that same year, perhaps the greatest victory in MSU football history. But Bully (retroactively named ""Bully I"") earned other fame the hard way, in November 1939 when he was struck and killed by a campus bus. The students held a funeral for Bully that so elaborate that it was covered by LIFE magazine. Bully I was buried under the bench at the Scott Field 50-yard line.

Bully II (""Beau Legg"", 1939–1940) was donated by Jayn Legg of Gulfport and served as mascot from 1939 until 1940, even presiding over an Orange Bowl win during his tenure, until he too met a tragic end after being struck by a bus. An elaborate funeral was also held in his honor, and he was interred at Hull Hall facing College Drive.
Bully III (1942) was donated to Mississippi State by J.W. Parker of West Point in March 1942, but little information exists as to his tenure as mascot, as he is never mentioned again after the July 1942 edition of The Reflector.
Bully IV (""Big Dog on Campus,"" 1942–?), called ""B-Dog"" for short, was purchased from Webster Kennels (the same kennel that bred Ptolemy and Bully I) in August 1942, but no record exists as to how long he served as mascot.
Bully V was a brindle bulldog purchased in July 1945 from a Greenwood resident by then-student body president David L. Cline. Despite his mascot status, the student newspaper was running advertisements to find him a home by January 1946. He served as mascot through March 1947 and died in 1951 due to ""lack of exercise."" He ended his tenure with a 14-5 (.736) overall record.
Bully VI was represented by two dogs. Mississippi State Athletics purchased one of the dogs (""Bully VI-A"") from Sid Parker of West Point in September 1947 to serve as the mascot for the varsity football team. Similarly to Bully IV, he was named ""Big Dog on Campus,"" but was affectionately known as ""BDOC"" for short. He was the first Mississippi State bulldog mascot to be ""dog-napped""; prior to their game in October 1951, University of Georgia students dognapped Bully, but Mississippi State would persevere and win the football game 6–0. Photos from the Reveille yearbook show this Bully pulling on his leash, lunging toward opponent mascots including LSU's Mike the Tiger, the Baylor bear, and Alabama's live elephant Alamite. The other dog representing Bully VI (""Bully VI-B"") was bought from Oklahoma City Kennels and given to the school as a gift in November 1947. This Bully served as the freshman team's mascot until BDOC's death in 1951, at which point Bully VI-B took over mascot duties for both the freshman and varsity teams through May 1952. The overall record for Bully VI (for both dogs) was a combined 19-25-2 (.431).
Bully VII (""Mr. Muggs"") was a white bulldog provided in September 1953 by student Billy Underwood, who lived in Philadelphia. Due to repeated dog-nappings by students from rival schools Ole Miss and Southern Miss, he was allowed to return to Philadelphia with Underwood on the weekends as a protective measure. He served as mascot until November 1956.
Bully VIII was a dark brindle bulldog donated to Mississippi State by Alex Dittler of Atlanta through the Mack Trucks company. According to the Reveille, he is said to have lived the ""longest, most neglected life of all Bullys."" He was dognapped in 1958 by Ole Miss students, who painted him in red and blue lead-based paint and turned him loose at the Ole Miss-Mississippi State basketball game in Oxford. He almost died after being exposed to the lead paint, but he would survive and serve as mascot through 1964. He also presided over the team when Mississippi State College became ""Mississippi State University,"" as well as when the teams officially became known as the ""Bulldogs,"" in 1961. He also presided over the Bulldogs' 1963 Liberty Bowl victory over North Carolina State, which was also the first nationally televised game in school history. Upon his death, he was buried by the MSU Band Hall.
Bully IX (""Joker"") was purchased by Lambda Chi Alpha in 1964. After it had been discovered that predecessor Bully VIII suffered a history of neglect, the fraternity assumed responsibility in taking care of the mascot and would oversee these duties until 1974. Joker served as mascot from 1964 to 1966.
Bully X (""Sergeant Mac"") was the second mascot to serve under the care of the MSU Lambdas. This brindle bulldog served from 1967 until 1972, when he was fatally struck by a car on University Drive just before 1972 Homecoming.
Bully XI (""Rebel"") was borrowed from a MSU alumnus to serve for a few games in 1972 after Bully X's death.
Bully XII (""Teeway's Romeo""), nicknamed ""Romeo,"" was purchased by Lambda Chi Alpha shortly after Bully X's death, but he was ""murdered"" following the 1972 season. The perpetrators were never identified.
Bully XIII was also served by two dogs, a mother and son duo, both purchased in 1974 in Jackson. Bully XIII-A, named ""Trajan,"" was the son, and he served from 1974 to 1975. He was once dognapped by Ole Miss students, but he was returned unharmed when the UM students discovered that he was undergoing treatment for stomach cancer. He would sire Bully XIV. Bully XIII-B, ""Sissy,"" was Trajan's mother and the only female Bully in Mississippi State history. She too was dognapped by Ole Miss students, but was recovered when a female UM student tried to smuggle her into the Egg Bowl. Sissy served as mascot from 1974 to 1975, but would continue making infrequent appearances on the sideline with her grandson, Champ (""Bully XIV""), through 1977. The dogs that represented Bully XIII presided over State's 1974 Sun Bowl win over North Carolina.
Bully XIV (""Champion Bully of MSU""), called ""Champ,"" was a piebald bulldog sired by Trajan through Molly, a bulldog owned by Mrs. Frazier Thompson, Jr. of Bentonia. He served as mascot from 1976 through 1982. A second bulldog, Bully XIV-B, served from 1985 to 1991. He presided over an upset of then-#1 ranked Alabama in 1980, a trip to the Sun Bowl, and a victory in the 1981 Hall of Fame Classic against the Kansas Jayhawks.
Bully XV (""Little Bully"") served during the 1991 and 1992 seasons. He was bred by Dr. Joe G. Martin, owner and veterinarian at Martin Kennels of Ripley. Retired in 1992, Little Bully died in 1994 and was cremated. His ashes were scattered at Scott Field.
Bully XVI (""Replica of Corker""), known as ""Corker,"" was a piebald brindle bulldog bred by Whitley Wilson of Eupora and served as mascot from 1992 to 1994. This bulldog sired the present-day line of Bully mascots.
Bully XVII (""Lucky Be Happy""), called ""Lucky,"" was a fawn-colored bulldog that was sired by Corker and served as mascot from 1995 to 1998.
Bully XVIII (""Dontae"") was donated by alumnus Greg Daly of Flowood in 1998. Dontae served as mascot from 1998 until 1999.


=== Bully XIX (""Tonka"") ===

""Tonka"" was the 19th English bulldog to assume the role of official mascot. Born in Waynesboro in 2000, Tonka is a descendant of Bully XVI (""Corker"") and Bully XVII (""Lucky"") and was registered by the American Kennel Club as ""Mississippi's TaTonka Gold."" Unlike his predecessors, Tonka was the first bulldog mascot owned by the university and trained into the role from the time he was 8 weeks old.
In 2006, he sired Bully XX (""Champ""), who took over his father's duties as MSU's mascot in September 2009 and served until April 18, 2015. Tonka died on June 28, 2011, at the age of 11.


=== Bully XX (""Champ"") ===
""Champ"" was the 20th English bulldog to serve as the official mascot of Mississippi State University. Champ was sired by TaTonka Gold (Bully XIX) on September 24, 2006. He was registered by the American Kennel Club under the name ""TaTonka's Golden Sun."" In October 2014, Champ sired the next Mississippi State mascot, Bully XXI (Jak), who assumed mascot duties following the Maroon and White Spring Game on April 18, 2015. Champ retired with an overall record of 46-31 (.597), featuring wins in the Gator Bowl, Music City Bowl, and Liberty Bowl during his tenure, as well as a trip to the Orange Bowl and the first #1 poll ranking ever achieved by Mississippi State football. Champ died on August 21, 2016.


=== Bully XXI (""Jak"") ===
Jak was the 21st English Bulldog to serve as the official mascot of Mississippi State University. His formal name is ""Cristil's Golden Prince"" named in honor of the long-time radio voice Jack Cristil. Jak was sired by ""Champ"" (Bully XX) in October 2014. He took over for Champ on Saturday, April 18, 2015, at the Maroon and White spring football game.


=== Bully XXII (""Dak"") ===
Dak is the 22nd English Bulldog to serve as the official mascot of Mississippi State University. His formal name is ""Mississippi State Gold N Son Prescott"", nicknamed, ""Dak"". In late March 2023, Mississippi State University announced the next English Bulldog in the line of live mascots. Taking his name from previous Mississippi State quarterback & current Dallas Cowboys quarterback Dak Prescott, ""Dak"" (Bully XXII) took over mascot duties from the current mascot ""Jak"" (Bully XXI) on April 15, 2023, at halftime of the 2023 Spring Football game during Super Bulldog Weekend. The ceremony included the ""passing of the harness"" and blessing ceremony. ""Dak"" was born March 1, 2021 and is owned by Julie & Bruce Martin of Meridian, MS. ""He is very playful. He wants to be around other people,"" said Julie Martin, his owner. ""He will exhaust himself, actually, to just go to every single person."" Whether roaming the sidelines at Davis Wade Stadium, soaking in the sights and sounds at The Dude, or guarding the baseline at The Hump, “Dak” looks forward to looking out onto the sea of maroon and white for MSU sporting events, living out any Bulldog’s dream. He is proud to represent Mississippi State University and one of the Bulldogs’ greatest football players by continuing one of MSU’s greatest traditions.


== Costumed Bully ==
The first costumed mascot appeared at Mississippi State during the 1964–1965 school year. By 1971, a more professional costume was created and the character was, like the live bulldog, called ""Bully."" Throughout the early 1970s, Bully was a white bulldog with a brindled patch around one of his eyes and a spiked collar around his neck.
By the mid-1970s, Bully's look changed again so that he had dark brown fur and no collar. In 1980, a more cartoonish Bully graced the sidelines at Mississippi State games, one that looks similar to the one seen in the present day. During the early 1980s, he typically wore a tank top and/or maroon or white shorts if wearing any clothes at all, but as years passed, he more frequently wore Mississippi State's uniform for whatever sport he was appearing at.
Today, Bully's team consists of six students plus an alternate. Each Bully receives $800 per semester scholarship for their first year and $1,000 per semester scholarship for each additional year as a team member, as well as camp clothes, camp fees, mascot uniforms and travel expenses.
Beginning the 2008–2009 school year, Mississippi State added a Bully mascot to its Meridian campus. The Meridian campus Bully also attends UCA College Mascot camp and receives camp clothes, a mascot uniform, and a $150 per semester scholarship.
Bully gained national attention in 2013 after being struck by an ESPN cart during that season's Egg Bowl game between Mississippi State and Ole Miss. The student wearing the suit had to be carted off the field on a stretcher and subsequently underwent two surgeries for a compound fracture. The student later sued ESPN and Mississippi State for more than $75,000 in damages, claiming negligence on the part of ESPN and the university.


== See also ==
List of individual dogs


== References =="
Donald Don,"Donald McKenzie Don (17 August 1900 – 31 May 1982) was an Australian rules footballer who played in the Victorian Football League (VFL) between 1917 and 1928 for the Richmond Football Club. He played in both the 1920 and 1921 Richmond premiership teams.


== Family ==
The seventh, and last child of Collingwood-born Robert Balfour Don (1862–1941), and Tasmanian Johanna Mary Frances ""Annie"" Don (1858–1948), born Guppy, who along with a number of her siblings later assumed the family name James, Donald McKenzie Don was born at Collingwood, Victoria, on 17 August 1900.
He married Matilda Maud Goodfellow (1900–1968), at St. Michael's Church of England, at Prince's Hill, on 30 June 1925. They had two children. One of his sons, Kenneth Robert McKenzie Don (1926–2014), tried out with Richmond in 1945.


== Football ==


=== Richmond (VFL) ===
Recruited from a local church football team, Don made his debut, at the age of 16,  against Fitzroy, at the Brunswick Street Oval, on 4 June 1917 as the resting forward-pocket rover, having already played in a torrid game two days earlier: 

""Don, a fair-haired boy from the Richmond United team, did fairly well up forward.More will be heard of him.On the previous Saturday he roved right through a very rough game at the City Reserve between the Surrey and Richmond United, and was quite the best man-on the ground.After playing such a hard game, he would hardly be in condition to do himself justice in a League match two days later, but he came out very well indeed."" — The Richmond Guardian, 9 June 1917.
He played in 158 games, and kicked 157 goals — the club's leading goal-kicker in 1918 (19 goals) and 1919 (31 goals) — for Richmond over 12 seasons. 

""He was a skilful, talented player who knew where the goals were when playing on the forward line.Although not a tall player [at 5ft 9in], he was a fine mark, glorious long drop kick and relied on anticipation rather than pace to win the ball.""  — Paul Hogan, The Tigers of Old (1996).
Originally selected as a rover, once Vic Thorp had retired, he became a champion full-back.

""When Richmond had their great premiership sides of 1920 and 1921 in full swing young Don was a valuable member of the side.The first ruck consisted of Bernie Herbert, Dave Moffatt and Clarrie Hall, who were three grand players.Then the second ruck, consisting of Dan Minogue, Hughie James and Donald Don, was little, if at all, inferior to the first ruck.Don was a strong, tenacious rover who had great stamina.He also had speed and was clever when in possession of the ball, as he could turn quickly and kick accurately over distances or when passing.. . .When he was disqualified by the Tribunal, Don was inclined to give the game up.He felt that he had had enough, and it was only the repeated persuasions of the Richmond committeemen which induced him to change his mind.In addition to roving and playing forward he figured prominently across the centreline when played there.The retirement of that great full-back, Victor Thorpe [sic], was a big blow to Richmond, and they were somewhat dubious as to the possibility of filling his position satisfactorily.Hitherto Don had felt a great dislike for the full-back position, and once refused to play there.In 1927, however, he conceived a strong liking for the position, and began practising there.His good kicking and sound judgment soon fitted him admirably for the position, and Richmond selectors had no hesitation in placing him full-back."" — The Sporting Globe, 28 April 1928.


=== VFL Representative ===
He played at full-back for Victoria in the 13 August 1927 Carnival match against South Australia; and he was the full-back (and team vice-captain) of the representative VFL side that played against a combined Bendigo League team, at Bendigo, on 25 August 1928.


== Four Grand Finals ==

He played 10 Finals games, including four Grand Finals:

1919: as the resting forward-pocket rover in the Richmond team that lost the 1919 Grand Final 7.11 (53) to Collingwood's 11.12 (78) (he kicked 2 goals).
1920: on the half-forward flank for the Richmond team that beat Collingwood in the 1920 Grand Final 7.10 (52) to 5.5 (35) (he kicked 2 goals).
1921: on the half-forward flank for the Richmond team that beat Carlton in the 1921 Grand Final 5.6 (36) to 4.8 (32).
1924: unable to play in the Premiership matches in the 1924 ""Round Robin"" VFL Finals series due to his suspension.
1927: unable to play in the Richmond team that lost the 1927 Grand Final 1.7 (13) to Collingwood's 2.13 (25) — a match that was played in the atrocious conditions of torrential rain and freezing winds — due to a shoulder injury he had sustained when playing representative football for Victoria at the 1927 ANFC Carnival.
1928: as team captain, and full-back, for the Richmond team that lost the 1928 Grand Final 9.9 (63) to Collingwood's 13.18 (96).


== VFL Tribunal ==
Known to be ""a fiery player"" at times, he was controversially suspended twice in his career.


=== 8 October 1921 match (8 games) ===
As a consequence of a subsequent, official VFL investigation, that had been independently instigated by the secretary (and VFL delegate) of the rival Collingwood Football Club, Ernest Copeland — it is significant that Don had not been reported by any of the match officials on the day of the match — Don was suspended for eight games following an incident during the first quarter of the 1921 Preliminary Finals game, against Carlton, on 8 October 1921, in which Carlton's Jack Greenhill had been knocked unconscious.


=== 21 June 1924 match (""remainder of the season"": 11 games) ===
Following an incident in third quarter of the rough, spiteful, and congested match against Carlton, at Princes Park, on 21 June 1924 — Richmond 5.8 (38) to Carlton's 3.19 (28) — in which he had scored 3 of the team's 5 goals, Don was reported for charging Carlton's full-forward, Newton Chandler.
Two others were reported in the match: Richmond's Reuben Reid was reported for two offences, for charging Carlton's Horrie Clover, and for charging Carlton's Alex Duncan; and Alex Duncan was reported for three offences, for kicking Richmond's George Rudolph, for striking Reuben Reid, and for ""making an offensive motion towards Boundary Umpire Johnson"" — the match report noted that ""at times the game was little better than a scramble, the bumping heavy, and not always fair, and though three players have been reported, it would have occasioned no surprise if at least two others had to face the investigative tribunal"".
The tribunal hearing took place on 26 June 1924, under the chairmanship of VFL President (and Carlton delegate) Walter Baldwin Spencer, assisted by the St Kilda delegate, Harry Duigan, and the former champion athlete, George Allen Moir. Reid was disqualified for three games for charging Clover, and was exonerated of the offence of charging Duncan; to the astonishment of many, Duncan was found not guilty of all three charges; in contrast, however, Don was (inexplicably, in light of the conflicting evidence presented) found to be guilty of charging Chandler, and ""in view of the fact that he had been previously disqualified [the Tribunal determined that] he would have to stand down for the rest of the season"".
Although it had two more scoring shots, Richmond lost to South Melbourne, 5.13 (43) to 9.7 (61), at the Lake Oval, on the Saturday immediately following Don's disqualification (i.e., 28 June 1924).


== Aftermath ==


=== Don's Letter ===
On 30 June, the Melbourne Herald published an open letter from Don, dated Saturday, 28 June, in which he announced that, as a consequence of the ""injustice"" of the Tribunal's characterisation of himself as ""a vicious and ruthless player"", and from the fact that it seemed that the Richmond Football Club, rather than himself alone, had also been on trial and, also, that ""it was quite evident . . . [from the fact that] in less than a minute the verdict was announced . . . that their minds were made up before any evidence was given"", he had ""definitely decided to take no further part in any match whilst football is governed by the present tribunal"".


=== Richmond Football Club ===
At the Tuesday, 1 July 1924 meeting of the Richmond Football Club Committee — i.e., subsequent to both the Tribunal's decision and the publication of Don's letter — there was ""long discussion . . . in regard to the severe treatment meted out to some of its players by the League tribunal and the Umpire and Permit Committee"". Having accepted the fact that the publication of Don's letter had made any appeal for the re-hearing of his case ""inadvisable"", the committee passed the following resolution, a copy of which was also sent on to both Don and to the tribunal:

""That in the opinion of this committee Donald Don was entirely innocent of the charge laid against him in the recent Carlton v. Richmond match, and for which he was disqualified.""


=== Public opinion ===
There was certainly strong basis for the widely-held views that Richmond had not only been harshly treated by the VFL, but, also (when compared with other VFL clubs), had been treated extremely unfairly — especially in the context of the 1921 Tribunal's extraordinary decision to investigate an unreported incident at the behest of the Collingwood delegate, and its subsequent determination of Don's guilt, and the severity (8 games) of his sentence — and, in particular, in the following ways over the immediately preceding 8 days:

(1) the Permit Committee's outright refusal, on 18 June and 25 June 1924, to endorse the willingly-granted-by-Carlton clearances of three ex-Carlton footballers, now resident in Richmond's territory, George Bolt, Bert Boromeo, and Jack Morrissey, to Richmond.
(2) the Permit Committee's inexplicable and unjust decision, on 25 June 1924 — Paul Hogan (1996, p.135) is most emphatic that this was entirely due to Carlton's Horrie Clover ""[having] discovered that [Maxfield] had lived in Carlton's zone, when playing with Northcote in 1921"" — to de-register the brilliant ""Snowy Maxfield"" (see: Maxfield's VFL permit cancelled).
(3) the Tribunal's unreasonable and extraordinary decision, on 26 June 1924, in relation to both the determination of Don's guilt and the severity of his ""remainder of season"" sentence.
and, from this, it is not fanciful to suppose that, had Bolt, Boromeo, Don, Maxfield, and Morrissey been available for selection, a far stronger Richmond team would not have been the ""runner-up"" in the ""Round Robin"" contest for the 1924 VFL Premiership, but would have been the 1924 premiers.


=== ""Old Boy"" ===
In two separate pieces published in the Melbourne Argus of the morning of 4 July 1924, the eminent and well-respected football authority and journalist, Reginald Wilmot, known as ""Old Boy"", addressed the issues raised by the cases of Don and Maxfield.
He wrote that, in his view, and in relation to the VFL's treatment of both Maxfield and Don, it certainly was Richmond's ""bad luck"" to have had these ""two debatable decisions so close together"". Wilmot, who had been present at Maxfield's hearing, strongly felt that Maxfield — who ""had nothing to gain by suppressing information"" — had grounds for an appeal, and that his disqualification for, at least, the remainder of the 1924 season was ""very drastic"".
Applauding the ""temperate tone"" of the Richmond Committee's resolution in the ""Don Case"", he went on to vigorously question both the Don verdict and his  disqualification: ""In Don's case .  . . the crime—if crime there was—does not seem to fit the punishment"". He continued:

""I have heard on all sides regret that Don should have been disqualified, and not from Richmond people, but from supporters of other clubs, of Carlton especially. So strong is the feeling that Carlton supporters are indignant, and I am told Carlton players, and Chandler himself, who was supposed to have been charged [by Don], were astounded when they heard the verdict.In these circumstances [and given the decision of the Richmond Football Club not to lodge an appeal] it would be a graceful and sportsmanlike action for Carlton people to approach the tribunal, and ask for a reopening.""


=== ""Kickero"" ===
In the Melbourne Herald, that afternoon, the equally eminent and well-respected football authority and journalist, Tom Kelynack, known as ""Kickero"", whilst observing that, in combination, these three separate events, were a ""blow [that had fallen] on the club just at a time when the team had run into such improved form that it was winning matches"", also emphatically expressed his strong view that the Permit Committee had not been justified in its refusal to grant the clearances of Bolt, Boromeo, and Morrissey from Carlton to Richmond.


== Richmond Football Club Life Membership ==
He was awarded Life Membership of the Richmond Football Club in 1926.


== The Sporting Globe ==
Following his retirement from football at the end of the 1928 season, he was employed by The Sporting Globe as a regular member of its ""football staff""; and continued to report for it for, at least, 12 seasons (1929–1941).


== Death ==
He died at Fairfield, Victoria, on 31 May 1982.


== ""Hall of Fame"" ==
In 2015 he was inducted into the Richmond Football Club's ""Hall of Fame"".


== See also ==
1927 Melbourne Carnival


== Notes ==


== References ==
Hogan P: The Tigers of Old: A Complete History of Every Player to Represent the Richmond Football Club between 1908 and 1996, Richmond FC, (Melbourne), 1996. ISBN 0-646-18748-1
Ross, J. (ed), 100 Years of Australian Football 1897–1996: The Complete Story of the AFL, All the Big Stories, All the Great Pictures, All the Champions, Every AFL Season Reported, Viking, (Ringwood), 1996. ISBN 0-670-86814-0


== External links ==
Donald Don's playing statistics from AFL Tables
Donald Don at AustralianFootball.com"
Heavy metals,"Heavy metals is a controversial and ambiguous term for metallic elements with relatively high densities, atomic weights, or atomic numbers. The criteria used, and whether metalloids are included, vary depending on the author and context and it has been argued that the term ""heavy metal"" should be avoided. A heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density, atomic number or chemical behaviour. More specific definitions have been published, none of which have been widely accepted. The definitions surveyed in this article encompass up to 96 out of the 118 known chemical elements; only mercury, lead and bismuth meet all of them. Despite this lack of agreement, the term (plural or singular) is widely used in science. A density of more than 5 g/cm3 is sometimes quoted as a commonly used criterion and is used in the body of this article.
The earliest-known metals—common metals such as iron, copper, and tin, and precious metals such as silver, gold, and platinum—are heavy metals. From 1809 onward, light metals, such as magnesium, aluminium, and titanium, were discovered, as well as less well-known heavy metals including gallium, thallium, and hafnium.
Some heavy metals are either essential nutrients (typically iron, cobalt, copper and zinc), or relatively harmless (such as ruthenium, silver and indium), but can be toxic in larger amounts or certain forms. Other heavy metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead, are highly poisonous. Potential sources of heavy metal poisoning include mining, tailings, smelting, industrial waste, agricultural runoff, occupational exposure, paints and treated timber.
Physical and chemical characterisations of heavy metals need to be treated with caution, as the metals involved are not always consistently defined. As well as being relatively dense, heavy metals tend to be less reactive than lighter metals and have far fewer soluble sulfides and hydroxides. While it is relatively easy to distinguish a heavy metal such as tungsten from a lighter metal such as sodium, a few heavy metals, such as zinc, mercury, and lead, have some of the characteristics of lighter metals; and lighter metals such as beryllium, scandium, and titanium, have some of the characteristics of heavier metals.
Heavy metals are relatively rare in the Earth's crust but are present in many aspects of modern life. They are used in, for example, golf clubs, cars, antiseptics, self-cleaning ovens, plastics, solar panels, mobile phones, and particle accelerators.


== Definitions ==


=== Controversial terminology ===
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which standardizes nomenclature, says ""the  term heavy  metals is both meaningless and misleading"". The IUPAC report focuses on the legal and toxicological implications of describing ""heavy metals"" as toxins when there is no scientific evidence to support a connection. The density implied by the adjective ""heavy""  has almost no biological consequences and pure metals are rarely the biologically active substance.
This characterization has been echoed by numerous reviews. The most widely used toxicology textbook, Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology uses ""toxic metal"", not ""heavy metal"". Nevertheless, there are scientific and science related articles which continue to use ""heavy metal"" as a term for toxic substances. To be an acceptable term in scientific papers, a strict definition has been encouraged.


=== Use outside toxicology ===
Even in applications other than toxicity, there no widely agreed criterion-based definition of a heavy metal. Reviews have recommended that it not be used. Different meanings may be attached to the term, depending on the context. For example, a heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density, the distinguishing criterion might be atomic number or chemical behaviour.
Density criteria range from above 3.5 g/cm3 to above 7 g/cm3. Atomic weight definitions can range from greater than sodium (atomic weight 22.98); greater than 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals, hence starting with scandium); or more than 200, i.e. from mercury onwards. Atomic numbers are sometimes capped at 92 (uranium). Definitions based on atomic number have been criticised for including metals with low densities. For example, rubidium in group (column) 1 of the periodic table has an atomic number of 37 but a density of only 1.532 g/cm3, which is below the threshold figure used by other authors. The same problem may occur with definitions which are based on atomic weight.

The United States Pharmacopeia includes a test for heavy metals that involves precipitating metallic impurities as their coloured sulfides.  On the basis of this type of chemical test, the group would include the transition metals and post-transition metals.
A different chemistry-based approach advocates replacing the term ""heavy metal"" with two groups of metals and a gray area. Class A metal ions prefer oxygen donors; class B ions prefer nitrogen or sulfur donors; and borderline or ambivalent ions show either class A or B characteristics, depending on the circumstances. The distinction between the class A metals and the other two categories is sharp. The class A and class B terminology is analogous to the ""hard acid"" and ""soft base"" terminology sometimes used to refer to the behaviour of metal ions in inorganic systems. The system groups the elements by 
  
    
      
        
          X
          
            m
          
          
            2
          
        
        r
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{m}^{2}r}
  
 where 
  
    
      
        
          X
          
            m
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle X_{m}}
  
 is the metal ion  electronegativity and 
  
    
      
        r
      
    
    {\displaystyle r}
  
 is its ionic radius. This index gauges the importance of covalent interactions vs ionic  interactions for a given metal ion. This scheme has been applied to analyze biologically active metals in sea water for example, but it has not been widely adopted.


== Origins and use of the term ==
The heaviness of naturally occurring metals such as gold, copper, and iron may have been noticed in prehistory and, in light of their malleability, led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons.
In 1817, the German chemist Leopold Gmelin divided the elements into nonmetals, light metals, and heavy metals. Light metals had densities of 0.860–5.0 g/cm3; heavy metals 5.308–22.000. The term heavy metal is sometimes used interchangeably with the term heavy element. For example, in discussing the history of nuclear chemistry, Magee notes that the actinides were once thought to represent a new heavy element transition group whereas Seaborg and co-workers ""favoured ... a heavy metal rare-earth like series ..."".
The counterparts to the heavy metals, the light metals, are defined by The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society as including ""the traditional (aluminium, magnesium, beryllium, titanium, lithium, and other reactive metals) and emerging light metals (composites, laminates, etc.)""


== Biological role ==

Trace amounts of some heavy metals, mostly in period 4, are required for certain biological processes. These are iron and copper (oxygen and electron transport); cobalt (complex syntheses and cell metabolism); vanadium and manganese (enzyme regulation or functioning); chromium (glucose utilisation); nickel (cell growth); arsenic (metabolic growth in some animals and possibly in humans) and selenium (antioxidant functioning and hormone production). Periods 5 and 6 contain fewer essential heavy metals, consistent with the general pattern that heavier elements tend to be less abundant and that scarcer elements are less likely to be nutritionally essential. In period 5, molybdenum is required for the catalysis of redox reactions; cadmium is used by some marine diatoms for the same purpose; and tin may be required for growth in a few species. In period 6, tungsten is required by some archaea and bacteria for metabolic processes. A deficiency of any of these period 4–6 essential heavy metals may increase susceptibility to heavy metal poisoning (conversely, an excess may also have adverse biological effects). 
An average 70 kg (150 lb) human body is about 0.01% heavy metals (~7 g (0.25 oz), equivalent to the weight of two dried peas, with iron at 4 g (0.14 oz), zinc at 2.5 g (0.088 oz), and lead at 0.12 g (0.0042 oz) comprising the three main constituents), 2% light metals (~1.4 kg (3.1 lb), the weight of a bottle of wine) and nearly 98% nonmetals (mostly water).
A few non-essential heavy metals have been observed to have biological effects. Gallium, germanium (a metalloid), indium, and most lanthanides can stimulate metabolism, and titanium promotes growth in plants (though it is not always considered a heavy metal).


== Toxicity ==

Heavy metals are often assumed to be highly toxic or damaging to the environment and while some are, certain others are toxic only when taken in excess or encountered in certain forms. Inhalation of certain metals, either as fine dust or most commonly as fumes, can also result in a condition called metal fume fever.


=== Environmental heavy metals ===
Chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead have the greatest potential to cause harm on account of their extensive use, the toxicity of some of their combined or elemental forms, and their widespread distribution in the environment. Hexavalent chromium, for example, is highly toxic as are mercury vapour and many mercury compounds. These five elements have a strong affinity for sulfur; in the human body they usually bind, via thiol groups (–SH), to enzymes responsible for controlling the speed of metabolic reactions. The resulting sulfur-metal bonds inhibit the proper functioning of the enzymes involved; human health deteriorates, sometimes fatally. Chromium (in its hexavalent form) and arsenic are carcinogens; cadmium causes a degenerative bone disease; and mercury and lead damage the central nervous system.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		

Lead is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant. Levels in the aquatic environments of industrialised societies have been estimated to be two to three times those of pre-industrial levels. As a component of tetraethyl lead, (CH3CH2)4Pb, it was used extensively in gasoline from the 1930s until the 1970s. Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations. Later research demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime in the United States; taking into account a 22-year time lag (for the average age of violent criminals), the violent crime curve virtually tracked the lead exposure curve.
Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage); cobalt and nickel (carcinogens); copper, zinc, selenium and silver (endocrine disruption, congenital disorders, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage); antimony (a suspected carcinogen); and thallium (central nervous system damage).


=== Other heavy metals ===
A few other non-essential heavy metals have one or more toxic forms. Kidney failure and fatalities have been recorded arising from the ingestion of germanium dietary supplements (~15 to 300 g in total consumed over a period of two months to three years). Exposure to osmium tetroxide (OsO4) may cause permanent eye damage and can lead to respiratory failure and death. Indium salts are toxic if more than few milligrams are ingested and will affect the kidneys, liver, and heart. Cisplatin (PtCl2(NH3)2), an important drug used to kill cancer cells, is also a kidney and nerve poison. Bismuth compounds can cause liver damage if taken in excess; insoluble uranium compounds, as well as the dangerous radiation they emit, can cause permanent kidney damage.


=== Exposure sources ===

Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality, and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities. Common sources of heavy metals in this context include vehicle emissions; motor oil; fertilisers; glassworking; incinerators; treated timber; aging water supply infrastructure; and microplastics floating in the world's oceans. Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease, in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016); the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil, high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint, Michigan, in the north-east of the United States and 2015 Hong Kong heavy metal in drinking water incidents.


== Formation, abundance, occurrence, and extraction ==

Heavy metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.
Heavier heavy metals are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy. Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower atomic number) by neutron capture, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process and the r-process. In the s-process (""s"" stands for ""slow""), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay, while in the r-process (""rapid""), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more or less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 30,000 times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on. In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two elements, polonium and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as thorium and uranium.
Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron star merger, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium. When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse, new stars and planets are formed.
The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up the other 95% of the crust. Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or other geological processes.
Heavy metals are found primarily as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile heavy metals are mainly f-block elements and the more reactive of the d-block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low density silicate minerals. Chalcophile heavy metals are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and period 4–6 p-block metals and metalloids. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.
In contrast, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metals, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively rare metal. Some other (less) noble heavy metals—molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle and crust), rather the crust. These metals otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form).
Concentrations of heavy metals below the crust are generally higher, with most being found in the largely iron-silicon-nickel core. Platinum, for example, comprises approximately 1 part per billion of the crust whereas its concentration in the core is thought to be nearly 6,000 times higher. Recent speculation suggests that uranium (and thorium) in the core may generate a substantial amount of the heat that drives plate tectonics and (ultimately) sustains the Earth's magnetic field.
Broadly speaking, and with some exceptions, lithophile heavy metals can be extracted from their ores by electrical or chemical treatments, while chalcophile heavy metals are obtained by roasting their sulphide ores to yield the corresponding oxides, and then heating these to obtain the raw metals. Radium occurs in quantities too small to be economically mined and is instead obtained from spent nuclear fuels. The chalcophile platinum group metals (PGM) mainly occur in small (mixed) quantities with other chalcophile ores. The ores involved need to be smelted, roasted, and then leached with sulfuric acid to produce a residue of PGM. This is chemically refined to obtain the individual metals in their pure forms. Compared to other metals, PGM are expensive due to their scarcity and high production costs.
Gold, a siderophile, is most commonly recovered by dissolving the ores in which it is found in a cyanide solution. The gold forms a dicyanoaurate(I), for example: 2 Au + H2O +½ O2 + 4 KCN → 2 K[Au(CN)2] + 2 KOH. Zinc is added to the mix and, being more reactive than gold, displaces the gold: 2 K[Au(CN)2] + Zn → K2[Zn(CN)4] + 2 Au. The gold precipitates out of solution as a sludge, and is filtered off and melted.


== Uses ==
Some common uses of heavy metals depend on the general characteristics of metals such as electrical conductivity and reflectivity or the general characteristics of heavy metals such as density, strength, and durability. Other uses depend on the characteristics of the specific element, such as their biological role as nutrients or poisons or some other specific atomic properties. Examples of such atomic properties include: partly filled d- or f- orbitals (in many of the transition, lanthanide, and actinide heavy metals) that enable the formation of coloured compounds; the capacity of heavy metal ions (such as platinum, cerium or bismuth) to exist in different oxidation states and are used in catalysts; strong exchange interactions in 3d or 4f orbitals (in iron, cobalt, and nickel, or the lanthanide heavy metals) that give rise to magnetic effects; and high atomic numbers and electron densities that underpin their nuclear science applications. Typical uses of heavy metals can be broadly grouped into the following categories.


=== Weight- or density-based ===

Some uses of heavy metals, including in sport, mechanical engineering, military ordnance, and nuclear science, take advantage of their relatively high densities. In underwater diving, lead is used as a ballast; in handicap horse racing each horse must carry a specified lead weight, based on factors including past performance, so as to equalize the chances of the various competitors. In golf, tungsten, brass, or copper inserts in fairway clubs and irons lower the centre of gravity of the club making it easier to get the ball into the air; and golf balls with tungsten cores are claimed to have better flight characteristics. In fly fishing, sinking fly lines have a PVC coating embedded with tungsten powder, so that they sink at the required rate. In track and field sport, steel balls used in the hammer throw and shot put events are filled with lead in order to attain the minimum weight required under international rules. Tungsten was used in hammer throw balls at least up to 1980; the minimum size of the ball was increased in 1981 to eliminate the need for what was, at that time, an expensive metal (triple the cost of other hammers) not generally available in all countries. Tungsten hammers were so dense that they penetrated too deeply into the turf.

Heavy metals are used for ballast in boats, aeroplanes, and motor vehicles; or in balance weights on wheels and crankshafts, gyroscopes, and propellers, and centrifugal clutches, in situations requiring maximum weight in minimum space (for example in watch movements).
In military ordnance, tungsten or uranium is used in armour plating and armour piercing projectiles, as well as in nuclear weapons to increase efficiency (by reflecting neutrons and momentarily delaying the expansion of reacting materials). In the 1970s, tantalum was found to be more effective than copper in shaped charge and explosively formed anti-armour weapons on account of its higher density, allowing greater force concentration, and better deformability. Less-toxic heavy metals, such as copper, tin, tungsten, and bismuth, and probably manganese (as well as boron, a metalloid), have replaced lead and antimony in the green bullets used by some armies and in some recreational shooting munitions. Doubts have been raised about the safety (or green credentials) of tungsten.


=== Biological and chemical ===
The biocidal effects of some heavy metals have been known since antiquity. Platinum, osmium, copper, ruthenium, and other heavy metals, including arsenic, are used in anti-cancer treatments, or have shown potential. Antimony (anti-protozoal), bismuth (anti-ulcer), gold (anti-arthritic), and iron (anti-malarial) are also important in medicine. Copper, zinc, silver, gold, or mercury are used in antiseptic formulations; small amounts of some heavy metals are used to control algal growth in, for example, cooling towers. Depending on their intended use as fertilisers or biocides, agrochemicals may contain heavy metals such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, or lead.
Selected heavy metals are used as catalysts in fuel processing (rhenium, for example), synthetic rubber and fibre production (bismuth), emission control devices (palladium and platinum), and in self-cleaning ovens (where cerium(IV) oxide in the walls of such ovens helps oxidise carbon-based cooking residues). In soap chemistry, heavy metals form insoluble soaps that are used in lubricating greases, paint dryers, and fungicides (apart from lithium, the alkali metals and the ammonium ion form soluble soaps).


=== Colouring and optics ===

The colours of glass, ceramic glazes, paints, pigments, and plastics are commonly produced by the inclusion of heavy metals (or their compounds) such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium. Tattoo inks may contain heavy metals, such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper. The high reflectivity of some heavy metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments. Headlight reflectors rely on the excellent reflectivity of a thin film of rhodium.


=== Electronics, magnets, and lighting ===
Heavy metals or their compounds can be found in electronic components, electrodes, and wiring and solar panels. Molybdenum powder is used in circuit board inks. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties. Silver and gold are used in electrical and electronic devices, particularly in contact switches, as a result of their high electrical conductivity and capacity to resist or minimise the formation of impurities on their surfaces. Heavy metals have been used in batteries for over 200 years, at least since Volta invented his copper and silver voltaic pile in 1800.
Magnets are often made of heavy metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, niobium, bismuth, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, and dysprosium. Neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They are key components of, for example, car door locks, starter motors, fuel pumps, and power windows.
Heavy metals are used in lighting, lasers, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Fluorescent lighting relies on mercury vapour for its operation. Ruby lasers generate deep red beams by exciting chromium atoms in aluminum oxide; the lanthanides are also extensively employed in lasers. Copper, iridium, and platinum are used in organic LEDs.


=== Nuclear ===

Because denser materials absorb more of certain types of radioactive emissions such as gamma rays than lighter ones, heavy metals are useful for radiation shielding and to focus radiation beams in linear accelerators and radiotherapy applications.
Niche uses of heavy metals with high atomic numbers occur in diagnostic imaging, electron microscopy, and nuclear science. In diagnostic imaging, heavy metals such as cobalt or tungsten make up the anode materials found in x-ray tubes. In electron microscopy, heavy metals such as lead, gold, palladium, platinum, or uranium have been used in the past to make conductive coatings and to introduce electron density into biological specimens by staining, negative staining, or vacuum deposition. In nuclear science, nuclei of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, or zinc are sometimes fired at other heavy metal targets to produce superheavy elements; heavy metals are also employed as spallation targets for the production of neutrons or isotopes of non-primordial elements such as astatine (using lead, bismuth, thorium, or uranium in the latter case).


== Notes ==


== References ==


=== Sources ===


== Further reading ==
Definition and usage

Ali H. & Khan E. 2017, ""What are heavy metals? Long-standing controversy over the scientific use of the term 'heavy metals'—proposal of a comprehensive definition"", Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, pp. 1–25, doi:10.1080/02772248.2017.1413652. Suggests defining heavy metals as ""naturally occurring metals having atomic number (Z) greater than 20 and an elemental density greater than 5 g cm−3"".
Duffus J. H. 2002, ""'Heavy metals'—A meaningless term?"", Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 793–807, doi:10.1351/pac200274050793. Includes a survey of the term's various meanings.
Hawkes S. J. 1997, ""What is a 'heavy metal'?"", Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 74, no. 11, p. 1374, doi:10.1021/ed074p1374. A chemist's perspective.
Hübner R., Astin K. B. & Herbert R. J. H. 2010, ""'Heavy metal'—time to move on from semantics to pragmatics?"", Journal of Environmental Monitoring, vol. 12, pp. 1511–1514, doi:10.1039/C0EM00056F. Finds that, despite its lack of specificity, the term appears to have become part of the language of science.
Toxicity and biological role

Baird C. & Cann M. 2012, Environmental Chemistry, 5th ed., chapter 12, ""Toxic heavy metals"", W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, ISBN 1-4292-7704-1. Discusses the use, toxicity, and distribution of Hg, Pb, Cd, As, and Cr.
Nieboer E. & Richardson D. H. S. 1980, ""The replacement of the nondescript term 'heavy metals' by a biologically and chemically significant classification of metal ions"", Environmental Pollution Series B, Chemical and Physical, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3–26, doi:10.1016/0143-148X(80)90017-8. A widely cited paper, focusing on the biological role of heavy metals.
Association between Heavy Metal Exposure and Parkinson’s Disease: A Review of the Mechanisms Related to Oxidative Stress.
Formation

Hadhazy A. 2016, ""Galactic 'gold mine' explains the origin of nature's heaviest elements Archived 2016-05-24 at the Wayback Machine"", Science Spotlights, 10 May, accessed 11 July 2016
Uses

Koehler C. S. W. 2001, ""Heavy metal medicine"", Chemistry Chronicles, American Chemical Society, accessed 11 July 2016
Morowitz N. 2006, ""The heavy metals"", Modern Marvels, season 12, episode 14, HistoryChannel.com
Öhrström L. 2014, ""Tantalum oxide"", Chemistry World, 24 September, accessed 4 October 2016. The author explains how tantalum(V) oxide banished brick-sized mobile phones. Also available as a podcast.


== External links ==
 Media related to Heavy metals at Wikimedia Commons"
Louis Victorin Cassagne,"Louis Victorin Cassagne (French pronunciation: [lwi viktoʁɛ̃ kasaɲ]; 5 June 1774 – 6 July 1841) became a French division commander during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1793 he joined a free company which was immediately absorbed into a volunteer battalion. Until 1795 he fought in the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees as a captain. In 1795–1797 he served in the Army of Italy, fighting at Loano, Lonato and Tarvis. In 1798–1801 he participated in the French campaign in Egypt and Syria, fighting at the Pyramids, Acre and Alexandria. In 1801 he was made commander of an infantry regiment. Cassagne was wounded an extraordinary number of times, especially during his early campaigns.
Cassagne led his regiment at Auerstadt and Pułtusk in 1806 and Eylau in 1807. He was promoted general of brigade in 1807 and became Baron of the Empire in 1808. He transferred to Spain and was captured at Bailén. After exchange he served at Talavera and Cadiz. Promoted to general of division in 1813, he led a division that year at Vitoria. Transferring to Germany he led a division at Dresden and was captured when that fortress surrendered. During the Hundred Days he was employed by Napoleon on the Spanish frontier. Placed on inactive duty during the Bourbon Restoration he was recalled to active duty in 1833 and retired six years later. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 27.


== Early career ==
Cassagne was born on 5 June 1774 at Alan in what later became the Haute-Garonne department. On 23 March 1793 he joined a free company as a lieutenant and, the next day, saw the unit merged with the 8th Battalion of the Haute-Garonne Volunteers with Cassagne as captain. Assigned to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, he defended the crossing of the Têt River near Perpignan in August 1793. He served with distinction in November 1794 at the Battle of the Black Mountain and subsequent capture of Sant Ferran Castle at Figueres. After the Peace of Basel ended the war with Spain, Cassagne's unit transferred to the Army of Italy. At the Battle of Loano on 22 November 1795, Cassagne was wounded in the left thigh while attacking the Rocca Barbena position.
In 1796 Cassagne led the scouts of the left wing of André Masséna's division. Ordered to pursue the Austrians after the Battle of Lonato, he was seriously wounded by a musket shot in the chest on 3 August near Lake Garda. Still leading his scouts, he forced a body of Austrian cavalry to surrender on 16 January 1797 near Mantua. He was shot in the left leg at the Battle of Tarvis in March. During the campaign in Egypt, Cassagne commanded the scouts of Louis André Bon's division. He fought at the Battle of the Pyramids in 1798 and at the Siege of Acre in 1799. At Acre he was stabbed twice in the left thigh, twice in the left arm and once in the hand. His wounding occurred on 29 May 1799 while storming a defensive work and killing every Turkish defender, at the cost of two-thirds of his own soldiers. He was promoted chef de bataillon for this action. Cassagne was shot through the thigh while fighting the British at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801. He was appointed colonel of the 25th Line Infantry Demi-brigade on 29 May of the same year.
After returning to France, Cassagne was assigned to defend Maubeuge until 1804 when he was sent to Bruges. He became an officer of the Legion of Honor on 4 June 1804. His regiment was placed in Charles-Étienne Gudin de La Sablonnière's division in the III Corps. He fought in the War of the Third Coalition in the Austrian Empire in 1805 and in the Kingdom of Prussia and Poland in 1806–1807. At the Battle of Auerstadt, the 25th Line Infantry Regiment captured two cannons from the Prussians and Cassagne was hit in the face by a bullet and had a horse killed under him. The 25th Line fought at the Battle of Pułtusk on 26 December 1806 and at the Battle of Eylau on 8 February 1807. Cassagne was promoted general of brigade on 7 June 1807. Napoleon raised him to the dignity of Baron of the Empire on 8 March 1808.


== Spain ==
Cassagne entered Spain as part of the 2nd Corps of Observation of the Gironde under Pierre Dupont de l'Étang. He was a brigade commander in Dominique Honoré Antoine Vedel's 6,884-man division. The division consisted of one battalion of the 3rd Swiss Regiment and three battalions each of the 1st and 5th Legions of the Reserve. In 1807, Napoleon summoned for duty the young men from the classes of 1808 and 1809. Even after the regular regiments were made up to full strength, there remained a glut of conscripts. These raw troops were formed into the Legions of Reserve. In May 1808, Napoleon directed Dupont to seize Seville in the south of Spain. In Dupont's entire force there was only one battalion of veterans. On 2–3 July Dupont ordered one of Vedel's brigades to march to the city of Jaén and the raid was a success. According to his service record, Cassagne was wounded at Jaén on 2 July.
After a series of grievous blunders by Dupont and Vedel, Dupont surrendered the survivors of his 10,000 men after the Battle of Bailén on 20 July 1808. Even though Vedel was not surrounded, he meekly surrendered his division a few days later. Cassagne argued forcefully against surrendering but he was not in a position to change the terms of the capitulation. His opposition reached the ears of Napoleon so Bailén did not blight his career. Cassagne and the other generals were immediately released, but the Spanish violated the terms of the surrender. They were supposed to repatriate the captured troops back to France. Instead they held them until 1814 under terrible conditions and half of the men died. Dupont, Vedel, Armand Samuel de Marescot, Théodore Chabert and François Marie Guillaume Legendre d'Harvesse were imprisoned by Napoleon for nine months, then released. Dupont was sent back to prison in 1812–1814, but the others were pardoned or put on half-pay.
Sent back to Spain, Cassagne took command of a brigade in the I Corps in April 1809. He led his troops at the Battle of Talavera on 27–28 July. On the second day, Marshal Claude Perrin Victor ordered the divisions of François Amable Ruffin and Eugène-Casimir Villatte to turn the Allied left flank. Ruffin deployed on the extreme right and Cassagne's brigade of Villatte's division was to Ruffin's left. As Cassagne's brigade edged forward, the 27th Light and 63rd Line Infantry Regiments were charged by the British 23rd Light Dragoons. The British cavalry galloped unwittingly into an unseen streambed, dismounting many troopers and throwing the regiment into disorder. After quickly realigning their ranks, the two left squadrons charged the 27th Light, which was formed into a large square, and were driven off with considerable loss. The two right squadrons rode past the square, plunged into a French cavalry brigade and were cut to pieces. The 23rd Light Dragoons lost 207 killed, wounded and captured out of a total of 450 in this combat. Cassagne's two regiments suffered approximately 200 casualties from Allied artillery fire.
The Siege of Cádiz lasted from 5 February 1810 to 25 August 1812 and occupied the attentions of Victor's corps. In February 1811, Victor had 19,000 French soldiers besieging 20,000 Spanish and 5,000–6,000 Anglo-Portuguese troops in Cádiz. Leaving 7,000 mostly Spanish troops to hold Cádiz, the Allies gathered a force of 9,600 Spanish and 5,000 British troops to be landed by ship behind the French lines. Manuel Lapeña assumed overall command of the expedition while Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch led the Anglo-Portuguese division. The object of the expedition was to break the siege. On 23 February, Spanish partisans skirmished with Cassagne on 23 February 1811, who held Medina-Sidonia with two battalions. Alerted, Victor reinforced Cassagne with three battalions and a cavalry regiment, to make a total of 3,000 men. On 4 March Cassagne reported that the Allied column was no longer headed for Medina-Sidonia, but was on a road farther west. Victor ordered Cassagne to march to join the rest of the corps near Chiclana de la Frontera on the morning of 5 March if no Allied units were nearby. However, Cassagne started late in the morning and Victor attacked without him and was defeated by Graham's division in the Battle of Barrosa on 5 March. Cassagne arrived only in time to rally the beaten troops and temporarily take command of Villatte's division after that general was wounded. Given command of the rearguard, Cassagne found that his position was not disturbed. Though the Allies won the battle, Lapeña supinely retreated within Cádiz without breaking the siege.
An Army of the South organization of 3 March 1812 showed Cassagne leading the 1st Brigade of the 2nd Division under Pierre Barrois. The brigade consisted of three battalions each of the 16th Light and 8th Line Infantry Regiments. He was promoted general of division on 30 May 1813. Though still with the Army of the South, his division was attached to the Army of the Center under Jean-Baptiste Drouet, comte d'Erlon at the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813. At Vitoria, Joseph Braun commanded the brigade that included the 16th Light and 8th Line while Jacques Blondeau led the brigade that comprised the 51st and 54th Line. Cassagne's division counted 95 officers and 5,114 men. The division's losses at Vitoria were modest: nine killed, 76 wounded and 178 missing, for a total of 263 casualties.


== Germany 1813 ==

Ordered to travel to Mainz, Cassagne was assigned to command of the 1st Division of the I Corps. The 7th Light, 12th Line and 17th Line Regiments suffered extremely heavy losses at the Battle of Kulm on 29–30 August. It is not clear that Cassagne was present at Kulm because his name is not mentioned in historian Francis Loraine Petre's account, unlike other division commanders like Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau and Armand Philippon. At Kulm on the first day, Dominique Vandamme's 38,000 French faced 14,700, rising to 20,000 Allies. That day each side lost about 6,000 men. On the second day, Vandamme's 32,000 fought 44,000 Allies before being attacked from behind by a Prussian corps. Vandamme was captured and his forces lost 15,000 men, including 10,000 prisoners. The Allies admitted losing 3,319 men.
After the Kulm disaster, the I Corps was rebuilt and placed under Georges Mouton, Count Lobau. On 7 September 1813, Cassagne's 1st Division had  two brigades. The 1st Brigade (no commander given) included the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 7th Light (1,022 men) and 12th Line (1,547 men) Infantry Regiments. The 2nd Brigade under Raymond Aimery de Fezensac consisted of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 17th Line (1,531 men) and the 3rd Battalion of the 36th Line (446 men). Attached were the 8/2nd Foot Artillery (65 men) and 23/3rd Foot Artillery (57 men) Companies and detachments (125 men) from the 1st, 1st bis and 14th Artillery Train Battalions. On 14 September, the I Corps was involved in a clash at Berggiesshübel. By 25 September, by combat and sickness, the strength of the 7th Light had shrunk to 643 men, the 12th Line to 976 men, the 17th Line to 736 men and the 36th Line to 413 men. That day found Lobau's corps still near Berggiesshübel, while at the end of the month the corps was south of Dresden.
In early October, Napoleon worried whether he should leave a strong garrison in Dresden or abandon the city and add the troops to his army. On 7 October he finally decided to leave the I Corps and the XIV Corps under Marshal Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr in Dresden. Not concentrating every soldier for a major battle proved to be a serious error. The two corps were sorely missed on 16 October in the Battle of Leipzig. In the event, Saint-Cyr's troops were blockaded in Dresden after Napoleon's defeat. On 11 November, Saint-Cyr surrendered on the pledge that his soldiers would be paroled to France on the promise not to fight the Allies for the remainder of the war. As the men were on the march home, the Allies reneged on the agreement and the French soldiers became prisoners of war. Altogether, 36,000 troops marched into captivity in the Austrian Empire. Cassagne was held prisoner in Hungary.


== Later career ==
After his release when the war ended, Cassagne was awarded the Order of Saint Louis and given command of the Haute-Garonne department during the Bourbon Restoration. During the Hundred Days he rallied to Napoleon and was assigned to lead an observation force in the eastern Pyrenees. After the second Bourbon Restoration, Cassagne was placed in inactive status and barely escaped being lynched by Royalists in the south of France. He was returned to favor after the French Revolution of 1830. He was recalled to active duty on 3 January 1833 and assigned to the 2nd Section of the Army General Staff on 15 August 1839. He died at Toulouse on 6 July 1841. His name is on the south pillar of the Arc de Triomphe. Cassagne is buried in the Terre-Cabade Cemetery in Toulouse.


== Notes ==


== References ==
Broughton, Tony (2001). ""French Infantry Regiments and the Colonels who Led Them: 1791 to 1815: 21e to 30e"". The Napoleon Series. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
Chandler, David G. (1966). The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York, N.Y.: Macmillan.
Jensen, Nathan (2015). ""General Louis-Victorin Cassagne"". frenchempire.net. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
Landru, Philippe (2012). ""TOULOUSE (31): cimetière de Terre-Cabade"".
LENORE (1841). ""CASSAGNE, Victorin Louis historical document No. LH/441/59"". French Ministry of Culture.
Mullié, Charles (1852). Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 a 1850 (in French). Paris.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Nafziger, George (1990a). ""French I Corps, 7 September 1813"" (PDF). Fort Leavenworth, KS: US Army Combined Arms Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 26, 2017.
Nafziger, George (1990b). ""French I Corps, 25 September 1813"" (PDF). Fort Leavenworth, KS: US Army Combined Arms Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 26, 2017.
Oman, Charles (2010) [1902]. A History of the Peninsular War Volume I. Vol. 1. La Vergne, Tenn.: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1432636821.
Oman, Charles (1995) [1903]. A History of the Peninsular War Volume II. Vol. 2. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole. ISBN 1-85367-215-7.
Oman, Charles (1996a) [1911]. A History of the Peninsular War Volume IV. Vol. 4. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole. ISBN 1-85367-224-6.
Oman, Charles (1996b) [1914]. A History of the Peninsular War Volume V. Vol. 5. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole. ISBN 1-85367-225-4.
Oman, Charles (1996c) [1922]. A History of the Peninsular War Volume VI. Vol. 6. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole. ISBN 1-85367-635-7.
Petre, F. Loraine (1912). Napoleon's Last Campaign in Germany, 1813. New York, N.Y.: John Lane Company.
Smith, Digby (1998). The Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London: Greenhill. ISBN 1-85367-276-9."
Demolition (professional wrestling),"Demolition was an American professional wrestling tag team most prominent during the late 1980s and early 1990s in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) made up of Ax (Bill Eadie), Smash (Barry Darsow), and later Crush (Brian Adams). In the WWF, Demolition were three-time WWF World Tag Team Champions, and hold the record for the most combined days as reigning champions with that championship. 

Their first reign with the WWF World Tag Team Championship is the fourth longest reign with any tag team championship in WWE history (behind Mark Coffey and Wolfgang's reign with the NXT UK Tag Team Championship, The New Day's reign with the WWE (Raw) Tag Team Championship and The Usos' reign with the WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship) and is the longest reign on record for that specific championship (which has been defunct since 2010). Beginning in 2007, Ax and Smash reunited for several appearances at various independent shows and legends conventions.


== Career ==


=== World Wrestling Federation (1987–1991) ===


==== Formation and early push (1987–1988) ====
Randy Colley and Bill Eadie created the Demolition gimmick and worked for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). They debuted as a heel tag team on January 4, 1987, at the Springfield Civic Centre in Massachusetts, alongside manager Luscious Johnny V, defeating the team of The Islanders and later participating in a battle royal won by Pete Doherty. Demolition wore studded black leather outfits and leather-covered hockey masks to the ring, which they removed to reveal face paint usually made up of some combination of black, white, red, or silver colors, though other colors were sometimes included. The tag team wore 
outfits similar to Lord Humungus of the 1981 film Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior, while their facepaint was reminiscent of hard rock band KISS. However, in TV interviews the characters generally compared themselves to another hockey-masked horror movie villain, Jason Voorhees of the Friday the 13th film series, as well as Freddy Krueger of Nightmare on Elm Street.
After only two more matches (wins over enhancement talent at TV tapings on January 5 and 6), Colley was replaced with Barry Darsow starting with a match filmed January 26, 1987 at the Sundome, Tampa FL and aired on the February 14, 1987 edition of Superstars. Eadie has stated that Colley was replaced because he was too recognizable to the fans as the man who previously performed as Moondog Rex. The WWF pitched a few potential replacements to Eadie, but he thought fans would recognize the suggested replacements. However, Eadie felt that many WWF fans would not recognize Darsow, who had been working for Jim Crockett Promotions as Krusher Khruschev alongside Nikita Koloff. Darsow had left Crockett following a dispute in order to take over the role of Smash.  On the March 14 Saturday Night's Main Event X, Demolition participated in another battle royal, won by Hercules Hernandez. Around that same period, Johnny Valiant (who went on to manage the ""new Dream Team"" of Greg Valentine and Dino Bravo before leaving the WWF at the end of 1987) sold their contracts to Mr. Fuji who became their manager.
Demolition's undefeated streak ended when they suffered their first pinfall loss to The Can-Am Connection (Rick Martel and Tom Zenk) on June 6, 1987 at the Boston Garden, Demolition became known for their aggressive style in the ring and the way that they dominated their matches. Their first feud was with the team of Ken Patera and Billy Jack Haynes, which started after Ax and Smash brutalized WWF jobber Brady Boone (billed in storyline as the cousin of Haynes), during a televised match and then battered first Haynes and then Patera when they each tried to come to the rescue. Demolition claimed victories over all of the established face tag teams in the WWF at the time, including The Killer Bees (Jim Brunzell and B. Brian Blair), The Rougeau Brothers (Jacques and Raymond), the British Bulldogs (Dynamite Kid and Davey Boy Smith), the Young Stallions (Paul Roma and Jim Powers), The Islanders (Haku and Tama), and The Can-Am Connection.
Demolition made their pay-per-view debut at Survivor Series in an elimination tag team match as part of the heel team. They eliminated The Rougeau Brothers, but were disqualified when Smash shoved down referee Dave Hebner during the match and the face team went on to win the match.


==== Tag team title reigns (1988–1990) ====

At WrestleMania IV, Ax and Smash defeated Strike Force (Rick Martel and Tito Santana) to win their first WWF Tag Team Championship. Ax struck Martel in the back of the neck with Fuji's cane while he had Smash in a Boston crab (Fuji had dropped the cane into the ring while taking a beating from Santana who carried on oblivious to what was happening in the ring). Martel was knocked out and Smash covered him for the pin while Ax hid outside with the cane. As champions, they defeated a number of the top teams of the WWF, which at the time had a very talent-rich and hotly contested tag division, most notably the British Bulldogs and Hart Foundation (Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart).
Their first big challenge came in the summer of 1988, when The Powers of Pain (The Warlord and The Barbarian) entered the WWF and challenged them for the Tag Team Championship. During the elimination tag team match at Survivor Series, Mr. Fuji attacked Demolition and joined forces with the Powers of Pain. A double turn took place as Demolition turned face while the Powers of Pain turned heel. Interviewed after the contest, Fuji claimed that he had turned on Demolition because, since winning the championship, they had become insubordinate and disrespectful towards him, whereas the Powers would be utterly obedient and loyal apprentices.  For their part, Demolition denounced their former manager as a parasite, labelling him ""Fuj the Stooge.""
Ax and Smash also memorably squared off against each other as entrants #1 and #2 in the Royal Rumble match at the Summit in Houston in 1989, tearing into each other for the full two minutes before being joined in the ring by the third entrant André the Giant, where they once again joined as Demolition and targeted the big man.
Demolition defeated the Powers of Pain and Mr. Fuji in a tag team handicap match at WrestleMania V to retain the WWF World Tag Team Championship when they caught Fuji in the ""Demolition Decapitation"". That day, Demolition became the longest reigning WWF World Tag Team Champions after breaking the previous 370 day record of The Valiant Brothers (Jimmy and Johnny). Subsequently, on May 2 Demolition's reign exceeded the 399-day third reign of The Fabulous Kangaroos with the WWWF United States Tag Team Championship, thus becoming the longest running holders of any tag team championship in WWF/WWWF history. They would eventually last a reign of 478 days, and while the general record for any male tag team championship has since been broken (by The New Day in 2016, by Mark Coffey and Wolfgang in 2020 and by The Usos in 2022), this still stands as the specific record for the ""classic"" World tag team title of 1971–2010.
After WrestleMania V, Demolition started a feud with The Twin Towers (Akeem and The Big Boss Man) and then a feud with The Brain Busters (Arn Anderson and Tully Blanchard), who were managed by Bobby ""The Brain"" Heenan. On the May 27, 1989 Saturday Night's Main Event XXI, the Brain Busters defeated Demolition by disqualification. They finally dropped the titles to the Brain Busters in a two out of three falls match on the July 29 Saturday Night's Main Event XXII (filmed July 18, 1989 in Worcester, Massachusetts at the Worcester Centrum) following outside interference from André the Giant who threw a chair into the ring for Anderson to use on Smash. As well as looking to regain the belts, Demolition sought revenge on André and closure on The Twin Towers. At SummerSlam 1989, King Duggan and Demolition defeated André and the Towers in a six-man tag team match (already advertised prior to the title change) where Darsow showcased his strength by body slamming both of the Twin Towers. Demolition focused on regaining the tag titles and restarted their feud with the Brain Busters. On the November 4 edition of Superstars (taped on October 2), Demolition defeated the Brain Busters to regain their tag titles and win their second WWF Tag Team Championship.
Demolition next feuded with the new Heenan Family team, The Colossal Connection (André the Giant and Haku). On the December 30 edition of Superstars (taped on December 13), Demolition lost the tag titles to the Colossal Connection. At WrestleMania VI at the SkyDome in Toronto, Demolition defeated the Colossal Connection to regain the titles and win their third and final WWF World Tag Team Championship, and finally put an end to their feud with the Heenan Family. Due to his deteriorating physical condition, André never tagged in during the match with Haku facing Demolition on his own.


==== Addition of Crush (1990–1991) ====
Shortly after WrestleMania VI, the team quietly turned heel. This intensified when Brian Adams debuted in WWF and joined the team as Crush. In kayfabe it was claimed that this was a heinous scheme to gain a three-on-two advantage over other tag teams. (In reality, it was actually because Eadie had developed an allergy to shellfish which he attributed to his frequent trips to Japan, which hospitalized him, and WWF owner and head booker Vince McMahon wanted to add a third member to the team just in case the illness put Eadie out of action for an extended period of time.)
Crush soon took a more active role, teaming with Smash while Ax faded into the background, becoming more of a manager. At this time Demolition used the ""Freebird rule"" to allow any two members to wrestle the matches. Smash and Crush defended the titles in the summer of 1990. On the July 28 edition of Saturday Night's Main Event, Smash and Crush defeated The Rockers (Shawn Michaels and Marty Jannetty) to retain the titles after Ax interfered on their behalf and scored the pin on Michaels. The next month at SummerSlam, however, Demolition lost the titles to the Hart Foundation in a two out of three falls match. In that match, Smash & Crush started, but Ax secretly came down later on to substitute himself into the match behind the referee's back. Ultimately, the Legion of Doom (Hawk and Animal), who had signed with the WWF a month earlier, interfered and snuffed out the deception. Demolition never recaptured the titles after this loss.
As a result of the interference by LOD, Demolition began feuding with Hawk and Animal who would often be joined in six man matches by reigning WWF Champion The Ultimate Warrior. WWF commentators at the time would often claim that the team wearing the face paint would win whichever particular match they were broadcasting (Demolition, LOD and the Warrior all wore face paint). On the October 13 edition of Saturday Night's Main Event, Ax, Smash, and Crush lost to the Ultimate Warrior and LOD.
Soon after, due to the Legion of Doom (L.O.D.) now being on the WWF roster, Demolition's popularity began to decline and they regained the managerial services of Mr. Fuji in the fall of 1990.  At Survivor Series, The Perfect Team (Demolition and Mr. Perfect) was defeated by The Ultimate Warriors (the Ultimate Warrior, the ""Texas Tornado"" Kerry Von Erich, and the Legion of Doom). Shortly after, Ax left the WWF, with the on-air explanation being an order from kayfabe WWF President Jack Tunney that there could only be two members of Demolition. Smash and Crush were the two remaining members, and went on to primarily lose to teams such as the Rockers and the Legion of Doom. The team lost a match to Genichiro Tenryu and Koji Kitao at WrestleMania VII.
The team's next match was at WWF/SWS Wrestlefest on March 30, 1991 where they defeated Shunji Takano & Shinichi Nakano. Following this match, Demolition would continue to wrestle in the SWS throughout the summer usually on the losing end of matches. Crush went on a leave of absence from the WWF (his SWS commitments aside), while Smash wrestled in singles matches (usually on the losing end) for a brief time before also leaving the WWF. As well as SWS, they also teamed in the WWC after leaving the WWF. The team's final WWF-related match occurred on an SWS show in Japan on September 18, 1991 in a losing effort to George Takano and Shunji Takano. Afterwards, they eventually broke up and the member Crush would return to PNW (where he had previously wrestled as Brian Adams), still in his Demolition attire and paint, but as a face, where he would eventually win the PNW Heavyweight Championship Smash would later return to the WWF as the Repo Man a sneaky thief claiming to be a repossessor, in the fall of 1991. Crush would  also return in the spring of 1992, still as a face, beginning a run as the popular ""Kona Crush"" surfer type building on Adams being a native of Hawaii). The two ended up facing off at SummerSlam 1992, with Crush getting the victory over Repo Man. Crush would later turn heel on Randy Savage and rehire Mr. Fuji as his manager in 1993, once again painting his face, only in a different pattern from his Demolition days.


=== Post-WWF ===
Original ""Smash"" gimmick owner Randy Colley moved to the Continental Championship Wrestling territory in late 1987  and revived his version of the Demolition character with only minor modifications as Detroit Demolition.  He was managed by Downtown Bruno and stayed in the territory until the end of 1988. In May 1988 he teamed with D.I. Bob Carter to win the CWF Tag Team Championship.
Detroit Demolition feuded with Lord Humungous after Humungous turned babyface on Bruno's stable, helping (kayfabe) childhood friend Shane Douglas defeat Detroit Demolition .  In retaliation, Detroit Demolition squirted ink in Humungous' eyes, causing Douglas to come to his old friend's aid, cementing their alliance. Humungous and Douglas would defeat Detroit and Carter for the tag team title in June 1988.   As Darsow and Adams would do later on, Colley as Detroit Demolition also made occasional visits to the WWC in Puerto Rico. By early 1989 he had reverted to Moondog Rex and signed with WCW.
After leaving the WWF, Eadie began using the name Axis the Demolisher on the independent circuit and took in Colley as well as Richard ""Le Magnifique"" Charland under the name of Demolition Blast in an attempt to resurrect the Demolition name and gimmick. They were sent a cease and desist letter by the WWF once they found out.
They wrestled for Universal Superstars of America where they held tag team title once. Also Demolition Hux portrayed by Garry Robbins. 
In between his time as Repo Man in the WWF and his 1994–1995 stint as Blacktop Bully in WCW, Darsow wrestled as Smash in Australia for local promotion AWF in mid 1993, losing to Hawk on 14 June in Melbourne.
In the mid-1990s, Bill Eadie filed a lawsuit against the WWF for the rights of the ""Demolition"" name and gimmick but lost. Ax, Smash and Crush signed a deal with Jakks Pacific to make Demolition Classic Superstars action figures. Ax and Smash were together in a 2-pack for Toys R Us, each had a singles figure from series #14, and were packaged and repainted with Crush in a 3-pack for Walmart.
On April 1, 2007, Darsow and Eadie reunited for the first time in 16 years at a ""Meet the Legends"" event in Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
On August 13, 2007, Brian Adams was found unconscious in his Tampa, Florida home. Adams' wife found him not breathing in his bed, and summoned paramedics. The wrestler could not be revived, and was pronounced dead at the scene. Police could not immediately determine a cause of death, but noted no signs of injury.
On September 29, 2007, Darsow and Eadie reunited as the tag team Demolition for the first time in 16 years in Orlando, Florida at a United States Xtreme Wrestling event. They once again became tag team champions, defeating the Christopher Street Connection (Buff-E and Mace) to win the UXW Tag Team Championship.
On Friday, February 22, 2008, both Ax and Smash were re-united and inducted into the XWF Hall of Fame by Jack Blaze who also inducted both New Jack & Shark Boy in the same night. Later that year, XWF became LPW (Legends Pro Wrestling) where Demolition are still honored as LPW Hall of Fame Inductees- Class 2008.
Demolition teamed with One Man Gang in the 28-team King of Trios tournament held by Chikara during the weekend of February 29 and March 1 and 2, 2008 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. While losing the three-man tournament they did win the Tag Team gauntlet.
On November 13, 2010, Demolition appeared at WrestleRage VIII in Villa Park, Illinois with POWW Entertainment. They beat the team of Picture Perfect for the POWW Tag Team titles, but quickly lost them after the first match to the team of Trevor Blanchard and Black Iron.
On May 21, 2011, Demolition reunited at Full Impact Pro's debut iPPV In Full Force. Their match against Tony DeVito and Ralph Mosco went to a no contest when local commentator and manager Larry Dallas came out and said his men wanted revenge. The ring was stormed by Manu, Sami Callihan, Blain Rage and Joey Attel. Demolition, Devito and Mosco managed to clear the ring and beat Dallas to end the show.
On September 16, 2012, Demolition returned to Chikara, taking part in the tag team gauntlet match at the 2012 King of Trios tournament, from which they were eliminated by their old WWF rivals, The Powers of Pain.
In 2013, Demolition were set to perform for the eastern Canadian independent promotion XWA. The former champions were scheduled to make appearances in Saint John (June 6), Fredericton (June 7), Miramichi (June 8), and Bathurst (June 9).
In November 2013, their Demolition Decapitation finishing move was rated the 7th greatest Tag Team Finisher of all time.
In July 2016, Eadie and Darsow were named part of a class action lawsuit filed against WWE which alleged that wrestlers incurred traumatic brain injuries during their tenure and that the company concealed the risks of injury. The suit is litigated by attorney Konstantine Kyros, who has been involved in a number of other lawsuits against WWE. The lawsuit was dismissed by US District Judge Vanessa Lynne Bryant in September 2018.
On May 6, 2017, Demolition wrestled their last match as a tag team. Both Eadie and Darsow retired from wrestling later that year.
Colley died December 14, 2019.


== Members ==


== Championships and accomplishments ==
See also Moondog Rex#Championships and accomplishments, Ax (wrestler)#Championships and accomplishments and Brian Adams (wrestler)#Championships and accomplishments for singles titles (and tag team titles with a non-Demolition partner) won by the original Smash, Ax and Crush respectively while using the Demolition gimmick.
The below list includes only tag team titles held by teams billed under the Demolition name and consisting purely of two or more of the members both/all using their Demolition personas.  All championships and accomplishments below are by the Ax and (Darsow) Smash line-up unless otherwise noted.

Great Lakes Championship Wrestling
GLCW Tag Team Championship (1 time)
Keystone State Wrestling Alliance
KSWA Tag Team Championship (1 time)
Legends Pro Wrestling
XWF/LPW Hall of Fame Inductees- Class 2008 (2/22/08)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked #59 of the 100 best tag teams during the ""PWI Years"" in 2003
POWW Entertainment
POWW Tag Team Championship (1 time)
United States Xtreme Wrestling
UXW Tag Team Championship (1 time)
Universal Supertars of Wrestling
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Tag Team Championship (3 times) – Crush joined team midway through third reign


== See also ==
Disciples of Apocalypse
KroniK
Stud Stable
The Ascension
The Road Warriors


== References ==


== External links ==
Demolition's OWW Profile
Demolition's WWE Alumni Profile"
26 Broadway,"26 Broadway, also known as the Standard Oil Building or Socony–Vacuum Building, is an office building adjacent to Bowling Green in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. The 31-story, 520-foot-tall (160 m) structure was designed in the Renaissance Revival style by Thomas Hastings of Carrère and Hastings, in conjunction with Shreve, Lamb & Blake. It was built in 1884–1885 as the headquarters of Standard Oil, at the time one of the largest oil companies in the United States, and expanded to its current size in 1921–1928.
26 Broadway is on a pentagonal site bounded by Broadway to the northwest, Bowling Green to the west, Beaver Street to the south, New Street to the east/southeast, and the axis of Morris Street to the north. The first sixteen stories occupy much of the lot, with several setbacks, a curved facade along Broadway, and two light courts. Above it is a twelve-story tower topped by a stepped pyramid. The ground story has a 40-foot-tall (12 m) lobby leading to three banks of elevators. The Standard Oil executive offices on the top stories included a board room on the 21st floor.
The original structure was built for Standard Oil on the former site of U.S. treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton's house. The Standard Oil Building was expanded in 1895 and again after World War I, when Walter C. Teagle bought four neighboring buildings to create a continuous lot. The building was greatly expanded in a multi-phase construction project during the 1920s. 26 Broadway was sold to another owner in 1956 but remained a prominent structure on Bowling Green. In 1995, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 26 Broadway as an official city landmark. It is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a National Register of Historic Places district created in 2007.


== Site ==
The Standard Oil Building is at 26 Broadway in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is bounded by Broadway to the northwest and west (along Bowling Green), Beaver Street to the south, and New Street to the east and southeast. It occupies the physical lots of 10-30 Broadway, 1-11 Beaver Street, and 73-81 New Street. The building has a land lot with an area of 46,055 square feet (4,278.6 m2). The site has a frontage of about 278 feet (85 m) along Broadway, 160 feet (49 m) along Beaver Street, and 204 feet (62 m) along New Street.
Nearby buildings include 2 Broadway to the south; 1 Broadway and the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House to the southwest; and the Charging Bull sculpture, Bowling Green Offices Building, and the Cunard Building (25 Broadway) to the west. In addition, 70 Broad Street is one block southeast. The New York City Subway's Whitehall Street station (served by the R and ​W trains) and Bowling Green station (served by the 4 and ​5 trains) are both less than a block south. The Standard Oil Building was one of several corporate headquarters to be constructed at the southern end of Broadway during the early 20th century.


== Architecture ==
The building was designed by Thomas Hastings of Carrère and Hastings, in conjunction with Shreve, Lamb & Blake, in the Renaissance Revival style. It was the only skyscraper that Carrère and Hastings designed in Lower Manhattan. Richmond Shreve of Shreve, Lamb & Blake oversaw the construction of the building's expansion and was tasked with solving logistical issues; however, not much is known about the tasks performed by William F. Lamb and Theodore Blake. The structure is 520 feet (160 m) tall, and it is cited as containing either 31 or 34 stories. The building was erected by general contractor C. T. Wills Inc. and structural steel contractor Post & McCord. Numerous other contractors and engineers were involved in the building's construction.


=== Form ===

The building has a complex massing. Its lower portion occupies the entire pentagonal lot, following the curving contour of Broadway at that point, while its tower is aligned with the grid to which Lower Manhattan's other skyscrapers conform. A deep light court measuring 45 by 85 feet (14 by 26 m) cuts through the center of the Beaver Street facade; an interior light court measuring 25 by 90 feet (7.6 by 27.4 m) is also present on the northern side of the building. The Beaver Street light court was the last section to be constructed due to the presence of a holdout lot occupied by Childs Restaurants.
The original Standard Oil Building, a 15- or 16-story building initially faced in brick, still exists at the base of the modern skyscraper. The interior floors of the annex portions were designed so that they were at the same level as the floors in the original building. The newer floors are carried by trusses over the original structure, rather than resting on the older building's walls. In total, the base of the building is 16 stories.
26 Broadway features numerous setbacks on its facade, as mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution. The lowest such setback is at the 10th floor on the New and Beaver Streets sides, and another setback exists on all side above the 16th floor, where the building's base transitions into the tower.  The tower section of 26 Broadway contains an additional 13 stories above the northern edge of the expanded base, above which is a stepped triple-height pyramid. Two other setbacks exist above the 18th and 22nd floors of the tower. The setbacks give the tower a dimension of 82 by 142 feet (25 by 43 m) at the 17th and 18th stories, tapering to 80 feet (24 m) square above the 22nd story.


=== Facade ===
The modern building's facade is primarily composed of buff-colored Indiana Limestone, covering the tower and much of the base. The limestone facade at the lowest four stories is rusticated. The original building's facade was made of red brick and granite, making it appear as though the original section was separate from the expanded structure. Part of this facade is visible from New Street, but the Broadway facade was totally replaced with limestone. A small portion of the original building's southern facade is still visible but was given a limestone overlay.


==== Base ====
The Broadway facade slopes slightly downward to the south: at the northern part of the building, the ground level is at the same height as the building's second floor. It is designed so the first and fourth floors have rows of openings, while the second and third floors have some large arched windows. The main entrance is near the middle of the curved Broadway facade; it consists of a recessed double-height arch, with elaborately carved spandrels at its top. Double-height arched windows are on either side of the main entrance arch. There are also two secondary entrances at 24 and 28 Broadway, respectively to the south and north of the main arch; these entrances are within doorways topped by pediments and clocks. The former was historically an entrance to retail space, while the latter provides access to the original building. In the southern section of the Broadway facade, as well as on the wings facing Beaver Street, the arched windows are flanked by smaller windows.
On Beaver Street to the south, the ground level is at the same elevation as the first floor and contains storefronts. The Beaver Street facade is divided into three sections. The center section only reaches to the third floor and contains a cornice above projecting vertical pilasters, while the taller outer sections contain double-height arched windows between smaller window openings. On New Street, the facade is divided into two sections: the northern section is made of brick and granite, and the southern section is made of limestone.
Above the base, the Broadway facade rises as a twelve-story wall resembling a cliff; it is interrupted only by a setback from the Beaver Street side, where there is an intermediate cornice. The bays around each corner and around the center arch has quoins from the fourth to the 12th stories. The 13th story is designed as an intermediate cornice, while the 14th through 16th stories (the top three floors of the base) are designed as a colonnade. There are minor differences in decoration related to when each part of the facade was built. The 14th through 16th stories have shallow pilasters on the newer northern portion of the Broadway facade, while the older southern portion has engaged Ionic columns.


==== Tower ====
The tower section of the building rises 13 or 14 stories from the base. The 22nd-story setback has obelisks at each corner. The three highest stories of the tower are surrounded by a colonnade with Ionic columns. The tower is topped by a ziggurat-style pyramid that was inspired by the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The pyramid was added when the building was expanded in the 1920s, with its finial rising 480 feet (150 m) above ground level. It serves not only as a steam vent but also as an allusion to the Greek god Hephaestus. The pyramid contains a cauldron that initially was lit by four kerosene lamps; this signified the fact that Standard Oil's founders, the Rockefeller family, made their first profits from kerosene. The cauldron's light was extinguished after 1956.


=== Foundation ===
The modern building was constructed in several phases around the preexisting buildings. The buildings were occupied by numerous tenants, who were allowed to temporarily stay in place due to the dearth of office space in Lower Manhattan in the 1920s. The structures included the Welles Building at 14-20 Broadway, at the modern building site's western boundary; the New York Produce Exchange at Broadway and Beaver Street, on the site's southwest corner; the Lisbon Building at Beaver and New Streets, at the site's southeast corner; and a five-story Childs Restaurants location in the middle of the block on Beaver Street, on the southern boundary. The original Standard Oil structure was on the northern boundary of the site.
Further complicating work was the presence of quicksand some 15 to 18 feet (4.6 to 5.5 m) below ground, underneath which was a hardpan of clay, gravel, and boulders. Tide water ranged from 12 to 37 feet (3.7 to 11.3 m) beneath the ground, under which was another layer of shale and earth 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 m) deep; the underlying bedrock was under the shale and earth. The Welles Building and the original Standard Oil Building contained thick footings that went into the quicksand, though only a few of the footings reached the hardpan. Thus, the water had to be pumped out of the site before the superstructure was built. The new footings were built using a caisson method. A cofferdam wall was built underneath part of the expanded site, extending down to the bedrock at the deepest level. A complex system of underpinning was then undertaken so that the existing buildings would not collapse while excavation and construction of the foundation was ongoing. The building contains a basement 10 feet (3.0 m) deep, as well as a sub-basement 37 feet (11 m) deep, the latter of which contains all of 26 Broadway's mechanical equipment.


=== Features ===


==== Lobby, elevators, and stairs ====

The entrance hall is 40 feet (12 m) high. It is finished with pink marble and contains pairs of Corinthian marble pilasters, carrying a marble cornice with the names of Standard Oil's cofounders. Above the cornice is a beamed ceiling and decorative panels with signs of the zodiac. In addition, the floors are clad in travertine and black marble, and the walls have bronze grilles. Lighting fixtures, doors, and gates are also made of wrought iron with bronze ornamentation. The use of columns, pilasters, rusticated walls, and heavy staircases and doorways was intended to create the effect of ""a princely palace or merchant's mansion"".
Leading off the lobby are three banks of elevators: two on the south side of the main corridor, as well as a set of four elevators on the east side near New Street. Fifteen elevators serve only the first through 16th stories, while six serve the tower's executive offices, for a total of 21 passenger elevators. A set of three fire stairs also rises the height of the building. When the building was completed, each story also had its own fire alarm station and watchman's tower, as well as bronze-framed directory signs.


==== Upper stories ====
On the lowest sixteen stories, a hallway typically leads from the elevators around the interior light court, and there is office space both around the interior light court and the exterior boundary. The tower floors have L-shaped corridors. Access to the older southern portion of the building is provided from the newer northern portion on all stories, with fire doors connecting both portions. The walls of the elevator foyers have Botticino marble paneling reaching to the ceiling, and the main hallways have 5-foot-tall (1.5 m) marble wainscoting. The floors in the main foyers and corridors are designed with Tennessee marble bordered with black marble, while the white-plastered ceilings each contain a molding with dentils. In the side corridors, the walls are finished in hard plaster and have 5-foot-tall (1.5 m) hollow metal moldings. The side corridors have hollow-metal trim and doors with mahogany finishes, as well as gray-and-buff flooring strips.
The executive stories contained oak-paneled offices, as well as reception rooms and meeting rooms. These spaces were designed by the firm of Clinton & Russell, Holton & George.  The 17th story had space for an executive dining room, with space for nearly 200 people, and an adjoining kitchen. The dining space had tile floors and 7-foot-tall (2.1 m) tile wainscoting; white-enamel screens and enclosures; and a refrigerator with an ice machine. The 21st floor housed Standard Oil successor Socony's board room, which overlooked Broadway. The boardroom covered 2,000 square feet (190 m2) and contained a double-height ceiling with relief panels; a limestone fireplace; and oak wainscoting. The oak panels on the ceiling beams, and the stone on the walls, were attached to the skyscraper's steel frame. Next to it was an anteroom with carved oak pilasters, frieze, and moldings, as well as a plaster ceiling and Kato stone wall. Private offices extended south and east of the 21st-story boardroom and had walnut walls, plaster ceilings, Siena marble fireplaces, and cork floors covered with carpets. The 23rd floor contained squash courts with adjoining locker and shower rooms.


== History ==
The site of the Standard Oil Building was occupied by Dutch houses after the colony of New Amsterdam was founded in the 17th century. In the late 18th century, 26 Broadway was the home address of Alexander Hamilton, his wife Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, and their family. Hamilton occupied the house after resigning his position as United States Secretary of the Treasury. According to a 1786 directory, rum was also sold from the address in the late 18th century.
Starting in the early 19th century, when New York City became a nationally prominent commercial hub, many firms chose to build their headquarters in Lower Manhattan, renting the unused space to subsidiaries or other companies. Corporations sought addresses in the Financial District as status symbols. Furthermore, many companies built their original headquarters in the 19th century and replaced these with larger structures in the early 20th century.


=== Initial structure ===

Standard Oil Trust moved its headquarters to New York City from Cleveland, Ohio, in 1870. By 1884, the company had acquired lots at 24-28 Broadway near Bowling Green, and had started erecting a headquarters building at the site. The Standard Oil Building, opened in 1885, was designed by architect Francis H. Kimball as a nine-story, 86-foot-wide (26 m) building that extended between Broadway to the west and New Street to the east. It was designed by Ebenezer L. Roberts with a Renaissance Revival granite facade, and had a flat roof above the ninth floor, as well as a central bay that rose an additional story.
Initially, all of Standard Oil's 40 operations were controlled from 26 Broadway. So important was the building's role, The New York Times said that ""Twenty-six Broadway was once to oil what 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue is to politics."" In 1895, six stories were added and a 27-foot-wide (8.2 m) annex was erected on 26 Broadway's north side; the extension was designed by Kimball & Thompson and continued the original Renaissance Revival design. A sixteenth floor was added by 1910. A photograph that year showed that 26 Broadway was flanked by other buildings and was 16 stories high. The structure measured 117 feet (36 m) along Broadway and 100 feet (30 m) along New Street with a depth of 203 feet (62 m).
By 1890, Standard Oil had controlled 88 percent of the refined oil flows in the United States. In an attempt to avoid public scrutiny, in 1899 Standard Oil was reorganized as the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, a holding company based at 26 Broadway. This did not resolve the monopoly concerns: The New York Times in 1906 said that ""every cent of [Standard Oil's subsidiaries] made found its way to 26 Broadway"". When Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States was decided in May 1911, Standard Oil was required to be broken up into several smaller firms. As a result of the decision, several subdivisions were forced to move, including Tenant Corn Refining Products Company and U.S. Steel. By December 1911, half of the company's divisions were still housed at 26 Broadway. The building ultimately served as the headquarters of the Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony, later Mobil) once the split was completed.


=== Expansion ===
After World War I, Standard Oil president Walter C. Teagle decided to greatly expand the structure by buying the neighboring buildings on the block. At the time, the area around Bowling Green was quickly developing into a shipping center within Lower Manhattan. Planning for an expansion began in 1918. To the north of the original Standard Oil Building was the 17-story Hudson Building, followed by a 21-story office building at 36-42 Broadway. Socony was reported to have purchased the latter in February 1920, paying $6 million and beating out two other bidders for the property. The next month, the company acquired or leased all four structures that stood between the existing building and Beaver Street to the south. According to The New York Times, the brokers valued the $30 million transaction as ""probably the largest real estate transaction ever closed in the city"". After the acquisitions were complete, Socony had a total frontage of 500 feet (150 m) facing Broadway, not all of which were to be part of the headquarters' expansion. This frontage was truncated soon after, as Socony sold the Arcade at 44-50 Broadway in March 1920.

In August 1920, Carrère and Hastings filed plans with the New York City Department of Buildings for enlarging 26 Broadway to 24 stories, plus a three-story pyramidal roof. The firm had previously conducted several commissions for several Socony partners. Thomas Hastings—the only living partner of Carrère and Hastings, who had helped design the Cunard Building across the street—was chosen as lead architect. Shreve, Lamb & Blake were named as the associated architects. Further details of 26 Broadway's major expansion were publicly announced in March 1921. The building was to cost $5 million and rise 480 feet (150 m), covering a lot of 40,000 square feet (3,700 m2), with a total floor area of 500,000 square feet (46,000 m2), thus becoming one of Lower Manhattan's ""largest structures"". The project included replacement of the old building's Broadway facade. The initial plans called for a small pavilion to be built atop the existing 16 stories.
Construction was complicated by the Childs Restaurants location's decision to hold out until its lease expired; the difficulty of evicting the four buildings' occupants; and a dearth of available office space in the neighborhood. As a result, the expansion was undertaken in four phases, and the plans were changed in 1921 to allow for a light court around the location of the restaurant, rather than a bulky base as first projected. The headquarters was also built with provisions for internal partitions so the leased portions of the building could be separated if the landowners ever wanted their property back when the lease expired.
The existing buildings on the site were underpinned so that existing tenants could remain until construction started on these respective sections. Work started in 1921 at the southeastern corner of the site, at Beaver and New Streets, on the site of the Lisbon Building. The section at the southwestern corner, the former Produce Exchange Bank at Broadway and Beaver Street, began two years later. Two tenants could not relocate before the construction was scheduled to start, so engineers began demolishing one building while underpinning the neighboring structure. The Welles Building on Broadway began to be demolished around 1922. The original building's brick facade on Broadway was replaced in 1924–1925, but the facade along New Street was kept in place. The last section of the site to be built was the lot occupied by Childs Restaurants, which was not developed until 1928, after the restaurant's lease had run out. The Marshall Construction Company was hired to modify the building in 1929.


=== 1930s to 1980s ===
26 Broadway was known as the ""Rockefeller address"" because the offices of John D. Rockefeller Jr. and John Sr. were in the building. Jo Davidson had sculpted a bust of the junior Rockefeller, which had been installed in the skyscraper's lobby in 1925. According to W. Parker Chase in 1932, ""many of the great firms of the nation"" were headquartered at 26 Broadway. After the construction of Rockefeller Center, the offices of both Rockefellers moved to 30 Rockefeller Plaza in 1933. The same year, Standard Oil of New Jersey (by that time, also known phonetically as Esso) announced its intention to consolidate its operations at Rockefeller Center, although it retained other offices at 26 Broadway. National Fuel Gas also moved to Rockefeller Center in 1936, and Esso moved its remaining offices to 75 Rockefeller Plaza in 1946. 
Socony, which had merged in 1931 with Vacuum Oil to form Socony-Vacuum, retained its headquarters in 26 Broadway. Socony-Vacuum started using coal to heat the building in 1941, conserving about 12,000 barrels of oil per year. Socony-Vacuum moved some of its offices back to 26 Broadway in 1947 after Esso had vacated the space. The structure was renamed the Socony-Vacuum Building in 1950. Socony-Vacuum moved to 150 East 42nd Street in 1954 and placed for sale the next year.
The building was sold to the firm of Koeppel & Koeppel in February 1956. By that May, two-thirds of the building's space had already been leased to tenants such as Anaconda Copper and First National City Bank. Standard & Poor's leased spaces at 25 and 26 Broadway starting in the late 1970s. The Museum of American Finance (MOAF) was founded in the building in 1988, initially occupying 250 square feet (23 m2) of space on the ground floor.  Alfred J. Koeppel's Independence Partners purchased the building for $16 million the following year.


=== 1990s to present ===
In 1995, 26 Broadway and several other buildings on Bowling Green were formally designated as New York City landmarks. In 2007, the building was designated as a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a National Register of Historic Places district.
S&P started leasing space at nearby 55 Water Street in 1997, vacating its former quarters at 25 and 26 Broadway. Standard & Poor's moved out in late 1999, and the vacant space was completely filled by the following April. The ownership of the building and the underlying plots remained separate until 2007, when the Chetrit Group bought the building and two of the three lots underneath for $225 million. Chetrit bought the remaining leasehold for $34.93 million in 2010; the lease had been held by the estate of Elmer Ellsworth Smathers, who had signed a 99-year lease in 1920. As of 2019, 26 Broadway is owned by Broadway 26 Waterview, while Chetrit Group is landlord for many of the interior spaces, and Newmark Group is the landlord's broker.
The subsequent years also saw the departure or closure of several tenants. The MOAF opened a gallery at the building's 24 Broadway entrance in 1992, which was moved to the 28 Broadway entrance in 1996, and the entire museum finally relocated to 48 Wall Street in 2006. The Sports Museum of America opened within the building in 2008, but the museum quickly went into debt because of low patronage, and it closed in 2009. Starting in 2008, the PS 234 elementary school was supposed to have used 26 Broadway to alleviate classroom overcrowding at its main campus, but 26 Broadway was subsequently deemed ""not appropriate for kindergartners"" because the students would have to use elevators to reach the proposed classroom space. Additionally, Dowling College Manhattan was in the Standard Oil Building until it closed in 2016.


== Tenants ==

As of 2020, tenants include Cornell University's College of Architecture, Art, and Planning, Olo, SecondMarket, SpeechCycle, and JDRF. The New York Film Academy, leased the entire 12th floor in 2014. Other tenants include the coworking company Primary, the law firm Schlam Stone & Dolan, and the design company Ustwo Studio.
The largest tenant of 26 Broadway is the New York City Department of Education (NYCDOE), and the building contains numerous schools and offices administered by the NYCDOE. The Lower Manhattan Community School, a middle school, serves grades 6–8. A second middle school, the New York City Charter School of the Arts, also serves grades 6-8 and moved into the building in 2018. A third, the Urban Assembly School of Business for Young Women, is a high school serving grades 9–12, which had been founded in 2005. In addition, the New York City School Construction Authority leases the fourth through sixth floors.


== Critical reception ==
A writer for The New York Times praised the building plans in 1922, saying that the expanded building would be a ""landmark in the city skyline"". As the building was completed, architectural critics praised the design of 26 Broadway as having more emphasis on its form instead of the articulation of windows and other details. The architect C.H. Blackall, for instance, stated that the building's specialty was in its massing, with the windows and other details as ""incidents"". The British architect Charles Herbert Reilly said that ""the combination possible of stepped building and tower"", as used in 26 Broadway, could contribute to a form ""more interesting even than that of the Woolworth Building"".
When the building was completed, Charles Downing Lay called the building ""a new point of interest in [New York City's] famous skyline"". W. Parker Chase focused on the detail, describing the entrance as welcoming and the lobby and corridor as ""plain and simple"". In a book about the work of Carrère and Hastings, Mark Hewitt wrote that 26 Broadway was ""one of the supreme accomplishments of American Classicism"". Gerard Wolfe, in his 1994 book New York, a Guide to the Metropolis, wrote that the building ""formed an integral part of the lovely New York skyline"" prior to the proliferation of post–World War II office buildings.


== See also ==

List of buildings and structures on Broadway in Manhattan
List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street


== References ==


=== Notes ===


=== Citations ===


=== Sources ===

Abramson, Daniel M. (2001). Skyscraper Rivals: the AIG Building and the Architecture of Wall Street. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 9781568982441.
Chambers, Ralph W. (September 27, 1922). ""The New Standard Oil Building"". American Architect. Vol. 122. pp. 282–292 – via HathiTrust.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Hewitt, Mark (2006). Carrère & Hastings Architects. Vol. 1. New York: Acanthus Press. pp. 102–108. ISBN 978-0-926494-42-8. OCLC 69423272.
Ossman, Laurie (2011). Carrère & Hastings : the masterworks. Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-3564-5. OCLC 698332654.
""Standard Oil Building"" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. September 19, 1995.
""Standard Oil Building, New York City"". Architecture and Building. Vol. 57, no. 8. August 1925 – via HathiTrust.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain."
History of South Tyrol,"Modern-day South Tyrol, an autonomous Italian province created in 1948, was part of the Austro-Hungarian County of Tyrol until 1918 (then known as Deutschsüdtirol and occasionally Mitteltirol). It was annexed by Italy following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I. It has been part of a cross-border joint entity, the Euroregion Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino, since 2001.


== Before the 19th century ==


=== Antiquity ===
In 15 BC the region, inhabited by the Alpine population of the Raeti, was conquered by the Roman commanders Drusus and Tiberius, and its northern and eastern parts were incorporated into the provinces of Raetia and Noricum respectively, while the southern part including the lower Adige and Eisack valleys around the modern-day city of Bolzano up to present-day Merano and Waidbruck (Sublavio) became part of Roman Italy (Italia), Regio X Venetia et Histria. The mountainous area then mainly was a transit country along Roman roads crossing the Eastern Alps like the Via Claudia Augusta, settled by Romanised Illyrian and Raeti tribes which had adopted the Vulgar Latin (Ladin) language.


=== Middle Ages ===
After the conquest of Italy by the Goths in 493, Tyrol became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy in the 5th and the 6th centuries. Already in 534 the western Vinschgau region fell to the Kingdom of the Franks (Alamannia), while after the final collapse of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in 553 West Germanic Bavarians entered the region from the north. When the Lombards invaded Italy in 568 and founded the Kingdom of Italy, it also included the Duchy of Tridentum with the southernmost part of Tyrol. The border with the German stem duchy of Bavaria ran southwest of present-day Bolzano along the Adige River, with Salorno and the right bank (including Eppan, Kaltern and the area up to Lana on the Falschauer River) belonging to the Lombard kingdom. While the boundary remained unchanged for centuries, Bavarian settlers further migrated southwards down to Salorno (Salurn). The population was Christianised by the Bishops of Brixen and Trento.

In 1027 Emperor Conrad II established the Prince-bishopric of Trent in order to secure the route up to the Brenner Pass. He ceded the counties of Trento, Bolzano and Vinschgau to the Trent bishops and finally separated the territory on the east bank of the Adige River down to Mezzocorona (Deutschmetz) from the Imperial Kingdom of Italy. The Gau of Norital, including the Wipptal, the Eisacktal and the Val Badia, was granted to the newly established Prince-Bishopric of Brixen, followed in 1091 by the Puster Valley. Over the centuries, the episcopal reeves (Vögte) residing at Tirol Castle near Merano extended their territory over much of the region and came to surpass the power of the bishops who were nominally their feudal lords. The later Counts of Tyrol reached independence from the Duchy of Bavaria during the deposition of Duke Henry the Lion in 1180. Also in this period, from the late twelfth to the thirteenth centuries, have been established along the Brenner axis almost all of up-today's existing urban settlements, which can be categorized as marked-formed, not very densely populated small-towns, such as Bolzano, Merano, Sterzing or Bruneck.


=== Modern Age ===
From the 13th century they held much of their territory immediate from the Holy Roman Emperor and were elevated to Princes of the Holy Roman Empire in 1504.
Following defeat by Napoleon in 1805, the Austrian Empire was forced to cede the northern part of Tyrol to the Kingdom of Bavaria in the Peace of Pressburg. It became a member of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. Tyrol remained split between Bavaria and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy until it was returned to Austria by the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Integrated into the Austrian Empire, from 1867 it was a Kronland (Crown Land) of Cisleithania, the western half of Austria-Hungary.


== Age of nationalism ==

After the Napoleonic Era, nationalism emerged as the dominant ideology in Europe. In Italy several intellectuals and groups began to push the idea of a unified nation-state (see Risorgimento). At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was largely waged against the Austrian Empire, which was the hegemonic power in Italy and the single most powerful adversary to unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed the growing nationalist sentiment among Italian elites, most of all during 1848 revolution and the following years. Italy finally attained independence in 1861, annexed Venetia in 1866, and Latium, including Rome, in 1870.
However, for many nationalist intellectuals and political leaders, the process of unification of the Italian peninsula under a single national state was not complete. This was because several areas inhabited by Italian-speaking communities remained under what was seen as foreign rule. This situation gave rise to the idea that parts of Italy were still unredeemed, hence Italian irredentism became an important ideological component of the political life of the Kingdom of Italy: see Italia irredenta.
In 1882 Italy signed a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany (see Triple Alliance). However, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about the alignment with Austria-Hungary, still perceiving it as the historical enemy of Italy. In the years before World War I, many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would change sides.
Italy declared its neutrality at the beginning of World War I, because the Triple Alliance was a defensive one, requiring its members to come under attack to come into effect. Many Italians were still hostile to Austrian historical and continuing occupation of ethnically Italian areas. Austria-Hungary requested Italian neutrality, while the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France and Russia) demanded its intervention. Many people in Italy wanted the country to join the conflict on the side of the Triple Entente, with the aim of gaining the ""unredeemed"" territories.
Under the secret Treaty of London, signed in April 1915, Italy agreed to declare war against the Central Powers in exchange for (among other things) territorial gains in the Austrian crown lands of Tyrol, Küstenland and Dalmatia, homeland of large Italian minorities. War against the Austro-Hungarian Empire was declared on May 24, 1915.
In October 1917, the Italian army was defeated in the Battle of Caporetto, and was forced back to a defensive line along the Piave river. In June 1918, an Austro-Hungarian offensive against the Piave line was repulsed (see Battle of the Piave River). On October 24, 1918, Italy launched its final offensive against the Austro-Hungarian Army, which consequently collapsed (see Battle of Vittorio Veneto). The armistice of Villa Giusti was signed on November 3. It came into force at 3.00 pm on November 4. In the following days the Italian Army completed the occupation of all Tirol (including Innsbruck), according to the armistice terms.


== Annexation by Italy ==

Under the secret Treaty of London (1915), Italy ""shall obtain the Trentino, Cisalpine Tyrol with its geographical and natural frontier (the Brenner frontier)"" and after the ceasefire of Villa Giusti (November 3, 1918) Italian troops occupied uncontested the territory and as stipulated in the ceasefire agreement marched into North Tyrol and occupied Innsbruck and the Inn valley.
During the negotiations between Austria and the victorious Entente powers in Saint-Germain a petition for help, signed by all the mayors of South Tyrol, was presented to US President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson had announced his Fourteen Points to a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1918, and the mayors reminded him of point 9:

""A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.""
But when the Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed on September 10, 1919, Italy was given by Article 27, section 2 the ethnic German territories south of the Alpine watershed.
It has been claimed that Wilson later complained about the annexation:

""Already the president had, unfortunately, promised the Brenner Pass boundary to Orlando, which gave to Italy some 150,000 Tyrolese Germans-an action which he subsequently regarded as a big mistake and deeply regretted. It had been before he had made a careful study of the subject....""
As Italy had not yet adopted the toponymy created by Ettore Tolomei, all the names of locations in the treaty, except the Adige river, were in German (the same monolingual German approach to local names as in the Treaty of London).

At first, the territory was governed by a military regime under General Guglielmo Pecori-Giraldi, directly subordinated to the Comando Supremo. One of the first orders was to seal the border between South Tyrol and Austria. People were not allowed to cross, and the postal service and the flow of goods were interrupted; censorship was introduced and officials not born in the area were dismissed. On November 11, 1919, General Pecori-Giraldi proclaimed in the name of King Victor Emmanuel III in Italian and German: ""... Italy is willing, as sole united nation with full freedom of thought and expression, to allow nationals of other language the preservation of their own schools, private institutions and associations."" On December 1, 1919 the King promised in a speech: ""a careful maintenance of local institutions and self-administration""
Italy formally annexed the territories on October 10, 1920. The administration passed from the military to the new Governatorato della Venezia Tridentina (Governorate of Venezia Tridentina) under Luigi Credaro. The term Venezia Tridentina had been proposed in 1863 by the Jewish linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli from Gorizia, who sought to include all of the territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire claimed by Italy into a wider region called Venezia (the Julian March was accordingly named Venezia Giulia). The Governatorato included the present-day region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the three Ladin communes of Cortina, Colle Santa Lucia and Livinallongo, today in the Province of Belluno. The northern part of Tyrol, comprising North Tyrol and East Tyrol, became what is today one of the nine federal states of Austria.
On January 21, 1921, the Governatorato, while retaining military and police control, ceded administrative control to the new provincial council of the Provincia di Venezia Tridentina in Trento. On May 15, 1921, the people of the area participated for the first (and until April 18, 1948, the only) free and democratic elections (the people of Venezia Tridentina and Venezia Giulia did not participate in the general election of June 2, 1946). The result was a resounding victory for the Deutscher Verband (German Association), which won close to 90% of the votes and thus sent four deputies to Rome.


== Rise of fascism ==
Up to this time, the German-speaking population had not been subjected to violence and nor had the Italian authorities interfered with its cultural activities, traditions and schooling. This was about to change with the rise of fascism. The first hint of what was to come was experienced by the German population on Sunday April 24, 1921. The population of Bolzano-Bozen had organized a Trachtenumzug (a procession in traditional local costume) to celebrate the opening of the spring trade fair. The General Civil Commissioner of the province, Luigi Credaro, had been warned in advance by his colleagues from Mantua, Brescia, Verona and Vicenza of the intention of the fascists there to go to Bolzano-Bozen to disrupt the procession, but did not take any precautions. After arriving by train in Bolzano-Bozen the approximately 280 out-of-province fascists were joined by about 120 from Bolzano-Bozen, and proceeded to attack the procession with clubs, pistols and hand grenades. The teacher Franz Innerhofer from Marling was shot dead and around 50 people injured in the attack. After the attack the military intervened and escorted the fascists back to the station. Although Credaro, under orders from the Italian Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, had two suspects in Innerhofer's murder arrested, nobody was brought to justice for the attack, as Benito Mussolini had threatened to come to Bolzano-Bozen with 2,000 fascists to free the two suspects by force if they were not set free immediately. Mussolini made clear his policies regarding the people of South Tyrol:

""If the Germans on both sides of the Brenner don't toe the line, then the fascists will teach them a thing or two about obedience. Alto Adige is Italian and bilingual, and no one would even dream of trying forcibly to Italianize these German immigrants. But neither may Germans imagine that they might push Italy back to Salorno and from there to the Lago di Garda. Perhaps the Germans believe that all Italians are like Credaro. If they do, they’re sorely mistaken. In Italy, there are hundreds of thousands of Fascists who would rather lay waste to Alto Adige than to permit the tricolore that flies above the Vetta d’Italia to be lowered. If the Germans have to be beaten and stomped to bring them to reason, then so be it, we’re ready. A lot of Italians have been trained in this business.""


=== Italianization ===

In October 1922, the new Fascist government rescinded all the special dispensations that protected linguistic minorities.
The Italianization program had been started, and the Fascist regime charged Achille Starace and Ettore Tolomei (a nationalist from Rovereto) to drive it.
Tolomei's ""program in 23 points"" was adopted. Among other things it decreed:

exclusive use of Italian in the public offices;
closure of the majority of the German schools;
incentives for immigrants from other Italian regions.
The first forms of opposition to the regime appeared in 1925: a priest, Michael Gamper, opened the first ""Katakombenschulen"", clandestine schools where teachers taught in German.
In 1926 the ancient institution of communal autonomy was abolished. Throughout Italy the ""podestà"", appointed by the government, replaced the mayors and had to report to the ""prefetti"".
A large industrial zone in Bolzano opened in 1935. It was followed by the immigration of many workers and their families from other parts of Italy (mainly from Veneto).
In this period of oppression, National Socialist propaganda became more and more successful among young South Tyroleans, leading in 1934 to the formation of the illegal local Nazi organization of the Völkischer Kampfring Südtirols (VKS).


=== German-Italian option agreement ===

Adolf Hitler never claimed any part of the Southern Tyrol for his Third Reich, even before the alliance with Benito Mussolini; in fact in Mein Kampf (1924) he claimed that Germans were just a small and irrelevant minority in Southern Tyrol (this definition including also Trentino) and he acknowledged the German portion of Southern Tyrol as a permanent possession of Italy. Hitler writes in Book II of Mein Kampf, ""But I do not hesitate to declare that, now the dice have fallen, I not only regard a reconquest of the South Tyrol by war as impossible, but that I personally would reject it in the conviction that for this question the flame of national enthusiasm of the whole German people could not be achieved to a degree which would offer the premise for victory.""
In 1939, both dictators in order to solve any further dispute agreed to give the German-speaking population a choice in the South Tyrol Option Agreement: they could emigrate to neighbouring Germany (including annexed Austria) or stay in Italy and accept complete Italianisation.
The South Tyrolean population was deeply divided. Those who wanted to stay (Dableiber) were condemned as traitors; those who left (Optanten), the majority, were defamed as Nazis. There was a plan to relocate the Optanten in Crimea (annexed to Greater Germany), but most were resettled in German-annexed Western Poland, where they were expelled or killed after the war. Because of the outbreak of World War II, this agreement was only partially carried out.
In 1939 Mussolini decided to build an Alpine Wall, a military fortification to defend Italy's northern land border.


== Annexation by Nazi Germany ==
In 1943, Mussolini was deposed and Italy surrendered to the Allies, who had invaded southern Italy via Sicily. German troops promptly invaded and occupied northern Italy to help Mussolini's side against the Allies and new Italy, and South Tyrol became part of the Operation Zone of the Alpine Foothills, along with Operation Zone of the Adriatic Littoral de facto annexed to Greater Germany. Many German-speaking South Tyroleans, after years of linguistic oppression and discrimination by Fascist Italy, wanted revenge upon ethnic Italians living in the area (particularly in the larger cities) but were mostly prevented from doing so by the occupying Nazis, who still considered Mussolini head of the Italian Social Republic and wanted to preserve good relations with the Italian Fascists, still supporting Mussolini against the Allies. Although the Nazis were able to recruit South Tyrolean youth and to capture local Jews, they prevented anti-Italian feelings from getting out of hand. Mussolini, who wanted to set up his new pro-German Italian Social Republic in Bolzano, was still a Nazi ally.
The region largely escaped fighting, and its mountainous remoteness proved useful to the Nazis as a refuge for items looted from across Europe. When the US 88th Infantry Division occupied South Tyrol from May 2 to May 8, 1945, and after the total unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945, it found vast amounts of precious items and looted art treasures. Among the items reportedly found were railway wagons filled with gold bars, hundreds of thousands of metres of silk, the Italian crown jewels, King Victor Emmanuel's personal collection of rare coins, and scores of works of art looted from art galleries such as the Uffizi in Florence. It was feared that the Germans might use the region, along with other Nazi-owned territories to make a last-ditch stronghold in the Alps to fight to the bitter end, and from there direct Werwolf activities in Allied-controlled territories, but this did not occur due to the suicide of Hitler, the disintegration and chaos of the Nazi apparatus and the rapid Nazi German surrender thereafter.


== After World War II ==


=== First Austrian-Italian agreement ===

In 1945 the South Tyrolean People's Party (Südtiroler Volkspartei) was founded, mainly by Dableiber, who had elected to stay in Italy after the agreement between Hitler and Mussolini.
As the Allies had decided that the province should remain a part of Italy, Italy and Austria negotiated an agreement in 1946, recognizing the rights of the German minority. This led to the creation of the Trentino-Alto Adige/Tiroler Etschland region, a new name for ""Venezia Tridentina"". German and Italian were both made official languages, and German-language education was permitted. But as the Italians were the majority in the region, self-government of the German minority was impossible.
Together with the arrival of new Italian-speaking migrants, this led to strong dissatisfaction among South Tyroleans, which culminated in terrorist acts perpetrated by the Befreiungsausschuss Südtirol (BAS–Committee for the liberation of South Tyrol). In a first phase only public buildings and fascist monuments were targeted. One of the most notable attacks was the Night of Fire, when the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee destroyed a number of electricity pylons. The second phase was bloodier, costing 21 lives (among them four activists and 15 Italian policemen and soldiers), four of them during a BAS ambush at Cima Vallona, province of Belluno, on 25 June 1967.
The South Tyrolean question (Südtirolfrage) became an international issue. As the implementation of the post-war agreement was not seen as satisfactory by the Austrian government, the matter became the cause of significant friction with Italy and was taken up by the United Nations in 1960. A fresh round of negotiations took place in 1961 but this proved unsuccessful.


=== The second agreement ===
Eventually, international (especially Austrian) public opinion and domestic considerations led the Italian government to consider a ""Second statutory order"" and to negotiate a package of reforms that produced the ""Autonomy Statute"", which virtually delinked the mostly German-speaking province of South Tyrol from the Trentino. The new agreement was signed in 1969 by Kurt Waldheim for Austria and by Aldo Moro for Italy. It stipulated that disputes in South Tyrol would be submitted for settlement to the International Court of Justice in The Hague, that the province would receive greater autonomy within Italy, and that Austria would not interfere in South Tyrol internal affairs. The agreement proved broadly satisfactory and the separatist tensions soon eased.
The new autonomous status, granted from 1972 onwards, has resulted in a considerable level of self-government, also due to the large financial resources of the province of Bolzano/Bozen, retaining almost 90% of all levied taxes.
It took a further 20 years for the reforms to be fully implemented, the last in 1992. After a debate in Parliament, Vienna declared the dispute closed. On June 18, 1992 the release was signed by Italy and Austria in New York, in front of the United Nations building.
Today, South Tyrol is peaceful and the wealthiest Italian province, enjoying a high degree of autonomy. It has strong relations with the Austrian state of Tyrol, especially since Austria's 1995 entry into the European Union, which has led to a common currency and a de facto disappearance of the borders.
The whole historic region of Tyrol, comprising the Austrian state of Tyrol and the Italian Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, forms a Euroregion, a region of intensified cross-border cooperation within the EU, called ""Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino"", and a joint Tyrolean parliament has been established, albeit with limited powers.


== Linguistic and demographic history ==
At the time of its annexation, South Tyrol was inhabited by a large German-speaking majority. According to the census of 1910, which listed four groups according to their spoken language, the area was inhabited by approximately 89% German speakers, 3.8% Ladin, 2.9% Italian, and 4.3% speakers of other languages of the Austrian Empire, altogether 251,000 people. According to some sources, the census did not include some 9000 immigrants from Italy. However, from the official provincial statistics of the ""Autonomous Province of South Tyrol"" it appears that Italian citizens were indeed registered in the census, although not necessarily as Italian speakers.
In the following, the population is listed by language group, according to the censuses undertaken from 1880 to 2001. In absolute numbers:

In percentages:


== Secessionist movement ==

Given the region's historical and cultural association with neighboring Austria, calls for the secession of South Tyrol and its reunification with Austria are notable in the local and national political climate. Polls conducted in 2013 noted that 46% of South Tyrol's population would favor secession from Italy. Among the political parties that support South Tyrol's reunification into Austria are South Tyrolean Freedom, Die Freiheitlichen and Citizens' Union for South Tyrol.


== See also ==
Timeline of Bolzano


== Notes and references ==


== Bibliography ==
Paula Sutter Fichtner (2009). ""South Tyrol"". Historical Dictionary of Austria. USA: Scarecrow Press. pp. 282+. ISBN 978-0-8108-6310-1.
Georg Grote, Hannes Obermair (2017). A Land on the Threshold. South Tyrolean Transformations, 1915–2015. Oxford, Bern, New York: Peter Lang. pp. 417+. ISBN 978-3-0343-2240-9.
Giovanni Bernardini, Günther Pallaver (2017). Dialogue against Violence. The Question of Trentino-South Tyrol in the International Context. Bologna, Berlin: Il Mulino - Duncker & Humblot. pp. 256+. ISBN 978-88-15-27340-6.


== External links ==
 Media related to History of South Tyrol at Wikimedia Commons

""South Tyrol/Südtirol—History of Tyrol & the Dolomites"". South Tyrol Information. 2009. Archived from the original on 2012-08-15. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
Anthony Alcock, The South Tyrol Autonomy. County Londonderry/Bozen-Bolzano, May 2001. Retrieved on 2009-03-16."
The Brave Express Might Gaine,"The Brave Express Might Gaine (勇者特急マイトガイン, Yūsha Tokkyū Maitogain) is a robot anime television series premiered in japan in 1993, created by Takara and Sunrise under the direction of Shinji Takamatsu, and was the fourth installment of the Brave series.


== Story ==
In the year 1950 the world's supply of oil ran out, forcing humanity to adopt locomotives as their primary transports instead of automobiles. In 2049, billionaire and crime-fighting teenager Maito Senpuuji takes up his father's company and assets at the age of only 15. Taking control of the Brave Express team of robots that his late father created, Senpuuji and his free thinking robot team takes on the crime lords that plague Nouvelle Tokyo City, formely Tokyo Bay.


== Characters ==


=== Heroes ===
Maito Senpuuji (旋風寺舞人, Senpūji Maito)
Voiced by Nobuyuki Hiyama
A 15-year-old billionaire who is the president of Senpuuji Enterprise and the commander of the Brave Express team (勇者特急隊, Yūsha Tokkyū Tai). He pilots the Might Wing, Might Kaiser, and both Might Gaine and Great Might Gaine both with the assistance of Gaine. Whenever villains cause trouble, he is the one who stops their plans. His parents were killed three years ago in a serious bullet train accident.
Sally Yoshinaga (吉永サリー, Yoshinaga Sarī)
Voiced by Akiko Yajima
The main heroine, a high school student who tends to get involved in the crimes committed by the villains with no reason, but Mighto always comes to rescue her. They get to know each other because of that. She becomes the girlfriend of Maito during the course of the series. Her little brother, Tetsuya, idolizes Might Gaine. Her father is severely ill, so she must take up part-time jobs to sustain the family. At the end of the series, Sally and Mighto eventually get married.
Mitsuhiko Hamada (浜田満彦, Hamada Mitsuhiko)
Voiced by Masami Kikuchi
A friend of Maito and a mechanic, he is the one who helped to reinvent the Bombers.
Aoki Keiichiro (青木桂一郎, Keiichiro Aoki)
Voiced by Kazuhiko Kishino
Maito's butler and father figure throughout the series.
Izumi Matsubara (松原いずみ, Matsubara Izumi)
Voiced by Yuri Amano
Maito's secretary and older sister figure throughout the series.
Yuujiro Senpuuji (旋風寺裕次郎, Senpūji Yūjirō)
Voiced by Ritsuo Sawa
Maito's crochety and eccentric grandfather. He is the founder of Senpuuji Enterprise.
Jirou Osaka (大阪次郎, Ōsaka Jirō)
Voiced by Naoki Makishima
The director of Senpuuji Engineering Aoidou Depot and the technical director of the Brave Express team.
Shouichirou Ozawa (小沢昭一郎, Ozawa Shōichirō)
Voiced by Hirohiko Kakegawa
The police officer in Nouvelle Tokyo City. He supports the actions of the Brave Express team.


=== Villains ===
Wolfgang (ウォルフガング, Worufugangu)
Voiced by Masaharu Satō
A German professor of robot technology, he holds the ambition that makes the strongest robot in the world. Hiryu and Goryu were constructed by him. He also fabricated the Innocent Wave amplifier to help Maito to defeat Black Noir.
Hoi Kow Lou (ホイ・コウ・ロウ, Hoi Kō Rō)
Voiced by Yū Shimaka
A don of the Asian Mafia from China, Lou is easily recognizable due to his large, bump-covered nose and a loud green bird perched on his shoulder. He sells various robots to the highest bidder in order to commit crimes. After losing control over the Mafia due to Purple's intervention, he ends up selling ramen.
Catherine Vuitton (カトリーヌ・ヴィトン, Katorīnu Viton)
Voiced by Shōko Kanoki (Anime), Yuriko Fuchizaki (Super Robot Wars V)
A French woman, a boss of ""Pink Cat"" the confederacy of thieves. To keep her beauty, she often steals the jewel and the adornment for her desire.
Shogun Mifune (ショーグン・ミフネ, Shōgun Mifune)
Voiced by Kiyoyuki Yanada
An American who is dressed in Samurai style. He plots to reconquer all of Japan, to regain an old-fashioned, traditional Japanese culture.
Joe Rival (雷張 ジョー, Raibaru Jō)
Voiced by Hikaru Midorikawa
The rival of Maito, also well known as ""Joe the Ace"". He used to be an ace pilot in the army. Wolfgang gives him Hiryu (飛龍, Hiryū, Flying Dragon) and Goryu (轟龍, Gōryū, Mighty Dragon) in order to defeat Might Gaine. Later in the series, He discovered Exeve is the person responsible for his father's death, then he turned against him. In the finale, he piloted Gouryu to kill Exeve using the drill to avenge his father.
Exev (エグゼブ, Eguzebu)
Voiced by Masashi Sugawara
The president of Treasure Robotics Corporation, he was a politician before being brainwashed by Black Noir. He was responsible for the deaths of Maito's parents and Joe's father. In the finale, he was finally killed by Joe using Gouryu's drill.
Purple (パープル, Pāpuru)
Voiced by Katsumi Suzuki
A rock star who works for Black Noir. He setup a trap to take over Hoi Kow Lou's mafia. He was killed by Great Might Gaine using Perfect Cannon in the second last episode.
Black Noir (ブラックノワール, Burakkunowāru)
Voiced by Rin Mizuhara
The final boss, appears throughout the series starting in episode 41. Powers include baptizing machines in a dark light that causes them to mutate, emitting red energy bolts, a giant floating fortress with regenerative properties, and wind-like shockwave. It's eventually revealed that she was the great threat that made Maito's father create the Brave Express team, and the one who brainwashed Exeve and Purple. She appears as an energy being inside a giant chamber. However, her aura can be eliminated by a powerful Innocent Wave. Before the finale, her aura was eliminated twice by Sally's powerful Innocent Wave, allowing Great Might Gaine to defeat her mutant robot army. Wolfgang is the first person to discover her weakness, and thus to fabricate the Innocent Wave amplifier. He also requested his subordinate to send the amplifier to Maito. During the final battle, she reveals that she is an entity from the third dimension, and that Maito's world is the second dimension. This is all part of a game that was created by a certain person for her to play. She refers everyone in Maito's world as ""pawns"" and calls Maito ""a pawn that was given a role of a Hero."" She is defeated when Sally, who can generate a powerful Innocent Wave and also incredibly amplified, eliminates her aura to allow Might Gaine to finish her off with a double Dou-Rin-Ken attack. Before she dies, she realizes that she was also a pawn in this game to act as the final boss in this world, ironically.


== Mechanics ==


=== Brave Express Team ===


==== Might Gaine Team ====
Great Might Gaine Perfect Mode (グレートマイトガイン・パーフェクトモード, Gurēto Maito Gain Pāfekuto Mōdo) (Voiced by Daiki Nakamura) - Great Might Gaine's final form with Might Gunner forming a shoulder-mounted Perfect Cannon. The Perfect Cannon is an immensely powerful weapon, but has a drawback of significantly reducing the mobility.
Great Might Gaine (グレートマイトガイン, Gurēto Maito Gain) (Voiced by Daiki Nakamura) - The Great Combiner of the series, the combination of both Might Gaine and Might Kaiser.
Might Gaine (マイトガイン, Maito Gain) (Voiced by Daiki Nakamura) - The combined robot of Gaine, Might Wing and Locomorizer. This is the series' main mecha.
Gaine (ガイン, Gain) (Voiced by Daiki Nakamura) - A super artificially intelligent robot with the ability to transform into a train (Shinkansen 300 Series). Gaine becomes the left arm of Might Gaine when combined with the Might Wing and the Locomorizer. When Maito pilots Might Kaiser, Gaine's AI takes control of Might Gaine.
Might Wing (マイトウィング, Maito Wingu) - Maito's personal train(Shinkansen 400 Series), it also has a jet mode. The Might Wing becomes the right arm of Might Gaine when combined with Gaine and the Locomorizer.
Locomorizer (ロコモライザー, Rokomoraizā) - A giant Breitspurbahn steam locomotive. It becomes the core component of Might Gaine, forming the torso, the legs and the head when combined with the Might Wing and Gaine. It can also expand its rear section to carry the train modes of Gaine and the Might Wing.
Might Kaiser/Kaiser Jet (マイトカイザー / カイザージェット, Maito Kaizā / Kaizā Jetto) - Two alternate combinations (robot mode or jet mode) of the Kaiser Machines 1–5, the Kaiser Drill and the Kaiser Carrier, piloted by Maito. It forms the body additions of Great Might Gaine. This is the series' secondary main mecha.
Drill Express (ドリル特急, Doriru Tokkyū, Drill Express) - This is the combined train form of the Kaiser Drill and Kaiser Carrier.
Kaiser Drill (カイザードリル, Kaizā Doriru) - A drill locomotive that pulls the Kaiser Carrier, piloted by Maito. When forming Might Kaiser with the Kaiser Machines, it forms the torso, the head and the thighs.
Kaiser Carrier (カイザーキャリア, Kaizā Kyaria) - A railroad car that carries the Kaiser Machines. It is pulled by Kaiser Drill. Kaiser Carrier also holds the wings and chest emblem of Might Kaiser.
Kaiser Machines (カイザーマシン, Kaizā Mashin) - Numbered 1 to 5, initially stored in the Kaiser Carrier. Kaiser 1 is a very light jet that becomes the breastplate of Might Kaiser. Kaiser 2 is a drill vehicle that becomes the right arm of Might Kaiser. Kaiser 3 is a mobile crane that becomes the left arm of Might Kaiser. Kaiser 4 is a deep-sea exploration vehicle that becomes the right leg of Might Kaiser. Kaiser 5 is a bulldozer that becomes the left leg of Might Kaiser.
Might Gunner/Bullet Express/Perfect Cannon (マイトガンナー / 弾丸特急 / パーフェクトキャノン, Maito Gannā / Dangan Tokkyū / Pāfekuto Kyanon) (Voiced by Katsumi Suzuki) - A robot that can transform into a steam locomotive (as the Bullet Express) or a cannon (as the Perfect Cannon). The cannon component is Might Gunner's chest when in robot mode. He becomes a shoulder-mounted cannon for Great Might Gaine Perfect Mode.


==== Bombers (ボンバーズ, Bonbāzu) ====
The Bombers are a group of artificially intelligent robots, each capable of transforming into a robot, a train and an animal they are designed after, and an alternate armored version of a train. The first three or all four of the Bombers, in their armored train forms, are known as the Animal Express (アニマル特急, Animaru Tokkyū) when linked together. The typical order is Lio Bomber > Dino Bomber > Bird Bomber (> Horn Bomber).

Battle Bomber (バトルボンバー, Batoru Bonbā) (Voiced by Naoki Makishima) - Super robot formed by all the Bombers, the powered-up form of Tribomber. It has a lion head extending from a neck as an ornament on its chest.
Tribomber (トライボンバー, Toraibonbā) (Voiced by Naoki Makishima) - Super robot formed by Lio Bomber, Bird Bomber and Dino Bomber. It has a Shinkansen 200 Series train head as the chest.
Lio Bomber (ライオボンバー, Raio Bonbā) (Voiced by Naoki Makishima) - The leader of the Bombers. He can transform into a robot, a train (Shinkansen 200 Series Type 2000) and a lion.  When forming Tribomber or Battle Bomber, Lio Bomber becomes the torso and the head.
Dino Bomber (ダイノボンバー, Daino Bonbā) (Voiced by Hirohiko Kakegawa) - He can transform into a robot, a train (651 series) and a dinosaur. When forming Tribomber or Battle Bomber, Dino Bomber becomes the right side of the combination, forming the arm, the waist and the leg.
Bird Bomber (バードボンバー, Bādo Bonbā) (Voiced by Masami Kikuchi) - He can transform into a robot, a train (253 series) and a bird.  When forming Tribomber or Battle Bomber, Bird Bomber becomes the left side of the combination, forming the arm, the waist and the leg.
Horn Bomber (ホーンボンバー, Hōn Bonbā) (Voiced by Naoki Makishima) - He can transform into a robot, a train (Shinkansen 100 Series) and a Triceratops.  When forming Battle Bomber, Horn Bomber becomes the head, breastplate, a shoulder cannon and wings.


==== Divers (ダイバーズ, Daibāzu) ====
The Divers are a group of artificially intelligent robots designed for rescue purposes.

Guard Diver/Rescue Express (ガードダイバー / レスキュー特急, Gādo Daibā / Resukyū Tokkyū) (Voiced by Ryōtarō Okiayu) - Two combinations formed by the four Divers. Guard Diver is a super robot, and the Rescue Express is a combined high-speed train (SNCF TGV Sud-Est).
Fire Diver (ファイアダイバー, Faia Daibā) (Voiced by Ryōtarō Okiayu) - The leader of the Divers.  He can transform into a fire engine.  When combined with the other Divers to form Guard Diver, Fire Diver forms the arms, upper torso and head.
Police Diver (ポリスダイバー, Porisu Daibā) (Voiced by Naoki Makishima) - He can transform into a police car (Lotus Esprit Mk4).  When combined with the other Divers to form Guard Diver, Police Diver forms the lower torso, the waist and the upper legs.
Jet Diver (ジェットダイバー, Jetto Daibā) (Voiced by Masami Kikuchi) - He can transform into a jet (McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet).  When combined with the other Divers to form Guard Diver, Jet Diver forms the left lower leg.
Drill Diver (ドリルダイバー, Doriru Daibā) (Voiced by Hirohiko Kakegawa) - He can transform into a drill tank.  When combined with the other Divers to form Guard Diver, Drill Diver forms the right lower leg.


==== Brave Express Five-Unit Connection (勇者特急五体連結, Yūsha Tokkyū Gotai Renketsu) ====
The entire team can link into a single train. The order of the Brave Express is Drill Express (carrying Kaisers 1–5) > Locomorizer (carrying Gaine and Might Wing) > Bullet Express > Animal Express(all four) > Rescue Express.  At full speed, the trains can perform the Joint Dragon Fire attack, which engulfs the whole train in fire while rushing at full speed.


==== Great Train Fortress (大列車フォートレス, Dai Ressha Fōtoresu) ====
The fortification of the Brave Express Team, it stores Locomorizer, Animal Express, Rescue Express and Drill Express. 


=== Joe Rival ===
Hiryu: Constructed by Wolfgang, appears in episodes 11, 13, 14, 23, and 24. The design was originally from Transformers Zone's Sonic Bomber. Powers include a super sonic jet mode armed with a powerful laser cannon and wing missiles, flight, a spear with a pair of ax blades near the tip, martial arts skills, an energy gun that rivals the Moving Wheel Sword called the Hiryu Blazer, and five missiles in each leg. It once defeated Tribomber and Might Gaine, but was finally destroyed by Might Kaiser. Reappears in both Brave Saga games.
Goryu: Also constructed by Wolfgang, appears throughout the series starting in episode 26. The design was originally from Transformers Zone's Dai Atlas. It has the same combat power of Great Might Gaine. Powers include flight, speed, rocket punches attacked to chains and each armed with several gatling guns, transforming into a jet armed with a drill missile at the nose, an energy rifle stored in the right leg called the Goryu Cannon, a vulcan gun on each side of its head, and four missile pods in its torso. It can also transform into a base. Reappears in both Brave Saga games.


=== Hoi Kow Lou ===
Black Might Gaine (Voiced by Yasunori Matsumoto) : Appears in episode 16. Controlled jointly by Hoi and Chinja. The cockpit being inserted into Black Might Gaine's head is a homage to Mazinger Z when the Hover Pilder combines into Mazinger Z's head.
Black Gaine (Voiced by Yasunori Matsumoto) : Appears in episode 16. An attempt to make an evil clone of Gaine, but Hoi Kow Loon accidentally copied the heart of justice from Gaine.
Black Might Wing: Appears in episode 16. Operated by Chinja.
Black Locomorizer: Appears in episode 16.
Black Pilder: Appears in episode 16. Its purpose was to control Black Gaine through a control mask.


=== Other Criminal Mecha ===
The various mecha that have been used by the villains to fight against Might Gaine and the other members of the Brave Express Team throughout the series.

Ether 5656: Appears in episode 1. Powers include a plug in the right arm that absorbs electricity, a mouth flamethrower, and torso missile pods.
Paozuu: Appear in episode 2. Powers include assimilating with metals to grow and regenerate, foot wheels, and a pair of machine guns in the mouth of the front head.
Kengo: Appears in episode 3. Powers include a katana and flight.
Hamoloon: Appears in episode 4. Powers include a nose drill, treads, spiked fingers, and iron mice in the torso.
Churenpai: Appear in episode 5. Powers include foot treads, a right shoulder missile cannon, a machine gun, and a knife in the right arm. They heavily resemble armored troopers from Armored Trooper VOTOMS.
Probebot: Appears in episode 6. Powers include a flamethrower for the left arm and a missile pod in each shoulder.
Trainingbot: Appear in episode 6. Its only known power is a pistol.
Panzer CR-17: Appears in episode 6. Powers include projectile resistant armor and a pistol.
Yakko: Appears in episode 7. Powers include levitation, an underside eye-like heat cannon, an electric field, two projectile resistant capture cables, and a robot form.
Fromage: Appears is episode 8. Powers include spiked claws, a spiked wrecking ball in the torso called the Special Diamond Attack, and heat lasers from the anteater-like mouth.
Train Bomb: Appears in episode 9. Powers include train hijacking, exploding if it goes below 45 kilometers an hour, homing rocket turrets, and a robotic upper half disguised as Ma-Bo-Jyan's blimp armed with propellers for arms.
Ninja: Appears in episode 10. Powers include a launchable chain for the right hand armed with missile pods, a sickle and spear for the left hand, a flamethrower in the ""mouth"", and agility.
Mega Sonic 8823: Appears in episode 11. Powers include flight, a 4-tube missile launcher on each shoulder, three homing rockets on each hip plate, and a radiation gun on the right arm. Also based on Sonic Bomber.
Mylenes: Appear in episodes 12 and 36. Powers include flight, a pair of machine guns on the head, a vacuum used to steal jewelry, sonic waves from the end of the abdomen, tracking missiles, reformation, and combining into Milenian.
Milenian: Appears in episode 12. Powers include sonic waves from the top of the thorax and flight.
Assassinbot: Appears in episode 13. Its only known power is a machine gun on each pectoral.
Death Fire: Appears in episode 13. Its only known power is a large Winchester rifle.
Chivalry Robot: Appears in episode 14. Powers include foot treads and a katana.
Gang Robot: Appears in episode 14. Powers include foot treads and a tommy gun.
Karate: Appears in episode 15. Powers include karate skills and projectile resistance.
Gunger: Appears in episode 16. Powers include a 5-tube missile launcher on each shoulder, a pair of machine guns for the right arm, a torso flamethrower, and spider-like robotic probes.
Mars 1133: Appears in episode 17. Powers include a 4-barreled gatling in each pectoral and claw hands.
Stark 4126: Appears in episode 17. Powers include a 3-tube missile launcher in the torso, clamp hands, a red energy cannon in the forehead, levitation, and foot spikes for walking at various angles.
Kruta: Appears in episode 18. Powers include a chainsaw arm, a pair of shovel claw arms, a claw crane arm, a drill arm, an underside drill, bombs, a machine gun, four red electric tentacle arms, a rocket launcher, a pair of lightning bolt rods, four cannons, and a chained mace.
Octopussy: Appears in episode 18. Powers include flight, six extensible tentacles with regenerative properties, and six energy cannons in the head.
Ashura: Appears in episode 19. Powers include a helicopter mode, six launchable arms, three flamethrowers and yellow lasers in its rotating head, levitation, and a resistance to heat.
Cool Mint 3636 Sentry 1: Appears in episode 21. Its only known power is having five missile launchers in the torso.
Cool Mint 3636 Sentry 2: Appears in episode 21. Its only known power is having a 3-tube missile pod in each side of its torso.
Cool Mint 3636: Appears in episode 21. Powers include a truck form, a pair of machine guns in each wrist, a gunk gun ob the torso that jams electronic signals, a night vision system, and a tomahawk stored on the back.
Red Shaomai: Appears in episode 22. Powers include an automatic rifle and a Chinese sword.
Blue Shaomai: Appears in episode 22. Powers include an automatic rifle and a Chinese sword.
Krappe 4545: Appears in episode 23. Powers include a pair of crab claws and a pair of cannons on the head.
Lenglen Issue: Appear in episode 25. Powers include burrowing, seven machine guns in the torso, and combining into a brick-like dragon with eye electric bolts and burrowing.
Lingling Issue: Appear in episode 25. Powers include an electrical cannon and combining into a robot armed with a red energy cannon on each shoulder.
Dark Wind Robo: Appears in episode 26. Powers include a ninjato, high jumping, shurikens, and interference resistance.
Magic Wind Robo: Appears in episode 26. Powers include cutting wires from the fingers, high jumping, and interference resistance.
Mystic Wind Robo: Appears in episode 26. Powers include a club, melee resistant armor, a saucer-like buzzsaw mode, and interference resistance.
Nio: Appears in episode 28. Powers include a spear, twin white electric cloths from its helmet, and a 6-tube missile pod in the torso.
Sunobi: Appears in episode 29. Powers include swimming, converting sea water into ice blocks, flight, emitting heat waves by absorbing solar energy, three vulcan guns on each side of its head, ice bombs from the beak, and a green laser gun in each wing.
Guyaton: Appears in episode 30. Powers include disguising itself as a blimp, a green energy cannon on each hip each armed with pincer claw half, and a large pincer claw on the head armed with pink electric bolts.
Telecaster: Appears in episode 31. Powers include a tomahawk, a pair of energy guns in the torso with four hidden in the abdomen, and an electric wire in the left wrist.
Stratocaster: Appears in episode 31. Powers include a pair of energy guns in the torso, an electric wire in the left wrist, a pair of curved swords on the forearms, and missile launchers in the shoulders.
Doraitsuen 1313: Appears in episode 32. Powers include a pair of missile launchers in each shoulder, flight, five tentacles from the right arm that emit pink electricity, and a missile pod in each hip and knee.
Arson: Appears in episode 33. Powers include levitation, a magnet in the underside, nose missiles, and a mouth drill.
Rickenbacker: Appear in episode 34. Powers include helicopter blades in the head, a shield on the right shoulder, a machine gun for the left hand, and shoulder rocket launchers.
Pumpkin: Appears in episode 36. Powers include flight, emitting seeds of giant pumpkin plants armed with destructive vines, a long bladed scythe, yellow eye beams, and finger machine guns. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Kochou: Appears in episode 37. Powers include flight, hurricane-force winds from the wings, and emitting explosive golden powder.
Hannya: Appears in episode 37. Powers include invisibility, levitation, red energy balls from the eyes on the torso skull, a katana, four capture cables in each wrist, and a flamethrower in the torso skull mouth.
Shogun: Appears in episode 38. Powers include burrowing and a pair of katanas stored on the back. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Margarita: Appears in episode 39. Powers include speed and boar tusks.
Pression: Appears in episode 40. Powers include fast swimming and a high pressure hose in the tail and mouth.
Atlas Mark II: Appear in episode 41. Powers include morphing into a jet, a beam glaive, a pair of beam tomahawks, and a beam sword. They appear in Brave Saga. The design was originally from Dai Atlas from Transformers Zone.
Raigo: Appears in episode 42. Powers include flight and powering Raijin and Jinrai's interference.
Raijin: Appears in episode 42. Powers include flight, kung fu skills, emitting an interference signal, an electric tentacle in the right wrist, nunchucks, and sais.
Jinrai: Appears in episode 42. Powers include flight, kung fu skills, emitting an interference signal, an electric tentacle in the right wrist, and a trident.


=== Black Noir's Forces ===
Z: Appear in episodes 43, 45, and 46. Powers include a forehead beam, flight, regeneration, a broadsword the fires blue energy beams, a high resistance to energy based attacks, and a red energy field.
Y: Appear in episodes 44, 45, 46, and 47. Powers include flight, an energy rifle, and regeneration..
X: Appear in episodes 44, 45, and 46. Powers include an assault rifle, a red energy field, and regeneration.
Blanca: Appears in episodes 45 and 46. Powers include flight and a force field.
Imperial: Appears in episode 47. Powers include a highly explosive red torso beam that is stronger than the Perfect Cannon, flight, an electrical field, a high resistance to energy attacks, a broadsword, and pink energy blasts from the mouth. Reappears in Brave Saga.


== Episodes ==


== Video games ==
Might Gaine was adapted in the Brave Saga games like all other Braves entries, and was one of the series adapted in New Century Brave Wars. It was also adapted into Super Robot Wars V for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita, featuring every member of the Brave Express Team as playable characters although the individual bombers and dividers only appeared in cutscenes. Black Might Gaine is also a secret. In good faith to the show Black Noir is featured in the penultimate battle, revealing to be the author of every major conflict including incidents from other anime, and teams up with the Emperor of Darkness from Mazinger Edition Z: The Impact!. Unlike the series Black Noir is speculated by other protagonists to be a creation from a technologically advanced civilization that thought too highly of himself. Might Gaine is also featured in the spiritual follow up Super Robot Wars X on the same systems & Super Robot Wars T.


== References ==
Japan Hero https://web.archive.org/web/20100107233806/http://japanhero.com/profiles/might_gaine_profileL.htm


== External links ==
勇者特急マイトガイン (Official site)
The Brave Express Might Gaine (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia"
Mike O'Meara Show,"The Mike O'Meara Show is a daily podcast available through its website or iTunes.  The show is hosted by Mike O'Meara and includes Robb Spewak.  The Mike O'Meara Bonus Show is available every Friday to VIP members through their website or by purchasing them through iTunes.  The show is also streamed via video through their website, TMOS phone app or YouTube.


== Format ==
The show focuses on current events, politics, pop culture, sports and the lives of the members of the show.  The context of the material is discussed in a humorous manner.  The daily podcast is broadcast-friendly, whereas the Bonus Show is uncensored.  The podcasts are approximately 80 minutes long; 60 minutes are used to discuss various topics, ten minutes for current events (currently known as ""The Roundtable""), and the last ten minutes feature Robb's presentation of audio and video clips (currently known as ""The Flip Side"", due to Robb flipping his car in 2023).


== History ==
The Mike O'Meara Show was a nationally syndicated radio talk show featuring shock jocks Mike O'Meara, Buzz Burbank, and Robb Spewak.  It succeeded the Don and Mike Show after Don Geronimo retired on April 11, 2008.  Most stations which syndicated the previous show continued to air The Mike O'Meara Show via the CBS-owned Westwood One Radio Network.  The show's flagship station was 106.7 WJFK-FM in Washington, D.C. The show was named ""Best Afternoon Drive Radio Show"" in the 2008 Best of Northern Virginia list in Northern Virginia Magazine.
In July 2009, when its flagship station, 106.7 WJFK-FM, was converted to an all-sports radio station by CBS Radio, The Mike O'Meara Show was discontinued on 106.7. Simultaneously, the Westwood One Radio Network ceased syndication of the show nationwide. The term of Mike O'Meara's contract with CBS Radio ended on December 1, 2009.
On December 7, 2009, The Mike O'Meara Show returned as a podcast, and broadcast on terrestrial radio during the 5:00 p.m. drive slot on KCJJ in Coralville, Iowa, a former CBS affiliate of The Don and Mike Show.
The podcast format of The Mike O'Meara Show has taken on three incarnations. The Mike O'Meara Show is the daily podcast that is available for download around the world and kept broadcast-friendly for airing on terrestrial radio. The Mike O'Meara Bonus Hour is a weekly podcast available via subscription, which is uncensored and the topics covered extend to those typically not allowed in radio or they take on a game format. The Mike O'Meara Show RAW started as a series of three one-hour-long podcasts available via subscription, which covered topics of sex, porn and strippers. In the RAW 1.0 series, Mike and the gang entertained porn star Carmen Hart (Episode 2) and celebrated Robb's birthday by bringing in two dancers (Episode 3). RAW 3, included audio taken from the show's spring break trip to Florida.
O'Meara announced on his podcast on November 13, 2012, that ""The Mike O'Meara Show"" will be returning to the airwaves.  O'Meara, along with Burbank, Spewak and Santana, returned on January 14, 2013, to talker WTNT/730 AM; however their stay on WTNT was short-lived after that station changed formats in December 2013.
The 1,000th free episode of The Mike O'Meara Show took place on February 19, 2014, while the 2,000th free episode aired on May 4, 2018, and the 3,000th aired on January 24, 2023.
On April 3, 2024, O'Meara announced that Santana had left the show, and that the show's ties with Santana's Podville Media had been severed.  O'Meara intended to continue the show, with Spewak staying on board.


== Personalities ==
The show is hosted by Mike O'Meara. Daily segments include: The Flip Side (formerly the Audio Vault and the Digital Dumpster), produced by Robb Spewak and the Roundtable (formerly News You May Not Need), produced by Mike O'Meara.  For many years, Oscar Santana produced the entertainment report, Oscarazzi, when Mike was out of the studio, and served as the commenter every Friday for Oscar's Take in lieu of News You May Not Need.


=== Mike O'Meara ===
Michael Sean Patrick O'Meara, born  (1959-06-22) June 22, 1959 in Glastonbury, Connecticut, is the host. O'Meara worked as a bar and nightclub disc jockey and held many positions in radio. He was partnered with Don Geronimo for 23 years: first at WAVA-FM (105.1 FM) in Washington (1985–1991), then at WJFK-FM from 1991 to 2008. Mike had a one-year stint as the host of the Kirk and Mike show on WVRX-FM 105.9 The Edge, until the station flipped formats.  O'Meara is a vocal supporter of the Boston Red Sox and Washington Capitals.  O'Meara is a graduate of American University. He is the father of two daughters and one son.  Mike is known for his impersonations on the show that include former Minnesota Governor Jesse Ventura, Simon Cowell, former newsman Larry King, Regis Philbin former President Bill Clinton, and the classic musings of former D.C.  Mayor Marion Barry.


=== Robb Spewak ===
Robert Wadams Spewak, Jr., born  (1971-03-08) March 8, 1971, was the ""FOURTH man"" on The Don and Mike Show, having served as an intern, writer, and producer. He was first introduced to Don and Mike by being a frequent caller to their show. Spewak, also known as ""Robbay,"" served three times as the producer of the Don and Mike Show and was the last person to serve in that position. He is now the in-studio producer of The Mike O'Meara Show. His Audio Vault segments are a daily part of the show. A popular occasional segment features Robb hosting game shows that are variations of traditional TV game shows such as Match Game, Jeopardy!, The Dating Game and Password. Robb also hosts Quench for Knowledge in person at Quench bar and restaurant in Rockville, Maryland about once a month. He previously hosted The Robb Spewak Show, which aired Fridays on KCJJ in Iowa City. Robb is very involved in charities that raise funds towards battling lymphoma and leukemia (particularly in children) as a tribute to his son, who is a leukemia survivor. He lives in Leesburg, Virginia, with his wife Cary (born September 23; married October 12, 1996); kids Julia (born  (2000-12-18) December 18, 2000), and Robert III (born  (2002-09-30) September 30, 2002); and dog Linus. Robb has an entire area in his house devoted to Elvis Presley and owns an actual piece of the Hindenburg.


=== Former personalities ===


==== Oscar Santana ====
Best known for his work in the Big O and Dukes Show, which aired prior to The Mike O'Meara Show at WJFK, Oscar, born  (1978-03-30) March 30, 1978, is the one who convinced Mike to bring back The Mike O'Meara Show via podcast. For Oscar's effort, Mike invited him to join the show as a co-host. In a similar manner, Oscar Santana hosted The Big O and Dukes Show with Chad Dukes via podcast from 2010-2020 and ""Tech 411"" with entrepreneur Todd Moore from 2011-2019. He is also the Executive Producer of ""Dingman Bootstrapped"", a podcast featuring graduates of the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland where Oscar received his MBA in 2016.
In 2017, Santana teamed with Charlie Birney to found Podcast Village, later renamed to Podville Media.


==== Buzz Burbank ====
Buzz Burbank, whose real name is Michael J. Elston was born  (1953-10-07) October 7, 1953, was the news reporter for The Mike O'Meara Show.  He is originally from Wichita, Kansas where his father and stepmother Phyllis live.  He is a 1975 graduate of Wichita State University, where he majored in English. Burbank's career began at KLEO in Wichita in 1972. He has also worked in New York, Philadelphia, San Diego, Stereo KDWB Saint Paul/ Minneapolis and New Orleans, hosting talk and entertainment shows. He was the morning drive News Anchor at WBBM-FM in Chicago, Illinois and for Bonneville Chicago Radio Group, where he won the Associated Press award for Best Newscast. He served as news director at Fairbanks/WZZD Philadelphia.
Burbank began with Don and Mike on December 2, 1991.  Don had known him from working together in Chicago and invited him to join the show.  Since his first name is Michael, it would have caused mass confusion on-air with two people sharing the same name.  Don's real name is also Mike, so he particularly demanded they rename Mr. Elston.  Don suggested ""Buzz"", as it connotes a sense of readiness appropriately associated with a newsman.  Mike suggested the alliterative ""Burbank"" as a tip of the hat to Gary Owens, the announcer for the TV show ""Laugh-In"", whose resonant timbre is similar to Buzz's delivery (Gary Burbank, a Cincinnati radio personality, adopted his on-air name for the same reason; Buzz and Gary are in no way related).  As Gary Owens would open every episode of ""Laugh-In"" by saying ""And now, from beautiful downtown Burbank"", a reference to Burbank, California, where the show was shot, Mike suggested Elston's last name be ""Burbank"".  This joke was reinforced as Don and Mike spent many years opening their program with the phrase ""from beautiful toothless Fairfax"", a reference to Fairfax, Virginia, home of the show's flagship station, WJFK-FM.
On May 14, 2012, Buzz announced he was leaving the show to start his own news-based podcast. However, Buzz retracted his decision after an agreement between Buzz and Mike was worked out to keep Buzz on TMOS.
A year later, Buzz Burbank's departure from TMOS would become a reality. Mike O'Meara announced on May 20, 2013, that Buzz resigned after the taping of the May 17, 2013, show. Mike O'Meara stated that Buzz Burbank wished to pursue other career opportunities. The Buzz Burbank News and Comment podcast debuted on June 11, 2013, on The RELM Network.


==== Marc Ronick ====
AKA Menasha, Spaz, Chronic.  The show's former business manager was the brunt of Robb's Jew jokes.  Marc was a former intern for the old Don & Mike Show one summer back in 1993.  He reunited with Mike and the gang in January 2010 as one of their first sales executives.  On February 12, 2010 (episode 49), Mike announced that he was promoting Marc to Business Manager.
On June 28, 2013, on Podcast No. 845, Mike O'Meara formally announced Marc Ronick resigned his position.  Mike O'Meara referred to the departure as a mutual decision, stating Marc Ronick would continue to play other minor roles for the show.
Shortly thereafter, Ronick announced the launch of The RELM Network and his business partnership with Buzz Burbank and Lowell Melser (WBAL-TV).


==== R.J. Diaz ====
A.K.A. ""Inchworm,"" ""Mr. French,"" ""The Butler,"" ""The Riddler""  R.J. joined the show by volunteering to become the Chief Engineer.


==== Matt ""Pony Boy"" Bluhm ====
Pony was the executive producer, server administrator, and sole customer service rep of the show from 2013 to 2023, and he also designed multiple iterations of the show website.  He is a big fan of Japan, but not of driving at night.


==== Madeline ""Maddy"" Masiello ====
Maddy was a TMOS intern, then returned to work full time as an Associate Producer from 2018-2021.  The daughter of former Buffalo mayor Anthony Masiello, Maddy was in charge of the video feed and social media outlets.


== Characters ==
Internet Radio Tommy:  Hosts his own show, The Internet Tommy Radio Show, which airs from his mother's basement.  This wannabe disc jockey is often visited by Robb, Buzz and Oscar and is furiously picked on by his guests.
Frankie:  Mike's chihuahua.  He often stops by to speak to the rest of the show's cast to complain about Mike and explain the frequent ""presents"" he leaves for everyone in the studio.
Charly Stuangstabalack:  (voiced by Mike O'Meara) The elderly employee of the show, with the mind of a child, drops by to comment on topics every once in a while.
Sex Boy:  This immature adolescent with a deep bass voice drops by to explain the intricacies of sex.
Oscar's Papa:  He calls into the show to speak to Oscar, expresses his disappointment in him, and attempts to steal Oscar's girlfriend from him.
Bawlmer Billy Sikorsky: He is a sportscaster, known for his heavy Baltimore accent and disappointment at the state of the Baltimore Orioles; his catchphrase being ""What a nightmare!""


== Affiliates ==

KCJJ originally carried the Don and Mike Show and the Robb Spewak Show.  It is the only affiliate that the guys have visited since the inception of The Mike O'Meara Show.
In December 2013, former affiliate WTNT (AM) changed formats, leaving no place for ""TMOS"".
The show was also briefly carried on WAVD Ocean City (""The Wave 97.1 FM"") in 2016.


== References ==


== External links ==
Official website 
 Media related to The Mike O'Meara Show at Wikimedia Commons"
Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets,"Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets (Ukrainian: Всеукраїнський з'їзд Рад) was a congress of  Soviets (councils) of workers, peasants, Red-army-men deputies that took place in Kharkiv on March 6–10, 1919. The congress followed the Third Congress of the Communist Party of Ukraine that took place on March 1–6, 1919.
It was the first congress after the first reoccupation of Ukraine by Soviets. According to declaration of the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine of 28 January 1919, the congress had to be summoned no later than March 1, 1919.


== Background situation ==
On March 10, 1919, the III All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, which began on March 6, ended, which legitimized Soviet power in Ukraine, approved the course of communist construction, and approved the Constitution of the USSR as a whole.
The Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government, formed on November 28, 1918, consisted only of the Bolsheviks themselves and had dubious legitimacy. However, in the Manifesto adopted at the time of its creation (the official Ukrainian name in the Ukrainian SSR is ""Universal""), the resolution of the Central Committee of the Soviets of Ukraine dated April 13 was mentioned, which expressed the hope that the German worker would ""destroy the executioners of workers' socialist Ukraine with a powerful blow"" and that now that time has come, namely the formation of the government and the consideration of the will of the ""insurgent workers, peasants and soldiers"". However, the Manifesto also stated that ""after dealing with the counter-revolution and restoring Soviet power on the ground,"" the government ""will convene the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Peasants', and Red Army Deputies and will hand over full power in the state to it.""
On January 26, 1919, the newly reorganized government, headed by Khristiyan Rakovsky, approved the Declaration, in which the red thread was the thesis that the powers of the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government would end with the convening of the III All-Ukrainian Congress of Councils, which was scheduled for March 1, 1919. Such emphasis reassured the allies of the Bolsheviks in the war with the Directory, in particular, the influential Ukrainian Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries (Bortobists). However, it soon became clear that the Bolsheviks were not going to share power. In connection with this, one of the leaders of the strugglers, Mykhailo Poloz, wrote in a letter dated February 14 to Joseph Stalin, then a member of the Central Committee of the CP(b)U and curator of Ukraine: ""Elections at the congresses are held according to the majoritarian system, that is, the artificial creation of a majority in a few votes, a significant minority is deprived of all representation, although this minority stands entirely on the Soviet platform... Due to your party dictatorship, carried out in the almost complete absence of trained party workers in Ukraine familiar with local conditions, the idea of Soviet power is discredited even in the eyes of the workers."" .
In the same letter, Poloz, taking into account the USSR government's constant declaration of closeness to Soviet Russia and blind, without taking into account Ukrainian realities, copying of its main legislative acts, noted: ""Politics in Ukraine is carried out contrary to everything that was discussed between us. If this continues course, you will be able to hold out (and even then hardly) only by relying on foreign armed forces. It has been decided to create a ""communist"" congress of Soviets, which, apparently, should vote for merger with Russia. Orders are sent to local authorities that on ""only communists should be elected to the Congress. Congresses are held in an atmosphere of military terror.""
The Bolsheviks really got an absolute majority of delegates to the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets. Due to the actual absence of elections in rural areas, the deprivation of a significant part of the population of electoral rights and the majoritarian principle of delegation of deputies from grassroots councils, members of the CP(b)U and their sympathizers accounted for 1,435 of the total number of 1,787 deputies. The Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (UPSR, after the name of their central printed publication ""Borotba"" they were also called ""Borotbists""), which was already renamed to the UPSR (Communists) during the congress, received 150 mandates, the Ukrainian Party of Left Socialist Revolutionaries ( UPLSR) — 100 mandates, other parties — much less.
Joseph Stalin, who was in charge of matters related to the reorganization of the State Control system in the RSFSR (at the end of March, was headed by the relevant People's Commissariat in the People's Commissariat of Soviet Russia) could not come to the congress. Instead, Yakov Sverdlov, the head of the All-Russian Central Committee, was sent to Ukraine, who, shortly before his appointment, admitted in a letter to Artyom: ""Sometimes I feel horror from that wave of independence (in the original language - ""independence"" - Author) that rolls from both Ukraine and Latvia, and from Estonia, and from Belarus, etc. Do not allow this thing. Watch closely!"". Sverdlov was indeed present at the 3rd All-Ukrainian Congress of Councils, but died shortly after returning from Ukraine, according to Volodymyr Zatonsky, due to typhus, which he contracted during the congress in Kharkiv.
Neither Poloz's nor Sverdlov's fears came true. The item on ""merger"" was not on the agenda of the congress. But during the discussion of the draft Constitution of the People's Commissar of Justice of the Ukrainian SSR, Oleksandr Khmelnytskyi was asked the question: ""Clarification, can Ukraine enter the Soviet Russian Republic on a federal basis, and if not, why?"" His answer was frank: ""If we say that Ukraine is a part of the Russian Soviet Federative Republic, then the question is asked, how did we solve this issue without a master?"". That is to say, however, that such a decision has not yet been made in the Kremlin.
At the beginning of the congress, the delegates approved the decision of the RSC of the USSR adopted a few days earlier to return the capital of the USSR to Kyiv. In the course of the work of the congress, the policy of the government, which from now on formally ceased to be ""temporary"", was discussed and approved, and in the resolution on the ""military issue"" it was deemed necessary to continue work on the creation of the Red Army in Ukraine. In socio-economic issues, the course for communist construction was confirmed. In particular, when considering the food issue, the idea of replacing trade with direct food exchange and extending the state monopoly on all important food products was approved, for the procurement of which it was proposed to speed up the creation of committees of the poor (kombeds) in the village. The result of consideration of the land issue was the adoption of the law ""On Socialist Land Management and Measures for the Transition to Socialist Agriculture"", which abolished private ownership of land in any of its forms and all land became part of the state fund, along with the practice of creating agricultural communes. The All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee was also elected, which included 89 Bolsheviks and 10 fighters. Hryhoriy Petrovsky, who had previously headed the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the RSFSR, was appointed as its head.
The most important decision of the congress was the adoption on March 10 of the Constitution of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic in its entirety, according to which the USSR was declared ""an organization of the dictatorship of the working and demanding masses of the proletariat and the poorer peasantry over their age-old oppressors and exploiters - the capitalists and landlords"" (Article 1). Regarding the status, although the fears of the fighters did not come true, however, Article 4 of the Constitution stated that the USSR ""declares its firm determination to join the international socialist republic as soon as the conditions for its emergence are created"", it was also about the intention to join ""the strongest union"" with the already existing Soviet republics.
During the discussion of the draft of the Constitution presented by Oleksandr Khmelntsky, a proposal was made by the activist Vasyl Ellan-Blakytny to add that the ""authority"" establishes the full equality of all nations in Ukraine, rejecting all national privileges, eliminating the possibility of national enmity, and making it the task of the Soviet government to assist the workers of underdeveloped nations, by raising the national culture, to their best development, to the level of their direct and conscious participation in socialist construction."" It was, of course, primarily about raising the Ukrainian language and culture. Khmelnytskyi's refusal was completely frank and corresponded to the vision of the situation of the overwhelming majority of the Central Committee CP(b)U: ""I think that if we worry about the culture of each nation separately, it will be an unhealthy national burp.""
""Ukrainian SSR recognizes work as the duty of all working people of the republic and proposes the slogan: 'He who does not work, does not eat'"" — Art. 27 of the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR
The constitution consisted of three sections. The first 5 articles were the ""Basic principles"", some provisions of which we have already mentioned. The second section was entitled ""Constitution of Soviet Power"" and subsections ""a) organization of central Soviet power"" (All-Ukrainian congresses of councils, VUCVK, RNC of the USSR) and ""b) organization of local Soviet power"", where, in particular, it was also about who had and who did not have the right to elect and be elected. The third section became the ""Declaration of Rights and Duties of the Working and Exploited People of Ukraine"" approved in February, one of the clauses of which (Article 28 of the Constitution) read as follows: ""USSR recognizes work as the duty of all working people of the republic and proposes the slogan: ""Who doesn't work, he doesn't eat.""
The text of the Constitution was finally approved at the meeting of the Central Committee of the Central Committee on March 14, 1919. At the same time, an unprovided for in the Constitution, but a real power body was elected - the Presidium of the VUCVK consisting of 5 people (chairman - Hryhoriy Petrovskyi, members: Volodymyr Zatonskyi, Stanislav Kosior, Oleksandr Khmelnytskyi and Klyment Voroshilov), which acted in the period between the sessions of the VUCVK, and the personal composition of the government — the Council of People's Commissars, which was once again headed by Khristiyan Rakovsky.
The 1919 Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR lasted until May 1929, when a new Basic Law was adopted.


== Composition ==
There were 1,787 delegates out which 1,719 had a ruling vote.


== Agenda ==
Report of the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine
Military issue
Food supply issue
Land property issue
About a draft of the First Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR


== Decisions ==
The congress approved the Provisional Workers-Peasants government of Ukraine and decided to reorganize it into Workers-Peasants government of Ukraine (see Council of People's Commissars). The government included 14 people's commissariats (later on 14 March 1919 it increased to 17).
The congress set a task to establish a regular Red Army, adopted text of a military oath, approved the activity of People's Commissariat of Food Supply, decided to introduce in Ukraine a policy of military communism, adopted ""Provisions on socialist land management and about measures of transition to socialist land cultivation"".
At the congress was approved the First Constitution of Soviet Ukraine.
According to the new constitution, the congress elected 99 members to the Central Executive Committee and 27 candidates (89 – Communist Party (bolsheviks) of Ukraine, 10 – Communist Party of Ukraine (borotbists)).


== See also ==
First Rakovsky Government
3rd Congress of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine
Advance on Moscow (1919)


== References ==


== External links ==
Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets at Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia
Boiko, O. The Third all-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets (1919) (ТРЕТІЙ ВСЕУКРАЇНСЬКИЙ З'ЇЗД РАД (1919)). Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine.
Yefimenko, Hennadiy. Перша конституція радянської України. www.jnsm.com.ua"
Tsugaru clan,"The Tsugaru clan (Japanese: 津軽氏, Hepburn: Tsugaru-shi) was a Japanese samurai clan who ruled the northwestern half of what is now Aomori Prefecture in the Tōhoku region of Japan under the Edo period Tokugawa shogunate. The Tsugaru were daimyō of Hirosaki Domain and its semi-subsidiary, Kuroishi Domain. The Tsugaru were in constant conflict with their former overlords, the Nanbu clan of adjoining Morioka Domain. During the Boshin War of 1868-69, the Tsugaru clan fought mostly on the pro-imperial side, although it did briefly join the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei. In the Meiji period, the official status of the daimyō was abolished.  The former daimyō, including the Tsugaru, became part of the kazoku peerage instead, with Tsugaru Tsuguakira receiving the title of hakushaku (Count).


== Origins ==
Much about the ancestry of the Tsugaru clan is uncertain. Ōura Tamenobu was born in 1550, as the adopted son and heir of Ōura Tamenori, a retainer of the Nanbu clan, based at Sannohe Castle. He succeeded his father in 1567 or 1568 as castellan of Ōura Castle, located in what is now part of the city of Hirosaki.  According to later Tsugaru clan records, the clan was descendant from the noble Fujiwara clan and had an ancient claim to ownership of the Tsugaru region of northwestern Honshu; however, according to the records of their rivals, the Nanbu clan, Tamenobu was born as either Nanbu Tamenobu or Kuji Tamenobu, from a minor branch house of the Nanbu clan and was driven from the clan due to discord with his elder brother.
The Ōura served as hereditary vice-district magistrate (郡代補佐, gundai hosa) under the Nanbu clan's local magistrate Ishikawa Takanobu; however, in 1571 Tamenobu attacked and killed Ishikawa and began taking the Nanbu clan's castles in the Tsugaru region one after another. He captured castles at Ishikawa, Daikoji and Aburakawa, and soon gathered support of many former Nanbu retainers in the region. Tamenobu later attacked Kitabatake Akimura (another local power figure) and took his castle at Namioka.
In 1582, with the death of Nanbu Harumasa, the Nanbu clan collapsed into numerous competing factions. The 25th hereditary clan chieftain, Nanbu Harutsugu, was a boy of 13 and soon died under uncertain circumstances, and the Kunohe branch of the Nanbu clan under the warlord Kunohe Masazane began to expand its influence over the Sannohe main branch. This provided an opportunity for Ōura  Tamenobu to declare that the western Nanbu territories under his control would henceforth be independent of Nanbu rule. Proclaimed a traitor by the Nanbu clan, rivals Nanbu Nobunao and Kunohe Masazane both called for Tamenobu's death. Tamenobu, realizing that he would need to solicit outside help, approached the Mogami clan for an introduction to the regime of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Tamenobu initially departed by boat from Ajigasawa, but inclement winds blew the boat north as far as Matsumae. He made attempts to reach Hideyoshi overland in 1586, 1587 and 1588, but was blocked each time by hostile forces in the territories to the south of Tsugaru.
In 1590, Tamenobu pledged fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi; Hideyoshi confirmed Tamenobu in his holdings. As the Ōura fief had been in the Tsugaru region on the northern tip of Honshū, the family then changed its name to Tsugaru.


== In the Edo era ==
The Tsugaru clan sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu during the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, although Tsugaru Tamenobu's eldest son, Nobutake, was serving Toyotomi Hideyori as a page in Osaka Castle.
After the Tokugawa victory at Sekigahara, the Tsugaru clan remained somewhat “suspect” in the eyes of the fledgling Tokugawa shogunate as Tsugaru Tamenobu granted refuge to Ishida Mitsunari’s son and arranged for Ishida Mitsunari's daughter to marry his third son and heir, Tsugaru Nobuhira. As a result, the clan was confirmed in its original territory with only a nominal increase in kokudaka to 47,000 koku. Tsugaru Tamenobu further fueled concerns by reconstructing Hirosaki Castle on a massive scale disproportionate to the size of his territories.
The early years of the Edo era were marked by a series of major O-Ie Sōdō disturbances over the succession to the clan chieftainship. Tsugaru Nobuhira's accession was disputed by supporters of the son of Tsugaru Nobutake in the Tsugaru Disturbance (津軽騒動, Tsugaru-sōdō) of 1607. Further troubles arose in the Kōsaka Kurando's Riot (高坂蔵人の乱, Kōsaka Kurando no ran) of 1612, the Funabashi Disturbance (船橋騒動, Funabashi-sōdō) of 1634, and the Shōhō Disturbance (正保騒動, Shōhō-sōdō) of 1647.
Tsugaru Nobuhira was forced to reduce his wife to concubine status and marry a niece of Tokugawa Ieyasu to strength his political ties to the shogunate. However, he named the son by his first wife, Tsugaru Nobuyoshi as heir. His son by the niece of Tokugawa Ieyasu was made head of a subsidiary hatamoto household based in Kuroishi.
Nobuyoshi was forced to retire in 1655 for alleged misgovernment, and was replaced by his son, Tsugaru Nobumasa, who was a reformer who developed the resources of the domain. Nobumasa's son Tsugaru Nobuhisa developed the arts and cultural level of the domain, but was beset by numerous natural disasters, including bad weather and repeated eruptions of Mount Iwaki. He continued to rule from behind-the scenes during the tenure of his grandson, Tsugaru Nobuaki and great-grandson Tsugaru Nobuyasu as the domain fell further and further into debt.  Nobuyasu's son, Tsugaru Nobuakira attempted reforms, but was vexed by corrupt officials and died under suspicious circumstances in 1791 without heir.
Tsugaru Yasuchika, son of the 5th Lord of Kuroishi, was appointed daimyō of Hirosaki to succeed Nobuakira. Under his tenure, the official kokudaka of the domain was raised from 47,000 to 70,000 and then to 100,000 koku to cover the expenses of dispatching military forces to Ezo to protect Japan's northern borders. Also under Yasuchika's tenure, Kuroishi was raised in status to become Kuroishi Domain, In 1821, during his sankin kōtai journey to Edo, he survived an assassination attempt by Sōma Daisaku, a former retainer of the Nanbu clan. Although Yasuchika was a noted reformer who attempted to strength the domain, he spent a tremendous amount of money attempting to arrange prestigious marriages for his incompetent son, Tsugaru Nobuyuki, which again plunged the domain into financial crisis. Nobuyuki was eventually forced out of office in 1839 and a complete outsider, the 7th son of rōjū Matsudaira Nobuakira, lord of Yoshida Domain in Mikawa Province was adopted into the Tsugaru clan as Tsugaru Yukitsugu. Yukitsugu managed to restore order and prosperity to the domain and modernized its military forces through increased implementation of rangaku studies.


== In the Boshin War ==

During the Boshin War of 1868-69, the Tsugaru clan under its final daimyō, Tsugaru Tsuguakira, first sided with the imperial government, and attacked the forces of the nearby Shōnai Domain. However, it soon switched course, and was briefly a signatory to the pact that created the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei, before backing out, once again in favor of the imperial government. It did not take part in any of the major military action against the imperial army. The Kuroishi branch joined the Hirosaki-Tsugaru in siding with the imperial government. As a result, the clan was able to evade the punishment meted out by the government on the northern domains. After northern Honshū was pacified, Tsugaru forces joined the imperial army in attacking the Republic of Ezo at Hakodate. In return for its assistance, the Meiji government granted the Tsugaru family of Hirosaki a 10,000 koku increase. Both branches of Tsugaru daimyo were made imperial governors (藩知事, han chiji) of their domains in 1869. Two years later, as with all other daimyo, both Tsugaru lines were relieved of their offices by the abolition of the han system.


== Meiji and beyond ==
In the Meiji era, Tsugaru Tsuguakira, was ennobled with the title of count (hakushaku) under the kazoku peerage system. Tsugaru Tsugumichi, the last daimyō of the Kuroishi-Tsugaru, became a viscount (shishaku). He later worked as a director of the Number 15 National Bank (第十五国立銀行, Dai jūgo kokuritsu ginkō), and Tsugumichi became a member of the House of Peers in 1890.
Tsugaru Tsuguakira had no son, and adopted the younger son of the court noble Konoe Tadafusa, who took the name of Tsugaru Hidemaru (津軽英麿, 1872–1919) to be his heir. Hidemaru was educated in Germany, graduating from the University of Bonn, Humboldt University of Berlin and University of Geneva and after his return to Japan served in under the Japanese Resident-General of Korea from 1907-1914, and in the Ministry of the Imperial Household from 1914-1918. In 1918, he was appointed to the House of Peers.
Hidemaru was succeeded by Tsugaru Yoshitaka (津軽義孝, 1907-1994), who was born as the second son of a branch of the Owari Tokugawa clan. As his mother was the daughter of Tsugaru Tsuguakira, he was adopted by Hidemaru as heir, becoming Count and chieftain of the clan in 1919. A noted equestrian, he was involved with the creation of the Japan Racing Association.
Yoshitaka's fourth daughter, Hanako, married Prince Hitachi, the younger son of Emperor Showa.
The main Tsugaru clan temple in Hirosaki is Chōshō-ji.


== Family heads ==


=== Main line (Hirosaki) ===


=== Branch line (Kuroishi) ===


== Notable retainers ==


=== Hirosaki ===


== See also ==
Hirosaki Domain
Kuroishi Domain
Nanbu clan
Fujishiro Gozen
Tsugaru Peninsula


== Notes ==


== References ==
Dodd, Jan (2001). The rough guide to Japan. n.p.: Rough Guides.
Kojima, Keizō (2002). Boshin sensō kara Seinan sensō e. Tokyo: Chūōkōron-shinsha.
Koyasu Nobushige (1880). Buke kazoku meiyoden 武家家族名誉伝 Volume 1. Tokyo: Koyasu Nobushige. (Accessed from National Diet Library, 17 July 2008)
Kunai-chō website on Prince and Princess Hitachi (accessed 15 July 2008).
McClellan, Edwin and Mori Ōgai. (1985). Woman in the Crested Kimono : The Life of Shibue Io and Her Family Drawn from Mori Ogai's 'Shibue Chusai. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04618-2
""Nobility, Peerage and Ranks in Ancient and Meiji-Japan"" (accessed 15 July 2008)
Noguchi, Shin'ichi (2005). Aizu-han. Tokyo: Gendai shokan.
Onodera, Eikō (2005). Boshin nanboku sensō to Tōhoku seiken. Sendai: Kita no mori.
Peerage of Japan. Tokyo: Japan Gazette, 1912.
Ravina, Mark (1999). Land and Lordship in Early Modern Japan. California: Stanford University Press.
""Tokugawa Bakufu to Tozama 117 han"". Rekishi Dokuhon Magazine, April 1976.
(in Japanese) Tsugaru-han Archived 2016-03-14 at the Wayback Machine on Edo 300 HTML (accessed 15 July 2008).
(in Japanese) Tsugaru-shi on Harimaya.com (accessed 15 July 2008).


== Further reading ==
Dazai, Osamu (1985). Return to Tsugaru: travels of a purple tramp. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Kurotaki, Jūjirō (1984). Tsugaru-han no hanzai to keibatsu 津軽藩の犯罪と刑罰. Hirosaki: Hoppō shinsha.
Narita, Suegorō (1975). Tsugaru Tamenobu: shidan 津軽為信: 史談. Aomori: Tōō Nippōsha.
Tsugaru Tsuguakira Kō Den kankōkai (1976). Tsugaru Tsuguakira kō-den 津輕承昭公傳. Tokyo: Rekishi Toshosha


== External Link ==
Takaoka no Mori Hirosaki Domain History Museum"
The Tuskegee Airmen,"The Tuskegee Airmen is a 1995 HBO television movie based on the exploits of an actual groundbreaking unit, the first African-American combat pilots in the United States Army Air Corps, that fought in World War II. The film was directed by Robert Markowitz and stars Laurence Fishburne, Cuba Gooding Jr., John Lithgow, Courtney B. Vance, Andre Braugher, Malcolm-Jamal Warner, Allen Payne, and Mekhi Phifer.


== Plot ==

During World War II Hannibal ""Iowa"" Lee, Jr. (Laurence Fishburne), traveling by train to Tuskegee, Alabama, is joined by fellow flight cadet candidates Billy ""A-Train"" Roberts (Cuba Gooding Jr.), Walter Peoples III (Allen Payne), and Lewis Johns (Mekhi Phifer). At the start of their training, they are met by Colonel Noel Rogers (Daniel Hugh Kelly), the commander of the base; Major Sherman Joy (Christopher McDonald), director of training; and Second Lieutenant Glenn (Courtney B. Vance), liaison officer. The cadets are briefed by Rogers and Joy, both with their own views that set the tone for what the cadets would later face in training: Rogers has an optimistic view of the cadets, wanting the cadets to prove the naysayers wrong and letting them know how much of an honor it would be for the cadets to pass the training and earn their wings as aviators. Major Joy, however, reflects the views of most of white America at the time, belittling the cadets and questioning whether they are up to the task. Afterward, Lt. Glenn tells the cadets that he hoped they took note of the differing views of the two different officers. Later that evening, the cadets are chatting among themselves, and begin to introduce themselves and what their college majors were (e.g. ""Lewis Johns, English Literature""). It is during this time where Walter Peoples ""guarantees"" that no one's name would be called above his on graduation day.
While the cadets begin their classes, Major Joy begins his ploy to discredit the cadets. During a classroom session, Joy has them retake the same flight exam they had to take to get into the program. Later, he takes Peoples on a flight after it is revealed that Peoples has a commercial pilot license. Joy takes the training aircraft, a PT-17, through tricky and dangerous moves to try and break People's will, but the tactic doesn't work-which seems to frustrate Joy even more. Afterwards, Major Joy explains to Colonel Rogers why he decided to give the retest and Joy's beliefs that some (if not all) of the cadets may have cheated to get in the program. Rogers informs Joy that no one scored less than a 95 on the retest, and scorns Joy about his tactics.
After a briefing with the cadets, Major Joy sends each cadet up on flights in their PT-17 training aircraft with an instructor pilot. It ends tragically for cadet Johns (Pheifer), as he struggles to get his aircraft out of a stall. The instructor also tries to regain control but it is too late, as the plane crashes into a building, exploding on impact and killing both Johns and his instructor. Afterwards, cadet Leroy Cappy (Malcolm-Jamal Warner) begins to let self-doubt creep in after seeing Johns' deadly crash and watching others leave the program. Cadets Lee and Peoples give Cappy a stern pep talk, telling him not to quit. The cadets continue their training, flying with their instructor pilots and controlling the planes on their own. Major Joy even lets cadet Lee make several solo flights around the Base. While watching a film on air combat, Lt. Glenn steps in and begins to teach the cadets. Peoples questions Lt. Glenn on why he, not Major Joy, is teaching air combat class. At this point, Lt. Glenn reveals to the cadets (most notably Peoples) that he had joined the Royal Canadian Air Force, where he was credited with three kills, making him the only Army Air Corps officer on the base with ""actual"" air combat experience.
Peoples and Lee, flying solo each in the AT-6 Texan training plane, take part in a mock dogfight where Peoples gets an edge on Lee and ""shoots him down"". Afterwards, Peoples performs some unauthorized aerobatic maneuvers (buzzing the airfield, barrel rolling) to impress Hannibal, but this also catches the attention of Colonel Rogers and Major Joy, and results in him being removed from the training program. Peoples admits to Colonel Rogers and Major Joy that he made a mistake and pleads with them not to put him out of the program, but to no avail. To avoid going home in disgrace, an emotionally distraught Peoples commandeers an AT-6, takes off with it and dies by suicide by deliberately crashing it.
Back at the cadets' barracks, tensions and emotions following Peoples' death begin to reach the boiling point. Cadet Roberts has a heated exchange with cadet Lee on Major Joy's tactics, saying that Joy set out to break Peoples and killed him ""like putting a carbine to his head"". Cadet Cappy - again letting his own self doubts creep back in - sides with Roberts against Lee, saying that he doesn't see any reason to continue on if Major Joy is going to stick with his attempts to break them as well. Cadet Lee fires back, saying that Major Joy's gameplan was to make them quit, and that he wasn't falling for it. He emphatically says that he isn't going to let Major Joy, anyone else at the Base, or ""the God damned Commander-In-Chief himself"" stop him from his dreams of flying.
Lt. Glenn and cadets Lee, Roberts and Cappy are on a routine training mission when Cappy's plane begins to experience trouble. Cappy and Lee land on a country road where a prison chain gang are out working in a roadside field. As the planes are coming in to land, the prison guards over the gang force the prisoners out of the way to make room for the planes to land. The guards stand with a mixed look of praise and curiosity when the cadets exit the aircraft; their emotions turn to utter shock when Lee and Cappy take their flight masks off, revealing themselves as black aviators.
The cadets go on to successfully ""earn their wings"" and are commissioned as 2nd Lieutenants in the Army Air Corps. However, they are not deployed to the European theatre due to congressional concerns over their race. Later, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt arrives for an inspection. She chooses Lee to take her up in an aircraft. With the ensuing positive press coverage, the men are deployed to North Africa, as part of the 99th Pursuit Squadron, though they are relegated to ground attack missions. During the campaign, Lee's flight encounters a group of Messerschmitt Bf 109s. Ignoring Lee's orders, Cappy breaks formation and attacks, downing one of them. Another Bf 109 hits Cappy's fighter aircraft numerous times, causing a fire in the cockpit and fatally wounding him. Cappy is then killed when his damaged fighter plane crashes after catching fire.
A congressional hearing of the House Armed Services Committee is convened to determine whether the Tuskegee Airmen ""experiment"" should continue. The men are charged with inherent incompetence: A medical study is used to claim that ""Negroes are incapable of handling complex machinery."" The hearing decides in the Tuskegee Airmen's favor, due to testimony by their commanding officer, Lt. Col. Benjamin O. Davis (Andre Braugher), and the 99th Pursuit Squadron joins three new squadrons out of Tuskegee to form the all-black 332nd Fighter Group, under the now Col. Benjamin O. Davis.
The 332nd is deployed to Ramitelli, Italy to provide escort for Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers, which are experiencing heavy losses. During this deployment, Lee and Billy Roberts (Cuba Gooding Jr.) sink a destroyer. They also rescue a straggling B-17 which is being attacked by two German fighters while returning from a bombing raid, shooting down both of the enemy Bf 109s. When the bomber's pilot and co-pilot travel to Ramitelli to thank them, the B-17 pilot refuses to believe that black pilots saved them. During a subsequent escort assignment, Roberts is shot down. Later, Lee is awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for sinking the destroyer and promoted to captain. Having by then earned the respect and admiration of the white bomber pilots, the Tuskegee Airmen are specifically requested for escort for a raid on Berlin - a request advanced in a mission briefing by the same pilot who originally refused to believe that the 332nd had helped his plane.


== Cast ==

A full cast and production crew list is too lengthy to include, see: IMDb profile.


== Production ==

Ottumwa, Iowa, native, Captain Robert W. Williams, a wartime pilot in the U.S. Army Air Corps' ""332nd Fighter Group"", the all African-American combat unit trained at Moton Field in Tuskegee, Alabama, wrote a manuscript years earlier, and worked with screenwriter T. S. Cook to create a screenplay originally intended for a feature film project. The plot combined fact and fiction to create an essentially historically accurate drama. Linking up with Frank Price, owner of Price Productions in 1985 finally gained some traction for the project and when financing was eventually obtained nearly 10 years later, Williams stayed on as co-executive producer and Price as executive producer.
Originally intended as a HBO made-for-TV project, the network invested more into the production, a reputed $8.5 million (the largest investment in a telefilm project to date) striving for historical accuracy. Although most of the lead characters were fictitious composites of real pilots, the inclusion of Eleanor Roosevelt and General Benjamin ""B.O."" Davis was based on actual events. When First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt visited Tuskegee Army Air Field in 1941, she insisted on flying with C. Alfred ""Chief"" Anderson, the first African American to earn his pilot's license and the first flight instructor of the Civilian Pilot Training Program (CPTP) organized at the Tuskegee Institute. She had the photograph of her in a training aircraft with a black pilot at the controls widely circulated. Other than some differences in physical appearance and profile, Andre Braugher's portrayal of ""B.O."" Davis and his role as the commanding officer pointedly was an accurate depiction of the unit's first commander's personality and character.
Location shooting took place at Fort Chaffee, right outside of Fort Smith, Arkansas. The barracks had been used in the filming of Biloxi Blues (1988), another wartime story. The principal photography also utilized locations at Juliette, Georgia, Muskogee, Oklahoma as well as studio work in Los Angeles, California. A collection of period aircraft including North American T-6 Texans and North American P-51 Mustangs were representative of the many types flown by the Tuskegee Airmen. A small number of authentic P-51 fighter aircraft in appropriate ""red tail"" colors were employed in the aerial sequences.
In addition, a limited number of period gun-ciné films were also used, as were sequences from the films, Memphis Belle (1990) and Battle of Britain (1969). The producers also borrowed a technique used in Memphis Belle by using cutout silhouettes of aircraft to make it appear that there were more aircraft parked at the various airfields. One example of period dialogue that was faithful to the times was Hannibal Lee Jr. (another fictitious composite) singing: ""Straighten up..."" finished by Billy Roberts (fictional character): ""...and fly right."" (The catchphrase was derived from the 1944 top-40 hit record, ""Straighten Up and Fly Right"" by The King Cole Trio led by Nat King Cole.)


== Reception ==
Although originally released on cable, the HBO feature was shown on multiple repeats and eventually was released as a limited feature in selected theaters. In 2001, a home video/DVD version was also released in both formats. The transfer was done in 1.78:1 aspect ratio, which exactly fills a 16x9 display, and is anamorphically enhanced.
Criticism of the movie was generally focused on clichéd dialogue and slow, stagy scenes, but the overall impression by the public was mostly favorable.


=== Awards and nominations ===


== Historical accuracy ==
Besides the character of Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. (who is actually among the attendees during the wing pinning ceremony scene) played by Andre Braugher, no other actual real-life Tuskegee airmen were portrayed in this film. Other featured Tuskegee Airmen characters are composites of the men with whom Williams served.
At one point, the character Lewis Johns (Mekhi Phifer) recites ""Strange Fruit"" to the other recruits in their barracks. ""Strange Fruit"" is a song recorded by Billie Holiday in 1939, inspired by a poem by Abel Meeropol after he witnessed the lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith.
At the end, the film details the unit's accomplishments: 66 out of the 450 Tuskegee Airmen died in battle, they engaged and defeated Messerschmitt Me 262s, the first operational jet fighters, and they were awarded a total of 850 medals over the course of the war. The credits also note (inaccurately, but a common belief of the time) that the 332nd never lost a single bomber to enemy fighters. This claim is a source of historical controversy. The statement was repeated for many years, and not challenged because of the esteem of the Tuskegee Airmen. However, Air Force records and eyewitness accounts later showed that at least 25 bombers were lost to enemy fire. This was, however, still an excellent loss to enemy fire ratio; the average for other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force was 46 bombers lost.


== See also ==
Fly, a 2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen
Red Tails, the 2012 George Lucas film on the 332nd Fighter Group
Wilfred DeFour


== Notes ==


== References ==

Citations

Bibliography


== External links ==

The Tuskegee Airmen at IMDb"
Computer terminal,"A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that can be used for entering data into, and transcribing data from, a computer or a computing system. Most early computers only had a front panel to input or display bits and had to be connected to a terminal to print or input text through a keyboard. Teleprinters were used as early-day hard-copy terminals and predated the use of a computer screen by decades. The computer would typically transmit a line of data which would be printed on paper, and accept a line of data from a keyboard over a serial or other interface. Starting in the mid-1970s with microcomputers such as the Sphere 1, Sol-20, and Apple I, display circuitry and keyboards began to be integrated into personal and workstation computer systems, with the computer handling character generation and outputting to a CRT display such as a computer monitor or, sometimes, a consumer TV, but most larger computers continued to require terminals.
Early terminals were inexpensive devices but very slow compared to punched cards or paper tape for input; with the advent of time-sharing systems, terminals slowly pushed these older forms of interaction from the industry. Related developments were the improvement of terminal technology and the introduction of inexpensive video displays. Early Teletypes only printed out with a communications speed of only 75 baud or 10 5-bit characters per second, and by the 1970s speeds of video terminals had improved to 2400 or 9600 2400 bit/s. Similarly, the speed of remote batch terminals had improved to 4800 bit/s at the beginning of the decade and 19.6 kbps by the end of the decade, with higher speeds possible on more expensive terminals.
The function of a terminal is typically confined to transcription and input of data; a device with significant local, programmable data-processing capability may be called a ""smart terminal"" or fat client. A terminal that depends on the host computer for its processing power is called a ""dumb terminal"" or a thin client. In the era of serial (RS-232) terminals there was a conflicting usage of the term ""smart terminal"" as a dumb terminal with no user-accessible local computing power but a particularly rich set of control codes for manipulating the display; this conflict was not resolved before hardware serial terminals became obsolete.
The use of terminals decreased over time as computing shifted from command line interface (CLI) to graphical user interface (GUI) and from time-sharing on large computers to personal computers and handheld devices. Today, users generally interact with a server over high-speed networks using a Web browser and other network-enabled GUI applications. Today, a terminal emulator application provides the capabilities of a physical terminal – allowing interaction with the operating system shell and other CLI applications.


== History ==
The console of Konrad Zuse's Z3 had a keyboard in 1941, as did the Z4 in 1942–1945. However, these consoles could only be used to enter numeric inputs and were thus analogous to those of calculating machines; programs, commands, and other data were entered via paper tape. Both machines had a row of display lamps for results.
In 1956, the Whirlwind Mark I computer became the first computer equipped with a keyboard-printer combination with which to support direct input of data and commands and output of results. That device was a Friden Flexowriter, which would continue to serve this purpose on many other early computers well into the 1960s.


== Categories ==


=== Hard-copy terminals ===

Early user terminals connected to computers were, like the Flexowriter, electromechanical teleprinters/teletypewriters (TeleTYpewriter, TTY), such as the Teletype Model 33, originally used for telegraphy; early Teletypes were typically configured as Keyboard Send-Receive (KSR) or Automatic Send-Receive (ASR). Some terminals, such as the ASR Teletype models, included a paper tape reader and punch which could record output such as a program listing. The data on the tape could be re-entered into the computer using the tape reader on the teletype, or printed to paper. Teletypes used the current loop interface that was already used in telegraphy. A less expensive Read Only (RO) configuration was available for the Teletype.
Custom-designs keyboard/printer terminals that came later included the IBM 2741 (1965) and the DECwriter (1970). Respective top speeds of teletypes, IBM 2741 and the LA30 (an early DECwriter) were 10, 15 and 30
characters per second. Although at that time ""paper was king"" the speed of interaction was relatively limited.
The DECwriter was the last major printing-terminal product. It faded away after 1980 under pressure from video display units (VDUs), with the last revision (the DECwriter IV of 1982) abandoning the classic teletypewriter form for one more resembling a desktop printer.


=== Video display unit ===
A video display unit (VDU) displays information on a screen rather than printing text to paper and typically uses a cathode-ray tube (CRT). VDUs in the 1950s were typically designed for displaying graphical data rather than text and were used in, e.g., experimental computers at institutions such as MIT; computers used in academia, government and business, sold under brand names such as DEC, ERA, IBM and UNIVAC; military computers supporting specific defence applications such as ballistic missile warning systems and radar/air defence coordination systems such as BUIC and SAGE.

Two early landmarks in the development of the VDU were the Univac Uniscope and the IBM 2260, both in 1964. These were block-mode terminals designed to display a page at a time, using proprietary protocols; in contrast to character-mode devices, they enter data from the keyboard into a display buffer rather than transmitting them immediately. In contrast to later character-mode devices, the Uniscope used synchronous serial communication over an EIA RS-232 interface to communicate between the multiplexer and the host, while the 2260 used either a channel connection or asynchronous serial communication between the 2848 and the host. The 2265, related to the 2260, also used asynchronous serial communication.
The Datapoint 3300 from Computer Terminal Corporation, announced in 1967 and shipped in 1969, was a character-mode device that emulated a Model 33 Teletype. This reflects the fact that early character-mode terminals were often deployed to replace teletype machines as a way to reduce operating costs.

The next generation of VDUs went beyond teletype emulation with an addressable cursor that gave them the ability to paint two-dimensional displays on the screen. Very early VDUs with cursor addressibility included the VT05 and the Hazeltine 2000 operating in character mode, both from 1970. Despite this capability, early devices of this type were often called ""Glass TTYs"". Later, the term ""glass TTY"" tended to be restrospectively narrowed to devices without full cursor addressibility.
The classic era of the VDU began in the early 1970s and was closely intertwined with the rise of time sharing computers. Important early products were the ADM-3A, VT52, and VT100. These devices used no complicated CPU, instead relying on individual logic gates, LSI chips, or microprocessors such as the Intel 8080. This made them inexpensive and they quickly became extremely popular input-output devices on many types of computer system, often replacing earlier and more expensive printing terminals.
After 1970 several suppliers gravitated to a set of common standards:

ASCII character set (rather than, say, EBCDIC or anything specific to one company), but early/economy models often supported only capital letters (such as the original ADM-3, the Data General model 6052 – which could be upgraded to a 6053 with a lower-case character ROM – and the Heathkit H9)
RS-232 serial ports (25-pin, ready to connect to a modem, yet some manufacturer-specific pin usage extended the standard, e.g. for use with 20-mA current loops)
24 lines (or possibly 25 – sometimes a special status line) of 72 or 80 characters of text (80 was the same as IBM punched cards). Later models sometimes had two character-width settings.
Some type of cursor that can be positioned (with arrow keys or ""home"" and other direct cursor address setting codes).
Implementation of at least 3 control codes: Carriage Return (Ctrl-M), Line-Feed (Ctrl-J), and Bell (Ctrl-G), but usually many more, such as escape sequences to provide underlining, dim or reverse-video character highlighting, and especially to clear the display and position the cursor.
The experimental era of serial VDUs culminated with the VT100 in 1978. By the early 1980s, there were dozens of manufacturers of terminals, including Lear-Siegler, ADDS, Data General, DEC, Hazeltine Corporation, Heath/Zenith, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, TeleVideo, Volker-Craig, and Wyse, many of which had incompatible command sequences (although many used the early ADM-3 as a starting point).
The great variations in the control codes between makers gave rise to software that identified and grouped terminal types so the system software would correctly display input forms using the appropriate control codes; In Unix-like systems the termcap or terminfo files, the stty utility, and the TERM environment variable would be used; in Data General's Business BASIC software, for example, at login-time a sequence of codes were sent to the terminal to try to read the cursor's position or the 25th line's contents using a sequence of different manufacturer's control code sequences, and the terminal-generated response would determine a single-digit number (such as 6 for Data General Dasher terminals, 4 for ADM 3A/5/11/12 terminals, 0 or 2 for TTYs with no special features) that would be available to programs to say which set of codes to use.
The great majority of terminals were monochrome, manufacturers variously offering green, white or amber and sometimes blue screen phosphors. (Amber was claimed to reduce eye strain). Terminals with modest color capability were also available but not widely used; for example, a color version of the popular Wyse WY50, the WY350, offered 64 shades on each character cell.
VDUs were eventually displaced from most applications by networked personal computers, at first slowly after 1985 and with increasing speed in the 1990s. However, they had a lasting influence on PCs. The keyboard layout of the VT220 terminal strongly influenced the Model M shipped on IBM PCs from 1985, and through it all later computer keyboards.
Although flat-panel displays were available since the 1950s, cathode-ray tubes continued to dominate the market until the personal computer had made serious inroads into the display terminal market. By the time cathode-ray tubes on PCs were replaced by flatscreens after the year 2000, the hardware computer terminal was nearly obsolete.


=== Character-oriented terminals ===

A character-oriented terminal is a type of computer terminal that communicates with its host one character at a time, as opposed to a block-oriented terminal that communicates in blocks of data. It is the most common type of data terminal, because it is easy to implement and program. Connection to the mainframe computer or terminal server is achieved via RS-232 serial links, Ethernet or other proprietary protocols.
Character-oriented terminals can be ""dumb"" or ""smart"". Dumb terminals are those that can interpret a limited number of control codes (CR, LF, etc.) but do not have the ability to process special escape sequences that perform functions such as clearing a line, clearing the screen, or controlling cursor position. In this context dumb terminals are sometimes dubbed glass Teletypes, for they essentially have the same limited functionality as does a mechanical Teletype. This type of dumb terminal is still supported on modern Unix-like systems by setting the environment variable TERM to dumb. Smart or intelligent terminals are those that also have the ability to process escape sequences, in particular the VT52, VT100 or ANSI escape sequences.


==== Text terminals ====

A text terminal, or often just terminal (sometimes text console) is a serial computer interface for text entry and display. Information is presented as an array of pre-selected formed characters. When such devices use a video display such as a cathode-ray tube, they are called a ""video display unit"" or ""visual display unit"" (VDU) or ""video display terminal"" (VDT).
The system console is often a text terminal used to operate a computer. Modern computers have a built-in keyboard and display for the console. Some Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and FreeBSD have virtual consoles to provide several text terminals on a single computer.
The fundamental type of application running on a text terminal is a command-line interpreter or shell, which prompts for commands from the user and executes each command after a press of Return. This includes Unix shells and some interactive programming environments. In a shell, most of the commands are small applications themselves.
Another important application type is that of the text editor. A text editor typically occupies the full area of display, displays one or more text documents, and allows the user to edit the documents. The text editor has, for many uses, been replaced by the word processor, which usually provides rich formatting features that the text editor lacks. The first word processors used text to communicate the structure of the document, but later word processors operate in a graphical environment and provide a WYSIWYG simulation of the formatted output. However, text editors are still used for documents containing markup such as DocBook or LaTeX.
Programs such as Telix and Minicom control a modem and the local terminal to let the user interact with remote servers. On the Internet, telnet and ssh work similarly.
In the simplest form, a text terminal is like a file. Writing to the file displays the text and reading from the file produces what the user enters. In Unix-like operating systems, there are several character special files that correspond to available text terminals. For other operations, there are special escape sequences, control characters and termios functions that a program can use, most easily via a library such as ncurses. For more complex operations, the programs can use terminal specific ioctl system calls. For an application, the simplest way to use a terminal is to simply write and read text strings to and from it sequentially. The output text is scrolled, so that only the last several lines (typically 24) are visible. Unix systems typically buffer the input text until the Enter key is pressed, so the application receives a ready string of text. In this mode, the application need not know much about the terminal. For many interactive applications this is not sufficient. One of the common enhancements is command-line editing (assisted with such libraries as readline); it also may give access to command history. This is very helpful for various interactive command-line interpreters.
Even more advanced interactivity is provided with full-screen applications. Those applications completely control the screen layout; also they respond to key-pressing immediately. This mode is very useful for text editors, file managers and web browsers. In addition, such programs control the color and brightness of text on the screen, and decorate it with underline, blinking and special characters (e.g. box-drawing characters). To achieve all this, the application must deal not only with plain text strings, but also with control characters and escape sequences, which allow moving the cursor to an arbitrary position, clearing portions of the screen, changing colors and displaying special characters, and also responding to function keys. The great problem here is that there are many different terminals and terminal emulators, each with its own set of escape sequences. In order to overcome this, special libraries (such as curses) have been created, together with terminal description databases, such as Termcap and Terminfo.


=== Block-oriented terminals ===
A block-oriented terminal or block mode terminal is a type of computer terminal that communicates with its host in blocks of data, as opposed to a character-oriented terminal that communicates with its host one character at a time. A block-oriented terminal may be card-oriented, display-oriented, keyboard-display, keyboard-printer, printer or some combination.
The IBM 3270 is perhaps the most familiar implementation of a block-oriented display terminal, but most mainframe computer manufacturers and several other companies produced them. The description below is in terms of the 3270, but similar considerations apply to other types.
Block-oriented terminals typically incorporate a buffer which stores one screen or more of data, and also stores data attributes, not only indicating appearance (color, brightness, blinking, etc.) but also marking the data as being enterable by the terminal operator vs. protected against entry, as allowing the entry of only numeric information vs. allowing any characters, etc. In a typical application the host sends the terminal a preformatted panel containing both static data and fields into which data may be entered. The terminal operator keys data, such as updates in a database entry, into the appropriate fields. When entry is complete (or ENTER or PF key pressed on 3270s), a block of data, usually just the data entered by the operator (modified data), is sent to the host in one transmission. The 3270 terminal buffer (at the device) could be updated on a single character basis, if necessary, because of the existence of a ""set buffer address order"" (SBA), that usually preceded any data to be written/overwritten within the buffer. A complete buffer could also be read or replaced using the READ BUFFER command or WRITE command (unformatted or formatted in the case of the 3270).
Block-oriented terminals cause less system load on the host and less network traffic than character-oriented terminals. They also appear more responsive to the user, especially over slow connections, since editing within a field is done locally rather than depending on echoing from the host system.
Early terminals had limited editing capabilities – 3270 terminals, for example, only could check entries as valid numerics. Subsequent ""smart"" or ""intelligent"" terminals incorporated microprocessors and supported more local processing.
Programmers of block-oriented terminals often used the technique of storing context information for the transaction in progress on the screen, possibly in a hidden field, rather than depending on a running program to keep track of status. This was the precursor of the HTML technique of storing context in the URL as data to be passed as arguments to a CGI program.
Unlike a character-oriented terminal, where typing a character into the last position of the screen usually causes the terminal to scroll down one line, entering data into the last screen position on a block-oriented terminal usually causes the cursor to wrap— move to the start of the first enterable field. Programmers might ""protect"" the last screen position to prevent inadvertent wrap. Likewise a protected field following an enterable field might lock the keyboard and sound an audible alarm if the operator attempted to enter more data into the field than allowed.


==== Common block-oriented terminals ====
Hard-copy
IBM 1050
IBM 2740
Remote job entry
IBM 2770
IBM 2780
IBM 3770
IBM 3780
Display


=== Graphical terminals ===

A graphical terminal can display images as well as text. Graphical terminals are divided into vector-mode terminals, and raster mode.
A vector-mode display directly draws lines on the face of a cathode-ray tube under control of the host computer system. The lines are continuously formed, but since the speed of electronics is limited, the number of concurrent lines that can be displayed at one time is limited. Vector-mode displays were historically important but are no longer used.
Practically all modern graphic displays are raster-mode, descended from the picture scanning techniques used for television, in which the visual elements are a rectangular array of pixels. Since the raster image is only perceptible to the human eye as a whole for a very short time, the raster must be refreshed many times per second to give the appearance of a persistent display. The electronic demands of refreshing display memory meant that graphic terminals were developed much later than text terminals, and initially cost much more.
Most terminals today are graphical; that is, they can show images on the screen. The modern term for graphical terminal is ""thin client"". A thin client typically uses a protocol such as X11 for Unix terminals, or RDP for Microsoft Windows. The bandwidth needed depends on the protocol used, the resolution, and the color depth.
Modern graphic terminals allow display of images in color, and of text in varying sizes, colors, and fonts (type faces).
In the early 1990s, an industry consortium attempted to define a standard, AlphaWindows, that would allow a single CRT screen to implement multiple windows, each of which was to behave as a distinct terminal. Unfortunately, like I2O, this suffered from being run as a closed standard: non-members were unable to obtain even minimal information and there was no realistic way a small company or independent developer could join the consortium.


=== Intelligent terminals ===
An intelligent terminal does its own processing, usually implying a microprocessor is built in, but not all terminals with microprocessors did any real processing of input: the main computer to which it was attached would have to respond quickly to each keystroke. The term ""intelligent"" in this context dates from 1969.
Notable examples include the IBM 2250, predecessor to the IBM 3250 and IBM 5080, and IBM 2260, predecessor to the IBM 3270, introduced with System/360 in 1964.

Most terminals were connected to minicomputers or mainframe computers and often had a green or amber screen. Typically terminals communicate with the computer via a serial port via a null modem cable, often using an EIA RS-232 or RS-422 or RS-423 or a current loop serial interface. IBM systems typically communicated over a Bus and Tag channel, a coaxial cable using a proprietary protocol, a communications link using Binary Synchronous Communications or IBM's SNA protocol, but for many DEC, Data General and NCR (and so on) computers there were many visual display suppliers competing against the computer manufacturer for terminals to expand the systems. In fact, the instruction design for the Intel 8008 was originally conceived at Computer Terminal Corporation as the processor for the Datapoint 2200.
From the introduction of the IBM 3270, and the DEC VT100 (1978), the user and programmer could notice significant advantages in VDU technology improvements, yet not all programmers used the features of the new terminals (backward compatibility in the VT100 and later TeleVideo terminals, for example, with ""dumb terminals"" allowed programmers to continue to use older software).
Some dumb terminals had been able to respond to a few escape sequences without needing microprocessors: they used multiple printed circuit boards with many integrated circuits; the single factor that classed a terminal as ""intelligent"" was its ability to process user-input within the terminal—not interrupting the main computer at each keystroke—and send a block of data at a time (for example: when the user has finished a whole field or form). Most terminals in the early 1980s, such as ADM-3A, TVI912, Data General D2, DEC VT52, despite the introduction of ANSI terminals in 1978, were essentially ""dumb"" terminals, although some of them (such as the later ADM and TVI models) did have a primitive block-send capability. Common early uses of local processing power included features that had little to do with off-loading data processing from the host computer but added useful features such as printing to a local printer, buffered serial data transmission and serial handshaking (to accommodate higher serial transfer speeds), and more sophisticated character attributes for the display, as well as the ability to switch emulation modes to mimic competitor's models, that became increasingly important selling features during the 1980s especially, when buyers could mix and match different suppliers' equipment to a greater extent than before.
The advance in microprocessors and lower memory costs made it possible for the terminal to handle editing operations such as inserting characters within a field that may have previously required a full screen-full of characters to be re-sent from the computer, possibly over a slow modem line. Around the mid-1980s most intelligent terminals, costing less than most dumb terminals would have a few years earlier, could provide enough user-friendly local editing of data and send the completed form to the main computer. Providing even more processing possibilities, workstations such as the TeleVideo TS-800 could run CP/M-86, blurring the distinction between terminal and Personal Computer.
Another of the motivations for development of the microprocessor was to simplify and reduce the electronics required in a terminal. That also made it practicable to load several ""personalities"" into a single terminal, so a Qume QVT-102 could emulate many popular terminals of the day, and so be sold into organizations that did not wish to make any software changes. Frequently emulated terminal types included:

Lear Siegler ADM-3A and later models
TeleVideo 910 to 950 (these models copied ADM3 codes and added several of their own, eventually being copied by Qume and others)
Digital Equipment Corporation VT52 and VT100
Data General D1 to D3 and especially D200 and D210
Hazeltine Corporation H1500
Tektronix 4014
Wyse W50, W60 and W99
The ANSI X3.64 escape code standard produced uniformity to some extent, but significant differences remained. For example, the VT100, Heathkit H19 in ANSI mode, Televideo 970, Data General D460, and Qume QVT-108 terminals all followed the ANSI standard, yet differences might exist in codes from function keys, what character attributes were available, block-sending of fields within forms, ""foreign"" character facilities, and handling of printers connected to the back of the screen.
In the 21st century, 
the term Intelligent Terminal can now refer to a retail Point of Sale computer.


=== Contemporary ===

Even though the early IBM PC looked somewhat like a terminal with a green monochrome monitor, it is not classified a terminal since it provides local computing instead of interacting with a server at a character level. With terminal emulator software, a PC can, however, provide the function of a terminal to interact with a mainframe or minicomputer. Eventually, personal computers greatly reduced market demand for conventional terminals.
In and around the 1990s, thin client and X terminal technology combined the relatively economical local processing power with central, shared computer facilities to leverage advantages of terminals over personal computers.
In a GUI environment, such as the X Window System, the display can show multiple programs – each in its own window – rather than a single stream of text associated with a single program. As a terminal emulator runs in a GUI environment to provide command-line access, it alleviates the need for a physical terminal and allows for multiple windows running separate emulators.


== System console ==

One meaning of system console, computer console, root console, operator's console, or simply console is the text entry and display device for system administration messages, particularly those from the BIOS or boot loader, the kernel, from the init system and from the system logger. It is a physical device consisting of a keyboard and a printer or screen, and traditionally is a text terminal, but may also be a graphical terminal.
Another, older, meaning of system console, computer console, hardware console, operator's console or simply console is a hardware component used by an operator to control the hardware, typically some combination of front panel, keyboard/printer and keyboard/display.


=== History ===

Prior to the development of alphanumeric CRT system consoles, some computers such as the IBM 1620 had console typewriters and front panels while the very first electronic stored-program computer, the Manchester Baby, used a combination of electromechanical switches and a CRT to provide console functions—the CRT displaying memory contents in binary by mirroring the machine's Williams-Kilburn tube CRT-based RAM.
Some early operating systems supported either a single keyboard/print or keyboard/display device for controlling the OS. Some also supported a single alternate console, and some supported a hardcopy console for retaining a record of commands, responses and other console messages. However, in the late 1960s it became common for operating systems to support many more consoles than 3, and operating systems began appearing in which the console was simply any terminal with a privileged user logged on.
On early minicomputers, the console was a serial console, an RS-232 serial link to a terminal such as a ASR-33 or, later, a terminal from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), e.g., DECWriter, VT100. This terminal was usually kept in a secured room since it could be used for certain privileged functions such as halting the system or selecting which media to boot from. Large midrange systems, e.g. those from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard and IBM, still use serial consoles. In larger installations, the console ports are attached to multiplexers or network-connected multiport serial servers that let an operator connect a terminal to any of the attached servers. Today, serial consoles are often used for accessing headless systems, usually with a terminal emulator running on a laptop. Also, routers, enterprise  network switches and other telecommunication equipment have RS-232 serial console ports.
On PCs and workstations, the computer's attached keyboard and monitor have the equivalent function.  Since the monitor cable carries video signals, it cannot be extended very far. Often, installations with many servers therefore use keyboard/video multiplexers (KVM switches) and possibly video amplifiers to centralize console access. In recent years, KVM/IP devices have become available that allow a remote computer to view the video output and send keyboard input via any TCP/IP network and therefore the Internet.
Some PC BIOSes, especially in servers, also support serial consoles, giving access to the BIOS through a serial port so that the simpler and cheaper serial console infrastructure can be used. Even where BIOS support is lacking, some operating systems, e.g. FreeBSD and Linux, can be configured for serial console operation either during bootup, or after startup.
Starting with the IBM 9672, IBM large systems have used a Hardware Management Console (HMC), consisting of a PC and a specialized application, instead of a 3270 or serial link. Other IBM product lines also use an HMC, e.g.,  System p.
It is usually possible to log in from the console. Depending on configuration, the operating system may treat a login session from the console as being more trustworthy than a login session from other sources.


== Emulation ==

A terminal emulator is a piece of software that emulates a text terminal. In the past, before the widespread use of local area networks and broadband internet access, many computers would use a serial access program to communicate with other computers via telephone line or serial device.
When the first Macintosh was released, a program called MacTerminal was used to communicate with many computers, including the IBM PC.
The Win32 console on Windows does not emulate a physical terminal that supports escape sequences so SSH and Telnet programs (for logging in textually to remote computers) for Windows, including the Telnet program bundled with some versions of Windows, often incorporate their own code to process escape sequences.
The terminal emulators on most Unix-like systems—such as, for example, gnome-terminal, Konsole, QTerminal, xterm, and Terminal.app—do emulate physical terminals including support for escape sequences; e.g., xterm can emulate the VT220 and Tektronix 4010 hardware terminals.


== Modes ==
Terminals can operate in various modes, relating to when they send input typed by the user on the keyboard to the receiving system (whatever that may be):

Character mode (a.k.a. character-at-a-time mode): In this mode, typed input is unbuffered and sent immediately to the receiving system.
Line mode (a.k.a. line-at-a-time mode): In this mode, the terminal is buffered, provides a local line editing function, and sends an entire input line, after it has been locally edited, when the user presses an, e.g., ↵ Enter, EOB, key. A so-called ""line mode terminal"" operates solely in this mode.
Block mode (a.k.a. screen-at-a-time mode): In this mode (also called block-oriented), the terminal is buffered and provides a local full-screen data function. The user can enter input into multiple fields in a form on the screen (defined to the terminal by the receiving system), moving the cursor around the screen using keys such as Tab ↹ and the arrow keys and performing editing functions locally using insert, delete, ← Backspace and so forth. The terminal sends only the completed form, consisting of all the data entered on the screen, to the receiving system when the user presses an ↵ Enter key.
There is a distinction between the return and the ↵ Enter keys. In some multiple-mode terminals, that can switch between modes, pressing the ↵ Enter key when not in block mode does not do the same thing as pressing the return key. Whilst the return key will cause an input line to be sent to the host in line-at-a-time mode, the ↵ Enter key will rather cause the terminal to transmit the contents of the character row where the cursor is currently positioned to the host, host-issued prompts and all. Some block-mode terminals have both an ↵ Enter and local cursor moving keys such as Return and New Line.
Different computer operating systems require different degrees of mode support when terminals are used as computer terminals. The POSIX terminal interface, as provided by Unix and POSIX-compliant operating systems, does not accommodate block-mode terminals at all, and only rarely requires the terminal itself to be in line-at-a-time mode, since the operating system is required to provide canonical input mode, where the terminal device driver in the operating system emulates local echo in the terminal, and performs line editing functions at the host end. Most usually, and especially so that the host system can support non-canonical input mode, terminals for POSIX-compliant systems are always in character-at-a-time mode. In contrast, IBM 3270 terminals connected to MVS systems are always required to be in block mode.


== See also ==


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

The Terminals Wiki, an encyclopedia of computer terminals.
Text Terminal HOWTO from tldp.org
The TTY demystified from linussakesson.net
Video Terminal Information at the Wayback Machine (archived May 23, 2010)
Directive 1999/5/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 1999 on radio equipment and telecommunications terminal equipment and the mutual recognition of their conformity (R&TTE Directive)
List of Computer Terminals from epocalc.net
VTTEST – VT100/VT220/XTerm test utility  –  A terminal test utility by Thomas E. Dickey"
Maximilian Kolbe,"Maximilian Maria Kolbe  (born Raymund Kolbe; Polish: Maksymilian Maria Kolbe; 8 January 1894 – 14 August 1941) was a Polish Roman Catholic priest, Conventual Franciscan friar, missionary, saint, martyr, and a Nazi concentration camp victim, who volunteered to die in place of a man named Franciszek Gajowniczek in the German death camp of Auschwitz, located in German-occupied Poland during World War II. He had been active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary, founding and supervising the monastery of Niepokalanów near Warsaw, operating an amateur-radio station (SP3RN), and founding or running several other organizations and publications.
On 10 October 1982, Pope John Paul II canonized Kolbe and declared him a martyr of charity. The Catholic Church venerates him as the patron saint of amateur radio operators, drug addicts, political prisoners, families, journalists, and prisoners. John Paul II declared him ""the patron of our difficult century"". His feast day is 14 August, the day of his martyrdom.
Due to Kolbe's efforts to promote consecration and entrustment to Mary, he is known as an ""apostle of consecration to Mary"".


== Early life ==
Raymund Kolbe was born on 8 January 1894 in Zduńska Wola, in the Kingdom of Poland, which was then part of the Russian Empire. He was the second son of weaver Julius Kolbe and midwife Maria Dąbrowska. His father was an ethnic German, and his mother was Polish. He had four brothers, two of whom died of tuberculosis. Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Pabianice.
Kolbe's life was strongly influenced in 1903, when he was 9, by a vision of the Virgin Mary. He later described this incident:

That night I asked the Mother of God what was to become of me. Then she came to me holding two crowns, one white, the other red. She asked me if I was willing to accept either of these crowns. The white one meant that I should persevere in purity and the red that I should become a martyr. I said that I would accept them both.


== Franciscan friar ==
In 1907, Kolbe and his elder brother Francis joined the Conventual Franciscans. They enrolled at the Conventual Franciscan minor seminary in Lwów later that year. In 1910, Kolbe was allowed to enter the novitiate, where he chose a religious name Maximilian. He professed his first vows in 1911, and final vows in 1914, adopting the additional name of Maria (Mary).


=== World War I ===
Kolbe was sent to Rome in 1912, where he attended the Pontifical Gregorian University. He earned a doctorate in philosophy in 1915 there. From 1915 he continued his studies at the Pontifical University of St. Bonaventure, where he earned a doctorate in theology in 1919 or 1922 (sources vary). He was active in the consecration and entrustment to Mary.
In the midst of these studies, World War I broke out. Maximilian's father, Julius Kolbe, joined Józef Piłsudski's Polish Legions fighting against the Russians for an independent Poland, still subjugated and still divided among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Julius Kolbe was caught and hanged as a traitor by the Russians at the age of 43, a traumatic event for young Maximilian.
During his time as a student, he witnessed vehement demonstrations against Popes Pius X and Benedict XV in Rome during an anniversary celebration by the Freemasons. According to Kolbe:

They placed the black standard of the ""Giordano Brunisti"" under the windows of the Vatican. On this standard the archangel, Michael, was depicted lying under the feet of the triumphant Lucifer. At the same time, countless pamphlets were distributed to the people in which the Holy Father (i.e., the Pope) was attacked shamefully.
Soon afterward, on 16 October 1917, Kolbe organized the Militia Immaculatae (Army of the Immaculate One), to work for conversion of sinners and enemies of the Catholic Church, specifically the Freemasons, through the intercession of the Virgin Mary. So serious was Kolbe about this goal that he added to the Miraculous Medal prayer:

O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee. And for all those who do not have recourse to thee; especially the Freemasons and all those recommended to thee.
Kolbe wanted the entire Franciscan Order consecrated to the Immaculate by an additional vow. The idea was well received, but faced the hurdles of approval by the hierarchy of the order and the lawyers, so it was never formally adopted during his life and was no longer pursued after his death.


== Priesthood ==
In 1918, Kolbe was ordained a priest. In July 1919, he returned to Poland, which was newly independent. He was active in promoting the veneration of the Immaculate Virgin Mary. He was strongly opposed to leftist – in particular, communist – movements.
From 1919 to 1922, he taught at the Kraków Seminary. Around that time, as well as earlier in Rome, he suffered from tuberculosis, which forced him to take a lengthy leave of absence from his teaching duties. Before antibiotics, tuberculosis was often fatal, with rest and good nutrition the only treatment.
In January 1922, Kolbe founded the monthly periodical Rycerz Niepokalanej (Knight of the Immaculata), a devotional publication based on the French Le Messager du Coeur de Jesus (Messenger of the Heart of Jesus). From 1922 to 1926, he operated a religious publishing press in Grodno. As his activities grew in scope, in 1927 he founded a new Conventual Franciscan monastery at Niepokalanów near Warsaw. It became a major religious publishing centre. A junior seminary was opened there two years later.


=== Missionary work in Asia ===
Between 1930 and 1936, Kolbe undertook a series of missions to East Asia. He arrived first in Shanghai, China, but failed to gather a following there. Next he moved to Japan, where by 1931 he had founded a Franciscan monastery, Mugenzai no Sono (無原罪の園, transl. Garden of the Immaculata), on the outskirts of Nagasaki. Because of its location within the hills outlying the city, the monastery was spared from destruction during the United States' atomic bombing of Nagasaki.
Kolbe was persuaded to work in Japan by a group of Japanese students he encountered in Europe, who lamented the need for missionaries in their home country. After arriving in Japan, Kolbe acquired some facility in the local language, including basic literacy; the monastery soon began publishing a Japanese edition of the Knight of the Immaculata.
In mid-1932, Kolbe left Japan for Malabar, India, where he founded another monastery, which has since closed.


=== Return to Poland ===
Meanwhile, in his absence the monastery at Niepokalanów began to publish a daily newspaper Mały Dziennik (the Small Diary), in alliance with the political group National Radical Camp (Obóz Narodowo Radykalny). This publication reached a circulation of 137,000, and nearly double that, 225,000, on weekends. Kolbe returned to Poland in 1933 for a general chapter of the order in Kraków. Kolbe returned to Japan and remained there until called back to attend the Provincial Chapter in Poland in 1936. There he was appointed guardian of Niepokalanów, thus precluding his return to Japan. Two years later, in 1938, he started a radio station at Niepokalanów, Radio Niepokalanów. He held an amateur radio licence, with the call sign SP3RN.


== World War II ==
After the outbreak of World War II, Kolbe was one of the few friars who remained in the monastery, where he organized a temporary hospital. After the town was captured by the Germans, they arrested him on 19 September 1939; he was later released on 8 December. He refused to sign the Deutsche Volksliste, which would have given him rights similar to those of German citizens in exchange for recognizing his ethnic German ancestry. Upon his release he continued work at his friary where he and other friars provided shelter to refugees from Greater Poland including 2,000 Jews whom he hid from Nazi persecution in the Niepokalanów friary. Kolbe received permission to continue publishing religious works, though significantly reduced in scope. The monastery continued to act as a publishing house, issuing a number of publications considered anti-Nazi.


== Arrest and imprisonment ==

On 17 February 1941, the monastery was shut down by the German authorities. That day Kolbe and four others were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned in the Pawiak prison. On 28 May, he was transferred to Auschwitz as prisoner 16670.

Continuing to act as a priest, Kolbe was subjected to violent harassment, including beatings and lashings. Once, he was smuggled to a prison hospital by friendly inmates.


== Martyrdom at Auschwitz ==
At the end of July 1941, a prisoner escaped from the camp, prompting the deputy camp commander, SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Fritzsch, to pick ten men to be starved to death in an underground bunker to deter further escape attempts. When one of the selected men, Franciszek Gajowniczek (also a Polish Catholic), cried out, ""My wife! My children!"" Kolbe volunteered to take his place.
According to an eyewitness, who was an assistant janitor at that time, in his prison cell Kolbe led the prisoners in prayer. Each time the guards checked on him, he was standing or kneeling in the middle of the cell and looking calmly at those who entered. After they had been starved and deprived of water for two weeks, only Kolbe and three others remained alive.
The guards wanted the bunker emptied, so they gave the four remaining prisoners lethal injections of carbolic acid. Kolbe is said to have raised his left arm and calmly waited for the deadly injection. He died on 14 August 1941. He was cremated on 15 August, the feast day of the Assumption of Mary.


== Canonization ==
The cause for Kolbe's beatification was opened at a local level on 3 June 1952. On 12 May 1955 Kolbe was recognized by the Holy See as a Servant of God. Kolbe was declared venerable by Pope Paul VI on 30 January 1969, beatified as a Confessor of the Faith by the same Pope in 1971, and canonized as a saint by Pope John Paul II on 10 October 1982. Upon canonization, the Pope declared Maximilian Kolbe as a confessor and a martyr of charity. The miracles that were used to confirm his beatification were the July 1948 cure of intestinal tuberculosis in Angela Testoni and in August 1950, the cure of calcification of the arteries/sclerosis of Francis Ranier; both attributed to Kolbe's intercession by their prayers to him.
Franciszek Gajowniczek, the man Kolbe saved at Auschwitz, survived the Holocaust and was present as a guest at both the beatification and the canonization ceremonies.

After his canonisation, a feast day for Maximilian Kolbe was added to the General Roman Calendar. He is one of ten 20th-century martyrs who are depicted in statues above the Great West Door of Anglican Westminster Abbey, London.
Maximilian Kolbe is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 14 August.


=== Controversies ===
Kolbe's recognition as a Christian martyr generated some controversy within the Catholic Church. While his self-sacrifice at Auschwitz was considered saintly and heroic, he was not killed out of odium fidei (hatred of the faith), but as the result of his act of Christian charity toward another man. Pope Paul VI recognized this distinction at Kolbe's beatification, naming him a Confessor and giving him the unofficial title ""martyr of charity"". Pope John Paul II, however, overruled the commission he had established (which agreed with the earlier assessment of heroic charity). John Paul II wanted to make the point that the Nazis' systematic hatred of whole categories of humanity was inherently also a hatred of religious (Christian) faith; he said that Kolbe's death equated to earlier examples of religious martyrdom.


==== Accusations of antisemitism ====
Kolbe's alleged antisemitism was a source of controversy in the 1980s in the aftermath of his canonization. In 1926, in the first issue of the monthly Knight of the Immaculate, Kolbe said he considered Freemasons ""as an organized clique of fanatical Jews, who want to destroy the church."" In a 1924 column, he cited the Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an ""important proof"" that ""the founders of Zionism intended, in fact, the subjugation of the entire world"", but that ""not even all Jews know this"". In a calendar that the publishing house of his organization, the Militia of the Immaculate, published in an edition of a million in 1939, Kolbe wrote, ""Atheistic Communism seems to rage ever more wildly. Its origin can easily be located in that criminal mafia that calls itself Freemasonry, and the hand that is guiding all that toward a clear goal is international Zionism. Which should not be taken to mean that even among Jews one cannot find good people."" In his periodicals he had published articles about topics such as a Zionist plot for world domination. Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek criticized Kolbe's activities as ""writing and organizing mass propaganda for the Catholic Church, with a clear anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic edge."" In contrast, a writer for online EWTN claimed that the ""Jewish question played a very minor role in Kolbe's thought and work"" and that ""only thirty-one out of over 14,000 of his letters reference the Jewish people or Judaism, and most express a missionary zeal and concern for their spiritual welfare"".
During World War II, Kolbe's monastery at Niepokalanów sheltered Jewish refugees. According to the testimony of a local, ""When Jews came to me asking for a piece of bread, I asked Father Maximilian if I could give it to them in good conscience, and he answered me, 'Yes, it is necessary to do this because all men are our brothers.'""


=== Relics ===
First-class relics of Kolbe exist, in the form of hairs from his head and beard, preserved without his knowledge by two friars at Niepokalanów who served as barbers in his friary between 1930 and 1941. Since his beatification in 1971, more than 1,000 such relics have been distributed around the world for public veneration. Second-class relics, such as his personal effects, clothing and liturgical vestments, are preserved in his monastery cell and in a chapel at Niepokalanów, where they may be venerated by visitors.


== Influence ==

Kolbe influenced his own Order of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the Militia Immaculatae movement had continued. In recent years new religious and secular institutes have been founded, inspired from this spiritual way. Among these are the Missionaries of the Immaculate Mary – Fr. Kolbe, the Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate, and a parallel congregation of religious sisters and others. The Franciscan Friars of Mary Immaculate are taught basic Polish so they can sing the traditional hymns sung by Kolbe, in his native tongue.
According to the friars:

Our patron, St. Maximilian Kolbe, inspires us with his unique Mariology and apostolic mission, which is to bring all souls to the Sacred Heart of Christ through the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Christ's most pure, efficient, and holy instrument of evangelization – especially those most estranged from the Church.

Kolbe's views into Marian theology echo today through their influence on Vatican II. His image may be found in churches across Europe and throughout the world. Several churches in Poland are under his patronage, such as the Sanctuary of Saint Maxymilian in Zduńska Wola and the Church of Saint Maxymilian Kolbe in Szczecin. A museum, Museum of St. Maximilian Kolbe ""There was a Man"", was opened in Niepokalanów in 1998.
In 1963, Rolf Hochhuth published The Deputy, a play influenced by Kolbe's life, and dedicated to him. In 2000, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops (US) designated Marytown in Libertyville, Illinois home to a community of Conventual Franciscan friars, as the National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe.
In 1991, Krzysztof Zanussi released a Polish film about the life of Kolbe, Life for Life: Maximilian Kolbe, with Edward Żentara as Kolbe. The Polish Senate declared 2011 to be the year of Maximilian Kolbe.
In 2023, the Mexican production company Dos Corazones Films released the animated feature film Max, which recounts part of the Franciscan's life.


== Immaculata prayer ==
Kolbe composed the Immaculata prayer as a prayer of consecration to the Immaculata.


== See also ==
Holocaust theology
Maximilian of Tebessa
Peter Fehlner
Sisters Minor of Mary Immaculate
Élise Rivet


== Notes ==


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Rees, Laurence (2005). Auschwitz: A New History. New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-357-9.
Smith, Jeremiah J. (1951).  Saint Maximilian Kolbe : Knight of the Immaculata. Rockford, IL:  Tan. ISBN 978-0895556196


== External links ==

Patron Saints Index: Saint Maximilian Kolbe
Kolbe's Gift, a play by David Gooderson about Kolbe and his self-sacrifice in Auschwitz based on factual evidence and conversations with the late Józef Garliński
A Man Feared by the 21st Century: Saint Maximilian Kolbe from the Starvation Bunker in Auschwitz – a drama by Kazimierz Braun
Saint Maximilian Kolbe, a popular biography at Catholicism.org
Niepokalanów in English
Catholic Online, St. Maximilian Kolbe, Catholic Online.Inform-Inspire-Ignite.
St. Maximilian Kolbe Website
An ""Insight"" episode which mentions Maximilian Kolbe, who was portrayed by Werner Klemperer
Radio Kolbe, International Radio Group OM / SWL / BCL (Based in Italy)
National Shrine of St. Maximilian Kolbe - Libertyville, IL USA"
Traditionis custodes,"Traditionis custodes (Guardians of the Tradition) is an apostolic letter issued motu proprio by Pope Francis, promulgated on 16 July 2021 regarding the continued use of pre-Vatican II rites. It restricts the celebration of the Tridentine Mass of the Roman Rite, sometimes colloquially called the ""Latin Mass"" or the ""Traditional Latin Mass"". The apostolic letter was accompanied by an ecclesiastical letter to the Catholic bishops of the world.
The Congregation for Divine Worship has stated in an official instruction (responsa) that the Latin version of Traditionis custodes ""is the official text to be referenced"".


== Background ==


=== Liturgical reforms after Vatican II ===

In 1969, the first new edition of the Roman Missal based on the revisions of the Second Vatican Council was promulgated, instituting a new form of the Roman Rite's Mass liturgy. Often referred to as the Mass of Paul VI, this edition of the Roman Missal was produced in Latin with consideration that it was to be translated into the vernacular. The first edition of this missal was published in 1970, around one year after its promulgation. It replaced the Roman Missal of the Tridentine Mass, the last edition of which was promulgated in 1962, as well as the various vernacular translations that are often referred to as the ""1965 Missal"", though themselves not a new form of the Roman Missal. In 1971, the Liturgy of the Hours – also prepared with expectation of translation into the vernacular – was introduced to replace the 1960 edition of the Roman Breviary as the primary form of prayer for the canonical hours within the Latin Church.


=== John Paul II ===

John Paul II in Quattuor abhinc annos in 1984 liberalised the use of the Tridentine Mass, while still maintaining limitations on its use. This liberalisation was further expanded by the motu proprio Ecclesia Dei in 1988.


=== Summorum Pontificum ===

In 2007, Benedict XVI published the apostolic letter Summorum Pontificum which stated that while the Roman Missal promulgated by Paul VI is ""the ordinary expression of the lex orandi [law of prayer] of the Catholic Church of the Latin Rite"", the Roman Missal promulgated by Pope Pius V and revised by John XXIII is nevertheless to be considered ""an extraordinary expression"" of the same lex orandi of the church. The Tridentine Mass was thus called the ""Extraordinary Form of the Roman Rite"", and the Mass of Paul VI the ""Ordinary Form of the Roman Rite"".
Benedict decreed that ""any Catholic priest of the Latin rite"" may use either form and ""needs no permission"" from his bishop or from the Holy See to do so. He concluded then that ""these two expressions of the church's lex orandi will in no way lead to a division in the church's lex credendi [law of faith], for they are two usages of the one Roman rite"". Benedict also wrote that faithful could complain to their bishop or even to the Holy See if their requests for celebration of the extraordinary form were denied. This apostolic letter of Benedict XVI, in brief, allowed any priest of the Latin Church to celebrate the Tridentine Mass according to the Roman Missal of 1962 without needing to have his bishop or the Holy See's permission. ""Prior to that law, priests and faithful who wished to celebrate the Traditional [Tridentine] Latin Mass had to request explicit permission from their bishop. It could only be offered to those who requested it; it was not allowed to be on the normal Mass schedule for parish churches; and the bishop could set specific days and conditions for its celebration"".


=== Before the publication ===
In 2020, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith sent a letter to Catholic bishops of the world to ask them to report on the implementation of Summorum Pontificum in their dioceses. The results of this survey were not made public.
In May 2021, less than two months before Traditionis custodes was published, a rumor said that during a ""closed-door question-and-answer session"" with the members of the Italian bishops' conference, Francis stated that the draft of a text restricting the celebration of the pre-Vatican II Mass was awaiting his approval.
Traditionis custodes was published two days after Francis returned to the Vatican after nine days in the hospital.


== Content ==
Traditionis custodes not only repealed the changes liberalising use of the Tridentine Mass in the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, which had been issued by Francis's predecessor, Benedict XVI, in 2007, but it also went further to limit the practice of the Tridentine Mass.
The apostolic letter is divided into 8 articles.


=== Article 1 ===
In the first article of the apostolic letter, Francis writes that the liturgical books issued by Popes Paul VI and John Paul II after Vatican II are ""the unique expression of the lex orandi [law of prayer] of the Roman Rite"".


=== Article 2 ===
The second article states that it is a diocesan bishop's ""exclusive competence"" to authorise the use of the 1962 Roman Missal in his diocese ""according to the guidelines of the Apostolic See"".


=== Article 3 ===
Another measure is that ""[t]he bishop of the diocese in which until now there exist one or more groups that celebrate according to the Missal antecedent to the reform of 1970"" has ""to determine that these groups do not deny the validity and the legitimacy of the liturgical reform, dictated by Vatican Council II and the Magisterium of the Supreme Pontiffs"".
Moreover, the diocesan bishop has ""to designate one or more locations"", excluding the parochial churches and without erecting new personal parishes, where the faithful adherents of those groups may gather to perform Tridentine Mass. In short, bishops must find alternate locations for groups practising the Tridentine Mass without creating new parishes.
The diocesan bishop must also establish ""the days on which eucharistic celebrations are permitted using the Roman Missal promulgated by Saint John XXIII in 1962"" and ensure that the readings are ""in the vernacular language, using translations of the Sacred Scripture approved for liturgical use by the respective episcopal conferences"".
Furthermore, the diocesan bishop must appoint a properly trained priest as his delegate to perform the Tridentine Mass and supervise groups that practice it. The priest must be familiar with the Tridentine Mass and have an understanding of Latin sufficient ""for a thorough comprehension of the rubrics and liturgical texts"". ""This priest should have at heart not only the correct celebration of the liturgy, but also the pastoral and spiritual care of the faithful"".
The diocesan bishop also has to ""verify that the parishes canonically erected for the benefit of these faithful are effective for their spiritual growth, and to determine whether or not to retain them"".
The diocesan bishop must not ""authorize the establishment of new groups"". The Associated Press paraphrases: ""bishops are no longer allowed to authorize the formation of any new pro-Latin Mass groups in their dioceses"".


=== Articles 4 and 5 ===
Priests ordained after the publication of the motu proprio who wish to celebrate Mass according to the Tridentine Mass ""should submit a formal request to the diocesan bishop who shall consult the Apostolic See before granting this authorization"". Priests who already celebrate using the Roman Missal of 1962 ""should request from the diocesan Bishop the authorization to continue to enjoy this faculty"".


=== Articles 6 and 7 ===
Institutes of consecrated life and societies of apostolic life that were established by the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei – which was created by John Paul II in 1988 and merged into the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 2019 –, now fall under the jurisdiction of the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life (CICLSAL).
Both the CICLSAL and the Congregation for Divine Worship ""for matters of their particular competence, exercise the authority of the Holy See with respect to the observance of these provisions"", which means that requests are to be sent to those two dicasteries, which exercise the authority of the Holy See in overseeing those provisions.


=== Article 8 and effect ===
The last article declares: ""previous norms, instructions, permissions, and customs that do not conform to the provisions of the present Motu Proprio are abrogated"". 
The dispositions in the apostolic letter took effect immediately.


== Accompanying letter ==
Pope Francis also released an ecclesiastical letter to the bishops of the world along with Traditionis custodes explaining his decision, the same way Benedict XVI had done with Summorum Pontificum.


=== Introduction ===
In the letter accompanying the document, Francis explains that the concessions granted by his predecessors John Paul II and Benedict XVI for the use of the 1962 Roman Missal were above all ""motivated by the desire to foster the healing of the schism with the movement of Mons. Lefebvre"". The request directed to the Catholic bishops to generously welcome the ""just aspirations"" of the members of the faithful who request the use of this Missal was also motivated by ""the ecclesial intention of restoring the unity of the Church"", writes Francis. He adds that he believes ""many in the Church came to regard this faculty as an opportunity to adopt freely the Roman Missal promulgated by St. Pius V and use it in a manner parallel to the Roman Missal promulgated by St. Paul VI"".
Francis recalled that Benedict XVI's decision promulgated with the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum (2007), as well as John Paul II's decisions promulgated by Quattuor abhinc annos and Ecclesia Dei, were sustained by the confidence that ""such a provision would not place in doubt one of the key measures of Vatican Council II or minimize in this way its authority"". Francis also noted that Pope Benedict had called in 2007 ""unfounded"" the fear that parishes would be divided by the use of two forms and believed that the two forms would, Benedict said, ""enrich one another"".


=== Letter of the CDF ===
In 2020, Francis asked the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith to send a letter to bishops to ask them about the implementation of Summorum Pontificum. Francis says the bishops' answers ""reveal a situation that preoccupies and saddens me"". He explains that ""an opportunity offered by St. John Paul II and, with even greater magnanimity, by Benedict XVI, intended to recover the unity of an ecclesial body with diverse liturgical sensibilities, was exploited to widen the gaps, reinforce the divergences, and encourage disagreements that injure the Church, block her path, and expose her to the peril of division"".


=== Vatican II ===
Francis said that he deplores liturgical abuses ""on all sides"" and the fact that ""in many places the prescriptions of the new Missal are not observed in celebration, but indeed come to be interpreted as an authorization for or even a requirement of creativity, which leads to almost unbearable distortions"". However, Francis adds: ""I am nonetheless saddened that the instrumental use of the Roman Missal of 1962 is often characterized by a rejection not only of the liturgical reform, but of the Vatican Council II itself, claiming, with unfounded and unsustainable assertions, that it betrayed the Tradition and the 'true Church'"". Francis rejects that claim and explains that ""the path of the Church must be seen within the dynamic of Tradition 'which originates from the Apostles and progresses in the Church with the assistance of the Holy Spirit' (Dei Verbum, 8)"". He recalled that ""a recent stage of this dynamic was constituted by Vatican Council II where the Catholic episcopate came together to listen and to discern the path for the Church indicated by the Holy Spirit"". He adds: ""To doubt the [Vatican II] Council is to doubt the intentions of those very Fathers who exercised their collegial power in a solemn manner cum Petro et sub Petro [with Peter and under Peter] in an ecumenical council, and, in the final analysis, to doubt the Holy Spirit itself who guides the Church"".
He said the liturgical reform was carried out ""based on the principles"" given by the Second Vatican Council and reached ""its highest expression in the Roman Missal"" published by Pope Paul VI and revised by Pope John Paul II.
Francis also stated: ""Whoever wishes to celebrate with devotion according to earlier forms of the liturgy can find in the reformed Roman Missal according to Vatican Council II all the elements of the Roman Rite, in particular the Roman Canon which constitutes one of its more distinctive elements"".


=== Unity of the church ===

Francis states his ""final reason"" for his decision is that ""ever more plain in the words and attitudes of many is the close connection between the choice of celebrations according to the liturgical books prior to Vatican Council II and the rejection of the Church and her institutions in the name of what is called the 'true Church'"". Francis adds: ""One is dealing here with comportment that contradicts communion and nurtures the divisive tendency—'I belong to Paul; I belong instead to Apollo; I belong to Cephas; I belong to Christ'—against which the Apostle Paul so vigorously reacted"". For this reason, he says, ""[i]n defense of the unity of the Body of Christ, I am constrained to revoke the faculty granted by my Predecessors. The distorted use that has been made of this faculty is contrary to the intentions that led to granting the freedom to celebrate the Mass with the Missale Romanum of 1962"".
According to Francis, John Paul II in 1988 and Benedict XVI in 2007 were motivated to allow ""the use of the Roman Missal of 1962"" for the celebration of the Mass ""to promote the concord and unity of the church"" and ""to facilitate the ecclesial communion of those Catholics who feel attached to some earlier liturgical forms"". He says that his predecessors ""were confident that such a provision would not place in doubt one of the key measures of Vatican Council II, or minimize in this way its authority"", but that things did not develop the way his predecessors intended; Francis states that therefore he had to act because the unity of the church was now threatened.


=== Comparison with the Tridentine Mass ===
In this letter, Francis writes: ""I take the firm decision to abrogate all the norms, instructions, permissions and customs that precede the present motu proprio, and declare that the liturgical books promulgated by the saintly Pontiffs Paul VI and John Paul II, in conformity with the decrees of Vatican Council II, constitute the unique expression of the lex orandi [law of prayer] of the Roman Rite. I take comfort in this decision from the fact that, after the Council of Trent, St. Pius V also abrogated all the rites that could not claim a proven antiquity, establishing for the whole Latin Church a single Roman Missal"".
Francis added that during four centuries, this Roman Missal was ""the principal expression of the lex orandi of the Roman Rite, and functioned to maintain the unity of the Church"" until ""without denying the dignity and grandeur of this Rite"" the bishops ""gathered in ecumenical council asked that it be reformed"". Francis says that their intention was that ""the faithful would not assist as strangers and silent spectators in the mystery of faith, but, with a full understanding of the rites and prayers, would participate in the sacred action consciously, piously, and actively"". He adds: ""St. Paul VI, recalling that the work of adaptation of the Roman Missal had already been initiated by Pius XII, declared that the revision of the Roman Missal, carried out in the light of ancient liturgical sources, had the goal of permitting the church to raise up, in the variety of languages, 'a single and identical prayer' that expressed her unity. This unity I intend to re-establish throughout the church of the Roman Rite"".


=== Appeal ===
Pope Francis appeals to the bishops in his letter, saying: ""While in the exercise of my ministry in the service of unity, I take the decision to suspend the faculty granted by my predecessors, I ask you to share with me this burden as a form of participation in the solicitude for the whole Church proper to the bishops"".


=== Instructions to the bishops ===
Francis gave explicit instructions to the bishops to take measures to strongly limit the use of the Tridentine Rite, with the clear goal of getting all Catholics to eventually celebrate only the reformed liturgy which followed Vatican II. Francis wrote: ""Indications about how to proceed in your dioceses are chiefly dictated by two principles: on the one hand, to provide for the good of those who are rooted in the previous form of celebration and need to return in due time to the Roman Rite promulgated by Saints Paul VI and John Paul II, and, on the other hand, to discontinue the erection of new personal parishes tied more to the desire and wishes of individual priests than to the real need of the 'holy People of God'"".
Francis adds that he asks the bishops ""to be vigilant in ensuring that every liturgy be celebrated with decorum and fidelity to the liturgical books promulgated after Vatican Council II, without the eccentricities that can easily degenerate into abuses. Seminarians and new priests should be formed in the faithful observance of the prescriptions of the Missal and liturgical books, in which is reflected the liturgical reform willed by Vatican Council II"".


== Congregation for Divine Worship official guidelines ==


=== Responsa ===
On 18 December 2021, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments (CDW), the Holy See office responsible for matters related to liturgy, released official guidelines and clarifications, approved by Pope Francis, on the implementation of Traditionis custodes. Those guidelines are dated 4 December 2021. The guidelines are structured as individual responsa to 11 questions, with explanatory notes included.
Accompanying those guidelines is a letter of the prefect of the CDW, Archbishop Arthur Roche, to the presidents of all Catholic episcopal conferences, in which Roche says that the primary aim of the new guidelines is to foster ecclesial communion.
The instruction states that ""if it is established that it is impossible to use another church, oratory or chapel"", then a group celebrating the 1962 Tridentine Mass can be allowed to celebrate its Tridentine Mass in a parish church with permission from both the diocesan bishop and the CDW. In this case, the instruction states, ""such a celebration should not be included in the parish Mass schedule, since it is attended only by the faithful who are members of the said group"" and ""it should not be held at the same time as the pastoral activities of the parish community"". It is precised that ""when another venue becomes available"", the permission to celebrate the Tridentine Mass in a parish church ""will be withdrawn"".
The guidelines state that only personal parishes erected under the norms of Traditionis custodes can be allowed to perform rites according to the 1952 edition of the book Rituale Romanum; those rites are baptism, penance, marriage, anointing of the sick, and funeral rites. The instruction adds that the use of the sacraments of confirmation and ordination as found in the book Pontificale Romanum are totally forbidden. Both the Pontificale Romanum and the Rituale Romanum predate the liturgical reforms.
The instruction further states that a priest who has been allowed to perform the 1962 Tridentine Mass and who does not recognise the validity of concelebrating, and who therefore refuses to concelebrate and in particular refuses to concelebrate the Chrism Mass with his bishop on Holy Thursday, cannot be allowed to celebrate the 1962 Tridentine Mass. The instruction also states that during Tridentine Masses, ""readings are to be proclaimed in the vernacular language"", and that vernacular translations from Bibles approved by their local episcopal conference must be used to translate passages found in the Readings sections of the 1962 missal; furthermore, ""[n]o vernacular lectionaries may be published that reproduce the cycle of readings"" of the 1962 Tridentine Mass.
The concession of celebrating the 1962 Tridentine Mass that any diocesan bishop would want to grant to any priest ordained after the publication of Traditionis custodes (16 July 2021) must before that necessarily be approved by the Holy See. Diocesan bishops may grant the concession during a limited, defined period of time. Any concession of allowing the celebration of the 1962 Tridentine Mass is restricted to the territory of the bishop who granted it. In case of absence of the authorised priest, the substituting priest must also receive a formal authorisation to perform the 1962 Tridentine Mass. Authorisation is also required for deacons and the instituted ministers who participate in the celebration of the Tridentine Mass. As for bination (the celebration of two masses on the same day by the same priest): priests or chaplains who celebrate the mass using the mass of Paul VI on one weekday cannot celebrate the same day the 1962 Tridentine Mass, and priests can only celebrate the Tridentine Mass once a day.
Answering questions of the National Catholic Register concerning the instruction, Abp. Roche said: ""The responses to the various dubia are evidently legitimate and fully compliant with Canon Law in their elaboration by this Congregation whose authority in this matter is undisputed. ... What is important to realize now is that the Holy Father has spoken; the liturgical possibilities are in place; the challenge is to get on with it without licking one's wounds when no one has been injured"". He added concerning a question on the difference with the Tridentine Mass with other rites: ""There is only one Roman Rite, just as there is only one Ambrosian Rite and one Mozarabic Rite. The Gallican Rite disappeared many centuries ago ... . The others are not rites but usages — adaptations or inculturation of the Roman Rite, which has received approval by the Apostolic See for specific reasons"". He stated concerning the former Ecclesia Dei communities: ""The Congregation for Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life has competency over [those communities]. This Congregation has not made any statement about these Institutes. However, the principle has been established that ordinations in the Latin Church are conferred as directed by the Rite approved by Apostolic Constitution in 1968"".


=== Rescript ===
On 21 February 2023, the Holy See published a papal rescript written by Arthur Roche, Prefect of Dicastery for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments (DDW); the rescript had been approved by the pope the day before. The rescript clarifies that canon 87 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law cannot be used by diocesan bishops to allow the faithful to continue celebrating Tridentine Mass and pre-Vatican II reforms sacraments, since the restrictions contained in Traditionis custodes are ""reserved in a special way to the Apostolic See"". It also states that bishops which had dispensed those restrictions by relying on this canon, must ""inform the Dicastery for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, which will evaluate the individual cases"". The rescript also states: ""the Holy Father confirms - having already expressed his assent in the audience of 18 November 2021 - what was established in the Responsa ad dubia with the annexed Explanatory Notes of 4 December 2021"".
Canon 87 allows a bishop to dispense the faithful from certain disciplinary laws within his jurisdiction ""whenever he judges that it contributes to their spiritual good"", unless the law's application is specially reserved to the judgement of the Holy See. This canon had been previously used by some bishops to allow Catholics to continue celebrating Tridentine Mass and pre-Vatican II reforms sacraments.
Previously, in early February, canon lawyer J.D. Flynn had criticized Roche: Flynn wrote in The Pillar that – contrary to what Roche had written in official DDW letters – the DDW had no canonical right to deny diocesan bishops the right to dispense of Traditionis custodes restrictions, due to canon 87. Roche had responded to Flynn, saying, ""It is an absurdity to think that the prefect of a dicastery would do anything other than exercise the wishes of the Holy Father as clearly outlined in their mandate and the General Norms of Praedicate Evangelium. The article in The Pillar is not really an attack on me but on the Pope's authority which for Catholics is an astonishing act full of hubris"".


== Reception ==


=== Catholic Church ===


==== Clergy ====
American Cardinal Raymond Burke, who served as Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura until 2014, told National Catholic Register that ""he sees as a number of flaws in Traditionis Custodes, saying he could not understand how the new Roman Missal is the 'unique expression of the lex orandi of the Roman Rite,' as the new motu proprio states. The Extraordinary Form of the Mass 'is a living form of the Roman Rite and has never ceased to be so,' Cardinal Burke noted. He also could not understand why the motu proprio takes effect immediately, as the decree 'contains many elements that require study regarding its application'."" He added that ""in his long experience he has not witnessed the 'gravely negative situation' Francis describes in his letter"". He later published a statement regarding Traditionis custodes on his personal website. In this statement, he called the restrictions imposed by Francis ""severe and revolutionary"", and questioned the pope's authority to revoke the practice of the Tridentine Mass.
Cardinal Gerhard Ludwig Müller, who served as Prefect for the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith until 2017, criticised the letter as ""harsh"", saying: ""Instead of appreciating the smell of the sheep, the shepherd here hits them hard with his crook."" He also contrasted the approach taken by Francis to curb the traditionalist movement with his failure to condemn ""the innumerable 'progressive' abuses in the liturgy ... that are tantamount to blasphemy"".
Retired Cardinal Joseph Zen  released a statement on his personal blog, in which he wrote: ""Many tendentious generalizations in the documents [of the motu proprio] have hurt the hearts of many good people more than expected"". He added that he believed that many people who had been hurt by the restrictions ""have never given the smallest reason to be suspected of not accepting the liturgical reform of the [Second Vatican Council]"".
Cardinal Walter Kasper, when asked to comment on Traditionis custodes, said he believes the ""overwhelming majority"" of Catholics are strongly against the Tridentine Mass, and that some of the Tridentine Mass adherents scandalise said majority by believing the Tridentine Mass is the only true Catholic Mass and by rejecting Vatican II ""more or less in its entirety"". He added that some faithful who attend the Tridentine Mass have turned Benedict XVI's efforts at reconciliation into division, and thus struck at the ""very heart of the unity of the Church"".
The president of the USCCB, José Horacio Gómez, states: ""I welcome the Holy Father’s desire to foster unity among Catholics who celebrate the Roman Rite. As these new norms are implemented, I encourage my brother bishops to work with care, patience, justice, and charity as together we foster a Eucharistic renewal in our nation"".
The Bishops' Conference of France states that the bishops of France ""wish to express to the faithful who habitually celebrate according to the Missal of St. John XXIII, and to their pastors, their care, the esteem they have for the spiritual zeal of these faithful, and their determination to continue the mission together, in the communion of the Church and according to the norms in force"". It adds that ""The motu proprio Traditionis custodes and the letter of the Holy Father to the bishops that introduces it are a demanding call for the whole Church to an authentic Eucharistic renewal. None can dispense with it"".
American Jesuit priest and consultant to the Secretariat for Communications at the Vatican James Martin , wrote in America: ""Overall, I agree with Francis's motu proprio, not simply based on my own experience of the growing divisiveness over the Mass, but even more on his consultation with bishops around the world who have weighed in on the experiences of the People of God"".
Monsignor Eric Barr, a retired priest of the Diocese of Rockford defended the Pope's decision in an article on the Catholic Herald: he argued that the traditionalist Catholic movement had become divisive among the Church, rejecting many of its arguments and stressing the need for liturgical unity in the Church.
It has been reported that Traditionis custodes demonstrated the growing influence of the liturgical faculty of the Sant'Anselmo University at the Vatican, as the newly appointed secretary and undersecretary of the CDW, Vittorio Francesco Viola  and Aurelio García Macías, both studied at the institute. Andrea Grillo, an Italian professor of sacramental theology at the institute sometimes described as ""the mind behind the motu proprio"" Traditionis custodes, stated that Traditionis custodes restored ""the 'elementary' and 'healthy' logic of the universal validity of a single Roman rite, without any possibility, unless exceptional or personal, of the parallel validity of an ‘earlier’ form of the Roman rite"".
In a 4 August 2021 reply letter to cardinal Vincent Nichols concerning the application of Traditionis custodes, Archbishop Arthur Roche, prefect of the CDW, stated in his reply ""of a personal nature"" that the Tridentine Mass had been ""abrogated by Pope Saint Paul VI"". The CDW at this moment had not released a guideline on the application of Traditionis custodes. It was noted that Roche's declaration contradicted that of Benedict XVI in his 2007 letter to the world's bishops accompanying Summorum Pontificum, in which the Pope wrote that the Tridentine Mass was ""never juridically abrogated"". In an interview with Catholic News Service in January 2022, archbishop Arthur Roche stated that the steps that were being taken on restricting the use of the 1962 missal was something that was mandated by the Second Vatican Council. Roche said that if the faithful did not take Traditionis custodes seriously, then those faithful would be making ""a serious decision"". In the same interview, Roche clarified that the motu propio was issued not only due to concerns about ecclesial unity, but also due to the fact that after Benedict XVI had lifted restrictions on the old rite, the old rite was being promoted rather than just being seen as a concession to those who were attached to said rite. In April 2023, Arthur Roche states the restriction on the Tridentine mass was necessary, because ""the theology of the Church has changed"". He explains that before the liturgical reforms only the priest was celebrating the liturgy, but that now in the Mass of Paul VI all those present during the Eucharist participate in the liturgy.


==== Pope Benedict XVI ====
Upon the death of Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI, the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter stated that the publication of Traditionis custodes had prompted Pope Benedict to send a letter of encouragement to the Fraternity. In a 1 January 2023 interview to Die Tagespost, Benedict's former secretary Georg Gänswein stated that Benedict had read Traditionis custodes ""with pain in his heart"". In his book Nothing but the Truth, released 12 January 2023, Gänswein wrote that Benedict considered the restriction of the Tridentine mass to be ""a mistake"" since it ""jeopardized the attempt at pacification"" between the Tridentine Mass and the Mass of Paul VI; Gänswein also related that ""Benedict in particular felt it was wrong to prohibit the celebration of Mass in the ancient rite in parochial churches"".


==== Traditionalist Catholics ====
Traditionalist Catholics ""immediately decried [Traditionis custodes] as an attack on them and the ancient liturgy"". The Tablet, a British Catholic publication, reported that many traditionalist Catholics were angered by Traditionis custodes, further stating that traditionalists expressed concern that certain bishops would use the motu proprio to prohibit the Tridentine Mass within their dioceses.
Joseph Shaw, the chairman of the Latin Mass Society of England and Wales, said that the motu proprio appeared to ""undo entirely the legal provisions made for the Traditional Mass by Pope Benedict, and to take us back not only to the situation before the 2007 apostolic letter Summorum Pontificum, but even before 1988, when Pope John Paul II – who was canonized by Pope Francis – described the more ancient Mass as a 'rightful aspiration' of the faithful"". He also stated that Traditionis custodes was a ""staggering document, exceeding our worst expectations. Pope Francis has completely undone the arrangements of Summorum Pontificum and created a situation which seems entirely unworkable, banning the Extraordinary Form from parish churches"". He also published a blog post on the subject on the Society's website. The Latin Mass Society later stated in a document that the responsa from the CDW had no binding force, as they were not directly issued by the pope. Arthur Roche, head of the CDW, responded to the Latin Mass Society document by saying: ""The responses to the various dubia are evidently legitimate and fully compliant with Canon Law in their elaboration by this Congregation whose authority in this matter is undisputed"".
The Fœderatio Internationalis Una Voce released an official statement in which it rejected the idea that those who performed or assisted at Tridentine Masses were disobedient to the Catholic Church and the Second Vatican Council.
The Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter (FSSP) in a communiqué said it ""ha[d] received Pope Francis' Motu Proprio Traditionis custodes with surprise"". It adds that since the Fraternity is approved canonically, and had always been faithful to the ""entire Magisterium of the Church"" and to the pope, ""[t]oday, therefore the Fraternity of St. Peter is deeply saddened by the reasons given for limiting the use of the Missal of Pope St. John XXIII, which is at the center of its charism"". On 21 February 2022, the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter announced that on 4 February, they had a meeting with Pope Francis who informed them that the institutes whose reason for existence is the use of the Tridentine Mass, and its associated Liturgical books, were unaffected by the motu proprio. The FSSP also stated the Pope issued a decree granting the members of the Fraternity to the ability to celebrate the Mass other the sacraments and rites according to the typical editions of the liturgical books in force in 1962.
On the other hand, Bishop Fernando Arêas Rifan, Apostolic Administrator of the Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney, which celebrates the Tridentine Mass, accepted the motu proprio, understanding the abuses that were being committed in using the Tridentine Mass as a way to attack the Pope and the Second Vatican Council. However, he defended that these abuses were committed by only a minority, and said that the majority of traditional Catholics were faithful to the Pope and the Church's Magisterium.


==== Public opinion ====
A September 2021 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that roughly two-thirds of U.S. Catholics were unaware of the new restrictions. Among weekly mass attending U.S. Catholics, 29% disapproved of the new restrictions, 11% approved, 17% had no opinion, and 42% were unaware of them.


=== Society of Saint Pius X ===
Davide Pagliarani , Superior General of the Society of Saint Pius X, published a letter concerning Traditionis custodes. In it, he said: ""We can point out, quite logically, that the era of the hermeneutics of continuity, with its equivocations, illusions and impossible efforts, is radically over – swept aside with a wave of a sleeve. These clear-cut measures do not directly affect the Society of Saint Pius X. However, they must be an occasion for us to reflect deeply on the situation"". He added that ""the Tridentine Mass expresses and conveys a conception of Christian life – and consequently, a conception of the Catholic Church – that is absolutely incompatible with the ecclesiology that emerged from the Second Vatican Council"". He also stated: ""May this 'shock', provoked by the harshness of the official texts of July 16th, serve to renew, deepen and rediscover our attachment to the Tridentine Mass!"".


=== Academics ===
Kurt Martens, professor of canon law at the Catholic University of America, noted that the term ""extraordinary form"" is no longer used in the new legislation and that the new motu proprio ""establishes that liturgical books promulgated in conformity with the decrees of Vatican Council II are the unique expression of the lex orandi of the Roman Rite"". He adds: ""Diocesan bishops are given broad responsibility with regard to the use of the former liturgy"".
Christopher Bellitto, professor of church history at Kean University, said Francis was right to intervene, noting that Benedict XVI's original decision had had numerous unintended consequences that not only split the church but temporarily roiled relations with Jews. ""Francis hits it right on the head with his observation that Benedict’s 2007 loosening of regulations against the Latin rite allowed others to use it for division. The blowback proves his point"".
Martin Klöckener, professor of liturgy at the University of Fribourg, welcomed the motu proprio as a necessary correction to Benedict's approach. He noted that it restored some measure of the authority that Benedict had denied to local bishops. He also welcomed Francis's approach that makes the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal the only form of pre-concilar Mass of the Roman Rite now permitted. He believes that Francis acted because in the 2020 survey ""many bishops spoke a clearer language than was otherwise heard in public"".
Douglas Farrow, professor of theology and ethics at McGill University, wrote: ""In sum: Traditionis Custodes, alas, confirms that the old Mass has indeed become a proxy in the fight over the legacy of Vatican II, as much on the one side as on the other. It also confirms that in Rome rigidity is the order of the day"".


=== Journalists ===
Pope Francis' decision was interpreted by the priest Raymond J. de Souza, editor of the Convivium magazine, as more a ""sociological"" decision relating to unity in the Catholic Church than a judgement of the Tridentine Missal's spiritual qualities.
Michael Sean Winters writes:

Aficionados of the old rite like to talk about how that rite uniquely conveys the sense that each Mass is a part of the one eternal sacrifice of Christ ... . If the Eucharist is, as Vatican II taught, the source and summit of the Catholic faith, then we know that when the celebration of the Eucharist fails to serve the unity of the church, something is wrong, and it isn't ever the fault of him whose sacrifice we commemorate.
The New York Times columnist Ross Douthat was critical of the work, contrasting the action with Pope Francis' stress on the need to accompany people, stating: ""Accompaniment for some, slow strangulation of their rites for others"".


== Implementation ==


=== Central America ===
On 20 July 2021, the Episcopal Conference of Costa Rica stated that no Tridentine Mass would be allowed in any of their dioceses.


=== United States ===

According to The Pillar's review of the Latin Mass Directory, there were 657 canonically regular venues that offered a Tridentine Mass in the United States prior to Traditionis custodes, including 49 operated exclusively by the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter (FSSP).
Several American bishops (including Scharfenberger, Aquila, and Cordileone) stressed that even under the new guidelines the Tridentine Mass would continue to be offered in their dioceses.
On 23 July 2021, Catholic News Agency reported on a survey of dioceses. The results were that although the majority of dioceses had not commented on the disposition of Traditionis custodes, most of the United States bishops who had to date issued statements on said dispositions had decided that priests who were already celebrating the Traditional Latin Mass may continue to do so.


=== United Kingdom ===
In England, the first personal parish for celebration of the Tridentine Mass had been established in 2018, three years before Traditionis custodes would prohibit further creation of such parishes. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales did not issue a general statement regarding the celebration of the Tridentine Mass under the new regulations. Certain regularly-scheduled Tridentine Masses were permanently cancelled at the behest of local bishops within the first week, while other ordinaries stated they would grant temporary permissions until they had reviewed the motu proprio. These restrictions to the celebration of the Tridentine Mass caused membership of the Latin Mass Society of England and Wales to increase.


== Desiderio desideravi ==
On 29 June 2022, the motu proprio apostolic letter Desiderio desideravi of Pope Francis was released. In it, the pope states he had published Traditionis custodes because some people accepted Vatican II but rejected the liturgical reforms that followed it which had been promulgated by Paul VI and John Paul II. He adds that since Sacrosanctum Concilium ""expresses the reality of the liturgy"", he had stressed in Traditionis custodes that the reformed Vatican II liturgy is ""the unique expression of the lex orandi of the Roman Rite"". He states that ""we cannot go back to that ritual form which the [Vatican II] Council fathers ... felt the need to reform"". He wrote Traditionis custodes, he continues, because the liturgical books of Paul VI and John Paul II ""guaranteed the fidelity of the reform of the [Vatican II] Council"", and because Francis wanted that ""the Church may lift up, in the variety of so many languages, one and the same prayer capable of expressing her unity"". He states he was determined to make it so that ""unity be re-established in the whole Church of the Roman Rite"".


== Notes ==


== See also ==
Preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council
Mediator Dei
Liturgical reforms of Pope Pius XII
Sacrosanctum Concilium, the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (1963)
List of communities using the Tridentine Mass


== References ==


== Further reading ==
""New norms regarding use of 1962 Roman Missal: Bishops given greater responsibility"". Vatican News. 16 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
Coppen, Luke (16 July 2022). ""'Traditionis custodes' – A timeline"". The Pillar. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
Elie, Paul (9 April 2023). ""What's Behind the Fight Between Pope Francis and the Latin Mass Movement?"". The New Yorker. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
Ferrone, Rita (19 October 2021). ""Pope Francis did not create the divisions around the Latin Mass. He inherited them"". America Magazine. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
Harlan, Chico (17 September 2021). ""These Americans are devoted to the old Latin Mass. They are also at odds with Pope Francis"". Washington Post. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
Ivereigh, Austen (20 January 2022). ""The Limits of Dialogue: Why Francis has been so tough on traditionalists"". Commonweal Magazine. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
Kwasniewski, Peter, ed. (2021). From Benedict's Peace to Francis's War: Catholics Respond to the Motu Proprio Traditionis Custodes on the Latin Mass. Angelico Press. ISBN 978-1621387879.
San Martín, Inés (20 July 2021). ""The nine questions that sealed the fate of the Latin Mass"". Crux. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
Smith, Peter Jesserer (5 August 2022). ""'Traditionis Custodes,' One Year Later, Brings New Pastoral Realities and Challenges"". National Catholic Register. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
Winters, Michael Sean (16 August 2021). ""Traditional Latin Mass advocates prove Pope Francis was right to suppress the old rite"". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
CNA Staff (18 December 2021). ""Traditional Latin Mass restrictions: Here's what you need to know"". Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 18 December 2021.


== External links ==
Texts of Francis

Apostolic letter Traditionis custodes
in L'Osservatore Romano
in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. April 2021. 113 (8): 793–796
Letter to the Bishops that accompanies Traditionis custodes
in L'Osservatore Romano
in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. April 2021. 113 (8): 802–11
Official instructions

Responsa ad dubia on Traditionis custodes (press release version here)
in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. January 2022. 114 (1): 139-49
20 February 2023 rescript
in L'Osservatore Romano
in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. March 2023. 115 (3): 370-1
Miscellaneous

L'Osservatore Romano n. 159 (48.782) of 16 July 2021"
National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers,"The National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was established on March 3, 1865, in the United States by Congress to provide care for volunteer soldiers who had been disabled through loss of limb, wounds, disease, or injury during service in the Union forces in the American Civil War. Initially, the Asylum, later called the Home, was planned to have three branches: in the Northeast, in the central area north of the Ohio River, and in what was then considered the Northwest, the present upper Midwest.
The Board of Managers, charged with governance of the Home, added seven more branches between 1870 and 1907 as broader eligibility requirements allowed more veterans to apply for admission. The effects of World War I, which resulted in a new veteran population of over five million men and women, brought dramatic changes to the National Home and all other governmental agencies responsible for veterans' benefits. In 1930 the Veterans Administration was established, to consolidate all veterans' programs into a single Federal agency. The several wars since then in the 20th and 21st centuries have resulted in more veterans needing services.


== Beginning of the National Home ==

The National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was originally called the National Asylum in the legislation approved by Congress and signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln in March 1865. The term ""asylum"" was used in the 19th century for institutions caring for dependent members of society, such as the insane and the poor, who were thought to temporarily have conditions that could be cured or corrected. But, the term had some negative connotations. In January 1873, the Board of Managers gained approval of the name, the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers.
From the Revolutionary War through the Civil War, the small number of veterans of American wars had three sources of assistance from the Federal government. The government offered land grants to veterans as compensation for their service, particularly following the Revolutionary War, when it used the land grant system to develop unsettled territories of the new nation. In 1833, the Federal government established the Bureau of Pensions, which made small cash payments to veterans. The low numbers of the veteran population and the more attractive offer of free land kept the pension system relatively small until after the Civil War.
In 1811 the United States Navy was authorized by Congress to establish a permanent shelter for its veterans; construction was started in 1827. The United States Sailors' Home, located in Philadelphia as part of the Navy Yard, was opened in 1833. In 1827, Secretary of War James Barbour suggested a similar institution for the Army, but Congressional lack of interest and funding meant such a project was delayed.
In 1851, legislation introduced by Jefferson Davis, senator from Mississippi and former secretary of war, was enacted by Congress. It appropriated funds for construction of the United States Soldiers' Home. The Soldiers' Home was open to all men who were regular or volunteer members of the army with 20 years' service and who had contributed to the home's support through pay withdrawals.
When the Soldiers' Home was being organized in 1851 and 1852, it was intended to have at least four branches. Its organization and administration were based on the army's command structure and staffed with regular army officers. The Soldiers' Home was managed by a board of commissioners, although drawn from army officers; each branch had a governor, deputy governor, and secretary-treasure; the members were organized into companies and the daily routine followed the military schedule; all members wore uniforms; and workshops were provided for members wanting or required to work. When the National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was being organized in 1866, the National Soldiers' Home assisted the asylum's board by explaining its regulations and offering suggestions.
The Civil War was the first event in the history of the United States considered to be national in the scale of citizen involvement, and in its effects on the daily lives of people communities in both the North and the South. The Civil War was a war of volunteers and draftees, both military and civilian. Very early in the war, it became clear to social leaders in the North that new programs were required to deliver medical care to the wounded beyond what was available through the official military structure.
The leading civilian organization was the United States Sanitary Commission; it secured permission from President Lincoln in the summer of 1861 to deliver medical supplies to the battle front, build field hospitals staffed with volunteer nurses (mostly women), and raise funds to support the commission's programs. As the war continued, civilian leaders began to address the issue of caring for the numerous veterans who would require assistance once the war ended. Members of the Sanitary Commission favored the pension system rather than permanent institutional care for the disabled veteran; the commission feared that a permanent institution would become a poorhouse for veterans. Other groups favored as strongly the establishment of a soldiers' asylum, to ensure provision of quality care. The groups gathered information on European military asylums, particularly the Invalides in Paris. They tended to find evidence to support their opinions on either side of the concept of a soldiers' asylum.
When President Lincoln signed legislation creating the National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers in March 1865, the nation was in a period of heightened emotional response to the approaching peace. The victory of the Union was seen as the triumph of the nation. The creation of a national institution to serve the veterans was an affirmation of that national victory. When the institution was established, supporters likely had a limited awareness of the potential need among future veterans. But, more than 2,000,000 men served in the Union Army, a third of the white men of military age (13 to 43 years old in 1860). If the number of men disabled in service equaled a sixth of the soldiers who died in the war, the number eligible for admission to the National Asylum would have been more than 300,000.


== Board of Managers (1866–1916) ==
It took time for the new institution to be organized, including design and construction of the building. The original corporation could not secure a quorum for a year after being authorized. In March 1866, Congress passed new legislation to replace the 100-member corporation with a twelve-member board of managers, a more manageable group. Still, they had to select the sites, arrange supervision of construction projects, and designate local officials while serving as unpaid volunteers of an independent Federal agency. The managers of the Asylum looked to past models and local efforts to guide the creation of the institution.
The Board of Managers of the National Asylum met for the first time in Washington, D.C. on May 16, 1866. Their first priority was the selection of sites for the three branches of the national institution, based on geographic distribution. They established criteria for site evaluation: a healthy site with fresh air and ample water supply, located 3 to 5 miles (8.0 km) from a city, and consisting of a tract of at least 200 acres (0.81 km2), connected to the city by a railroad. The Board issued a bulletin to newspapers and to governors of the northern states requesting proposals for sites to be donated or sold for use by the branches. Proposals were due before July 12. In addition, the Board advertised for plans, specifications, and estimates for the construction of asylum buildings.
At the September 1866 Board meeting, General Benjamin Butler, the President of the Board, proposed the purchase of a bankrupt resort at Togus, Maine, near Augusta, as the eastern branch of the Asylum. In regards to a Milwaukee location or a northwestern branch, the Board directed that an executive committee visit the city to select a site. Possible locations for a central branch were discussed.
At the December 7, 1866 meeting of the Board, the executive committee announced its approval of a Milwaukee location. The Board directed them to return to Milwaukee to purchase a site and arrange for the construction of asylum buildings, as well as the transfer of veterans currently housed in the Wisconsin Soldiers' Home in Milwaukee, operated by the Lady Managers of the Home Society. At the same meeting, the Board approved the purchase of the Togus site. Veterans had already been moved into the former hotel on the site in November 1866. The Central Branch location in Dayton, Ohio, was not selected until September 1867.
The selection of the sites for the three branches was based on three motivations: practical, political and economic. First, the Board needed sites ready to be used immediately before the second winter after the war, and before the time of the November 1866 elections. The Togus site, having been a resort, had a sufficient number of buildings appropriate for housing the disabled veterans. Choosing Dayton as the Central Branch site satisfied the powerful Ohio faction in Congress, as well as the numerous Union generals from Ohio, particularly William Tecumseh Sherman. Locating the Northwestern Branch at Milwaukee resulted in the Board of Managers gaining a large cash donation from the Ladies Managers, enabling them both to purchase a site and have funds left to begin construction.
As the first buildings at the Northwestern Branch were being completed in 1867–1869, the Board of Managers concentrated building efforts at the Central Branch, and in rebuilding facilities at the Eastern Branch, which had been destroyed by fire in 1868. Even though membership had increased in the first few years the Asylum was open, the Board had felt membership would soon begin to decline. The Board-based this on the belief that any veteran who needed the Asylum had already entered it and that, as members regained their health or learned new work skills, they would leave the Asylum. In 1868, the Board adopted a resolution that limited the number of branches to the three existing ones. Problems with construction of the Main Building at the Northwestern Branch, and concern over the harsh winters at both the Northwestern and Eastern branches, led the Board to open a fourth branch in 1870 at a site in a warmer climate; it had existing buildings available for immediate use. In addition, an increasing number of veterans applied for services.
The Southern Branch of the National Asylum was established in October 1870, with the Board's purchase of the Chesapeake Female College at Hampton, Virginia. What became the main building of this new branch was built in 1854 and used as the principal facility of the college. The building was used as a hospital for both Union and Confederate troops. In the economic downturn following the Civil War, the women's college did not reopen. Acquisition of the property by the National Home followed the precedent four years earlier of the purchase of the Togus resort.
The Southern Branch was founded to provide a facility in a milder climate for the benefit of older veterans, to house Southern black members whom the board believed would be more accustomed to a southern location, and to be associated with Fort Monroe, adjacent to the new branch site. The Federal troops at Fort Monroe and Union veterans at the Southern Branch would establish a strong Union presence near the strategic city of Newport News in the former Confederate state of Virginia.
On January 23, 1873, Congress passed a resolution changing the name of the institution to the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, reflecting the increasing permanence of the institution and its membership. In 1875, the Board's report to Congress stressed the need for construction of larger accommodations as quickly as possible. The Broad projected an eventual decline in the population as of the early 1870s, due to an increase in death rate with aging, but also said that it expected more aging veterans to apply for admission in the late 1870s and early 1880s. In 1875, major construction projects were started at the four branches, in part to provide more housing, but also to provide more hospital facilities to meet the changing medical needs of the members.
Considering the ages for Civil War participants ranged from 13 to 43 years in 1860, the Home could have expected continuing admissions well into the 20th century. The Board indicated a new understanding of the population makeup when it recommended that Congress change the eligibility requirements for admission to the Home by allowing benefits to all destitute soldiers unable to earn a living, without having to trace their disabilities to their military service. The Board realized that denying benefits to this large group of veterans meant their only recourse was the poor house.
In 1883, the Board, recognizing the changes the Home would face with increased membership and increased medical needs of the members, conceded that an ""institution like the National Home must in time become an enormous hospital."" It concluded that all new buildings for the Home must be planned with that in mind. As a result, the Board asked for Congressional appropriations to enlarge the hospital at the Central Branch and to build a new hospital at the Southern Branch. At the September 1883 Board meeting, the managers considered asking Congress for the transfer of Fort Riley, Kansas, to the Home as a new facility. They understood the fort was likely to be abandoned since the end of most of the Indian Wars, and it would be easily adaptable to Home use. The Board tabled the motion, but the issue of establishing additional branches of the National Home had been raised.
On July 5, 1884, Congress approved the Board's recommendation to change the eligibility requirements for admission, allowing any veterans disabled by old age or disease to apply without having to prove a service-related disability. In effect, the Federal government assumed responsibility of providing care for the aged veterans; what had been established as a temporary asylum for disabled people in 1866, had become a permanent home for the elderly. This legislation provided for expansion of the National Home by authorizing branches to be established west of the Mississippi and on the Pacific Coast.
With the loosening of restrictions, the Home rapidly had an increase of 12% in membership, but it had not gained additional funding from Congress. The Board returned to Congress with a request for deficiency funding, arguing that the Home could either go into debt, which was illegal under its organic law, or it would have to discharge a large number of members to save on expenses.
Expansion at the four original branches proceeded more slowly after 1884. The 1884 Board of Surgeons Report recommended that the Central Branch was already too large and should not be expanded; the severe climate at the Eastern and Northwestern branches should limit their growth; and the Southern branch should not be allowed to grow to more than 1500–2000 members. The surgeons suggested that new branches were a better solution than enlarging the older ones. They also recommended that certain diseases would benefit from treatment at the various branches. The establishment of new branches in the west and on the Pacific coast limited the expansion of the older branches.
In September 1884, the Board selected Leavenworth, Kansas, as a new location, contingent on the city donating a tract of 640 acres (2.6 km2) and $50,000 to provide for ""ornamentation""; the city accepted in April 1885. At the same meeting, the Board took under consideration the establishment of a Pacific Branch; the Sawtelle Veterans Home opened near Santa Monica, California in January 1888. Even with the creation of two new branches, the Board realized that membership would continue to increase; it proposed four alternatives to manage the needs. Additional branches could be established; existing branches could be enlarged; states could be encouraged to erect state soldiers' homes through partial funding from the Federal government; and financial relief to veterans outside the Home system could be increased.
Congress established a new Home branch in Grant County, Indiana, on March 23, 1888, with an initial appropriation of $200,000, based on the county residents' providing natural gas supply sufficient for the heating and lighting of the facility. The site selected was near Marion, Indiana, and the new facility was called the Marion Branch. The Marion Branch was the seventh of ten homes and one sanatorium that were built between 1867 and 1902. These homes were primarily intended to provide shelter for the veterans. The homes gradually developed as complete planned communities, with kitchens, gardens and facilities for livestock, designed to be nearly self-sufficient. It appears that these homes were the first non-religious planned communities in the country.
Additionally, Congress passed legislation to provide $100 annually for every veteran eligible for the National Home who was housed in a state soldiers' home. In 1895, the Indiana legislature authorized the establishment of a state soldiers' home, which was built in West Lafayette, Indiana.
The National Home continued to face problems of overcrowding and the need for more specialized medical care. In 1898, Congress approved an eighth branch, to be established at Danville, Illinois. The Mountain Branch was established in 1903 near Johnson City, Tennessee. The last of the National Home facilities was established as the Battle Mountain Sanitariumt at Hot Springs, South Dakota, in 1907. It was not a full-service branch, but a specialized institution open to members from any of the nine branches who had rheumatism or tuberculosis. Neither disease could be cured at the time, but patients were believed to benefit from the dry air prevalent at that location. Between 1900 and 1910, the Board of Managers were directed most of their attention to developing these three new branches.


== 1916–1930 ==
In 1916, the Board of Managers believed that membership had begun to decline, due to aging and deaths of veterans. But, on April 6, 1917, the United States entered World War I. By the time of the armistice on November 11, 1918, almost five million Americans had entered the armed forces. On October 6, 1917, an amendment to the War Risk Insurance Act, originally enacted in 1914 to insure American ships and cargo against risks of war, extended eligibility for National Home membership to all troops serving in the ""German War."" Most importantly, it provided that all veterans were entitled to medical, surgical and hospital care by the federal government.
Prior to the 1917 amendment, the only veterans entitled to such medical care were members of the National Home who had access to the Home hospitals. All other veterans were dependent on civilian medical services. The 1917 amendment meant that all veterans were eligible for the same medical care as the members of the National Home. Existing hospital facilities at the ten Home branches were insufficient to care for the potentially high number of World War I veterans needing medical care.
In 1919, the responsibility for veterans' services was distributed among several agencies: the United States Public Health Service (PHS) took over the provision of medical and hospital services; the Federal Board for Vocational Rehabilitation organized rehabilitation programs; and the War Risk Insurance Bureau managed compensation and insurance payouts. The burden on PHS government hospitals was so great that the Service began to contract with private hospitals to provide health care for veterans.
On March 4, 1921, in response to the need for veterans' hospitals, Congress appropriated funds to construct additional hospitals for veterans covered by the War Risk Insurance Act amendment. In addition, in 1926 Congress required the Bureau of War Risk Insurance to make allotments to the National Home to fund alterations or improvement to existing Home facilities to care for beneficiaries.
Immediately after the war, the National Home took actions to accommodate the large number of returning veterans:

1) transformed facilities of two branches into hospitals and classified them for specialized care (Marion for neuropsychiatric cases and Mountain for tuberculosis, which were the two classes of illness with the highest numbers of patients),
2) modernized existing facilities and established tuberculosis wards (Central and Pacific); and
3) built entirely new hospitals (Northwestern), using funding from the Treasury Department.
In August 1921, Congress established the Veterans Bureau to manage all veterans' benefits. On April 29, 1922, this agency assumed responsibility for fifty-seven veterans' hospitals operated by the Public Health Service, as well as nine under construction by the Treasury Department.
The participation of African Americans in World War I and issues of racism in US society added to the complexity of caring for veterans. African Americans pressed their case to the federal government, feeling that their service had created an obligation by the government to help them in the war's aftermath. African Americans had difficulty gaining medical care, especially in the South. The federal government authorized construction of what was originally called the ""Tuskegee Home"", now the Tuskegee Veterans Administration Medical Center, on land adjacent to Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Opened in 1923 with 600 beds, it was intended to serve the 300,000 African-American veterans in the South. The complex eventually had 27 buildings, and more than 2300 beds by 1973.
By 1926, the Board began to see a new trend in veterans' use of the National Home. For the most part, the World War I veterans were receiving medical treatment and returning to civilian life, rather than entering the domiciliary program for the Home. The Board noted that hospital care costs were almost three times the cost of domiciliary care, and it required large capital investments in hospitals, medical equipment, and professional staff. By 1928, the Board concluded that it was not capable of managing the National Home as a national medical service.
In June 1929, the president of the Board of Managers was appointed to the Federal Commission for Consideration of Government Activities Dealing with Veterans' Matters. The Commission recommended the founding of the Veterans Administration as a federal agency.
On July 21, 1930, the Veterans Bureau, the Bureau of Pensions, and the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers were consolidated into the Veterans Administration. The National Home was designated the ""Home Service."" In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt's relief program during the Great Depression put a temporary hold on funding for Veterans Administration construction projects, in favor of projects that could quickly put people to work and be completed more rapidly. Two years later, in August 1935, plans were announced for a $20,000,000 building program for the Veterans Administration. Several of the former National Home branches received funding for new medical treatment buildings, domiciliaries, storage buildings, and garages for staff quarters.
On December 7, 1941, another war brought a new period of change to the former National Home. More citizens were drafted for military service. To meet the demand for services after World War II, and later the Korean and Vietnam wars, the former branches of the National Home were expanded and adapted to serve veterans. To ensure high-quality development and training for personnel, in the postwar years the Veterans Administration and its hospital officials worked to establish medical residency programs at veterans hospitals, accredited through collaboration with local and regional universities.
During its life, the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers was also known ""officially"" as the National Military Home and colloquially as the Old Soldiers Home. The formal organizational name was not changed by statute. But, the mailing address for most branches became ""National Military Home,"" in the appropriate city and state. In the early days, the designation of ""old soldier"" had no bearing on an individual veteran's age. It was used for all veterans.


== Meals ==
Breakfast meals included ham, sausage, corned beef hash, baked beans with pork, beef fricassee with hominy, potatoes. bread, butterine. Dinners might include string beans, lima beans, dried peas, pickles, pies, roast mutton, soups like vegetable or bean, roast beef and crackers. Supper would be a light fare like stewed dried fruits, watermelons, sugar cookies, tea, fresh berries, corn meal or rolled oats with syrup, cheese and biscuits.
The quantities of food required were enormous, including 2,800 pounds of ham for the Sunday breakfast, or 2,950 pounds of sausage. 1,250 pies were eaten for dinner, 800 pounds of bread at each meal, and so forth. Preparing these meals required 126 cooks, 44 bakers, 18 butchers, 22 bread cutters, along with farm hands, dishwashers, servers and gardeners.


== Branches of the National Homes for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers ==


== References ==


== External links ==

National Archives.gov: National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers"
John Elliott Tappan,"John Elliott Tappan (August 29, 1870 - January 16, 1957) was an American lawyer and businessman from Minneapolis, Minnesota. Tappan founded Investors Syndicate in 1894, an investment company which later became Investors Diversified Services (IDS), then American Express Financial Advisors, and is known today as Ameriprise Financial and RiverSource.
Tappan is credited with inventing the investment certificate, and making the first certificate available to the public when he founded the Investors Syndicate.


== Early life ==
John Elliot Tappan was born on August 29, 1870 to Elliott Smith Tappan and Adelaide (Goodrich) Tappan in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Tappan's father's family had lived in Kingston, New York since the 1630s. He was a direct descendant of the politician and American Revolutionary War patriot Maj. Christopher Tappen. His father was the first cousin of Henry Philip Tappan. Adelaide Goodrich Tappan was also descended from a prominent family who had lived in Wethersfield, Connecticut since the 1650s.  By 1851, both family's fortunes had waned, and Elliott and Adelaide Tappan migrated to Oshkosh to homestead a 90-acre farm there. Elliott Tappan died in 1873, aged only 42, leaving Adelaide to manage the farm alone with their three children, including the 2-year-old John. Adelaide Tappan put the farm up for sale in 1875 and first moved to Janesville, and then in 1879 to the then-booming frontier city of Minneapolis. John Tappan, as the youngest child in a single-parent household, quickly became independent. He attended school and held several jobs as a boy, delivering newspapers and working as a shoe store clerk.
Tappan's self-reliance transformed into teenage rebellion. In retaliation to her brother's sometimes cruel pranks, One night in the Spring of 1887 John's sister Carrie put camphor in his food one night. As soon as he recovered, he took the little money he'd saved and left home, hopping freight trains to California. After a year of exploring California, Tappan contracted tuberculosis. His physician recommended the more temperate Washington Territory, and Tappan moved to Seattle in the summer of 1888. While recuperating, he enrolled in the preparatory department of the University of Washington Territory, and completed his high school degree. In June 1889, Tappan took a job as a lumberjack in the Washington wilderness, and then became an Indian agent in South Dakota. He returned home to Minnesota in 1890, and in 1892 he worked as stenographer in Duluth with the Merritt Brothers, developers of iron ore deposits of the Mesabi Range. In 1893 Tappan enrolled at the University of Minnesota's night law school.


== Investors Syndicate ==
Tappan believed that he could help reconcile the differences dividing the Western agricultural, logging and mining states and Wall Street, and promote financial independence for ordinary citizens. Tappan later recounted, “I conceived of the idea of a thrift plan upon a conservative honest basis, that would appeal to people as a means of investing small amounts with the safety and yield that was secured by larger investors.”
In 1894, Tappan and local Minneapolis attorney Henry Farnham submitted articles of incorporation for a new firm, Investors Syndicate. After receiving approval from the state commissioner of insurance, the company was organized under the general incorporation statute of Minnesota in July 1894 with $50,000 in capital. As expressed in its charter, its purpose was extremely broad. Investors Syndicate was authorized to deal in government and corporate bonds, stocks, mortgages notes, and all kinds of personal property, to buy and sell such instruments for other persons, and to issue its own notes and obligations of debt. Tappan also conceived of a new investment certificate, which he called a “face amount certificate.” Tappan's certificates paid around 6 percent, which was several points above what banks could offer and well above the 2 percent on government bonds of 3 percent on railroad bonds. The higher yield made them attractive to investors who were looking to increase the earning power of their savings without taking the risks of corporate stocks. “Its object,” Tappan wrote, “is to encourage frugality and to assist and encourage its patrons in saving systematically small sums monthly.”  
In November, 1896 Tappan married Winifred Gallagher, a secretary and Irish immigrant from Tubbercurry, County Sligo. That January Tappan graduated from the University of Minnesota College of Law. Winnie typed company letters and running the office of the Investors Syndicate, and soon became an integral part of the Investors Syndicate's team. By the end of that year, Investors Syndicate had assets of $2,500 and a handful of subscribers. Tappan truly believed that he had developed a revolutionary financial product and he set out to prove it, despite several setbacks. Despite several Minnesota banks going under, the predicted upsurge in orders for face-amount certificates did not materialize. Then the company's president, George McDonald, was jailed for “swindling” after being convicted of selling bonds by making false claims. Tappan learned through the high-profile investigations of insurance companies in 1905 that investments had to be kept separate from gambling and speculation. Though the investment certificate did not have a gambling feature, in January 1897 the postmaster general of Washington State accused Investors Syndicate and Tappan of “being engaged in a lottery for the distribution of money”. Tappan scrambled to prove the validity of his investment certificates, but the company was eventually accused of fraud and lost its mailing privileges. Tappan was furious, and after various appeals to the Postmaster General and Justice Department went unanswered, Tappan and Farnham managed to successfully appeal to their congressman and have their mailing privileges restored. In September 1897, Tappan was able to satisfy the Post Office by agreeing that Investors Syndicate would be allowed to pay out all the old business on the books, but not write any new business except under a modified contract. By the end of 1899, Investors Syndicate had written over 300 contracts, done $100,000 in business, and paid out over $11,000 in returns to its early investors.
In 1901, the U.S. Post Office curtailed the company's mailing privileges once again. Tappan immediately set out for Washington, D.C. He believed that the Post Office attorney was in effect extorting business out of investment companies with the help of postal inspectors. Tappan eventually left Washington with just one charge against the company, following a full investigation. Tappan had modified the method of maturity in his contracts, so that coupons of the same contact matured in different months. The investigators ruled that such a feature bordered on the “multiple” system, whereby an element of chance was added to the investment. In reality, the feature existed to make the certificates more attractive by speeding up the time when the investor saw his or her return, but the postal investigators found it to be gambling. Investors Syndicate escaped the “scandal” largely unscathed. The Minneapolis Journal reported on the story, and the successful resolution of the problem only served to reinforce their conviction that the “face amount certificate” was legitimate and legal.
Later that year Tappan filed a claim and established homestead rights in the burgeoning hamlet of Angora, forty miles north of Duluth. He and Winnie built farm buildings, planted crops and raised Angora goats, and established the township of Angora with their farmer neighbors, many of whom were new immigrants from Finland. His work on the farm showed him the clear struggles facing American farmers and their precarious financial situations.
Back in Minneapolis, Investors Syndicate began to expand outside of their personal and professional networks and expand their portfolio. This effort was curtailed when a $10,000 loan to the National Securities Company, had to be written off when the company went bankrupt. Then J.W. Earl, who since 1900 had run the agency system that marketed the “face amount certificates”, died in December 1910. The Investors Syndicate's future looked bleak. In 1913, help arrived for Tappan, in the form of John Salmon Hibbert, who took the position of General Sales Agent. Hibbert established a geographically extensive agency and built on Tappan's already prominent insurance template for sales. The syndicate began to bloom beyond expectations, and three years after Hibbert's appointment, the company had become one of the largest and most successful investment companies in Minnesota. By 1921, the company would hold over $3 million in insurance policies. In February 1914, Hibbert was elected vice president and general manager of Investors Syndicate. The company was getting so big, that by December 1914, Tappan owned less stock in Investors Syndicate than did others. Tappan only began to draw a salary from his work at Investors Syndicate in 1915. Prior to that he'd invested his salary and profits back into the firm. By 1917, Investors Syndicate had assets of nearly $1 million. Tappan's law firm was also thriving, enhanced by his nephew Thomas F. Gallagher, later a Justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court and gubernatorial candidate. In 1925, Tappan took his family on a six-month Grand Tour of Europe and the Middle East. Four months into the trip, Tappan was blindsided when his associates John Hibbert and A. W. King sent him a telegram announcing that they were selling their shares in Investors Syndicate. Tappan rushed back to Minneapolis. Even though he felt that he had been back-stabbed by his co-workers, Tappan finally decided to join them and sell the company. He later said that selling the company felt like losing a child.


== Personal life and death ==
John and Winnie Tappan had five children, Ruth, Marion, John Elliott Jr., Zita, and Charles. Zita died of scarlet fever in 1908.
Tappan died on January 16, 1957, in Warwick, Rhode Island, where he had moved to be near his two married daughters.


== References ==

Peters, Carol Heher; Lipartito, Kenneth (1997). Investing for Middle America: John Elliott Tappan and the Founding of American Express Financial Advisors. New York: Palgrave Press. ISBN 978-0-312-23398-3.
Gallagher, Justice Thomas (1957). Memorial for John Elliott Tappan (PDF). Minneapolis, Minnesota: Hennepin County Bar Association.
Perry, Charles M. (1933). Henry Philip Tappan. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780405037153. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)"
Agency in Mormonism,"Agency (also referred to as moral agency), in the theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), is ""the privilege of choice which was introduced by God the Eternal Father to all of his spirit children in the premortal state"". Mortal life is viewed as a test of faith, where our choices are central to the plan of salvation in Latter-day Saint teaching. ""It was essential for their eternal progression that they be subjected to the influences of both good and evil"". LDS Church members believe that Lucifer rebelled against the God's plan, which resulted in a war in heaven, and Lucifer being cast out of heaven and becoming Satan.
Church members believe that all individuals have the ability to differentiate between good and evil and that Satan and his followers are not able to tempt people beyond the point where they can resist. This implies that mortals can be held accountable for their actions; mortals will be judged by God based on a combination of one's faith and works (with salvation coming only through the power, mercy, and grace of Jesus Christ).


== Pre-Earth life ==

A major difference between the beliefs of the LDS Church and many other Christians involves the belief of a life before mortality, referred to as the pre-Earth life, pre-mortal life, or pre-existence. Latter-day Saints believe that before the Earth was created, all mankind lived as spirit children of God. Here, God nurtured, taught and provided means for their development. This preparation would allow them to later become the men and women of Earth, to be further educated and tested in the schoolhouse of mortality in order to return to God's presence and become like him. Thus, the pre-existent life is believed to have been a period of unknown length of progression, and schooling. Church members believe that there came a time when we could not progress further without being born into a body and experiencing earthly life.
According to LDS Church doctrine, God proposed a plan whereby further progression could take place, a plan of salvation. Since agency would allow all people to fall in sin, a savior was necessary to atone for the sins of each person so that they could return to live with God. Jehovah (the pre-mortal Jesus) volunteered to follow the plan as outlined, which preserved agency, accountability for action, and the necessary result that some of God's children would never to return to heaven as a consequence of sin. The second volunteer, Lucifer, attempted to amend the plan by proposing that all mankind would return to God despite their sins—essentially defeating agency and the divine principle of accountability for action. God the Father chose to send Jehovah as the Savior to fulfill his plan. Lucifer and his followers rebelled against this plan and were eventually cast out of heaven. Lucifer became Satan.


=== Foreordination ===
LDS Church members believe that agency was given to all of God's spirit children during the pre-mortal life. Some of the spirit children of God exercised their agency and chose to follow God's law and became ""noble and great."" This doctrine is called ""foreordination"". God foreordained some of these spirits to particular stations in life in order to advance His plan to lead humanity back to His presence.
Latter-day Saints believe that these foreordinations were not unalterable decrees, but rather callings from God for man to perform specific missions in mortality. Even these who were foreordained for greatness could fall and transgress the laws of God. Therefore, mortality is simply a state wherein progression and testing is continued from what began in the pre-mortal life.
Church doctrine states that God's plan includes the foreordination of prophets and teachers who have gifts and callings to teach and re-teach correct principles so that agency can be used wisely. God's plan includes the important role of parents to teach their children the path of righteousness and happiness, and the blessing of the holy scriptures to give a foundation of gospel knowledge, including the knowledge of the saving role of Jesus Christ and the importance of ordinances and covenants of the gospel.


== Earth life ==
In essence, agency is the ability to make choices for oneself, as well as the ability to learn the difference between right and wrong and to make ethical and moral decisions.
David O. McKay, a church president, stated, ""It is the purpose of the Lord that man become like Him. In order for man to achieve this it was necessary for the Creator first to make him free."" Without agency, mortality would be useless. People are ultimately responsible for their own destiny, through their faith and obedience to the commandments of God. ""Agency"" therefore should not be interpreted to mean that actions are without consequences; agency is a gift from God and consequences must necessarily come as a result of choices made. Agency and accountability are complementary and cannot be separated.
This principle holds that it is wrong to compel someone to use his or her agency in a certain way unless they have abused it - especially to infringe against the agency of another - as it would prevent a person from enacting their own choices. Such offenses logically include, but are not limited to, crimes such as murder, rape, and slavery. Furthermore, a person who prevents an individual from doing what they have been commanded to do or forces them to do something that is wrong will likewise be held responsible for any offense.
Throughout the 20th century, church leaders often equated governments led by dictatorships as being under the influence and control of Satan. For example, apostle Ezra Taft Benson often spoke of evil communist or socialist dictatorships that threatened mankind: ""it is realized that communism is turning out to be the earthly image of the plan which Satan presented in the preexistence. The whole program of socialistic communism is essentially a war against God and the plan of salvation—the very plan which we fought to uphold during the war in heaven."" Other 
leaders clarified these statements, often pointing to the church's belief in the ""Law of Consecration"" which is a form of non-dictatorial socialism practiced by early church members in which all property was held in common and distributed by church leaders based on the needs of each individual. The Church is officially politically neutral and today church members around the world subscribe to a variety of political beliefs, including communism and socialism.
LDS doctrine teaches that many men and women since the beginning of mortal time have used their agency unwisely, limiting their own progress and their opportunity to receive light and knowledge. Beginning with Cain, some have used their agency to inflict harm, abuse, tyranny, slavery, or death upon others, contrary to the will and commandments of God.
The fact that God allows these actions does not mean that He condones them. LDS doctrine holds that agency is an eternal principle, and that God has provided the way through the atonement of Jesus Christ whereby men and women can repent of their wrongful acts of commission or of omission, and come back into the path of receiving further light and knowledge through making right choices. The atonement of Christ and the plan of compassion among men also provides a way whereby those who have been harmed by the sinful actions of others may be healed in a spiritual sense, although this may take great patience and long-suffering, and often requires the help of others.
The Pearl of Great Price, one of the scriptures of the LDS Church, states that Satan, the great deceiver, sought during premortal life to destroy the agency of man, and that he continues to seek to enslave men, women, and children in whatever ways that he can in this world, to ""lead them captive at his will."" LDS doctrine teaches that whatever leads in this world to enslavement, addiction, or forced unrighteous behavior is ultimately instigated by Satan. God allows these conditions because of the agency He has given to man, but He expects men to overcome evil by doing good among the society in which they live. God holds men and women responsible and accountable in relation to the light and knowledge they have. Every person born into the world is given the light of Christ, also called conscience, to guide each person in choosing good from evil.
LDS doctrine also holds that whenever gospel knowledge has been lost or limited among portions of mankind, this has come about because of the unrighteousness of the people and their leaders, as described by the prophet Isaiah in the Bible.
LDS leaders teach that family and societal relationships are a part of mortal life for many purposes, including the need to learn to show love, acceptance, and compassion in ways that continue to allow agency. They teach that unrighteous dominion is never acceptable to God, and that with the agency given to men is the expectation that when they marry, they will treat their wife and children with love, respect, tenderness, and material and emotional support.  LDS leaders teach that men should treat women as equal partners in all decisions in the family.


=== ""Free"" agency ===
The term “free agency” is commonly used, and has traditionally been interpreted as meaning that individuals have the ability to choose their actions freely. Many leaders of the LDS Church have pointed out that the term ""free agency"" is technically incorrect, and regardless, should not be interpreted to mean that agency does not have consequences, but rather that agency is fraught with risk and choices (the result of the exercise of agency) that determine eternal destination. Consequently, current church manuals avoid the term ""free agency"" and instead refer simply to ""agency."" Some church leaders favor the term ""moral agency"".
A reference to ""free agency"" found in the 1886 Revelation has been noted by some Mormon fundamentalists such as Joseph Lyman Jessop, Joseph W. Musser, and Anne Wilde, in order to back up their opposition to arranged marriages in a fundamentalist Mormon context, particularly in response to the so-called placement marriages of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.


=== Adam and Eve ===

It is said that Adam and Eve were the first of God's children to come to Earth. They were created in God's image, with bodies of flesh and bones. God placed them in the Garden of Eden. Here they did not remember their former existence, although they were still able to enjoy God's presence and could have lived forever.
As it is believed the God the Father has blessed all of His children with the ability to choose, Adam and Eve were given agency to make their own choices on the earth. God commanded them not to eat the forbidden fruit, or the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, warning that such would result in certain death. Obeying this commandment meant they could remain in the garden forever, but they could not progress by experiencing opposition in mortality and would remain innocent; they could not know joy because they could not experience sorrow and pain. Thus, as a part of the plan, Satan was allowed to tempt Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit and they chose to do so. As a consequence, they were separated from God's presence physically and spiritually. Adam and Eve then became mortal; subject to sin and death, and were unable to return to Heavenly Father without his help. They could now experience disease and all types of suffering. They had moral agency, or the ability to choose between good and evil, which made it possible for them to learn and progress. It also made it possible for them to make wrong choices and to sin. In addition, they could now have children, so the rest of God's spirit children could come to Earth, obtain physical bodies, and be proven, which was in accordance with the plan of God. Only in this way could God's children progress and become like Him.


== See also ==

Theodicy and the Bible § The Fall and freedom of the will


== Notes ==


== References ==
Hales, Robert D. (May 2006), ""To Act for Ourselves: The Gift and Blessings of Agency"", Ensign"
Lighting control console,"A lighting control console (also called a lightboard, lighting board, or lighting desk) is an electronic device used in theatrical lighting design to control multiple stage lights at once. They are used throughout the entertainment industry and are normally placed at the front of house (FOH) position or in a control booth.
All lighting control consoles can control dimmers which control the intensity of the lights. Many modern consoles can control Intelligent lighting (lights that can move, change colors and gobo patterns), fog machines and hazers, and other special effects devices. Some consoles can also interface with other electronic performance hardware (i.e. sound boards, projectors, media servers, automated winches and motors, etc.) to improve synchronization or unify their control.

Lighting consoles communicate with the dimmers and other devices in the lighting system via an electronic control protocol. The most common protocol used in the entertainment industry today is DMX512, although other protocols (e.g. 0-10 V analog lighting control) may still be found in use, and newer protocols such as ACN and DMX-512-A are evolving to meet the demands of ever increasing device sophistication. Some lighting consoles can communicate over a Local IP network infrastructure  to provide control over more scalable systems. A common protocol for this is ESTA E1.31 sACN (pronounced: streaming A.C.N.) or Art-Net.


== Types of control consoles ==
Consoles vary in size and complexity, from small preset boards to dedicated moving light consoles. The purpose of all lighting consoles, however is the same: to consolidate control of the lights into an organized, easy-to-use system, so that the lighting designer can concentrate on producing a good show. Most consoles accept MIDI Show Control signals and commands to allow show control systems to integrate their capabilities into more complex shows.


=== Preset boards ===

Preset boards are the most basic lighting consoles—and also the most prevalent in smaller installations. They consist of two or more identical fader banks, called scenes. The faders (control slides) on these scenes can be manually adjusted. Each scene has the same number of channels which control the same dimmers. So the console operator can build a scene offline or in ""blind"", a cross-fader or submaster is used to selectively mix or fade between the different scenes.
Generally, at least with a preset board, the operator has a cue sheet for each scene, which is a diagram of the board with the faders in their positions, as determined by the lighting designer. The operator sets the faders into their positions based on the cue sheets. Typically during a cue, the operator sets the next scene. Then the operator makes the transition between the scenes using the cross-fader.
Preset boards are not as prevalent since the advent of digital memory consoles, which can store scenes digitally, and are generally much less cumbersome but more expensive than preset boards. However, for small setups such as that of a DJ, they remain the board of choice for their simple to use interface and relative flexibility. Preset boards generally control only conventional lights; though some advanced hybrid consoles can be patched to operate intelligent lights in a round-about way by setting the control channels of the light to channels the preset board can control. However, this is not recommended since it is a cumbersome process.


=== Memory consoles ===

Memory-based consoles have become very popular in almost all larger installations, particularly theatres. This type of controller has almost completely replaced preset consoles as controllers of choice. Memory consoles are preferable in productions where scenes do not change from show to show, such as a theatre production, because scenes are designed and digitally recorded, so there is less room for human error, and less time between lighting cues is required to produce the same result. They also allow for lighting cues to contain larger channel counts due to the same time savings gained from not physically moving individual channel faders.
Many memory consoles have a bank of faders. These faders can be programmed to control a single channel (a channel is a lighting designer's numerical name for a dimmer or group of dimmers) or a group of channels (known as a """"submaster""""). The console may also have provision to operate in analog to a manual desk for programming scenes or live control. On more advanced consoles, faders can be used to control effects, chases (sequences of cues), and moving light effects (if the console can control moving lights).


=== Moving light controllers ===
Moving Light Controllers are another step up in sophistication from Memory Consoles. As well as being capable of controlling ordinary luminaires via dimmers, they provide additional controls for intelligent fixtures. On midrange controllers, these are usually provided as a section separate from main Preset and Cue stack controls. These include an array of buttons allowing the operator to select the fixture or fixtures they want to control, and a joystick, or a number of wheels or rotary encoders to control fixture attributes such as the orientation (pan and tilt), focus, colour, gobos etc. found in this type of light. Unlike a fader that shows its value based on the position of a slider, a wheel is continuously variable and provides no visual feedback for the value of a particular control. Some form of display such as LCD or LED is therefore vital for displaying this information. The more advanced desks typically have one or more touchscreens, and present a GUI that integrates all the aspects of the lighting.
As there is no standard way of controlling an intelligent light, an important function for this type of desk is to consolidate the various ways in which the hundreds of types of intelligent lights are controlled into a single abstract interface for the user. By integrating knowledge of different fixtures and their attributes into the lighting desk software, the detail of how an attribute such as pan or tilt is controlled for one device vs. another can be hidden from the operator. This frees the operator to think in terms of what they want to achieve (e.g. pan 30 degrees clockwise) instead of how it is achieved for any given fixture (e.g. send value 137 down channel 23). Furthermore, should a lighting fixture need to be replaced with one from a different vendor that has different control sequences, no change need be apparent to the control operator. For some further discussion on how intelligent fixtures are controlled, see Digital MultipleX (DMX).


=== Personal computer-based controllers ===

Personal Computer (PC) based controllers are increasing in popularity owing to portability and reduced cost. These lighting console solutions use software with a feature set similar to that found in a hardware-based console. As dimmers, automated fixtures and other standard lighting devices do not generally have current standard computer interfaces, options such as DMX-512 ports and fader/submaster panels connected via USB are commonplace.
This system allows a ""build-to-fit"" approach: the end user initially provides a PC that fits their budget and any other needs with future options to improve the system, for example, by increasing the number of DMX outputs or additional console style panels.
Many lightboard vendors offer a PC software version of their consoles. Commercial lighting control software often require a specific, and possibly expensive, hardware DMX interface. However, inexpensive (<$150) DMX -> USB PC interfaces such as the ENTTEC and DMXKing DMX USB Pro with public API and other DIY, and free or Open source software hardware combinations are available.
Many console vendors also make a software simulator or ""offline editor"" for their hardware consoles, and these are often downloadable for free. The simulator can be used to pre-program a show, and the cues then loaded into the actual console. In addition, lighting visualization software is available to simulate and approximate how lighting will appear on stage, and this can be useful for programming effects and spotting obvious programming errors such as incorrect colour changes.


=== Remote focus unit ===
Many memory consoles have an optional Remote Focus Unit (RFU) controller that can be attached to the light board and used to control the board's functions (though usually in some limited capacity). They are usually small enough to be handheld. This is ideal in situations where moving the light board is impractical, but control is needed away from where the board is located. That is, if the light board is in a control room that is located far from the fixtures, such as a catwalk, an RFU can be attached and an electrician or the lighting designer can bring it to a location which is close to the lights. Some of the newer and more advanced boards have RFUs that can be connected through USB or even wirelessly.
Various manufacturers offer software for devices such as Android and iPhones that cause the devices to act as remote controllers for their consoles. Also, independent software developers have released applications that can send Art-Net packets from an iPhone, thus enabling an iPhone to serve as a fully featured console when used in conjunction with an Art-Net to DMX converter or Art-Net compatible luminaries and dimmers. An example of this is ETC's (Electronic Theater Controls) app called iRFR for Apple devices or aRFR for Android devices.
The Controller Interface Transport Protocol, or CITP, is a network protocol used between visualizers, lighting control consoles and media servers to transport non-show critical information during pre-production. The protocol is used for a number of purposes including SDMX, browsing media and thumbnails, and streaming media among different devices.


== See also ==
Avolites
Compulite
Frederick Bentham
Genlyte Group
George Izenour
Light board operator, the person working the lightboard.
Lighting control systems for a building or residence.
Non-dim circuit
Strand Lighting


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Essig, Linda (2002). The Speed Of Light. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann (Reed Elsevier). ISBN 0-325-00508-7.
Rosenthal, Jean; Wertenbaker, Lael (1972). The Magic Of Light. Boston: Little, Brown and Company/Theater Arts Books.
Huntington, John (2000). Control Systems for Live Entertainment. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80348-5."
Montenegro in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014,"Montenegro was represented at the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 with the song ""Moj svijet"" written by Sergej Ćetković and Emina Sandal. The song was performed by Sergej Ćetković, who was internally selected by the Montenegrin broadcaster Radio i televizija Crne Gore (RTCG) to represent the nation at the 2014 contest in Copenhagen, Denmark. Sergej Ćetković was announced as the Montenegrin representative on 19 November 2013, while his song, ""Moj svijet"", was presented to the public at a press conference on 9 March 2014.
Montenegro was drawn to compete in the first semi-final in the Eurovision Song Contest which took place on 6 May 2014. Performing during the show in position 15, ""Moj svijet"" was announced among the top 10 entries of the first semi-final and therefore qualified to compete in the final on 10 May. This marked the first qualification to the final for Montenegro since they debuted in the contest in 2007. It was later revealed that Montenegro placed seventh out of the 16 participating countries in the semi-final with 63 points. In the final, Montenegro performed in position 8 and placed nineteenth out of the 26 participating countries, scoring 37 points.


== Background ==

Prior to the 2014 contest, Montenegro had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest as an independent nation five times since its first entry in its own right in 2007. To this point, Montenegro has yet to feature in a final. The nation briefly withdrew from the competition between 2010 and 2011 citing financial difficulties as the reason for their absence. In 2013, the nation failed to qualify with the song ""Igranka"" performed by Who See. 
The Montenegrin national broadcaster, Radio i televizija Crne Gore (RTCG), broadcasts the event within Montenegro and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. RTCG confirmed that Montenegro would participate at the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 on 25 September 2013. Montenegro has used various methods to select the Montenegrin entry in the past, such as internal selections and televised national finals to choose the performer, song or both to compete at Eurovision. Since 2009, the broadcaster has opted to internally select both the artist and song that would represent Montenegro, a procedure that continued for the selection of the 2014 entry.


== Before Eurovision ==


=== Internal selection ===
On 19 November 2013, it was announced during a press conference held at the RTCG Headquarters in Podgorica that Sergej Ćetković would represent Montenegro in Copenhagen. Sergej Ćetković previously attempted to represent Serbia and Montenegro in 2004 where he placed eighth in their national final with the song ""Ne mogu da ti oprostim"". In response to preparations surrounding the song, Ćetković stated: ""Our song for the Eurovision in Denmark will be a song with a high quality. Of course we hope to get into the final. For me that would be a good result.""
The Montenegrin song, ""Moj svijet"", was presented at a press conference on 9 March 2014, which was held at the Hotel Splendid in Bečići and hosted by Sabrija Vulić. The event was televised on TVCG 1 and TVCG SAT as well as broadcast online via the broadcaster's website rtcg.me and the official Eurovision Song Contest website eurovision.tv. ""Moj svijet"" was written by Sergej Ćetković and Emina Sandal, while production and mixing was carried out by Marko Milatović and Vladan Popović. An English version of the song titled ""My Love"", with lyrics by Biljana Marković, was also recorded. Ćetković recorded the music video for the song in February 2014, which was filmed in Karuč, Žabljak, Bar and Ulcinj and directed by Aleksandar Kerekeš.


=== Promotion ===
Sergej Ćetković made several appearances across Europe to specifically promote ""Moj svijet"" as the Montenegrin Eurovision entry. On 5 April, Sergej Ćetković performed during the Eurovision in Concert event which was held at the Melkweg venue in Amsterdam, Netherlands and hosted by Cornald Maas and Sandra Reemer. On 13 April, Ćetković performed during the London Eurovision Party, which was held at the Café de Paris venue in London, United Kingdom and hosted by Nicki French and Paddy O'Connell.


== At Eurovision ==

According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the ""Big Five"" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 20 January 2014, a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, as well as which half of the show they would perform in. Montenegro was placed into the first semi-final, to be held on 6 May 2014, and was scheduled to perform in the second half of the show.
Once all the competing songs for the 2014 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Montenegro was set to perform in position 15, following the entry from the Netherlands and before the entry from Hungary.
The two semi-finals and the final were broadcast in Montenegro on TVCG 1 and TVCG SAT with commentary by Dražen Bauković and Tamara Ivanković. The three shows were also broadcast via radio on Radio Crne Gore and Radio 98 with commentary by Sonja Savović and Sanja Pejović. The Montenegrin spokesperson, who announced the Montenegrin votes during the final, was Tijana Mišković.


=== Semi-final ===
Sergej Ćetković took part in technical rehearsals on 29 April and 2 May, followed by dress rehearsals on 5 and 6 May. This included the jury show on 5 May where the professional juries of each country watched and voted on the competing entries.
The Montenegrin performance featured Sergej Ćetković on stage in a black suit with a figure skater. The performance began with Ćetković walking to the centre of the stage alone, while the figure skater joined Ćetković during the song with the LED floor displaying white sparkles as her skates touched the floor. The stage director for the performance was Marko Novaković. The figure skater performing with Sergej Ćetković was Jovana Stanisavljević and three backing vocalists, Ivana Cabraja, Martina Majerle and Dragan Brnas, were also part of the performance. Martina Majerle previously represented Slovenia in 2009 together with the group Quartissimo.
At the end of the show, Montenegro was announced as having finished in the top 10 and subsequently qualifying for the grand final. This marked the first qualification to the final for Montenegro since they debuted in the contest in 2007. It was later revealed that Montenegro placed seventh in the semi-final, receiving a total of 63 points.


=== Final ===
Shortly after the first semi-final, a winners' press conference was held for the ten qualifying countries. As part of this press conference, the qualifying artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in. This draw was done in the order the countries were announced during the semi-final. Montenegro was drawn to compete in the first half. Following this draw, the shows' producers decided upon the running order of the final, as they had done for the semi-finals. Montenegro was subsequently placed to perform in position 8, following the entry from Armenia and before the entry from Poland.
Sergej Ćetković once again took part in dress rehearsals on 9 and 10 May before the final, including the jury final where the professional juries cast their final votes before the live show. Sergej Ćetković performed a repeat of his semi-final performance during the final on 10 May. Montenegro placed nineteenth in the final, scoring 37 points.


=== Voting ===
Voting during the three shows consisted of 50 percent public televoting and 50 percent from a jury deliberation. The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent, with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency. This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. In addition, no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently. The individual rankings of each jury member were released shortly after the grand final. In the semi-final, Montenegro's vote was based on 100 percent jury voting due to either technical issues with the televoting or an insufficient number of valid votes cast during the televote period.
Following the release of the full split voting by the EBU after the conclusion of the competition, it was revealed that Montenegro had placed eighteenth with the public televote and twentieth with the jury vote in the final. In the public vote, Montenegro scored 33 points, while with the jury vote, Montenegro scored 48 points. In the first semi-final, Montenegro placed tenth with the public televote with 43 points and seventh with the jury vote, scoring 74 points.
Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Montenegro and awarded by Montenegro in the first semi-final and grand final of the contest, and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows:


==== Points awarded to Montenegro ====


==== Points awarded by Montenegro ====


==== Detailed voting results ====
The following members comprised the Montenegrin jury:

Stefan Filipović (jury chairperson) – musician, singer, represented Montenegro in the 2008 contest
Slobodan Bučevac – music producer, composer of the 1984 Yugoslav contest entry ""Ciao, amore""
Zoja Đurović – music professor
Senad Gačević – music professor
Mihailo Radonjić – composer


== References =="
Yellow-headed amazon,"The yellow-headed amazon (Amazona oratrix), also known as the yellow-headed parrot and double yellow-headed amazon, is an endangered amazon parrot of Mexico and northern Central America. Measuring 38–43 centimetres (15–17 in) in length, it is a stocky short-tailed green parrot with a yellow head. It prefers to live in mangrove forests or forests near rivers or other bodies of water. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon (Amazona ochrocephala). It is a popular pet and an excellent talker. Poaching for the international pet trade has driven the species to near-extinction in the wild; around half of all wild-caught birds are thought to die in the process.


== Taxonomy ==

This species is part of the Amazona ochrocephala complex, which also includes the yellow-naped amazon (A. auropalliata). This complex, which has been called ""a taxonomic headache"", is considered a single species by some authorities and split into three species by others. The split is mainly based on the amount of yellow in the plumage, the color of the legs and bill, the proximity of A. oratrix and A. auropalliata in Oaxaca, Mexico, without apparent interbreeding, and the presence of both A. ochrocephala and A. auropalliata in northern Honduras. This evaluation has, however, been confused by misunderstandings regarding the plumage variations in the populations in northern Honduras, where birds vary greatly in amount of yellow on the head, crown and nape, but have pale bills and a juvenile plumage matching A. oratrix, but neither A. ochrocephala nor A. auropalliata. In 1997, the population from the Sula Valley in northern Honduras was described as a new subspecies, hondurensis, of A. oratrix. A. auropalliata caribaea on the Islas de la Bahía, which is relatively close to the recently described A. oratrix hondurensis, may have a relatively pale lower mandible, indicating that gene flow may occur between the two. If confirmed, this could suggest that the two are better considered conspecific. Alternatively, it has been suggested that caribaea and parvipes, both typically considered subspecies of A. auropalliata, may be closer to A. oratrix than they are to the nominate A. auropalliata. Both are relatively small and have red on the shoulder like A. oratrix, but unlike nominate A. auropalliata. The members of this complex are known to hybridize in captivity, and recent phylogenetic analysis of DNA did not support the split into the three ""traditional"" biological species, but did reveal three clades, which potentially could be split into three phylogenetic species: a Mexican and Central American species (including panamensis, which extends slightly into South America), a species of northern South America, and a species from the southern Amazon Basin. The Central American clade can potentially be split further, with panamensis (the Panama amazon) and tresmariae (the Tres Marías amazon) recognized as two monotypic species.According to the traditional split, A. oratrix includes the taxa tresmariae (from the Tres Marías Islands), belizensis (from Belize) and hondurensis (from the Sula Valley in northern Honduras) as subspecies. An additional subspecies, magna, has sometimes been recognized for the population on the Gulf slope of Mexico, but today most authorities consider it invalid, instead including this population in oratrix, which also occurs on the Pacific slope of Mexico. In contrast, the population in northwestern Honduras and adjacent eastern Guatemala (near Puerto Barrios), which resembles A. oratrix belizensis and commonly is included in that subspecies, may represent an undescribed subspecies. It has sometimes been referred to as guatemalensis, but until this population is officially described, the name remains provisional.
The origin of the common epithet ""double yellow-headed"" is that this species is differentiated from the others in the yellow-headed amazon complex by possessing both the yellow nape and yellow crown of its two close relatives, hence a ""double-yellow"" head.


== Description ==
The yellow-headed amazon averages 38–43 centimetres (15–17 in) long. The shape is typical of amazons, with a robust build, rounded wings, and a square tail. The body is bright green, with yellow on the head, dark scallops on the neck, red at the bend of the wing, and yellow thighs. The flight feathers are blackish to bluish violet with a red patch on the outer secondaries.  The base of the tail also has a red patch, which is usually hidden.  The outer tail feathers have yellowish tips.

The bill is horn-colored (gray), darker in immatures of the Belizean subspecies.  The eye ring is whitish in Mexican birds and grayish in others.  The most conspicuous geographical difference is the amount of yellow.  In adults, the head and upper chest are yellow in the subspecies of the Tres Marías Islands (tresmariae); just the head in the widespread subspecies of Mexico (oratrix); just the crown in Belize (belizensis); and the crown and nape in the Sula Valley of Honduras (hondurensis, which thus resembles the yellow-naped parrot). Immatures have less yellow than adults; they attain adult plumage in 2 to 4 years.
The variety ""Magna"" (or ""Magnum"") is bred for more yellow and commands a premium price as a pet.  Some ""extreme"" Magnas have as much yellow as Tres Marías birds, but are distinguished from them by heavier barring on the chest and a less bluish tint to the green plumage.
Wild birds give low-pitched, sometimes human-sounding screams, but often fly silently (unlike many other parrots).  The calls can be described as ""a rolled kyaa-aa-aaah and krra-aah-aa-ow, a deep, rolled ahrrrr or ahrhrrrr,"" etc.  Young birds make a ""clucking"" sound to indicate that they are hungry.


== Distribution and habitat ==

This species lives in riparian forest and areas with scattered trees, as well as evergreen forest in Belize and mangroves in Guatemala. A notable ecoregion of occurrence is the Belizean pine forests. It occurs singly or in pairs, in small groups, and occasionally in big flocks.  The range formerly included both coastal slopes of Mexico from the Tres Marías Islands and Jalisco to Oaxaca and from Nuevo León to northern Chiapas and southwestern Tabasco, as well as a disjunct area including most of Belize, and another comprising a small part of northeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras. However, their numbers have been reduced drastically—by 90%, to 7,000, from the mid-1970s to 1994, and by 68% from 1994 to 2004—because of capture for the pet trade and habitat destruction.
Introduced populations can be found in Stuttgart, Germany, where a recent population of over 50 individuals resides. Smaller introduced populations are to be found in coastal neighborhoods of San Diego, California, including Coronado, Ocean Beach, Pacific Beach, Point Loma, La Jolla, and Imperial Beach; they are also found in Santa Ana, Loma Linda and Pasadena, all also in Southern California. In addition, introduced –and apparently breeding– populations have been reported in Puerto Rico.


== Conservation status ==

The yellow-headed amazon is considered endangered by the IUCN, and is listed under CITES Appendix I, which regulates the international trade of the species including those bred in captivity through a permitting system. Populations range from Central America, through Mexico, and even into the southmost region of Texas. There is an approved CITES Captive breeding program established for this species near Canberra in Australia, located at Priam Psittaculture Centre. Providing a sustainable managed breeding program to assist elevating pressures on wild populations for use in avicultural, research and pets.https://cites.org/eng/common/reg/cb/AU 
The popularity of yellow-headed amazons as a pet continues to fuel poaching efforts, which have nearly driven it to extinction in the wild. Their wild population has declined from 70,000 to 7,000 in the past two decades alone. An estimated 40–60% of poached yellow-headed amazons die before they are sold. The situation for tresmariae, which potentially can be treated as a separate species, is unclear, but its very small range gives cause for concern and some reports indicate it is under considerable threat.
Unscrupulous bird traders may sometimes bleach or dye the feathers of more common parrot species, such as the white-fronted amazon in order to pass them off for sale as (more expensive) yellow-headed amazons. This cruel treatment is often fatal for the birds involved.


== As pets ==

Though only captive-bred yellow-headed amazons may be owned, these are widely available (if somewhat expensive) and their personalities make them highly desirable pets; they have been kept as such for centuries because they are among the parrots that ""talk"" best.  Their vocal abilities are generally bested only by the grey parrot and matched by similar species, such as the yellow-naped parrot. Yellow-headed amazons in captivity appear to have an affinity for both singing and the learning of song – and a naturally powerful, operatic voice.
As in most amazons, nervous plucking of plumage is rare among this species. A generally recognized disadvantage of the yellow-headed amazon and its close relatives (such as the yellow-naped amazon) is hormonal aggressiveness, most notable among males in the breeding season. It is a member of the ""Hot Three"" (referring to the male bird's ""hot"" temper), along with the yellow-naped and blue-fronted. Yellow-headed amazons are known for being ""one person birds"" – bonding to one human, to whom they become fiercely loyal. It is possible, albeit difficult, to mitigate this behavior by ensuring that the bird receives regular and equal attention from other members of the household.
Captive yellow-headed amazons are known for having a large appetite and an appreciation of a wide variety of foods. They are prone to obesity and nutritional deficiencies if the parrot's owner fails to provide adequate opportunities for play and exercise, and overindulges the parrot with treats and table scraps. The World Parrot Trust recommends that yellow-headed amazons be kept in an enclosure with a minimum length of 3 metres at a temperature no lower than 10°C.


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Amazona oratrix at Wikimedia Commons"
David Bustill Bowser,"David Bustill Bowser (January 16, 1820, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – June 30, 1900, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was a 19th-century African-American ornamental artist, portraitist, and social activist. He designed battle flags for eleven African-American regiments during the American Civil War and painted portraits of prominent Americans, including U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and abolitionist John Brown. Politically active throughout much of his adult life, he was a contributor to the Underground Railroad and also helped to secure the post-war passage of key civil rights legislation in Pennsylvania.
As a major figure in the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows, he designed broadsides and regalia for the organization.
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission has described Bowser as an artist whose ""works were the first widely viewed, positive images of African Americans painted by an African American"". 


== Formative years ==
Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on January 16, 1820, David Bustill Bowser was a grandson of Cyrus Bustill (1732–1806), a formerly enslaved man who purchased his freedom and went on to become a founding member of Philadelphia's Free African Society, and a son of oyster house proprietor Jeremiah Bowser (1766–1856), whose freedom had been purchased by a group of Philadelphia Quakers after he had been arrested for being a fugitive slave.
A member of the prominent Bustill family, he was a cousin and student of artist Robert Douglass Jr., who trained at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and was a pupil of Thomas Sully. David Bustill Bowser also attended the private school operated by Douglass's sister, Sarah Mapps Douglass.
Married to seamstress Elizabeth Harriet Stevens Gray (June 13, 1831 – November 29, 1908), David Bustill Bowser and his wife were the parents of artist Raphael Bowser and Ida Elizabeth (Bowser) Asbury (1870–1955), a violinist and music teacher. Respected for their civic engagement and philanthropy, David B. and Elizabeth Bowser supported their family by designing and painting banners, signs, uniform hats and other regalia for fraternal associations, political groups, and volunteer fire companies in and beyond Philadelphia.


== Mid-1800s and the American Civil War ==
During the 1840s, Bowser painted banners for a diverse range of clients, including the Know Nothing Party, and received a commission to paint the portrait of prominent abolitionist and real estate developer Jacob C. White. Active in that decade's efforts to repeal the clause in Pennsylvania's Constitution which prohibited blacks from voting, Bowser and his family also became so involved with the abolition movement that their home became a stop on the Underground Railroad. In 1858, politics and advocacy merged with art when Bower painted the portrait of abolitionist John Brown while Brown was visiting the Bowser home. During this same period, Bowser also completed work on his painting, The Firebell in the Night.

He was active during this phase of his life with the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. As Grand Master of the Order in Philadelphia, he delivered the keynote address at the Annual Moveable Committee of the G.U.O. of O.F. in Toronto, Canada on October 17, 1859, as its members celebrated the organization's thirteenth anniversary. According to news reports, he was ""listened to throughout with much attention, and was frequently rapturously applauded"" as he ""defined in eloquent terms the nature of the work of Odd Fellows — especially that great and leading principle, Charity,"" and ""remarked upon the practical good effected by Odd Fellowship, in alleviating distress and bestowing many of the comforts of life upon the aged and infirm of the Order, as well as conferring benefactions upon the widow and orphan.""

During the American Civil War, Bowser joined with several other prominent members of Philadelphia's African-American community to begin recruiting soldiers in 1862 in the event that the federal government would permit large numbers of black soldiers to enlist following the 1863 announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln. Bowser was then commissioned in early 1863 to design banners and battle flags for eleven of those African-American regiments in preparation for their respective mustering at Camp William Penn, which was located just outside of Philadelphia.

Bowser's work on the first banner was paid for through a commission awarded by the Contraband Relief Association (CRA), an organization headed by Elizabeth Keckley, the formerly enslaved woman who became Mary Todd Lincoln's dressmaker. It was then presented by the CRA to the leaders of 1st United States Colored Infantry. With respect to the other Bowser-designed battle flags, historians at the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission note that:

The 127th and 3rd regiments marched carrying banners reading 'We will prove ourselves men' and 'Rather Die Freemen, Than Live To Be Slaves.' Beneath these, black soldiers protect white women representing Columbia, the symbol of the republic. The 45th's banner, proclaiming 'One Cause, One Country,' shows a black soldier proudly holding an American flag in front of a bust of George Washington as black troops fight in the background. The 24th's banner shows a black soldier ascending a hill, his arms outstretched in prayer, beneath the words 'Let Soldiers in War, Be Citizens in Peace.'
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		

For the 22nd USCT banner, Bowser depicted a black soldier pointing ""a bayonet at the chest of a Confederate who has allowed his flag to fall and who is tossing aside his sword,"" beneath the words, ""Sic semper tyrannis"" (""thus always to tyrants""), a phrase which would come to have an entirely different meaning two years later when shouted by John Wilkes Booth after his assassination of Lincoln at Ford's Theater.

In addition, Bowser was involved in the planning of, and presentation at, several large gatherings of African-Americans in Philadelphia during the summer of 1863. The June 24 event, which began at 8 p.m. at Franklin Hall on Sixth Street below Arch, was held to increase support for the Union Army's recruitment of black soldiers. Another event on July 6 filled Philadelphia's National Hall with a standing room only crowd. According to Philadelphia's Press, a ""great many persons in the audience were white, and they all seemed to take a lively interest in the proceedings."" The first orator, the Hon. William D. Kelley, began by announcing, ""the rebel army of Virginia is no more,"" that Virginia was ""henceforth secured to freedom,"" and would ""no longer lead blue-eyed girls or stalwart black men to the slave mart."" Repeatedly interrupted by loud cheers, Kelley ""then asked the black men to stop blacking boots ... to engage in the glorious work of war,"" adding that he ""would not have it said of all the colored regiments of Pennsylvania that there were no Philadelphians in it."" He was followed by abolitionist and orator Anna Elizabeth Dickinson. Enumerating the Union's recent losses and victories, she told the crowd: ""If the North succeeds — if the Union succeeds, it will be by letting all men fight for the stars and stripes. This war is not for the white men or the colored men, or for the flag, or for a military victory, but it is a war of democracy against aristocracy, a war of liberty against slavery."" A lengthy resolution by Professor E. D. Bassett proclaimed, ""Men of color, to arms, now or never!"", and described their present era as ""a golden moment."" Frederick Douglass also rose to speak, and also gave a lengthy address in which he reflected on his life during and after his enslavement and stressed the urgent need for black men to fill up new regiments ""for the purpose of upholding the stars and stripes, and crushing out the rebellion of the slaveholders."" Following a brief poetry reading and musical performance by a concert band, the membership elected a slate of officers, which included the naming of Bowser as one of several vice presidents.
In 1865, Bowser also painted a portrait of Lincoln, working from an image of the president that was later used to create America's post-Civil War five-dollar bill.


== Post-war life ==
Post-war, Bowser continued his involvement with the Grand and United Order of Odd Fellows, ultimately becoming a G.U.O. of O.F. officer, and was also active with several other black fraternal orders but, artistically, his creativity and productivity were limited by his inability to obtain additional major commissions. As a result, he and his wife increasingly turned to designing and producing organizational banners and regalia.
Frequently involved in his community as a civic leader, he also became increasingly active in politics. In 1867, he was appointed by the leadership of the Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, with William D. Forten and Octavius V. Catto, to represent the League in securing ""passage of a bill through the Legislature forbidding the exclusion of persons from public conveyances"" anywhere in Pennsylvania ""on account of race or color."" They were successful.
In 1870, he was selected to preside over the ""jubilee procession"" and ""mass meeting"" which took place at Philadelphia's Horticultural Hall on April 26. Among those in attendance were ""members of the Union League and other prominent citizens,"" including Lucretia Mott, Passmore Williamson and Judge Paxson; the Rev. James A. Jones, who ""opened the proceedings with prayer""; Robert Purvis, who delivered an address; Jacob C. White, Jr., who ""read the proclamation of the ratification of the fifteenth amendment""; and the Hon. Galusha A. Grow, Frederick Douglass, General Harry White, and Alexander P. Colesberry, who subsequently delivered formal addresses. Afterward, the group approved a resolution which ""recognize[d] the Anti-Slavery Society, the Republican party and press, the Equal Rights League, John Brown, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Charles Sumner, William Lloyd Garrison, Horace Greeley, Lucretia Mott, and the whole army of pioneers who spoke or ventured heroic deeds in behalf of their oppressed people, as among the human agencies that crystallized into law the Declaration for which our fathers died; that they regarded the restoration of this privilege as a vindication of popular government, and that therein was recognized their just claims to all the franchises granted to any other class of their fellow-citizens; that in the future, as in the past, they will be found on the side of loyalty and patriotism [with] an unfaltering adherence to the Republican party.""
As vice president of the Pennsylvania Equal Rights League, Bowser was also among those who motivated the organization's membership to meet with President Grant at the White House on November 26, 1872 ""for the purpose ... of urging upon him the importance of recommending in his annual message to Congress, a request kindred to the 'Fifteenth Amendment,' by the recommendation of the passage of such laws as will require that all the citizens of this country shall be protected from insult and outrage on the highways of the nation, and secured in all their 'public rights' — that all may have the full benefit of the unfaltering loyalty which, at the fearful price of life and suffering, we gave to our country; the full benefit of our taxes which we fully, freely and uncomplainingly pay; that ... Congress [will] pass such laws as will protect us in the attempt to exercise and enjoy our civil rights."" According to a report in the December 14, 1872 edition of The Weekly Louisianian, the group ""was very cordially received by the President""; however, while Grant acknowledged that ""[a]ll citizens undoubtedly in all respects should be equal"" and that further protections for their civil rights ""must come,"" he also informed the group that their request ""belong[ed] more properly to the next Administration.""
In 1875, Bowser sued Alfred L. Jones of Baltimore in court for violating his patent of a chromolithographic image that he (Bowser) had designed for the Odd Fellows.


== Death, interment and legacy ==
Bowser died in Philadelphia on June 30, 1900, and was buried at the Eden Cemetery in Collingdale, Pennsylvania.
During the 1940s, a major portion of his legacy was nearly obscured forever when the original Civil War battle flags he had designed were removed from the military museum at West Point, where they had been stored since the war. After the flags were thrown away, all that remained were the seven images described above (under ""American Civil War"").


== References ==


== Gallery ==

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


== External links ==

""David Bustill Bowser Historical Marker"" (placed at the site of Bowser's Philadelphia residence by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission)
Selections of nineteenth-century Afro-American Art (PDF of an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art with information regarding Bowser and his work)
Works by or about David Bustill Bowser at the Internet Archive"
Han Huang,"Han Huang (Chinese: 韓滉) (723 – March 17, 787), courtesy name Taichong (太沖), formally Duke Zhongsu of Jin (晉忠肅公), was a Chinese economist and politician of the Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of the Emperor Dezong. He was praised by traditional historians for his frugality and personal integrity, but blamed for being overly harsh and cruel in his governance.


== Background ==
Han Huang was born in 723, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong.  His family was from the Tang dynasty capital Chang'an and traced its ancestry to the royal house of the Warring States period state Han.  It also claimed, as ancestors, a line of officials during the Han dynasty, Jin dynasty (266–420), Northern Wei, Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, Sui dynasty, and Tang.  His father Han Xiu was an important official early during the middle of Emperor Xuanzong's reign and briefly served as chancellor in 733.  He had at least five older brothers – Han Hao (韓浩), Han Qia (韓洽), Han Hong (韓洪), Han Huan (韓澣), and Han Hong (韓汯, note different character than his other brother) – and at least three younger brothers – among whom were Han Hun (韓渾) and Han Hui (韓洄).  Han Huang himself was said to be firm and studious in his youth.  Because of his heritage, he was made an officer in the imperial guards early.
In 755, the general and jiedushi (military governor) An Lushan rebelled at Fanyang, and by summer 756 the armies of his new state of Yan were approaching Chang'an, forcing Emperor Xuanzong to flee.  After Chang'an fell to Yan forces, Yan forces tried to force Han Hao to serve in the Yan administration.  Han Hao, Han Hong (韓洪), Han Hong (韓汯), Han Huang, and Han Hun tried to flee Chang'an and join Emperor Xuanzong's crown prince Li Heng, who would be proclaimed emperor at Lingwu (as Emperor Suzong).  However, Han Hao, Han Hong (韓洪) and his four sons, and Han Hun were captured by Yan forces and executed although Han Hong (韓汯) and Han Huang were able to get away.  Emperor Suzong honored the Han family members who were killed with posthumous honors.


== During Emperor Suzong's reign ==
Early in the Zhide era (756–758) of Emperor Suzong, Deng Jingshan (鄧景山) the military governor (Jiedushi) of Qingqi Circuit (青齊, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong) invited Han Huang to be his secretary and the military commander of the militia of Qingqi's capital Beihai Commandery.  However, with the realm engulfed in warfare at the time, Han was not able to report to Qingqi, and he fled to Shannan Circuit (山南, headquartered in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi).  The surveyor of Shannan, Li Chengzhao (李承昭), had Han serve as his secretary.  Subsequently, when Deng was moved to Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), he again asked for Han to serve on his staff, but before Han could report to Huainan, he was recalled to Chang'an, then again under Tang control, to serve as Dianzhong Shiyushi (殿中侍御史), a low-level imperial censor.  However, Han Hong (韓汯) had offended the chancellor Wang Yu by failing to praise Wang with grand words when drafting the edict promoting Wang, and therefore, after Wang became chancellor in 758, he retaliated by putting the Han brothers in positions with no power.  After Wang was removed from his chancellor position in 759, the popular opinion was that they had been unfairly treated, and Han Huang thereafter successively served as Sibu Yuanwailang (祠部員外郎), a low-level official at the ministry of rites (禮部, Lǐbu); Kaogong Yuanwailang (考功員外郎), and then Lìbu Yuanwailang (吏部員外郎), both low-level officials at the ministry of civil service affairs (吏部, Lìbu, note different tone than the ministry of rites).  It was said that Han Huang was capable at evaluating officials and strong in character, and during the five years he served as Libu Yuanwailang, he paid great attention to detail and knew the records well.


== During Emperor Daizong's reign ==
During the Dali era (766–779) of Emperor Suzong's son Emperor Daizong, Han Huang was promoted to be Libu Langzhong (吏部郎中), who supervised the Libu Yuanwailang, as well as imperial attendant (給事中, Jishizhong). At that time, there was an incident where Wei Dang (韋當), the magistrate of Fuping County (富平, near Chang'an) was assassinated. After the assassins were captured, it was discovered that they were members of the Northern Army (北軍), under the command of the powerful eunuch Yu Chao'en. Yu sought a pardon for them on account of their military abilities, but Han Huang submitted a secret petition opposing Yu's request, and the assassins were executed. Han was thereafter made Shangshu You Cheng (尚書右丞), one of the secretaries general of the executive bureau of government (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng). In 770, he was put in charge of selecting officials for the ministry of defense (兵部, Bingbu). In 771, he was made the deputy minister of census (戶部侍郎, Hubu Shilang) and put in charge of the economic affairs for the western half of the empire, replacing Diwu Qi. At that time, the imperial treasury was drained due to chronic wars and corruption. Once Han was in charge, he concentrated on details and stamped out corruption, and whenever he found corruption in his subordinates or in local official, he sought to punish them harshly. Further, by that point, there had been reduced instances of Tufan and Huige incursions and several straight good harvests, and therefore the imperial treasury was able to be replenished. However, it was also said that Han was cruel, unrelenting in his pursuit of money, and stripping all the revenues he could find. As a result, he drew much resentment.
In fall 777, major rainstorms fell on the western parts of the empire. Many of the salt pools at Hezhong Municipality (河中, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi) were damaged, but Han, not willing to exempt the taxes from the households in charge of the salt pools, submitted a report claiming that the pools not only were not damaged, but there was an unusual kind of salt being formed that showed good fortune. Emperor Daizong doubted this, and sent the officials Jiang Zhen (蔣鎮) to examine the salt pools. Jiang, after return from Hezhong, confirmed Han's report, and further requested that a shrine be established to celebrate the divine blessing. Emperor Dezong agreed, but this was viewed by popular sentiment as a major scandal at the time. Around the same time, Li Gan (黎幹) the mayor of Jingzhao Municipality (京兆, i.e., the Chang'an region) submitted a report stating that the fields of Jingzhao were being heavily damaged. Han, again fearing tax exemptions, stated that there was no damage. One of Li's subordinates, Liu Zao (劉藻) the magistrate of Weinan County (渭南, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), wanted to ingratiate Han, and therefore submitted a report claiming no damage. The imperial censor Zhao Ji (趙計) also confirmed this report, but Emperor Daizong became suspicious and sent another censor, Zhu Ao (朱敖), to reexamine, and Zhu pointed out that much damage was being incurred. Emperor Daizong exiled Liu and Zhao, but did not punish Han.


== During Emperor Dezong's reign ==
In 779, Emperor Daizong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Dezong.  Emperor Dezong had heard about Han Huang's harshness, and therefore stripped him of his financially related responsibilities and made him the minister of worship (太常卿, Taichang Qing), transferring his responsibilities to Liu Yan.  He then sent Han out of Chang'an to serve as the prefect of Jin Prefecture (晉州, in modern Linfen, Shanxi).  Later in the year, he made Han the prefect of Su Prefecture (蘇州, in modern Suzhou, Jiangsu) and governor (觀察使, Guanchashi) of Zhejiang Circuit (浙江東西道).  In 781, he made Han the prefect of Run Prefecture (潤州, in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu) and military governor (Jiedushi) of Zhenhai Circuit (鎮海, i.e., same area as Zhejiang Circuit).  It was said that Han was an effective governor, and that he comforted the people and balanced the taxes.  However, it was also said that he was harsh, and that whenever local minor officials – often members of strong local clans – committed crimes, he would execute them without mercy, believing that by doing so he would be stamping out potential rebellions against his rule.  For the same reason, he also banned the slaughtering of cattle, under the rationale that beef and wine were often used at feasts that were preludes to rebellions.  He also executed large numbers of people due to allegations of crimes without certainty of their guilt, leading to much terror in the region.
In 783, due to Zhu Ci's rebellion, Emperor Dezong fled from Chang'an to Fengtian (奉天, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi).  With the empire thrown into confusion, Han trained his soldiers in preparation of war, and he also sent soldiers to aid the campaign against another rebel, Li Xilie, who had declared himself the emperor of Chu.  His soldiers were instrumental in aiding the general Liu Qia (劉洽) in recapturing Bian Prefecture (汴州, in modern Kaifeng, Henan) from Li Xilie.  He also prohibited people from entering and exiting Zhenhai Circuit and built fortresses (including rebuilding Shitou) and fleets, under the rationale that if Emperor Dezong decided to evacuate the Chang'an region and flee to the Yangtze River region like what occurred with the Jin dynasty (266–420), Zhenhai could become the emperor's base for recovery, and also to defend against potential attacks by Li Xilie's one-time ally Chen Shaoyou (陳少遊), the military governor of neighboring Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu).  This, however, led to suspicions that he was intending to rule Zhenhai as an effective independent realm.  Meanwhile, though, because he was shipping supplies to Emperor Dezong, Emperor Dezong awarded him the title of Duke of Nanyang.  Emperor Dezong was suspicious of Han's intentions.  However, by 784, after Zhu's rebellion was defeated, with the Chang'an region stricken by a serious famine, at the persuasion of his key advisor Li Mi, he alleviated Han's apprehension by sending Han's son Han Gao (韓皐) to Zhenhai to request that he send food supplies as soon as possible.  In response, Han sent a large supply of rice, causing Emperor Dezong to be very happy with him.  His trust in Han was further enhanced when Chen died later in the year, and Han was able to dissuade Chen's subordinate Wang Shao (王韶) from starting a disturbance to take over Huainan.  He gave Han the honorary chancellor designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (同中書門下平章事) and put him in charge of the Yangtze-Huai River supply system.  Han was created the Duke of Zheng, and later his title was changed to Duke of Jin.
In 786, Han headed to Chang'an to pay homage to Emperor Dezong – and ultimately, he would remain there until his death, even though he retained the title of military governor of Zhenhai as well.  As he went through Bian Prefecture, he also persuaded Liu Qia, whose name had been changed to Liu Xuanzuo (劉玄佐), to go to Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor as well, by means of making large payments to both Liu and his army.  Once he arrived at Chang'an, he began to exercise actual chancellor authorities, and he attacked the official Yuan Xiu (元琇), whom the chancellor Cui Zao had put in charge of financial affairs for improprieties.  With Emperor Dezong particularly happy about the large shipments of supplies that Han was shipping from Zhenhai to Chang'an, he put Han again in charge of the financial affairs.  In late 786, he tried to defuse the tension between the major general Li Sheng, with him he was friendly, and Zhang Yanshang, by holding feasts (along with Liu Xuanzuo) for them and asking them to be sworn brothers.  He also supported Li Sheng's advocacy for military action against Tufan.
Meanwhile, it was said that Han was so trusted by Emperor Dezong that he had the greatest authority among chancellors.  He was also described to be so harsh that he would even batter minor officials to death within the office of the chancellors.  Fellow chancellor Liu Hun, whom he had recommended, sternly spoke to him about this, and thereafter, it was said that Han was embarrassed and curbed his ways slightly.  He died in spring 787 and was buried with great honors.


== Notes and references ==

Old Book of Tang, vol. 129.
New Book of Tang, vol. 126.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232."
WGN (AM),"WGN (720 kHz) is a commercial AM radio station in Chicago, Illinois, featuring a talk radio format.  WGN's studios are in the Chicago Loop, while the transmitter is in Elk Grove Village. WGN also features broadcasts of Chicago Blackhawks hockey and Northwestern University football and basketball.
Since 2022, WGN is the only radio station owned by Nexstar Media Group, which primarily owns television stations (and is the largest owner of television stations in the U.S.). It was founded in 1922 as WDAP. In 1924 it was acquired by the Chicago Tribune, whose ""World's Greatest Newspaper"" slogan served as the basis for the WGN call sign, and later the call sign of a television superstation.
WGN is a clear channel, Class A station, broadcasting with the maximum power of 50,000 watts, and using a non-directional antenna. During daytime hours, near-perfect ground conductivity gives WGN at least secondary coverage to almost two-thirds of Illinois (as far south as Springfield) as well as large slices of Wisconsin, Indiana, Michigan and Iowa. During nighttime skywave hours, with a good radio, it is audible over most of the Eastern and Central United States and Central Canada. The station also streams its programming on its website and supplies podcasts as well. WGN was previously responsible for the activation of the Chicago metropolitan area Emergency Alert System when hazardous weather alerts, disaster area declarations, and child abductions are issued; this is currently handled by WLS.


== History ==


=== WDAP ===
The station first signed on the air on May 19, 1922, among the earliest stations in Chicago. It was randomly issued the call sign WDAP, from a sequential roster of available call signs, to Mid West Radio Central, Inc. This corporation was headed by Thorne Donnelley and Elliott Jenkins.
WDAP was originally located in the Wrigley Building. The studios were moved to the Drake Hotel the following July. In mid-1923 ownership was transferred to the Board of Trade, and the next year the Whitestone Company, managers of the Drake Hotel, took control.


=== Chicago Tribune ===
The Chicago Tribune acquired WDAP, and on June 1, 1924, the call sign was changed to WGN. The call letters came from ""World's Greatest Newspaper"", a slogan used since 1911.
This was the second Tribune-affiliated radio station to hold the WGN call letters. The original WGN began operating on the evening of March 29, 1924, after the newspaper took over programming of the former WJAZ. The WGN call sign had been assigned to a Great Lakes vessel, SS Carl D. Bradley. However the ship's skipper (and namesake) agreed to relinquish it in order to free it for adoption by the newspaper. The ship's call sign was changed to KFSI.


=== Shows and programming ===
Early programming was noted for its creativity and innovation. It included live music, political debates, comedy routines, and some of radio's first sporting event broadcasts, including the 1924 Indianapolis 500, and a live broadcast of the 1925 Scopes trial from Dayton, Tennessee. Wallace M Rogerson conducted the Keep Fit to Music programme. In 1926, WGN broadcast Sam & Henry, a daily serial with comic elements created and performed by Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll. After a dispute with the station in 1927, Gosden and Correll took the program's concept and announcer Bill Hay across town to WMAQ and created the first syndicated radio show, Amos 'n' Andy.
By the fall of 1928, the owners of the Tribune company and its sister publication, Liberty magazine, controlled two stations in addition to WGN in the Chicago area: WLIB and WTAS. On September 1, 1928, the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) ruled that this was two stations too many, and ordered that their operations be consolidated. WTAS was deleted, and the other two stations were merged with a dual call letter assignment of WGN-WLIB, although the latter call sign would be rarely if ever used. On May 15, 1933, after the FRC requested that stations using only one of their assigned call letters drop those that were no longer in regular use, WLIB was eliminated and the station reverted to just WGN.


=== CBS and Mutual Broadcasting System ===

On November 1, 1931, WGN's network affiliation changed from NBC to CBS as a result of NBC's purchase of a half-interest in WMAQ, which then became Chicago's NBC station. During this period, Count Cutelli installed one of the most advanced sound effects system to date into the WGN studios, the same system used in Hollywood films.
In 1934, WGN became a founding member of the Mutual Broadcasting System. WGN joined with WOR in New York City, WXYZ in Detroit and WLW in Cincinnati to form the network, a rival to NBC and CBS. During the ""Golden Age of Radio"", Mutual was the home of The Lone Ranger, The Adventures of Superman and The Shadow. For many years, it was a national broadcaster for Major League Baseball, the National Football League and Notre Dame football.
In the fall of 1937, WGN was one of several Chicago radio stations to donate airtime to Chicago Public Schools for a pioneering program in which the school district provided elementary school students with distance education amid a polio outbreak-related school closure.
In 1939, Carole Mathews, the ""Miss Chicago"" of 1938, launched a WGN radio program entitled Breakfast Time with Carole Mathews. It ended later that year when she left the station for an acting career in Hollywood.


=== FM and TV stations ===
In May 1940, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) announced the establishment, effective January 1, 1941, of an FM radio band operating on 40 channels spanning 42–50 MHz. In July 1941, WGN was given tentative permission to operate FM station W59C on 45.9 MHz, pending the outcome of an FCC review whether newspaper ownership of radio stations should be restricted. Effective November 1, 1943, the FCC modified its policy for FM call signs, and the station's call letters were changed to WGNB.
On June 27, 1945, the FCC announced the reassignment of the FM band to 80 channels from 88 to 106 MHz, which was soon expanded to 100 channels from 88 to 108 MHz. For most of its broadcasts on the new band, WGNB was located on 98.7 MHz. Its schedule was primarily a simulcast of the AM station, with some FM-only music shows broadcast as well. But with few people owning FM radio receivers in that era, management did not think WGNB would become profitable. Therefore,  WGN, Inc. turned in WGNB's license for cancellation, and the station was deleted on May 28, 1953. The next year another Chicago station, WFMT, moved to the vacated 98.7 assignment.
In 1946, the Tribune Company applied to the FCC for a construction permit to build a television station. On April 5, 1948, WGN-TV Channel 9 signed on the air. Because CBS, NBC and ABC had their own network stations in Chicago, WGN-TV became an independent television station, responsible for most of its own programming or airing old movies and syndicated TV shows.


=== Change in ownership ===
After McCormick died from pneumonia-related complications on April 1, 1955, ownership of WGN-AM-TV, the Chicago Tribune and the News Syndicate Company properties transferred to the McCormick-Patterson Trust, assigned to the Robert R. McCormick Tribune Foundation in the names of the non-familial heirs of McCormick (whose two marriages never produced any children) and familial heirs of Patterson. (The trust was dissolved in January 1975, with a majority of the trust's former beneficiaries, including descendants of the McCormick and Patterson families, owning stock in the restructured Tribune Company entity – which assumed oversight of all properties previously overseen by the trust – afterward.)

In November 1958, WGN became the first radio station in Chicago to broadcast helicopter traffic reports featuring Police Officer Leonard Baldy. Flying Officer Baldy was killed in a helicopter crash, while on duty, on May 2, 1960. Eleven years later, WGN suffered another helicopter-related tragedy when Flying Officer Irv Hayden and his pilot were killed on August 10, 1971, after their helicopter struck a utility pole in the Chicago suburb of Bellwood.


=== Move to North Center ===
In 1961, the WGN radio and television stations moved to a studio facility on West Bradley Place in the North Center neighborhood, a move undertaken for civil defense concerns to provide the station a safe base to broadcast in case of a hostile attack targeting downtown Chicago. WGN radio moved back to North Michigan Avenue in 1986, relocating its operations to a studio in the Pioneer Court extension (WGN-TV remained at the Bradley Place facility, where that station operates to this day). The former WGN annex onto Tribune Tower is now used as a retail space containing Dylan's Candy Bar.
Over many decades, WGN was a ""full service"" radio station. The station played small amounts of music during the mornings and afternoon hours, moderate amounts of music on weekends during the day, aired midday and evening talk shows, and sports among other features. The station aired middle of the road (MOR) music until the 1970s, when its switched to more of an adult contemporary-type sound. Music programming was phased out during the 1980s, and by 1990, the station's lineup mainly consisted of talk shows.


=== Past personalities ===
Some former personalities on WGN include longtime morning hosts Wally Phillips, Bob Collins, Spike O'Dell, Paul Harvey and Roy Leonard. Orion Samuelson had been the station's farm reporter since 1960, he retired in 2020. Late-night hosts over the years have included Franklyn MacCormack, Ed ""Chicago Eddie"" Schwartz, and the husband-and-wife team of Steve King and Johnnie Putman.
The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign holds the WGN Radio Station Studio Orchestra Music Library and Records, 1925–1956, which consists of scripts, programs, production notes, correspondence, music library rental records, sheet music manuscripts, and music scores with annotations that document the WGN Studio Symphonic Orchestra from 1925 to 1956.


=== Controversial management ===
WGN continues to recover from the controversial rule of former Tribune head Randy Michaels, who resigned under pressure in 2010 amid allegations of inappropriate and sexist behavior in the workplace, and former WGN Program Director Kevin Metheny. Industry observers described Metheny's tenure as one that nearly destroyed the venerable WGN, with staff moves that included replacing a popular evening host with radio rookie Jim Laski, a Chicago politician and convicted felon.
Metheny and Laski were both fired weeks after Michaels was forced to resign by a Tribune board of directors facing spiraling losses at the hands of Michaels' management style. In 2005, Tom Langmyer was appointed as vice president and general manager of WGN.
On April 30, 2008, the station entered into a three-year deal to broadcast Chicago Blackhawks hockey games through the 2010–2011 season.


=== New ownership ===
On April 1, 2007, Chicago-based real estate investor Sam Zell announced plans to purchase the Tribune Company in an $8.2-billion leveraged buyout that gave Tribune employees stock and effective ownership of the company. The transaction and concurring privatization of the company was completed upon termination of Tribune stock at the close of trading on December 20, 2007. Prior to the sale's closure, WGN-TV was one of two commercial television stations in the Chicago market, not counting network-owned stations, to have never been involved in an ownership transaction (along with WCIU-TV, which has been owned by Weigel Broadcasting since its February 1964 sign-on). On December 8, 2008, Tribune filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, citing a debt load of around $13 billion – making it the largest media bankruptcy in American corporate history – that it accrued from the Zell buyout and related privatization costs as well as a sharp downturn in revenue from newspaper advertising. After a protracted four-year process, on December 31, 2012, Tribune formally exited from bankruptcy under the control of its senior debt holders, Oaktree Capital Management, JPMorgan Chase and Angelo, Gordon & Co.
On July 10, 2013, Tribune announced plans to split off its broadcasting and newspaper interests into two separate companies. WGN-TV and WGN Radio would remain with the original entity, which was renamed Tribune Media and was restructured to focus on the company's broadcasting, digital and real estate properties; the newspaper division – which, in addition to the Chicago Tribune, included publications such as the Los Angeles Times, the South Florida Sun-Sentinel and the Baltimore Sun – was spun off into the standalone entity Tribune Publishing (known as Tronc from June 2016 until the company reverted to its former name in October 2018). The split was completed on August 4, 2014, ending the Tribune's joint ownership with WGN-TV and WGN Radio after 66 and 94 years, respectively. However, WGN-TV continues to maintain a content partnership with the Tribune.


=== Programming changes ===
In October 2008, WGN-TV began to provide forecasts for WGN radio (prepared by Tom Skilling and other members of the sister television station's weather staff), after it ended a ten-year forecast partnership with The Weather Channel. That year, morning host Spike O'Dell retired from radio; WGN then moved the station's midday host at the time, John Williams to the morning slot. Williams' former timeslot, 1-4 p.m. was left vacant for several months, with the station's other radio hosts filling in on a rotating basis – including weekend host Nick Digilio, and Bob Sirott, who formerly hosted ""The Noon Show"" on the same station, in addition to a weekend program that is pre-recorded with his wife, Marianne Murciano (Sirott was also a prominent news anchor at NBC owned-and-operated station WMAQ-TV, channel 5, and later at Fox-owned WFLD, channel 32).
In March 2009, longtime Chicago radio host Garry Meier was given an audition for the 1-4 p.m. slot. Meier hosted four shows, which is believed to have caused a surge in interest among younger people, who traditionally rarely listened to WGN. Chicago media message boards exploded with traffic and posts, many excited over a possible permanent Meier presence on the station. After the four Meier auditions, Jerry Springer was given a four-day stint as ""guest host"", followed by Rita Cosby a few weeks later. On April 2, 2009, WGN announced that Meier would join the station full-time as host of a program in the 1-4 p.m. slot (airing most weekdays when the program is not pre-empted by Chicago Cubs broadcasts); his first official show occurred that same day. On May 22, 2009, WGN announced the cancellation of The Kathy and Judy Show effective after that day's broadcast. The final show was largely a retrospective of the program's 20 years on WGN radio; this occurred shortly after the replacement of much of the station's weekend lineup.
On June 15, 2009, the station announced that Greg Jarrett would become its new morning-drive host starting on June 22, with John Williams being shifted to Kathy and Judy's former late morning timeslot. In June 2010, WGN announced the hiring of longtime Cincinnati-based host Mike McConnell from WLW for the late morning (8:30 a.m.-12:30 pm) slot, shifting Williams back to his original midday time slot (now from 12:30-3:00 pm) on August 9, 2010.
Coinciding with the hire of Jarrett, WGN dropped its ""News/Talk 720"" brand and began identifying itself simply as ""Chicago's WGN Radio 720"". This new identity was implemented in all station promos, and used by all on-air talent. On August 13, 2010, the station's branding changed again to ""News 720 WGN"". In November, after the firing of controversial program director Kevin Metheny, Tom Langmyer instructed staff to identify the station as ""720 WGN"". Weekend hosts Jerry Agar and the ""News Junkie"" Sean Wasson left the station, in a shift towards more general and less controversial talk programming.
On December 2, 2011, WGN announced that Jonathon Brandmeier was named the new morning drive time host, effective December 9. With Brandmeier's addition to WGN radio's weekday lineup, the morning drive timeslot shifted to 5:30-9 a.m., followed by Mike McConnell from 9 a.m.-12 p.m., John Williams from 12-3 p.m., and Garry Meier from 3-7 p.m. News anchor Steve Bertrand moved to mornings with Brandmeier and Jim Gudas shifted to the midday/afternoon slot. Former morning host Greg Jarrett was released from the station. Overnight hosts Steve King and Johnnie Putman left WGN on December 9 after a week-long series of live ""Farewell Celebration"" shows. Bill Leff took over the midnight to 5:30 a.m. slot on December 12. 2011.
In 2012, John Williams announced his departure from the station upon the December 31 expiration of his contract (leaving on December 21, 2012), to concentrate exclusively on his program on WCCO in Minneapolis instead of splitting time between stations. In October 2012, then back into Tribune Tower in October 2012. On December 17, 2012, WGN Radio executives announced that the long-running program ""Extension 720"", hosted by Dr. Milton J. Rosenberg, would end its 39-year run three days later on December 20.

In June 2013, Tribune Broadcasting CEO Larry Wert hired Jimmy DeCastro as WGN radio's president and general manager. In addition, Bob Sirott and Marianne Murciano's program moved to the weekday lineup and Steve Cochran was announced to be returning to WGN. The changes are an attempt to shift WGN closer to the programming format it had prior to Kevin Metheney and Randy Michaels' tenure with WGN and Tribune, while placing more emphasis on new media; this included the move of Mike McConnell's program to the station's secondary Internet radio station WGN Plus (formerly WGN-2) until the remainder of his contract was bought out around October 10, 2013, the move of Jonathon Brandmeier's morning show to a new station branded ""The G"" (subsequently rebranded as an additional Internet-only station, ""WGN.FM"") in favor of Cochran, and increased synergy with WGN-TV (including the replacement of WGN radio's ""Voice of Chicago"" slogan with WGN-TV's longtime slogan, ""Chicago's Very Own""). On May 21, WGN Radio announced that their schedule would change again effective May 27, 2014, which included the return of John Williams to the station; he would host his program from Minneapolis, where he continued to do an afternoon show for WCCO. His time slot announced was 10:00 a.m. to noon, which moved then mid morning hosts Bill Leff and Wendy Snyder to the afternoon drive from 3:00-7:00 pm. Garry Meier would be moved to WGN.FM, with Steve Cochran's morning show getting expended by 1 hour, and Bob Sirott and Marianne Murciano still having their noon-3:00 p.m. show.


=== Chicago Cubs leave WGN ===
On June 5, 2014, the Chicago Cubs announced that radio broadcasts of its games would move from WGN to WBBM for the 2015 season under a seven-year deal. The deal ended the team's 90-year association with WGN.
On November 20, 2014, Chicago media blogger Robert Feder reported that WGN management planned to end operation of both WGWG-LP and internet station WGN.FM on December 31, 2014. Jonathan Brandmeier and Garry Meier were released and their programs canceled immediately, with repeat shows airing through the end of December. While Brandmeier was reportedly not under contract with Tribune Media at the time of his release, Meier's contract with Tribune continued through September 2015.
On December 31, 2014, the WGN.FM website was redirected to the WGN Plus website, where Tribune offers various digital media content. WGWG-LP began an interim simulcast of WGN radio at 10 p.m. on December 31, 2014. The Chicago Tribune reported that the simulcast would continue through January 2015, after which Chicago-based Weigel Broadcasting was expected to assume operation of 87.7 FM; Weigel eventually began programming what is now WRME-LD on February 23, 2015.
On October 5, 2016, Jimmy DeCastro announced he was planning to leave WGN at the end of the month. He told Robert Feder ""I've done everything I can to respect and build on the legacy of this amazing place, and I believe I accomplished everything I set out to do."" At the time of his leaving he had spent 31⁄2 years serving as the President and general manager of WGN. His last day at WGN was October 31. He said he plans to focus on The Content Factory, his Evanston-based national syndication and new media company, and to expand into the area of sports representation. Larry Wert has said he has not decided on naming a successor to DeCastro, so for now the sales and programming operations will report directly to Wert.
On July 25, 2017, it was reported that WGN would leave Tribune Tower in 2018 and relocate to a new studio and office across the Chicago River. The station began using its new studios on Wacker Drive for news reports in May 2018, with the final show originating from Tribune Tower on June 18, 2018.


=== Chicago White Sox broadcasts ===
On February 14, 2018, WGN was named the new flagship station of the Chicago White Sox, who were left without a station after Cumulus Media voided their contract to air on WLS as part of their Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing. The agreement was for three years, and the team moved to WMVP in the 2022 season.


=== Acquisition of Tribune by Nexstar ===
Tribune Media was acquired by Nexstar Media Group for $4.1 billion in September 2019, marking the first time since 1924 that WGN radio would not be owned by any iteration of the Tribune Company. The sale made WGN the only radio property owned by Nexstar, which primarily owns television stations; in an interview with Crain's Chicago Business in December 2018, shortly after the deal was announced, Nexstar CEO Perry Sook stated that he ""doesn't have an allergic reaction to radio"" and that there were no immediate plans to sell WGN radio, adding that he did not expect Nexstar to acquire additional radio stations.
Under Nexstar, several changes were made to the station's lineup, management, and branding. Bob Sirott was hired to replace Steve Cochran during morning drive hours, longtime mid-day duo Bill Leff and Wendy Snyder were ousted, and at a later date, evening host Justin Kaufmann was let go as well. These staffing changes were made over the course of months after Sean Compton began to oversee radio operations as Nexstar's Executive Vice President of WGN America, WGN Radio & Director of Content Acquisition. Morning producer Mary Boyle was appointed general manager of the station after former Station Manager Todd Manley was terminated on the first day of Nexstar's takeover. Veteran Chicago News Anchor Bill Kurtis was replaced in his role as voiceover talent by New York-based voiceover artist Steve Kamer. Similarly, new radio jingles from JAM Creative Productions and sister company PAMS of Dallas were introduced to the station. Cuts from JAM jingle packages Top News, Talktrax, Talking Points, Non-Stop Power, You'll Like Our Style, Follow The Leader, Variety Pack, Nothing But Class, Ameritalk, and (rarely) The Only One are regularly featured in station identifications, sounders, and promotions. WGN also dropped hourly news updates from ABC News Radio and instead is supplying national news updates for WGN America's national newscast, NewsNation with WGN newscasters and audio from Nexstar-owned television stations.


== Programming ==
Local hosts on WGN include morning host Bob Sirott along with John Williams, John Records Landecker, and Rollye James.
WGN is one of the few talk stations in the U.S. to broadcast all local talk shows during the day and evening. In recent years, it has added some nationally syndicated talk shows at night. Monday through Friday, it carries The Other Side of Midnight with Frank Morano from Red Apple Media during late night hours. On Sundays it runs Sunday Night Live with Bill Cunningham from WLW in Cincinnati. WGN was the longtime Chicago outlet for Paul Harvey from 1951 until his death on February 28, 2009. Harvey's news and commentary shows were carried nationally by ABC Radio, although he was based in Chicago and the programs aired locally on WGN.
WGN airs local news headlines, weather forecasts supplied by WGN-TV, traffic reports and sports headlines every half-hour on weekdays, and every hour nights and weekends. Also during weekdays, the radio station simulcasts the first two hours of the WGN Morning News. The station used ABC News Radio for national news reports as the network's Chicago affiliate. On September 1, 2020, WGN Radio dropped ABC News Radio in favor of being an ""audio news hub"" for the co-owned NewsNation TV channel.


=== Sports teams ===
WGN serves as the flagship radio outlet for Chicago Blackhawks hockey, Northwestern Wildcats football, and Northwestern Wildcats men's basketball. For the 2018 and 2019 seasons, WGN was the flagship station for Chicago White Sox baseball. WLS previously had the contract to carry the White Sox, but its parent company, Cumulus Media, ran into financial problems and gave up the rights to White Sox broadcasts. With the 2020 season, WMVP became the White Sox flagship radio outlet. As of 2024, WGN continues to air overflow White Sox games if the Chicago Bears are playing on WMVP.
WGN had a long association with the MLB Chicago Cubs from 1925 to 2014, the last 56 years of that period as the exclusive flagship station. Following the 2014 season, Cubs radio broadcasts moved to WBBM.  (They are currently heard on WSCR, co-owned with WBBM.)
Shortly after Nexstar took control of WGN, the station began to broadcast national NFL play-by-play on Sunday afternoons from Compass Media Networks.


== Broadcast coverage ==
WGN (AM) transmits a non-directional signal from a 195° (longer than half-wave) 740-foot tower in Elk Grove Village. Its daytime signal stretches across five states: Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Michigan. At night its signal spreads north to Hudson Bay, south to the Gulf of Mexico, west to Colorado, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.


== Notable former on-air personalities ==
Jonathon Brandmeier
Bob Collins
Roe Conn
Nick Digilio
Suzanne Le Mignot
Garry Meier
Marianne Murciano
Spike O'Dell
Wally Phillips


== See also ==
List of initial AM-band station grants in the United States


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website
Facility details for Facility ID 72114 (WGN)   in the FCC Licensing and Management System
WGN in Nielsen Audio's AM station database
""History Cards for WGN"". Federal Communications Commission. (Guide to reading History Cards) (covering 1927–1981)"
Gordon McClymont,"Gordon Lee McClymont AO (8 May 1920 – 6 May 2000) was an Australian agricultural scientist, ecologist, and educationist.  The originator of the term ""sustainable agriculture"", McClymont is known for his multidisciplinary approach to farm ecology.  McClymont was the foundation chair of the Faculty of Rural Science at the University of New England, the first degree program of its kind to integrate animal husbandry, veterinary science, agronomy, and other disciplines into the field of livestock and agricultural production. In 1978, in recognition of his work and contributions to his field, he was appointed Officer of the Order of Australia.
Born in Australia, McClymont entered the University of Sydney under the sponsorship of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture. After graduating with a bachelor's degree in veterinary science from Sydney and a PhD from the University of Cambridge, he worked as an animal nutrition researcher for the state of New South Wales. Believing that his education had not adequately prepared him for his work, McClymont designed a broader, multi-disciplinary educational approach to the field of livestock and agricultural production. Impressed with his ideas, the  University of New England hired McClymont in 1955 to chair its new department of rural science.
While at the university, McClymont championed his approach to farm and livestock production and sustainability of agricultural ecosystems. Under his direction, the University of New England became a leader in ruminant research. The Australian poultry industry recognized McClymont's contributions to poultry production with a special award in 1967. After his retirement in 1980, McClymont continued to work with the agricultural industry in Australia and consulted with the United Nations and the World Bank on farm issues. In 1996, he expounded his approach to livestock and farm production in the book Rural Science:  Philosophy and Application.


== Early life and undergraduate education ==
McClymont was born on 8 May 1920.  His father was one of seven sons of a Scottish immigrant to Australia. McClymont's father greeted him as a newborn with, ""G'day Bill"" and Bill stuck with him as a nickname for the rest of his life. McClymont's father's brothers resided in rural areas, including in the Orange, New South Wales, region.  Thus, although McClymont grew up in the Sydney metropolitan area, he spent much holiday time as a youth in a rural environment. His activities at his relatives' farms included lamb marking, fruit picking, horse breaking, and pig shooting.  McClymont also became familiar with the local animals and plants.
McClymont attended Chatswood Intermediate High School, where he became interested in science. In his fourth year, he transferred to North Sydney Boys High School. In his Leaving Certificate Exam, taken in 1936, McClymont earned First Class Honours in physics and chemistry, which placed him third and fourth respectively on the New South Wales state honours list.  While in high school, he participated in the Australian Army Cadets in a horse-drawn field artillery unit.
Lacking funds to attend university, a family friend who worked for the New South Wales Department of Agriculture suggested that McClymont apply for a department traineeship. In spite of his lack of formal agricultural training, McClymont passed the exam and interview and was assigned to the University of Sydney's veterinary science program.  Provided with a salary of £110 a year, he entered the university in 1937.
When World War II began in 1939, McClymont joined the Australian Army Veterinary Corps in the 2nd Cavalry Mobile Veterinary Section assigned to his university.  His unit volunteered for overseas duty, but was refused. McClymont joined the Royal Australian Air Force as an aircrew reservist, but was again denied an overseas assignment and ordered to complete his education at Sydney while serving the military in a scientific advisory role. He joined the Volunteer Defence Corps at the rank of sergeant and served weekend duty during the war years at anti-aircraft and radar installations in Australia.
Because of the war, McClymont's final two years of undergraduate study were compressed into 16 months. He graduated in 1941 with a bachelor of veterinary science, First Class Honours, and a gold university medal.


== New South Wales Department of Agriculture ==


=== Early career ===
Immediately after graduation in 1941, McClymont was appointed as a specialist in animal nutrition at the New South Wales Department of Agriculture.  In that position, he was responsible for all extension, advisory work, and policy advice on animal nutrition for the state government.  In one instance during the war, McClymont had to respond to a swine influenza outbreak caused by pig meat imported by American troops stationed in Australia.  While participating in an operation to kill and burn potentially infected suidae in a local piggery, he met his future wife, Vivienne Pecover, sister of the farmer whose pigs were being slaughtered.  The two married in 1946.
From 1947 to 1949, under a Walter and Eliza Hall Veterinary Research Fellowship, he attended the University of Cambridge from which he earned a doctor of philosophy.  His thesis, called Interrelationships between the digestive and mammary physiology of ruminants, was based on research he had conducted in 1947 in which he discovered that green oat consumption by dairy cows produced milk with less butterfat.  In the thesis, he explained how the complex interaction between environment, climate, soil, plant, and animal physiology and metabolism had combined to produce the lowered milkfat.
After completion of his term at Cambridge, McClymont toured agricultural research centres and colleges in the United States.  While in the US, he gave 15 lectures on his doctoral research.  A number of American agricultural scientists told him later that his lectures had caused them to change their fields of research.  McClymont was not impressed by the agricultural education he observed in Britain or the US, saying that the British focused on estate management while the Americans concentrated on descriptive evaluations of livestock quality.
Upon his return to Australia in 1950, McClymont was reassigned as Officer in Charge of the department's Animal Nutrition Research Laboratory at Glenfield Veterinary Research Station.  At Glenfield, he developed research programs on drought feeding and pregnancy toxaemia in sheep and established a nutritional diagnostic service.
Between 1945 and 1953, McClymont participated in adult education activities to rural areas around New South Wales for the Sydney University Extension Board and New England University College.  New England University College was an extension college of the University of Sydney located in Armidale, New South Wales.  The activities included holding seminars on animal husbandry and agriculture for farmers and graziers.  From 1951 to 1953, McClymont helped New England University College establish facilities and adult classes in animal husbandry and agricultural economics in Walcha, Tamworth, Moree, and Dubbo.


=== Ideas on education ===
McClymont's work experiences caused him to feel dissatisfied with the quality of education he had received in his degree program at Sydney.  He felt the veterinary science specialization was too narrow, especially in the area of animal husbandry and livestock production.  Moreover, he felt the specialization of the discipline did not provide sufficient knowledge in how the overall farm animal production process worked.  For example, as an undergraduate, he received only three lectures on statistics, a skill he had to teach himself during his first few years as an animal nutritionist advisor.  As a result, he took an interest in education and curriculum development.  McClymont later said that he had ""seen the educational deficiencies of narrow specialization, whether of veterinary graduates as specialists in animal health and disease or of agricultural science graduates as specialists in aspects of soil and plants.  I had seen the problems created by such specialized knowledge when exercised without overall understanding.""
In June 1952, two lecturers in veterinary science at the University of Sydney, Doug Blood and Jim Steel, wrote a letter to the Australian Veterinary Journal complaining of their university's placement of animal husbandry as a subordinate topic within veterinary science.  They argued that the field of animal husbandry included ""the procurement of maximum production from the available animals, compatible with their continued health and the maintenance of the natural resources of the land on which they live"" and was worthy of its own profession.  McClymont saw the letter and responded with his own missive to the journal in June 1953.  In his letter, McClymont opined that the field in question should instead be called ""animal production"" and that it should, ""be defined as the integration of animal husbandry and agronomy (the science of pasture and crop production), or in more general terms, manipulation of the soil-plant-animal complex, for the purpose of economic production of animal products"".  He added that the university-level training in the field should include, ""extension work, research, and commercial applications"".  McClymont concluded that university graduates in such a field of study would be prepared to blend veterinary (animal) and agricultural (plant) production sciences to optimize farm animal output.
James Belshaw, Deputy Warden of New England University College, saw the letter and brought it to the attention of the school's advisory council's Special Committee on Animal Husbandry.  At that time, the college was preparing to become an independent university and was looking to differentiate itself with a farm-based degree program that was different from what the University of Sydney had to offer, but which would also be applicable and beneficial to the rural New England area.
With approval from the committee, Belshaw asked McClymont in July 1953 to prepare a paper further explaining his ideas on the topic of educational curricula related to farm animal production.  McClymont's paper, submitted on 8 September 1953, was titled, ""Planning Rural Science and Possible Curriculum"".  In the paper, McClymont further expounded his views and, as the title indicated, suggested that a better name for the prospective faculty would be ""rural science"".  In February 1954, Robert Madgwick, vice-chancellor of the newly independent university, reviewed McClymont's paper.  Convinced by McClymont's reasoning, Madgwick recommended to the university council the establishment of a faculty of rural science.  On 16 October 1954 the University of New England offered McClymont the position of Chair of the soon-to-be established Department of Rural Science.


== University of New England ==


=== Rural science ===
McClymont's appointment to the University of New England Faculty of Rural Science took effect in March 1955, one year after the university's independence.  Upon arrival, McClymont was surprised by the school's humble facilities.  He had to borrow a chair since his office did not have one.  Madgwick had assumed that it would take at least two years to get the new department up and running.  McClymont, however, pointed out to Madgwick that the program could begin accepting enrolments in 1956 because the existing faculty of science could already offer first-year courses in several basic science topics needed for the degree program.
On 11 July 1955, McClymont gave the degree program's inaugural address in the auditorium of nearby Armidale Teachers' College, titled ""All Flesh is Grass"" after a passage in the Biblical Book of Isaiah.  In the speech, McClymont explained his vision for the goals of the rural science program, saying, ""The economic health of this country, and so the standard of civilization which it will support, rests on the fertility of its soils and on the resultant productivity of its pastures, livestock and crops.""
The degree program was the first of its kind to implement a multi-disciplinary approach to farm animal production science.  It combined elements of agronomy, biochemistry, physiology, veterinary science, soil and agricultural ecology (agricultural science), biology, economics, social sciences, and animal nutrition and husbandry to teach students how all these elements interacted to create a productive agricultural ecosystem.  Graduates from the new program were more generalists than specialists in order to help them find and implement original solutions to varied problems with Australia's livestock production, then still struggling with output and sustainability issues.  The impact of the resulting improvements in Australia's livestock production was seen in Australians becoming among the world's biggest per capita meat consumers.
Classes in the degree program began in March 1956 with an initial enrolment of 17 students.  Five hundred students had graduated with bachelors in rural science by the early 1980s.  One hundred sixty graduated with honours.  Seventy had attained master's degrees in the discipline.  Graduates included Bridget Ogilvie, director of the Wellcome Trust, Hugh Beggs, Life Governor of the Australian Sheep Breeders Association and Chair of both the Australian Wool Corporation and the International Wool Secretariat, I Made Nits, Professor of Nutrition and Tropical Forage at Udayana University, and Robert Clements, Director of the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.  As of 2005, approximately 1,700 students had passed through the rural science program.
As chair of the department, McClymont advocated and helped establish functionally autonomous agricultural education community centres around the New England area.  The centres, supported by both the Departments of Rural Science and Agricultural Economics, were patterned after university external agricultural centres in the United States.  The centres were financially independent and so avoided control by the university's central administration.
McClymont's writings and lectures while at the university emphasized the importance of sustainability in agricultural ecosystems.  He is considered to be the originator of the term ""sustainable agriculture"".  McClymont diagrammed the key elements of agricultural ecosystems into a series of flowcharts which were often used by other agricultural instructors.  He alerted the agricultural community to the issues involved with feeding grain to livestock while the world was experiencing a shortage of grain.


=== Further activities ===
During the 1960s and 1970s, the University of New England became a prominent international centre in ruminant research.  McClymont published a series of articles in academic journals on biochemistry and animal nutrition, including pregnancy toxaemia in sheep, poultry nutrition, and mineral deficiencies in dairy cattle.  He promoted an original approach to researching metabolic diseases in livestock, utilizing radioactive tracer methods to identify ""the quantitative importance of various metabolites including glucose, volatile fatty acids, B-hydroxybutyrate and long chain fatty acids in ruminant metabolism, and the metabolic interactions between these materials"".
McClymont and Professor R. B. Cumming established the Poultry Research Fund Group at the Tamworth Adult Education Centre to facilitate the exchange of ideas between the university's rural science and agricultural economics departments and the poultry industry.  The group first met on 1 July 1963.  In 1967 McClymont was awarded the Australian Poultry Award for his work in poultry nutrition and with the poultry industry, particularly in the Namoi River region.
In 1967, McClymont proposed the establishment of a School of Biological Sciences at the university because of expansion of the topic within the Department of Rural Science.  The school was founded the next year.
McClymont served on the advisory standing committee of eight for the independent but university-affiliated Kellogg Rural Adjustment Unit.  The formal commencement for the unit was on 1 July 1976, with operations beginning the next year. The name of the organization was later changed to Rural Development Centre.  The purpose of the centre, among other objectives, was to provide education on rural issues and policies, play a role in the development of rural policies, and assist rural communities in adjusting to changes in their cultural and economic environments.

While at the university, McClymont consulted to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.  In 1975 the organization published a booklet he authored, titled Formal Education and Rural Development.  On 26 January 1978, citing his ""service to veterinary science and to agricultural research"", the Commonwealth of Australia designated McClymont an Officer in the Order of Australia.
McClymont retired from the university in 1980 and was appointed an emeritus professor.  Professor J. S. Ryan said, ""Fifty years on, he is widely recognized – and acclaimed – as being so far ahead of his time in recognizing the vital interaction between animal and plant production and in the importance of a healthy ecosystem.""


== Retirement ==
In retirement, McClymont continued to consult with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in its Department of Agricultural Education, Research, and Rural Matters.  In addition, he consulted on agricultural issues with the World Bank.
As an emeritus professor, McClymont observed and commented on issues with the rural science curriculum at New England.  An external review, began in 1979 by the university with help from an independent committee of agricultural specialists from the Australian Academy of Science, recommended curriculum changes, which were implemented in 1982.  The most significant change was increased freedom given to students to choose electives in the fourth year of study, allowing limited specialization in certain subject areas.  McClymont lamented the changes, feeling that they damaged the quality and standing of the rural science degree program.
In 1994, McClymont and New England professor J. S. Ryan began work on the book Rural Science:  Philosophy and Application.  In 1996 a special conference was held at the University of New England to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of the rural science curriculum.  Although he was in failing health, McClymont attended as a guest of honour.  Rural Science was formally presented at the conference.  Said Ryan of the book, ""This work is less of a respective chronicle, but is one arising from a more reflective, forward-looking, questioning, and nationally and globally focused essays"".


== Death ==
After years of struggling with Parkinson's disease, McClymont died on 6 May 2000.  A building on New England's Armidale campus was named after him.  He was survived by his wife, Vivienne, and their four children, daughter Vicky and sons Kim, Glen, and Rod.


== Personality ==
McClymont believed in challenging dogma, which sometimes earned him enmity from colleagues and associates.  J. S. Ryan described McClymont as ""devastatingly honest"", but ""always likeable and compassionate"".  He reportedly placed emphasis on the welfare of his students.  For example, McClymont criticized the 1963 decision by the University Council to abolish room-visiting between female and male students.
McClymont's personal interests included acting, singing, and landscape gardening.  He sang bass in New England's University Choir.


== Awards and honours ==
1941 University of Sydney Medal and First Class Honours
1947 Walter and Eliza Hall Veterinary Research Fellowship
1967 Australian Poultry Award
1978 Officer of the Order of Australia
1986 Honorary Doctor of Rural Science, University of New England


== Selected publications ==
McClymont, G. L. (1949). Interrelations of the Digestive and Mammary Physiology of Ruminants (Dissertation report to the University of Sydney and Walter and Eliza Hall Trust on research work carried out during tenure of the Walter and Eliza Hall Veterinary Research Fellowship Dec. 1947-Dec. 1949). University of Cambridge. OCLC 220646122. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
McClymont, G. L. (1953). Raising Dairy Calves. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Agriculture. p. 32. OCLC 21349663. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
McClymont, G. L.; Peter J. Mylrea; G. M. D. Carse; New South Wales Department of Agriculture, Division of Animal Industry (1955). Feeding Pigs for Profit. Sydney: Pettifer. p. 24. OCLC 71108668. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Elkin, Adolphus Peter (editor); Gordon McClymont (1962). ""Chapter No. 8, Plant and Animal Nutrition"". A Goodly Heritage: ANZAAS Jubilee: Science in New South Wales. Organizing Committee of the Thirty-Sixth Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science. Sydney: ANZAAS. OCLC 154164960. Retrieved 23 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
McClymont, G. L. (1975). Formal Education and Rural Development. Occasional paper - Agricultural Education and Extension Service of the Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 23. OCLC 2454354. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S. (Editor); G. L. McClymont (1996). Rural Science: Philosophy and Application. Armidale, New South Wales: School of Rural Science, University of New England. p. 548. ISBN 978-1-86389-386-2. OCLC 39839079. Retrieved 21 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)


== Notes ==


== References ==
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2012). ""It's an Honour: Australia Celebrating Australians"". Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
Franklin, Margaret Ann, ed. (1988). The New England Experience: Inside Stories of U.N.E. 1938–1988. Armidale, New South Wales: U.N.E. Alumni Association. p. 243. ISBN 0-7316-1631-6. OCLC 27531591. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
Jordan, Matthew (2004). A Spirit of True Learning: The Jubilee History of the University of New England. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-86840-663-3. OCLC 224191137. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Leng, Ron; McClymont, Kim (26 May 2000). ""Professor Bill McClymont, AO"". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
Rural Science Graduates Association (2002). ""In Memorium - Former Staff and Students of Rural Science at UNE"". University of New England. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S. (1992). A History of Adult Education at and through the New England University College and the University of New England, 1948 to 1980 (Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis). University of New England. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S. (Editor); G. L. McClymont (1996). Rural Science: Philosophy and Application. Armidale, New South Wales: School of Rural Science, University of New England. p. 548. ISBN 978-1-86389-386-2. OCLC 39839079. Retrieved 21 October 2012. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
Ryan, J. S. (2007). McClymont's Vision: The Challenge Remains : Rural Science 50th Anniversary Conference 2006. Armidale, New South Wales: University of New England School of Rural Science and Agriculture. p. 205. OCLC 271833401. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
Ryan, J. S.; Newman, Warren (2008). New England Lives III. Armidale, New South Wales: University of New England. ISBN 978-1-921597-02-2. OCLC 318575037. Retrieved 28 October 2012.


== External links ==
National Library of Australia. ""McClymont, G. L."" (Materials listing). National Library of Australia. Retrieved 26 October 2012."
Noida International Airport,"Noida International Airport (IATA: DXN, ICAO: VIND) is an international airport near Jewar in YEIDA city of Gautam Buddha Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh state of India. It is projected to become the largest airport in both India and Asia, with plans to handle 12 million passengers annually in the phase-1, growing to 60-120 million by 2050 in subsequent phases. Noida and Hisar International Airports are being developed as an alternative to heavily trafficked Indira Gandhi International Airport under the NCR Plan, with Noida airport set to be the third commercial airport in the Delhi NCR region, after IGI Delhi and Hindon Airports.


== History ==

Noida International Airport's (originally proposed in 2001 as a greenfield Taj International Aviation Hub  by then Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Rajnath Singh) journey has been marked by shifts in location and political changes. Initially planned near Greater Noida, the project faced delays due to its proximity to Delhi's IGI Airport and GMR Group's right of first refusal. The project was briefly considered for Agra under a different state government, but was eventually revived and moved back to Jewar in 2014. 


=== Phase-1 ===
The Union Government approved the airport in June 2015 and Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) gave an in-principle approval to the Uttar Pradesh government to build the airport in May 2018. After further planning, Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone of phase-1 of Noida International Airport on 25 November 2021. Noida International Airport phase-1 is being developed by Noida International Airport Limited (NIAL) through a public-private partnership (PPP model). In 2019, Flughafen Zürich AG, the operator of Zurich Airport in Switzerland, won the bid to build and operate it for 40 years. Tata Projects Limited was awarded the civil construction tender in June 2022, aiming for net-zero emissions. In 2023, IATA assigned the airport's code as 'DXN'. Originally slated for opening in September 2024, delays have pushed the commercial operation date to June 2025.


=== Phase-2 ===
Subsequence phases will see further development including additional terminals and runways with the target passenger capacity of 60-120 million by 2050.


== Connectivity ==
An integrated multi-model transport hub comprising air, rail, metro, RRTS, highways, expressways, and short and long distance bus terminals, taxi and bike ride hailing ranks is planned.


=== Last-mile connectivity ===
Noida Airport has partnered with the public sector transport entities of neighboring states and ride-hailing companies (Uber, Mahindra Mobility, etc) for last-mile local and long-distance bus and taxi connectivity.


=== Airports ===
Alternate functional nearby airports with scheduled commercial flights are:

Indira Gandhi International Airport (IATA: DEL, ICAO: VIDP), 100 km (62 mi) northwest: has domestic and international flights to numerous locations.
Hindon Airport (IATA: HDO, ICAO: VIDX), 85 km (53 mi) north: has domestic flights to several locations.
Hisar Airport (IATA: HSS, ICAO: VIHR), 250 km (160 mi) northwest of Noida International Airport and 190 km (120 mi) northwest of Indira Gandhi International: has domestic flights and is being upgraded to an international airport by 2030 under the NCR Plan as an alternate to the IGI Airport.


=== Buses ===
Noida Airport has partnered with the Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (UPSRTC), Haryana state's Haryana Roadways, and others for direct buses from the airport to the following major feeder cities in the catchment area of the airport to make it easier for travelers to reach the airport by bus: 

Northwest
Delhi Airport 100 km (62 mi),
Hisar Airport 250 km (160 mi),
North
Greater Noida (Pari Chowk) 40 km (25 mi)
Faridabad 70 km (43 mi)
Hindon Airport 85 km (53 mi)
Ghaziabad 80 km (50 mi)
Panipat 170 km (110 mi)
Kurukshetra 250 km (160 mi)
Ambala Airport 300 km (190 mi)
Chandigarh Airport 325 km (202 mi)
Northeast
Bulandshahr 36 km (22 mi)
East
Khurja 35 km (22 mi)
Southeast
Aligarh 65 km (40 mi)
South
Mathura 90 km (56 mi)
Agra 130 km (81 mi)
Southwest
Alwar 150 km (93 mi)
West
Palwal 38 km (24 mi)
Gurugram 65 km (40 mi)
Narnaul 180 km (110 mi)


=== Road ===
The Noida International Airport (NIA) is connected with various highways 

National Highways
NH-44 Delhi–Palwal–Agra (existing)
NH-34 Ghaziabad–Bulandshahr–Aligarh (existing)
NH-333D Palwal–Tappal–Aligarh, (existing), tolled
Expressways
Delhi–Ghaziabad–Meerut Expressway (existing)
Jewar-Faridabad Expressway (under-construction): NHAI is constructing 31 km link, connecting Noida Airport with Faridabad bypass on Delhi–Mumbai Expressway, which will also connect the airport to the following:
Yamuna Expressway Delhi-Noida-Agra (existing): will connect at Dayanat Pur village allowing domestic and international tourists to reach Agra (Taj Mahal), Mathura, and Vrindavan.
KGP Expressway (existing): will connect at Mohna village of Ballabhgarh
Delhi–Mumbai Expressway (existing): will connect at Sector-65 of Faridabad
Ghaziabad–Kanpur Expressway (under-construction)


=== Railway ===


==== Metro trains ====

Greater Noida-Noida Airport Metro (studies and DPR done, construction yet to commence): from the existing Noida Sector 148 metro station on Noida Aqua Line to Noida International Airport.
Noida Film City-Noida Sector 142 PRT (studies and DPR done, construction yet to commence): will provide partial alternative connectivity to Noida and Delhi, as some of the route will be same as above (Greater Noida-Noida Airport Metro).
Ballabhgarh-Noida Airport Metro (studies done, DPR yet to be done): From Ballabhgarh metro station on Delhi Metro Violet Line to Palwal and Jewar Airport.


==== Semi-High Speed Railway ====

Ghaziabad-Jewar RRTS (under-planning): 71.1 km long rapid rail with 11 stations costing ₹16,000 cr, will be completed in 2 phases by 2031.

Palwal-Noida International Airport-Khurja Railway (PNAKR line, under-construction): A 61 km railway line will connect Noida Airport to Palwal (28 km west on the New Delhi-Mumbai main line) and Khurja (33 km east on the Amritsar-Kolkata Howrah–Delhi main line), featuring a new railway station at the airport. It will connect to the HORC and EORC NCR Orbital rail line.
Noida International Airport-Chola Railway (under-construction): A 20 km branch of the PNAKR line will link a multi-logistics hub at Noida Airport to the existing Chola railway station, located to the west on the Howrah–Delhi main line.

Hisar Airport-Noida International Airport Railway line (HANAR Line, partially complete, remaining under-construction): will provide a direct connection from Noida Airport to IGI Airport (via the HORC and the Delhi-Jaipur line) and to Hisar Airport (via the HORC and the Hisar International Airport-IGI Airport line, through Jhajjar-Rohtak-Hansi-Hisar), branching off from the PNAKR line at Palwal.


==== High-Speed Railway ====

Delhi-Noida-Varanasi HSR (under-construction): Noida Airport station is the planned on India's High-Speed Rail project.


== Issues ==


=== Poor connectivity ===
Reaching the upcoming Noida International Airport (NIA) in Jewar presents a challenge due to its distance from major locations like Delhi and Noida. Current public transport options are limited, but plans are in place to introduce city bus and electric taxi services. Longer-term solutions, such as a rapid rail corridor planned for 2030, are far away. Experts emphasise the importance of comprehensive public transport for the airport's commercial success and financial viability, drawing comparisons with the well-connected IGI and Bengaluru airports.


=== Ecological threats ===
Despite environmental ministry conditions for Noida airport's approval requiring the protection of Dhanauri Wetlands, the Uttar Pradesh government has reportedly ignored these conditions. The wetland has not been designated as a Ramsar Site, its land has been allocated for construction by YEIDA, leading to a reduction in its area, and it remains under threat.Vigirously development of new Residential and commercial properties in the region is becoming a threat to the area's Natural habitat and environment. Many new projects like Supertech UP Country in Sector 17A, Oasis Realtech's Grandstand in Sector 22D, are under investigation here under CBI regarding land allotments, lease terms, etc as per TOI.


== Current status ==
Oct 2020: The Government of Uttar Pradesh signed concession agreement with Zurich International on 7 October, for development of Jewar airport.
Nov 2021: PM Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone of Jewar Airport on 25 November in presence of Yogi Adityanath, Keshav Prasad Maurya, Jyotiraditya Scindia and Dhirendra Singh.
Jun 2022: The Yamuna International Airport Pvt Ltd (YIAPL) or Zurich has selected Tata Projects for EPC contract of airport.
Jul 2022: Tender for ""Jewar-Ballabhgarh Expressway"", 31 km (19 mi)-long  spur from Sector-65 Faridabad (on Delhi-Mumbai Expressway) to the airport's site, was awarded by the NHAI.
Aug 2022: The airport will be completed for testing in March 2024, and will become operational for traffic in October 2024.
Sep 2023: The International Air Transport Association (IATA) assigns the airport's code as 'DXN'.
Oct 2023: More than 50% of work has been completed on the airport.
Apr 2024: The airport held its first calibration test flight of the Döppler Very High Frequency Omni Range (DVOR) equipment of the runway with the help of a Beechcraft King Air B300 aircraft, headed by a private firm.
May 2024: The expressway linking the airport to Faridabad will open by December 2024 to connect the Yamuna Expressway, while the rest will be coming later.
Oct 2024: More than 90% of work has been completed on the airport and the inauguration date is finalised on 17 April 2025.
Dec 2024: The first flight validation test has been successfully conducted on 9 December 2024 by IndiGo Airlines.
Apr 2025: The deadline for commencement of the first commercial flights on 17 April 2025 has been missed.


== See also ==
Transport in Delhi
NCR Delhi Transport Plan
List of airports in India
List of Indian Air Force stations


== References ==


== External links ==
NOIDA International Airport Limited
[https://niairport.in Noida International Airport NEWS"
"South Park, Houston","South Park is a broad post-World War II development in the south-central area of  Houston, Texas, a few miles south of MacGregor Park and directly south of the 610 Loop. According to the 2000 Census, the community has a population of 22,282. 81% of the South Park population is African American, compared to 25% for the city as a whole. Houston's Martin Luther King Boulevard (formerly South Park Boulevard) runs through the area.  Reflecting its postwar origins, many streets in South Park are named after World War II battle sites and persons. In the 1980s and 1990s crime became a key issue for South Park. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said ""South Park is an overgrown garden these days, its soil only able to be tilled by the most determined or the most desperate. It shows no sign that it will grow again any time in the near future.""


== History ==
South Park, a post-World War II development, had mostly middle class White American families during the 1950s and early 1960s. Many of the homebuyers were veterans of World War II, and streets were named after battles and people that the homebuyers knew from personal experience. When South Park served as a suburb, lawns were neatly trimmed and area children traveled to places by bicycle.
The 610 Loop opened in the 1960s. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press stated that some residents believed that the opening of 610 marked the beginning of South Park's decline. Ralph Gonzales, a former resident quoted by Shilcutt, said that the opening of 610 caused traffic to increase in the area and allowed residents of other sections of the city to more easily reach South Park.
Shilcutt added that the forced integration of Jones High School and nearby Sterling High School hastened demographic changes; White families began to move to newer suburbs, such as Pasadena and Pearland. Dave Straughan, a former sergeant of the Houston Police Department's robbery division who served his rookie beat in South Park, said that several factors caused South Park to decline as a neighborhood; by the 1970s crime was beginning to increase.
In 1977 the Houston City Council voted to honor Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. by renaming South Park Boulevard, a major area thoroughfare, to Martin Luther King Boulevard. The renaming was effective on April 5, 1978.
Shilcutt said that South Park was no longer considered a suburb by the late 1980s, and that crime became a major concern. In 1987 South Park was still considered to be a mixed race neighborhood.
Schilcutt said that when the White population in South Park became insignificant in the 1990s, the City of Houston government began to ignore the remaining residents. By 1993 the infrastructure of the neighborhood had severely declined, with the sewer and water lines beginning to rust and buckle. Al Calloway, a member of the Houston City Council proposed spending a $57.5 million cash surplus on improving the sewer and water lines of South Park; Calloway said ""residents in neighborhoods such as South Park or Sunnyside may die before the projects are done."" The City of Houston never spent the surplus.
In October 1994 25 inches (64 cm) of rain fell in one day, causing flooding that caused the displacement of over 10,000 people in Greater Houston. The Sims Bayou overfilled, flooding businesses and houses in South Park. Few of the residents had flood insurance. Some businesses and houses were abandoned as a result of the flood.
As time passed, Hispanic residents moved into South Park, as part of a trend of Hispanics in the Houston area moving into black majority neighborhoods. Between 1990 and 2000, the Hispanic population of South Park increased by between 5 and 10 percent. In the same period, the black population of both South Park and Sunnyside declined by 4,225, or 11% as majority African-American neighborhoods in Houston had declines in their black populations. In 2000 82% of the neighborhood was Black, and 16% of the area population was Hispanic. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park was among a group of mostly African American neighborhoods that could become as much as 25% Hispanic and Latino by the end of the decade of the 2000s. In 2009 almost 20% of the neighborhood was Hispanic. As of the 2010 census South Park does not have any White residents. In 2011 the projected percentages for 2016 were 81% Black and 22% Hispanic.
In 2007 South Park was one of several Houston neighborhoods with a high concentration of felons.
As of 2011 the median yearly income is $33,196, a 15% decrease from 2000's number. As of the same year the median housing price is $50,400, a 15% increase from 2000's number. In a 10-year span ending in 2011, the foreign-born population of South Park increased by almost 10%.


== Demographics ==
The City of Houston-defined South Park Super Neighborhood had 21,208 people in 2015. 67% were non-Hispanic black, 31% were Hispanic, 1% were non-Hispanic white, and 2% were non-Hispanic others. The percentage of non-Hispanic Asians was zero. In 2000 the super neighborhood had 22,282 people. 81% were non-Hispanic black, 16% were Hispanic, and 1% each were non-Hispanic white and other. The percentage of non-Hispanic Asians was zero.


== Cityscape ==
The South Park subdivision has four sections. Section 1 is bounded by Calhoun Road, a line south of Pershing Boulevard, a line east of St. Lo Road, and a line north of Doolittle Road.
One part of Sections 2-4 is bounded by the 610 Loop, a line south and west of Burma Road, a line south of St. Lo Road, and a line east of Kassarine Pass. Another portion of Sections 2-4 is bound by Calhoun, 18th, Jutland, and a line north of Southwind Avenue. Another portion is wedged between St. Lo and Martin Luther King Boulevard (formerly named South Park Boulevard).
The wider South Park area is bounded by the 610 Loop, Cullen Boulevard, the Sims Bayou, and Mykawa Road.
Several small and well-maintained houses share the area with mostly deteriorating properties and vacant lots. By 2000 many houses adjacent to MLK Boulevard became converted to house commercial usage. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park had several abandoned businesses. As of 2011 trash is present in some front yards in South Park. As of 2011 the median yearly income is $33,196, a 15% decrease from 2000's number. As of the same year the median housing price is $50,400, a 15% increase from 2000's number. As of 2011 the most expensive house in South Park listed on HAR.com, a Houston real estate website, was a remodeled 1955 three bedroom house listed for less than $78,000; by January 12 of the year, the house's price was reduced in order to attract potential homeowners.  Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said that ""abandoned businesses, junked-out cars and empty houses crest the landscape"" of Martin Luther King Boulevard.
The housing in South Park includes many small two bedroom houses. Most of them have cedar shank siding, while more expensive houses have aluminum siding. When South Park was newly built, hamburger stands were located throughout the neighborhood including one that offered ""secret sauce"". Other major features included Palm Center, a shopping center, and King Center Twin Drive-In, a two screen movie theater, which was open from 1952 to 1981. The area also had family-owned businesses and Boy Scout troops. Very few liquor stores or pawn shops were present. Shilcutt said that the schools,churches and the Scout troops,reflected ""the rock solid nature of the residents.""
Many of the streets are named after World War II military events, such as Bataan, Dunkirk, Iwo Jima, and Kassarine Pass. One name, Remagen, was misspelled as ""Remagan"" on the Houston street name. Tony Gelat, an engineer, made attempts to make the city government change the name. As of 1997 they have not been successful.


== Crime ==
Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said ""South Park became the stuff of legend as it almost cannibalized itself in the '80s and '90s with violent robberies and drive-by shootings.""
Crime was not originally a factor in South Park. Dave Straughan, a former sergeant of the Houston Police Department's robbery division who served his rookie beat in South Park, said that several factors caused South Park to decline as a neighborhood, with the decline beginning in 1971. Straughn stated that many Whites were very fearful of racial integration, so they very quickly left the neighborhood when African Americans moved in. The neighborhood began to receive residents who were poorer than the ones they replaced. The houses began to age and required increasing maintenance, of which the newer low-income residents generally would not be able to afford. Straughn also cited South Park's proximity to Telephone Road, which he said ""had a national reputation for being pretty wild.""
Shilcutt said that, by the late 1980s, South Park ""was dominated by drive-by shootings and drug dealers, especially along Burger Park's street: Martin Luther King Jr.  [sic] Boulevard."" Shilcutt said that many South Park residents did not attend the area's Neighborhood Nights Out as they were too afraid to leave their homes. Shilcutt added that ""Violence pervaded the entire community. Deaths grew increasingly random and senseless."" Ralph Gonzales, a former resident quoted by Shilcutt, said ""In the '80s and '90s, it was bad. HPD was chasing guys up and down Bellfort and MLK. Folks were knocking over liquor stores, hijacking people.""
Between January 1990 and December 1991 16 people had been killed along MLK Boulevard. Chuck Philips of the Los Angeles Times said in 1993 that South Park was ""a tough Houston ghetto dominated by drug-dealing, prostitution and gang warfare-where automatic rifles can be purchased almost as easily as rap cassettes."" In 1993 Ronald Ray Howard, a convicted killer and drug dealer, said, in the words of Houston Chronicle reporter Roy Bragg, that South Park was ""a war zone, a place of nightly shootings, fistfights, police harassment and strife. There, the right amount of money could buy any weapon, even hand grenades. Seven-year-old children knew how to handle pistols.""
Gonzales said that the South Park criminal element imploded because the criminals depleted the wealth that was left in the neighborhood. According to Gonzales, the criminals moved to Alief and the Hiram Clarke area. In 2011 Gonzales said ""Pickins is slim"" in South Park. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park had an obvious drug dealer presence.


== Culture ==
A ten block section of Martin Luther King Boulevard/South Park Boulevard, since the 1970s and by 2001, became a cruising scene, with cruising habitually occurring on Sunday evenings. On Sunday nights, within a three to four hour periods, speeds of automobiles were at 15 to 20 miles per hour, with about 2,000 to 4,000 people traveling through the ten blocks. Friends socialized and rap music played in the area. Most of the participants were black youth.
In 2001 police officers attempted to stifle the scene by flooding the 10 block stretch with water. The police said that businesses had wanted the crowds to be dissipated. After black activists protested, C. O. Bradford, the chief of the Houston Police Department, apologized. The following weekend, the cruising scene had reappeared. Thirty-two police officers were on the street, and traffic cones and barricades manipulated the vehicle traffic. Peggy O'Hare of the Houston Chronicle said ""It worked reasonably well, taking only five minutes to travel the 10-block area with restricted lane use."" Because some police patrols appeared, some activists argued that the police were discriminating against African-American people and not giving proportionate attention to white partygoers in the Richmond Strip. Lt. S.K. Boyce. of the Houston Police Department stated that they made more arrests in the Richmond Strip than on MLK Boulevard, and most of those arrested were White. Quanell X said that he supported the police using a different crowd control tactics on MLK Boulevard. Some business owners supported the cruising scene, while some opposed the scene.


== Education ==
As of 2011 55% of South Park's residents have graduated from high school. Katharine Shilcutt said that the low rate is explained by an increasing number of immigrants and the ""disappointing graduation rates"" at Jones High School and Sterling High School.


=== Elementary schools, Middle schools, and High schools ===


=== Public schools ===
Original owners of the property which is now known as Candy Stripe Academy were Frank and Joyce Gonzales. The original structure has been demolished and the new building now faces Martin Luther King Blvd (Formally Southpark Blvd). 

South Park children are zoned to schools in the Houston Independent School District. The community is within Trustee District IV, represented by Paula M. Harris as of 2008.
Elementary schools serving sections of South Park include Alcott, Bastian, and Kelso. All residents of the South Park subdivision are zoned to Attucks Middle School. Residents east of Martin Luther King Boulevard are zoned to Sterling High School while other residents are zoned to Worthing High School. The Jones Futures Academy, formerly Jones High School, is an alternative secondary school in South Park.
Sterling, Worthing, and Jones serve the larger South Park area. In 2007 a study determined that 60% of the entering first year classes at Jones and Sterling advanced to their fourth year, and a portion of those students graduated. Because of this, the Associated Press and Johns Hopkins University labeled Jones and Sterling ""dropout factories."" The study stated that over half of the high school students zoned to Jones and Worthing instead chose to attend other HISD schools.
Kandy Stripe Academy, an early education to 8th grade HISD-affiliated charter school, is in the subdivision. Jesse Jackson Academy, a state charter school, is located north of South Park, inside the 610 Loop.
On Thursday March 13, 2014, the HISD board voted 6-3 to keep the Jones campus open and convert it into an alternative career readiness school for students throughout HISD. At that time Jones was no longer be a zoned school, and its athletics programs were discontinued. Residents east of Martin Luther King Boulevard were rezoned to Sterling, and residents west of MLK were rezoned to Worthing, both for the 2014-2015 school year.


==== Private schools ====
A Kindergarten through 5 Roman Catholic school called St. Philip Neri School, of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston, was in the area. It closed Spring 2009. The school was consolidated with St. Peter the Apostle Middle School.


=== Public libraries ===
The area is served by the Young Neighborhood Library of the Houston Public Library, which is located north of 610 in Palm Center.


== Government and infrastructure ==
South Park is in Houston City Council District D.

Houston Fire Department operates Fire Station 35 South Park, a part of Fire District 46. The station was originally built at Holmes at South Park. The station had to move due to the construction of Interstate 610. The current station near Martin Luther King Boulevard and Van Fleet opened in 1965.
The neighborhood is within the Houston Police Department's Southeast Patrol Division, headquartered at 8300 Mykawa.
The Harris Health System (formerly Harris County Hospital District) designated the Martin Luther King Health Center in southeast Houston for the ZIP code 77033. The designated public hospital is Ben Taub General Hospital in the Texas Medical Center.


== Parks ==

St. Lo Park is located at 7335 St. Lo Road. Pershing Park is located at 5500 Pershing/St Lo Road.


== Notable residents ==
Megan Thee Stallion, a rapper and songwriter from the Dead End neighborhood of South Park, lived there until 14 when she moved to nearby Pearland.
Carlos Coy (South Park Mexican), a Mexican-American rapper who is currently in prison, convicted of sexual assault.
Clyde Drexler (basketball player)
Brad Jordan (Scarface), a member of the Geto Boys From South Acres Region of Houston TX
JoBeth Williams (actress)
Lil' Keke, a rapper from the Herschelwood region of South Park
Ganksta NIP, a rapper from the South Park Coalition
Booker T, Professional wrestler
Robert Wilson, former NFL player
Dre Murray, a rapper currently signed to Collision Records
Corey Paul, a rapper currently signed to Collision Records
Travis Scott


== See also ==

List of Houston neighborhoods
The South Park Psycho


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

Census 2000: Demographic Data by Super Neighborhood"
Primero,"Primero (in English also called Primus, in French Prime, in Italian Primiera or in Spanish Primera), is a 16th-century gambling card game of which the earliest reference dates back to 1526. Primero is closely related to the game of primo visto (a.k.a. prima-vista, and various other spellings), if not the same. It is also believed to be one of the ancestors to the modern game of poker,  to which it is strikingly similar.
The gambling game with this name goes back to the 16th century, being known to Gerolamo Cardano as primiera, which he thought of as the noblest of all card games, to François Rabelais as prime, and to William Shakespeare as primero.


== The origins of Primero ==
It is uncertain if Primero is of Spanish or Italian origin. Although Daines Barrington is of the opinion that it is of Spanish origin, a poem of Francesco Berni is the earliest known writing to mention the game; it affords proof that it was at least commonly played in Italy at the beginning of the 16th century. His work entitled Capitolo del Gioco della Primiera, published in Rome in 1526, and believed to be the earliest extant work describing a card game, contains some particulars on primero. According to David Parlett, the game's card-point system is found in other Italian games but nowhere else. The game is still very much played in central Europe and Spain with Italian-suited cards, under the name of goffo or bambara, remaining the major native vying game of Italy. Alessandro Striggio's  madrigal dramatizing a party of the game ""II gioco di primiera"" was published in 1569.


== Etymology ==
This old game of cards was called prime in France, primera in Spain, and primiera in Italy. All names derived from the Latin primarius, 'first'. In English literature, besides the occasional use of the foreign names, the game is designated primero (and also prima-vista, a probable variant), with the usual corruptions in spelling of the early days.
According to Stephen Skinner, primero and prima-vista are one and the same game. As for John Minshew, primero and prima-vista (Primum et primum visum, that is, first and first seen, because he that can show such an order of cards, wins the game), are two different games of cards.
Whichever opinion these two seventeenth-century lexicographers might have had on the origin of primero, it seems fairly plausible that the game being played in different parts of Europe had to acquire similar names as it migrated from one country to another, or from one region to the other, notably in Italy and Spain. And with the addition of new rules to the original set of rules, or even variations on the rules that the game devised, it finally reached a level of development that made them become separate games, despite their common origin. So, as the Italian writer Berni said: ""The game is played differently in different places.""


== The gamblers ==

Daines Barrington described an Elizabethan card party painted by Federico Zuccari that originally belonged to Lord Falkland in which Lord Burleigh is represented playing at cards with three other persons, apparently of distinction, each having two rings on the same fingers of both their hands. The cards used are marked as at present, although they differ from those of modern times for being narrower and longer. Eight of the cards lie on the table with the blank side uppermost, for the cards at that time had blank backs, while four remain in each of the other players hands. A particular in this painting is that one of the players is seen showing his cards, which are: the jack (knave) of hearts, the ace, 7 and 6 of clubs. The cover of the pack lying on the table displays two lions supporting a shield, upon which is what appears to be a heraldic rose (the crest of the Tudors), and underneath, though indistinctly, the partially illegible name of a French card-maker Jehan Licl**rer. This particular shows that the cards then used were at least sometimes obtained from France. The money on the table, together with considerable heaps of gold and silver, appears to be coins of Edward VI and Queen Elizabeth I.
As the first Marquess of Exeter, Lord Burleigh, is said to have entirely devoted his time to business and study, taking no diversion but that afforded by his gardens, of which he was both fond and proud, it is to be supposed that this painting was not actually a portrait of him, though mistaken for his, as was the ownership of the old manor-house of Wimbledon. So, there seems to be little doubt here as for which game the artist meant to describe, and that the person exhibiting his cards to the spectators had won a lush, for his three clubs are the best cards for counting.
A passage in an old play by Robert Greene has been quoted by several writers as evidence that primero was a gambling game. But a person who objects to cards, might make such a remark with respect to any card game, whether a gambling game or not. Judging from the partial descriptions of the game which remain to us, it might seem that primero was played for either large or small stakes, as agreed upon. John Florio describes primero played by two persons for ""one shilling stake and three rest (pool)."" In Minsheu's ""Spanish Dialogues"",  four play; the stake is two shillings and the rest, eight. The text is self-explanatory, explaining also the meaning of the name primero.


== Primero and the Tudor dynasty ==
Primero appears to have been one of the earliest card games played in England during the Renaissance and the Tudor dynasty, and certainly it continued to be one of the most fashionable games throughout the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I of England, Elizabeth I and James I, due to the frequent mention of it by many writers of that time. Already during the reign of Henry VII, notices of money issued several times for the King's losses at cards appear in the Remembrance's Office, dated December the 26th, in the ninth year of his reign. There, an entry is made of one hundred shillings paid at one time to him for the purpose of playing at cards. The private expenses of Princess Mary, Henry VIII's daughter and later Queen, also contain numerous items of money ""for the playe at cardes"". But despite the records, it is not certain that primero found its way to England previously to the marriage of Queen Mary I with Philip II of Spain, although there is no doubt that his coming to England from the court of Charles V would have cause it to be more generally known and played. William Shakespeare also speaks of Henry VIII playing at primero with his brother-in-law Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and makes Falstaff say: ""I never prospered since I forswore myself at primero."" Additionally, the clown Lancelot in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice confides in this father that ""for mine own part, as I have set up my rest to run away, so I will not rest till I have sun some ground"" (2.2.91-92). To ""set up [one's] rest"" alludes to a type of gamble in the Italian version of primero (see below).  Among the epigrams of John Harington we have one which describes ""The Story of Marcus' Life at Primero"", in which many of the terms of the game are developed in detail.


== Evolution and decline ==
Judging by the pattern of succession of games during the Renaissance, many of the card games played throughout Europe, ascended in popularity to be later replaced by another type of game, again brought into England by the court gamester of that time. So that, by the last quarter of the 16th century, primero had already decreased in popularity, and was gradually replaced by the trick-taking game maw, the favorite card game of James I, and alluded by Harington as supplanting primero. According to Charles Cotton, primero, which by the time of the Restoration in 1660 had already evolved into many other variations, some of six cards, rapidly went out of fashion with the introduction of the Spanish game of Ombre.


== Rules of the game ==
The object of the game, as in poker, is to attain the highest possible hand, or at least bluff your competitors out of betting against you. There are no existing written rules for the 16th-century primero, only descriptions. However, a number of reconstructions of the game have been made, primarily on the basis of books describing playing strategy and references in period literature.


=== The play ===
Primero is played with a 40-card deck, and there are special decks made for this game. It works best with four to six players. The player who holds the prime, a sequence of the best cards and a good trump, is sure to be successful over the adversaries – hence the game's name.


=== English version ===
Because this is a gambling game, the first step is for all players to ante into the pot. The deal is counter-clockwise, starting with the dealer. Each player receives 4 cards dealt in 2's from a 40-card deck ranking K Q J 7 6 5 4 3 2 A. Anyone dealt a winning combination calls for an immediate showdown, and the player with the best hand wins the pot. Two cards go to each player, which is followed by the next phase of betting, and two more cards are dealt to each player. Then either eight cards are dealt face down on the table or the remaining cards are left out as a draw pile or stockpile.
In the eight-card version, eight cards are laid out on the table, and players may draw and discard from only these. When a player is satisfied with his cards, he may knock on the table, calling out: Vada (go!), which brings an immediate showdown won by the best hand. If no one bets, the stakes are carried forward to the next deal; but if one stays in, at least one other must contest the pot, this obligation ultimately falling upon the player immediately ahead of the last bettor if everyone else has folded. In a showdown, the better equal combinations are those with the highest point. Thus, a quartet of aces (4x16=64) beats a quartet of 5s (60), but it's beaten by four 6s (72). Four kings will not beat four queens or jacks, as these hands all count 40. Such ties are broken in favor of the eldest hand competing.
Players vie or vye by stating how high a hand they claim to have, and may bluff by overstating it. What they apparently must not do is to underbid their hands; for as Cardano puts it: ""If anyone wins with the greatest point, he is obliged to show another card; otherwise he loses his deposit because he could have a 'Flush'... Similarly, if he 'vies' on the basis of point, he is obliged to show two different cards and one of a matching suit, so that no one may suspect him of having a 'Flush' or 'Prime'.""
A player may either knock or draw in a turn, but not both. Once a player knocks, he may no longer draw. When two players have knocked, the play stops, and cards are shown. Betting starts after the two cards are dealt, and may continue after these two cards have been dealt, and then at every round, just before the dealer's turn. The dealer always bets first. Players may match, raise, or fold any time during wagering. If all players refuse a bet, it must be withdrawn.


=== Italian version ===
In Rome, the full 52-card deck was used. In Florence, it is custom to leave out the 7s, 8s and 9s, keeping and vying only with the smaller cards; the ""rest"" (to set up a rest means 'to win [something]', and is a phrase which occurs in almost every poem in the times of James and Charles. It is taken from terms used at primero, and perhaps other games then played) is made at the second card, and when the first player say ""pass"", every one is obliged to discard, notwithstanding any one may have an ace or a 6 in hand. In Venice, for instance, the mode of playing may be different; in Lombardy, Naples, France and Spain, so many countries, so many customs. But of all the modes, none can be superior to that of the court of Rome. There, the 7s, 8s and 9s are not withdrawn; there it is allowed to discard, but not both cards after ""pass"" is once said; nor can this be done with the two cards of the rest, as it is usual in other places. The most essential operation of this game may be its two principal hands, the flush and the primera, and a third, derived from the first, which is called punto; from these three are deducted all the varieties which daily occur at primero, as the greater and lesser flush, the great and little prime, and more or less points; this diversity gives rise to numerous controversies and disputable points. Another excellent hand in this game is four-of-a-kind; four court cards, four aces, etc., beat both the flush and primera.


=== Spanish version ===
Jacob Le Duchat, in a note on that chapter of Rabelais, in which the games Gargantua played at are enumerated, has described the mode of playing primero, and a similar account may be gathered from the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy. According to Duchat, there are two kinds of primero, the greater and the lesser; the difference between them is that the former is played with the figured cards, while at the latter the highest card is the 7, which counts for 21. Each player has four cards, which are dealt one by one. the next card in value to the 7 is the 6, which counts for 18; then the 6, which counts for 15. The ace is equivalent to 6 points, but the 2 (deuce), the 3 (trey) and the 4 count only for their respective numbers. To these cards may be added, if the players choose, the quinola, for which the jack of hearts is most commonly chosen, and of which he may make what card and what colour he likes. After which each of the players show their four cards, and he whose cards are all of different sorts wins the prime, if they are all of one colour he wins the Flush.
Meanwhile, according to the Great Spanish Dictionary, is played by dealing four cards to each player; the value of the 7, 6 and ace, are the same; but the 2 is said to count for 12, the 3 for 13, the 4 for 14, and the 5 for 15, the figured cards are each equivalent to 10. The best hand is the flush, that is, four cards of high numbers and one of one colour; the next is the punto(supremus), consisting of the quinola, 7, 6, and ace, which count for 55; then the primera, or prime, which is four cards of different suits. Should two persons have flushes, the player who counts the highest number, or the greatest flush wins, and the same regulation holds good in regard to the prime. But should there be neither flush nor prime, the one who can count the most points in one suit wins.


== See also ==
Ambigu
Bouillotte
Brelan
Gilet
Post and pair
Put (card game)
Three-card brag


== References ==


== External links ==

Game Report: ""Primero – Reconstructed from primary and tertiary sources"", Justin du Coeur, 2003
""Primero: A Renaissance Cardgame"", Jeff A. Suzuki, 2007; another reconstruction of the game"
Bekaboo,"Bekaboo (transl. Uncontrollable) is an Indian Hindi-language supernatural thriller television series that aired from 18 March 2023 to 9 July 2023 on Colors TV. The series starred Eisha Singh and Shalin Bhanot. The show is a spin-off series of Naagin 6. From 15 July 2023 to 6 August 2023, the show was streamed on JioCinema with the title Bekaboo: Ishq-e-Anjaam.


== Plot ==


=== Season 1 ===
In 1994 some friends entered a jungle. After ignoring an old man's warning, a demon eats them. The old man tells a man about the ""seven worlds"". The seventh world hell is inhabited by evil demons. One of the demons Valak was praying to Bhagwan Shiva to obtain the Asi Astra to relieve the curse of demons so they could roam freely in any world.
Parilok's crown princess Devlekha arrives on earth to break the meditation of Valak. To stop him, she creates a rift between the demon brothers Ashwat and Pratham, who were Valak's sons and were extremely close. Both demon brothers are attracted to Devlekha, who falls for Pratham.
Valak's youngest daughter Yamini discovers Devlekha's real identity as a fairy and uses this to manipulate the two brothers' emotions. Pratham confronts Devlekha about her identity, and she falsely accuses Pratham of molesting her; the result is a brawl between the brothers, causing Valak to leave his meditation incomplete.
Pratham takes revenge by disguising himself, marries Devlekha, and sleeps with her. He reprimands her for cheating Ashwat by hiding her real identity and breaking Valak’s penance. An angry and humiliated Devlekha curses him to die by her hands and to let his soul wander on earth until it obtains the body of someone related to him to obtain salvation. She stabs him and pushes him to earth leading to his death and kills herself for her lost honour.
The focus shifts to Ashwat's son Ranav and Devlekha's reincarnation as Bela in human forms, unaware of their supernatural powers as a demon and angel, respectively. Bela experiences flashbacks from her life as Devlekha but fails to understand her divinity. Whereas timid and naive Ranav is bullied by his cousins Aditya, Udit and Naksh who are Yamini's children. One day, the three brothers were trying to kill a girl and Ranav wanted to defend her. Out of anger, they beat Ranav to death, and his body becomes possessed by Pratham's spirit. Pratham seeks to know what happened to Ashwat and seeks revenge for both Ashwat and Ranav. Bela regains her memory as Devlekha and discovers that Ranav is a demon. Ranav decides to marry Bela's friend Mallika to teach Aditya a lesson whom Mallika loves. On the wedding day, Bela and Mallika replaces each other for which Mallika marries Aditya and Bela marries Ranav to take revenge for whatever happened in the past. He didn't accept Bela as his wife. Due to unforeseen circumstances, Ranav brings Bela home as his wife. Ranav soon learns of Ashwat's murder, and Bela decides to help Ranav in his revenge before killing him for her own revenge for his ill deeds in the last birth. There they meet Indrajeet, who, unbeknownst to them, is a demon. Indrajeet flirts with Bela, making Ranav jealous. Ranav finds Ashwat's cadaver in the garden of the hotel they were staying at. Shekhar informs Bela that Yamini was planning to take the Asi Astra from Ashwat by using Ranav when he was a child and killing Ashwat's wife. When Yamini goes to meet Ashwat, she finds him dead. Ranav learns this through Indrajeet (Yamini's minion) and sets out to find Yamini to discover the truth.
Later, Ranav and Yamini meet Pataali, who was revived by Naagin Mehak and her husband Jeet, who is an Asur. Pataali is Ashwat, Pratham, Vansh and Seema's mother and Yamini's adoptive mother. She meets Naagin Trisha, Mehak and Jeet's daughter who wanted to attack Naaglok. Bela helps Shesh Naagin Prarthana to find her daughter. Later, Yamini, Pataali, Mehak, and Trisha attack Naaglok with their army but are defeated by Prarthana, Raghu, Bela, and Rani Pari. Prarthana thanks Bela for her help and all return to earth.
Later, Paatali comes to Raichand's mansion with an intention. She joins forces with Yamini to learn who the pari is among Bela and Mallika. After several tests, Patali and Yamini assume them to be normal humans. Soon Paatali discovers that Pratham has possessed Ranav's body, and she asks Ranav to collaborate with her to find Ashwat's killer and then informs him that a pari must have killed Ashwat by showing him a kangan. She claims that whoever has the other piece of the bangle is the Pari and the murderer of Ashwat. While Ranav searches for the murderer of his brother, Pataali also tries to keep Ranav and Bela from getting closer with the help of Naira, Ranav's ex-lover.
One night, Ranav is attacked by a masked man named Naqabposh, also Ashwat's murderer. Ranav is injured, and Bela finds him in immense pain and wounded. In his last moments, he confesses to Bela about his secret of being a rakshas and discloses that he would only leave this body but not die, as Rakshas only die by suicide, not by someone else killing them. Ranav dies in Bela's arms, but Bela, out of love, feeds him her blood to revive him. Ranav wakes up much stronger after consuming Pari's blood and realizes that Bela is the crown princess Devlekha who had betrayed and killed Pratham in her previous birth. A confrontation takes place, and Ranav expels Bela and her mother from the Raichand house. The naqabposh, however, harms Bela and her mother, after which Ranav and Bela decide to fight the masked man together, as Bela discovers that the masked man also has powers similar to a fairy. But they do not know that the masked man is Deepa (Bela's mother), who was a pari herself and had been sent to Earth as a punishment from Pari Maa, after her scheme of trying to kill pari ma and taking over the Parilok came into light. Deepa had always hated Bela as she knew on Bela's birth itself that she had given birth to Devlekha. Later Yamini discovers that Bela is a pari and tries to kill her by drowning her in a lake as her fairy powers will not work in water. However, Ranav saves her, and they both realize they love each other. Ranav and Bela decide to marry each other, but Ranav discovers Deepa's secret identity. He realizes that Deepa is going to kill Bela, and he kills Deepa to save her. However, Bela misunderstands Ranav's intention, and to prove his love, Ranav kills himself. Bela returns to Parilok but later discovers Deepa's identity as a fairy and realizes that Ranav is not lying. Bela decides to save Ranav at any cost and goes to Hell to save Ranav. After a great struggle, Bela finally manages to keep Ranav and she sacrifices all her fairy powers to bring him back to life.


=== Season 2- Ishq-E-Anjaam ===
Bela return to the Raichand house. Ranav threatens his family members not to harm Bela ever, who is now a human. Later that night, Ranav and Bela consummate their marriage. The next day, Bela finds a note from Ranav to meet him in the jungle, where she finds Vijay, her ex-fiancé. Ranav kills Vijay before Bela and tells her he never actually loved her. It was all his plan to exact revenge, and she was foolish not to understand it. Bela is arrested and then admitted to a mental asylum. Bela later realizes she is pregnant and flees with the help of a nurse. Later, Bela gives birth to a dead child and vows vengeance on everyone responsible for her destruction. Bela enters the Raichand house posing as Sophia and kills Udit and Aditya. It is then revealed that the person who betrayed Bela was not Ranav, but Malak, Valak's evil twin brother posing as Ranav. It was the plan of Pataali. She and Malak kidnapped Ranav and then did it. On the other hand, Ranav believes that Bela has died in a fire and does not know what happened. However, his heart still believes that Sophia is Bela. Bela tries to find a way to kill Ranav but is stunned to see Malak with Pataali. Bela and Ranav soon find Valak meditating along with Asi Astra. Malak and Valak fight while Bela runs away with Asi Astra. Malak follows her and is about to kill her when Ranav saves her. Malak then reveals his treachery to Bela who feels guilty. Bela and Ranav confront each other and reveal whatever has happened to them in the past few months. A fight begins between Ranav, Valak, and Malak. Bela sacrifices herself to save Asi Astra from Malak. Pataali, who has a change of heart, kills Malak for killing Ashwat. Ranav follows Bela but soon Bela regains her powers as she fulfilled her responsibility as a fairy even when she was a human. Bela and Ranav reunite. It is revealed that Bela and Ranav's child is alive and is living with the fishermen.


== Cast ==


=== Main ===
Eisha Singh as Bela Raichand: Devlekha's reincarnation; (2023)
Sophia: Bela's fake identity (2023)
Shalin Bhanot as Ranav Raichand: A demon from hell; (2023)


=== Recurring ===
Hrishikesh Pandey as
Valak Raichand: A demon from hell; Malak's twin brother;  (2023)
Malak Raichand: A demon from hell; Valak's twin brother; (2023)
Sudha Chandran as Paatali: Valak's wife; (2023)
Antara Biswas as Yamini Raichand: Pataali's daughter from extramarital affair; (2023)
Chetan Hansraj as Shekhar Raichand: Yamini's husband; (2023)
Abhishek Kumar as Aditya Raichand: Yamini and Shekhar's eldest son; (2023)
Viral Yadav as Udit Raichand: Yamini and Shekhar's second son; (2023)
Rushal Parakh as Naksh Raichand: Yamini and Shekhar's youngest son; (2023)
Himani Sahani as Mallika Sambiyal Raichand: Manoj's daughter; (2023)
Sangeeta Balachandran as Mrs. Raichand: Shekhar's mother; (2023)
Shubhaavi Choksey as Rani Pari: Queen of Parilok; (2023)
Richa Soni as Deepa aka Nakabposh: Former fairy of Parilok; (2023)
Bakul Thakkar as Arvind: Deepa's husband; (2023)
Sanjay Swaraj as Manoj Sambiyal: A mayor; (2023)
Neel Motwani as Vijay: Bela's ex-fiancé (2023)
Nibeditaa Paal as Naira: Ranav's ex-girlfriend; (2023)
Abhishek Kapoor as Indrajeet: A demon; Yamini's assistant (2023)
Pravin Manjarekar as Daruk: A demon; Yamini's assistant (2023)
Rohit Choudhary as Yatin Gandhi: A businessman from the UK; (2023)
Ravi Jhankal as Kaka (2023)
Nitin Bhatia as Kaka's grandson (2023)
Roselin Sonia Gomes as Vansh's victim (2023)


=== Guest ===
Shivangi Joshi as Rajpari Devlekha: Crown princess of Parilok; (2023)
Zain Imam as Pratham Raichand: A demon from hell; Valak and Pataali's elder son; (2023)
Karan Jotwani as Ashwat Raichand: A demon from hell; Valak and Pataali's second son; (2023)
Arjit Taneja as Vansh Raichand: A demon from hell; Valak and Pataali's youngest son; (2023)
Tejasswi Prakash as Prathna Ahlawat: Sarvashresth Maha Shesh Naagin from Vasuki clan from Naagin (2023)
Shrey Mittal as Raghuveer Ahlawat: Sarvashresth Shesh Naag from Sheshnaag clan from Naagin (2023)
Mahek Chahal as Mahek Patel: An evil Naagin from Vasuki clan from Naagin (2023)
Poulomi Das as Swarna: A Naagin from the Sheshnaag clan from Naagin (2023)
Shivani Jha as Mrignayni: An evil Naagin from the Sheshnaag clan from Naagin (2023)
Neha Jurel as Trisha: An evil Naagin from the Vasuki clan from Naagin (2023)


== Production ==


=== Casting ===
Shalin Bhanot, Eisha Singh, and Monalisa were the lead actors. Initially, Mohsin Khan and Kushal Tandon were in talks to play a male lead.
Viral Yadav and Roselin Sonia Gomes were cast to portray a negative role, later joined by Karan Jotwani. The series also features Shivangi Joshi, Zain Imam and Arjit Taneja in cameo appearances.


=== Development ===
The series was announced by Balaji Telefilms for Colors TV in February 2023. The series is a remake of Beauty and the Beast.


=== Filming ===
Principal photography commenced in Mumbai in February 2023.


== See also ==
List of programmes broadcast by Colors TV


== References ==


== External links ==
Bekaboo on Colors TV
Bekaboo at IMDb
Bekaboo on Voot"
Nisaba,"Nisaba was the Mesopotamian goddess of writing and grain. She is one of the oldest Sumerian deities attested in writing, and remained prominent through many periods of Mesopotamian history. She was commonly worshiped by scribes, and numerous Sumerian texts end with the doxology ""praise to Nisaba"" as a result. She declined after the Old Babylonian period due to the rise of the new scribe god, Nabu, though she did not fully vanish from Mesopotamian religion and attestations from as late as the neo-Babylonian period are known.
In myths and god lists, she was a part of the circle of Enlil, alongside her husband Haya. In the myth Enlil and Sud she plays an important role due to being the mother of the eponymous deity. Enlil seeks her permission to marry Sud with the help of his sukkal (attedant deity) Nuska. Both this narrative and other sources attest that she and her daughter were regarded as very close.
Outside Mesopotamia her name was used to logographically represent these of other gods, not necessarily similar to her in character, including Syrian Dagan, Hurrian Kumarbi and Hittite Ḫalki.


== Name ==
The origin of Nisaba's name is unknown. The widely accepted reading, Nisaba, has been confirmed by Akkadian lexical texts spelling the name syllabically as ni-sa-ba. The reading Nidaba, originally favored by some Assyriologists, for example Miguel Civil, now regarded as implausible, as the evidence is very scant, and might simply constitute recurring scribal errors. The name Nisaba was originally written using a combination of the cuneiform sign 𒉀, called NAGA, accompanied by the dingir, 𒀭, so-called ""divine determinative"" preceding names of deities. The NAGA sign is assumed to be a pictogram representing a plant, possibly later interpreted as a sheaf of barley. The same sign, though with a different determinative added, was also used to write the name of Nisaba's main cult center, Eresh. While the true etymology of Nisaba's name is generally considered impossible to determine, Wilfred G. Lambert proposed that it was derived from a hypothetical form nin.sab(a).ak, ""Lady of Saba,"" but as no such a place name is attested in Sumerian sources this is regarded as implausible. Another proposal explains it as nin-še-ba-ak, ""lady of grain rations.""
It has been proposed that a variant form of the name, Nišpa, was used in Mari, perhaps as a syllabic rather than logographic spelling. However, it has also been argued that this deity, attested only in a single Amorite personal name, Ḫabdu-Nišpa, instead corresponds to Nišba rather than Nisaba. Nišba was most likely a deified mountain, and appears in inscriptions of Iddin-Sin of Simurrum and Anubanini of Lullubum. It has also been argued that the mountain was regarded as holy by the Gutians. Furthermore, a certain KA-Nišba was the ruler of Simurrum during the reign of the Gutian king Erridupizir. The mountain corresponding to Nišba is assumed to lie northeast of modern Sulaymaniyah, though there is no agreement which landmark bore this name.
An alternate name of Nisaba was Nanibgal (Sumerian: 𒀭𒉀 DAN.NAGA; later 𒀭𒊺𒉀 DAN.ŠE.NAGA), though this name also functioned as a name of a distinct goddess. Yet another name applied to her was Nunbarshegunu.


=== Epithets ===
Nisaba's epithets include ""lady of wisdom,"" ""professor of great wisdom"" (geštu2 diri tuku-e) ""unsurpassed overseer"" (ugulu-nu-diri; ugula is an office known for example from Eshnunna, conventionally translated as ""overseer""), and ""opener of the mouth of the great gods."" Names of a number of distinct goddesses could also serve as epithets of Nisaba, including Aruru, Ezina-Kusu and Kusu (in this context meaning ""goddess filled with purity""), without necessarily implying identification of the deities with each other.


== Functions ==
Piotr Michalowski describes Nisaba as ""the goddess of grain and the scribal arts in the widest sense of this word, including writing, accounting and surveying."" She was also associated with literature and songs. It is commonly assumed that she was an agricultural deity in origin, but started to be associated with writing after its invention. However, it is agreed that in Sumerian texts the latter association is regarded as primary. In the texts forming the curriculum of scribal schools she is the deity most commonly associated with literacy, numeracy and related implements.
Due to her primary function Wilfred G. Lambert regarded her gender as unusual, noting that ""female scribes were very rare"" in historical records. However, as proven by Eleanor Robson, it was not uncommon for goddesses to be regarded as literate in Sumerian mythology, and individual goddesses are regarded as such twice as often as individual gods in texts from the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. Various compositions include references to many other goddesses writing, using measuring tools or performing other tasks associated with literacy and numeracy, including Inanna, Manungal, Geshtinanna, Ninisina, Ninshubur (counted by Robson as male, but usually regarded as primarily female) and even a minor  lamma goddess serving Bau.
As a goddess of wisdom Nisaba was believed to bestow it upon rulers, as attested in compositions associated with Lipit-Ishtar and Enlil-bani. Scribes' right to teach others their craft was likewise believed to be bestowed upon them by her.
The Curse of Agade lists her among the most prominent deities, alongside Sin, Enki, Inanna, Ninurta, Ishkur and Nuska. This grouping is regarded as unusual by researchers.
In late texts Nisaba commonly appears simply as the deification of grain, though there are exceptions. A prayer known from a compilation of texts about goddesses from neo-Assyrian Kalhu still refers to her as the ""queen of wisdom."" It also appears that in the first millennium BCE she acquired an association with exorcisms.


== Iconography ==
It has been proposed that some depictions of so-called ""vegetation deities"" known from the art of the Early Dynastic and Akkadian periods are representations of Nisaba. For example, it is commonly assumed that the goddess with stalks of vegetation decorating her crown, depicted on a fragment of a stone vase, likely from Girsu (presently in the Pergamon Museum), is Nisaba. Kathleen R. Maxwell-Hyslop points out that she is however not mentioned in the accompanying inscription, and other identifications are possible, including Bau.


== Association with other deities ==
As a grain deity, Nisaba was sometimes regarded as synonymous with the goddess Ashnan, though most primary sources, including god lists and offering lists, present them as fully separate. It has also been proposed that she was the same goddess as Ezina and Kusu, but all three of them appear separately in offering lists from Lagash. Syncretic associations possibly present in ancient scholarship did not necessarily translate into cultic practice.
The goddess Ninimma, regarded as the personal scribe of Enlil, was sometimes associated with and possibly acquired some of the characteristics of Nisaba due to fulfilling a similar role in the pantheon of Nippur. In god lists she often follows the latter and her spouse.


=== Family and court ===
Nisaba's husband was Haia, possibly regarded as a god of seals. He was a deity of relatively low rank. Compared to other divine couples (Shamash and Aya, Ishkur and Shala, Ninsianna and Kabta, Enki and Damkina, Lugalbanda and Ninsun and others) they are invoked together extremely rarely in seal inscriptions, with only one example presently known. In one explanatory text, Haya is described as ""Nisaba of prosperity"" (Nisaba ša mašrê).
Their daughter was Sud, the city goddess of Shuruppak, in later periods fully conflated with Enlil's wife Ninlil.
According to the god list An = Anum, Nisaba had two sukkals (attendant deities), Ungasaga and Hamun-ana.
In god lists, she usually appears in the section dedicated to relatives and servants of Enlil.
Multiple traditions regarding Nisaba’s origin are known, and her parentage is not regarded as fixed in ancient tradition. She was described either as the firstborn daughter of Enlil, as his mother in law, or possibly as his twin sister. Her mother is usually said to be Urash.  In a first millennium BCE text from Kalhu, which is also the source attesting that she could be viewed as Enlil's twin, her father is Ea, equated with Irḫan, in this context understood as a cosmic river, ""father of the gods of the universe."" Elsewhere Irḫan was often associated with Ishtaran. Wilfred G. Lambert notes that the text ""seems to imply a desire not to have Anu as Nisaba's father,"" though attestations of the sky god in this role are nonetheless known from other sources.


=== Nisaba and Nabu ===
Nabu gradually replaced Nisaba as a deity of writing in what has been described by Julia M. Asher-Greve as ""the most prominent case of a power transferred to a god from a goddess"" in Mesopotamian history. However, the process was complex and gradual. In the Old Babylonian and early Kassite periods Nabu’s cult was only popular in central Mesopotamia (Babylon, Sippar, Kish, Dilbat, Lagaba), had a limited extent in peripheral areas (Susa in Elam, Mari in Syria) and there is little to no evidence of it from cities such as Ur and Nippur. Nabu has relatively few epithets in god lists from the second millennium BCE as well.
In late bronze age Ugarit Nisaba and Nabu coexisted, and colophons of texts reveal that a number of scribes described themselves as ""servant of Nabu and Nisaba."" Similar evidence is also known from Emar.
Andrew R. George assumes the reason why Nabu replaced Nisaba, while other deities associated with writing did not, was due to the generalized character of his connection to this art. He points out that while Ninimma and Ninurta were also associated with writing, the former occupied a different niche from Nisaba (which he compares to them functioning as a librarian and as a scribe or scholar, respectively), while the latter was only a divine scribe as an extension of his role as the archetypal good son helping his elderly father with his various duties (in this case - writing down Enlil's judgments on the Tablet of Destinies).


=== dNISABA as logographic writing of other deities' names ===
In some documents from Syrian cities, for example Halab, the logogram dNISABA designates the god Dagan, while in Hurrian texts - Kumarbi. According to Alfonso Archi, both of these phenomena have the same source. In cities such as Ugarit, Dagan's name was homophonous with the word for grain (dgn in alphabetic Ugaritic texts), and the logographic writing of his and Kumarbi's names as dNISABA was likely a form of wordplay popular among scribes, relying on the fact that Nisaba's name could simply be understood as “grain” too. In theological texts, both Kumarbi and Dagan were compared to each other and Enlil rather than Nisaba due to all three of them playing the role of “father of gods” in their respective pantheons.
The name of the Hittite grain goddess Ḫalki could be represented by the logogram dNISABA too.


== Worship ==

Nisaba is one of the tutelary goddesses of specific cities already attested in the most ancient written sources, a status shared with Ezina, Nanshe, Inanna of Uruk and Inanna of Zabalam. Eresh was her original cult center, and there is evidence it was a city of considerable importance in the Early Dynastic times, including a reference to a possible king (lugal). Its existence is attested from between Uruk IV and Old Babylonian periods, though only a single reference, a year name of Sin-Muballit of Babylon, postdates the Ur III period. It is therefore assumed that it gradually declined, and that as a result its deities were transferred to Nippur.
It is assumed that Nisaba acquired broader significance outside her city in the Early Dynastic period already. She was worshiped in Shuruppak, Urukagina of Lagash left behind inscriptions in which he refers to her, while Lugalzagesi of Umma considered her his personal tutelary deity, and described himself as her high priest (lu-maḫ). She is also one of the goddesses mentioned in inscriptions of Naram-Sin of Akkad.
Temples of Nisaba attested in textual sources include E-mulmul (""house of stars"") in Eresh and Edubbagula (""large store house"") in the Girsu-Lagash area. In Nippur she was worshiped in the temple of her daughter Ninlil alongside Nintinugga, Ninhursag and Nanna. A festival of Nisaba is also attested from Umma. The term ""house of wisdom of Nisaba"" is known from many texts, and Andrew R. George assumes that at least two shrines of Nisaba, one in Eridu and another in Uruk bore such a name. However, it is also possible this term functioned as a generic designation of scribal institutions.
In letters from the Old Babylonian period, Nisaba appears less often than the most popular goddesses (Ishtar, Ninsianna, Aya, Annunitum, Sarpanit, Gula) but more commonly than Ninlil or Nanshe. Old Assyrian evidence includes three references to Nisaba as a family deity. A reference to a prayer ""before Ashur and Nisaba"" is known from the same period and might be another attestation of her as a tutelary deity of a specific individual or family, like other similar prayers to Ashur and a second deity. Later she continued to be worshiped in the territories of the First Sealand dynasty.
In later periods Nisaba did not entirely cease to be an object of worship, though she largely existed ""in the shadow of Nabu."" She nonetheless acquired a new role one of the goddesses most commonly invoked in exorcisms, next to Kusu and Ningirima. Additionally, as late as during the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I references were made to ""wisdom of Nabu and Nisaba.""
While references to Nisaba are known from texts from Ebla, Emar, Ugarit and Mari, it is uncertain whether she had an active, official cult anywhere outside Babylonia with the exception of the last of the aforementioned cities, where she is present on offering lists most likely dated to the reign of Yahdun-Lim or earlier.
As the choice of a personal god was often based on profession, Nisaba was a popular object of devotion among scribes. As an extension of this phenomenon, many Sumerian texts end with the formula ""praise Nisaba,"" and some invoke her in the beginning too. Most cylinder seals of scribes from Lagash show a female deity, though it is uncertain if she can be always identified as Nisaba. Other deities commonly attested in personal names of members of this profession include Ninimma (in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods) and Nabu (in the first millennium BCE).


== Mythology ==
In mythological texts Nisaba is portrayed as the scribe and accountant of the gods. Many compositions mention her literacy, with over a half of the references to literacy and numeracy of goddesses in the texts included in the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature referring to her according to a survey conducted by Eleanor Robson. In the myth Enki and the World Order, she is entrusted  by Enki with measuring the land and with overseeing the harvest. In the Kesh Temple Hymn, she is tasked with writing down Enlil's words of praise for the city of Kesh. In this text the process of writing down words on a tablet is described in poetic terms as comparable to making a necklace out of individual beads.
According to various texts Nisaba was believed to be equipped with a lapis lazuli tablet inscribed with ""heavenly writing,"" a term related to poetic comparisons between cuneiform signs and stars. It has also been suggested that it might be connected to the well attested practice of consulting the constellations to determine the best time for cultivation of specific crops.
Nisaba is also mentioned in the myth Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana, in which Sagburu, a native of Eresh described as ""wise woman"" mockingly notes that the antagonist, Urgirinuna from Hamazi, was foolish to think he could engage in sorcery in Nisaba's city. The passage hints at a close bond between Nisaba and her daughter, as Eresh is called ""the beloved city of Ninlil."" While references to goddesses breastfeeding are very rare in Mesopotamian literature, one of the few known exceptions refers to Nisaba and Sud.
Nisaba plays a central role in the myth Enlil and Sud. Much like in other sources, she is represented as a goddess of wisdom and mother of Sud. Enlil, represented unusually as a young bachelor, seeks to gain her permission to marry her daughter. Enlil's sukkal Nuska negotiates with her on his behalf. Nisaba, pleased with the latter's conduct and the gifts he brought for her and Sud, agrees to the proposal, and bestows various blessings on her daughter.
A late Akkadian composition known from Assur and Sultantepe describes a debate between Nisaba and personified wheat. In this text she is called the ""Mistress of the underworld,"" an otherwise unknown association.


== Unicode for the cuneiform sign NAGA ==
Unicode 5.0 encodes the NAGA sign at U+12240 𒉀 (Borger 2003 nr. 293). 
AN.NAGA is read as NANIBGAL, and AN.ŠE.NAGA as NÁNIBGAL. NAGA is read as NÍDABA or NÍSABA, and ŠE.NAGA as NIDABA or NISABA.
The inverted (turned upside down) variant is at U+12241 𒉁 (TEME), and the combination of these, that is the calligraphic arrangement NAGA-(inverted NAGA), read as DALḪAMUN7 ""whirlwind"", at U+12243 𒉃. DALḪAMUN5 is the arrangement AN.NAGA-(inverted AN.NAGA), and DALḪAMUN4 is the arrangement of four instances of AN.NAGA in the shape of a cross.


== References ==


=== Bibliography ===


== External links ==

Enlil and Sud
A Hymn to Nisaba
Senhora tingida como as estrelas celestes (Hino a Nisaba) (Portuguese translation of a hymn to Nisaba, by G. Lentz)"
Italian submarine Perla,"Italian submarine Perla was a Perla-class submarine built for the Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) during the 1930s. She was named after a gemstone Pearl.


== Design and description ==
The Perla-class submarines were essentially repeats of the preceding Sirena class. The modifications that were made compared to the boats of the previous series were mostly of upgrade nature. Among them were enlargement of the false tower at the top, more modern engines, installation of a radiogoniometer that could be controlled from inside the ship. Improvements and the installation of new air conditioning equipment meant a slight increase in displacement, and increase in the fuel stowage also increased the autonomy of these boats compared to the previous series.  Their designed full load displacement was 695 metric tons (684 long tons) surfaced and 855 metric tons (841 long tons) submerged, but varied somewhat depending on the boat and the builder. The submarines were 197 feet 6 inches (60.20 m) long, had a beam of 21 feet (6.4 m) and a draft of 15 feet (4.6 m) to 15 feet 5 inches (4.70 m).
For surface running, the boats were powered by two diesel engines, each driving one propeller shaft with overall power of 675–750 hp (503–559 kW). They could reach 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph) on the surface and 7.5 knots (13.9 km/h; 8.6 mph) underwater. On the surface, the Perla class had a range of 5,200 nautical miles (9,600 km; 6,000 mi) at 8 knots (15 km/h; 9.2 mph), submerged, they had a range of 74 nmi (137 km; 85 mi) at 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph).
The boats were armed with six internal 53.3 cm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes, four in the bow and two in the stern. One reload torpedo was carried for each tube, for a total of twelve. They were also armed with one 100 mm (4 in) deck gun for combat on the surface. The light anti-aircraft armament consisted of one or two pairs of 13.2 mm (0.52 in) machine guns.


== Construction and career ==
Perla was built by CRDA at their shipyard in Monfalcone, laid on 31 August 1935,  launched on 3 May 1936 and completed on 8 July 1936.
After delivery, Perla was assigned to the 35th Squadron (III Submarine group) based at Messina, though she was operating out of Augusta. In the same year, Perla carried out an extensive training cruise that took her to Tobruk, Benghazi, Bardia, Leros, Rhodes, and other ports in the Dodecanese eventually returning to Augusta.  In 1937 she undertook a similar training cruise in the Mediterranean visiting mostly domestic ports returning to Taranto.
In 1938 she was assigned to the Red Sea base of Massawa in Eritrea with the task of testing the submarine performance in warm seas. From 29 December 1938 to 24 January 1939 Perla, together with Glauco, undertook a cruise off the coast of Somalia.
In the spring of 1939 Perla and Gemma performed a cruise in the Indian Ocean to test the performance of the class in terms of sailing and operational capability in warm seas and during the monsoon season. The results were disappointing: it was discovered that stormy sea prevented the use of submarine's armament and made it very difficult even to remain at a periscope depth. There were also reports of malfunctioning air conditioning system, and leaks of chloromethane were reported.
In 1939 she temporarily returned to Italy for repairs and maintenance.
In the summer of 1939 she was involved in testing the effectiveness of a ""bubble-free"" torpedo system which occurred in Naples.  The existing system on Italian submarines released large amounts of air bubbles during torpedo launch, which helped in spotting the torpedoes and the location of the submarine. The tests passed with satisfactory results.
At the time of Italy's entrance into World War II Perla was again in Massawa as part of 82nd Squadron and commanded by captain Mario Pouchain.
According to the initial orders, Perla was supposed to remain in Massawa during the first weeks of the war, but Viceroy Amedeo de Aosta demanded that two additional submarines be deployed in the operations area. Rear Admiral Carlo Balsamo, Massawa Base Commander, agreed to the request and sent out Perla and Archimede. Perla left Massawa on the afternoon of 19 June 1940 to patrol an area in the Gulf of Tadjoura about 15 nautical miles from Ras-El Bir. Perla was supposed to remain at her station until 9 July and attack any enemy ships she came across.
On 20 June an electrician suffered a heat stroke due to the malfunctioning air-conditioning system. The captain ordered inspection and maintenance to be conducted, and the submarine surfaced during the night of 21 June to minimize the risk of poisoning. At dawn, Perla submerged and soon after several crew members fell ill. As time went by, more men became ill, and the ones already suffering started exhibiting signs of chloromethane poisoning, including hallucinations. On 22–23 June Perla patrolled her designated area. On 24 June another submarine returned to Massawa with half of her crew poisoned by chloromethane, and Perla was ordered to return to Massawa immediately to undergo repairs.
Perla turned around during the night of 24 June, but the next day the commander fell sick too, and more than half of the crew was suffering from poisoning. Perla had to go submerged through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, and the temperature inside the boat reached 64 °C. On 26 June a sailor died, and more people became sick. Finally at sunset the submarine surfaced and immediately found herself facing the British sloop HMS Shoreham, which immediately charged at her. The submarine was forced to crash dive and stay at the bottom for a few hours while depth charges were launched by the enemy, but sustained minimal damage.
On the evening of 26 June Perla again surfaced and continued her trip back to Massawa; however, during the night, when she was about 20 miles from Sciab Sciach lighthouse, she ran aground. A message was sent to Massawa, requesting help, and the destroyers Leone and Pantera together with torpedo boat Giovanni Acerbi were dispatched.  Leone had to turn back due to engine failure, and the other two ships had to face a superior enemy group (light cruiser HMNZS Leander and destroyers HMS Kingston and HMS Kandahar) that were heading towards Perla. Kingston, approaching the submarine, opened fire and Perla replied with her gun, but it jammed on the second shot. Captain Pouchain ordered that the ship be abandoned and that all secret documents and codes be destroyed. Only the timely arrival of two Italian air groups (eight SM-81 bombers) saved Perla as they attacked the enemy ships and forced them to flee.
On 15 July a rescue ship arrived from Massawa, and in five days Perla was hastily repaired to bring her into sailable condition. She was subsequently towed to Massawa on 20 July. As soon as she returned to the base, Perla underwent major repairs and remained nonoperational for a long time.
In January 1941, when it became clear that Italian East Africa would eventually fall, it was decided to send submarines to Bordeaux to try to save them from either destruction or capture by the British. Perla as well as other submarines were modified for the journey: her fuel tanks were enlarged, some torpedoes, gun ammunition were removed as well as some non-critical items.
Perla left Massawa on 1 March 1941 under the command of captain Bruno Napp. Just as she departed she was attacked by a British Bristol Blenheim bomber with depth charges but without any success. Perla traveled submerged through the Red Sea and the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait and only surfaced once she reached the Indian Ocean. She traveled south, passing east of Madagascar, where she rendezvoused with Atlantis and got refueled and restocked. Atlantis' skipper, Bernhard Rogge, wrote in his memoirs that, after seeing the small coastal submarine and its emaciated crew, he told the commander, Lt. Bruno Napp, his perplexity about his mission and suggested to him to reach either Brazil or Argentina to be interned; by his account, Napp politely rejected the advice, telling that he would do his utmost to obey his orders, much to Rogge's admiration. Perla then had to travel 4,000 nm until her next meeting with Northmark. She continued her trip north, passing the Cape Verde Islands, then between the Canary Islands and the Azores, and then into the Bay of Biscay and eventually arrived in Bordeaux on 20 May 1941. Overall, Perla covered 13,100 nm in 81 days of navigation.
After four months of repairs at the base, Perla was back in operation. She sailed from Bordeaux on 20 September 1941 to the Mediterranean through the Strait of Gibraltar and on 3 October 1941 arrived in Cagliari.
Perla made her first patrol in the Mediterranean off Cyrenaica from 12 to 23 February 1942.
The submarine made two similar missions, the first one from 29 March to 9 April 1942, and the second from 16 to 28 April 1942. Both were conducted near Crete, southwest of Gaudo.
On 10 May she was deployed to patrol off Kelibia along the Tunisian coast and on the following day Perla sighted HMS Welshman east of the island of La Galite and launched two torpedoes at the target, but they both missed. She returned to the base on 24 May.
On 6 July 1942 Perla under command of captain Gioacchino Ventura, sailed to the area of her operation off Cyprus. In the afternoon of 9 July  she sighted and launched two torpedoes at the British corvette HMS Hyacinth off Beirut, but they both missed. Hyacinth counterattacked with depth charges that eventually caused serious damage to the submarine, forcing her to surface.
The captain ordered the crew to abandon the submarine and open the Kingston valves. Due to damage sustained by the submarine, some of the valves could not be opened, and the submarine was sinking very slowly. A boarding party from Hyacinth boarded Perla, closed the valves and then towed her to Beirut.
The whole crew, except officer Antonio De Maria, who died in the clash, was rescued and then captured by the British.


== Allied service ==

Perla was renamed P-712 and used by the Royal Navy to assess the level of development of Italian submarines. In 1943 she was transferred to the Hellenic Navy, who renamed her Matrozos with a pennant number of Υ-7. She served with the Hellenic Navy until 1947, when she was struck and later scrapped.


== Notes ==


== References ==
Bagnasco, Erminio (1977). Submarines of World War Two. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-962-6.
Chesneau, Roger, ed. (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946. Greenwich, UK: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-146-7.
Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (Third Revised ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-119-2.
Giorgerini, Giorgio (2002). Uomini sul fondo. Storia del sommergibilismo italiano dalle origini ad oggi (Second ed.). Mondadori. ISBN 8804505370.
Pollina, Paolo (1963). I Sommergibili Italiani 1895–1962. Rome, Italy: SMM."
College of St. Scholastica,"The College of St. Scholastica (CSS) is a private Benedictine college in Duluth, Minnesota, United States. It was founded in 1912 by a group of pioneering Benedictine Sisters and enrolled about 3,000 students as of 2023. The college offers a liberal arts education and is located on 186 wooded acres overlooking Lake Superior. Saint Scholastica was a Christian hermit traditionally regarded as the founder of the Benedictine nuns.


== History ==
The College of St. Scholastica owes its existence to the combining of two forces: Benedictine missionaries and the settlement of Duluth. In 1892, Mother Scholastica Kerst and 28 sisters arrived from St. Joseph, Minnesota, to spearhead the establishment of a Benedictine motherhouse and an academy, known as the Sacred Heart Institute, in Duluth.
The school and convent were located at Munger Terrace before growth required a move to a new facility at Third Avenue East and Third Street. Named Sacred Heart Institute, the high school continued to grow rapidly. Duluth's rapid expansion led to another move in 1909 to its present location.
Mother Scholastica's vision for the college can be summed up in this quote attributed to her: ""My dream is that someday there will rise upon these grounds fine buildings like the great Benedictine abbeys. They will be built of stone: within their walls higher education will flourish.""
The school expanded its course offerings in 1912 to include a junior college and changed its name to its current moniker, the College of St. Scholastica. The college started with only six students and 52 courses offered in eight departments in its first year. Academic leadership and research were stressed early as an integral part of the college's commitment to Benedictine values.
In 1924, the college became a four-year liberal arts institute with an enrollment of 68. The school's first baccalaureate degrees were granted in 1926. In 1969, it became a fully coeducational institution.
As a Benedictine institution, the college is affiliated with the Order of Saint Benedict. Its endowment stands at more than $89.9 million.


=== Presidents ===
Agnes Somers, 1924–1942
Athanasius Braegeleman, 1942–1954
Martina Hughes, 1954–1958
Joselyn Baldeschweiler, 1958–1960
Ann Edward Scanlon, 1960–1967
Mary Richard Boo, 1967–1971
F. X. Shea, 1971–1974
Joan Braun, 1974–1975
Bruce Stender, 1975–1981
Daniel Pilon, 1981–1998
Larry Goodwin, 1998–2016
Colette McCarrick Geary, 2016–2019
Barbara McDonald, 2019–present


=== Symbols ===
The shield of the college shows a lily, blooming with three flowers symbolizing the three Persons of the Blessed Trinity. The base of the lily is enclosed by a crescent, the heraldic symbol of the Virgin Mary, and the purity of Christian teaching. Symbolizing the college, a book occupies the center of the field, bearing the motto of St. Scholastica. It is adapted from the second part of the Book of Proverbs line ""Her ways are ways of beauty, and all her paths are peace,"" and reads in Latin, ""Omnes semitae eius pacificae.""


== Campuses ==

In addition to the main campus in Duluth, St. Scholastica has sites in St. Cloud, St. Paul and embedded sites in Brainerd, Austin, Cloquet, Inver Grove Heights, Rochester and a virtual campus.
The Duluth campus is home to most undergraduate students. The 186-acre campus is set on a hill overlooking Lake Superior. Campus buildings include: Tower Hall, the Science Center, Our Lady Queen of Peace Chapel, Burns Wellness Commons, the 500-seat Mitchell Auditorium, the College Library, the St. Scholastica Theatre, Somers Residence Hall, and nine apartment complexes. A new Health Science Center housing graduate health science programs opened for classes in 2016. The building is at 940 Woodland Ave. in the BlueStone development, about a mile from the main campus.


=== Library ===
The college library provides over 350,000 print and electronic books, full-text journal databases, interlibrary loan services, laptops, wireless Internet access, group study rooms, and quiet study space. It is located on the upper floors of the Romanesque-styled Our Lady Queen of Peace Chapel building. Along with the library, the college archives preserves the written and visual history of the college, as well as housing special collections such as the papers of James Franklin Lewis.


=== Tower Hall ===

Tower Hall is St. Scholastica's castle-like central building. Its origins date to a picnic in around 1907, when the Diocese of Duluth's Bishop James McGolrick commented that the top of the hill at the college's current site was a perfect location for a building. According to the historic records of Sister Agnes Somers, McGolrick and a group of students and sisters climbed to the top of the hill and placed a pile of stones, symbolizing the cornerstone of what would eventually become Tower Hall. In 1906, architects Anton Werner Lignell and Frederick German were hired to draw the plans for the school, Villa Sancta Scholastica Academy, and the motherhouse. Mother Scholastica Kerst disapproved of the plans due to potential defects in the building's design, and the two architects were fired from the project in 1908; it was taken over by Franklin Ellerbe. The following year saw the groundbreaking and start of construction for Tower Hall. Its first unit was completed in 1909. That September, 75 students from the Institute of the Sacred Heart were relocated to what was then called Villa St. Scholastica. Tower Hall was completed in 1928, and had two towers, a north to south axis of 375 feet, turrets at each end, recessed fenestration, and Tudor towers flanking the façade.
Sharing the campus are St. Scholastica Monastery, home of the Benedictine Sisters; and the Benedictine Health Center and Westwood Assisted Living Facility, which provide experiences for many of the college's health science and behavioral arts and sciences students.
In September 2012, the college's Centennial year, St. Scholastica opened a 40,000 square-foot addition to its existing 125,000 square-foot Science Center. The addition includes seven laboratories for chemistry and biochemistry, six faculty-undergraduate student research areas, two classrooms for pre-laboratory meetings and general class use, faculty offices, an atrium-style gathering area, a greenhouse, and state-of-the-art environmental and sustainable technologies throughout, including for storage of chemicals and treatment of hazardous waste.


== Academics ==

The college awards bachelor's, master's degrees, and doctoral degrees, and has a student-to-faculty ratio of 14:1. Undergraduate majors include liberal arts and science programs as well as pre-professional programs. Graduate degrees are offered in health professions, education, technology, business, and social work.
All first-year students take part in a program called Dignitas (Dignity). The program's goals are that participants will accept and value the challenges and responsibilities involved in being a first-year college student, reflect on issues from various perspectives, and make connections with the larger community. A combination of course material, co-curricular activities, and common experiences is intended to prepare students for learning both during and after college.
In its 2025 rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked the university's undergraduate program 259th (tied) among 436 national universities.


== Student life ==


=== Campus housing ===
St. Scholastica houses students living on campus in nine buildings. They are:

Cedar Hall Apartments – Opened in 2003. 100 residents. Total square footage 875 sq ft (81.3 m2)/unit.
Kerst Hall – Opened in 2005. 160 students. Total square footage 875 sq ft (81.3 m2)/unit.
Pine, Maple, Willow and Birch Apartments – Nearly identical. Built in 1973, 1989, 1989, and 1990 respectively. 43 residents each. Total square footage 716 sq ft (66.5 m2)/unit.
Scanlon Hall – Opened in 2005. 128 residents. Total square footage 875 sq ft (81.3 m2)/unit.
Somers Hall – Built in 1964. Primarily first-year housing. Population 314 students. Building also houses the Greenview Dining Room, Somers Main Lounge, Office of Residential Life, Health Services, Campus Operator, and a penthouse lounge/study area. Dorms measure 9'3"" x 17'4"" (double room) and 6'5"" x 17'4"" (single-room).
Somers Suites – Built in 1993. Connected to Somers Hall. Four floors. Suites have a square footage of 525 sq ft (48.8 m2). (2 bedroom) or 775 sq ft (72.0 m2). (three-bedroom).


=== Student Government Association ===
The College of St. Scholastica Student Government Association (SGA) is responsible for making decisions and advocating for policy that impacts the student body. The SGA has 40 seats, which include 10 each from the freshman, sophomore, junior and senior classes; as well as representative positions for two graduate students, and two transfer or previously studying-abroad students. SGA officers include the President, Executive Vice President, Financial Vice President, Vice President of Diversity and Inclusion, Chief of Staff, Speaker of the Senate, and Communications Director. The Senate also has three standing committees, which include the Internal Affairs Committee, External Affairs Committee, and Student Affairs Committee. Each standing committee has a chair.


== Athletics ==

The College of St. Scholastica fields 22 athletic teams, including 11 women's (basketball, cross country, Nordic skiing, soccer, softball, indoor track & field, outdoor track & field, hockey, tennis, golf, and volleyball) and 11 men's teams (basketball, cross country, Nordic skiing, soccer, baseball, indoor track & field, outdoor track & field, hockey, football, golf, and tennis). The college's athletic teams are called the Saints. All teams, except Nordic skiing, compete in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, which is part of the NCAA's Division III.


== Notable people ==
Mary Odile Cahoon – Benedictine nun who was among the first women to do research in Antarctica; founded the college's study abroad program in Ireland
Erma Clardy Craven – Prominent African American anti-abortion activist
Mary Olivia Gowan – Benedictine nun and Dean of the Catholic University of America School of Nursing, which she helped to establish
Scott Jurek – class of 1996, American ultramarathon runner
Emily Larson – class of 1995, former mayor of Duluth
Mary Murphy – class of 1961, Minnesota House of Representatives
Don Ness – class of 2014, mayor of Duluth
Michael Paymar – class of 1983, Minnesota House of Representatives
Ellen Pence – class of 1991, leading domestic abuse prevention advocate
Patrick J. Schiltz – class of 1981, U. S. District Judge, District of Minnesota
Kathleen Seefeldt – class of 1956, Chairman of Prince William County, Virginia Board of Supervisors


== See also ==

List of colleges and universities in Minnesota
Higher education in Minnesota


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website 
Athletics website"
Germaine Koh,"Germaine Koh (born 1967) is a Malaysian-born and Canadian conceptual artist based in Vancouver. Her works incorporate the artistic styles of neo-conceptual art, minimalism, and environmental art, and is concerned with the significance of everyday actions, familiar objects and common places.
Koh is an independent curator and partner in the independent record label Weewerk. She also used to be an assistant curator of contemporary art at the National Gallery of Canada.  Her exhibition history includes the Baltic Centre (Newcastle), De Appel (Amsterdam) Archived 23 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal, Para/Site Art Space (Hong Kong), Frankfurter Kunstverein, Bloomberg Space (London), The Power Plant (Toronto), Seoul Museum of Art, Artspace (Sydney), The British Museum (London), the Contemporary Art Gallery (Vancouver), Plug In ICA (Winnipeg), Art Gallery of Ontario (Toronto), and the Liverpool, Sydney and Montréal biennials.


== Early life and education ==
Koh was born in George Town, Malaysia. She emigrated to Canada with her family at the age of two and was raised in Armstrong, British Columbia. Koh received her Bachelor of Fine Arts in studio in 1989 and theory and history of art in 1990 at the University of Ottawa. She later obtained a Master of Fine Arts in 1993 from Hunter College in New York.


== Art career ==
Koh's work draws the use of everyday objects and familiar concepts in order to examine how people interact with those they encounter while moving through the world. For example, her piece ""Call"", is an old telephone in a public space. When the phone is picked up it randomly dials a number of a participant that has agreed to have conversations with strangers at any time of the day.
There isn't a typical ""Germaine Koh"" piece - she utilizes many different materials for every piece she creates, yet each piece encompasses an ideology, perhaps best said by Koh herself in a Rhizome.org interview:

I would characterize my work as a whole as an attempt to be attentive to the poetics of daily life by focusing on those phenomena that shape everyday experience, often slightly below the threshold of notice (and, yes, value)


== Artistic styles and works ==

Koh's work encompasses the artistic styles of conceptual art, environmental art, and minimalism. In an on-going work titled Knitwork (1992-present), Koh unravels used garments and re-knits the materials into one larger and constantly evolving object. This piece demonstrates characteristics of environmental art through Koh's use of recycled materials and the ways in which she turns used and discarded items into a working piece of art. In a similar artwork called Lumber (1991-1994, dispersed 2002), Koh makes use of flexible pieces of recuperated lumber glazed with oil and marine varnish to be installed alongside select architecture. Various projects by Koh are also collaborative or rely on the active participation of its audiences. One example of such works include an art gallery titled ""ad hoc gallery"" which was put on display in collaboration with Geoffrey Brown from 1993-1994.  
An example of one which incorporates its participants into the art piece itself is League, which began in 2012 and is categorized as a ""participatory project"". Koh describes League as ""an open group of people who gather regularly to play sports and games invented or conceived by members of the community ... The project is founded in a belief in the value of emergent behaviour and the process of making sense of things."" Koh emphasizes games, sport, and play as forms of problem-solving which focus on the mental over the physical and the processes of learning, adapting, and evolution through iteration as central to the overall concept of the project.
Koh combines both making use of discarded or found items and active participation in a project called Sightings (1992–1998), which involved the commercial printing and publishing of images found in public as postcards. These postcards closely interacted with the individuals they reached, drawing emphasis on the ideas of making art out of common everyday objects and experiences as well as recognizing the uniqueness of common places.


=== Other projects ===
In addition to her artistic work, Koh is co-founder of the Toronto-based record label and artist-management company Weewerk. She is also an athlete. Koh played varsity volleyball and badminton at the University of Ottawa and is a former captain of roller derby team the Terminal City All-Stars. Her interest in the relationship between creativity and athleticism resulted in the creation of The Koh-Verchere Award for Athletic and Creative Excellence, an Emily Carr University of Art and Design student award, and the establishment of Vancouver's League. Koh was part of the design team for the No. 2 Road North Drainage Pump Station in Richmond B.C., which was awarded the Public Works Association of British Columbia 2018 Project of the Year award. In 2018, Koh became the first artist-in-residence in the City of Vancouver engineering department.


== Solo exhibitions ==
Crowd Shyness, Morris and Helen Belkin Gallery, Vancouver, 17 July – 16 August 2020
Home Made Home, Evergreen Cultural Centre, 14 September – 4 November 2018
Home Made Home, Richmond Art Gallery, 17 June – 26 August 2018, Curated by Nan Caponga.
Home Made Home, Kelowna Art Gallery, Kelowna BC, Curator: Liz Wylie.
Lively Objects: Enchantment and Disruption, Museum of Vancouver, 16 August 2015
FUSE, Vancouver Art Gallery, 29 November 2013
Culture + Community Symposium, Vancouver, 26 October 2013
Germaine Koh: Weather Systems, Kamloops Art Gallery, Kamloops 6 April to 15 June 2013
Germaine Koh - Knitwork; Germaine Koh/Gordon Hicks - There|Here, Galerie B-312, Montreal 2012
The Haunting, Invaliden 1 Galerie, Berlin, 2010
Fallow, Charles H Scott Gallery, Vancouver BC, Feb-Mar 2009
Germaine Koh, Catriona Jeffries Gallery, Vancouver BC, Apr-May 2008
Overflow, Centre A, Vancouver BC, Jan-Feb 2007
Germaine Koh: Call and Relay, Video Pool, Winnipeg MB, Oct-Nov 2007
Germaine Koh, Ottawa Art Gallery, Ottawa ON, Aug-Oct 2006
Relay: an intervention into the fabric of the Baltic building, Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, July - September 2005
Marks and Relay, Tate Biennial, Tate Liverpool, Liverpool, England, 2004
Germaine Koh: about around, Gallery One One One, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba 30 November 2001 - 11/12 January 2002
Germaine Koh, Contemporary Art Gallery, Vancouver 5 May 2001 - 15 July 2001
Germaine Koh: Shell, Catriona Jeffries Gallery, Vancouver, BC, Jan-Feb 2005.
Angel Row Gallery, Knitwork, Sep-Nov 2005. PDF
Germaine Koh: Shell, Para/Site Art Space, Hong Kong, 2004
Germaine Koh: Opening Hours, McMaster Museum of Art, Hamilton, ON, 2002.
Germaine Koh, Catriona Jeffries Gallery, Vancouver, BC, Apr-Jun 2002.
Knitwork, The British Museum, London, UK, Feb-Apr 2002. Performance/installation related to conference ""From Material Things: art and artefact in the 21st century"". Curator: James Putnam & Gabriela Salgado.
Germaine Koh: Around/About, Contemporary Art Gallery,  Germaine Koh, Vancouver, BC, May-Jul 2001. Curator: Keith Wallace.
Solo Exhibition,  Watch, Toronto, ON, 5-7 Feb 2001. Curator: Barr Gilmore.
Southern Alberta Art Gallery, Germaine Koh: Knitwork, 1997.
Knitwork, 1996.
Knitwork, 1995.
Knitwork/Tricot-âge, Sep-Nov 1993.


== Group exhibitions ==
Soundings: An Exhibition in Five Parts, Morris and Helen Belkin Art Gallery, 8 September – 6 December 2020.
City of Vancouver Engineering Artist in Residence, 2018–2020.
Split Between the I and the Gaze, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, 24 August – 1 December 2019.
Public Volumes. Small Arms Inspection Building, Mississauga, 2019. Curator: Noa Bronstein.
Kuenstlerhaus Palais Thurn & Taxis, Silvrett Atelier Montafon 2018. Bregenz AT, 2019.
'Afterlives, Or Gallery, 25 November 2017- 3 February 2018
'Persistence, Vancouver Art Gallery, 24 June 2017- 1 October 2017
This is it with it as it is, group exhibition at AHVA Gallery, 23 November 2016- 14 January 2017
(im)mobile exhibition, Haus für Kunst Uri, 5 March – 15 May 2016
(im)mobile, two-person show with Edith Flückiger, Dalhousie Art Gallery, Curator: Mireille Bourgeois & Chantal Molleur 17 October – 30 November 2014
Les matins infidèles: l'art du protocole, Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Curator: Bernard Larmarche November 2013- September 2014
Scotiabank Nuit Blanche one A: Restaging the Encounter, Curator: Candice Hopkins, City of Toronto, 5 October 2013
There/Here: Germain Koh and Gordon Hicks, Surrey Art Gallery, Surrey, BC, 2011. Participants: with Gordon Hicks. Curator: Jordan Strom.
Sorting Daemons: Art, Surveillance Regimes & Social Control, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, ON, Jan-loApr 2010. Participants: with Ian Verchere. Curator: Jan Allen & Sarah E.K. Smith.
Luminato Festival of Arts + Creativity,  Luminato Festival 2009, Toronto, ON, Jun 2009.
How Soon Is Now, Vancouver Art Gallery, Vancouver, BC, Feb-May 2009. Curator: Kathleen Ritter.
Here Now or Nowhere, Prairie Art Gallery, Grande Prairie, AB, Jan 2009. Art in public places. Curator: Micah Lexier.
Schematic: New Media Art from Canada, [space], London, UK, Nov-Dec 2008. Curator: Michelle Kasprzak, Gillian McIver & Heather Corcoran.
All Together Now: Recent Toronto Art, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, ON, Nov 2008-Spring 2009. Installation of works from the permanent collection. Curator: Michelle Jacque
Untethered, eyebeam, New York, Sep-Oct 2008. Curator: Sarah Cook
This Particular Day of June, Or Gallery, Vancouver, BC, May-Jun 2008.  Curator: Jonathan Middleton.
On Being An Exhibition, Artists Space , New York, Oct-Dec 2007. Curator: Joseph del Pesco
Ingenuity Festival,  Ingenuity Festival 2007, Cleveland, OH, 2007. Curator: Steve Dietz
f.city, Folly, Lancaster, UK, Sep-Oct 2006.
2004 Sobey Art Award Exhibition, Mackenzie Art Gallery, Regina, SK, Jul-Sep 2006.
Territory, Artspeak and Presentation House Gallery, Vancouver, BC, Jun-Aug 2006.Curator: Melanie O'Brian & Helga Pakasaar.
Temporary Import / Vorübergehende Einfuhr, Art Forum Berlin, Berlin, Sep 2005. Curator: Susanne Titz.
2004 Sobey Art Award Exhibition, Museum of Contemporary Canadian Art, Toronto, ON, Sep-Nov 2005
2004 Sobey Art Award Exhibition, Art Gallery of Greater Victoria, Victoria, BC, Jul-Aug 2005.
L'envers des apparences, Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Summer 2005. Curator: Gilles Godmer.
2004 Sobey Art Award Exhibition, Yukon Arts Centre, Whitehorse, YK, Mar-May 2005.
2004 Sobey Art Award, Art Gallery of Nova Scotia, Exhibition, Halifax, NS, Oct-Dec 2004.
Sense, Edmonton Art Gallery (now Art Gallery of Alberta),  Edmonton, AB, Sep-Nov 2004. Curator: Catherine Crowston.
Entre ciel et terre - Biennale nationale de sculpture contemporaine 2004, Galerie d'Art du Parc, Trois-Rivières, QC, Jun-Aug 2004. Curator: Gaston St-Pierre.


== Personal life ==
Koh has 25 years of leadership with non-profit organizations. She has been coaching roller derby since 2010. In 2015, Koh established the program for a new competitive team, the Terminal City B-Sides.
She was the Chef de Mission of Team Canada Roller Derby from 2017 to 2018, where she was responsible for the team's strategic vision and organizational development.
Koh has a multi-sport background which includes five years of experience playing for the varsity badminton team at the University of Ottawa. She also played roller derby for five years under the derby name ""PLAYER 1"" before captaining the Terminal City All-Stars.


== Legacy and influence ==
The project by Koh and Geoffrey Brown titled ""ad hoc gallery"" received a review from Gunter Nolte, Visual Arts Department Head at University of Ottawa, as he comments ""They are making an enormous contribution to the community art scene. They are so committed they finance the gallery from their own jobs."" An aspect of the City of Vancouver's engineering art residence is bringing the community together to determine what they would like to see happen for buildings, pipes, public spaces, and also demolitions. An example of this would be the ""sewer time capsule"" which was created 13 July 2019. This brought together members of the community to paint on a pipe that was then used as sewer upgrades in the area which would stay in use for the next hundred years. Koh herself said ""The community can always feel like they had a little part to play in the infrastructure that lies below their street, and it's a concrete connection with sewer works that also serves to demystify infrastructure.""


== Awards ==
In 2004, Koh was a finalist for the Sobey Art Award and in 2010 she won a VIVA Award in recognition of her outstanding achievement as a mid-career artist in British Columbia.
Awarded the 2023 Governor General's Award in Visual and Media Arts for Artistic Achievement.


== Publications ==
Germaine Koh (2001), Germaine Koh and Keith Wallace, Contemporary Art Gallery (Vancouver, BC). ISBN 9780920751800
Germaine Koh/Stall (2004), Germaine Koh, Para/Site Art Space (Hong Kong).
Overflow: Germaine Koh (2007), Germaine Koh, Centre A - Vancouver International Centre for Contemporary Asian Art (Vancouver, BC). ISBN 9780973271157
Opening hours: Germaine Koh (2002) Steven Reinke and Rosemary Heather, McMaster Museum of Art (Hamilton). ISBN 9781894088367


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Cook, Sarah; Miessen, Markus; Koh, Germaine (2013). Germaine Koh: Weather Systems. [Kamloops, British Columbia]: Kamloops Art Gallery. ISBN 9781895497816. OCLC 829422055.
Kingwell, Mark (2008). Opening Gambits: Essays on Art and Philosophy. Toronto: Key Porter Books. pp. 116–117. ISBN 978-1-55470-073-8.


== External links ==
Official website"
Perth Rectangular Stadium,"Perth Rectangular Stadium (also known as HBF Park under naming rights) is a sports stadium in Perth, the capital of the Australian state of Western Australia. Located close to Perth's central business district, the stadium currently has a maximum capacity of 20,500 people for sporting events and 25,000 people for concerts, with the ground's record attendance of 32,000 people set during an Ed Sheeran concert in 2015.
The land on which the stadium was built, known as Loton Park, was made a public reserve in 1904, with the main ground developed several years later. From 1910 until 2003, it was known as Perth Oval and was the home ground of the East Perth Football Club in the West Australian Football League (WAFL). It hosted several of the competition's grand finals during that time. In 2004, the ground was redeveloped, altering it from an oval field to a rectangular field.
The ground is currently home to two major professional sporting clubs: Perth Glory FC, a soccer team competing in the A-League, and the Western Force, a rugby union team playing in the Super Rugby Pacific competition. It will also be home to the Perth Bears, a rugby league team entering the National Rugby League in 2027.
The ground is also used for concerts


== Current use ==
The stadium is currently used for hosting sports events and concerts.


=== Sport ===
In sports mode the stadium has a capacity of around 20,500. Soccer club Perth Glory has played at the ground since 1996. The stadium is unusual among modern Australian stadiums for having a standing terrace at the northern end of the ground, called 'The Shed'.
The ground has hosted rugby union team Western Force since 2010. The Force's move to the stadium led to a minor redevelopment of facilities at the ground, including an increase in capacity and improved lighting.
For 2008 the stadium hosted WA Reds home matches in the Bundaberg Red Cup.
Since 2009, there have been annual NRL games played at the oval, generally as South Sydney Rabbitohs home games, with the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles joining in 2016. The stadium has housed the administrative facilities of the Western Australia Rugby League since 2003. The stadium will become the home ground of the newly formed NRL team the Perth Bears from 2027.
In 2015, the stadium hosted a 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier between Australia and Bangladesh, the first A-international in Perth in over a decade.
The stadium was one of the host venues for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup.


=== Concerts ===
The capacity for concerts is now over 25,000. A record 32,000 crowd attended the Ed Sheeran concert in 2015.


== History ==


=== Early history ===
The land on which the stadium is built was known as Loton's Paddock after the previous owner William Loton, Lord Mayor of Perth. The paddock had been reclaimed from part of Stone's Lake, which was part of a lake system known as The Great Lakes District which included Lake Monger and Herdsman Lake.
Loton sold the land to the City of Perth in 1904 with the purpose of providing recreation for the residents of the area. After the 2004 redevelopment, part of the ground reverted to public open space and the original name, Loton Park was re-applied, to honour Loton, and Yoordgoorading, the Noongar name for the former lake.
Lacrosse was one of the main sports played on the oval from the early 1900s to the 1940s, being the home of the WA Lacrosse Association during this time. Australian rules football was also occasionally played on the oval from 1905.
In the early 1930s large white entry gates were built on the north west corner of the ground. These have since been heritage listed.


=== Soccer ===

Soccer was an early tenant at Loton Park, playing regular matches as early as 1903, when over 2,000 spectators attended a Charity Cup match between Olympic FC and Civil Service.
In 1905 the land was offered to the Western Australian British Football Association for £2,000, equivalent to A$337,400 in 2022, but the asking price was considered too high.
The venue was the scene of a humiliation in 1927 when the WA state team were thrashed 11–3 by Bohemians, a team representing Czechoslovakia.
Prior to the 2004 redevelopment, the venue was oval-shaped and, when Perth Glory entered the National Soccer League (NSL) in 1996, temporary stands were moved on to the pitch to get supporters closer to the action. After playing in these conditions for four years, it became apparent that the Glory would need their own rectangular stadium and, after Glory's proposed redevelopment of Leederville Oval was rejected, the Town of Vincent completely overhauled the ground into a rectangular stadium.
The venue hosted the 2014 W-League semi-final and grand final matches involving Perth Glory Women.
2015 saw the return of the Australia national soccer team to Perth after a 10-year absence, with a 5–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier win against Bangladesh on 3 September, in front of a 19,495-strong crowd. The following year on 1 September the Socceroos returned for another World Cup qualifier against Iraq, with 18,923 in attendance. The stadium was due to host a 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Kuwait in 2020 however unfortunately the COVID-19 pandemic meant that this did not go ahead. In 2024, the stadium will host a 2026 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Palestine.
Perth Rectangular Stadium was selected to host several group stage matches of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup. The venue received a $32 million upgrade before the tournament, which included new LED floodlighting, upgrades of player and media facilities, pitch improvements, new player races and bench areas, and additional temporary seating for spectators.


==== Men's international soccer ====


==== Women's international soccer ====


===== 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup =====
The venue hosted five group stage matches of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup.


===== 2024 AFC Women's Olympic Qualifying Tournament =====
Perth hosted six international matches over three match days as part of the second round of Asian qualifiers for the Paris 2024 Olympic Games. Perth Rectangular Stadium was originally scheduled to host all three match days however the second match day involving matches between Philippines and Australia, and Iran and Chinese Taipei was moved to larger capacity Perth Stadium due to strong demand.


===== 2026 AFC Women's Asian Cup =====


=== Australian rules football ===

Australian rules football club East Perth Football Club moved to Perth Oval from Wellington Square in 1910, and played at the ground until 1999 except in 1940 due to a dispute with the Perth City Council over rents, and in 1988 and 1989 when the WAFL attempted an unsuccessful move to the WACA. After the Royals played their last match at the ground, they permanently moved away in 2003.
In 1956 the F.D. Book Stand was built as part of East Perth Football Club's golden jubilee celebrations. It was named after administrator Fred Book, who was instrumental in ensuring Perth Oval stayed as a sporting ground during World War II.
The ground was briefly used as a home base for East Perth's WAFL rivals West Perth and Perth. Six West Australian Football League Grand Finals were played at Perth Oval, the first being in 1912 and the last in 1935.


=== Cricket ===
The venue was home to Western Australian Grade Cricket teams North Perth and University. North Perth played at the oval between 1910 and 1975 and University between 1913 and 1929.


=== Rugby union ===
Rugby was played at the venue as early as 1905.
The ground has occasionally been used by the Western Australian Rugby Union to host state league finals matches at least as far back as 1940.
Perth Spirit played at the venue during the 2007 Australian Rugby Championship.
Perth Rectangular Stadium has been the home of the Western Force since 2010.


=== Rugby league ===
Rugby league has been an annual fixture at Perth Rectangular Stadium since 2009, with South Sydney Rabbitohs hosting a home game once a season until 2017 with the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles joining them for 2016 and 2017. The biggest crowds have occurred in games involving the New Zealand Warriors. It was announced in January 2016 that the stadium would host Perth's first rugby league test match between the Australian Kangaroos and the New Zealand Kiwis on 15 October 2016.
The venue hosted the 2017 Rugby League World Cup and the 2020 NRL Nines.
List of rugby league test matches played at Perth Rectangular Stadium.

The first game played at the venue was in the 1997 Super League season. The Perth-based Western Reds moved their round 4 game against the Canterbury Bulldogs to the oval due to the unavailability of their usual home ground, the WACA. On that occasion the Reds won 36–6 in what was the venue's smallest rugby league attendance (until 2017) of 7,135.


==== NRL games ====


=== Record attendances ===
The record crowd for the ground is 32,000 for the Ed Sheeran concert on 2 December 2015, overtaking the previous record of just under 32,000 for the Foo Fighters concert earlier that year.
The record sport attendance is 27,473, for an interstate Australian football match between Western Australia and Victoria on 6 July 1929 – which was at the time the record football crowd in Western Australian history. The highest crowd for a club match was 26,760 for the 31 May 1969 derby Australian football match between East Perth and West Perth.
The record soccer crowd for a match at the ground is 19,495, for a 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier between the Socceroos and Bangladesh, bettering the previous record of 18,067 in the 1998–99 NSL season game between Perth Glory and South Melbourne FC.
The record rugby union crowd at the venue prior to the 2012–13 redevelopment is an estimated 22,000 in a Super Rugby 2011 Season game between the Western Force and Crusaders on 30 April 2011.
The record sports crowd at the venue since the 2012–13 redevelopment is 20,727 in a 2015 NRL season game between the South Sydney Rabbitohs and New Zealand Warriors on 6 June 2015.


== Music ==

Perth Rectangular Stadium has been the venue of major music concerts, including:

Additionally, in September 2020 Tame Impala performed on the pitch in the empty park amid the COVID-19 pandemic in promotion of EA Sports FIFA 21.


== See also ==
List of soccer stadiums in Australia
Lists of stadiums


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website 
Perth Rectangular Stadium at Austadiums"
History of Aston Villa F.C. (1961–present),"The history of Aston Villa Football Club from 1961 to the current season covers the fluctuating fortunes of the club during the 1960s and 1970s, the European Cup victory in 1982 and the present day Premier League club.
The late 1960s was a turbulent time for the club. The problems began when the club, under manager Dick Taylor, was relegated from the first tier of English football for the third time in 1967. Within two years, pressure from supporters led to the resignation of the board of directors. The club was then relegated to the Third Division. In the 1971–72 season, Aston Villa returned to the Second Division as champions with a record 70 points. In 1974 Ron Saunders was appointed manager, and by 1975 he led the club back into the First Division and into European competition. It continued to have much success under Saunders, winning the league in the 1980–81 season. Saunders' resignation halfway through the 1981–82 season came as a surprise, with the club in the quarter-final of the European Cup. He was replaced by his assistant manager Tony Barton who guided them to 1–0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam. However, winning the cup marked a pinnacle, and the club fell steadily down the League standings over the next five years and was relegated in 1987. The club was promoted the following year, and achieved second place in the Football League in 1989 under manager Graham Taylor.
Villa was one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992 and finished runners-up to Manchester United in the inaugural season. The 1990s was a decade of inconsistency; the club had three different managers, and league positions were unpredictable, despite winning two League Cups. They reached the FA Cup Final for the first time since 1957 in 2000, but lost 1–0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium. Villa's league position continued to fluctuate under various managers and, in the summer of 2006, David O'Leary left under acrimonious circumstances. Martin O'Neill arrived to a rapturous reception from team supporters. After 23 years as chair and largest shareholder, owning approximately 38% of the club, Doug Ellis decided to sell his stake to Randy Lerner, the owner of the NFL franchise Cleveland Browns. The arrival of a new owner and manager marked the start of sweeping changes throughout the club, including a new crest, a new kit sponsor and new players in the summer of 2007.
2007–08 saw Villa qualify for the Intertoto Cup. In the 2008–09 season they reached the group stage of the UEFA Cup for the first time in seven years. The first major final of the Randy Lerner era was the 2010 Football League Cup Final; Villa lost 2–1 to Manchester United. Martin O’Neill resigned before the 2010–11 season and was replaced by Gérard Houllier. After suffering from health problems, he was replaced by the former Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish. His contract was terminated at the end of the 2011–12 season after the team narrowly avoided relegation. On 28 February 2012, the club announced a financial loss of £53.9 million. Paul Lambert replaced McLeish in July 2012. Lerner put the club up for sale on 12 May 2014, with an estimated value of £200 million. In the 2014–15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games, the lowest in Premier League history, and Lambert was sacked in February 2015. Tim Sherwood replaced him and saved Villa from relegation in the 2014–15 season taking them to the 2015 FA Cup Final. He was fired in October 2015 and replaced by Rémi Garde who left in March 2016 with the club rooted in the bottom of the table. They were relegated from the Premier League on 16 April. In June 2016, Chinese businessman Tony Xia bought the club for £76 million. Roberto Di Matteo was appointed manager and was replaced shortly by Steve Bruce. In the 2017–18 season Villa lost the 2018 EFL Championship play-off final at Wembley Stadium. In July 2018 Aston Villa were sold by Xia to Nassef Sawiris and Wes Edens. They sacked Bruce and appointed Dean Smith, who led the team back to the Premier League with victory in the 2019 EFL Championship play-off final.


== Instability ==
Winning the League Cup in 1961 was a pinnacle for the club. Although Villa finished seventh in 1961–62, the following season saw the beginning of a decline in form that would see them finish in 15th place in 1963 and fourth from the bottom in 1964. Manager Joe Mercer parted company with the club in July 1964 because of these results and his declining health. His replacement, Dick Taylor, managed to avoid relegation in the 1964–65 season as Villa finished 16th after a poor start to the season. The following year Villa finished 16th once again. Following a 4–2 final day defeat by Everton the club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1966–67 season. Dick Taylor was sacked, and Tommy Cummings was appointed in his place. The decline was not solely the responsibility of the manager; the club had an ageing five-man board ""who had failed to adapt to the new football reality"". The club had neither developed a scouting network nor an effective coaching structure. The board had also sold two of Villa's best players, Phil Woosnam and Tony Hateley. The fans' calls for the board to resign became more and more pronounced when Villa finished 16th in the Second Division in 1968.
Events on the pitch came to a head in November 1968. With Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two, the board sacked Cummings. On 21 November 1968 the problems in the boardroom were highlighted when board member George Robinson resigned. Following his resignation, the board issued a statement: ""[The board] would make available, by their resignation, such seats as new financial arrangements might require"". Aston Villa F.C. was up for sale. After much speculation London financier Pat Matthews bought control of the club. He brought in local travel agent Doug Ellis as chair of the new board that was convened on 16 December 1968. Two days later Tommy Docherty was appointed as manager.


== Rebuilding ==
Docherty rebuilt confidence in the team, and Villa went on to win five consecutive games and retained a place in the Second Division. In the short time that Docherty had been at the club, attendances rose significantly from a low of just over 12,000 against Charlton Athletic in December. In the summer of 1969 the first share issue since 1896 raised £200,000 for the club, £140,000 of which was spent on new players. In the following season, however, Villa took ten games to register a win. By Christmas 1969, they were at the bottom of the Second Division, and Docherty was sacked. His successor, Vic Crowe, was unable to prevent the team from being relegated to the third tier of English football for the first time in its history in the 1969–70 season. Despite finishing fourth in the Third Division in the 1970–71 season, Villa reached the League Cup final after beating Manchester United in the semi-final. They were defeated in the final by Tottenham Hotspur 2–0. The 1971–72 season saw the club return to the Second Division as champions with a then divisional record 70 points. They were invited to take part in the 1972 FA Charity Shield but lost 1–0 to Manchester City. In the autumn of 1972, there was a revolt in the boardroom, and four of the five directors voted to oust Doug Ellis from the board. Within 43 days though, Ellis was reinstated as chair after he had received the support of the largest shareholder Pat Matthews, and supporters at an extraordinary general meeting who voted to replace the existing directors. Their first season back in the Second Division in 1972–73 saw Villa narrowly miss out on a second successive promotion when they finished third. However, the following season Villa finished 14th and Ellis sacked Crowe, replacing him with Ron Saunders.
For the club's centenary season of 1974–75, Saunders brought in only two new players, Frank Carrodus and Leighton Phillips. At the end of his first season in charge, Villa were back in the First Division after finishing second, and won the 1975 League Cup final at Wembley Stadium. Villa beat Norwich City 1–0 with Ray Graydon scoring the winning goal. At the beginning of the 1975–76 season Doug Ellis resigned as chair but remained on the board. Ellis left the club in a good position on the field. They were in the First Division and the UEFA Cup for the first time due to the League Cup win of 1975. The club's first season of European football was short-lived as they were beaten 5–1 by Antwerp in the first round. In the following season, Villa finished fourth in the League and reached the quarter-finals of the FA Cup. In the 1976–77 season, two years after their last League Cup win, they beat Everton 3–2 in the 1977 Final after a second replay.


== League and European victories ==

In the 1977–78 season Villa reached the quarter-final of the UEFA Cup where they went out 4–3 on aggregate against Barcelona. In the domestic league, however, they struggled, and Saunders started rebuilding the team. As he began the restructuring in the summer of 1979, there were more changes in the boardroom. Doug Ellis tabled a resolution to have several directors removed from the board. It was unsuccessful, and Ellis resigned from the board. Meanwhile, Saunders signed several new players who were to become some of Villa's most prolific players in terms of goals and appearances. Allan Evans, Ken McNaught and Kenny Swain were brought into the defence, and Des Bremner was brought into the midfield to play alongside Dennis Mortimer and Gordon Cowans. Tony Morley and Gary Shaw were the new strike partnership. When Peter Withe was signed from Newcastle United in the summer of 1980, Saunders had built a team that saw much success over the next few years.
Its first success was in the 1980–81 season. Villa won their first League Championship in 71 years, fighting off competition from Liverpool and Ipswich Town using only 14 playing staff in the season. The title was sealed the last day of Villa's season when they lost 2–0 at Arsenal but still finished top as Ipswich Town, the only side still in contention for the title, lost to Middlesbrough. This triumph was popularly known as the ""transistor championship"" as Villa fans had turned up at the game listening to the progress of the Ipswich game on their Transistor radios.
The following season Villa did not start well and were in mid-table at Christmas, although the club was still in the European Cup. In the first round Villa beat Valur 7–0 on aggregate. In the second round they scored twice at BFC Dynamo to achieve a 2–2 draw, which saw them go through due to the away goals rule. These victories contrasted with their poor performance in the league. By February 1982, the club were lying 19th in the First Division and Saunders resigned. It was later disclosed that the then chair, Ron Bendall, had offered him a revised, short-term contract, which he had refused to accept. Saunders' assistant Tony Barton was promoted in his place. When Barton took over, although Villa were in a poor league position, they were in the quarter-final of the European Cup. In the quarter-finals, they beat Dynamo Kiev over two legs. Gordon Cowans is quoted as saying, ""Once we got past Dynamo Kiev we began thinking we could go all the way."" In the semi-final, they played Anderlecht over two legs, with Tony Morley scoring to secure Aston Villa's place in the final.


== European Champions and subsequent decline ==

On 26 May 1982, just three months after being appointed manager, Barton guided Villa to a 1–0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam. As of November 2020, Villa remain one of only five English teams to have won the European Cup, along with Chelsea, Liverpool, Manchester United and Nottingham Forest. They were the underdogs in the final and were expected to lose.
The final was held in Feyenoord Stadium, Rotterdam, with an attendance of 39,776. Only nine minutes into the game, Villa lost their experienced goalkeeper Jimmy Rimmer to a shoulder injury. He was replaced by 23-year-old reserve goalkeeper Nigel Spink, who had only played one match for the club in five years since joining from Chelmsford. Spink made one of his best performances for the club against the highly experienced Bayern strike force, which included Karl-Heinz Rummenigge. Other key players in this Villa side included Tony Morley, Gordon Cowans and Dennis Mortimer.
The win was not followed with more success, and the team performed badly in the following seasons. At the annual general meeting in October 1982, it was revealed that the club were £1.6 million in debt, mainly due to escalating wages and building costs, including the construction of the North Stand. At the end of November Ron and Donald Bendall resigned from the board to be replaced by Doug Ellis, who bought Ron Bendall's 42% shareholding. In January 1983, Villa beat Barcelona 3–1 on aggregate to win the 1982 UEFA Super Cup. Barton remained in charge for two seasons after the European Cup triumph, but was sacked at the end of the 1983–84 season, despite Villa finishing tenth in the First Division and reaching the semi-finals of the League Cup. Shrewsbury Town manager Graham Turner was brought in as his successor. He was unable to reverse the decline, and in 1986 Villa narrowly avoided relegation to the Second Division. A lacklustre start to the following season saw Turner sacked halfway through September. Billy McNeill was hired in his place but was unable to save Villa from relegation. They were relegated to the Second Division just five years after winning the European Cup. McNeill handed in his notice and moved to Celtic when the season ended. Ellis persuaded Watford manager Graham Taylor to take over the reins and set about rebuilding the team.


== Taylor, Vengloš and Atkinson ==

Taylor's first season at Villa ended with automatic promotion as Second Division runners-up, being pipped to the title by Millwall. One player who contributed to that season's success was the recently signed David Platt, a former Manchester United reserve who had signed from Crewe Alexandra for £200,000 just after Taylor's arrival. Before he left in 1991, Platt scored 68 goals in his 155 appearances for the club. Villa avoided relegation the last day of the 1988–89 season as other results favoured them. In the 1989–90 season they emerged as surprise contenders for the title, leading for three weeks in the latter stages of the season before finishing in second place, nine points behind Liverpool. Taylor departed for the England manager's job and was succeeded by Slovak coach Jozef Vengloš, the first foreign manager in the First Division.
The 1990–91 season was Vengloš's only season as manager of Aston Villa. Their second-place finish the previous season earned them qualification for the UEFA Cup as one of the first English clubs to enter European competition after the ban resulting from the Heysel Stadium disaster was lifted. They beat first round opponents Baník Ostrava over two legs, and won the first leg of the second round tie against Inter Milan. However, this lead was overturned by Inter in the return leg 3–0 and Villa were eliminated. The defeat started a decline, and by the end of the season they were two places above the relegation zone. Vengloš stepped down and David Platt was sold to Italian side Bari for £5 million. The team's new manager was Ron Atkinson, who had taken West Bromwich Albion to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup and had won the League Cup with Sheffield Wednesday. In his first season in charge, 1991–92, Villa finished in sixth place and thus became one of the founder members of the FA Premier League.


== Villa in the Premiership ==

In his first 18 months in charge, Atkinson bought Earl Barrett, Dean Saunders, Andy Townsend, Dalian Atkinson, Kevin Richardson, Ray Houghton and Shaun Teale. They helped the club to finish as runners-up to Manchester United in the inaugural Premier League season of 1992–93. The strike partnership of Saunders and Atkinson established itself as one of the most successful partnerships in the Premiership. On 27 March 1994 Villa won the League Cup final 3–1, to secure a second successive UEFA Cup campaign, although their Premier League form dipped and they finished 10th. At the end of the 1993–94 season, they played their last game at a terraced Villa Park before it was converted over the summer to an all-seater stadium to comply with the Taylor Report. In November 1994, Atkinson was dismissed following a poor start to the season.
Leicester City's manager Brian Little was forbidden to speak to Aston Villa by his board, after rumours began circulating that Ellis wanted to hire him. Although maintaining he had not spoken to Ellis about the possibility of taking over at Villa, Little resigned from his post at Leicester even though he was contracted to the club until the end of the 1997–98 season. Three days after his resignation, Ellis hired him as the new Villa manager. Little kept Villa in the Premiership, and then reshaped the squad in the 1995 close-season by selling most of the club's older players and buying several younger ones. Villa won the 1996 League Cup with a win over Leeds United, reached the FA Cup semi-finals, and finished fourth in the Premiership in the 1995–96 season. In February 1998, with Villa standing 15th in the Premiership, and speculation rife that he would be sacked, Little resigned, stating that, ""There were certain things going on behind the scenes which were affecting my own managerial position."" Ellis came out with a statement directly challenging that it had anything to do with the management at Villa Park. Instead, he suggested it was due to a ""variety of pressures"" including abuse directed towards Little and his family by irate fans.

Ellis appointed John Gregory, a former Aston Villa coach, as Little's successor. He revitalised the team, and Villa finished seventh in the Premiership and qualified for the UEFA Cup. Usually, only the top six teams qualified for European competition, but due to the progress of other teams in the top seven it was the first time that a seventh placed club had automatically qualified for the UEFA Cup. Despite the £12.6 million sale of Dwight Yorke, a player who had scored 97 goals in 287 appearances for the club, to Manchester United in August 1998, John Gregory had guided Aston Villa to the top of the Premiership by the middle of the 1998–99 season. Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 for the first time since 1957, but lost 1–0 to Chelsea in the last final played at the old Wembley Stadium. The 2000–01 season saw Villa finish eighth in the Premiership, although they did eventually qualify for the UEFA Cup by winning the Intertoto Cup in August 2001. In November 2001, Gregory accused Ellis of ""living in a time-warp"" but was forced to apologise a few days later after provoking an uproar. While Gregory remained in his job, the relationship between the two was strained. Gregory resigned on 24 January 2002, with Villa occupying a familiar mid-table position in the league.
In January 2002, Ellis once again appointed Graham Taylor as manager. Villa finished the 2001–02 season in eighth place, which was similar to most of their other Premiership finishes. Taylor quit as manager for the second time after the end of the 2002–03 season. Villa had just finished 16th in the Premiership, losing twice to arch rivals Birmingham City. David O'Leary, who had taken Leeds United to the semi-finals of the 2000–01 Champions League, was brought in as Taylor's replacement. He took the team to sixth in the table, with a 2–0 home defeat against Manchester United on the final day meaning that they narrowly missed out on a UEFA Cup place. In 2005–06, Villa slowly fell down the table and finished in 16th place. The poor placing came despite O'Leary having spent more than £13 million the previous summer on players like as Milan Baroš, Kevin Phillips and Wilfred Bouma.
Frustration within the club soon reared its head when, on 14 July 2006, a group of Villa players criticised Ellis's alleged parsimony and lack of ambition in an interview with a local newspaper. The club immediately dismissed the report as ""ridiculous"", but it emerged over the following few days that a group of senior players had indeed instigated the move, possibly with O'Leary's backing. The following week, O'Leary left the club by mutual consent after three years as Aston Villa manager and his assistant Roy Aitken became caretaker manager.


== Lerner era ==

At a press conference on 4 August 2006, Doug Ellis introduced Martin O'Neill as the new manager. O'Neill described his position as a ""fantastic challenge"" saying he wanted ""to restore [the team] to its days of former glory"".
After several years of speculation and failed bids, the 23-year reign of Doug Ellis as chair came to an end. Ellis, the largest shareholder with approximately 38%, decided to sell his stake. For many years supporters' groups had urged him to resign, though the actions including two ""Ellis out"" protests, and an ""Ellis out"" march marked an increase in intensity. The decision to leave the club was likely prompted by Ellis' ill-health. Randy Lerner, owner of the NFL franchise Cleveland Browns, was announced as the preferred bidder. On 25 August, it was announced that he had secured 59.69% of the club's shares. By 26 September 2006, he had achieved a 90% shareholding and could complete his buy-out of the rest of the shares. Lerner appointed several new people to the board including General Charles C Krulak. Ellis was given a President Emeritus (Life President) role.
The arrival of a new owner and manager marked the start of sweeping changes throughout the club. This included a new crest, a new kit sponsor and new players in the summer of 2007. Aston Villa started the 2006–07 Premiership campaign well, with Olof Mellberg scoring the first competitive goal at Arsenal's new Emirates Stadium. The January signings of John Carew, Ashley Young and Shaun Maloney bolstered the squad. Villa finished in 11th place in the league with 50 points, ending the season with an unbeaten run of nine league games. The last home game of the season, a 3–0 victory over Sheffield United was used to mark the 25th anniversary of Villa winning the European Cup in 1982. Before kick-off, the 1982 winning team paraded the trophy in front of a full stadium. Scarves bearing the words ""Proud History—Bright Future"" were given out to all home team supporters attending the match.

2007–08 saw Villa progress further, finishing sixth to qualify for the Intertoto Cup. A victory against Danish side Odense BK, over two legs in the final during the summer of 2008, put Villa into European competition for the 2008–09 season for the first time in seven years. They reached the group stage of the UEFA Cup that season with relative ease, and played their first match against Dutch club Ajax at Villa Park, winning 2–1. The first major final of the Lerner era was the 2010 Football League Cup Final; Villa lost 2–1 to Manchester United at Wembley Stadium. Five days before the opening day of the 2010–11 season, O'Neill resigned as manager with immediate effect. The reserve team coach, Kevin MacDonald, took over as caretaker manager for the opening games of the season. Randy Lerner returned to England from the United States to interview potential candidates for the post. On 8 September 2010, the club announced Gérard Houllier would become the manager of Aston Villa, the first managerial appointment of Lerner's reign. On 20 April 2011, Houllier was admitted to hospital suffering from chest pains. Further tests showed he had suffered from a recurrence of a heart problem. The last games of the season saw his assistant, Gary McAllister, take over in a caretaker capacity. On 1 June 2011, the club issued a statement that Houllier had left the club by mutual consent leaving it looking for their fifth manager, including caretakers, of the year. Houllier was replaced by the former Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish on 17 June 2011, despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment. His appointment marked the first time in history that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham to Villa.
McLeish's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011–12 season after Villa finished in 16th place, only just above the relegation zone. On 2 July 2012, Aston Villa confirmed the appointment of former Norwich City manager Paul Lambert as McLeish's replacement. On 28 February 2012, the club announced a financial loss of £53.9 million. Lerner put the club up for sale on 12 May 2014, with an estimated value of £200 million. With Lerner still on board, in the 2014–15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games, the lowest in Premier League history, and Lambert was sacked on 11 February 2015. He was replaced by Tim Sherwood, who saved Villa from relegation in the 2014–15 season and took them to the 2015 FA Cup Final.
Despite saving them from relegation the previous season, Sherwood was fired on 15 October 2015, after six consecutive league losses, with Kevin MacDonald taking the role of interim manager. On 2 November 2015, Frenchman Rémi Garde agreed to a three-and-a-half-year deal to become the manager, but he left on 29 March 2016 with the club rooted to the bottom of the table. The club was eventually relegated from the Premier League on 16 April following a 1–0 defeat to Manchester United at Old Trafford.


== Tony Xia and Championship football ==
In June 2016, Chinese businessman Tony Xia bought the club for £76 million. Roberto Di Matteo was appointed as the club's new manager before the new season in the Championship. He was sacked after 12 games with the club in 19th place having only won one match against Rotherham. He was replaced by former Birmingham City manager Steve Bruce, however Bruce could only lead the club to 13th in the table that season.
In the 2017–18 season Bruce led Villa to a fourth place after their best winning sequence since 1990, including winning seven games in a row. Having qualified for the play-offs and beating Middlesbrough in the semi-final they ultimately lost 1–0 to Fulham in the 2018 EFL Championship play-off final at Wembley Stadium. Following the play-off final financial problems began to emerge with Xia struggling to move money out of China to maintain basic football operations. On 5 June 2018, Aston Villa missed the deadline for a £4 million tax bill, and the club was faced with a winding up order and the real possibility of going out of business. On 7 June 2018, Xia managed to negotiate an agreement with HM Revenue and Customs to pay £500,000 of the £4 million bill, promising to pay the remaining portion at a later date. This saved the club from immediate danger, but Xia confirmed that the club was still in significant financial difficulty and it became clear that the club were facing an existential threat if they did not acquire new ownership.


== Nassef Sawiris and Wes Edens takeover ==
In July 2018 Aston Villa were taken over by Nassef Sawiris and Wes Edens with a 55% controlling stake. They promised significant investment and restructuring of the club. In October 2018 they sacked Bruce with Villa sitting 12th in the table after 11 games. They appointed boyhood Villa fan Dean Smith. Under Smith performances and results improved, with a team record 10-game winning streak in March and April. The team finished 5th in the league and were in the playoffs for the second time in two seasons. They won the playoff final on 27 May 2019 over Derby County 2–1 to return to the Premier League after a three-year absence.
The club spent a net total of £144.5 million to bring in 12 players in the summer 2019 transfer window ahead of their Premier League return: Jota, Anwar El Ghazi, Wesley, Kortney Hause, Matt Targett, Tyrone Mings, Ezri Konsa, Björn Engels, Trézéguet, Douglas Luiz, Tom Heaton and Marvelous Nakamba. In the EFL Cup, Villa reached the final, losing 2–1 to Manchester City. In the league though, Villa were four points deep inside the relegation zone with four games left to play, but pulled off what Smith called a ""magnificent achievement"" to clinch survival on the last day with a 1–1 draw at West Ham United.
Villa continued to spend heavily the following season, notably signing Matty Cash, Ollie Watkins and Emiliano Martínez. Villa consolidated their Premier League status, finishing the season in 11th place.
The 2021–22 began with Villa breaking the British transfer record for a fee received, selling captain Jack Grealish to Manchester City for £100m and breaking their own record for a transfer fee paid, signing Emiliano Buendía for £33m from Norwich City. Smith's team started the season slowly, however, and in November 2021 Dean Smith was sacked after a run of 5 successive defeats. He was replaced by former Liverpool midfielder Steven Gerrard who had just won the Scottish Premiership in his first management job at Rangers, and saw the club win four of their next seven games which saw them close out the year in 11th place, five places above where the club were when Gerrard was appointed. The January transfer window saw Gerrard sign high profile names in Philippe Coutinho on loan from Barcelona, and Lucas Digne for £25m from Everton, but results in the new year were mixed with Villa winning three games in a row to Brighton, Southampton and Leeds, to then lose four games in a row to West Ham, Arsenal, Wolverhampton, and Tottenham. Villa finished the season in 14th place.
The 2022–23 season did not begin in better fashion, with summers signings Boubacar Kamara and Diego Carlos each suffering lengthy injuries early into the campaign, and Villa would win only one of their first six games. Gerrard was sacked in October 2022 after two wins in eleven games and Villa sitting in 17th place. On 24 October 2022, Villa appointed Unai Emery as head coach after paying a buyout fee of a reported €6 million (£5.2 million) to Villarreal, but due to work permit formalities, the appointment did not complete until 1 November. On 6 November, Emery won his first match in charge with a 3–1 win over Manchester United, Villa's first home Premier League victory against United since August 1995, and Villa would win fifteen of their twenty-five league games under Emery and 49 points from a possible 75 since his appointment during the 2022–23 campaign, also setting a new Premier League record for most number of games scored in at the start of a manager’s tenure at 20. 5 wins, 1 draw and 1 defeat in April 2023, led to Emery being awarded Premier League Manager of the Month. A 2-1 win over Brighton on the final matchday of the season secured Villa a 7th-place finish and qualification to the UEFA Europa Conference League, the club's first participation in European football since the 2010–11 season.
Aston Villa also saw a number of club records broken during Emery's first seven months in charge, including striker Ollie Watkins not only break the record for number of consecutive games scored in for a Villa player in the Premier League era with five, but also number of consecutive Premier League away games scored in at six, and Emiliano Martínez, with five clean sheets upon the league's restart after the 2022 FIFA World Cup break the record for number of clean sheets for an Aston Villa goalkeeper in his first 100 Premier League games for the club at 34.
A 3–0 win against Newcastle United on 15 April 2023 saw Villa win five Premier League games in a row for the first time since 1998, and victory at Villa Park against Brighton on the final matchday not only meant The Villans’ first time winning seven consecutive league games at home since the 1992-93 season, but also their eighteenth league win of the season, fifteenth under Emery, for their joint-most league wins in a 38-game season.
After the end of the 2022–23 season, Aston Villa once again saw changes at the leadership level. With Christian Purslow departing from his role as CEO - which his role being replaced by two people. Former Sevilla Director of Football Monchi arrived as President of Football Operations overseeing recruitment and footballing activities, working closely Unai Emery. Meanwhile, former Philadelphia 76ers President Chris Heck as President of Business Operations. The new leadership oversaw a summer of recruitment which saw Aston VIlla break it's transfer record on the signing of French winger Moussa Diaby from Bayer Leverkusen for a reported £51.9m.


== References ==
Notes

Bibliography"
Seve Ballesteros,"Severiano Ballesteros Sota (Spanish pronunciation: [seβeˈɾjano βaʎesˈteɾos]; 9 April 1957 – 7 May 2011) was a Spanish professional golfer, a World No. 1 who was one of the sport's leading figures from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. A member of a gifted golfing family, he won 90 international tournaments in his career, including five major championships between 1979 and 1988; The Open Championship three times and the Masters Tournament twice. He gained attention in the golfing world in 1976, when at the age of 19, he finished second at The Open. He played a leading role in the re-emergence of European golf, helping the European Ryder Cup team to five wins both as a player and captain.
Ballesteros won a record 50 European Tour titles. He won at least one European Tour title for 17 consecutive years between 1976 and 1992. His final victory was at the 1995 Peugeot Spanish Open. Largely because of back-related injuries, Ballesteros struggled with his form during the late 1990s. Despite this, he continued to be involved in golf, creating the Seve Trophy and running a golf course design business. In 2000, Golf Digest magazine ranked Ballesteros as the greatest Continental European golfer of all time.
In the 2000s, Ballesteros played sparingly due to continuing back problems and in 2007 he eventually retired from competitive professional golf. In 2008 he was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumour. Ballesteros was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award for the second time at the BBC Sports Personality Awards in 2009. He was presented with the award at his home in Spain by his compatriot and former Ryder Cup teammate José María Olazábal.
Ballesteros died of brain cancer in 2011, aged 54.


== Early life ==
Severiano Ballesteros Sota was born in the village of Pedreña, Cantabria, Spain, on 9 April 1957, the youngest of five sons of Baldomero Ballesteros Presmanes (1919–1987), who was a farm labourer, and Carmen Sota Ocejo (1919–2002). One died in childhood, while all the others became professional golfers. He learned the game while playing on the beaches near his home, during the hours he was supposed to be in school, mainly using a 3-iron given to him by his older brother Manuel when he was eight years old. His maternal uncle Ramón Sota was Spanish professional champion four times and finished sixth in the Masters Tournament in 1965. Ballesteros's older brother Manuel finished in the top 100 on the European Tour Order of Merit every year from 1972 to 1983, and later became Ballesteros's manager. His brothers Vicente and Baldomero, and nephews Raúl and Ivan are also professional golfers.


== Professional career ==
Ballesteros turned professional in March 1974 at the age of 16. He burst onto the international scene with a second-place finish in 1976 Open Championship at Royal Birkdale Golf Club. He led by two shots after the third round, but a final round 74 saw him tie for second with Jack Nicklaus, six shots behind the winner Johnny Miller. He went on to win the European Tour Order of Merit (money title) that year, a title that he would win the next two years, and six times total, a record at the time (since surpassed by Colin Montgomerie). Ballesteros won his first Open Championship in 1979 with a closing 70, a round in which he famously hit his tee shot into a car park on the 16th hole yet still made birdie.
Ballesteros went on to win five major championships: the Masters Tournament in 1980 and 1983, and The Open Championship in 1979, 1984 and 1988. His 1980 Masters win was the first by a European player, and at the time he was the youngest winner of the tournament, at age 23 (though this record was broken by Tiger Woods in 1997, when he was 21 years old). His 1979 win at The Open Championship similarly made him the youngest winner of the tournament in the 20th century, and the first golfer from continental Europe to win a major since Frenchman Arnaud Massy won The Open in 1907. Ballesteros won the rain-delayed Masters in 1983 by five shots. As of 2023, he is the last golfer to win the Masters on a Monday. Ballesteros described the putt he holed on the 18th green at St Andrews to win the 1984 Open Championship as ""the happiest moment of my whole sporting life.""
On 30 September 1983, Ballesteros joined the PGA Tour. In 1984 he played in 15 tournaments, the minimal amount allowed for a golfer with membership. The following season he played in only 9 tournaments. He was subsequently suspended by the PGA Tour for failing to meet his commitment.
In 1988, Ballesteros won his fifth and last major title, The Open Championship at Royal Lytham & St Annes. The final round was played on Monday after torrential rain had flooded the course and forced Saturday's play to be abandoned. He described his final round of 65 which beat Nick Price by two shots as ""perhaps the best round of my entire career.""
For much of the 1980s and 1990s, Ballesteros was a mainstay of the European Ryder Cup team. He scored 22½ points in 37 matches against the United States; his partnership with fellow Spaniard José María Olazábal was the most successful in the history of the competition, with 11 wins and two halved matches out of 15 pairs matches. While Ballesteros was a member of European sides that won the Ryder Cup in 1985, retained the Cup in 1987 and 1989, and regained the Cup in 1995, the pinnacle of his career in the competition came in 1997, when he captained the winning European side at Valderrama Golf Club in Sotogrande, Spain. This was the first Ryder Cup ever held in continental Europe.
Ballesteros led the Official World Golf Ranking for a total of 61 weeks in the period from their inauguration (in April 1986) to September 1989, including being world number one at the end of the 1988 season. He also led McCormack's World Golf Rankings, published in McCormack's ""World Of Professional Golf"" annuals (from which the official rankings were developed) in 1983, 1984 and 1985. He was ever-present in the end-of-season world's top ten according to those rankings for fifteen years, from 1977 to 1991 inclusive.


=== Late career and retirement ===
In 1999, Ballesteros was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame. He was instrumental in introducing the Seve Trophy in 2000, a team competition similar to the Ryder Cup pitting a team from Great Britain and Ireland against one from continental Europe. In 2000, Ballesteros was ranked as the 16th greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine; he was the top golfer from the continent of Europe.
Ballesteros had played sparingly since the late 1990s because of back problems, and made his first start in years at the 2005 Madrid Open. He stated a desire to play more tournaments in the 2006 season. He entered the 2006 Open Championship, having played just one other event on the European Tour, The Open de France Alstom, where he missed the cut. He ran a thriving golf course design business and had been eligible for the Champions Tour and European Seniors Tour upon turning 50 in 2007. Ballesteros had been the captain of the European team in the Royal Trophy since its inception in 2006. He was announced again as non-playing captain of the 2008 European team to defend the Royal Trophy against the Asian team at the Amata Spring Country Club in Bangkok.
After further recurrences of his back problems, which contributed to his finishing tied for last in his only Champions Tour start, Ballesteros announced his retirement from golf on 16 July 2007, bringing down the curtain on an illustrious career. During the news conference, he also addressed reports in European media that he had attempted suicide, saying that those reports ""were not even close to reality"". He had been briefly hospitalized when he became concerned about the condition of his heart, but was released the same day after being given a clean bill of health.
Ballesteros was a member of the Laureus World Sports Academy. He had become involved in European golf course design in his later years, most famously altering the 17th hole at Valderrama before the 1997 Ryder Cup.


== Personal life ==
Ballesteros was married to Carmen Botín O'Shea, daughter of Emilio Botín, from 1988 until their divorce in 2004, in the municipality of Marina de Cudeyo in Cantabria. The couple had three children, Javier, Miguel and Carmen. The marriage was said to have run into trouble when Ballesteros could not accept the fact his career was on the wane.


== Death and legacy ==
At Madrid-Barajas Airport on 6 October 2008, Ballesteros lost consciousness and was admitted to hospital. Six days later, he confirmed that he had been diagnosed with a malignant brain tumour. On 15 October, Spanish news agency EFE reported that he had undergone a 12-hour operation to resect the tumour, the first of four operations he would have. A hospital spokeswoman stated that surgeons had removed a sizable part of the tumour. On 23 October, it was confirmed publicly that the tumour was classified as a cancerous oligoastrocytoma, and after a rapid deterioration of his health, further surgery took place on 24 October to stabilize him and try to remove the remainder of the tumour. On 24 October, it was confirmed that the tumour had been removed after a 6½-hour operation. On 3 November, it was confirmed by the hospital that he was starting his rehabilitation in the intensive care unit, and was breathing steadily. On 18 November, he was moved out of the intensive care unit and changed wards at Madrid's La Paz Hospital to continue his rehabilitation.
Ballesteros was discharged from hospital on 9 December 2008. He then returned home to northern Spain and underwent chemotherapy treatment as an outpatient. In January 2009, a message on his website said he had responded well to one course of chemotherapy.

I am very motivated and working hard although I am aware that my recovery will be slow and therefore I need to be patient and have a lot of determination.
For these reasons I am following strictly all the instructions that the doctors are giving me.
Besides, the physiotherapists are doing a great job on me and I feel better every day.

Ballesteros completed a second course of chemotherapy at Madrid's La Paz Hospital in February 2009. Speaking through his website he said, ""The results of the check-up were really positive, better even than the first ones."" He finished a third round of treatment in March 2009, and completed his fourth and final course of chemotherapy a month later.
In June 2009, Ballesteros made his first public appearance after treatment for the brain tumour. He said it was a ""miracle"" to be alive and he thanked everyone who had been involved in his care and welfare.
At his first public appearance, Ballesteros announced the launch of the ""Seve Ballesteros Foundation"". This foundation was set up to help those with cancer fight it. The foundation aims to research cancer, especially brain tumours, but it will also help financially challenged young golfers, so they might be as successful as he.
On 6 May 2011, Ballesteros's family released a statement announcing that his neurological condition had ""suffered a severe deterioration"". He died within hours of the announcement in the early hours of 7 May 2011 at the age of 54; his older brother Baldomero confirmed the precise time of death at 2:10 am CEST.


=== Tributes ===
The Open de España was underway when Ballesteros died. The European Tour marked his death with a moment of silence during the third round at the Real Club de Golf El Prat in Barcelona.
Tiger Woods described Ballesteros as ""one of the most talented and exciting golfers to ever play the game"". Lee Westwood said of Ballesteros, ""Seve made European golf what it is today"".
Phil Mickelson, who won the 2010 Masters Tournament, selected a Spanish-themed menu for the 2011 Masters Champions Dinner in honour of Ballesteros, who was too ill to attend. Entrees included seafood paella and manchego-topped filet mignon, with a salad course, asparagus, and tortillas as sides, plus ice cream-topped apple empanada for dessert.
At the Madrid Open tennis tournament, a moment of silence was held prior to the semi-final match between Rafael Nadal and Roger Federer. Nadal, a close friend of Ballesteros, was seen wiping away tears as he watched the video screen.
On 8 May, at 15:08 EST, the three major U.S. men's tours stopped play and held a moment of silence.
On 10 May, the Irish Independent said of him: ""He spoke many other languages too: the dialects of honour, of dignity, of sportsmanship, of decency, of fair play, of loyalty, of integrity, and in the end, of dauntless, unforgettable, astonishing courage. Quite simply, there has never been a finer ambassador for either his sport or his country.""
A funeral service was held for Ballesteros, previously cremated, at the parish church of San Pedro, in his home village of Pedreña. Due to the number of those in attendance, several big screens were installed outside the 400-capacity church. His ashes were then to be scattered at his home estate.
The day of Ballesteros's death, the Spanish flag was raised at the World Golf Hall of Fame in Florida, the United States flag was lowered to half-staff, a photo of Ballesteros was hung in the box office, and a black ribbon was hung on the outside of his locker. The next weekend, at nearby TPC Sawgrass, the Spanish flag was flown at half-staff during the 2011 Players Championship at the request of defending champion Tim Clark, in place of his native South African flag. Clark went on to state, ""Seve was a hero of mine growing up...In losing [him] last week, I think the whole golfing world is saddened by that. To have his flag up here is just a small little tribute to him. Obviously he deserves a whole lot more.""


=== Legacy ===
The 2012 Ryder Cup, the first to be played after Ballesteros's death, saw the European team wearing navy blue and white garments on the final day in memory of Seve, who traditionally wore navy blue on the last day of a tournament. Additionally, the team's kit also bore the silhouette of Ballesteros after his win at the 1984 Open Championship. The Irish golfer Pádraig Harrington, Nick Faldo, and other European players proposed that the PGA replace the image of Harry Vardon on the European Tour's official logo with one of Ballesteros (a silhouette of the iconic image of Ballesteros's ""salute"", following his win at the 1984 Open Championship).
The airport of Ballesteros's homeland, Cantabria, has been named after him since the Spanish Government approved the change on 16 April 2015. The name was changed from Santander Airport to Seve Ballesteros – Santander Airport. This change was made after the regional parliament unanimously approved a petition in May 2014. The motivation behind this popular initiative was to honor Ballesteros for being one of the most universal of Cantabrians and an example in sports and life.
In 2017, the European Tour Players' Player of the Year award was renamed in his honour. The first recipient of The Seve Ballesteros Award was Henrik Stenson.


== Professional wins (90) ==


=== PGA Tour wins (9) ===

*Note: The 1985 USF&G Classic was reduced to 54 holes due to inclement weather.
PGA Tour playoff record (1–2)


=== European Tour wins (50) ===

*Ballesteros and Langer agreed to share the 1986 Trophée Lancôme after failing light caused play to halt after four holes of a playoff.
European Tour playoff record (8–4–1)


=== PGA of Japan Tour wins (6) ===

PGA of Japan Tour playoff record (1–1)


=== PGA Tour of Australia wins (1) ===


=== New Zealand Golf Circuit wins (1) ===


=== Safari Circuit wins (1) ===


=== Other wins (27) ===
1974 Spanish National Championship for under 25s, Open de Vizcaya
1975 Spanish National Championship for under 25s
1976 Memorial Donald Swaelens, Cataluña Championship, Tenerife Championship, Lancome Trophy, World Cup of Golf (with Manuel Piñero)
1977 Braun International Golf (Germany), World Cup of Golf (with Antonio Garrido)
1978 Spanish National Championship for under 25s
1979 Open el Prat
1981 Suntory World Match Play Championship
1982 Masters de San Remo (Italy), Suntory World Match Play Championship
1983 Million Dollar Challenge (South Africa)
1984 Suntory World Match Play Championship, Million Dollar Challenge (South Africa)
1985 Spanish Professional Closed Championship, Suntory World Match Play Championship, Campeonato de España-Codorniu
1987 Spanish Professional Closed Championship
1988 APG Larios
1991 Toyota World Match Play Championship
1992 Copa Quinto Centenario por Equipos
1995 Tournoi Perrier de Paris (with José María Olazábal)


== Major championships ==


=== Wins (5) ===


=== Results timeline ===

CUT = missed the half-way cut
DQ = disqualified
""T"" = tied


=== Summary ===

Most consecutive cuts made – 10 (1984 U.S. Open – 1986 Open Championship)
Longest streak of top-10s – 4 (1984 Open Championship – 1985 U.S. Open)


== Results in The Players Championship ==

CUT = missed the halfway cut
""T"" indicates a tie for a place


== Team appearances ==
Ryder Cup (representing Europe): 1979, 1983, 1985 (winners), 1987 (winners), 1989 (tied, cup retained), 1991, 1993, 1995 (winners), 1997 (winners – non-playing captain)

World Cup (representing Spain): 1975, 1976 (winners), 1977 (winners), 1991
Double Diamond International: 1975 (Rest of the World), 1976 (Continental Europe), 1977 (Continental Europe)
Hennessy Cognac Cup (representing the Continent of Europe): 1976, 1978, 1980
Dunhill Cup (representing Spain): 1985, 1986, 1988
Seve Trophy (representing continental Europe): 2000 (winners - playing captain), 2002 (playing captain), 2003 (playing captain), 2005 (non-playing captain), 2007 (non-playing captain)
Royal Trophy (representing Europe): 2006 (winners – non-playing captain), 2007 (winners – non-playing captain)


== Equipment ==
Ballesteros used Ping putters consistently throughout his career and has more golden clubs for wins in the Ping Gold Putter Vault than any other player.


== See also ==

List of golfers with most European Tour wins
List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins
List of men's major championships winning golfers
List of golf course architects


== References ==


== External links ==
Official website
Seve Ballesteros at the European Tour official site
Seve Ballesteros at the PGA Tour official site
Seve Ballesteros at the Japan Golf Tour official site
Seve Ballesteros at the Official World Golf Ranking official site
Seve Ballesteros at golf.about.com at the Wayback Machine (archived 18 September 2005)
Seve Ballesteros profile at Golf Legends
Official Seve Ballesteros Foundation homepage
Official home page for the Seve Ballesteros Golf Academy
The Economist Obituary
New York Times Obituary
Los Angeles Times Obituary
The Guardian Obituary
Seve the Movie (2014) at IMDb"
Jaws: The Revenge,"Jaws: The Revenge is a 1987 American horror film produced and directed by Joseph Sargent. The fourth and final film in the Jaws franchise, it stars Lorraine Gary, who came out of retirement to reprise her role from the first two films, along with new cast members Lance Guest, Mario Van Peebles, Karen Young and Michael Caine. Acting as a direct sequel to Jaws 2 (retroactively ignoring the events of Jaws 3-D), the film focuses on a now-widowed Ellen Brody (Gary) and her conviction that a great white shark is seeking revenge on her family, particularly when it kills her youngest son, and follows her to the Bahamas.
The film was made in less than nine months, with production commencing in September 1986 so that the film could be released the following summer. The film was shot on location in New England and in the Bahamas and completed on the Universal lot. As with the first two films, Martha's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the opening scenes. Delays caused by the mechanical sharks and the weather led to concerns about whether the release date would be met. Many critics suggested that the rushed production compromised the quality of the film. The film was marketed with the now infamous tagline ""This time, it's personal.""
Jaws: The Revenge was the lowest grossing film of the franchise, with $51.9 million total gross on a $23 million budget barely breaking even. It was universally panned by critics and audiences alike, who lamented the weak story, poor acting, and cheap-looking effects, and felt the franchise had run its course.


== Plot ==
On Amity Island, Martin Brody, famous for his deeds as the police chief, has died from a heart attack. Martin's widow, Ellen, still lives in Amity, close to her younger son, Sean, and his fiancée, Tiffany. Sean works as a police deputy, and when he is dispatched to clear a log (later revealed to be a piece from the wrecked Orca) from a buoy a few days before Christmas, a great white shark appears and tears off his arm. He screams for help, but the singing on land drowns out his cries. The shark sinks his boat and drags him underwater to his death.
Martin's older son, Michael, his wife, Carla, and their five-year-old daughter, Thea, come to Amity for the funeral. Michael works in the Bahamas as a marine biologist, and on his arrival, Ellen demands he stop his work. Having just received his first grant, Michael refuses. Thea convinces Ellen to return to the Bahamas with them.
The pilot of their small plane, Hoagie, takes an interest in Ellen when he flies them back. Ellen, wanting to take her mind off her recent losses and finding herself attracted, begins spending time with him. Michael introduces his mother to his colleague Jake and his wife Louisa, and they spend Christmas and New Year's together.
A few days later, Michael, Jake, and their crew encounter the shark, which followed the family from Amity. Jake is eager to research it because great white sharks have never been seen in the Bahamas due to the warm water. Michael asks him not to mention the shark to his family. During the day, Ellen can keep her mind off the shark, but at night she has nightmares of being attacked by it. She is also able to feel when the shark is about to attack one of her loved ones.
Jake decides to attach a device to the shark that can track it through its heartbeat. Using chum to attract it, Jake stabs the device's tracking pole into the shark's side. The next day, the shark ambushes and chases Michael through a sunken ship, and he narrowly escapes.
Thea goes on an inflatable banana boat with her friend Margaret and her mother. While Carla presents her new art sculpture, the shark attacks the back of the boat, killing Margaret's mother. After Thea is safe, Ellen boards Jake's boat to track down the shark, intending to kill it to save her family. After hearing about what happened, Michael confesses he knew about the shark, infuriating Carla.
Michael and Jake are flown by Hoagie to search for Ellen and find the shark in pursuit of their boat. During the search, Hoagie explains to Michael about Ellen's belief that the shark that killed Sean is hunting her family. When they find her, Hoagie lands the plane on the water, ordering Michael and Jake to swim to the boat as the shark drags the plane and Hoagie underwater.
Hoagie escapes from the shark, and Jake and Michael hastily put together a device that emits electrical impulses. As Jake moves to the front of the boat, the shark lunges up and mauls him. Jake manages to get the device into the shark's mouth before being dragged underwater. Michael begins blasting the shark with the impulses, which drive it mad; it repeatedly jumps out of the water, roaring in pain.
Michael continues blasting the shark with the impulses, causing it to leap out of the water again. Ellen steers the sailboat towards the shark, while thinking back to the shark's attack on Thea and also imagining Sean's death, and Martin defeating the first shark. As the shark is rearing up, she rams the broken bowsprit of the boat into it.
In the original version of the film that was screened in the U.S., the shark bleeds out and dies after being impaled. In the revised ending (for international theaters and DVD release), the impaling causes the shark to immediately explode, and its corpse sinks to the bottom of the ocean (footage from the ending of the first film is used to show this). Also in the revised ending, Michael hears Jake calling for help, seriously injured but still alive (Jake died in the original cut). A short time later, Hoagie flies Ellen back to Amity Island.


== Cast ==
Lorraine Gary as Ellen Brody
Lance Guest as Michael ""Mike"" Brody
Mario Van Peebles as Jake
Michael Caine as Hoagie
Karen Young as Carla Brody


== Production ==


=== Development ===
As MCA Universal was going through a difficult period, its CEO Sidney Sheinberg saw that a third sequel to Jaws was likely to make a good profit, following the commercial success of Jaws 3-D, despite generally attracting negative reviews. Sheinberg also saw an opportunity to promote the Jaws ride at Universal Studios.
The studio fast-tracked Jaws: The Revenge into production in September 1986 so that it could be released the following summer. Steve De Jarnatt had been approached by Universal's Head of Production Frank Price about writing the script for Jaws IV, as it was then known as.  De Jarnatt's script, however, was shelved when Price resigned in September 1986 following the disappointing performance of Howard the Duck. Around this time, Sheinberg approached Joseph Sargent about directing the film. Sargent had worked with Lorraine Gary in 1973's The Marcus-Nelson Murders, for which he won his first Directors Guild of America Award. Steven Spielberg cites this television film, which later spawned Kojak, as motivation for casting Gary as Ellen Brody in the original Jaws film, in addition to the fact she was the wife of the studio's chief executive Sidney Sheinberg at that time. Regarding Revenge, Gary remarked in an interview: ""I made a good deal on this film, but I didn't make as good a deal as I would have if I weren't married to Sid.""
In an interview with the Boston Herald, Sargent called Revenge ""a ticking bomb waiting to go off"", saying that...  MCA Inc. president Sid Sheinberg ""expects a miracle."" Sheinberg asked Sargent to direct the film in late September 1986. According to Sargent, Sheinberg ""cut through all the slow lanes and got Jaws: The Revenge off and running."" In a 2006 interview, Sargent stated that the premise was born ""out of a little bit of desperation to find something fresh to do with the shark. We thought that maybe if we take a mystical point of view, and go for a little bit of ... magic, we might be able to find something interesting enough to sit through.""
Sargent hired Michael De Guzman to write a script, within five weeks, with the shooting script being completed during production.  According to the writer, they had the ""bare bones of a story"" by October 1986, and by the 2nd November they had a workable outline for the production team. The first draft was completed in mid-December, and the final draft of the screenplay was dated 23 January 1987, just nine days before filming began in Edgartown.
The film was developed under the working title Jaws '87, but by February 1987, the title Jaws: The Revenge was being used. The colon within the title is used by some sources although the colon is not included in the film's opening credits, or on the poster.
The film has no continuity from Jaws 3-D. In its predecessor, Mike is an engineer for SeaWorld, whereas in Jaws: The Revenge, he is a marine research scientist. One of the Universal press releases for Jaws: The Revenge refers to this fourth film in the series as the ""third film of the remarkable Jaws trilogy."" De Guzman's script featured an appearance by Matt Hooper, while the producers still hoped to recruit Richard Dreyfuss to reprise his role as Hooper for the project.
In the original script, Martin Brody was to be the shark's first victim. When Roy Scheider declined to appear, Sargent reports that the character of Brody had been dead for 18 months ""when we enter the story... and deal with Ellen Brody's emotional problem--her obsession with the death of another member of her family."" For De Guzman, it ""is a story of obsession and fear. Whether what Ellen Brody has in her mind is true or not will be left up to the audience to decide. No statement is being made in that regard... but it's about any kind of fear so great and so strong that it begins to take control of a human being's life.""
De Guzman and Sargent were inspired by the first film's ""less is more"" approach. Replicating the idea of the yellow barrels in the original, they believed that having the shark swallow meat attached to a sonar device, emitting the sound of the shark's heartbeat, would create tension and be more effective than constantly  seeing the shark or people being eaten. De Guzman asserts that the strongest characters in drama are often those off-screen, another justification for not showing the shark too often. Sargent expected the audience to appreciate what they tried to do, and had ambitions that it would not be seen as ""a tired version of the first one.""


=== Casting ===

Lorraine Gary portrayed Ellen Brody in the first two films. In a press release, Gary says Jaws: The Revenge is ""also about relationships which ... makes it much more like the first Jaws."" This was Gary's first film role since she had appeared in Spielberg's 1941 eight years earlier, as well as being her final film role. The press release proposes that the character ""had much more depth and texture than either of the other films was able to explore. The promise of further developing this multi-dimensional woman under the extraordinary circumstances ... intrigued Gary enough to lure her back to the screen after a lengthy hiatus.""
Gary is the only principal cast member from the original film who returned. Roy Scheider and Richard Dreyfuss refused to participate. Scheider had other commitments, and also had clearly expressed a desire not to play the character again. Lee Fierro made a brief cameo as Mrs. Kintner (the mother of Alex Kintner who was killed in Jaws), as did Fritzi Jane Courtney, who played Mrs. Taft, one of the Amity town council members in both Jaws and Jaws 2. Cyprian R. Dube, who played Amity Selectman Mr. Posner in both Jaws and Jaws 2, is upgraded to mayor following the death of Murray Hamilton, who played Amity Mayor Larry Vaughan, in the first two Jaws films.
Gary states that one of the reasons she was attracted to the film was the idea of an on-screen romance with Oscar winner Michael Caine.

The first day we were to work together I was nervous as a schoolgirl. We were shooting a Junkanoo Festival with noisy drums and hundreds of extras. But he never faltered in his concentration and he put me completely at ease. It was all so natural. He's an extraordinary actor – and just a nice human being.
Caine had mixed feelings about both the production and the final version. He thinks that it was a first for him to be involved with someone his own age in a film. He compares the relationship between two middle-aged people to the romance between two teenagers. Although disappointed not to be able to collect an Academy Award because of filming in the Bahamas, he was glad to be involved in the film. In the press release, he explains that ""it is part of movie history ... the original was one of the great all-time thrillers. I thought it might be nice to be mixed up with that. I liked the script very much."" However, Caine later claimed: ""I have never seen it [the film], but by all accounts it is terrible. However, I have seen the house that it built, and it is terrific!"" In his 1992 autobiography What's it All About?, he says that the film ""will go down in my memory as the time when I won an Oscar, paid for a house and had a great holiday. Not bad for a flop movie.""
Lance Guest played Ellen's eldest son Mike. Guest had dropped out of his sophomore year at UCLA (1981) to appear in another sequel to a horror classic; Halloween II. Karen Young played his wife Carla. She commended the director's emphasis upon characterization.
Mario Van Peebles played Jake, Michael's colleague. His father, Melvin Van Peebles, has a cameo in the film as Nassau's mayor. Mitchell Anderson appeared as Ellen's youngest son, Sean. Lynn Whitfield played Louisa, and stunt performer Diane Hetfield was the victim of the banana boat attack.
In addition to the 124 cast and crew members, 250 local extras were also hired. The majority of the extras were used as members of the local high school band, chorus and dramatic society that can be seen as the Brodys walk through the town, and during Sean's attack. A local gravestone maker produced 51 slabs for the mock graveyard used for Sean's funeral.


=== Filming ===
Principal photography for Jaws: The Revenge took place on location in New England and in the Bahamas, and completed on the Universal lot. Like the first two films of the series, Martha's Vineyard was the location of the fictional Amity Island for the film's opening scenes. Edgartown welcomed the production because it brought more business to the tourist town, which was usually very quiet in February. Production commenced on February 2, 1987, by which time ""snowstorms had blanketed"" the island for almost a month, ""providing a frosty backdrop for the opening scenes."" Cinematographer John McPherson recalls that filming in the Vineyard was very cold, and required seven generators and lots of equipment. He says the six-day shoot covered 22 pages of the script.
The cast and crew moved to Nassau in the Bahamas on February 9, beginning principal photography there the next day. Like the production of the first two films, they encountered many problems with varying weather conditions. The location did not offer the ""perfect world"" that the 38-day shoot required. Cover shots were filmed on shore and in interior sets. Cinematographer McPherson reports that some scenes had to be filmed across several days, presenting challenges for matching the weather.
The underwater sequences were coordinated from an 85 ft boat called Moby II. Second Unit Director Jordan Klein says that it was initially challenging for the actors to get used to the ""foreign environment"" of performing underwater. Stunt performer Gavin McKinney stood in for Lance Guest in the scene with the moray eel because it was potentially dangerous.
Principal photography completed in Nassau on May 26, although the special effects team continued working until 4 June. Production then moved to the two sets which had been constructed at Universal Studios for the Neptune's Folly sequences, and also some reshoots of Sean's death. A tank had been painted to replicate Nassau's seabed, and a huge backdrop was painted to look like the Bahamas sky. However, as John McPherson points out, the backdrop looked rather artificial, which the production had no remaining time to resolve.
The film was shot in the Super 35 format, with Arriflex cameras equipped with Zeiss Superspeed lenses for underwater sequences. Cinematographer John McPherson also supervised the underwater unit, which was headed by Pete Romano. Whereas underwater photography was normally filmed with an anamorphic lens, requiring overhead lighting, Romano filmed these ""sequences with Zeiss, a 35 mm super-speed lens, which allows the natural ambiance to come through on film.""

The special effects team, headed by Henry Millar, had arrived at South Beach, Nassau on January 12, 1987, almost a month before principal photography commenced there. In the official press release, Millar says that when he became involved ""we didn't even have a script ... but as the story developed and they started telling us all what they wanted ... I knew this wasn't going to be like any other shark anyone had ever seen.""
The shark was to be launched from atop an 88-foot (27 m) long platform, made from the trussed turret of a 30-foot (9.1 m) crane, and floated out into Clifton Bay. While the sharks for the first two Jaws films were pneumatically operated, the larger shark used in Revenge and more precise movements lead to a decision to power this shark hydraulically. According to Hydraulics & Pneumatics magazine, ""the articulated shark was mounted on top of a hydraulically operated scissor lift ... which raised and lowered the shark so it would appear that he had surfaced or submerged.""  The carriage was capable of propelling ""the shark through the water at speeds to 7 kt."" Seven sharks, or segments, were constructed from a combination of fibreglass, a metal frame and latex skin. The models were operated from a platform capable of rotating 180 degrees underwater, with a hydraulic arm operating the sharks.

Two models were fully articulated, two were made for jumping, one for ramming, one was a half shark (the top half), and one was just a fin. The two fully articulated models each had 22 sectioned ribs and movable jaws covered by a flexible water-based latex skin, measured 25 feet (7.6 m) in length and weighed 2500 pounds. Each tooth was half-a-foot long and as sharp as it looked. All models were housed under cover ... in a secret location on the island.
Universal had originally considered tasking Industrial Light & Magic to create a miniature free-swimming shark akin to the whale in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. The whale's designer suggested that the model could be easily converted into a shark, but its scale would be too problematic, and the proposal was aborted.
Instead, Ted Rae, who had worked on Jaws 3-D, was commissioned to create a stop-motion shark for Jaws: The Revenge. When designing and sculpturing the models, Rae tried to strike a balance between matching the full-scale sharks built by Millar, and the live action footage. Rae criticised the full-scale models, saying they ""looked like a concrete log with teeth... and doesn't look as good as the shark in the first film."" The animatronic puppets would subsequently appear in 3 or 4 shots in the completed film. Rae also constructed shark and miniature boat for the climatic sequences; however, Sargent didn't like Rae's footage, and took the models to Universal for completion there.
The film company returned to Universal to finish shooting on April 2. Additional underwater photography was completed in a water tank, measuring 50 feet (15 m) by 100 feet (30 m) across, and 17 feet (5.2 m) in depth, in Universal Studio's Stage 27. Also, a replica of Nassau's Clifton Bay and its skyline was created on the man-made Falls Lake on the studio backlot. Principal photography was completed in Los Angeles on May 26. Millar's special effects team, however, remained in Nassau, completing second unit photography on June 4.
Adverse weather conditions and problems with the mechanical sharks meant that the product was delayed and exceeded its $23m budget. Despite this, the production was hurried in order to meet the July 1987 release date. According to associate producer and production manager Frank Baur during the sequel's filming, ""This [Revenge] will be the fastest I have ever seen a major film planned and executed in all of my 35 years as a production manager.""
A television documentary, ""Behind the Scenes with Jaws: The Revenge"", was broadcast in the U.S. on July 10, 1987. Twenty-two minutes in length, it was written and directed by William Rus for Zaloom Mayfield Productions.


=== Ending changes ===
In the ending of the original US theatrical version, Ellen rammed Neptune's Folly into the shark, impaling it on the prow of the boat, mortally wounding it. The shark then causes the boat to break apart with its death contortions, forcing the people on the boat to jump off to avoid going down with it. American audiences disapproved of this ending. Sid Sheinberg says that the impact of the shark and Jake dying ""was too much for the audience in one finale"". Following this, additional footage was filmed to portray Jake's survival, and special effects shots using miniatures which, Downey says, ""saw the shark inexplicably explode after being speared by the boat"". Universal used this ending on home media releases. The re-shot ending reportedly began filming only five days after the film was released in the United States. The original ending can be seen on cable broadcasts. In his review of the film, Roger Ebert said that he could not believe ""[t]hat the director, Joseph Sargent, would film this final climactic scene so incompetently that there is not even an establishing shot, so we have to figure out what happened on the basis of empirical evidence.""
Re-shooting the ending prevented Michael Caine from collecting his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for Hannah and Her Sisters in person. In a 2010 interview with Time.com, Caine said that he had asked Universal to reschedule filming, but it was not possible due to the logistics of all of the boats and equipment that was involved.


== Music ==

The score was composed and conducted by Michael Small, who had previously provided music for Klute, Marathon Man (both of which featured Jaws star Roy Scheider) and The Parallax View. John Williams' original shark motif is integrated into the score which, soundtrack producer Douglass Fake says, reflects the fourth film's return to ""original characters and story threads"". The music for the film was recorded and mixed in June 1987 at The Burbank Studios in California.
However, much of Small's music was unused in the final film. Some phrases were ""dialled out"" early, some were dropped entirely, and some cues were used in scenes other than they had been written for. The changes to the film's ending also required edits to the music during post-production.
Soundtrack.net says that ""Small's score is generally tense, and he comes up with a few new themes of his own."" The film also contained the songs ""Nail it to the Wall"", performed by Stacy Lattisaw, and the 1986 hit ""You Got It All"", performed by The Jets.
A soundtrack album was announced by MCA Records when the film opened; however, the release was cancelled following the film's disappointing performance at the box office. A promotional version of the album was released in 2000 on Audio CD and Compact Cassette. Reviews for the soundtrack album were more positive than for the film. Indeed, writing for Film Score Monthly, AK Benjamin says that ""on a CD, Small's material fares better since it's not accompanied by the film."" Dismissing the film as ""engagingly unwatchable"", he says that ""Small certainly gave Revenge a lot more than it deserved – and this a much better score than Deep Blue Sea ... whatever that means."" Benjamin portrays Small as 'knowing' and his work as being superior to the film.

The hysterical coda tacked onto the end of ""Revenge and Finale"" is almost worth the price of the disc, as it no doubt sums up Small's opinion of the film. It's sad that the great Michael Small was delegated utter crap like Jaws the Revenge in the late '80s – and even worse that he never found his way back to the material that he deserves.
Upon Small's death in 2003, The Independent wrote that the ""composer of some distinction ... had the indignity of working on one of the worst films of all time"". Like most reviews of the soundtrack, the article criticizes the film whilst saying ""Small produced a fine score in the circumstances, as if anyone noticed.""
In 2015, Intrada Records, which previously reissued Jaws 3-D on compact disc, released the complete score. CD producer Douglass Fake was given access to the complete session mixes, meaning that the disc included every cue recorded by Small, including unused and unedited versions of the tracks.


== Release ==
The film was released in 1,606 screens in the US on July 17, 1987. It debuted in third place, behind RoboCop and a re-screening of Snow White and The Seven Dwarfs. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $7,154,890, almost half of what Jaws 3-D had grossed in its first weekend. By the end of its theatrical run, Jaws: The Revenge had grossed a worldwide total of $51,881,013 on a $23 million budget. So, Jaws: The Revenge grossed the lowest of the entire Jaws franchise and in contrast to its commercially successful predecessors, it did barely break-even.
The film was marketed with a poster by artist Mick McGinty, with an image of the shark inspired by Roger Kastel’s original artwork for Jaws. McGinty created different versions of the poster, with and without the character (resembling Ellen Brody) on a boat in the foreground.


=== Television airings ===
Jaws: The Revenge was originally screened on AMC in the United States and on BBC1 in the United Kingdom. The AMC version includes a number of deleted and extended scenes that were removed from the original theatrical release. These include spoken narration prior to the opening credits explaining that some circumstances can be due to fate, and more dialogue between Ellen and Hoagie as well as between Michael and Jake. There are additional shots of the shark diving towards the submersible and slightly different angles showing Jake's death.
The film's first broadcast on BBC became notorious for showing the film in an open matte (4:3) format, rather than the 2.40:1 ratio in which the film was intended to be exhibited. This meant that some wires needed to operate the mechanical shark were visible, rather than being obscured by black bars or a pan and scan system.


=== Home media ===
Jaws: The Revenge was the first film of the series to be released on DVD. It was released on Region 1 as a 'vanilla' disc by Goodtimes, featuring Spanish and French subtitles. The feature is presented in a non-anamorphic 2.35:1 widescreen transfer. The soundtrack was presented in Dolby Digital 4.1, with one reviewer saying that the ""stereo separation is great with ocean waves swirling around you, the bubbles going by during the scuba scenes, and Hoagie's airplane flying around behind you."" The same reviewer praised the image transfer of McPherson's ""extremely well photographed"" cinematography. The film was re-released on DVD by Universal on June 3, 2003, in an anamorphic transfer. In 2015, Jaws: The Revenge was re-released on DVD as part of a three movie multi-pack, along with Jaws 2 and Jaws 3-D.
Universal Pictures released Jaws: The Revenge on Blu-ray on June 14, 2016. The bonus features on the disc are the film's theatrical trailer and the restored original theatrical ending in high definition. Universal released Jaws: The Revenge on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray on July 23, 2024, alongside  Jaws 3-D. The 4K remaster was criticised for the use of AI upscaling and digital noise reduction.


== Reception ==


=== Critical response ===
Jaws: The Revenge was universally panned by critics and audiences alike. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 2% of 41 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 2.7/10. The website's consensus reads: ""Illogical, tension-free, and filled with cut-rate special effects, Jaws: The Revenge is a sorry chapter in a once-proud franchise."" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 15 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating ""overwhelming dislike"". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of ""C−"" on an A+ to F scale.
For her performance, Gary was nominated for both a Saturn Award for Best Actress and a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress; she lost to Jessica Tandy for *batteries not included and Madonna for Who's That Girl, respectively. It was rated by Entertainment Weekly as one of ""The 25 Worst Sequels Ever Made"". It was voted number 22 by readers of Empire magazine in their list of The 50 Worst Movies Ever.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film zero stars, writing in his review that it ""is not simply a bad movie, but also a stupid and incompetent one."" He lists several elements that he finds unbelievable, including that Ellen is ""haunted by flashbacks to events where she was not present"". Ebert joked that Caine could not attend the ceremony to accept his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor earned for Hannah and Her Sisters because of his shooting commitments on this film, because he may not have wanted to return to the shoot if he had left it. On their review show, both Ebert and his colleague Gene Siskel slated the film, also pointing out a number of ""logical errors amongst many logical errors"" including a scene near the end where Michael Caine's shirt is dry despite the character having just hauled himself out of the water. Siskel concluded his review by saying ""let's hope this is the end of the Jaws saga"".
Critics also addressed the implausibility of some aspects of the plot. Given the Brodys' history, Caryn James of The New York Times asked ""Why hasn't this family moved to Nebraska?"" The sequence in which the shark ""literally leaps out of the water and can roar like a lion"" became so notorious that it inspired the title of the 2022 making-of book The Shark is Roaring. Other implausible elements include the shark swimming from an island in the northeastern United States to the Bahamas (approx. 1,920 km (1,193 mi; 1,037 nmi)) in less than three days, somehow knowing that the Brody family went to the Bahamas, or following Michael through an underwater labyrinth, as well as the implication of such a creature seeking revenge. The Independent pointed out that ""the film was riddled with inconsistencies [and] errors (sharks cannot float or roar like lions)"". Consequently Entertainment Weekly pointed out that the promotional material's claim that it is ""the most incredible"" Jaws film is ""technically correct"".
In contrast, however, I.Q. Hunter writes, ""the cheap shark effects aren’t especially disastrous considering what was possible before CGI."" Derek Winnert ends his otherwise lukewarm review by stating, ""the Bahamas backdrops are pretty and the shark looks as toothsome as ever"". Critics commented upon the sepia-toned flashbacks to the first film. A scene with Michael and Thea imitating each other is interspersed with shots from a similar scene in Jaws of Sean (Jay Mello) and Martin Brody. Similarly, the shark's destruction contains footage of Martin Brody aiming at the compressed air tank, saying ""Smile, you son of a ... "". Caryn James comments that ""nothing kills a sequel faster than reverence ... Joseph Sargent, the director, has turned this into a color-by-numbers version of Steven Spielberg's original Jaws.""
In a 2019 scholarly article, I.Q. Hunter argues that the film ""is valuable as a case study because it is not a ‘standard’ SoBIG [""so bad it's good""] failure. It is neither a weird anomaly with a passionate and visible fan-base, nor the product of an archaic cash-strapped production context, nor was it a massive flop, redolent of budgetary overkill and artistic vanity."" In contrast to films such as The Room and Plan 9 from Outer Space, which are framed either as ""at odds with the norms of mainstream Hollywood"" and created by ""passionate, but hopelessly untalented"" filmmakers, Jaws: The Revenge's position within the Hollywood system renders it ""by universal consensus, a very bad film.""


=== Accolades ===


=== Legacy ===
The increasing number of sequels in the Jaws series was spoofed in the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II (whose preceding film was produced by Steven Spielberg and featured Jaws 3 star Lea Thompson), when Marty McFly travels to the year 2015 and sees a theater showing Jaws 19 (fictionally directed by Max Spielberg), with the tagline ""This time it's REALLY REALLY personal!"". This alludes to the tagline of Jaws: The Revenge: ""This time it's personal."" After being ""attacked"" by a promotional volumetric image of the shark outside the theatre, Marty says ""the shark still looks fake."" In celebration of ""Back to the Future Day"" in 2015, Universal released a parody trailer for Jaws 19, where the sequels after The Revenge would have included sharks in various environments, prequels, and even a love story titled Jaws 17: Fifty Scales of Grey.
The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made.


== Novelization ==

The novelization was written by Hank Searls, who also adapted Jaws 2. While Searls' Jaws 2 novelization was based on an earlier draft of that film and was significantly different from the finished film, his Jaws: The Revenge novelization sticks fairly close to the final film, although it does contain some extra subplots to, as Paul Downey writes, ""establish a more cohesive plot"". The novel contains a subplot in which Hoagie is a government agent and he transports laundered money. The only reference to this in the film is when Michael Brody asks, ""What do you do when you're not flying people?"" to which Hoagie replies, ""I deliver laundry."" In Searls' novel, the character of Jake is ultimately killed by the shark; Jake was originally supposed to die in the film, but the script was changed to allow him to survive.
The novelization suggests that the shark may be acting under the influence of a vengeful voodoo witch doctor (who has a feud with the Brody family), and the shark's apparent revenge has magical implications. Taken from the earlier drafts of the screenplay, the shark is directed by a voodoo curse laid by Papa Jacques, a Haitian witch doctor. Film scholar I.Q. Hunter explains, ""The revenge of the title is, therefore, Papa Jacques’ and not the shark’s, which entirely changes the story’s meaning: the shark, impelled by ‘stranger forces man could never understand,’ is an instrument of postcolonial revenge."" Searls explained to the Poughkeepsie Journal that ""in the book, I don't contend that the shark is thinking at all. That's why I've got the voodoo guy standing in for him.""  Searls says that it works in the book, but it was ""too corny"" for the film. However, at one point in the theatrical version, Michael Brody says, ""Come on, sharks don't commit murder. Tell me you don't believe in that voodoo.""
Reviews of the novel were mixed. Author and journalist Matt Serafini calls it a ""fast-moving and vivid read"", rating it higher than the actual movie. However, writing for The Miami Herald, Joe Achenbach calls it ""the literary equivalent of a sausage"".


== See also ==
List of killer shark films
List of films considered the worst


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Biodrowski, Steven (September 1987). ""Jaws: the revenge - Stop-motion shark by Ted Rae abandoned by a hurried production"". Cinefantastique. 17 (5). Oak Park, IL: Frederick S. Clarke: 14. ISSN 0145-6032.
Brickman, Barbara Jane (2011). ""Brothers, Sisters, and Chainsaws: The Slasher Film as Locus for Sibling Rivalry"". Quarterly Review of Film and Video. 28 (2): 135–154. doi:10.1080/10509200802530155.
Caine, Michael (1992). What's it All About. Century. ISBN 0-7126-3567-X.
Downey, Paul (2017). ""Remember The Kill? Mitchell Anderson reflects on 30 years of Jaws: The Revenge"". Scream - the Horror Magazine (43): 28–30. ISSN 2045-2128.
Downey, Paul (2022). The Shark is Roaring – The Story of Jaws: The Revenge. BearManor Media. ISBN 978-1629339726.
Field, Matthew (2014). Michael Caine: You're a Big Man. Pavilion Books. ISBN 9781849942515.
Gross, Edward (August 1987). ""'Jaws: the revenge' - Reeling in the fourth killer shark movie"". Fangoria (66). New York, NY: O'Quinn Studios: 24–27.
Hunter, I.Q. (2019). ""Jaws: the revenge and the production of failure"". Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies. 33 (6): 677–691. doi:10.1080/10304312.2019.1677981. hdl:2086/16764. S2CID 210613770.
Loock, Kathleen (2020). ""'Just when you thought it was safe...' The Jaws sequels"". In Hunter, !.Q.; Melia, Matthew (eds.). The Jaws Book. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-5013-7386-2.
McKinney, Ross (April 2019). ""Clinical Research Is a Team Sport"". American Journal of Bioethics. 19 (4): 22–23. doi:10.1080/15265161.2019.1574494. ISSN 1526-5161. PMID 31544676.
Oliver, T (December 1987). ""The Brody family gets jawed again: special-effects shark winks, swims, dives, turns, wiggles, and chomps hydraulically in ""Jaws the Revenge."""". Hydraulics & Pneumatics. 40 (12). ISSN 0002-7928.
Turner, George (August 1987). ""Jaws: the revenge is complete"". American Cinematographer. 68: 42. ISSN 0002-7928.
Wilson, John (2005). The Official Razzie Movie Guide: Enjoying the Best of Hollywood's Worst. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 0-446-69334-0.
Winnert, Derek (1993). Radio Times Film & Video Guide 1994. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-57477-1.


== External links ==

Jaws: The Revenge at IMDb
Jaws: The Revenge at the TCM Movie Database
Jaws: The Revenge at Rotten Tomatoes
Jaws: The Revenge at Box Office Mojo"
Detention and deportation of American citizens in the second Trump administration,"Under the second Trump administration, officials working for the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) increased their efforts to detain and deport undocumented immigrants.  These operations led to the wrongful apprehension, detention, and deportation of U.S. citizens. The Trump administration's treatment of U.S. citizens raised concerns among civil rights advocates. Opponents of the Trump administration maintain that these legal violations were caused by increased pressure to deport people in a rapid manner without procedural safeguards.
Several notable deportation cases involved children who hold U.S. citizenship and their non-citizen parents, including one child undergoing cancer treatment. Noteworthy detention cases include those of José Hermosillo, Juan Carlos López-Gómez, Julio Noriega, Jensy Machado, a military veteran, a United States Marshal, and the detention and questioning of Indigenous people in the American Southwest—all of whom were U.S. citizens wrongfully held by immigration authorities.  In response, Congressional Democrats asked the Trump administration to provide information justifying the detention of U.S. citizens.


== Background ==
Under the law of the United States, a U.S. citizen cannot legally be deported and has the legal right to return to the United States at any time. Prior to the second Trump administration, some academic studies attempted to count the number of unlawful detention and deportations of American citizens that had previously occurred; one study estimated that from 2003 to 2011 more than 20,000 Americans were incorrectly detained or deported by immigration officials.
Beginning with his second presidential administration, Trump pushed for mass deportations along with reducing safeguards to stop inappropriate detentions and deportations. This process resulted in American citizens becoming entangled in enforcement efforts. New York magazine described the problem as, ""[i]t's not a matter of if U.S. citizens are getting caught up in President Donald Trump's immigration crackdown and mass-deportation efforts but, rather, how and how many.""


=== Proposed transfer of U.S. citizens to foreign prisons ===
Despite longstanding legal prohibitions against deporting American citizens, President Donald Trump explored the possibility of transferring citizens convicted of crimes to foreign prisons during his second presidential term. Trump publicly stated numerous times that his administration was examining whether such actions could be legally pursued.
On February 4, 2025, Salvadoran president Nayib Bukele stated that he would be willing to house people of any nationality detained by the United States, including American citizens, in the maximum security Terrorism Confinement Center (CECOT) in El Salvador in exchange for a fee paid by the U.S. government. He confirmed the statement on X, saying he offered the U.S. ""the opportunity to outsource part of its prison system"". Although the U.S. government cannot legally deport American citizens, Secretary of State Marco Rubio said that the administration would study whether the U.S. constitution and laws would enable the administration to do so. Rubio called the offer ""very generous"", noting that it was the first time another country had made such an offer, and that it would cost a fraction of imprisoning criminals in the U.S. prison system. Trump said he was looking into whether he could move forward with the offer, telling reporters ""if we had a legal right to do it, I would do it in a heartbeat"", but he was not sure whether that legal right existed, and the administration was assessing it. Trump said the cost of incarcerating American prisoners in other countries would be much less than that of imprisoning people in the U.S., and in addition ""it would be a great deterrent."" He said that several countries had already agreed to host American prisoners. Elon Musk called the proposal a ""Great idea!!"" on X. Rubio specified that this would apply to dangerous criminals. However, Politico noted that Bukele said on X that El Salvador would gladly take U.S. ex-senator Bob Menendez, who was serving an 11-year prison sentence for bribery but who was not a violent criminal.
On March 21, 2025, Trump suggested on Truth Social that the ""sick terrorist thugs"" responsible for the recent vandalism of Tesla property could be sent to Salvadoran prisons, ""which have become so recently famous for such lovely conditions"".
On April 6, 2025, ahead of Bukele's White House visit, Trump confirmed that they would discuss sending Americans to El Salvador's prisons, giving his stance as ""If they can house these horrible criminals for a lot less money than it costs us, I'm all for it.""
Later when Trump met with Bukele at the White House on April 14, 2025, they continued to discuss the topic of sending Americans to CECOT and Trump continued to explore whether such an action was legal. During the White House visit, the two discussed the case of Kilmar Abrego Garcia, a Salvadoran man illegally deported to El Salvador, and Trump told Bukele: ""Home-growns are next. The home-growns. You gotta build about five more places. It's not big enough.""
Insha Rahman, vice president of advocacy in the Vera Institute of Justice, stated that there's no precedent to send U.S. citizens outside the country to serve sentences in other countries: ""It is so beyond the pale of anything contemplated by the Constitution or due process or the criminal courts."" Lauren-Brooke Eisen, the senior director of the justice program at the Brennan Center for Justice, told Politico in a statement that the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits cruel and unusual punishments such as excessive sentences or inhumane prison conditions, and that deporting Americans would be illegal under the First Step Act, which requires that the federal government send those convicted of federal crimes to ""a facility as close as practicable to the prisoner's primary residence, and to the extent practicable, in a facility within 500 driving miles of that residence"".
The BBC noted that while U.S. citizens enjoy legal protection from deportation, it is possible for naturalized citizens to be denaturalized. This can happen when the citizenship was fraudulently obtained, and thus, citizens suspected of ties to criminal gangs or terrorist organizations, such as Tren de Aragua or MS-13, could, in theory, be stripped of citizenship and then deported after due process. Citizens born in the U.S. cannot be denaturalized.


== Deportations ==


=== Unidentified 4 and 7-year-old siblings ===
Two American citizens, a 7-year-old girl and her 4-year-old brother, who has stage 4 cancer, were exiled from the U.S. to Honduras with their mother, who is a Honduran national on April 25, 2025. The mother had crossed into the United States at the age of 13 and claimed asylum at the border. She was ordered to be deported because she missed an appointment with immigration officials. According to her attorney, she never received notice of the appointment.
The day before, the children had traveled with their mother and the family's lawyer to a routine check in with ICE in Saint Rose, Louisiana. According to an attorney for the family, the children's mother was told the check in was to photocopy the children's passports, and the children wore their school uniforms, expecting to return to school once the appointment was over. The three of them were detained before they could speak with their lawyer. The children's mother was not permitted to speak with an attorney or family members prior to their deportation, despite trying to do so.
The attorney said she was informed by ICE that her clients had been detained, but was not permitted to see the two children or their mother, as ICE ""sequestered her from me."" Attorneys for both the mother and the children insisted that the children were deported illegally. The attorneys provided evidence demonstrating that their mother, other family members, and attorneys ""had little to no chance"" to arrange for the children to stay in the U.S. rather than being deported. The attorneys were in the midst of preparing habeas corpus petitions for the children, but the children were deported before the attorneys could file them. 
The 4-year-old had his cancer medication with him, but was not permitted to access it in detention, and was not allowed to bring the medication with him when he was deported. ICE was aware of the 4-year-old's cancer diagnosis and that he was undergoing treatment prior to his deportation.
Tom Homan, President Donald Trump's ""border czar"", insinuated that the children are anchor babies, commenting that  ""Having a U.S. citizen child after you enter this country illegally is not a get-out-of-jail free card."" In speaking about the deportation of these children and another U.S. citizen child, Homan insisted that the children's mothers requested their children be removed from the country, and said it was preferable to keep the families together. Secretary of State Marco Rubio denied that the children had been deported, instead saying that they ""went with their mothers,"" and that because they are citizens, they could return to the U.S. if the families arranged for someone in the U.S. to care for them.


=== VML ===
VML is a 2-year-old American citizen who was deported to Honduras with her mother in April 2025.
VML, referred to by her initials in court documents to protect her privacy, was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, in 2023. Her mother, who is a Honduran citizen, was asked to bring her children with her when attending a check in with ICE on April 22, 2025. During the check in, VML, her 11-year old sister, and their mother who is pregnant, were detained and quickly deported. VML's mother was ordered to be deported because — according to her lawyer — she had been kidnapped while waiting in Mexico to immigrate to the United States and was not released by her kidnappers until after her appointment had passed.
VML's father alleges in court filings that between the time of her detention and deportation, he reached out to ICE and was told that he could attempt to pick up his daughter, but that he would also be ""taken into custody"" if he did so. 
At a court hearing, U.S. District Judge Terry Doughty highlighted deportation of a U.S. citizen is ""illegal and unconstitutional,"" that he has a ""strong suspicion that the Government just deported a U.S. citizen with no meaningful process."" Judge Doughty ordered a hearing on the matter for May 16, 2025.
In speaking about the deportation of VML and two other young children who are American citizens, the executive director of ACLU of Louisiana said ""Once again, the government has used deceptive tactics to deny people their rights. These outrageous actions must be condemned. We as a nation are better than this. These families deserve better. They must be returned.""


== Detentions ==


=== Jose Hermosillo ===
U.S. citizen Jose Hermosillo, a resident of the state of New Mexico, was arrested by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBR) in Tucson on April 8, 2025. Hermosillo lives in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and was in Arizona with his girlfriend visiting her family. Hermosillo was arrested while walking near the Border Patrol headquarters for illegally entering the country despite not having done so. Upon learning of his detention in Florence Correctional Center, a privately owned prison in Florence, Arizona, a member of Hermosillo's girlfriend's family drove to the facility with Hermosillo's Social Security card and birth certificate but was not given any information or allowed to effectuate his release.
The criminal complaint against Hermosillo stated that Hermosillo claimed he is a Mexican citizen, had entered the country illegally through Nogales, and was planning to stay for 20 years to work. According to an anonymous United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) official, Hermosillo then signed a statement with those facts. Hermosillo's family and girlfriend say that he has a learning disability and is illiterate. The charging document states that Hermosillo either read the document or had it read to him, but Hermosillo states that it was never read to him.
According to Hermosillo, the Border Patrol's version of events is false. He says that he had a seizure and was taken to a hospital by an ambulance without his state ID card. He says that after being release from the hospital, he got lost and went to a police officer for help. The police officer asked where he was from and he said that he was from ""New Mexico"". The officer, who worked for the Border Patrol, responded ""Don't make me [out] like [I'm] stupid. I know you're from Mexico"" and arrested him, according to Hermosillo. He says that he told prison staff that he was a US citizen several times, and was told ""call your lawyer"". He denies that ICE officers read him the document that he signed with his first name.
Hermosillo was detained for a total of ten days before being released April 17. In an interview after his release, Hermosillo stated that ""They were saying I'm from Mexico, but I'm a U.S. citizen.""  Arizona Attorney General Kris Mayes investigated Hermosillo's detention by immigration authorities, requesting information about the incident from Immigration and Customs Enforcement. ""It is wholly unacceptable to wrongfully detain U.S. citizens"", Mayes said in a statement.


=== Juan Carlos Lopez-Gomez ===
U.S. citizen Juan Carlos Lopez-Gomez, who was born in and lives in the state of Georgia, was traveling from his home to Florida for a construction job along with two other people on April 16, 2025. Their car was pulled over for a traffic stop by the Florida Highway Patrol for allegedly speeding. Lopez-Gomez, along with the driver and an additional passenger, were arrested and each charged with allegedly entering Florida as an ""unauthorized alien"" under Florida law SB 4-C.
The arrest report states that Lopez-Gomez said he was in the country illegally, but Lopez-Gomez disputes this claim insisting that he told the official he was a U.S. citizen and provided a Social Security card and Georgia ID. Both Lopez-Gomez's mother and his community advocate presented Lopez-Gomez's birth certificate to Leon County Judge LaShawn Riggans, who deemed the birth certificate authentic. However, the judge said that there was nothing she could do to let him out of jail at that time, despite finding no probable cause to hold Lopez-Gomez.
Lopez-Gomez was detained in the Leon County Jail until he was released on April 17. The Florida Phoenix reported that the driver was being held by ICE. Alana Greer of the Community Justice Project — a Florida immigration advocacy group — described the experience as ""A series of horrors,"" and said that ""[n]o one should have been arrested under this law, let alone a US citizen."" Lopez-Gomez's attorney stated that this case is ""a prime example of why everyone should care, because if it happens to Mr. Lopez-Gomez, a US-born citizen, it can happen to anyone.""


=== Julio Noriega ===
U.S. citizen and native Chicagoan Julio Noriega, who has a learning disability that affects his comprehension, was out looking for work, handing out his resume at local businesses in Berwyn, Illinois, on January 31, 2025. He stopped for a slice of pizza, and was grabbed from behind by ICE, arrested without probable cause, handcuffed, and put in a van with other people. ICE took his phone and wallet, which had his Social Security card and driver's license inside. The people in the van were driven around for hours and eventually taken to an ICE processing center in Broadview, Illinois, where he remained for hours, still handcuffed and without access to food, water, or a bathroom. All told, he was detained for at least ten hours without having been asked about his citizenship or otherwise questioned. He was released in the middle of the night after government officials checked his wallet and determined he was actually an American citizen. Mark Fleming, the associate director of litigation at the National Immigrant Justice Center, said that ICE then ""just sent him out to the street, even though he had no money and had no idea where he was"", nor a way to get home. ICE did not give Noriega any documentation of the arrest and detention, and later denied having any record of it, including body camera or other video.


=== Jensy Machado ===
Naturalized U.S. citizen Jensy Machado and two other men were stopped and detained by ICE on March 5, 2025, while they were driving to work in Manassas, Virginia. The ICE officers had their guns out and said that they were looking for someone with a different name who had a deportation order and had given Machado's address as his own.  Machado explained that he was not the man they were looking for and offered to show them his Real ID driver's license, but was told to keep his hands in the air and was then handcuffed. He was only released after officials viewed his driver's license. Machado said that he had thought ICE was only going to target criminals, but is instead assuming that all Hispanic people are in the country illegally.
Virginia senator Mark Warner wrote to DHS that month, saying that if ICE detains someone who says that they have documentation showing their legal status, the officers should always allow this. He also asked the agency to answer several questions, such as whether the ICE officers identified themselves prior to pulling out their guns, and whether they had been ""counseled or disciplined"" for their actions.


=== Navajo Nation ===
According to the Navajo Nation, over a dozen indigenous people had been questioned, detained, or asked to provide proof of citizenship by federal law enforcement during immigration raids in January 2025. In some cases, ICE officers were not aware that Certificates of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB) are proof of citizenship, and one person was detained for nine hours. In another case, eight Native Americans were detained for two hours after their workplace was raided. Their phones were confiscated, and one Navajo woman reported that she was not able to provide proof of citizenship until her phone was returned and she was able to text family, one of whom sent a copy of the woman's CDIB. Enough Navajos have been stopped by immigration authorities that the nation created a guide with tips about what to do if stopped, encouraging people to always carry identification and that families alert their children about what to do, including having them memorize their Social Security numbers. Other tribes have also issued tips and warnings, and Native News Online published an article, ""Native Americans and Immigration Enforcement – Know Your Rights"". One Arizona state senator who is Navajo suggested that tribes contact DHS to share what their travel enrollment card and CDIB look like.


=== Puerto Ricans ===
Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens as established by the Jones-Shafroth Act (1917), which made Puerto Rico a U.S. territory. In spite of their citizenship, ICE raids detained and arrested Puerto Ricans under the second Trump administration in multiple incidents.  In one, a U.S. military veteran from Puerto Rico was detained on January 23, 2025, after an ICE raid at a seafood warehouse in Newark, New Jersey. The veteran worked there as a warehouse manager. The co-owner of the business said that ICE appeared to be targeting people who look Hispanic, while ignoring his white employees. 
In another notable incident, three members of a Puerto Rican family were taken to a detention center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on January 27, 2025, after an immigration officer heard one of them speaking Spanish. They were released prior to processing when they provided documentation. The detentions led to a significant upswing in passport requests from Puerto Ricans to provide documentation to satisfy immigration officers.


=== Leonardo Garcia Venegas ===
American-born citizen Leonardo Garcia Venegas was detained in a vehicle following an immigration raid in Foley, Alabama, in May 2025. He was subsequently released after giving authorities his Social Security number. Garcia's brother, who is not a U.S. citizen, was arrested during the raid. According to Garcia and his cousin, the authorities conducting the raid saw Garcia's REAL ID and called it fake before detaining him.


=== Cary López Alvarado ===
U.S. citizen Cary López Alvarado was arrested by ICE agents alongside two undocumented immigrants, one of which was her partner, on June 8, 2025. The DHS said that Alvarado was arrested for blocking access to a car containing the undocumented immigrants; Alvarado denied resisting, saying, ""I can't fight back; I'm pregnant."" Footage shows her telling agents that they needed to leave for being on private property. Other footage shows her refusing to ""move away"" upon an agent's request. Alvarado was released from custody not long after her arrest.


=== Detention of US Marshal ===
A US Marshal was detained by ICE in Arizona in the summer of 2025 after officers mistakenly thought he was another person.


== Reactions ==
In response to early reports of American citizens being detained, two Democrats on the House Judiciary Committee, Jamie Raskin (the ranking member on the committee) and Pramila Jayapal (the ranking member on the immigration subcommittee), wrote Kristi Noem, the DHS secretary, and Caleb Vitello, the acting director of ICE enforcement, asking them to provide information about citizen detention. The February letter noted that ICE does not have authority to detain citizens, and stressed the importance of keeping ""the escalating government assault on immigrants from becoming a steamroller that crushes the rights of American citizens"".


== See also ==
Activist deportations in the second Trump presidency
Deportation of Americans from the United States
June 2025 Los Angeles protests


== Notes ==


== References =="
"Southeastern (train operating company, 2006–2021)","London & South Eastern Railway Limited, trading as Southeastern, was a British train operating company owned by Govia that operated passenger rail services in South East England. It was the key operator of commuter and regional services in South East London and Kent, and also served parts of East Sussex.
Southeastern commenced operations on 1 April 2006 as the franchisee for the new Integrated Kent franchise (IKF), replacing the publicly owned South Eastern Trains on the former South Eastern franchise. Initially set to operate the franchise for a period of eight years, the company received numerous extensions and was at one point contracted to operate through to 2022. However, the franchise was terminated early after it was discovered that the company had held onto £25 million of unaccounted-for taxpayer money. On 16 October 2021, operations were transferred to the Department for Transport-owned operator Southeastern.


== Overview ==
Southeastern served the main London stations of Charing Cross, Victoria, Cannon Street, London Bridge, Waterloo East and St Pancras. The Southeastern network has a route mileage of 540, with 179 stations. About 70% of its services run to and from London.
Southeastern trains operated on three main routes: the South Eastern Main Line from London Cannon Street and London Charing Cross to Dover via Sevenoaks; the Chatham Main Line between London Victoria and Dover/Ramsgate via the Medway towns; and High Speed 1 from London St Pancras. On 14 December 2009, Southeastern launched full operations of its high-speed services using a purpose-built fleet of British Rail Class 395 high speed trains. Southeastern operated special high speed services using its Class 395s during the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics under the Olympic Javelin brand.
Southeastern operated numerous commuter services that served South-East and South London as well as Kent, many of which came under the Metro brand. Between March 2009 and May 2012, due to substantial reconstruction work at London Blackfriars as part of the Thameslink Programme, Southeastern services that previously terminated at Blackfriars, mostly from Sevenoaks via the Catford loop, were extended to Kentish Town, St Albans, Luton or Bedford. During 2016, Transport for London (TfL) proposed to take over several Southeastern-ran commuter services within the city. However, the planned redistribution was not approved by the British government. Despite this decision, in the late 2010s, several services formerly operated by Southeastern were reorganised as Thameslink routes, including services to Sevenoaks and Gillingham.
It was owned by Govia, a joint venture between Go-Ahead Group and Keolis, which also operates the neighbouring Southern franchise that overlapped with Southeastern in some western areas.


== History ==

During December 2003, the Strategic Rail Authority announced that Danish State Railways/Stagecoach, FirstGroup, Govia and MTR/Sea Containers had been shortlisted to bid for the new Integrated Kent franchise, which would replace the South Eastern franchise and include services on High Speed 1 operating from St Pancras. In November 2005, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced Govia had been awarded the franchise; the services operated by South Eastern Trains were transferred to Southeastern on 1 April 2006.
During November 2007, the second phase of High Speed 1 was opened to traffic, resulting in the freeing up of train paths on the traditional network previously used by Eurostar, which permitted Southeastern to increase certain services two months later. During December 2008, as part of the franchise agreement, responsibility for the Redhill to Tonbridge Line was transferred to Southern.
On 14 December 2009, Southeastern launched full operations of its high-speed services using its newly procured fleet of British Rail Class 395 high speed trains. Seven million journeys were recorded on in the first year of this service's operation. The introduction of Southeastern's high-speed services was typically regarded as successful, achieving good reliability and passenger satisfaction figures, as well as being credited for an increase in passenger numbers above that already being experienced on the Kent network.
The initial terms of the franchise had included a period of eight years, along with a two-year option dependent on performance targets being met. During March 2011, having fulfilled these performance criteria, it was announced that the DfT had granted Govia a two-year franchise extension until March 2014.
During March 2009, the bay platforms at London Blackfriars were temporarily closed for reconstruction as part of the Thameslink Programme; accordingly, Southeastern services that previously terminated at Blackfriars, mostly from Sevenoaks via the Catford loop, were extended to Kentish Town, St Albans, Luton or Bedford. When the station fully reopened with new bay platforms in May 2012, these services continued to run, but in the evening and on weekends (when the station had been closed), instead of terminating at Victoria, services terminated at Blackfriars.
Following the DfT review after the cancellation of the InterCity West Coast franchise process in 2012, extensions were granted to the franchises due for renewal in the near future. In 2013, the coalition government opted to extend Southeastern's franchise without competitive tender from March 2014 to June 2018, and in 2016 further extended it until December 2018. The Invitation to Tender was to be released in September 2017 for contract award in August 2018.
Amidst the 2016–18 United Kingdom rail strikes that impacted numerous train operators across the nation, Southeastern cleaning staff, outsourced to employment agency Wettons, voted to stage industrial action in a dispute over pay and working conditions in September 2017. A strike, which involved Wettons cleaning staff affiliated with the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT), took place on 19 October 2017 and lasted for 24 hours. There was no further industrial action, although negotiations between the RMT, Southeastern and Wettons continued for some time.
As part of the 2018 Thameslink Programme, several of the routes formerly operated by Southeastern changed into Thameslink routes, including services to Sevenoaks and Gillingham. These services using the Class 700 now run from Bedford through the London Core via London Bridge and on to the Kent Main Line or the North Kent Line.


=== Development of future franchise ===

During January 2016, Transport for London (TfL) announced its intention to take over the London suburban parts of the franchise from 2018, integrating the routes into a proposed metro network. However, in December 2016, Transport Secretary Chris Grayling rejected this proposed reorganisation; the decision was quickly condemned by Mayor of London Sadiq Khan.
In June 2017, the DfT announced that four parties, comprising an Abellio/East Japan Railway Company/Mitsui consortium, incumbent Govia, Stagecoach and Trenitalia, had been shortlisted to bid for the next South Eastern franchise. On 10 August 2017, Trenitalia withdrew its interest in the franchise. During November 2017, the Invitation to Tender for the next franchise was issued. During February 2018, Alstom joined Stagecoach's bid.
The bid evaluation process was protracted, contributing to short term extensions of the franchise to the incumbent operator. The franchise competition was cancelled on 7 August 2019 and the DfT instead took up a further extension and the operator was to run services until 31 March 2020. However, a new contract was then agreed on 30 March 2020, running up to 16 October 2021, with a possible extension to 31 March 2022.


=== Termination of franchise ===
During September 2021, the DfT announced it would be terminating Govia's South Eastern franchise after revenue declaration discrepancies involving £25 million of public money were discovered. Secretary of State for Transport Grant Shapps stated that this was a serious breach of the ""good faith"" obligation in the franchise agreement. Following the announcement, shares in Go-Ahead Group (joint owner of Govia) fell 22% and their Chief Financial Officer resigned. During December 2021, Go-Ahead issued an admission of ""serious errors and failures"", while the trading of its shares on the London Stock Exchange was suspended as the company was unable to publish financial results.
In February 2022, Go-Ahead announced the outcome of investigations into the termination of the franchise; it found that ""serious errors had been made” since 2006, with the expected cost to the company to be over £80 million. The amount owed to the DfT was increased to £51.3 million, with errors dating back to the start of the franchise in 2006. Go-Ahead also stated that they expect to have to pay a fine to the DfT, setting aside up to £30 million for this. Go-Ahead also stated that they may also owe DfT an additional £21.3 million, related to a dispute over profit sharing. In March 2022, the government imposed a £23.5 million penalty in addition to the £64 million that it is seeking to recover from the former operator.
On 17 October 2021, government-owned Southeastern (SE Trains Limited) took over the franchise as an operator of last resort.


== Southeastern sub-brands ==


=== Highspeed ===
Southeastern introduced a full timetable of domestic high-speed services branded Southeastern Highspeed over High Speed 1 between London St Pancras and Ashford International on 13 December 2009; a limited preview service had been running since 29 June 2009. High-speed trains use High Speed 1 calling at Stratford International and Ebbsfleet International. Trains from London to the Medway towns and Faversham leave the high-speed line at Ebbsfleet and continue via the North Kent line and Chatham Main Line. Trains for Dover Priory and Margate leave the high-speed line at Ashford International. A limited peak-hour service now also operates between St Pancras and Maidstone West via Ebbsfleet and Strood.
When bidding for the franchise, Southeastern made a point of advertising part-owner SNCF's experience operating integrated high-speed train services on the French TGV network. A fleet of 29 six-coach Shinkansen-derived high-speed 'A-trains' were built in Japan by Hitachi for this route. Known as Class 395, this was Hitachi's first train sale in Britain. The colour scheme for the high-speed trains' livery was dark blue. The services were marketed as Southeastern Highspeed, and some of the trains were named after British Olympians such as Steve Redgrave and Ben Ainslie.
At the same time, there was the largest change to the timetable in the area in 40 years. With the fast trains now travelling over High Speed 1, the Charing Cross to Ashford stopping service was extended to Dover, Canterbury and Ramsgate. Fares for journeys that included the High Speed 1 section of line (between St Pancras International and Gravesend) generally included a surcharge.


==== Javelin shuttle ====

Southeastern operated special high speed services using the Class 395 during the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics, branded as the Olympic Javelin or Javelin. As a result, the class is still sometimes referred to as the Javelin.
Announced as part of the successful London 2012 Olympic bid, it was an integral part of a plan to improve public transport in London in readiness for the Olympics, an area of the bid that was initially regarded as being poor by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The British Olympic Association applied to register Javelin as a UK trademark on 19 July 2005 and this was granted on 2 June 2006.
The service ran for the duration of both games, between St Pancras International station and Ebbsfleet International station, via Stratford International station, which is close to the Olympic Park. Eight trains per hour ran between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet, calling at Stratford, replacing the usual East Kent highspeed service. Two of these were extended to Ashford and one to Faversham. Between 11pm and 1am the service between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet was increased to twelve per hour.
At St Pancras, there is an interchange with the London Underground and with trains to/from the Midlands, Scotland, and the North of England. For track capacity reasons, Eurostar trains, which have never called at Stratford, did not do so during the games. It was expected that over 80% of Olympic spectators would travel to and from the venues by rail. Services to the Olympic Park were planned to offer a total capacity of 240,000 travellers per hour, some 25,000 of whom were expected to use the Javelin service.


=== Mainline ===
Southeastern was the key operator for Kent, and also serves East Sussex. 'Mainline' services connect central London with Dover, Folkestone, Hastings, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Ramsgate, Chatham, Maidstone and Canterbury. The backbone fleet on these services is the Class 375 Electrostar, although  Class 377 Electrostars and Class 465/9 Networkers are also used on some routes.
In December 2009, Southeastern saw 'Highspeed' trains stopping at 'Mainline' stations, and some longer timings on 'Mainline' services as trains called at more stations. Services to Tonbridge were maintained at six trains per hour off-peak, two per hour going forward to Ashford and beyond, two per hour to Hastings, and two per hour terminating at Tunbridge Wells. With high-speed services reaching Faversham, the half-hourly Victoria to Faversham stopping service was replaced with an hourly service to Gillingham and additional stops on the ""fast"" services to London Victoria. On the Maidstone East Line, services from London Cannon Street to Ashford International via Maidstone East and from London Victoria to Maidstone East and to Canterbury West via Ashford were replaced by a half-hourly Victoria to Ashford service. The Strood to Paddock Wood service was extended to Tonbridge. The Sittingbourne to Sheerness on Sea branch line also comes under 'Mainline' services, using Class 375 Electrostars which replaced Class 466 Networkers. Mainline services use a dark blue livery, similar to that of the ""Javelin"" high-speed trains.


=== Metro ===
Southeastern served South-East London, South London and on into Kent, its central stations being London Blackfriars, London Bridge, Charing Cross, Cannon Street, London Victoria and Waterloo East.
'Metro' trains served Greenwich, New Cross, Lewisham, Dartford, Gravesend, Woolwich Arsenal, Hayes, Peckham Rye, Bromley South, Bickley, Bexleyheath, Petts Wood, Orpington and Sevenoaks.
Southeastern ran Class 376 Electrostar, and Class 466 and Class 465 Networkers for 'Metro' services, although a Class 375 Electrostar was used on occasion. The livery for these was white with the Southeastern logo, which was also formerly used for ""Mainline"" services.


== Routes ==
As of August 2023, the weekday off-peak service pattern, with frequencies in trains per hour (tph), was:


== Ticketing ==
At the time of its franchise ending in 2021, Oyster cards were valid from all Zone 1–9 stations served by the company, the travelcard zones having been extended to include stations such as Dartford after an initial outcry by passengers being required to travel to Zone 6 stations such as Slade Green, Barnehurst or Crayford to ""tap in"" before continuing on their journey. Travelcards (including on Oyster) are however were not valid on High-Speed services, except between St Pancras International and Stratford International at a special pay-as-you-go fare.


== Performance ==
During late 2010, the company faced a barrage of criticism for its performance during extreme weather conditions in the south-east of England and there are also allegations from passenger advocacy groups and MPs of both parties that Southeastern deliberately runs reduced services to skew its official performance figures.
In 2014, a survey of UK rail passenger satisfaction showed Southeastern to be the lowest-rated train operating company, with just forty per cent of passengers believing that good service is provided and a rating of only one out of five for value for money. Southeastern claimed that the reason for this is that people dislike going to work and that if the survey were to be retaken on a ""sunny summer's day"" the outcome would be better for the company.
In a survey (Best and worst UK train companies) carried out in February 2015 by Which? magazine, Southeastern continued to rank poorly, rated as the second-worst UK train operating train companies customer score of just 44%. This was narrowly ahead of Govia Thameslink Railway, with 43%. Southeastern also achieved only 2/5 or 3/5 star ratings across the six specific categories assessed in the survey (such categories included Punctuality, Reliability and Cleanliness of toilets).
Southeastern performed poorly in performance and passenger satisfaction in 2016, with the 2016 survey by Which? magazine finding Southeastern to be the joint-worst performing train operating company in Britain, with a customer score of just 46%. The Spring 2016 National Rail Passenger Survey further underlined Southeastern's continuing poor performance and passenger satisfaction. The company issued a joint response with Network Rail on the day of publication, primarily blaming outside factors and survey methodology. The 2016 Which? figures were backed up by the 2016 Transport Focus survey, which placed Southeastern joint bottom in satisfaction on service delivery.
Satisfaction with the frequency of services declined year on year from 73% to 56%, and satisfaction with ticket value scored 30%, the lowest of any operator in the country.
In the Autumn 2019 National Rail Passenger Survey, 81% of passengers using Southeastern services were satisfied with their journeys. This was the company's highest score for six years and an increase of 3% on the previous year.


== Rolling stock ==
Southeastern operated a fleet of approximately 400 trains, all of which are electric multiple units and have been taken over by its successor Southeastern.


=== Fleet at end of franchise ===


=== Past fleet ===
The transfer of some routes to Southern and Thameslink allowed Southeastern to withdraw its small fleet of Class 508 EMUs and replace them with Networker stock cascaded from other services.


== Driver depots ==
Southeastern's drivers were based at the following locations;


== References ==


== External links ==
 Media related to Southeastern (train operating company) at Wikimedia Commons

Company website (archived)
alwaystouchout.com on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Archived 29 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine (includes information about the high speed services)"
Jonny Star,"Jonny Star (born December 26, 1964, in Düsseldorf, Germany) is a German artist. Until 2011 she worked as an artist under her given name Gabriele-Maria Scheda. She lives and works in Berlin and in New York City, United States


== Personal life ==
Jonny Star spent her first ten years in Düsseldorf and the surrounding area before moving to the Hochsauerland region (North Rhine-Westphalia) with her parents and two sisters. There her parents opened an alternative hotel which became the vacation destination of the Düsseldorf art and theater scene in the 1970s. Jonny Star's mother belonged to the scene as part of the circle of the American theatre director and theatre manager Ernest Martin from the late 1960s on. In 1982 Jonny Star left her home and became part of the West Berlin subculture. In 1990 she passed her A-levels in an all women's class at the School for Adult Education (Schule für Erwachsenenbildung) in Berlin and studied Psychology at the TU Berlin from 1991 until 1996. From 1985 to 1992, Jonny Star co-operated the legendary cult bar Café Anfall in Berlin-Kreuzberg and had extended stays abroad in France, Spain, Portugal, the US, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Morocco, Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger before starting to work professionally as a visual artist in 1996. From 1997 to 1999, she learned Mold making and the process of bronze casting in the prestigious Berlin based fine art foundry Bildgießerei Hermann Noack. In the years 1999 to 2005, followed numerous stays in Portugal. In addition to her artistic work, she initiated and curated international exhibitions and art projects like Showroom Berlin (1996–1998), JONNY'S (2007–2009), SWEET HOME (2011–2012) and SUPERUSCHI (since 2013). Since 1996 Jonny Star has exhibited internationally.


== Artistic work ==
In her artistic work, Jonny Star uses various materials and media which she often combines, such as bronze, photography, fabric and installation elements. Star usually creates series of works that develop over several years in parallel. In early bronze sculptures like the series Dear Germaine (1998) or and suddenly (1998–99) she creates humanlike imaginary creatures that deal with the counterpoints of heaviness and lightness, movement and stagnation and with themes like imprisonment, exposure or suffering. In the bronzes of the series alle zusammen (2001), suchen eine reise (2003), and wachen sein tot (2009–10) the artist additionally uses found objects from nature. In some work series, such as JETZT KOMM ICH (2007) or in the soft objects, cushion-like objects for the wall like My Flowerself (2010), Jonny is Back (2011) or komm ruh' dich aus (2012), Jonny Star deals with her own biography embedded in a private everyday aesthetics. With the change of her name from Gabriele-Maria Scheda to Jonny Star in 2011, occur more frequently topics like sexuality, physicality, identity, gender roles and their social reception. In Sex Sells (2013), Toy Girls (2014), Toy Boys (2014) or Free Your Soul (2015) Star accesses heterosexual and homosexual Internet pornography. She transfers video stills that she photographs from the screen or photos from pornographic magazines on fabric and collages them on doilies, or on self-made fabric objects and tapestries to reveal discriminatory gender clichés or sexual taboos that exist in our society. Many of her works of art criticize the structures of the global art market that should be forward thinking and unconventional, but represent one of the most strikingly conservative patriarchal structures.


== Curated exhibition series ==
Jonny Star develops group exhibitions in private homes, such as her own, or in gallery and project spaces, where Star creates spatial interventions to imitate the intimacy of private spaces. Star's main interest is to form of a participatory community of artists and visitors of the exhibition, as well as creating a greater awareness of the necessity of art in everyday life. She sees herself not necessarily as a curator, but rather as someone who brings people together for a collective experience. The exhibitions are not profit-oriented and were supported by the Berlin Senate Chancellery for Cultural Affairs among others or financed through crowdfunding campaigns.


=== Jonny's (2007–2009) ===
Ostensibly, Jonny Star's arts project Jonny's is a Portuguese shop (later with Café) in a part of the artist's ground-floor apartment in Berlin-Kreuzberg. Most of the delicacies sold there were obtained directly from the manufacturers in Portugal and had an unusual, anachronistic packaging design. In fact, Jonny's was an expansive art installation, also hosting exhibitions of different artists. On the shelves, between the food and household goods, bronze sculptures, collages and paintings were shown. Life and art were considered equal here. Exhibition openings, performance evenings, readings and artist talks were held regularly.


=== Sweet Home (2011–2013) ===
In March 2011, Jonny Star developed the exhibition project Sweet Home out of the preceding project Jonny's. The shows also took place at Star's apartment. International artists were invited to exhibit their work in a solo exhibition in Star's staged, exuberant living room. During the openings and events, Jonny Star installed a Portuguese bar with food and drinks. In December 2011, Sweet Home was invited to exhibit at the art fair SCOPE Art Show Miami 2011.


=== Superuschi (since 2013) ===
The exhibition series Superuschi (since March 2013) emerged from Star's projects Sweet Home (2011–2013) and Jonny's (2007–2009). International visual or performance artists participate and reflect together with Jonny Star a particular theme. The result is an exhibition that facilitates the interaction between space, objects, artists and guests, in terms of a Social sculpture. The artists have the opportunity to network with each other and the visitors attain a more direct participation in visual and performing arts. The Superuschi exhibition kitchen girls & toy boys in the Rush Arts Gallery in New York City in 2015 was supported by the Berlin Senate Cultural Affairs Department.


== Publications ==
JONNY STAR NEWSPAPER 2012
JONNY STAR NEWSPAPER 2013
Jonny is Back, 2011, Photography / Layout by Jonny Star, Text by Bianca Döring
Where's Jonny, 2011, Photography / Layout by Jonny Star, Text by Bianca Döring
Jonny and the Bio-Doctor, 2011, Photography / Layout by Jonny Star, Text by Bianca Döring
Heuchelmund, Karen-Susan Fessel, short stories with photographs by Gabriele-Maria Scheda (Jonny Star), Konkursbuchverlag Claudia Gehrke, Tübingen, Germany, 1995
Jonny Star. See Me, Feel Me, Touch Me, Heal Me, mit Textbeiträgen von Eva Meyer-Hermann, Tina Sauerlaender, Ralf Hanselle, Distanz Verlag, Berlin 2016


== Scholarships and awards ==
2016    Ruth Katzman Stipend, The League Residency At Vyt, New York
2014    Travel Grant Cultural Exchange of the Berlin Senate Cultural Affairs Department, supported group show in NYC curated by Jonny Star (SUPERUSCHI)


== Exhibitions ==


=== Solo exhibitions (selection) ===
2017 The Cycle Room, Atelierhof Kreuzberg, Berlin, Germany
2017 The Undone Ritual, 266 chashama, New York City, USA
2017 Fire, Botschaft at Uferhallen, Berlin, Germany
2016 See Me, Feel Me, Touch Me, Heal Me, Kosmetiksalo Bar Babette, Berlin, Germany
2015 MY WAY, Kreuzberg Pavilion, Berlin, Germany
2014 INTERGALAKTISCH, ROMPONE artspace, Cologne, Germany
2014 le puff, Tatau Obscur, Berlin, Germany
2013 Sex Sells, The Tornado and THE ONE, San Francisco, USA
2012 good for you, Klötze und Schinken, Berlin, Germany
2010 my flowerself, Crystal Ball Gallery, Berlin, Germany
2010 JETZT KOMM ICH, Haus am Lützowplatz / Studiogalerie, Berlin, Germany
2006 lang lang, Galeria Abraço, Lisbon, Portugal
2004 suchen eine reise, Porca Preta Gallery, Monchique, Portugal
2002 alle zusammen, Pasteur im Milchhof, Berlin, Germany
2002 DU LIEBE, Pasteur im Milchhof, Berlin, Germany
2001 alle zusammen, Centro Cultural, Vila do Bispo, Portugal
2000 werde fliegen, Gallery Foro, Loulé, Portugal
1999 and suddenly, schrotter & engel, Berlin, Germany
1996 Weltstadt Berlin, schrotter & engel, Berlin, Germany


=== Participation in group exhibitions (selection) ===
2021 entFALTUNG curated by Carolyn Heinz and Franziska Storch (SALOON Hamburg), Galerie Carolyn Heinz, Hamburg, Germany
2021 PERSPECTIVES - Tomorrow is the question, curated by Madeleine Schwinge, re:future Lab, Berlin, Germany
2020 Support, Walden Kunstausstellungen, Berlin, Germany
2020 Fifty/Fifty. The Matter Of Duality, curated by Grigori Dor and Mascha Naumova, Paul Fleischmann Haus, Berlin, Germany
2020 How beautiful you are! curated by Maik Schierloh, KINDL – Centre for Contemporary Art, Berlin, Germany
2019 Künstlergeld aus der Sammlung Haupt, Verband Deutscher Bürgschaftsbanken, Berlin, Germany
2018 Carpets, Katharina Maria Raab Gallery, Belin, Germany
2018 Wonder Woman ART b!tch curated by Britta (Helbig) Adler, Kosmetiksalon Babett, Berlin, Germany
2018 Geld - Wahn - Sinn, Haupt Collection at Reinbeckhallen curated by Lena Fließbach, Reinbeckhallen Berlin, Germany
2018 NGORONGORO II, Artistweekend Berlin at Jonas Burgert, Berlin, Germany
2018 Ein Turm von Unmöglichkeiten, (Salon Hansa), Galerie König, Berlin, Germany
2017 Female Ejaculation, curated by Jonny Star, Kosmetiksalon Babette, Berlin, Germany
2017 Mein lieber Freund und Kupferstecher, Haupt Collection, Verband Deutscher Bürgschaftsbanken, Berlin, Germany
2017 BERLIN-KLONDYKE 2017, UGM Studio, Maribor, Slovenija
2016 Der Flug der Königinnen. Women at work., ROMPONE artspace, Cologne, Germany
2016 Erste Botschaft: frohe Botschaft, Botschaft in den Uferhallen, Berlin, Germany
2015 You Can Feel It, Haus am Lützowplatz / Studiogalerie, Berlin, Germany
2015 PORN TO PIZZA—Domestic Clichés, curated by Tina Sauerländer, DAM Gallery, Berlin, Germany
2015 CE QUI JE SUIS MAINTENANT – Ein Zimmer für Alfred Flechtheim, curated by Claudia Cosmo, Osthaus Museum Hagen, Germany
2015 4 Years and Counting!, Juror selection of Omar Lopez Chahoud, Noospere Arts, New York City
2015 kitchen girls & toy boys, Rush Arts Gallery, New York City, USA
2014 viel ARBEIT_wenig Rot, Salon Hansa, rosa lux, Berlin, Germany
2014 CE QUI JE SUIS MAINTENANT – Ein Zimmer für Alfred Flechtheim, curated by Claudia Cosmo, ROMPONE artspace, Cologne, Germany
2014 aussen hui, innen pfui with Elke Graalfs, MONTAGEHALLE, Berlin, Germany
2014 My Paper Sunglasses, curated by Otavio Santiago, Somos Art House, Berlin, Germany
2014 head / body, curated by CHAMBER OF FINE ARTS, souterrain, Zurich, Switzerland
2013 Kunst und Banausen, curated by Elke Graalfs, Walden Gallery, Berlin, Germany
2012 Warhol is over, Robert Fontaine Gallery, Miami, USA
2010 Topsy Freerider! Le Trans Tier Salon, Crystal Ball Gallery, Berlin, Germany
2002 Mitten ins Herz, Gallery Tammen & Busch, Berlin, Germany


== Works in private collections ==
Heilhausstiftung Ursa Paul, Kassel, Germany
Sparkasse Hochsauerland, Germany
Haupt Collection, Berlin, Germany


== External links ==
Exhibition archive of the artist on kunstaspekte.de
Interview with the artist on sleek.com Archived February 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Interview with the artist on exberliner.com Archived June 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
Interview with the artist on kaltblut-magazine.com
Website of the artist
Website of SUPERUSCHI Archived January 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Jonny Star on Vimeo
Jonny Star on Artitious
Jonny Star on Artfacts


== References =="
"Juneau, Alaska","Juneau (  JOO-noh; Tlingit: Dzánti K'ihéeni [ˈtsʌ́ntʰɪ̀ kʼɪ̀ˈhíːnɪ̀] transl. Base of the Flounder's River), officially the City and Borough of Juneau, is the capital of the U.S. state of Alaska, located along the Gastineau Channel and the Alaskan panhandle. Juneau was named the capital of Alaska in 1906, when the government of what was then the District of Alaska was moved from Sitka as dictated by the U.S. Congress in 1900. On July 1, 1970, the City of Juneau merged with the City of Douglas and the surrounding Greater Juneau Borough to form the current consolidated city-borough, which ranks as the second-largest municipality in the United States by area and is larger than both Rhode Island and Delaware.
Downtown Juneau is nestled at the base of Mount Juneau and it is across the channel from Douglas Island. As of the 2020 census, the City and Borough had a population of 32,255, making it the third-most populous city in Alaska after Anchorage and Fairbanks, but the sixth-least populous U.S. state capital. Juneau experiences a daily influx of 21,000 people or more from visiting cruise ships between the months of May and September.
The city is named after a gold prospector from Quebec, Joe Juneau, although it was once called Rockwell and then Harrisburg (after Juneau's co-prospector, Richard Harris). The Tlingit name of the town is Dzántik'i Héeni transl. Base of the Flounder's River, and Auke Bay just north of Juneau proper is called Áak'w (transl. Little Lake) in Tlingit. The Taku River, just south of Juneau, was named after the cold t'aakh wind, which occasionally blows down from the mountains.
Juneau is unique among U.S. state capitals in that there are no roads connecting the city to the rest of the state or to the contiguous United States. Honolulu, Hawaii, is the only other state capital which is not connected by road to the contiguous United States. The absence of a road network is due to the extremely rugged terrain surrounding the city. In turn, Juneau is a de facto island city in terms of transportation; all goods coming in and out must be transported by plane or boat despite the city's location on the Alaskan mainland.
Downtown Juneau sits at sea level with tides averaging 16 feet (5 m), below steep mountains about 3,500 to 4,000 feet (1,100 to 1,200 m) high. Atop the mountains is the Juneau Icefield, a large ice mass from which about 30 glaciers flow; two of them, the Mendenhall Glacier and the Lemon Creek Glacier, are visible from the local road system. The Mendenhall Glacier has been gradually retreating; its front face is declining in width and height.
The Alaska State Capitol in downtown Juneau was built as the Federal and Territorial Building in 1931. Prior to statehood, it housed federal government offices, the federal courthouse, and a post office. It also housed the territorial legislature and other territorial offices, including that of the governor. Today, Juneau is the home of the state legislature and the offices of the governor and lieutenant governor. Some executive branch offices have moved certain functions to Anchorage and elsewhere in the state.


== History ==

The Gastineau Channel was a fishing place for the Auke (A'akw Kwáan) and Taku tribes, who had inhabited the surrounding area for thousands of years. The A'akw Kwáan had a village and burying ground here. In the 21st century it is known as Indian Point. They annually harvested herring during the spawning season.
Since the late 20th century, the A'akw Kwáan, together with the Sealaska Heritage Institute, have resisted European-American development of Indian Point, including proposals by the National Park Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). They consider it to be sacred territory, both because of the burying ground and the importance of the point in their traditions of gathering sustenance from the sea. They continue to gather clams, gumboot chitons, grass, and sea urchins, as well as tree bark for medicinal uses.
The city and state supported the Sealaska Heritage Institute in documenting the 78 acres (32 ha) site, and in August 2016, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. ""It is the first traditional cultural property in Southeast Alaska to be placed on the register.""
Descendants of the indigenous cultures include the Tlingit people. Native cultures have rich artistic traditions expressed in carving, weaving, singing, dancing, and in oral lore. Juneau is a social center for the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian of Southeast Alaska.


=== European encounters ===

Although the Russians had a colony in the Alaska territory from 1784 to 1867, they did not settle in Juneau. They conducted extensive fur trading with Alaskan Natives of the Aleutian Islands and Kodiak.
The first European to see the Juneau area was Joseph Whidbey, master of the Discovery during George Vancouver's 1791–95 expedition. He and his party explored the region in July–August 1794. Early in August he viewed the length of Gastineau Channel from the south, noting a small island in mid-channel. He later recorded seeing the channel again, this time from the west. He said it was unnavigable, being filled with ice.


=== Mining era and naming ===
After the California gold rush, miners migrated up the Pacific Coast and explored the West, seeking other gold deposits. In 1880, Sitka mining engineer George Pilz offered a reward to any local native in Alaska who could lead him to gold-bearing ore. A local native arrived with some ore, and several prospectors were sent to investigate. On their first trip to Gold Creek, they found deposits of little interest. However, Pilz sent Joe Juneau (the cousin of Milwaukee co-founder Solomon Juneau) and Richard Harris back to the Gastineau Channel, directing them to Snow Slide Gulch (the head of Gold Creek). According to the Rev. Samuel Young, in his book Alaska Days with John Muir, Juneau and Harris decided to explore their party's campsite at the creek head in the summer of 1879. They found nuggets ""as large as peas and beans"" there, in Harris' words.
On October 18, 1880, the two men marked a 160-acre (650,000 m2) town site and soon a mining camp sprang up. Many miners arrived within a year and the camp became a village, albeit made up mostly of tents and shacks rather than buildings. It was the first European American settlement founded in the territory after the United States purchased Alaska. By the autumn of 1881, the village had a population of over 100 and was known as Rockwell, after Lt. Com. Charles Rockwell; later it was known as Harrisburg after prospector Richard Harris. On December 14, 1881, it was decided at a miners' meeting of 72 persons to name the settlement Juneau, after prospector Joe Juneau.


=== Establishment of Russian Orthodox Church ===

Likely due to the pressure of European encroachment, some Tlingit appealed to the Russian Orthodox Church. It held services in northern Tlingit settlements in local languages as early as 1800 and 1824. One of its priests translated scripture and liturgy into the Tlingit language during the 1830s and 1840s. The Tlingit arranged for an Orthodox priest to come to their Juneau settlement. In 1890, about 700 people converted, following chief Yees Gaanaalx and his wife of Auke Bay. The Orthodox Church Missionary Society supported the Tlingit in furnishing and constructing a church for the large congregation.
The St. Nicholas Russian Orthodox Church was completed in 1894 and has maintained an important presence among the Tlingit, Serbians, and other Europeans who follow Orthodox traditions. The iconostasis has six large panels which were sent from Russia.


=== Development of mining ===
Prospector and placer miner John Lemon operated at the time in what is today the Lemon Creek area. The neighborhood which developed there was given his name by early settlers, several other landmarks in Juneau have also been named for him. Major mining operations in the Juneau mining district prior to World War II included the Treadwell Mine, the Alaska-Juneau Mine, and the Alaska-Gastineau Mine.
By 1906, after the decline of whaling and the fur trade, Sitka which was the original capital of Alaska, had become less important and the territorial legislature moved the seat of government to Juneau in accordance with a 1900 federal law. Juneau was the most populous city in Alaska during the inter-war years, surpassing Fairbanks population by the 1920 census. Anchorage became the largest city in terms of population in 1950.


=== Selection as capital ===
In 1911, the United States Congress authorized funds for construction of a capitol building for the Alaska Territory. World War I delayed construction and there were difficulties purchasing the necessary land. Citizens of Juneau donated some of the required funds, and construction began on September 8, 1929. Construction of the capitol took less than two years, and the building was dedicated as the Federal and Territorial Building on February 14, 1931. It was designed by Treasury Department architects in the Art Deco architectural style. The building was originally used by the federal government to house the federal courthouse and the post office for the territory. Alaska gained statehood in 1959 and under the Alaska Statehood Act, the Federal and Territorial Building was transferred to the new state and became its capitol.
The Alaska Governor's Mansion was commissioned under the Public Building Act in 1910. The mansion was designed by James Knox Taylor in the Colonial Revival style. Construction was completed in 1912. The territorial governor at the time was the first governor to live in the mansion, and he held the first open house for citizens on January 1, 1913.
The area of the mansion is 14,400 square feet (1,340 m2). It has ten bathrooms, six bedrooms, and eight fireplaces. It is the governor's residence when in Juneau on official business. In June 1923, President Warren G. Harding became the first president to visit Alaska. Harding visited the Governor's Mansion while Territorial Governor Scott Bone, who was appointed by Harding, was in office. Harding spoke from the porch of the mansion explaining his policies and met with attendees.
During World War II, more than 50 Japanese citizens and Japanese Americans residing in Juneau were sent to the internment camps inland as a result of Executive Order 9066, which authorized the forced removal of all ethnic Japanese away from their homes and businesses on the West Coast of the United States. The removal of Juneau's Japanese community during the war is memorialized by the Empty Chair Memorial, which was dedicated in July 2014 in the city's Capital School Park neighborhood.
Robert Atwood, who was then the publisher of the Anchorage Times and an Anchorage ""booster"", was an early leader in efforts to move the capital to Fairbanks, which many in both cities resisted. Some supporters of a move wanted a new capital to be at least 30 miles (48 km) away from Anchorage and Fairbanks, to prevent either city from having undue influence. Juneau has continued as the capital. In the 1970s, voters passed a plan to move the capital to Willow, a town 70 miles (110 km) north of Anchorage. But pro-Juneau people there and in Fairbanks persuaded voters also to approve a measure (the FRANK Initiative) requiring voter approval of all bondable construction costs before building could begin. Alaskans later voted against spending the estimated $900 million. A 1984 ""ultimate"" capital-move vote also failed, as did a 1996 vote.
After Alaska was given statehood in 1959, Juneau's population increased as well as the growth of state government. After construction of the Alaska Pipeline in 1977, the state budget was flush with oil revenues, and it expanded state spending programs. The Juneau population growth slowed considerably after 1990.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== 21st century ===

In 2005, the state demographer projected slow growth in the borough for the next twenty years. Cruise ship tourism has expanded rapidly, from approximately 230,000 passengers in 1990 to nearly 1,000,000 in 2006, as cruise lines have built more and larger ships. They sail to Juneau seven days a week over a longer season than before, but the cruising tourism is still primarily a summer industry. It provides few year-round jobs but stimulates summer employment in the city.
In 2010, the city was recognized as part of the ""Playful City USA"" initiative by KaBOOM!, created to honor cities that ensure their children have great places to play.
Juneau is larger in area than the state of Delaware and was for several decades, the country's largest city by area. (Sitka surpassed it in 2000 when it incorporated.) Juneau is the only U.S. state capital on an international border; it is bordered on the east by Canada. It is the U.S. state capital whose namesake was most recently alive: Joe Juneau died in 1899.
The city was temporarily renamed UNO, after the card game, on April 1, 2016 (April Fool's Day). It was a promotion with Mattel to draw ""attention to new wild cards in [the] game"". For Juneau's cooperation, Mattel donated $15,000 ""to the Juneau Community Foundation in honor of the late Mayor Greg Fisk.""


== Geography ==

According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 3,255 square miles (8,430 km2). In land area, Juneau (proper) is the largest state capital and the second-largest city overall in the United States, with 2,716.7 square miles (7,036 km2) being made up of land and 538.3 square miles (1,394 km2) consisting of water (16.54%).
The central (downtown) area of Juneau is at 58°18′00″N 134°24′58″W. The City and Borough of Juneau includes Douglas Island, which is a tidal island to the west of mainland Juneau. Douglas can be reached via the Juneau-Douglas Bridge. An unpopulated section of the city is located on Admiralty Island near its northern end.
As in the rest of Southeast Alaska, the Juneau area is susceptible to damage caused by natural disasters. The 2014 Palma Bay earthquake caused widespread outages to telecommunications in the area due to damage to a fiber-optic cable serving the area. In April 2008, a series of massive avalanches outside Juneau heavily damaged the electrical lines providing Juneau with power, knocking the hydroelectric system offline and forcing the utility to switch to a much more expensive diesel system.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Adjacent boroughs and census areas ===
Haines Borough, Alaska – northwest, west
Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, Alaska – south, southwest
Petersburg Borough, Alaska – quadripoint


=== Border area ===
Juneau shares its eastern border with the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is the only U.S. state capital which borders another country.

Stikine Region, British Columbia – northeast, east


=== National protected areas ===
Tongass National Forest (part)
Admiralty Island National Monument (part)
Kootznoowoo Wilderness (part)
Tracy Arm-Fords Terror Wilderness (part)


=== State Parks ===
Alaska State Parks maintains the Juneau Trail System, a series of wilderness trails which are easy to extremely difficult to hike.


=== Climate ===

The Juneau area is in a transition zone between a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc), and an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb/Cfc), depending on the isotherm used. The city's climate is heavily influenced by the proximity of the Pacific Ocean, specifically the warm Alaska Current, and the Coast Mountains that form a natural orographic barrier for incoming air. As a result, the weather is mild and moist, which, as in other parts of the Alaska Panhandle, allows the growth of temperate rainforests. Like other cities in southeast Alaska, Juneau does not have permafrost.
As of 2023, Juneau falls within USDA Hardiness Zones 6B and 7A.
There are two prevalent types of wind in Juneau. Particularly in winter, the Aleutian Low draws warm and moist air from the south, bringing ample snow- or rainfall, and even in summer, winds will tend to blow onshore. The strength and frequency of the rainfall depends on several factors, including the presence of El Niño (more mild and rainy weather) or La Niña (colder and drier periods due to the presence of an anticyclone in the Gulf of Alaska). Conversely, offshore winds from the interior are normally dry but may have extreme variations in temperature.
Temperatures vary relatively little over the year. Winters are mild by Alaskan standards, with the average temperature of January slightly below freezing and highs often above 32 °F (0.0 °C); summers are rather cool but occasionally may get warm. Temperatures above 75 °F (23.9 °C) or below 10 °F (−12.2 °C) are not unheard of but are rare. Precipitation falls on an average 230 days per year, averaging 62.27 inches (1,580 mm) at the airport (1981–2010 normals), but ranging from 55 to 92 inches (1,400 to 2,340 mm), depending on location. Most of it will occur in fall and winter, some falling as snow from November to March.
Records have been officially kept at downtown Juneau from January 1890 to June 1943, and at Juneau International Airport since July 1943. The coldest temperature ever officially recorded in Juneau was −22 °F (−30.0 °C) on February 2, 1968, and January 12, 1972, while the hottest was 90 °F (32.2 °C) on July 7, 1975. The normals and record temperatures for both downtown and the airport are given below.

See or edit raw graph data.


== Demographics ==

Juneau first appeared on the 1890 U.S. Census. It was formally incorporated in 1900, and on July 1, 1970, the city of Juneau merged with the city of Douglas and the surrounding Greater Juneau Borough to form the current municipality, which accounts for the population jump between the 1970 and 1980 censuses.


=== 2020 census ===
As of the census of 2020, there were 31,275 people, 12,922 households. The population density was 11.9 people per square mile (4.6 people/km2), making it the least densely populated state capital. There were 12,922 housing units at an average density of 4.0 units per square mile (1.5 units/km2). The racial makeup of the city/borough was 64.7% White (62.5% Non-Hispanic White), 1.0% African American, 10.1% Native American or Alaska Native, 6.7% Asian, 1.3% Pacific Islander, and 14.3% from two or more races. 7.0% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 2.6% reported speaking Tagalog at home, and 2.4% reported speaking Spanish.
The median income for a household in the city/borough was $90,126. The per capita income for the city/borough was $45,607. 7.2% of the population was below the poverty line.


== Economy ==

The primary employer in Juneau is government including the state government, federal government (which has regional offices here, especially for resource agencies), municipal government (which includes the local airport, hospital, harbors, and school district), and the University of Alaska Southeast. State government offices and their indirect economic impact comprise approximately one-quarter of Juneau's economy.

A large contributor to the local economy is the tourism industry, which generates most income in the summer months. In 2005, nearly an estimated one million cruise ship passengers visited Juneau between May and September. That figure is now 1.65 million per year for the season ending in October 2023.

On the other hand, former politician Bill Ray, who previously lived in Juneau and represented Juneau in the Alaska Legislature, said: ""Juneau doesn't go forward. They've prostituted themselves to tourism. It looks like a poor man's Lahaina"".
The fishing industry is a major part of the Juneau economy, while not as strong as when a halibut schooner fleet generated considerable profits. The city was recently the 49th most lucrative U.S. fisheries port by volume and 45th by value. In 2004 it took in 15 million pounds of fish and shellfish, valued at 21.5 million dollars, according to the National Marine Fisheries Service. While the port of Juneau has comparatively little seafood processing compared to other towns of this size in Alaska, hundreds of commercial fishing boats sell their fish to plants in nearby Sitka, Hoonah, Petersburg and Ketchikan. The largest fleets operating from Juneau are the gillnet and troll salmon fleets.
Juneau has many of the commercial fishing associations in Alaska. The associations include the Alaska Trollers Association, United Fishermen of Alaska, United Southeast Alaska Gillnetters Association, and the Southeast Alaska Seiners Association.
Real estate agencies, federally funded highway construction, and mining are still viable non-government local industries. Alaska Seaplanes, an airline, has its headquarters in Juneau.
As of the 2010 census, there were 1,107 businesses with operations in Juneau borough; with a population of 31,275 there is a per capita of about 28 people per business.
Juneau's only power utility is Alaska Electric Light & Power (AEL&P). Most of the electricity in the borough is generated at the Snettisham Hydroelectric facility in the southern end of the borough, accessible only by boat or plane. In April 2008, an avalanche destroyed three transmission towers, forcing AEL&P to supply almost all of the borough's electricity from diesel-powered generators for one month.
Also headquartered in Juneau is the Marine Exchange of Alaska, a nonprofit organization which operates an extensive vessel tracking network and ensures safe maritime operations for the entire state.


== Culture ==
Juneau hosts the annual Alaska Folk Festival, Juneau Jazz & Classics music festival, and Celebration, a biennial Alaska Native cultural festival. A city-owned ski resort, Eaglecrest is on Douglas Island.
The city-owned Treadwell ice-skating rink is located on the south end of Douglas Island. It is named after the Treadwell Gold Mine, which is located next to the rink. The rink has figure skating, hockey, and free open skates. From April to September when there is no ice, it is used for rollerblading, roller hockey, tennis, basketball, and concerts.
The city has a vibrant performing arts scene; it is home to Perseverance Theatre, Alaska's largest professional theater, the non-profit Theatre in the Rough, Theater Alaska, Theater at Latitude 58, and Juneau Ghost Light Theatre (formerly the Juneau Douglas Little Theatre). The Juneau Symphony regularly performs. The two local opera companies are the Juneau Lyric Opera and Opera to Go. Twice a year the JUMP Society hosts screenings of locally made short films. Gold Town Nickelodeon is a local art house cinema which plays independent films, foreign films, classics, and has operated a drive-in.
Downtown Juneau has art galleries which participate in the monthly First Friday Art Walk and annual Gallery Walk held in the first week of December. The Juneau Arts & Humanities Council coordinates certain events and operates the Juneau Arts & Culture Center featuring a community center, gallery and lobby shop. The University of Alaska Southeast Campus offers lectures, concerts, and theater performances. Sealaska Heritage, the nonprofit affiliate of the Sealaska Corporation, operates the Walter Soboleff Building which is decorated by carvings and hosts cultural exhibits.


== Efforts to move state capital ==
There have been efforts and discussions about moving Alaska's capital away from Juneau. A primary motivating factor has been concerns about Juneau's remote location. In 1960, 56% of voters voted against a measure to move the capital to a location in the ""Cook Inlet-Railbelt Area"" (the specific location would subsequently be selected by a committee appointed by the governor). In 1962, 55% of voters voted against a measure to move the capital to ""Western Alaska... within 30 miles of Anchorage"". ""Senior"" state senators would have been chosen to select three potential sites to be put to a vote by later vote by the state's electorate.
In 1974, at a time when Alaska was expected to be flushed with new funds from the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 56% of Alaskan voters approved an initiative to move the capital. The initiative specified that the new location must be within 300 miles of both Anchorage and Fairbanks and have at least 100 square miles of donated public land. The initiative would have the final location selected by a committee appointed by the governor. The committee proposed Larson Lake, Mount Yenlo, and Willow as sites and Willow received 53% of votes in a 1976 statewide vote. However, in 1978, voters rejected a measure to fund a move to Willow, with 55% of voters voting against spending $996 million to move the capital there. In 1978, voters also approved the Fiscally Responsible Alaskans Needing Knowledge (FRANK) Initiative, which required that all costs of moving the capital be disclosed and approved by Alaskans before the move commenced. In 1982, 53% of voters voted against spending roughly $2.9 billion to move the capital to Willow. This vote also had the effect of repealing the previous approval of moving the capital.
In 1994, a statewide initiative to move Alaska's capital to Wasilla was defeated by a vote of 116,277 (54.7%) to 96,398 (45.3%). At the same time, 77% of voters approved a renewed FRANK Initiative. In 2002, Alaskan voters again voted against moving the state's capital. Advocacy for a capital move has continued.


== Notable people ==
Carlos Boozer (born 1981), professional basketball player
Gab Cody, playwright, filmmaker
Dale DeArmond (1914–2006), printmaker
Mike Dunleavy (born 1961), current governor of Alaska
Neva Egan (1914–2011), Educator and First Lady of Alaska
Janet Gardner (born 1962), singer of the hard rock band Vixen
Al Gross (born 1962), surgeon, fisherman, and politician
Elaine Hopson (born 1939), Oregonian politician born in Juneau
Mary McGee (born 1936), motorcycle racer
Charles Melton (born 1991), actor
Joshua Morrow (born 1974), actor known for starring in daytime drama The Young and the Restless
Rie Muñoz (1921–2015), artist and Bureau of Indian Affairs educator
Elizabeth Peratrovich (1911–1958), civil rights activist, Grand President of the Alaska Native Sisterhood, member of the Tlingit nation.
Macy Rodman (born 1989), musician and podcaster
Linda Rosenthal, violinist
Paul Rosenthal (born 1942), violinist
Lynn Schooler, photographer, writer who authored The Blue Bear
James Schoppert (1947–1992), carver, painter
Molly Smith, theatre director


== Government and politics ==

The City and Borough of Juneau operates under a council–manager form of government. The mayor is the titular head of the city, the presiding officer (or chair) of the Juneau Assembly (council), and is one of three members of the body which is elected at-large, or areawide. The other six members are elected by single-member districts: as of the last redistricting by the Assembly in 2003 there are two districts:

 A city manager handles daily affairs and a city attorney is responsible for working with legal matters.
The districts are nearly aligned with the boundaries of the 31st and 32nd election districts which were established by the state. Mainly the difference is that the 32nd District includes communities outside the CBJ: Gustavus, Kupreanof, Petersburg, Skagway and Tenakee Springs. The Juneau Airport precinct is in the 31st district, which is otherwise identical to the 2nd Assembly District.
Juneau was split into two state house districts by the state during redistricting in the early 1990. The districts comprising downtown Juneau, Douglas Island and surrounding areas have exclusively elected Democrats to the Alaska House of Representatives and the districts comprising Mendenhall Valley and surrounding areas have mostly elected Republicans. The 31st District is represented in the House by Andi Story, a Democrat who has been in office since 2018. The 32nd District is represented by Democrat Sara Hannan. The two election districts form Alaska Senate District Q and the seat is held by Democrat Jesse Kiehl. The last Republican to represent Juneau in the state Senate was Elton Engstrom Jr., the father of Cathy Muñoz. He left office at the end of his term in early 1971, after failing to be re-elected in 1970.

Juneau is one of the most Democratic boroughs in Alaska. The borough has voted Democratic in the U.S. presidential election in every election (except for one) since 1988.
While more state jobs are based in Anchorage than in Juneau, the state government still maintains a substantial presence in Juneau. A number of executive branch departments, as well as the legislature, are based in Juneau. In response to repeated pressure from Southcentral Alaska to move either the capital or the legislature, the legislature acquired and renovated several buildings in the vicinity of the Alaska State Capitol, which hold committee meeting rooms and administrative offices for the Legislative Affairs Agency. The buildings were named for former legislators Terry Miller and Thomas B. Stewart. Stewart, a Juneau native and son of early Juneau mayor Benjamin D. Stewart, represented Juneau in the Senate during the 1st Alaska State Legislature. He later served in Juneau's Alaska Superior Court judgeship and was noted as an authority on the territory and early statehood eras of Alaska's history.
A nine-story federal government building in Juneau near the mouth of Gold Creek and a short distance east of the Juneau-Douglas Bridge, houses many federal agencies, the United States District Court for the District of Alaska, and Juneau's main post office. It is in the area known as ""The Flats"". The building was designed by Linn A. Forrest and built in 1966.


== Education ==


=== Primary and secondary schools ===
Juneau is served by the Juneau School District, and includes the following schools:

The following private schools serve Juneau:

(Glacier) Valley Baptist Academy
Faith Community School
Thunder Mountain Learning Center (formerly Thunder Mountain Academy)
Juneau Seventh-day Adventist Christian School
Juneau Montessori School


=== Colleges and universities ===
The University of Alaska Southeast is within the Auke Bay community along the shore of Auke Lake. Juneau-Douglas Community College, founded in 1956, and Southeastern Senior College which was established in 1972, were merged in 1980 forming the University of Alaska Juneau. The university was restructured as the University of Alaska Southeast to include Ketchikan and Sitka campuses. The university offers undergraduate and graduate studies. The University of Alaska Fairbanks has a satellite campus in Juneau for mainly graduate level students in marine studies.


== Transportation ==
Juneau is not directly accessible by road, although there are road connections within the borough to rural areas. The Glacier Highway section of Alaska Route 7 is within Juneau. Primary access to the city is by air and sea. Cars and trucks are transported to and from Juneau by barge or the Alaska Marine Highway ferry system.

		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		
		
			
			
		


=== Sea ===
The state-owned ferry system is the Alaska Marine Highway. The ferries connect Juneau with 13 other cities in Southeast Alaska and other destinations north via Whittier, as well as with the continental road system in Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia. On the northern route the ferries dock in Haines and Skagway connecting to the Alaska Highway via Whitehorse, Yukon. In addition to the traditional Alaska Marine Highway ferries, high-speed catamarans known as ""fast cats"" connect Juneau with Haines and Skagway (91 miles (146 km)) in two hours, about half the time of the traditional ferries travel time.


=== Air ===
Juneau International Airport serves the city and borough of Juneau. Alaska Airlines services the airport year round, operating over 11 daily departures. Alaska Airlines serves Juneau and other Southeast Alaska villages via ""Milk Run"" flights which make multiple stops to and from Seattle or Anchorage. It also connects Juneau to other cities in the country through connections in Seattle or Anchorage.
In the summer, Delta Air Lines serves Juneau from its major West Coast hub in Seattle, providing global service to and from Southeast Alaska without having to switch air carriers.
MarkAir and Western Airlines serviced Juneau in the past. Alaska Seaplanes and Ward Air offer charter seaplane service from the seaplane floatpond ""runway"" that runs parallel to the traditional tarmac. They offer service to the smaller villages in the surrounding area as well as flightseeing.
Alaska Seaplanes, Harris Air, and Island Air Express provide FAA Part 135 scheduled commuter service to communities throughout Southeast Alaska. These trips are the only connections to the outside world for many of these villages. Alaska Seaplanes has restored scheduled international service to Juneau with 3 weekly trips to Whitehorse, Canada, while Ward Air provides unscheduled charter flights to Canada.


=== Roads ===
Avalanche hazards, steep slopes, cold weather and environmental protection concerns are factors that make road construction and maintenance both difficult and costly.
The Juneau-Douglas Bridge connects the Juneau mainland with Douglas Island.
No roads connect Juneau to the rest of North America; ferries allow access to the road network. There is a lack of places to build a road. A route to the east would fail due to an icefield the size of Rhode Island separating Juneau from Atlin, British Columbia. Similarly, the route up the Taku River is blocked by ever-shifting glaciers. Juneau is one of only four state capitals not served by an Interstate highway (the others being Dover, Delaware; Jefferson City, Missouri; and Pierre, South Dakota).


==== Juneau Access Project ====

Juneau's roads remain separate from other roads in Alaska and in the Lower 48. In the past there have been plans to connect Juneau to Haines and Skagway by road since before 1972, with funding for the first feasibility study acquired in 1987. The State of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities announced in 2005 that the connection was to be provided partly by road, and partly by fast ferry. A 51-mile (82 km) road would be built on the east side of Lynn Canal to a new ferry terminal at the Katzehin River estuary. A ferry would be able to transport cars from the terminal to Haines and Skagway and the North American road system. In 2006, the project was estimated to cost $258 million, and in 2007, the estimate was increased to $350 million. Annual costs have been estimated from $2.1 million to $12 million, depending on the length of the road. The Western Federal Lands Center estimated the project would cost $491 million.
Local opinions on constructing a road link to the outside world were mixed. Some residents saw such a road as a much-needed link between Juneau and the rest of the world which will also provide great economic benefits to the city, while many other residents were concerned about the project's financial costs along with environmental and social impacts it could have on Lynn Canal.
Citing the state's multibillion-dollar financial crisis, Governor Bill Walker announced on December 15, 2016, that the state is no longer backing construction of the Juneau Access Improvements Project. Eventually the project lost its steam and was ended in July 2018 with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) releasing their Record of Decision, selecting the no-build alternative for the Juneau Access Project, halting construction on the road.


=== Public transportation ===
Local government operates a bus service under the name Capital Transit.


=== Walking, hiking, and biking ===
Residents walk, hike, or ride bicycles for recreational purposes and for transportation. The downtown area of Juneau has sidewalks, outdoors flights of stairs, and the neighborhoods on the hill above downtown are accessible by foot. Some roads in the city also have bike lanes, and there is a bike path parallel to the main highway.


== Infrastructure ==


=== Healthcare ===
The city and borough is primarily served by Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau's Twin Lakes area. The hospital also serves the nearby remote communities of Hoonah, Haines, and Skagway. Individuals from those communities are airlifted in emergencies to the hospital via helicopter or air ambulance (a 20-minute to a 45-minute flight).


== Utilities ==
Juneau is served by the following utilities:

Electric: Alaska Electric Light and Power Company
Water and Sewer: City and Borough of Juneau


== Media ==


=== Print ===
Juneau's daily newspaper, the Juneau Empire, is published Wednesdays and Saturdays. The Capital City Weekly was published weekly and the Empire runs a few stories in a CCW section. The University of Alaska Southeast has The Whalesong, a college newspaper.


=== Radio ===
AM: KJNO 630, KINY 800, KXXJ 1330
FM: KTKU 105.1, KSUP 106.3, and LPFM station KBJZ-LP 94.1.
Public Radio: KTOO 104.3, KXLL ""Excellent Radio"" 100.7 and KRNN ""Rain Country Radio"" 102.7 (all 3 operated by KTOO).
The studios of CoastAlaska (a regional public radio station consortium), are in Juneau. AP (the Associated Press), Anchorage news outlets, and other Alaska media entities, send reporters to Juneau during the annual Legislative session.


=== Television ===
Juneau's major television affiliates are: KTOO (PBS), 360 North ""Alaska's public affairs channel"" (Operated by KTOO), KATH-LD (NBC), KYEX-LD (CBS/MyNetworkTV on DT2), and KJUD (ABC)/The CW on DT2/Fox on DT3).
The Juneau-Douglas High School video program produces television programming including a weekly 10-minute TV newscast, JDTV News, which is on air during the spring semester.


== Sister cities ==
Juneau has three active sister city relationships. 

 Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada
 Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia
 Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines 
It also has two relationships which are in emeritus status, meaning they are not currently active. 

 Mishan City, China
 Chiayi City, Taiwan


== See also ==

Juneau gold belt
Adair-Kennedy Memorial Park
Capital City Fire/Rescue
Evergreen Cemetery
Hurff Ackerman Saunders Federal Building and Robert Boochever U.S. Courthouse
Juneau Mountain Rescue
National Register of Historic Places listings in Juneau, Alaska
Alaska Route 7
Out the road, a region of Juneau
USS Juneau, 3 ships


== Notes ==


== References ==
Andrews, Clarence Leroy (1944). The Story of Alaska. Caldwell, Idaho: The Caxton Printers, Ltd. OCLC 5024244.
Naske, Claus-M; Slotnick, Herman E. (1987). Alaska: A History of the 49th State. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2099-1.


== External links ==

Official website
Juneau Convention & Visitors Bureau"
Mihovil Logar,"Mihovil Logar (Serbian Cyrillic: Миховил Логар; Rijeka, Croatia, 6 October 1902 – Belgrade, Serbia, 13 January 1998) was a Serbian composer and music writer.
Born in Rijeka, he spent most of his life in Belgrade. He left behind over two hundred works across all genres – operas, ballets, symphonic music, concertos, cantatas, piano music, and songs. Once a prominent student of the so-called “Prague generation” of composers from Serbia, Logar is considered one of the most significant among those who actively contributed to the development of music professionalism in the country.


== Biography ==
Mihovil Logar was born in 1902 in Rijeka. In response to Italy's annexation and occupation of Rijeka by Benito Mussolini's fascists, Logar left for Yugoslavia. He completed his formal education in Prague, where after studying architecture at first, he pursued the vocation of composition. He studied at the State Prague Conservatory with K. B. Jirák and with Josef Suk at his master classes. In 1927, Logar relocated to Belgrade, where he at first taught theory disciplines and piano at the Music School (today “Mokranjac” Music School), followed by a position at the Secondary Music School, at the time conjoint to the Music Academy. Immediately after the World War II, Logar received tenure as an Associate Professor (1945) and Professor (1955) at the Music Academy (today Faculty of Music, University of Arts, in Belgrade). As a high school teacher and as a composition professor, Logar greatly contributed to the development of music education in pre- and post-war Serbia. He was President of the Composers' Association of Serbia from 1956 to 1958. Along with a rich and prolific composer's career, he appeared as a pianist, often performing his own pieces. Logar died 13 January 1998 in Belgrade.


== Works ==
Mihovil Logar's oeuvre consists of over two hundred works in various genres. Among his most significant compositions are operas The Scandal in the St. Florian valley (1938) and A Would-be lady (1954), ballet  The Little goldfish (1950), cantata The Blue tomb (1934), orchestral Rondo-Overture (1936) and Sinfonia Italiana (1964), suite The Coastland (1962), Concerto for violin in b-minor (1954) and Double concerto for clarinet and horn (1967), song cycles The Legend of Marko (1936) and Granada of the Samarkand (1963), five string quartets (1926–36), and piano music collections .


=== Musical language ===
Early works of Mihovil Logar, conceived in Prague and upon his return from the Conservatory feature bold musical language, expanded tonality that often crosses into atonality, and rhapsodic, contingently free form, qualifying this period of the composer's work to often be labeled as expressionistic (Peričić, Masnikosa). Moreover, given the identifiable romanticist influences in this phase of Logar's work, it is possible to say that “his oeuvre consists of compositions that, next to each other differ much in their structural elements” (M. Bergamo). Certain authors emphasize peppiness and humor as attributes of his music (and personality) which, depending on the (musical) context turn at instances into parody and grotesque. It has been noted that “Logar's routinely tertiary-structured chords are always…'contorted' by the ardent non-chord tones, and in an always unpredictable and irregular succession—suddenly dissonant or unexpectedly tonal” (Masnikosa, 2008: 10). The lack of continuity in musical flow or its multilayered organization, short-lived musical ideas, and hastiness of expression (M. Bergamo), are among the most pronounced traits of his interwar creative period.
According to Marija Masnikosa “it is difficult to differentiate clear stages in the course of Logar's creative path, and even more difficult to determine the direction he followed in his development as a composer” (Masnikosa, 2008:10). His grounding in classic forms, the continual presence of humor, his jolly spirit, and tendency for constant switches—from tonality to atonality, from thematic to athematism—and the absence of folk content in the majority of his works represent the most pronounced traits of Logar's entire oeuvre.


=== The Scandal in the St. Florian Valley, musical farce in three acts (1938) ===
Logar wrote the libretto for the Scandal in the St. Florian Valley upon his reworked version of a satire entitled Pohujšanje v dolini Šentflorjanski by Ivan Cankar. The plot unfolds in the St. Florian valley where the “patriots”—a female superintendent, the tax collector, notary, merchant, and a sexton—all comment on the “scandal” that occurred in their neighborhood. That is, the two drifters, Petar and Jacinta are living together unmarried, therefore despised by the snoopy villagers. Petar blackmails each of the villagers maintaining he is their fifteen years ago lost son. Petar's treasure-chase is joined by the devil in a sequence of events involving numerous disguises and mysteries. Composed in 1938 the work was premiered thirty years later at the Sarajevo National Theatre with conductor Ivan Štajerc. One of the reviews following the Scandal's premiere featured a remark on sharp harmonies and balanced stylized vocal recitatives that occasionally develop into arioso forms.


=== A Would-be Lady, musical farce in three acts (1954) ===
Following his affinity toward humor and comedy, Logar in this opera turned to Jovan Sterija Popović and his A Would-be Lady (Pokondirena tikva in Serbian). During his work on Sterija's text, the composer's main goal was to preserve the witty atmosphere and linguistic structure of the original wording that carries a large comical share of the play. Libretto was entrusted to Hugo Klajn and the opera had its first performance in 1956 at the National Theatre in Belgrade, with conductor Dušan Miladinović. According to Vlastimir Peričić, the Would-be lady is “bursting with dynamics and buffa spirit” (Peričić 1969: 223). Dependent on the unfolding plot, the near parlando vocal part occasionally leads to arioso. The musical language primarily serves the dramatic plot, whereas instances of the comical and grotesque sound painting known from traditional comic musical examples, dominate the music.


=== Rondo-Overture (At the Fair) (1936) ===
Rondo-Overture, one of Logar's shorter orchestral works reflects the composer's tendency for humoristic qualities, and vivid and expressive treatment of musical content. By changing the initial title of the work from Rondo-Overture to At the Fair, the composer seemingly implied a typical day at the fair he musically depicted by dazzling passages, rhythmic variety, short thematic units, and sharp contrasts among poignant melodic and rhythmic phrases.


=== Mihovil Logar as a music writer ===
While writing about music was not in the center of his interests, Logar authored a certain number of articles dealing with current issues on musical creativity and critique, concerts by prominent performers, and first performances of the new works by his contemporaries. He was a correspondent of the Italian journal La Scala, and also published in The Sound (Zvuk in Serbian), Politika, and Revija (The Revue in Serbian). Some of his most reputable reviews appeared following premieres of the opera Simonida by Stanojlo Rajičić and the Ćele kula by Dušan Radić.


== Significant works ==
Operas:

Four scenes from Shakespeare (Četiri scene iz Šekspira in Serbian) (1931)
The Scandal in the St. Florian valley (Sablazan u dolini Šentflorijanskoj) (1938)
A Would-be lady (Pokondirena tikva) (1954)
Nineteen-Forty-One (Četrdeset prva) (1959)
Orchestral compositions:

Vesna, a symphonic poem (1931)
Rondo-Overture (1936)
Dundo Maroje, overture (1936)
Astronauts, a concert overture (1962)
C-majorish sinfonietta (Cedurska sinfonieta) (1962)
Sinfonia Italiana, in three movements (1964)
Cantatas:

The Blue tomb (Plava Grobnica) (1934)
Spring-fountain song (Pjesma na vrelu) (1939)
Fire (Vatra) (1959)
Suites:

The Coastland (Primorje) (1962);
Spring images (Prolećne slike) (1962)
Ballet:

The Little goldfish (Zlatna ribica) (1950)
Concertos:

Concerto for violin and orchestra in b-minor (1954)
Double concerto for clarinet and horn (1967)
Partita concertante for string quintet and string orchestra (1968)
Concerto mordente for violin and orchestra (1968)
Concerto for cello, small string orchestra, and wind quintet (1971)
Song cycles:

The Legend of Marko (Legenda o Marku) (1936)
Sixteen ruddy springs (Šesnaest rumenih proleća)
Songs for Anita (Pesme za Anitu)
Granada of the Samarkand (Granada od Samarkanda) (1963)
Three songs by Endre Ady (Tri pesme Endrea Adija) (1978)
Chamber works:

Five string quartets (1926–36)
Sonatina for violin and piano (1928)
The Deliberation and the judgment (Razmišljanje i odluka), for bassoon and piano (1945)
Silk needlepoint (Vez na svili), for violin and piano (1985)
The Golden menuet (Zlatni menuet), for bassoon and piano (1990)
Piano Pieces:

A Little serenade
Pastorale
Tenderness (Nežnost)
The Figurine on a vase (Figurina na vazni)
Ballet-Waltz (Baletski valcer).


=== Selected sheet music ===
Concerto for violin and orchestra, miniature score and piano reduction (Composers Association of Serbia, CAS (UKS in Serbian))
Double concerto for clarinet, French horn, and orchestra (CAS, 1969)
Concerto for clarinet and string orchestra, piano reduction (CAS, 1969)
Rondo rustico and Coastland kolo (CAS, 1969)
Rondo-Overture, miniature score (published by composer, 1968)
Partita concertante (CAS, 1970)
Nineteen-Forty-One, piano reduction
A Would-be lady, piano reduction, (Yugoslav Composers Editions, 1960)
Eleven pieces, An Overture (Yugoslav Composers Editions, 1961)
A Would-be lady (Yugoslav Composers Editions, 1969)
The Scandal in the St. Florian valley (CAS, 1971)
The Little goldfish (CAS, 1973)
Music for piano, volume I (CAS, 1968)
Music for piano (CAS, 1955)
Two Japanese tales
Sonata quasi uno scherzo (CAS, 1990)
The Tango
The Little goldfish for solo piano (CAS, 1978)
Motives from the south
Pieces for piano and violin, score and parts (CAS, 1977)
Sonata for violin and piano, score and parts (Prosveta, 1953)
Endre Ady, three songs for low voice and piano (CAS, 1977)
The Legend of Marko, for baritone and piano (CAS, 1988)
Two love songs, for high voice and piano (published by composer, 1941)
The Wake (Bdijenje), Yearning (Čežnja), Oh, the Stalks of mine (O, klasje moje), Aerodynamics, The Journey (Putovanje) (published by composer, Belgrade, 1974)
Aerodynamics, a madrigal for men's octet; A Hymn to Belgrade (Prosveta, 1960)
Suite per quartetto d'archi (CAS)
Partita concertante per quintetto a fiati e orchestra d' archi, score (CAS, 1970), miniature score (CAS, 1972), and piano reduction (CAS)
C-majorish sinfonietta, for strings (Belgrade, 1973)
Two toccatas for piano and string orchestra (Composers Association of Yugoslavia (SOKOJ), 1963)
C-majorish sinfonietta for strings, miniature score (Belgrade, 1973)
Hymn of Belgrade


=== Selected recordings ===
Suite for string quartet; Partita concertante, PGP RTB, LP 2503, edition Contemporary Yugoslav composers, 1974.
The Waltz, Zlatko Topolski and Čedomir Dugan, Jugoton, LCY-66052, 1979.
Aria, Tempo di Ballo from “Musica Antica”, Fern Rašković and Arbo Valdma; Brahms, Debussy, Stravinsky, and Logar, Jugoton, LSY-66058, Phonoarts, 1979.


== Literature ==
Bergamo, Marija. 1980. The Elements of expressionistic orientation in Serbian music (Elementi ekspresionističke orijentacije u srpskoj muzici). Belgrade: University of Arts.
Jakšić, Đura. 1977. “Mihovil Logar – In Belgrade for half a century.” Pro musica 91, p. 4–5.
Marinković, Sonja. 2009. A History of Serbian music, Belgrade: Zavod za udžbenike.
Pejović, Roksanda, ed. 2008. Allegretto Giocoso, The Oeuvre of Mihovil Logar (Allegretto Giocoso, Stvaralački opus Mihovila Logara). Belgrade: Faculty of music, Department of Musicology.
Peričić, Vlastimir. 1969. Composers in Serbia. (Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji). Belgrade: Prosveta
Sabo, Anica. 2010. “Slovenian composers in Serbia: Davorin Jenko, Mihovil Logar, and Zlatan Vauda.” In Traditions 39/1, ed. by Ingrid Slavec Gradišnik and Dragana Radojičić. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, Slovenian academy of sciences and arts.
Stojanović-Novičić, Dragana, and Marija Masnikosa. 2007. “Orchestral music.” In: A History of Serbian music. Belgrade: Zavod za udžbenike."
Football pools,"In the United Kingdom, the football pools, often referred to as ""the pools"", is a betting pool based on predicting the outcome of association football matches taking place in the coming week. The pools are typically cheap to enter, and may encourage gamblers to enter several bets.
The traditional and most popular game was the Treble Chance, now branded the Classic Pools game. Players pick 10, 11 or 12 football games from the offered fixtures to finish as a draw, in which each team scores at least one goal. The player with the most accurate predictions wins the top prize, or a share of it if more than one player has these predictions. In addition, there is a special £3,000,000 prize or share of it for correctly predicting the nine score draws (draws of 1–1 or higher) when these are the only score draws on the coupon. Players can win large cash prizes in a variety of other ways, under a points-based scoring system.
Entries were traditionally submitted through the post or via agents, who collected entries throughout a specific area. It is now possible to play online.
Littlewoods, Vernons and Zetters were the largest pools companies. Littlewoods was the first company to provide pools, selling them outside Manchester United's Old Trafford ground in 1923. In 1986, a syndicate of players became the first winners of a prize over £1 million. The football pools companies have traditionally had a charitable element, donating over £1.1 billion to sports-related causes.
The pools business declined after the introduction of the National Lottery in 1994. Littlewoods, Vernons and Zetters were brought together in 2007 by Sportech under the brand 'The New Football Pools', now known as 'The Football Pools'. They offer other small stake, high prize games such as Premier 10 and Jackpot 12. In 2017 The Football Pools was sold to OpCapita, a private equity company, for £83 million.


== In the United Kingdom ==


=== Origins ===
Competitions for predicting the results of football matches are older than the football league itself. The Cricket and Football Field newspaper, in its edition of 10 September 1887, offered a prize of one guinea to ""the Competitor who predicts the results"" of four football matches to be played the following Saturday. Readers were invited to cut out and fill in a coupon printed in the newspaper, which had to be sent to the newspaper's offices by the Friday before the matches. If more than one ""couponnier"" predicted all four exact scores correctly, the prize would be shared between them. There was no charge for entry beyond postage; in fact readers were allowed to submit several coupons together, presumably in order to encourage them to purchase several copies of the newspaper. By 1910, The Umpire was offering a first prize of £300 for predicting six results.
In October 1922, John Moores, Colin Askham and Bill Hughes heard about John Jervis Barnard, a Birmingham man who had devised a 'football pool', where punters would bet on the outcome of football matches. The payouts to winners came from the 'pool' of money that was bet, less 10 per cent to cover ""management costs"". It had not been particularly successful and Barnard was struggling to make a profit. Hughes obtained one of Barnard's pools coupons; the three friends decided they could do it better and, on 1 February 1923, launched the Littlewood Football Pool (as it was originally known). A small office in Liverpool was rented and the first 4,000 coupons were distributed outside Manchester United's Old Trafford ground before one Saturday match that winter. Moores handed the coupons out himself, helped by some young boys eager to earn a few pennies.
It was not an instant success, as just 35 coupons were returned. With bets totalling £4 7s 6d (£4.37½), the 10 per cent deducted did not cover the three men's expenses. The winning dividend paid out £2 12s 0d (£2.60). They decided to print 10,000 coupons, and took them to Hull, where they were handed out before a big game. This time, only one coupon was returned. Midway through the 1924–25 football season the scheme was still losing money. The three young men had already invested £200 each, with no imminent prospect of things improving. Hughes suggested they cut their losses and forget the whole thing and Askham agreed. They expected Moores to concur, but instead he offered to return the £200 they had each invested in return for their shares, and they accepted. By 1930, Moores had become a millionaire from the competition.
In April 1929, Moores was prosecuted under the Ready Money Football Betting Act 1920. Following a court appearance, he was convicted. However, as his company never accepted cash, only postal orders that were cashed after the football results and the winning payout had been confirmed, his appeal was upheld.


=== Growth ===
Vernons' Pools was founded in 1925, also in Liverpool, and Zetters was founded 1933 in London. In 1934, the Football Pool Promoters' Association was formed: besides Littlewoods, Vernons and Zetters, its members were the other large pools companies including Cope's Pools (based in London), W.S. Murphy (Edinburgh) and Western Pools (Newport). A report by the Royal Commission at the time suggested that the football pools should be prohibited; the pools companies asked their customers to write to their Member of Parliament, which led to the proposals being withdrawn. The Betting and Lotteries Act 1934 was passed on 27 March 1934 which included restrictions of pool betting. The football pools did not fall under gambling legislation (specifically the Betting and Gaming Act 1960 and its predecessors) because they claimed to be competitions of skill, rather than chance; however, their rules typically stated that all transactions were ""binding in honour only"". Typically, between one-quarter and half of the entry fees taken would be returned to the players as prizes.


==== Pools War ====
In 1936, revenue from the 28 pools companies had reached almost £30 million per year, and the pools accounted for four million out of six million postal packets sent weekly in the UK. The English Football League was opposed to the betting and decided to withhold publication of their fixture lists in an attempt to thwart the pools companies' ability to print their coupons: games involving long journeys were announced on Thursday evening and others on Friday evening. The pools companies retaliated by printing coupons with just the home sides, then managed to obtain unofficial leaks of the fixtures and gave customers longer to get their coupons in. The ""Pools War"" ended on 9 March 1936 after two weekends where the fixture lists were not published early. A further attempt to ban the pools was proposed in Parliament at a similar time by R.J. Russell but the bill was defeated on 3 April 1936 by 287 votes to 24.
Barnard continued to run his competition until 1938, when he sold to Cope's Pools of London. Other pools companies included Brittens (founded 1946 in Leicester), Empire (based in Blackpool) and Sherman's Pools of Cardiff, which was absorbed by Littlewoods in 1961.
Dundee United set up a pools competition in 1956 to help fund ground improvements at Tannadice Park. Taypools, as their operation is known, became the model for dozens of other club-run pools and lotteries designed to help boost payrolls or build new stands.


==== War years ====
During World War II, the Post Office refused to deliver the large number of coupons as they were not considered essential, so a Unity Pool organisation was created for the seven largest pools companies to produce joint coupons.


==== Treble Chance ====
The Treble Chance game was inaugurated in 1946. Players were given a list of football matches set to take place over the coming week and attempted to pick a line of eight of them, whose results would be worth the most points by the scoring scheme; traditionally by crossing specific boxes on a printed coupon. A proportion of the players' combined entry fees was distributed as prizes among those whose entries achieved the highest scores. Prior to this the Penny Points and Penny Results were the most popular games. The Treble Chance offered a potential large jackpot at a time when no other form of gambling in the United Kingdom did. Some pools offered additional ways to win, based on scores of football matches at half-time, or football matches in which a particular number of goals were scored.
By 1947, pools revenue had increased to £70 million a year, with over 90% being spent with Littlewoods, Vernon's, Sherman's and Cope's. It accounted for almost 15 million postal packets each week through the post office. By the 1950s, 100,000 people were working in the industry.


==== Agreement with the Football League ====
In July 1959, the High Court of Justice ruled that the Football League owned the copyright to their fixture lists and this led to a 10-year agreement between the pools companies and the English and Scottish Football Leagues, whereby the pools companies would pay the leagues 0.5% of the stakes received (or a minimum of £245,000 per year).
During the 1972-73 season, the deal between the Football League and the pools companies was extended for 13 years worth £23 million.


==== Off-season ====
With professional football not being played in the United Kingdom during the summer, Zetters introduced Australian pools, based on games played in Australia.


=== Mechanics ===


==== Entries ====
Entries were traditionally made by post, or via agents or collectors who received a percentage (usually 12.5%) of the money as a fee. Main collectors, who appointed the agents, delivered the forms and payments to a regional office, which were then dispatched to the companies' central offices. Legally the football pools collectors were agents of the entrants, not the pools company. Business for pools collectors was sustained by periodic canvassing, where company agents knocked on doors in an area of a town or housing estate. Many large factories had at least one employee, who as a sideline, collected coupons from fellow workers.
However, many players were unaware that British law left them at the mercy of unscrupulous collectors who took their money but did not submit the coupons. This was because the Gaming Act 1845 made all forms of gambling a ""debt of honour"" which meant that any dispute about winnings was exempt from legal redress in a court of law. In 1995, a syndicate lost £2.3million when their collector stole their money and did not hand in their coupon. The group wanted to sue the Pools company but it made it clear it did not employ collectors, they were the punters' agents. The ""debt of honour"" exemption to taking legal action over unpaid winnings was eventually repealed in the Gambling Act 2005.
A variety of football pools games are now played on the Internet. These include the classic pools game that traditionally includes a large number of fixtures, spanning the weekend. This is the same as the old Treble Chance which has been renamed and rebranded under new ownership. New pools game variants include Jackpot 12, Premier 10 and Soccer 6; these are all games in which the player must correctly predict home win, draw or away win for 12, 10 and six (mainly Premier League) football matches.


==== Scoring ====
Scoring schemes have varied over the years. The current Classic Pools game, based on the old Treble Chance game, uses a scoring scheme which awards three points to score draws (matches where both team scored the same, strictly positive, number of goals), two points to no-score draws (matches where neither team scored a goal) and one point to both home wins (matches where the home team scored more goals than the away team) and away wins (matches where the away team scored more goals than the home team). The most famous historical scoring scheme differentiated between home wins and away wins, awarding one-and-a-half points for games resulting in away wins. A scoring scheme used for only one year, split score draws into two categories, awarding three points only for matches ending 1–1 and two and a half points for higher-scoring score draws.
The total score of each line would be calculated, up to a maximum of 24 points. The highest scoring line achieved by any player in that particular week's competition would be declared to be worth the top dividend, with a large proportion of the prize pool awarded to the players responsible for submitting the highest-scoring lines. Large football pools would award second and subsequent dividends, splitting smaller proportions of the prize pool among players who had submitted lines scoring nearly as many points; at its peak, the Littlewoods Treble Chance game would offer up to six dividends. During the northern hemisphere summer, when football leagues were not in operation in the United Kingdom, competitions were based on the results of football matches taking place in Australia.
As well as this scoring system, the current Classic Pools game has an available top prize of £3 million. In order to secure this £3 million prize, or a share of it, the punter must successfully guess the nine score draws (draws of 1–1 or higher) when these are the only score draws on the coupon.
The other pools games currently provided by The Football Pools are based on entrants predicting the outcome; of results, scores and events in a variety of matches; rather than the awarding of points. Therefore, with the exception of the Premier 10 game (which pays out a smaller dividend for 9/10 correct as well as 10/10 correct), the other games can only be won if all predictions are correct – if they are not all correct then the prize money is rolled over.


==== Pools Panel ====
Matches which were postponed would often have their results adjudicated, for the sake of the football pools results, by a board known as the Pools Panel which had been formed in January 1963 when many football matches were postponed due to the Big Freeze of 1963, a particularly cold winter. Initially, it had five members: ex-footballers Ted Drake, Tom Finney, Tommy Lawton and George Young and ex-referee Arthur Edward Ellis. They predicted 7 draws, 8 away victories and 23 home victories on 23 January 1963 and their predictions were broadcast on television.
The members changed regularly and by 1969, when Raich Carter joined, the other members were Neil Franklin, George Swindin, Arthur Ellis, Stan Mortensen and Ian McColl, under the chairmanship of Sir Ronald Howe.  They met in London's Connaught Rooms.  It was rumoured that their remuneration was considerably in excess of the national wage of the time.
By 1994, the panel members were Ellis, Gordon Banks, Roger Hunt, Tony Green and Maurice Peston, and the panel was meeting at the London Hilton on Park Lane. Other former members include Gerald Nabarro and Ronnie Simpson.
The panel meets in private session each Saturday from November to April.  Its decisions are released once all ongoing matches have entered half time, but before any final results are known. By 2016, there were only three members: Banks, Green and Hunt.
After the death of Banks in February 2019 and Hunt's retirement from the panel, they were replaced by Ian Callaghan and David Sadler, with Green continuing as a member of the three-man panel.


==== Results ====
Until recently, pools results were published in most national newspapers a day or two after the Saturday on which the matches were played. Grids marking the points totals per game were sometimes published, against which a pools coupon could be aligned to read off the scores.
The BBC television programme Grandstand used to broadcast the winning match numbers and any Pools Panel verdicts as part of its Final Score segment in the late afternoon. Pools news was also given out on the BBC radio programme Sports Report until May 2007.
With scores being read out on radio and television it was also common to relay the message ""claims by telegram"" for days when around eight score-draws occurred (and thus few players expected to achieve maximum points), through ""claims by registered mail only"" for days when rather more winners were expected, to ""no claims"" when there were likely to be so many claimants that the mail would have been overwhelmed.
With the arrival of internet-based pools games, the need for players to score their own coupons was removed. Automatic scoring and payout is now standard on all internet-based pools games.


==== Winning ====
Typically, a fraction of a penny would be charged for each line entered, though players often had the option to play each line at a higher stake and so receive a higher share of the pool should their line prove a winner. Accordingly, players would usually submit many different lines in a single entry. Popular ways to do this were ""full perm"" entries, where 10 (or 11, or more) matches were selected and every possible combination of eight matches selected from the total was entered as a single line. As there are C(10,8) = 45 ways to select eight matches from 10, the cost of such an entry was 45 times the cost of entering a single line. Note that the term ""perm"" was used despite the relevant mathematical operation being combination rather than permutation, as the order in which the eight matches were selected was irrelevant. The pools companies, many daily newspapers and the sporting press also issued ""plans"", which were subsets of full perms: these enabled the punter to cover more matches for the same stake, with the proviso that even if eight draws were in the selections, they might not all be in a single line of the plan (but well designed plans could give a guarantee, such as 'if the plan hits eight draws it must win at least a third dividend').
The largest prizes would be awarded when only one line was entered scoring the maximum number of points; typically this would occur when only eight or nine matches ended in score draws, so only one player would have the line scoring the maximum. The odds for selecting 8 draws from 55 matches (if there are only 8 draws) for an all correct line is 1,217,566 to 1 against. These biggest jackpot prizes could be several hundred thousand pounds, sometimes more than a million. Prizes depended on the number of players and the cost per line, which varied between pools companies and increased over the years. One large winner, Viv Nicholson, gained notoriety by declaring she was going to ""spend, spend, spend"" after winning £152,319 in 1961. The story of her subsequent extravagance and eventual bankruptcy was eventually made into a musical named after her assertion.
At the other extreme, payouts of less than a pound were quite common, as lower dividends when many entries won. Most players could expect to receive at least one low payout if they played for long enough. The odds of winning were around 80 to 1. 
In its current form, the Classic Pools game has a top prize of £3 million, separate to the pool prize that is given to the highest point scorer(s). In order to secure this £3 million prize, or a share of it, the punter must successfully guess the nine score draws (draws of 1–1 or higher) when these are the only score draws on the coupon.
With the arrival of the latest online pools games such as Premier 10 and Super 6, the overall pool size is less than the Classic Pools game, but the odds of winning a major prize are increased because fewer predictions are required to complete a coupon and, also, fewer individuals play each coupon.


=== Historic wins ===
In 1972, two people won approximately £1.5 million each on the state run Italian pools. In September 1975, Miron Vieira de Sousa, from the city of Ivolândia in Brazil, won a prize of 22 million Brazilian cruzeiros ($2.5 million), considered at the time ""the biggest prize in Loteca and in the world, in prediction contests"". In 1981, Tadeu Resende of Volta Redonda won $3,003,532 on the Brazilian football pools, Loteria Esportiva, the world's biggest gambling win at the time. In December 1993, the Italian pools saw their highest jackpot ever recorded with 34 billion lire (£14 million). Some notable UK football pools winners:


=== Other games ===
Other games offered by football pools companies take the form of ""8 homes"", ""4 draws"", ""5 aways"" or the like, where lines consisting of a smaller number of matches are selected and a line is deemed to have won if all the selected matches result in home wins, away wins or draws (irrelevant of the size of the draw) respectively. The cost per line is generally higher; because these attract far fewer players, prizes are generally lower. Some football pools companies additionally organised lotteries, betting on lottery results or spot the ball competitions at various points.
In predicting ""Homes and Aways"", players typically mark more than, for example, eight homes (they might mark 13) and thus their stake increases by the mathematics of combinations. Each line is called a ""perm"" (""permutation"") even though it is actually a mathematical combination not a permutation. It is also possible to reduce the number of perms by taking the most likely and marking them as ""bankers"" i.e. that they appear on every combination.


=== Tax ===
Companies organising football pools were heavily taxed; in 1991, the levy was reduced from 40% of turnover to 37½% of turnover. Additionally, from 1975 on, 2½% of the entry fees went to form the Football Trust which distributed money to football throughout the UK, in particular to help clubs redevelop their stadiums in line with the recommendations made by the Taylor Report.
The business was a reliable source of cash for the pools companies. Each week the money staked was received by the pools company, they deducted their costs, paid the tax, then deducted their profit. What  was left was then the prize money available to the winners.


=== Charitable giving ===
The Football Pools have donated over £1.1 billion to sporting-related causes. During the 2009/10 football season a further £6 million was donated to football initiatives including the following

The Every Player Counts scheme – to grow disability football provision across 44 Football League clubs in England and Wales and increase the opportunities for people with varying disabilities to access sports through their local Football Clubs
The Premier League Health scheme – to help tackle a range of men’s health issues including testicular cancer, depression and alcoholism
The Fit for Football, Fit for Life scheme – to help tackle serious health issues for young people across 30 Scottish Football League clubs


=== Decline ===
Competition from the National Lottery led to a rapid fall-off in players, from a peak of 10 million in 1994 to 700,000 in 2007. Vernons closed its pools operation in February 1998, and ran a lucky-dip game called Easy Play with the National Lottery during the 1998–99 football season. It resumed its traditional business afterwards.
In 2000, Littlewoods Pools was sold for £161 million. The company became part of Littlewoods Gaming, a division of Sportech. Sportech bought Zetters in 2002 and Vernons (which had previously been acquired by betting company Ladbrokes in 1989) in 2007, and announced plans to rebrand the competition as The New Football Pools, launching online at footballpools.com during summer 2008. The competition became known as The Football Pools and provided classic football pools games alongside other pools variants, with coupons containing a smaller number of football matches. Sportech sold the business to private equity firm OpCapita in 2017.
The Littlewoods Football Pools Collection, which records the history of the pools, is held by the National Football Museum.


== In other countries ==
Outside the United Kingdom, similar betting games are frequently known as toto competitions; the name derives from totalisator machines which are used to process the parimutuel betting involved. While the principle of requiring entrants to predict the results of football matches in advance remains the same, the format is similar to the British Jackpot 12, Premier 10 and Soccer 6.
Typically, a list of 13 matches for the coming week will be given. Pools entrants select the result of each one, whether it will be a home win, an away win or neither of these, typically by marking each match with either a 1, a 2 or an N (sometimes X or 0). It is possible to enter two or three results for one or more matches, in which case the entry is treated as a number of separate entries for all possible combinations given; marking two possible results for each of five matches and all three possible results for each of four matches will result in submitting 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 32 × 81 = 2592 different entries. All entries submitting 13 correct predictions will be declared to have won the top prize; sometimes, prizes for fewer correct predictions are also awarded.
In 1946, Italy introduced a state-run pool for citizens to bet on football, called the Totocalcio. It was the only form of legalized football betting in the country until the late 1990s. For fans to win, they needed to correctly pick the outcome of 12 games. A thirteenth game was added in 1951, and a fourteenth (but still called Thirteen) in 2003. Players can win with 9 or more correct predictions. Outside the football season, it is renamed Totosport to include predictions for other sporting events such as Formula 1 and cycling. The bets help finance the Italian National Olympic Committee for which it was awarded their Golden Star for sporting merit in 1997.
The Intertoto Cup football competition was inaugurated by the football pools companies of central Europe to provide matches for their toto coupons during the summer months.
In Brazil, Loteria Esportiva was introduced in 1970 by Caixa Econômica Federal. It was necessary to match the results of thirteen games. The competition went nationwide in 1972.  Between 1972 and 1980, there were 17 million weekly bets. In December 1987, the competition increased to cover 16 matches but returned back to 13 in 1989 and was renamed Loteca. It is currently based on 14 matches with the odds of predicting correctly being 1 chance in 2,391,485.
In Australia, the Soccer Pools game, which ran until 2018, operated under a similar premise to traditional pools, but was instead played in a Lotto-style format. The numbers of the seven matches ranked ""highest"" in a list of 38 (with void games replaced by reserves if necessary) became the six winning and one supplementary (bonus) number respectively. Tie-breakers allowed all 38 games to be ranked in order, for instance preferencing higher-scoring draws (eg. 2-2 would rank higher than 1-1) with the final tie-breaker being match number itself.


== In popular culture ==
The pools feature prominently in the British films Easy Money (1948) and Home and Away (1956) starring Jack Warner, the Italian films Audace colpo dei soliti ignoti (1959) and Al bar dello sport (1983), and the Spanish films La quiniela (1960) and Jenaro, el de los 14 (1974). In ""The Football Pools,"" the final episode of the fifth television series of Hancock's Half Hour (1959), Tony Hancock has picked seven draws and nervously attends a late-kickoff match with the eighth draw and top dividend on the line. Viv Nicholson's life after her win of more than £152,000 in 1961 was made into the musical ""Spend Spend Spend"". Charles Causley's poem Timothy Winters begins ""Timothy Winters comes to school, With eyes as wide as a football pool"". This was used prominently by Christopher Eccleston's character in Hearts and Minds, a 1995 television series.
In 2022 historical comedy drama film Mrs Harris Goes to Paris, set in 1957, the title character becomes obsessed with a Christian Dior dress owned by one of her clients and after a big win on the football pools she sets out to save up the money to go to Paris and buy her own dress.


== See also ==
Gambling in the United Kingdom
Footy tipping
Sports betting
Horace Batchelor, radio promoter of the ""Famous Infra-Draw Method""
Covering code for the mathematics behind continental European pools


== References ==


== Further reading ==
Hubert Phillips, Pools and the Punter, Watts, London, 1955
Mark Clapson, A Bit of a Flutter: Popular Gambling and English Society, 1823–1961 (1992)


== External links ==
A Game of Two Halves? The Business of Football
Internet Archive copy"
Albanian National Awakening,"The Albanian National Awakening (Albanian: Rilindja or Rilindja Kombëtare), commonly known as the Albanian Renaissance or Albanian Revival, is a period throughout the 19th and 20th century of a cultural, political, and social movement in the Albanian history where the Albanian people gathered strength to establish an independent cultural and political life, as well as the country of Albania.
Prior to the rise of nationalism, Albania remained under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or institutional national conscience by the Albanian people. There is some debate among experts regarding when the Albanian nationalist movement should be considered to have started. Some sources attribute its origins to the revolts against centralisation in the 1830s, others to the publication of the first attempt by Naum Veqilharxhi at a standardized alphabet for Albanian in 1844, or to the collapse of the League of Prizren during the Eastern Crisis in 1881. Various compromise positions between these three theses have also emerged, such as one view positing that Albanian nationalism had foundations that dated earlier but ""consolidated"" as a movement during the Eastern Crisis (1878–1881). 
Another view is that Albanian nationalism's roots ""sprouted"" in the reforms of the first decades of the 19th century, and that Albanian nationalism emerged properly in the 1830s and 1840s, when it was a romantic movement for societal reform that was initially mainly driven by Albanians publishing from abroad; it transformed into an overt political national movement in the 1870s. On 20 December 1912, the Conference of Ambassadors in London recognized an independent Albania within its present-day borders.


== Background ==


=== Albanian Pashaliks ===
When the central authority of the Ottoman Empire and the timar system weakened, anarchy emerged in the Albanian-populated region of the empire, and in the late 18th century, two Albanian centers of power arose: the Pashalik of Shkodra under the Bushati family; and the Pashalik of Yanina under Ali Pasha of Tepelenë. Both cooperated with and defied the Sublime Porte as their interests required. The Albanian people (both Muslim and Christian) had a great influence in the politics and events of the late 18th century and early 19th century Ottoman Empire, and in particular they played a key role in the Greek War of Independence, on both sides of the war. Pursuing their own interests, they acted after their own agenda, regardless of the Porte's demands.

The rulers of the increasingly independent Albanian Pashaliks were Albanian military leaders who were at first awarded for their loyalty to the Ottoman Empire, and who however exploited the weakness of the Sublime Porte to exercise in northern and southern Albania their gathered military and political power. While they are clearly not described as champions of national fight aiming at an independent and united Albania, but regarded as political opportunists within the context of the Ottomam Empire, nevertheless these Albanian rulers established separate states by challenging the authority of the Sublime Porte, and Ali Pasha of Yanina, in particular, also established foreign diplomatic relations with Napoleonic France and with Britain. British travellers who had met Ali Pasha noted that Ali described himself and the Albanians as friends of the British nation. Furthermore, Albanians were seen as living independently and without oppression by the Porte, meanwhile Ali Pasha was aiming to form some kind of alliance with the British government. Ali's separatist initiative, by conceiving his territory in increasingly independent terms referring to it as ""Albania"", eventually aiming at creating an independent Albanian–Greek state, revealed the vulnerability of Ottoman power. The Albanian rule of the Pashalik of Yanina as well as that of the Pashalik of Scutari caused the emergence of a sense of ethnic belonging among the Albanian people, which consequently led to an enduring hostility of Albanians against the Sublime Porte, also by seeking autonomy from its central power.


=== 1831–1878 ===
After the fall of the Yanina Pashalik, the power and influence of the Albanian beys had faded. The remaining beys thus attempted to restore their rule. An assembly was held in Berat in 1828. In this Convention, the leaders were Zylyftar Poda and Shahin bej Delvina. The Ottoman Empire tried to prevent the rise of local beys, which presented a menace to centralised power. In 1830, the Sublime Porte sent an expeditionary force under the command of Reşid Mehmed Pasha to suppress the local Albanian beys. On hearing the news of the Ottoman forces' arrival, the three most powerful local chiefs, Zylyftar Poda, accompanied by the remains of Ali Pasha's faction, Veli Bey (whose power base was around Yannina), and Arslan Bey, along with other less powerful beys, began to prepare their forces to resist a probable Ottoman attack. Realising the seriousness of the situation and the danger of a general uprising, Reşid Mehmed Pasha invited the Albanian beys to a meeting on the pretext that they would be rewarded for their loyalty to the Porte. The beys however, were all killed along with their guards.
The last Albanian pashalik to fall was the Scutari Pashalik. The Bushati dynasty rule ended when an Ottoman army under Mehmed Reshid Pasha besieged the Rozafa Castle and forced Mustafa Reshiti to surrender (1831). The Albanian defeat ended a planned alliance between the Albanian beys and the Bosnian nobility, who were similarly seeking autonomy. Instead of the pashalik, the vilayets of Scutari and that of Kosovo were created.


=== Early revolts ===
By removing the Timar system, the Sublime Porte intended to strengthen its central government and reclaim the power of the Empire which had been severely weakened due to economic and social backwardness, from the exploitative system and from the ongoing uprisings of peoples. Reforms began to be implemented in Albania since the 1830s. They gave a blow to the ranks of the old military feudal class which had been weakened from Ottoman expeditions from 1822 to 1831. Parts of the feudal heads that had launched revolts were eliminated, others were exiled and those who could, had escaped from the country. All their properties were declared state-owned. This gave rise to new landowners who had connections to the Sublime Porte. Due to the Ottoman occupation, the ideology of Nationalism developed with difficulty and was limited in Albanian-inhabited territories in the Balkan. They found more favorable development conditions outside, in the capital of the Empire, Istanbul, Italy, other Balkan countries etc. The national ideas became apparent via popular uprisings against the Tanzimat reforms, but they still did not reach a period to be formulated in full policy of the National Movement. They were more expressed with literary works and studies of the Albanian people, history, language and culture. In their writings, the Rilindas fought to invoke feelings of love for the country by exalting patriotic traditions and episodes of history, especially that of the Skanderbeg era and folk culture; They devoted a lot of attention to native language and Albanian schools as a means to affirm individuality and national vindication.
The centralising reforms of the Ottoman government were implemented immediately with the deployment of civil and military personnel in Albania. This was met with resistance by the local population which first began with the refusal to execute orders and quickly transformed into armed rebellion. After two local uprisings that burst in the beginning of 1833 in Kolonjë and in Dibër were repressed, uprisings occurred in Berat-Vlorë-Delvinë-Çamëria area in larger scales than before. The actions of the Ottoman army  were driven by terror and increased unhappiness in the local population, who were aptly anticipated to revolt again. Fugitive agitators circulated across the provinces to organise further rebellions, calling on the people to prepare for war. Others were sent to neighbouring provinces to secure their presence by pointing out they are ""brothers."" To get ahead of the danger Of the new outbreak of popular hate, at the beginning of 1844, the Ottoman authorities urged urgent action. They concentrated large military forces at various points, especially in Bitola where the state was worse. By the end of March 1844, the new uprising erupted but was suppressed.
In the ensuing years there were bursts of armed insurrections throughout Albania against the Ottoman centralising reforms, and especially against the burden of the new taxes imposed and against the obligatory military service. But, at the same time and within the bosom of these insurrections, preliminary national claims started to spread. These claims came forth especially in the revolt of 1847, which assumed great proportions in two zones of Southern Albania: in the Gjirokastra region led by Zenel Gjoleka and in that of Berat led by Rapo Hekali.


== The movement ==


=== Formation ===

There is some debate among experts regarding when the Albanian nationalist movement should be considered to have started. Some sources attribute its origins to the revolts against centralization in the 1830s, others to the publication of the first attempt by Naum Veqilharxhi at a standardized alphabet for Albanian in 1844, or to the collapse of the League of Prizren during the Eastern Crisis in 1881. Various compromise positions between these three theses have also emerged, such as one view positing that Albanian nationalism had foundations that dated earlier but ""consolidated"" as a movement during the Eastern Crisis (1878–1881). Another view is that Albanian nationalism's roots ""sprouted"" in the reforms of the first decades of the 19th century but Albanian nationalism emerged properly in the 1830s and 1840s as a romantic movement for societal reform that was initially mainly driven by Albanians publishing from a broad, and it transformed into an overt political national movement in the 1870s. According to the view that the Rilindja evolved in the 1870s, because of religious ties of the Albanian majority of the population with the ruling Ottomans and the lack of an Albanian state in past, nationalism was less developed and the national movement was greatly delayed among Albanians in the 19th century compared to neighbouring southeast European nations, such as the Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians and Romanians. The Rilindja was a continuation of the Albanian revolts and cultural activities for independence that took place during the entire Ottoman period. The centralist Tanzimat reforms, which were aimed at replacing local Albanian functionaries and suppression of Albanian culture sowed the seeds of the Rilindja. In that period an intellectual and merchant class with the new ideas that were emerging in Europe was shaped, empowering the existing struggle against the Ottoman rule. Political nationalism and economic liberalism were two modern platforms that inspired many Albanian intellectuals.

The French Revolution left a socio-economic impact on the Albanian society, with many Albanian intellectuals highlighting ideals of the Revolution and important figures such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. During that time, the destruction of the Pashalik of Yanina and the growing Greek nationalist ambitions fueled reaction among the Albanian intellectual elite. The son of one merchant family, Naum Veqilharxhi, started his work to write an alphabet intended to help Albanians overcome religious and political issues in 1824 or 1825. Veqilharxhi thought that the continuous occupations had caused many problems to Albanian education. His work facilitated the diffusion of national awareness based on the unity of kin, identity of language and traditions. Some Albanian patriots, among them many from the Arbëreshë communities in Italy, built contacts with Italian democratic and revolutionary forces. This helped the Rilindja movement to expand beyond the frame of Albanian-Ottoman relations, and become an international issue. The Risorgimento actually served as an inspiration for the movement. The 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War dealt a decisive blow to Ottoman power in the Balkan Peninsula. The Albanians' fear that the lands they inhabited would be partitioned among Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece fueled the rise of the Albanian national movement.
The first postwar treaty, the abortive Treaty of San Stefano signed on March 3, 1878, assigned Albanian-populated lands to Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom blocked the arrangement because it awarded Russia a predominant position in the Balkans and thereby upset the European balance of power. A peace conference to settle the dispute was held later in the year in Berlin.

The Treaty of San Stefano triggered profound anxiety among the Albanians meanwhile, and it spurred their leaders to organize a defense of the lands they inhabited. In the spring of 1878, influential Albanians in Constantinople—including Abdyl Frashëri, one of the first political ideologues of the National Revival-organized a secret committee to direct the Albanians' resistance. In May the group called for a general meeting of representatives from all the Albanian-populated lands. On June 10, 1878, about eighty delegates, mostly Muslim religious leaders, clan chiefs, and other influential people from the four Albanian-populated Ottoman vilayets, met in Prizren. The delegates declared the formation of the League of Prizren which consisted of two branches: the Prizren branch and the southern branch. The Prizren branch was led by Iljas Dibra and it had representatives from the areas of Kirçova (Kicevo), Kalkandelen (Tetovo), Pristine (Pristina), Mitroviça (Mitrovica), Viçitirin (Vushtrri), Üsküp (Skopje), Gilan (Gjilan), Manastir (Bitola), Debar (Debar) and Gostivar. The southern branch, led by Abdyl Frashëri consisted of sixteen representatives from the areas of Kolonjë, Korçë, Arta, Berat, Parga, Gjirokastër, Përmet, Paramythia, Filiates, Margariti, Vlorë, Tepelenë and Delvinë. The League of Prizren was set under the direction of a central committee that had the power to impose taxes and raise an army. The League of Prizren worked to gain autonomy for the Albanians and to thwart implementation of the Treaty of San Stefano, but not to create an independent Albania. The participants wanted to return to the status quo before the start of Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The main aim was to defend from immediate dangers. Among other things the League requested an official status for the Albanian language in the Albanian-inhabited territories and the foundation of Albanian schools.
At first the Ottoman authorities supported the League of Prizren, but the Sublime Porte pressed the delegates to declare themselves to be first and foremost Ottomans rather than Albanians. Some delegates supported this position and advocated emphasizing Muslim solidarity and the defense of Muslim lands, including present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other representatives, under Frashëri's leadership, focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and creating a sense of Albanian identity that would cut across religious and tribal lines. Because conservative Muslims constituted a majority of the representatives, the League of Prizren supported maintenance of Ottoman suzerainty.

In July 1878, the league sent a memorandum to the Great Powers at the Congress of Berlin, which was called to settle the unresolved problems of Turkish War, demanding that all Albanians be united in a single autonomous Ottoman province. The Congress of Berlin ignored the league's memorandum. The congress ceded to Montenegro the cities of Bar and Podgorica and areas around the mountain towns of Gusinje and Plav, which Albanian leaders considered Albanian territory. Serbia also gained some Albanian-inhabited lands. The Albanians, the vast majority loyal to the empire, vehemently opposed the territorial losses. Albanians also feared the possible occupation of Epirus by Greece. The League of Prizren organized armed resistance efforts in Gusinje, Plav, Scutari, Prizren, Preveza, and Ioannina. A border tribesman at the time described the frontier as ""floating on blood.""
In August 1878, the Congress of Berlin ordered a commission to trace a border between the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro. The congress also directed Greece and the Ottoman Empire to negotiate a solution to their border dispute. The Great Powers expected the Ottomans to ensure that the Albanians would respect the new borders, ignoring that the sultan's military forces were too weak to enforce any settlement and that the Ottomans could only benefit by the Albanians' resistance. The Sublime Porte, in fact, armed the Albanians and allowed them to levy taxes, and when the Ottoman army withdrew from areas awarded to Montenegro under the Treaty of Berlin, Roman Catholic Albanian tribesmen simply took control. The Albanians' successful resistance to the treaty forced the Great Powers to alter the border, returning Gusinje and Plav to the Ottoman Empire and granting Montenegro the Albanian-populated coastal town of Ulcinj. There the Albanians refused to surrender as well. Finally, the Great Powers blockaded Ulcinj by sea and pressured the Ottoman authorities to bring the Albanians under control. The Great Powers decided in 1881 to cede Greece only Thessaly and the district of Arta.
Faced with growing international pressure ""to pacify"" the refractory Albanians, the sultan dispatched a large army under Dervish Turgut Pasha to suppress the League of Prizren and deliver Ulcinj to Montenegro. Albanians loyal to the empire supported the Sublime Porte's military intervention. In April 1881, Dervish Pasha's 10,000 men captured Prizren and later crushed the resistance at Ulcinj. The League of Prizren's leaders and their families were arrested and deported. Frashëri, who originally received a death sentence, was imprisoned until 1885 and exiled until his death seven years later. In the three years it survived, the League of Prizren effectively made the Great Powers aware of the Albanian people and their national interests. Montenegro and Greece received much less Albanian-populated territory than they would have won without the league's resistance.
Formidable barriers frustrated Albanian leaders' efforts to instill in their people an Albanian rather than an Ottoman identity. Divided into four vilayets, Albanians had no common geographical or political nerve centre. The Albanians' religious differences forced nationalist leaders to give the national movement a purely secular character that alienated religious leaders. The most significant factor uniting the Albanians, their spoken language, lacked a standard literary form and even a standard alphabet. Each of the three available choices, the Latin, Cyrillic, and Arabic scripts, implied different political and religious orientations opposed by one or another element of the population. In 1878 there were no Albanian-language schools in the most developed of the Albanian-inhabited areas and the choice for education was between Orthodox Church schools, where education was in Greek and Ottoman government schools where education was in Turkish.

The Ottoman Empire continued to crumble after the Congress of Berlin and Sultan Abdül Hamid II resorted to repression to maintain order. The authorities strove without success to control the political situation in the empire's Albanian-populated lands, arresting suspected nationalist activists. When the sultan refused Albanian demands for unification of the four Albanian-populated vilayets, Albanian leaders reorganized the League of Prizren and incited uprisings that brought the Albanian-populated lands, especially Kosovo, to near anarchy. The imperial authorities disbanded a successor organisation Besa-Besë (League of Peja) founded in 1897, executed its president Haxhi Zeka in 1902, and banned Albanian-language books and correspondence. In Macedonia, where Bulgarian-, Greek-, and Serbian-backed guerrillas were fighting Ottoman authorities and one another for control, Muslim Albanians suffered attacks, and Albanian guerrilla groups retaliated. Albanian leaders meeting in Bitola during 1905 established the Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania. In 1905, priest Kristo Negovani who had attained Albanian national sentiments abroad returned to his native village of Negovan and introduced the Albanian language for the first time in Orthodox liturgy. For his efforts Negovani was killed by a Greek guerilla band on orders from Bishop Karavangelis of Kastoria that aroused a nationalist response with the Albanian guerilla band of Bajo Topulli killing the Metropolitan of Korçë, Photios.
In 1906 opposition groups in the Ottoman Empire emerged, one of which evolved into the Committee of Union and Progress, more commonly known as the Young Turks, which proposed restoring constitutional government in Constantinople, by revolution if necessary. In July 1908, a month after a Young Turk rebellion in Macedonia supported by an Albanian uprising in Kosovo and Macedonia escalated into widespread insurrection and mutiny within the imperial army, Sultan Abdül Hamid II agreed to demands by the Young Turks to restore constitutional rule. Many Albanians participated in the Young Turks uprising, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. The Young Turks lifted the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language. As a consequence, Albanian intellectuals meeting in Bitola in 1908 chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script. The Young Turks, however, were set on maintaining the empire and not interested in making concessions to the myriad nationalist groups within its borders. After securing the abdication of Abdül Hamid II in April 1909, the new authorities levied taxes, outlawed guerrilla groups and nationalist societies, and attempted to extend Constantinople's control over the northern Albanian mountain men. In addition, the Young Turks legalized the bastinado, or beating with a stick, even for misdemeanors, banned carrying rifles, and denied the existence of an Albanian nationality. The new government also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to impose the Arabic alphabet.
The Albanians refused to submit to the Young Turks' campaign to ""Ottomanise"" them by force. New Albanian uprisings began in Kosovo and the northern mountains in early April 1910. Ottoman forces quashed these rebellions after three months, outlawed Albanian organizations, disarmed entire regions, and closed down schools and publications. Montenegro held ambitions of future expansion into neighbouring Albanian-populated lands and supported a 1911 uprising by the mountain tribes against the Young Turks regime that grew into a widespread revolt. Unable to control the Albanians by force, the Ottoman government granted concessions on schools, military recruitment, and taxation and sanctioned the use of the Latin script for the Albanian language. The government refused, however, to unite the four Albanian-inhabited vilayets.


=== Revolts of 1910 and 1911 ===

In 1910, due to the new centralisation policies of the Young Turk Ottoman government towards Albanians, local Albanian leaders Isa Boletini and Idriz Seferi started an uprising against the Ottomans in the Kosovo vilayet. After subduing the Ottoman garrisons in towns such as Prishtina and Ferizaj, the Ottoman government declared martial law and sent a military expedition of 16,000 men led by Shefket Turgut Pasha. Simultaneously, forces under Idriz Seferi captured the Kaçanik pass. They successfully defended the pass from the Ottoman expeditionary force thus, forcing them to send a force of 40,000 men. After two weeks the pass was lost to the Ottomans After fierce fighting, the rebels retreated to Drenica and the Ottomans seized control of Prizren, Gjakova and Peja Afterwards Ottoman forces incurred into Northern Albania and Macedonia. Ottoman forces were stopped for more than 20 days in the Agri Pass, from the Albanian forces of Shalë, Shoshë, Nikaj and Mërtur areas, led by Prel Tuli, Mehmet Shpendi, and Marash Delia. Unable to repress their resistance, this column took another way to Scutari, passing from the Pukë region. On July 24, 1910, Ottoman forces entered the city of Scutari. During this period martial courts were put in action and summary executions took place. A large number of firearms were collected and many villages and properties were burned by the Ottoman army.
In 1911, the Albanian National Committee was formed. In a meeting of the committee held in Podgorica from 2 to 4 February 1911, under the leadership of Nikolla bey Ivanaj and Sokol Baci Ivezaj, it was decided to organise an Albanian uprising.  Terenzio Tocci gathered the Mirditë chieftains on 26/27 April 1911 in Orosh, proclaimed the independence of Albania, raised the flag of Albania (according to Robert Elsie it was raised for the first time after Skanderbeg's death) and established the provisional government. Shefqet Turgut Pasha wanted to meet this threat and returned to the region with 8.000 soldiers. As soon as he reached Shkodër on 11 May, he issued a general proclamation which declared martial law and offered an amnesty for all rebels (except for Malësor chieftains) if they immediately return to their homes. After Ottoman troops entered the area Tocci fled the empire abandoning his activities. After months of intense fighting, the rebels were trapped and decided to escape to Montenegro.
On 23 June 1911, in the village of Gerče, in Montenegro, an assembly of the tribal leaders of the revolt was held to adopt the ""Greçë Memorandum"". This memorandum was signed by 22 Albanian chieftains, four from each tribe of Hoti, Grudë and Skrel, five from Kastrati, three from Klemendi and two from Shalë.

Requests of the memorandum included:

general amnesty for all participants in the revolt
demand for recognition of the Albanian ethnicity
election of the deputies of Albanian ethnicity for the Ottoman Parliament according to the proportional system
Albanian language in schools
governor and other appointed high officials have to know Albanian language and all other positions in the administration have to be reserved only for people of Albanian ethnicity
men who are ethnic Albanians to serve army only in Albania during the peacetime
confiscated arms to be returned
all Albanian property damaged by Ottoman troops to be compensated
The Memorandum was submitted to the representatives of Great Powers in Cetinje, Montenegro.
Ottoman representatives managed to deal with the leaders of Albanian rebels in Kosovo Vilayet and Scutari Vilayet separately, because they were not united and lacked central control. The Ottomans promised to meet most Albanian demands, limited mainly to Catholic highlanders like general amnesty, the opening of Albanian language schools, and the restriction that military service was to be performed only in the territory of the vilayets with substantial Albanian population. Other demands included requiring administrative officers to learn the Albanian language, and that the possession of weapons would be permitted.


=== Revolts of 1912 ===

The Albanian Revolt of 1912 was one of many Albanian revolts in the Ottoman Empire and lasted from January until August 1912. Albanian soldiers and officers deserted the Ottoman military service and joined the insurgents. After a series of successes, Albanian revolutionaries managed to capture the city of Skopje, the administrative centre of Kosovo vilayet within the Ottoman rule.
On August 9, 1912, Albanian rebels presented a new list of demands (the so-called list of Fourteen Points), related to the Albanian vilayet, that can be summarized as follows:

autonomous system of administration and justice of four vilayets populated with Albanians (Albanian vilayet)
Albanians to perform military service only in territory of four vilayets populated with Albanians, except in time of war
employing officials who know local language and customs, but not necessarily Albanians,
establishment of new licees and agricultural schools in the bigger districts
reorganisation and modernisation of the religious schools and use of Albanian language in secular schools
freedom to establish private schools and societies
the development of trade, agriculture and public works
general amnesty for all Albanians involved in revolt
court martial for those Ottoman officers who attempted to suppress the revolt
The revolt ended when the Ottoman government agreed to fulfill the rebels' demands, except of the last one, on September 4, 1912. The autonomous system of administration and justice of the four vilayets with a substantial Albanian population was accepted by the Ottoman Empire, however they avoided granting autonomy to a unitary Albanian vilayet which was part of the Albanian National Awakening agenda during the League of Prizren.


=== Independence ===

The First Balkan War, however, erupted before a final settlement could be worked out. The Balkan allies—Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece—quickly drove the Ottomans to the walls of Constantinople. The Montenegrins surrounded Scutari.

An assembly of Muslim and Christian leaders meeting in Vlorë in November 1912 declared Albania an independent country. The complete text of the declaration was:
In Vlora, on the 15th/28th of November. That time the President was Ismail Kemal Bey, in which he spoke of the great perils facing Albania today, the delegates have all decided unanimously that Albania, as of today, should be on her own, free and independent.

A second session of the Assembly of Vlorë was held on December 4, 1912. During that session members of the assembly established the Provisional Government of Albania. It was a government that consisted of ten members, led by Ismail Qemali until his resignation on 22 January 1914. The Assembly established the Senate (Albanian: Pleqësi) with an advisory role to the government, consisting of 18 members of the Assembly. An ambassadorial conference that opened in London in December decided the major questions concerning the Albanians after the First Balkan War in its concluding Treaty of London of May 1913. The Albanian delegation in London was assisted by Aubrey Herbert, MP, a passionate advocate of their cause.

One of Serbia's primary war aims was to gain an Adriatic port, preferably Durrës. Austria-Hungary and Italy opposed giving Serbia an outlet to the Adriatic, which they feared would become a Russian port. They instead supported the creation of an autonomous Albania. Russia backed Serbia's and Montenegro's claims to Albanian-inhabited lands. Britain and Germany remained neutral. Chaired by Britain's foreign secretary, Sir Edward Grey, the ambassadors' conference initially decided to create an autonomous Albania under continued Ottoman rule, but with the protection of the Great Powers. This solution, as detailed in the Treaty of London, was abandoned in the summer of 1913 when it became obvious that the Ottoman Empire would, in the Second Balkan War, lose Macedonia and hence its overland connection with the Albanian-inhabited lands.
In July 1913, the Great Powers opted to recognise an independent, neutral Albanian state ruled by a constitutional monarchy and under the protection of the Great Powers. The August 1913 Treaty of Bucharest established that independent Albania was a country with borders that gave the new state about 28,000 square kilometres of territory and a population of 800,000. Montenegro had to surrender Scutari after having lost 10,000 men in the process of taking the town. Serbia reluctantly succumbed to an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy to withdraw from northern Albania. The treaty, however, left large areas with majority Albanian populations, notably Kosovo and western Macedonia, outside the new state and failed to solve the region's nationality problems.


== Culture ==


=== Arts ===

The Albanian Renaissance is one of the most valuable periods in Albanian culture, a period characterised by a cultural, economic, political and social flourishing of Albanian consciousness within the Ottoman Empire. The period is directly connected with Jorgji Panariti and Kolë Idromeno, the most renowned representatives of the Albanian Renaissance.


=== Literature ===

Albanian intellectuals in the nineteenth century began devising a single, standard Albanian literary language and making demands that it be used in schools. In Constantinople in 1879, Sami Frashëri founded a cultural and educational organization, the Society for the Printing of Albanian Writings, whose membership comprised Muslim, Catholic, and Orthodox Albanians. Naim Frashëri, the most-renowned Albanian poet, joined the society and wrote and edited textbooks. Albanian émigrés in Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy, Romania, and the United States supported the society's work. The Greeks, who dominated the education of Orthodox Albanians, joined the Turks in suppressing the Albanians' culture, especially Albanian-language education. In 1886 the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople threatened to excommunicate anyone found reading or writing Albanian, and priests taught that God would not understand prayers uttered in Albanian. In 1844-5 however, Albanian intellectual Naum Veqilharxhi published his work Evëtori Shqip Fort i Shkurtër (English: The short Albanian Evëtor) which was an alphabet that included thirty three letters which were invented by himself. He avoided the use of Latin, Greek or Arabic alphabets and characters because of their religious associations and divisions. In November 1869, a Commission for the Alphabet of the Albanian Language was gathered in Istanbul.

One of its members was Kostandin Kristoforidhi and the main purpose of the Commission was the creation of a unique alphabet for all the Albanians. In January 1870 the Commission ended its work of the standardization of the alphabet, which was mainly in Latin letters. A plan on the creation of textbooks and spread of Albanian schools was drafted. However this plan was not realized, because the Ottoman Government wouldn't finance the expenses for the establishment of such schools. Although this commission had gathered and delivered an alphabet in 1870, the writers from the North still used the Latin-based alphabet, whereas in Southern Albania writers used mostly the Greek letters. The turning point was the aftermath of the League of Prizren (1878) events when in 1879 Sami Frashëri and Naim Frashëri formed the Society for the Publication of Albanian Writings. Members of the society Sami Frashëri, Naim Frashëri and Jani Vreto published the Primer of the Albanian language and other works in Albanian that dealt with the humanities, natural sciences and so on. After a long time struggling with obstacles coming from the Ottoman authorities, the first secular school of Albanian language was opened on the initiative of individual teachers and other intellectuals on 7 March 1887 in Korce. Diamanti Tërpo, a citizen of the city, offered her house to serve as a school building. The first director and teacher of the school was Pandeli Sotiri.

One year earlier, the Albanian dictionary (Fjalori i Gjuhës Shqipe) by Kostandin Kristoforidhi had been published in 1904. The dictionary had been drafted 25 years before its publication and was written in the Greek alphabet. In 1908, the Congress of Monastir was held by Albanian intellectuals in Bitola (in modern-day North Macedonia). The Congress was hosted by the Bashkimi (unity) club, and prominent delegates included Gjergj Fishta, Ndre Mjeda, Mit'hat Frashëri, Sotir Peçi, Shahin Kolonja, and Gjergj D. Qiriazi. There was much debate and the contending alphabets were Istanbul, Bashkimi and Agimi. However, the Congress was unable to make a clear decision and opted for a compromise solution of using both the widely used Istanbul, with minor changes, and a modified version of the Bashkimi alphabet. Usage of the alphabet of Istanbul declined rapidly and it was essentially extinct over the following decades. The Bashkimi alphabet is at the origin of the official alphabet of the Albanian language in use today.
A major role during the Albanian National Awakening was played by literature, which served to many Rilindas as a way to express their ideas. It was imbued with the spirit of national liberation, with the nostalgia of the émigré and the rhetorical pathos of past heroic wars. This literary school developed the poetry most. Regarding the motifs and poetical forms, its hero was the ethical man, the fighting Albanian, and to a lesser degree the tragic man. Because its major purpose was to awaken national consciousness it was closely linked with the folklore tradition.


== See also ==
History of Albania
Albanian nationalism
Albanophobia
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Library of Congress Country Study of Albania
Blumi, Isa (2011). Reinstating the Ottomans, Alternative Balkan Modernities: 1800–1912. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 9780230119086.
Brisku, Adrian (2013). Bittersweet Europe: Albanian and Georgian Discourses on Europe, 1878–2008. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-0-85745-985-5.
Clayer, Nathalie (2005). ""Le meurtre du prêtre: Acte fondateur de la mobilisation nationaliste albanaise à l'aube de la révolution Jeune Turque [The murder of the priest: Founding act of the Albanian nationalist mobilisation on the eve of the Young Turks revolution]"". Balkanologie. IX (1–2).
Clayer, Nathalie (2007). Aux origines du nationalisme albanais: La naissance d'une nation majoritairement musulmane en Europe [The origins of Albanian nationalism: The birth of a predominantly Muslim nation in Europe]. Paris: Karthala. ISBN 9782845868168.
Dauti, Daut (30 January 2018). Britain, the Albanian Question and the Demise of the Ottoman Empire 1876–1914 (phd). University of Leeds.
Dauti, Daut (2023). Britain, the Albanian National Question and the Fall of the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1914. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781350349544.
Elsie, Robert (2010). Historical Dictionary of Albania. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press (The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group Incorporated). ISBN 978-0-8108-6188-6.
Fleming, K. E. (2014). The Muslim Bonaparte: Diplomacy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha's Greece. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-6497-3.
Gawrych, George (2006). The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: IB Tauris. ISBN 9781845112875.
Mazower, Mark (2000). The Balkans: A Short History. Modern Library Chronicles. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-64087-8.
Schwandner-Sievers and Fischer (eds.), Albanian Identities: Myth and History, Indiana University Press (2002), ISBN 0-253-21570-6.
Sette, Alessandro. ""L'Albania nella strategia diplomatica italiana (1871-1915)"", Nuova Rivista Storica, 102, I (2018): 321–378.
Skendi, Stavro (1967). The Albanian national awakening. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400847761.
Zickel, Raymond; Iwaskiw, Walter R. (1994). Albania: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: GPO for Library of Congress."
"Gillette, Wyoming","Gillette (, jih-LET) is a city in and the county seat of Campbell County, Wyoming, United States. The town was founded in 1891 as a major railway town on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad.
The population was estimated at 33,496, as of July 1, 2023, making it the 3rd most populous city in Wyoming after Cheyenne and Casper. Gillette's population increased 48% in the ten years after the 2000 census, which counted 19,646 residents after a boom in its local fossil fuel industries.
Gillette is centrally located in an area involved with the development of vast quantities of coal, oil, and coalbed methane gas. The city calls itself the ""Energy Capital of the Nation""; Wyoming provides nearly 35% of the nation's coal. However, a decline in coal use in the U.S. has led to a decline in the local economy, leading some local officials to look for other industries or employment opportunities. As a major economic hub for the county, the city is also a regional center for media, education, health, and arts.


== History ==

Before its founding, Gillette started as Donkey Town, named after Donkey Creek, and then was moved and called Rocky Pile after Rocky Draw.
Gillette was founded in 1891 with the coming of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad and incorporated on January 6, 1892, less than two years after Wyoming became a state. Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad changed the name to Gillette, after Edward Gillette, a surveyor for the company.
In November 1895, a fire destroyed most of the city. Only two saloons, two stores, and a restaurant survived. A group of families from Mathews County, Virginia, and Gloucester County, Virginia, settled in the town between 1895 and 1905, all of whom were members of the Episcopal Church, and there has been an Episcopalian presence in Gillette ever since. During this same era a group of immigrants from County Antrim, Ireland (in what has since become Northern Ireland) also settled in Gillette, these settlers were Presbyterians of Scottish descent, this population was referred to as ""Scots-Irish"" in the United States, however this was not a term used in Ireland. Norwegian immigrants arrived in the town during the same era, all of whom were Lutheran. There were also a small group of settlers from rural New England, these were old stock ""Yankee"" New Englanders who were members of the Congregational church.
In 1974, U.S. psychologist ElDean Kohrs used the town as the basic example of what he called the Gillette syndrome, the social disruption that can occur in a community due to rapid population growth. During the 1960s, Gillette's population doubled from 3,580 to 7,194. Kohrs proposed that this fast increase caused increased crime, high costs of living, and weakened social and community bonds. Some of Kohrs's claims about the energy industry's influence have been disputed, since similar increases in divorce rates, welfare usage, and crime were also seen in other rapidly growing areas of the country.
Gillette annexed the census-designated place Antelope Valley-Crestview on January 1, 2018. Antelope Valley-Crestview's population was 1,658 at the 2010 census and it had an area of 4.9 mi2 (12.7 km²).


== Geography ==

Gillette is located at 44°16′58″N 105°30′19″W (44.282660, −105.505256).  It is situated between the Bighorn Mountains to the west and the Black Hills to the east, in the Powder River Basin.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 19.00 square miles (49.21 km2), of which 18.97 square miles (49.13 km2) are land and 0.03 square miles (0.08 km2) is water.
Few trees were in Gillette when it was founded. The native trees, box elder and cottonwood, were found along creeks. The oldest surviving non-native trees were planted in the 1940s. The earliest were almost exclusively elm, cottonwood, white poplar, green ash, Colorado blue spruce, and ponderosa pine. In the 1960s, crab apples, honey locust, catalpa, European mountain-ash, and other evergreens were planted. Nurseries started to sell trees in the 1970s, which further increased tree diversity.


=== Skyline ===


=== Climate ===
Gillette has a borderline humid continental (Köppen: Dfa) and cool semi-arid (Köppen: BSk) climate characterised by hot summers with pleasant mornings, and generally very cold, though very variable, winters. The city lies in USDA plant hardiness zone 5a (−20 to −15 °F; −29 to −26 °C).


== Demographics ==

As of 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $69,581, and for a family was $78,377. Males had a median income of $41,131 versus $22,717 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,749. About 5.7% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and 14.1% of those age 65 or over.


=== 2010 census ===

As of the census of 2010, 29,087 people, 10,975 households, and 7,299 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,533.3 inhabitants per square mile (592.0/km2). The 12,153 housing units averaged 640.6 per square mile (247.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.2% White, 0.4% African American, 1.2% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 3.2% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 9.5% of the population.
Of the 10,975 households, 38.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.2% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.5% were not families. About 24.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.09.
The median age in the city was 30.6 years. 28% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.9% were 18 to 24; 30.6% were 25 to 44; 24.8% were 45 to 64; and 5.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 52.3% male and 47.7% female.


== Arts and culture ==
The volunteer board called the Mayor's Art Council runs the Avenues of Art program. The program pays artists to display sculptures for sale. Each year newly selected works are shown at the Donkey Creek Festival, where visitors can meet the artists. 113 sculptures are currently on display through the Avenues of Art program and 289 have been shown since 2004. Participating artists have included Jane DeDecker, Gary Lee Price, and Benjamin Victor.
A second program, Sculpture Walk, is operated by the Sculpture Committee. Started in 2018, it pays artists to display their sculptures for sale at Mount Pisgah Cemetery.
The city chose to increase investment in the arts program during the Great Recession and mayor Louise Carter-King describes the investment as a quality of life one.


=== Annual cultural events ===
A free multi-day event, Donkey Creek Festival is held in every June at the Gillette College. It includes the Avenues of Arts reception, concert, car and motorcycle show, disc golf tournament, and 5K run and walk. There are art and food vendors and alcohol is available at a beer garden. The festival has grown significantly since starting in 2006.
The Gillette chapter of PFLAG hosts an annual pride event to support the local LGBTQ community. Previous years have included a potluck, picnic, and bowling. In 2019, PFLAG held the Pride Drag Show at AVA Community Art Center as part of its pride event.


=== Tourism ===
In 2021, 7,338 people visited the Gillette Convention and Visitors Bureau.  While hunters always use the center, most visitors asked about coal mine tours and museums. Of the 569 visitors in 2018 who identified where they were from, 473 were from 46 states and 96 were from 23 other countries.


== Sports ==


=== Wyoming Center at the CAM-PLEX ===
The Wyoming Center at the CAM-PLEX is a 9,000 seat event center located just outside of Gillette. Ground was broken in 2006 and it was completed in 2008.
It hosts both sporting and community events. The center can be divided into 3 rooms by using moveable soundproof walls; which retract if more space is needed for a certain event. More walls can further divide the center into 9 rooms.
The Frontier and Equality Halls (located in the west and middle parts of the center, respectively) are used for various purposes; while the Spirit Hall (located on the east side) is used for ice skating and hockey. As stated before, it can be taken down should an event need more space.
The center currently hosts the National High School Finals Rodeo, amateur wrestling, and are hosts for the Wyoming Cavalry, of American Indoor Football.  The Cavalry use the Equality Hall of the CAM-PLEX for their home games.  The seating capacity is 4,000 for Cavalry games.  It once hosted the Gillette Mustangs, formerly of Champions Indoor Football.


=== Other facilities ===
The Campbell County Recreation Center is a 190,000-ft2 facility that was established April 2010. This facility includes a 42-ft climbing wall resembling the Devils Tower National Monument. Also, an 81,000-ft2 field house that contains basketball courts, a six-lane track, swimming and diving facilities, and five indoor tennis courts.
The Campbell County Ice Arena contains an ice rink for ice hockey and ice skating plus an area for curling.
The Energy Capital Sports Complex site has four fast-pitch softball fields that can be converted for Little League baseball. The fields use Slitfilm synthetic turf with sand-rubber infill. A 28,000-ft2 protected spectator viewing area has a grass play area. A 2.4-mi recreation trail runs around the complex. Since the grand opening in 2015, the complex has hosted many tournaments, including the Razor City Showcase softball tournament and the 2016 Wyoming ASA State softball tournament.


== Government ==

Gillette is governed by an elected mayor and a city council of six members. Gillette is split into three wards, each represented by two council members. The mayor and council members serve four-year terms.
Under the mayor and city council, the city government consists of the city attorney, municipal court, and city administration. The city administration consists of several departments and their divisions. The departments are Human Resources, Finance, Police, Development Services, Public Works, and Utilities.
The city council holds regular sessions on first and third Tuesday of every month in the Council Chambers at City Hall. The council also holds agenda review meetings and meetings before regular sessions. All meetings are open to the public except executive sessions. The council members are Gregory Schreurs and Tricia Simonson for Ward 1, Tim Carsrud and Billy Montgomery for Ward 2, Nathan McLeland and Shay Lundvall for Ward 3.
The sale and production of liquor is regulated by the city. The number of licenses is capped by population by state law and due to scarcity have been sold privately for as much as $300,000.


== Education ==

Public education in Gillette is provided by Campbell County School District Number 1. It is home to Campbell County High School and Thunder Basin High School. Gillette College, a two-year college, is part of the Northern Wyoming Community College District.
Gillette has a public library, a branch of the Campbell County Public Library System.


== Media ==

Gillette has one newspaper, the Gillette News-Record, published by Ann Kennedy Turner. It was originally two papers, the Gillette News and the Campbell County Record. The News-Record became a daily on July 14, 1975.
Over the air digital television stations available in Gillette include KOPA-CD on RF Channel 9 (ABC). Wyoming Public Television (PBS) is available on K26NL-D, channel 26. CBS programming from Casper, Wyoming can be seen on channel 16, K16AE-D. NBC programming from Rapid City, South Dakota is available on channel 22, K22AD-D.
Gillette also receives a moderate signal from KHSD-TV (Fox) on channel 5, and a weak signal from KQME (MeTV) on channel 11 and KSGW-TV ABC on channel 12.
Gillette Public Access Television is Gillette's only TV station. It is a traditional PEG cable-access station operated by the city. It can be viewed on Charter Communications Cable channels 189 (Education), 190 (Public Access) and 192 (Government).


== Infrastructure ==


=== Healthcare ===

Campbell County Memorial Hospital in Gillette is part of Campbell County Health. The hospital has 90 beds for acute care and is certified as an area trauma hospital.


=== Police ===

The Gillette Police Department consists of several divisions including Administration, Animal Control, Communications Center, Detectives Division which includes school resource officers (SRO), Evidence, Patrol Division, Records, and Victim Services. Police headquarters are located in City Hall, but the Animal Control division is located at the Animal Shelter on 950 W Warlow Dr. It consists of one Animal Control Supervisor, three Animal Control Officers, and two Animal Shelter Assistants. In addition to enforcing animal-related ordinances Animal Control sells pet licenses and acts as an animal shelter both housing pets and providing adoption services.


=== Military ===
At Gillette is a Wyoming National Guard armory. The A Battery, 2nd Battalion, 300th Field Artillery of the Wyoming National Guard are based in Casper, Gillette, and Lander. Also, the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System unit is based in Gillette. In recent years, soldiers from the 2nd Battalion, 300th Field Artillery have been deployed for Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Freedom's Sentinel.


=== Transportation ===

Northeast Wyoming Regional Airport (GCC) is served by United Airlines operated by SkyWest Airlines. SkyWest currently operates six flights daily in and out of Gillette to Denver.
Intercity bus service to the city is provided by Jefferson Lines.


==== Highways ====
 I-90
 I-90 BL
 US 14
 US 16
 WYO 50 (Skyline Drive)
 WYO 51
 WYO 59 (South – Douglas Highway)


== Notable people ==

Jacob M. Appel (born 1973), author, poet, bioethicist, physician, lawyer, social critic
Wade Brorby (born 1934), Gillette attorney, 1961–1988, United States federal appellate judge, 1988–
John Chick (born 1982), professional football player, 2006–2017
Alicia Craig (born 1982), distance runner
Mike Enzi (1944–2021), Mayor of Gillette, 1975–1982, Wyoming State Senator, 1993–1997, and United States Senator from Wyoming, 1997–2021
Joe Clifford Faust (born 1957), author
Bob Harris (1915–1989), professional baseball player, 1938–42
Burke Jackson (born 1949), Wyoming rancher, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2004–06
Mark Klaassen (born 1973), United States Attorney for the District of Wyoming
Tom Lubnau (born 1958), Gillette attorney, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2005–2015, and Speaker of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2013–2015
Weston Ochse (born 1965), author
Clint Oldenburg (born 1983), professional football player, 2007–2012
Sue Wallis (1957–2014), poet, member of the Wyoming House of Representatives, 2007–2014
Ryun Williams (born 1969), women's basketball head coach, Colorado State
Sundance Wicks (born 1980), men's basketball head coach, University of Wyoming


== In popular culture ==
In David Breskin's bildungsroman The Real Life Diary of a Boomtown Girl, Randi Bruce Harper is raised by parents in the Wyoming ""oil-field service business""; as an adult, she drives a Wabco haul truck ""down in the pit"" while living with her husband in Gillette. Randi is a member of the first all-female blasting team, the ""Boom-Boom Girls"".
The Manticore facility is set in Gillette in the cyberpunk TV show Dark Angel and the books based on the show. Several fan fiction stories were written with Gillette central to the story because of the reference.
Marcus Sakey, in his Brilliance trilogy, lists Gillette as one of the three entrances (along with Rawlins and Shoshoni) to the New Canaan Holdfast, a large portion of Wyoming land owned by ""abnorms"".
In an interview with HorrorHound magazine, actor and musician Bill Moseley of the band Cornbugs said he was the great-grandson of Edward Gillette and named their studio album Donkey Town in honor of Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad's decision to change the name of Donkey Town to Gillette as a reward for Edward Gillette's surveying work.
On December 5, 1998, Cheryl Trover, a math teacher at Campbell County High School, kidnapped and tied up her children, shot her husband John Trover with a .22-caliber pistol, and stabbed him to death with a hunting knife. She had stolen the gun from her lover of four years, John Riley, the principal at the same school. She then set fire to her pickup truck and lied to police about who committed her crimes. Once police suspected her, she killed herself with a .270 rifle at a friend's house. The events were dramatized in the crime story TV shows Redrum and Murderous Affairs.
The Drive-By Truckers' song ""21st Century USA"", from their 2020 album The Unraveling, is about a layover the band had in Gillette. It describes the bleak landscape of small US towns, and the hardships of living there.


== Sister cities ==
After the mayor of Gillette visited a coal conference in China, a delegation from Yulin, Shaanxi, came to Gillette. These meetings eventually led the two communities to become sister cities in 2012.


== References ==


== External links ==

City of Gillette"
Libby Prison escape,"The Libby Prison escape was a prison escape from Libby Prison, a Confederate prison at Richmond, Virginia, in February 1864 that saw over 100 Union prisoners-of-war escape from captivity. It was one of the most successful prison breaks of the American Civil War.
Led by Colonel Thomas E. Rose of the 77th Pennsylvania Infantry, the prisoners started tunnelling in a rat-infested zone which the Confederate guards were reluctant to enter. The tunnel emerged in a vacant lot beside a warehouse, from where the escapees could walk out through the gate without arousing suspicion. Since the prison was believed to be escape-proof, there was less vigilance by the authorities than in other camps, and the alarm was not raised for nearly 12 hours. Over half the prisoners were able to reach Union lines, helped by their familiarity with the terrain after serving in McClellan's Peninsula Campaign of 1862.


== Background ==
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Luther Libby was running a ship supply shop from the corner of a large warehouse in Richmond, Virginia.  In need of a new prison for captured Union officers, Confederate soldiers gave Libby 48 hours to evacuate his property.  The sign over the north-west corner reading ""L. Libby & Son, Ship Chandlers"" was never removed, and consequently the building and prison bore his name.  Since the Confederates believed the building inescapable, the staff considered their job relatively easy.


== Location and layout ==
Libby Prison encompassed an entire city block in Richmond.  To the north lay Cary Street, connecting the prison area to the rest of the city.  On the south side ran the James River.  The prison itself stood three stories above ground with a basement exposed on the river side.  Confederate soldiers whitewashed the outer walls to make lurking prisoners instantly recognizable.
The first floor of Libby Prison housed the various offices of the Confederate guard unit; the second and third floors were partitioned as inmate holding areas.  The basement of the prison was divided into three sections.  The western end was a storage cellar, the middle section was a carpenter's shop used by civilians, and the eastern end was an abandoned kitchen.  This kitchen in the eastern section was once used by Union inmates, but an infestation of rats and constant flooding compelled the Confederates to close it off.  The abandoned area became known as ""Rat Hell.""


=== Rat Hell ===
Though most of the prisoners (and guards alike) did what they could to avoid Rat Hell, a handful of Union officers schemed to break in.  By removing a stove on the first floor and chipping their way into the adjoining chimney, the officers constructed a cramped but effective passage for access to the eastern basement.  Once access between the two floors was established, the officers set about plans to tunnel their way out.
The floor of Rat Hell was covered in two feet of straw.  This straw was a bane and a blessing for the officers.  On one hand, it provided a perfect hiding place for the dirt excavated from the tunnel. Captain I. N. Johnston, who spent more time in Rat Hell than any other Union officer, commented, ""I have been asked a thousand times how we contrived to hide such a quantity of earth as the digging of a tunnel of that size would dislodge.  [On the floor] we made a wide and deep opening...in this the loose dirt was closely packed, and then nicely covered with straw.""  By such means, the Union officers were able to conceal all signs of the tunnel that might tip off civilians and wandering sentries.  The straw in Rat Hell also provided a convenient hiding place for workers during the day.
One man was chosen to conceal all signs of the tunnel while the digging party scrambled up to the first floor.  He would then remain buried in the straw for the remainder of the day until the next relief arrived at dusk.  Johnston wrote, ""...There was a large quantity [of straw] there, and but for which our undertaking must have been discovered nearly as soon as begun.""  As helpful as the straw might have been, it was nevertheless the main reason for the nickname, Rat Hell.  Lt. Charles H. Moran, a recaptured officer from Libby, wrote, ""No tongue can tell...how the poor fellow[s] passed among the squealing rats,—enduring the sickening air, the deathly chill, the horrible interminable darkness.""
Major A. G. Hamilton, a leading founder of the escape party, pointed to the dilemma of the rats: ""The only difficulties experienced [were lack of proper tools] and the unpleasant feature of having to hear hundreds of rats squeal all the time, while they ran over the diggers almost without a sign of fear.""  Colonel Thomas E. Rose, the leader of the escape, addressed the double-edged lack of light in Rat Hell: ""The profound darkness caused some...to become bewildered when they attempted to move about.  I sometimes had to feel all over the cellar to gather up the men that were lost.""  Despite the difficulties, the dark repugnant atmosphere of Rat Hell offered the most effective cover.  ""On rare occasions, guards entered the large basement rooms.  'This was, however, so uninviting a place, that the Confederates made this visit as brief as nominal compliance with their orders permitted...'""


== Element of surprise ==
The tunnelers organized into three relief teams with five members each.  After 17 days of digging, they succeeded in breaking through to a 50-foot vacant lot on the eastern side of the prison, resurfacing beneath a tobacco shed inside the grounds of the nearby Kerr's Warehouse.  When Col. Rose finally broke through to the other side, he told his men that the ""Underground Railroad to God's Country was open!""  The officers escaped the prison in groups of two and three on the night of February 9, 1864.  Once within the tobacco shed, the men collected inside the walled warehouse yard and simply strolled out the front gate.
Union officers meandering through the streets of Richmond late at night might appear to be a leg of the plan doomed to failure, however, the guards simply did not expect that escape from Libby prison was possible.  The fact that the Libby guards were not looking for signs of escape meant that they were in a position to be more easily deceived.  Union Army Lieutenant Moran described how the sentries were not interested in stopping people outside the bounds of their jurisdiction, ""provided, of course, that the retreating form...were not recognized as Yankees.""  The tunnel provided enough distance from the prison to stealthily subvert those jurisdictional lines and allow prisoners to slip into the dark streets unchallenged.
So effective was this buffer that 109 men escaped the prison without ever being stopped.  At one point, Colonel Rose walked straight into the path of an oncoming sentinel.  Unflinching, he ""strode boldly past the guard unchallenged.""  Even more amazing, once news of the escape way broke out among the prisoners a panicked rush resulted, creating a thunderous stampede for the tunnel.  Wholly unsuspecting of the reality of the situation, one Confederate guard yelled out to a fellow sentry, ""Halloa, Bill—there's somebody's coffeepot upset, sure!""


=== Precious time ===
Another example of how unaware the Confederates were caught is evident in the reaction to the escape.  From the Richmond Examiner, February 11, 1864: ""At first it was suspicioned [sic] that the night sentinels had been bribed.  They were placed under arrest, searched ... for evidences of their criminality, [and] confined in Castle Thunder (a civilian penitentiary near Libby Prison).  Upon the testimony afforded by the revelation of the tunnel, the imprisoned guards were at once released and restored to duty.""
Despite the stampeding of prisoners, strong senior officers such as Colonel Harrison C. Hobart had the sense of mind to tie off the flow of escapees before dawn's light.  ""The remaining prisoners replaced the bricks at the fireplace, and the guards began their morning routine, unaware that 109 escaped Union officers were making their way toward the Federal lines.""  Keeping the escape secret from the Confederate guards until the last possible moment gave the evading inmates what they needed most: time.  After the morning roll call came up over a hundred short, the Confederates counted frantically several more times to ensure that the Yankees weren't pulling a trick.  Such ""tricks"" had occurred on many occasions when men slipped in and out of the counting lines; this ""repeating"" was a mild prank often used to frustrate the Confederates at roll call, much to the glee of the Union prisoners.
On the morning of February 10, the Confederates realized that this was no trick.  By this time, the first prisoners had been loose for nearly twelve hours.  Frenzy broke out among the Confederates: ""Messengers and dispatches were soon flying in all directions, and all the horse, foot, and dragoons of Richmond were in pursuit of the fugitives before noon.""  Despite the mobilization of Richmond, almost 17 hours passed before the Confederates could respond.  This no doubt added greatly to the window of opportunity that helped 59 men reach Union lines.  The Richmond Enquirer of  February 11, 1864 expressed such a sentiment: ""It is feared that [the fugitives] have gotten rather too much the start of the pursuers to admit anything like the recapture of them all."" Of the 109 escapees, 48 were recaptured, and 2 drowned in the nearby James River.


=== Prior reconnaissance ===
Though Union Commander George B. McClellan received little more than defeat in the Peninsular Campaign of 1862, his men received something more.  For those who would break out of Libby prison, the time spent studying maps and hoofing ground in Virginia familiarized them with the enemy terrain.  Such intelligence was of weighty benefit for the prisoners forging their way back to the Federal lines two years later.  The Richmond Enquirer reported, ""It is supposed that the direction taken by them all – if, indeed all have left the city – was towards the Peninsula...""  Lieutenant Moran, who escaped late in the night, wrote, ""I had served with McClellan in the Peninsula campaign of 1862, I knew the country well from my frequent inspection of war maps, and the friendly north star gave me my bearings.""
Just as slaves had been following the North Star to envisioned freedom, it also guided escaped Union prisoners from Libby in 1864.  Most of the prisoners made reference to following the North Star, such as Captain Johnston who wrote, ""I ... started due north, taking the north star for my guide, changing my course only when [I] came near any of the [Rebel] camps.""


=== Leaders ===
Colonel Rose and Major Hamilton led the escape efforts.  Rose, wounded at the Battle of Chickamauga, arrived at the prison on October 1, 1863.  From the moment he stepped in the door, he was bent on escape.  While exploring the darker regions of Rat Hell, he happened upon Hamilton, who was also searching for a proper tunneling point.  Soon fast friends, the two worked toward the successful escape in February.  Contemporarily, Libby prisoners showered Rose with admiration and credit for the escape's success.
Rose and Hamilton worked tirelessly together to bring about the escape.  Rose thought of breaking into the basement from the chimney, while Hamilton engineered the passage.  Rose toiled feverishly in the tunnel and organized digging teams while Hamilton worked out the logistics and invented contraptions for removing dirt and supplying oxygen to the tunnel.  Various setbacks plagued the tunneling effort but as Lieutenant Moran recorded, ""the undaunted Rose, aided by Hamilton, [always] persuaded the men to another effort, and soon the knives and toy saws were at work again with vigor.""  Lieutenant Colonel Federico Fernández Cavada, a prisoner at Libby, wrote, ""To Colonel Rose is chiefly due the credit [for the escape]... Animated by an unflinching earnestness of purpose, unwearying perseverance, and no ordinary engineering abilities, he organized ... working parties [which] he conducted every night [in] the cellars of the prison.""  ""[Rose] was the acknowledged leader of the tunnel party, the acknowledged projector of the tunnel,"" maintained Hamilton, ""and it was through his good sense, energy, and management ... that the escape was a success.""
Despite his work in planning the escape, Rose was captured before reaching Federal lines.  Minutes from an advancing Union front at Williamsburg, he was ambushed by Confederate pickets and wrestled back to Libby Prison.  Though placed in solitary confinement, the Confederates felt Rose's presence at Libby now presented a danger.  Given the chance, they gladly traded the famed escapist for a Confederate colonel on April 30, 1864.  Rose returned to his unit, the 77th Pennsylvania Infantry, and fought through to the end of the war.


== Effect ==
To judge the success of the Libby Prison escape solely by the number of men who crossed Federal lines would be a mistake.  Richmond was deeply affected by the break, and Libby Prison itself was thrown into chaos, much to the satisfaction and raised morale of the remaining prisoners.  Lieutenant Colonel Cavada recorded some of the more humorous effects of the escape inside the prison.  On one occasion, the entire camp was roused in the middle of the night for a roll call because a sentry thought he saw something down in a sewer.  It turned out to be his own shadow.  Even the Confederate warden, Major Thomas P. Turner, was visibly shaken.  Cavada commented, ""Really, when our distracted little Commandant now comes into our rooms, he keeps his knees well together, it is necessary to be very cautious, some of us might slip out between his legs!""


== In popular culture ==
A melodramatic Broadway play about the escape entitled A Fair Rebel, by Harry P. Mawson, premiered in New York City in August 1891. In 1914, a 3-reel silent film version was released starring Linda Arvidson, Charles Perley, and Dorothy Gish, and directed by Frank Powell.
Episode Number 25 of The Great Adventure (American TV series) (1964) presents a dramatisation of the Libby Prison escape.
The escape is in the television series History's Greatest Escapes with Morgan Freeman  season 2 episode 7 (2024).


== References ==
Cavada, F.F., Libby Life. Pennsylvania: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1865.
Hamilton, A. G., Story of the Famous Tunnel Escape from Libby Prison. Chicago: S. S. Boggs, 1893.
Johnston, I. N., Four Months in Libby. Cincinnati: Methodist Book Concern, 1893.
Klee, Brue, ""Libby Prison,"" Civil War Times, February 1999.
Moran, Frank E., Famous Adventures and Prison Escapes of the Civil War. New York: The Century Co., 1898.
Morgan, Michael, ""Breakout from Rat Hell,"" Civil War Times, October 1999.
Richmond Examiner, 11 February 1864.
Rose, Thomas E., “Libby Tunnel”, National Tribune, 14 May 1885.


== Notes ==


== External links ==
John Bray's (First New Jersey Cavalry) account of his escape"
Oklahoma Christian University,"Oklahoma Christian University (OC) is a private Christian university in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. It was founded in 1950 by members of the Churches of Christ.


== History ==
Oklahoma Christian University, originally named Central Christian College, was founded in 1950 by members of the Churches of Christ. It opened as a two-year college with 97 students in Bartlesville on the 152 acres (62 ha) former estate of Henry Vernon Foster, a prominent oil businessman. L.R. Wilson, who founded Florida Christian College four years before, was the college's first president. Harold Fletcher, who became an OC emeritus professor of music, was the first faculty member hired for the new college. James O. Baird became the school's second president in 1954.
Soon after, plans were made to move the campus to Oklahoma City. Groundbreaking occurred on 200 acres (81 ha) the far north edge of Oklahoma City in 1957 and the university was relocated in 1958. It was renamed Oklahoma Christian College in 1959 and began offering bachelor's degrees, with its first senior class graduating in 1962. Full accreditation was obtained from the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools in 1965.
In the 1990s, the school restructured its academic departments into separate colleges and the name of the institution was changed initially to Oklahoma Christian University of Science and Arts in 1990, before being truncated to Oklahoma Christian University in 1996. In 1981, OC became the sponsor of The Christian Chronicle. In 2014, OC began their Ethos spiritual development program which encourages students to attend any of 26 small chapels.


== Technology ==
In August 2001, OC provided campus-wide wireless Internet service and a personal laptop computer to every full-time student. In 2008, Oklahoma Christian University began providing Apple's MacBook to all full-time students and faculty, alongside the choice of an iPhone or an iPod Touch. Beginning with the fall 2010 semester, students also had the option of choosing an iPad for an additional charge. OC now provides information technology support for a ""Bring Your Own Device"" model. In 2013, OC's mobile computing program was honored as an Apple Distinguished Program.


== Academics ==
All bachelor's degrees at OC require the completion of at least 126 semester hours. Not less than 30 hours must be earned in courses numbered 3000 or above, including at least 10 hours in the major field. Bachelor's degrees require completion of a core curriculum of 60 semester hours consisting of ""basic skills"" (14 hours), Bible (16 hours), ""basic perspectives"" (27 hours) and a 3-hour senior philosophy seminar
The university also offers an honors program; participants are selected by interview.
Through its Office of International Studies, OC offers semester-long study programs in Europe, based in the university's Das Millicanhaus in Vienna, Austria. OC also has shorter study abroad options in Asia and Honduras, plus additional options through the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU).


=== Faculty ===
OC employs 94 full-time faculty members, more than 70 percent of whom hold a terminal degree in their respective fields. The undergraduate student-to-faculty ratio is 13-to-1. 83 percent of classes contain fewer than 30 students.


==== Presidents ====
L. R. Wilson – 1950–1954
James O. Baird – 1954–1974
J. Terry Johnson – 1974–1996
Kevin Jacobs – 1996–2001
Alfred Branch – 2001–2002
Mike O'Neal – 2002–2012
John deSteiguer – 2012–2023
Ken Jones: 2023 – present 


== Athletics ==

The Oklahoma Christian athletic teams are called the Eagles and Lady Eagles. The university is a member of the NCAA Division II ranks, primarily competing in the Lone Star Conference (LSC) since the 2019–20 academic year. They were also a member of the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA), primarily competing as an independent in the Central Region of the Division I level from 2012–13 to 2018–19. The Eagles and Lady Eagles previously competed in the D-II Heartland Conference from 2012–13 to 2018–19; and in the Sooner Athletic Conference (SAC) of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) from 1978–79 to 2011–12; and in the Texoma Athletic Conference from 1973–74 to 1977–78.
OC competes in 15 intercollegiate varsity sports: men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, swimming and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, track & field and volleyball. Club sports include men's and women's bowling, cheerleading, men's and women's disc golf, dance, esports and ultimate frisbee. Along with sports, there are also competitive clubs such as chess, engineering, and choir.


== Campus ==

Oklahoma Christian University is approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) west of U.S. Interstate 35, just south of the north Oklahoma City suburb of Edmond. The campus spans 240 acres (97 ha) and is bordered by East Memorial Road to the south, Smiling Hills Boulevard to the north, S. Boulevard/N. Eastern Avenue to the west, and Benson Road and N. Bryant Road to the east. The campus has over 30 major buildings, primarily designed in an International and Mid-Century modern architectural style, with red brick and light-colored stone ornamentations.
The main entrance leads to the center of the campus, where the Williams-Branch Center for Biblical Studies (1987) is located, housing Scott Chapel. Adjacent to Scott Chapel is the Mabee Learning Center (1966), which houses the Tom & Ada Beam Library. The Thelma Gaylord Forum (1987), an amphitheatre, is situated between the Williams-Branch Center and the library's front entrance.
To the east of the Mabee Learning Center are OC's earliest buildings, dating from 1959, including Benson Hall (the main administrative building), Cogswell-Alexander Hall (housing the registrar's office and information technology offices), Gaylord Hall (site of the admissions and financial aid offices), and Vose Hall (containing science laboratories and classrooms). These buildings are centered around the university's original quadrangle.
North of the original quadrangle is the Davisson American Heritage (DAH) Building (1970), followed by the Noble Science Wing (2011), Herold Science Hall (housing OC's student undergraduate research program), and the Prince Engineering Center (1988).
The Baugh Auditorium to the east is the primary campus venue for performances and convocations. The McIntosh Conservatory, an open meeting and performance space, connects Baugh Auditorium with the Garvey Center (1978), consisting of Mabee Hall and Kresge Hall. The Garvey Center also houses Judd Theatre for thrust or proscenium theatre productions and Adams Recital Hall. Further east is the Harvey Business Center (1980).
The west side of the campus is primarily dedicated to student residences and recreation. The Gaylord University Center (1976/1997) houses the cafeteria, a snack bar, bookstore, health center, recreation areas, and the Student Life and Student Government Association offices. Adjacent to this center is the Payne Athletic Center (1970), which includes a campus fitness facility, Olympic-size swimming pool, and the Eagles' Nest gymnasium.
Recent additions to the campus are between these buildings and the dormitories on the west. Lawson Commons features McGraw Pavilion, a covered outdoor event space, and the Freede Centennial Tower, a 100-foot-tall (30 m) clock tower commemorating the 2007 Oklahoma state centennial. Additionally, in 2009, the campus received a gift of more than 1,300 trees from a partnership between the Tree Bank Foundation and the Apache Foundation.
In 2013, OC introduced the Boker-Wedel Eagle Trail, a 5 km path encircling the campus. This trail, composed of side-by-side asphalt and crushed granite running paths, spans a distance of 3.1 miles and is equipped with lighting, landscaping, and security phones. It also connects with the Edmond running trails system. The trail system also runs around Memorial Road Church of Christ, a neighbor to OC on the southwest side.
In April 2016, the university unveiled Hartman Place, a scripture garden and waterfall.
Dormitories are on the western end of the campus. Apartment complexes, available to upper-class and married students, are across Benson Road on the east end of campus.
The northernmost portions of the campus contain outdoor venues for soccer, softball (Tom Heath Field at Lawson Plaza), track and field (Vaughn Track), baseball (Dobson Field) and intramural sports.
This campus often has tornados. When inclement weather occurs students must leave the dorm to go gather in safe places. Students are assigned buildings to gather and are not allowed to stay in their apartments and dormitories.


== OC policies ==
OC maintains a commitment to traditional biblical principles as ""derived from the Bible"".
OC officially recognizes that it “is not the church.” Attendance at OC is open to all students, regardless of religious affiliation, who agree to abide by OC's ideals. Full-time faculty and staff are required to be active members of a Church of Christ. Attendance at daily chapel services is mandatory for all full-time students. OC has an exemption from Title IX regulations prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity or sexual orientation.
In January 2024, after a year of ongoing litigation, Oklahoma Christian University invoked the ecclesiastical (i.e., ""relating to the Christian Church or its clergy"") abstention doctrine in the case of Michael O'Keefe v. OC.  O'Keefe is suing OC over his firing as a tenured professor with 40 years of service to the university. OC announced its intention to use the ecclesiastical abstention doctrine to motion the Court to dismiss the case for lack of jurisdiction.  The Court has yet to rule on the issue.  Kevin Jacobs, former OC president, is one of the lawyers representing Michael O'Keefe in his suit against OC.  This follows a similar case involving a similar school, Florida College; filed by Roy Byers in 2016 over his firing as a tenured professor.  After 5 years of ongoing litigation in that case, Florida College invoked the ecclesiastical abstention doctrine.  That case was shortly thereafter dismissed without the Court having reached the merits of issue.


== Cascade College ==
OC operated Cascade College, a branch campus in Portland, Oregon, from 1994 until it closed in May 2009. Like OC, Cascade's full-time faculty and the majority of its students were members of Churches of Christ. In 1992, the Oklahoma Christian University Board of Trustees assumed the operation of the former Columbia Christian College after it suffered serious financial difficulties and lost accreditation. A year after Columbia closed, the new branch campus opened in 1994 as Cascade College. The North Central Association agreed that the accreditation of Oklahoma Christian, Oklahoma City, could extend to Cascade if close ties and supervision were maintained. In October 2008, the OC Board of Trustees announced that Cascade College would close after the spring 2009 semester. Bill Goad was the last president of Cascade and is now a professor of business at OC.


== Notable alumni ==

Cliff Aldridge – former Republican member of the Oklahoma State Senate
Jim Beaver – film and television actor, co-star of Deadwood and Supernatural
Andrew K. Benton – seventh president of Pepperdine University
Dan Branch (1980) – former member of the Texas House of Representatives from the Dallas area
Sherri Coale (1987) – head coach, University of Oklahoma women's basketball
Patrice Douglas (1983) – former member of the Oklahoma Corporation Commission
Joe Clifford Faust (1980) – science fiction author and freelance writer
Allison Garrett (1984) – former VP for academic affairs (2007–2012); chancellor of Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education (2021–present), president at Emporia State University (2016-2021),
Rhein Gibson – professional golfer and Guinness World Record holder
Roderick Green (2002) – paralympic athlete
Molefi Kete Asante (under his birth name, Arthur Lee Smith, Jr.; 1964) – scholar of African studies and African American studies at Temple University; founder of the first Ph.D. program in African-American studies
Greg Lee – actor, host of PBS series Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? and voice of Mayor/Principal Bob White on Doug.
Patti Neuhold-Ravikumar (1995) - 21st president and first female president at the University of Central Oklahoma (2019-2023)
Roy Ratcliff (1970) – Christian minister, ministered to Jeffrey Dahmer
Tess Teague (2012) – former Oklahoma State Representative
Sam Winterbotham (1999) – head coach, University of Tennessee men's tennis


== References ==


== External links ==

Official website 
Athletics website"
F. L. Lucas,"Frank Laurence Lucas  (28 December 1894 – 1 June 1967) was an English classical scholar, literary critic, poet, novelist, playwright, political polemicist, Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and intelligence officer at Bletchley Park during World War II.
He is now best remembered for his scathing 1923 review of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, and for his book Style (1955; revised 1962), an acclaimed guide to recognising and writing good prose. His Tragedy in Relation to Aristotle's 'Poetics' (1927, substantially revised 1957) was for over fifty years a standard introduction. His most important contribution to scholarship was his four-volume old-spelling Complete Works of John Webster (1927), the first collected edition of the Jacobean dramatist since that of Hazlitt the Younger (1857), itself an inferior copy of Dyce (1830). Eliot called Lucas ""the perfect annotator"", and subsequent Webster scholars have been indebted to him, notably the editors of the new Cambridge Webster (1995–2019).
Lucas is also remembered for his anti-fascist campaign in the 1930s, and for his wartime work at Bletchley Park, for which he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).


== Life ==


=== Early life and the War ===

F. L. (""Peter"") Lucas grew up in Blackheath and was educated at Colfe's (1902–1909), where his father F. W. Lucas (1860–1931) was headmaster, and from 1910 at Rugby, where he was tutored by the Sophocles scholar Robert Whitelaw (1843–1917) in his last year before retirement. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1913 to read for the Classical Tripos, adding the Pitt Scholarship and Porson Prize in 1914. In January 1914 he was elected Apostle – the last Apostle elected before the War – coming under the influence of G. E. Moore. Believing Cambridge threatened with the fate of Louvain, he volunteered, aged 19, in October 1914 and was commissioned in November, serving from 1915 as second lieutenant in the 7th Battalion The Royal West Kent Regiment in France. From August 1915 he was in the Somme trenches opposite Fricourt and Mametz; he was wounded by shrapnel in May 1916. ""One simply gapes at the gigantic capriciousness of things,"" he wrote to John Maynard Keynes in October of that year, ""waiting our own turn to disappear in the Cyclops' maw."" He returned to the front as lieutenant in January 1917, went into battle near Grandcourt on 17 February in the Ancre Offensive, was mentioned in despatches on 22 February, and was gassed on 4 March. In all he spent seventeen months in war-hospitals. By September 1917 he felt that the cause of honour and justice had been lost in the lust of Victory  (""We were too ready to go on fighting without offering terms""). Passed fit for garrison duty at Chatham (3rd Battalion Royal West Kent HQ), he sought the help of fellow-Apostle Keynes to return to France, and from August 1918 to the Armistice he was Staff lieutenant in the Intelligence Corps (Third Army HQ), examining German prisoners near Bapaume and Le Quesnoy. His life hung in the balance in November 1918 shortly after the Armistice, when his lung wounds reopened in the influenza pandemic. He returned to Cambridge in January 1919. Fell-walking in the Lake District ""on Easter morning [1919] on Kidsty Pike, between Hawes Water and Hayes Water, a blinding spring sun on snowy ridge beyond ridge, from Fairfield to Blencathra, brought a moment of such ecstatic intoxication that, were I a mystic, I should have called it a mystical experience.""


=== Career ===
Resuming his undergraduate studies, Lucas won a Chancellor's Medal for Classics and the Browne Medal (1920), and revived meetings of the Apostles, suspended since 1914, becoming Society Secretary and contributing nineteen papers. He was elected to a Fellowship at King's College in 1920 before he had completed his degree, Keynes paying for him to holiday in Greece with Sebastian Sprott on the eve of his Tripos. He took a starred first and began his career as a Classics lecturer in October 1920. In the spring of 1921 he spent three months in Greece as a student of the British School at Athens, locating the site of the Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly (see Pharsalus below). Back in Cambridge he switched that year to teaching for the English Tripos (instituted in 1919). He was a member of the Cambridge University English Faculty from 1921 to 1939 and from 1945 to 1962, and a university Reader in English from 1947 to 1962. At the invitation of Desmond MacCarthy, literary editor of the New Statesman, Lucas reviewed poetry and criticism for that journal from 1922 to 1926, having begun his career as reviewer with the Athenaeum in 1920–21, its last year. Early reviews and essays were collected in his Authors Dead and Living (1926). Among them was a review of Housman's Last Poems (1922) that, unusually, met with the approval of the poet himself. His move from Classics to English and his edition of Webster (1927) were inspired in large part by J. T. Sheppard's March 1920 Marlowe Society production of The White Devil, which made a powerful impression on him: ""What could make the Cambridge production of The White Devil in 1920 seem, to at least two who saw it then without preconceptions, the most staggering performance they had ever known?"" he asked in the New Statesman. (The production had been swift-moving, in the Elizabethan manner, with minimal scenery and with emphasis on ""beautiful poetry beautifully spoken"".) ""[Lucas] has been lucky in finding a writer [Webster] who takes his standpoint,"" T. E. Lawrence remarked, ""and sums up life rather in his fashion."" Lucas' preference, however, lay with Comparative Literature, and after Webster he turned to his Studies French and English (1934; revised 1950) (he was Membre Correspondant Honoraire de L'Institut Littéraire et Artistique de France), and later to studies of Scandinavian literature. He served as committee member for the Cambridge Greek Play (1921–33) and continued to write on Greek and Latin literature. As part-time Librarian at King's (1922–36) he accessioned the donated papers of Rupert Brooke. His students at King's included George Rylands, John Hayward, F. E. Halliday, H. C. A. ""Tom"" Gaunt, Alan Clutton-Brock, Julian Bell, Winton Dean and Desmond Flower. By Cambridge English students in general he was known as ""F. L."". 

Following the publication of his Webster, scholars turned to him for editorial advice: he helped in the preparation of Hayward's Nonesuch Donne (1929), Housman's More Poems (1936), Theodore Redpath's Songs and Sonets of John Donne (1956), and Ingram and Redpath's Shakespeare's Sonnets (1964). He also performed an editorial and advisory role for Christopher Sandford at the Golden Cockerel Press, where he introduced Victor Scholderer's New Hellenic typeface (1937). Four of his verse translations from Greek and Latin, with engravings by John Buckland Wright, were published in collectors' editions by the Golden Cockerel Press and Folio Society. In the middle years of his career he was in demand as an invitation lecturer, giving seven BBC wireless talks in 1930, on Dorothy Osborne and on the Victorian Poets, delivering the 1933 Warton Lecture on English Poetry to the British Academy, lecturing at the Royal Institution on Classicism and Romanticism (1935) and at the Royal Society of Literature on travel writing (1937), and, as part of a British Council drive to counter Soviet propaganda, lecturing in German on European literature to packed halls at the British Information Centre in West Berlin in October 1948 during the Berlin Blockade.
In later years Lucas won acclaim for his translations from the classics (see Verse translation below) and for his book Style (1955). He also turned encyclopedist, contributing articles on 'Poetry', 'Epic', 'Lyric', 'Ode', 'Elegy' and 'Pastoral' to the 15-volume 1950 Chambers's Encyclopaedia, among others, and serving on the editorial board of the Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Books of the Western World series (1952). As he told Nikos Kazantzakis, who visited him in Cambridge after the War, Je ne lis plus; je relis [:I no longer read; I reread].
For Lucas's anti-fascist campaign in the Thirties and his wartime service in Intelligence, see Appeasement and Bletchley Park below.


=== Personal life ===
From February 1921 to 1929 Lucas was married to the novelist E. B. C. Jones (1893–1966), known as ""Topsy"" to her friends. She was the sister-in-law of his former supervisor at Trinity, Donald Robertson; he got to know her after reading and admiring her first novel, Quiet Interior (1920). Jones dedicated two novels to Lucas and based two characters on him – Hugh Sexton, gassed in the War, in The Singing Captives (1922), and Oliver in The Wedgwood Medallion (1923), a Cambridge classics graduate now studying the Elizabethan drama. Lucas based the character Margaret Osborne in The River Flows (1926) on her – a semi-autobiographical first novel that shifts some of his experiences of 1919–1920 to 1913–1915. The character Hugh Fawcett (""the best brain in the Foreign Office"" but not much use as a matchmaker) was based on Keynes. Through the Apostles Lucas was associated with the Bloomsbury Group, Virginia Woolf describing him to Ottoline Morrell as ""pure Cambridge: clean as a breadknife, and as sharp"". To Lucas, interviewed in 1958, Bloomsbury had seemed ""a jungle"":

The society of Virginia and Leonard Woolf, Duncan Grant, Clive and Vanessa Bell, and Lytton Strachey was far from being in the ordinary sense a happy family. They were intensely and rudely critical of each other. They were the sort of people who would read letters addressed to others. They tormented each other with endless love affairs. In real crises they could be generous, but in ordinary affairs of life they were anything but kind ... Dickinson and Forster were not really Bloomsbury. They were soft-hearted and kind. Bloomsbury was certainly not that.
Jones's admiration for George Rylands undermined the marriage by 1927. After affairs with Dora Carrington (d. 1932) and Shelagh Clutton-Brock (d. 1936), in December 1932 Lucas married the 21-year-old Girton Classics graduate and sculptor Prudence Wilkinson (1911–1944). His travel writings, accounts of their long walks through landscapes with literary associations, date from the years of his second marriage (1932–1939): From Olympus to the Styx (1934), a book on their 1933 walking tour of Greece (one of five journeys he made to that country); 'Iceland', a travelogue on their 1934 journey to the saga sites, included in the original edition of his The Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal (1936); and journal-entries on their visits to Norway, Ireland, Scotland and France. In these years they were frequent visitors to the home in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence of Marie Mauron, whose Provençal stories Lucas translated. From Olympus to the Styx argues for the return of the Elgin Marbles:

Considering what was to come, the much-abused 'theft' of the sculptures from the Acropolis by Lord Elgin was an undoubted blessing, though it was carelessly carried out, especially in removing the Caryatid from the Erechtheum; it would none the less be a graceful act for England to return them now to Athens.
Prudence Lucas, as well as sharing these interests, designed the costumes and sets for the first production (1938) of his Icelandic tragedy The Lovers of Gudrun (1935). Her nervous breakdown in 1938 is touched on in Lucas's Journal Under the Terror, 1938 (1939); Lucas sought help from, among others, Wilhelm Stekel, whom he met in London in 1939, but the rift proved irreparable. The emphasis on psychology in his post-war books – Literature and Psychology (1951), Style (1955), The Search for Good Sense (1958), The Art of Living (1959), the essay on 'Happiness' in The Greatest Problem (1960), The Drama of Ibsen and Strindberg (1962) – reflects an interest shared with his third wife (1940–1967), the Swedish psychologist Elna Kallenberg (1906–2003), whom he married in 1940 – ""the stranger who came to me from beyond the sea when I most needed her"" (Elna Kallenberg, a friend of Hilda Stekel, had flown from Sweden, with special permission from the Home Office, to join him in late 1939). They had two children, Signe and Sigurd.

Lucas returned time and again in his books to the theme of happiness, and in 1960 summed up his thoughts on happiness thus:Vitality of mind and body; the activity to employ and maintain them; the zest and curiosity that they can animate; freedom to travel widely in nature and art, in countries of the world and countries of the mind; human affections; and the gift of gaiety – these seem to me, then, the main causes of happiness. I am surprised to find how few and simple they are.
Lucas lived at 7 Camden Place, Cambridge, from 1921 to 1925; at 20 West Road, Cambridge from 1925 to 1939; at High Mead, Great Brickhill from 1939 to 1945; and again at 20 West Road, Cambridge, from 1945 until his death in 1967. The dissident Czech academic Otakar Vočadlo (1895–1974), Lucas's Prague correspondent in 1938–39 (see Appeasement below) and a concentration camp survivor, celebrated his restoration, during the Prague Spring of 1968, to his Chair of English at Prague, by giving a course of lectures on Webster in memory of Lucas, whose support for the Czech cause in 1938–39 had not been forgotten.
D. W. Lucas, the classical scholar (1905–85), Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, University Director of Studies in Classics, and Perceval Maitland Laurence Reader in Classics, was F. L. Lucas's brother.


== Literary criticism ==


=== Approach ===
Except in reviews of work by contemporaries, Lucas adopted the historical and biographical approach to criticism and examined the views of earlier critics, whose dogmatism he was swift to rebut. He increasingly linked his studies to developments in psychology, notably in Literature and Psychology (1951). ""The real 'unwritten laws',"" he observed, ""seem to me those of human psychology."" Centrally, he discussed the writer's psychology as revealed through style. ""Even science,"" he noted, ""has invented no pickle for embalming a man like style.""
The poets to whom he returned most often in publications were Tennyson (1930, 1932, 1947, 1957) and Housman (1926, 1933, 1936, 1960), but he ranged widely over Classical, European and English literature. Conscious that books can influence for good or ill, he admired authors he saw as defenders of sanity and good sense – men like Montaigne and Montesquieu – or as compassionate realists, like Homer in the Iliad, Euripides, Hardy, Ibsen and Chekhov. ""Life is 'indivisible',"" he wrote.

""A public tends to get the literature it deserves: a literature, to get the public it deserves. The values men pursue in each, affect the other. They turn in a vicious, or a virtuous, circle. Only a fine society could have bred Homer: and he left it finer for hearing him.""
His criticism, while acknowledging that morality is historically relative, was thus values-based. ""Writers can make men feel, not merely see, the values that endure."" Believing that too many modern writers encouraged men and women to flee to unreason, decadence and barbarism, he condemned the trahisons des clercs of the twentieth century, and used his lectures and writing to campaign for a responsible use of intellectual freedom. ""One may question whether real civilisation is so safely afloat,"" he wrote in his last published letter (1966), ""that we can afford to use our pens for boring holes in the bottom of it."" The writer or artist serving up ""slapdash nightmares out of his Unconscious"", ""in an age morbidly avid of uncivilised irreticence"", not only exhibited his own neuroses, but fed neurosis in others. Literary critics, too, had to take more responsibility. ""Much cant gets talked,"" he noted of the Structuralists, ""by critics who care more for the form and organisation of a work than for its spirit, its content, its supreme moments."" The serious note in his criticism was counterbalanced by wit and urbanity, by lively anecdote and quotation, and by a gift for startling imagery and epigram.
What Lucas wrote about Housman's Name and Nature of Poetry in 1933 (though he contested some of its ideas) sums up what he himself aspired to as a literary critic: ""… the kind of critical writing that best justifies itself before the brevity of life; that itself adds new data to our experience as well as arguing about the old; that happily combines, in a word, philosophy with autobiography, psychology with a touch of poetry – of the 'poetic' imagination. It can make acceptable even common sense. There are sentences here which recall the clear-cut Doric strength of the Lives of the Poets ...""
His Cambridge colleague T. R. Henn noted that Lucas's approach and style were influenced by the Strachey of Books and Characters (1922).


=== Controversy ===
Lucas's impatience with the ""obscurantism"" and coterie-appeal of much modern poetry made him in the interwar years one of the foremost opponents of the new schools. ""As for 'profundity',"" he wrote, ""it is not uncommonly found also in dry wells; which may likewise contain little but obscurity and rubbish."" He opposed also what he saw as the narrow dogmatism of the New Critics, those ""tight-lipped Calvins of art"", as he called them, of Criterion and Scrutiny. Discussions of I. A. Richards's criticism appear in his essay 'English Literature' in the volume University Studies: Cambridge 1933 and in Chapter 4 of his Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal (1936), and of Eliot's in the 1929 essay 'Modern Criticism', reprinted in his Studies French and English (1934). An anonymous New Statesman review (29 December 1928) of Eliot's criticism, however, to which F. R. Leavis replied apparently believing it was by Lucas, and which Leavis's biographer says ""was certainly by Lucas"", was in fact by Richard Ellis Roberts. Lucas had stopped reviewing for the New Statesman in 1926 and never reviewed anonymously. His critique of Q. D. Leavis's Fiction and the Reading Public (1932) in University Studies: Cambridge 1933 was described by F. R. Leavis's biographer as ""improper"": ""senior academics do not use quasi-official publications to attack graduate students"". (The volume, though printed by the University Press, was not published there; its editor stressed that the contributions were ""unofficial"" glimpses into the ""intense mental activity"" of each Cambridge department; and published theses are not normally considered exempt from criticism.)


=== Lucas and Eliot ===
Lucas's 1923 review of The Waste Land, much reprinted in the decades since his death, was omitted from his Authors Dead and Living (1926), a collection of New Statesman pieces, probably because he had ended by saying the poem should be left to sink. Remarks elsewhere confirm that he had not changed his opinion. Described by F. W. Bateson as ""brilliantly wrong-headed"", the review is better known today than it was during Lucas's lifetime. His only other comment on the poem occurs in his essay 'English Literature' in the volume University Studies: Cambridge 1933, where he contested I. A. Richards' view of it in Science and Poetry (1926): ""The Waste Land is praised [by Richards] for its 'complete severence' from all beliefs, when it is really a yearning cry for them, and at its close some sort of faith is so clearly impending that it has been praised by others as a great religious poem (such are the triumphs of obscurity)."" The Letters of T. S. Eliot includes correspondence between Eliot and Lucas from the mid-1920s but no reference to the review. Historians of The New Statesman have regretted that Desmond MacCarthy invited Lucas to review modern poetry, one of them declaring Lucas ""a disastrous choice"" for a Waste Land review. (Disastrous, that is, for the journal's avant-garde image.) After 1923, though attacking obscurantism in general terms, Lucas largely ignored Eliot's poetry, aside from a retrospective dig in 1942 at 'The Hollow Men' (""hollow men whimpering under prickly pear trees, conceited still amid their grovellings because a prickly pear remains an exotic and highly intellectual plant"") and at 'Sweeney among the Nightingales' (""the nightingales of Aeschylus now exhibit to a ravished public their 'droppings'; for to the sewer all things are sewer""). On the later Eliot he was silent. He had no time for mystical poetry, regarding religion as an aberration of the human mind.
In 1928 Lucas had been stung by Eliot's review in the Times Literary Supplement criticising aspects of the Introduction to his Webster. He replied vigorously in the same journal, only to find Eliot extending his criticisms in another review in The Criterion. Lucas counter-attacked in his 1929 essay 'Modern Criticism', ridiculing Eliot's literary-critical obiter dicta and oracular tone. In later editions of his essays, Eliot made minor changes or added clarifications to sentences Lucas had ridiculed, and praised the textual and historical scholarship of the 1927 Webster. Lucas left the Introduction out of his 1958 revised editions of the two major plays, but demand for the unabridged 1927 Webster continued, and it was reprinted on both sides of the Atlantic in 1966.


=== Reputation ===
Lucas's standing as a literary critic was probably at its highest in the 1930s. ""In three respects,"" wrote the Times Literary Supplement in 1934, ""Lucas rises pre-eminent from the crowd of contemporary critics: in his care for style, for dignity and grace in his method of presentment: in his learning in the literature of several languages: and in the balance, the sanity of his judgment."" Post-war, reviewers were often more hostile. Many post-war reviews amounted to reprisals by the Leavisite camp: ""There is an air of breezy Bloomsbury superficiality and cultural omniscience about this book that is distressing,"" wrote one. ""His is the type of over-cultivated fuddy-duddy mind that has done – and is doing – great damage to our whole culture in general and to literary appreciation in particular."" Probably because, psychoanalytic literary criticism aside, Lucas scorned most new trends – he described the critical theory of the 1950s as ""largely pseudo-scientific bubble-blowing"" – his criticism has long been out of fashion and is mostly out of print. 

""The literary world has passed on,"" wrote L. P. Wilkinson, ""but that does not mean that what supervened was better; and just because of his uncompromising brilliance the whirligig of time may bring in his criticism again. His Style (1955) has a permanent value in any case, unaffected by trends."" His two earliest books, Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy (1922) (his Fellowship dissertation) and Euripides and His Influence (1923), not yet superseded in similar concise form, continue to be reprinted. The editors of the new Cambridge Webster (1995–2007) praise ""his customary accuracy and astuteness"" in matters of dating, authorship, and textual scholarship. ""With its voluminous and marvellously wide-ranging notes,"" writes D. C. Gunby, ""Lucas's four-volume, old-spelling edition remains essential reading for those who love scholarship and, more, love the plays of John Webster"".


== Verse translation ==

Lucas dedicated much of his time to making classical (mainly Greek) poetry accessible through verse translations. His companion volumes Greek Poetry for Everyman (1951) and Greek Drama for Everyman (1954) contain some 20,000 lines. No single translator had attempted before to bring together in homogeneous volumes so much of the best of Greek poetry from Homer to the 6th century A.D., with the introductions and notes needed by the non-classicist. The translations were praised for their grace and fidelity – ""the sense and the imagery are minutely reproduced"" – and were hailed by the press as Cambridge's single-handed answer to the [collaborative] Oxford Book of Greek Verse in Translation. Reviewers of the first volume, Greek Poetry, generally preferred his translations of lyric, Alexandrian and later poetry to the 7,000 rhymed lines from Homer, which were omitted from the second edition (Everyman Library, 1966). Of the second volume, Greek Drama, a reviewer wrote: ""Lucas makes the plays deceptively easy to read and appreciate by smoothing away the austerities and complexities of the Greek – qualities which some modernists conscientiously preserve or even exaggerate."" ""His translations have no striking originality of style,"" commented A. H. Coxon, ""but they are accurate, graceful, and dignified, and they have the merit of not veiling the Greek, so that for long stretches the poetic quality of the original shines through."" The translation of Hippolytus remains in print in the Penguin selection, Eight Great Tragedies, ed. Sylvan Barnet. Lucas's 1960 essay 'Translation' sets out his guiding principles on the subject.


== Original writing ==


=== Novels ===
Of Lucas's novels the best received was Cécile (1930), a tale of love, society and politics in the France of 1775–1776. Lucas dedicated the book to T. E. Lawrence, a friend and admirer. He wrote two further historical novels, Doctor Dido (1938), set in Cambridge in 1792–1812, and The English Agent: A Tale of the Peninsular War (1969), set in Spain in 1808; and a novella, The Woman Clothed with the Sun (1937), on the Buchanites of the 1780s–90s. The three novels focus on a love-affair between an Englishman and a Frenchwoman (Lucas was a self-confessed gallomane); the Scots novella takes the form of an account, written by a Scottish minister in middle age, of his youthful bewitchment by Elspeth Buchan and of his curious sojourn among the Buchanites. A theme common to all four is the tension between fragile 18th-century rationalism and, in varying forms, Romantic ""enthusiasm"" and unreason. For his semi-autobiographical first novel, The River Flows (1926), see Personal Life above.


=== Poems ===
As a poet Lucas was a polished ironist. Early collections (Time and Memory, 1929, Marionettes, 1930, Poems, 1935) were mostly personal lyrics or satires, but he came to specialise in dramatic monologues and narrative poems based on historical episodes ""that seem lastingly alive"" (Messene Redeemed, 1940; From Many Times and Lands, 1953). His First World War poems, including Morituri – August 1915, on the road from Morlancourt' (1935) and (below) ' ""The Night is Chilly but not Dark"" ' (1935), offer a retrospect of his experiences at the front.

On nights when the moon creeps shrouded up the sky
And hedge and holt lie glimmering ghostly grey,
A voice still whispers in me, far away –
A good night, this, for wiring – and suddenly
There rises from the dead that shadowy hell,
The barbed-wire rasps, uncoiling through my hand,
The flares dance flickering over no-man's-land,
A dull machine-gun raps from La Boisselle.
Then fades the phantom, and once more I know
Our spider-webs of wire are rust by now,
Our battlefields reconquered by the plough,
And hands that worked with mine, dust long ago.
The inclusion of 'Beleaguered Cities' (1929) in various mid-twentieth century anthologies of English verse made it probably Lucas's best-known poem. Others that have gained currency through anthologies include 'The Destined Hour' (1953), a re-telling in verse of the old 'appointment in Samarra' fable, and 'Spain 1809', the story of a village woman's courage during the French occupation in the Peninsular War. The romantic lyric, 'Her answer, in after years' (1935), is a nostalgic look back at his travels. His most ambitious poem was Ariadne (1932), an epic re-working, in the light of modern psychology, of the Labyrinth myth, with the Minotaur a sadistic Minos in a bull-mask. Extracts from the poem were read on the BBC Home Service in 1934.


=== Drama ===
Lucas's most successful play was the thriller Land's End (1935), set in Cornwall in the mid-1930s (Westminster Theatre, February–March 1938, 29 performances, with Cathleen Nesbitt, Cecil Trouncer and Alan Napier among the cast). One of Paul Scofield's earliest roles was in the Birmingham Rep's revival of the play in March–April 1945. Lucas's radio play The Siren was first broadcast on the BBC Third Programme in 1948, with Catherine Lacey, Frith Banbury and Deryck Guyler in the cast; a second production followed on the Home Service in 1949, with Cathleen Nesbitt and Hugh Burden. The play dramatises George Sand's amorous escapades in Paris and Italy with Alfred de Musset and Dr. Pietro Pagello – the subject of the 1999 film Les Enfants du Siècle. His political drama The Bear Dances: A Play in Three Acts was the first dramatisation of the Soviets on London's West-end stage (Garrick Theatre, 1932, with Elena Miramova, Abraham Sofaer and Olga Lindo). This play, though it closed early in London, was revived by various repertory theatres in the North of England in the later 1930s. It was an attempt at ideological disinfectant, written at a time when Cambridge University (in Lucas's words) ""grew full of very green young men going very Red"".


== History, politics and society ==


=== Pharsalus ===
Outside literature, Lucas is remembered for his solution to one of the more contentious problems of ancient topography. His ""north-bank"" thesis on the location of the Battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.), based on his 1921 solo field-trip to Thessaly and on a re-examination of the sources, dismissed a dozen previous theories and is now widely accepted by historians.  John D. Morgan in his definitive 'Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town' writes:  ""My reconstruction is similar to Lucas's, and in fact I borrow one of his alternatives for the line of the Pompeian retreat. Lucas's theory has been subjected to many criticisms, but has remained essentially unshaken.""


=== Appeasement ===
Are our minds clear, or are we drifting foggily into another 1914? It was because England hedged then, that we all but perished in the ditch beyond.
In the 1930s Lucas was widely known for his political letters to the British Press with their outspoken attacks on the policy that came to be known as appeasement. Following the inaction of the League over Manchuria, he called repeatedly for ""a League within the League"", of nations pledged to uphold international law and oppose aggression. ""Since the War,"" he wrote in 1933, ""British policy has been shuffling, timid, ignoble."" Having read Mein Kampf in the unexpurgated original and taken its threats as a statement of intent, he urged in September 1933 that Nazi Germany be prevented from re-arming. ""Versailles was monstrous"", he wrote in The Week-end Review,

""but one thing surely comes first: Germany must not be allowed to re-arm. How prevent it? By an international police-force?  It would be ideal. Unfortunately it does not exist. The French have urged it. We in our muddle-headedness want neither it nor the alternative – war. Are we prepared to see France do its work instead and take action in Germany? – or are we going to sit sanctimoniously on the fence, disapproving, but secretly relieved? I devoutly hope the first. Germany must not re-arm; even if the French had to invade it once every five years, that would be better than the alternative.""
This letter struck some readers as ""brutal"", and marked him as a hard-liner. The pro-appeasement Times refused to publish him after 1935 (he described the Editor's office as ""an annexe of the German embassy""); and when he condemned the Italian invasion of Abyssinia and the democracies' inadequate response, he received abusive and threatening replies from Fascists, including one from Ezra Pound (he put Pound's letter on display at the Cambridge Anti-Fascist Exhibition). In the years following he varied his arguments, but not their message. A hatred of war, he urged in 1936, ""can be no reason for being false to ourselves, in the name of an aimless amiability that cries 'peace' where there is none."" By 1937 the emphasis was on the dishonesty of British policy: ""We have not kept agreements we made; we have made agreements we should not; we have tried to cheat our way to security, and now the security proves a cheat. We have forgotten the wisdom which says that since we cannot foresee where any road will lead in the end, we should stick to the straight and honest one."" Despite the prevailing pacifism of the time – and he exchanged views with ""passive pacifists"" in the correspondence-columns – such sentiments struck a chord. ""This is the voice of the England I love,"" wrote a correspondent from Prague in 1938, ""and for whose soul I was trembling when I heard about the welcome given Mr Chamberlain on his return from Munich.""

As well as letters to the press (some forty in all, most to The Manchester Guardian – see Political letters below) his campaign included satires, articles, books, public speaking, fund-raising for the Red Cross, petitions to Parliament, meetings with émigrés like Haile Selassie and Stefan Zweig, and help for refugees. In these activities he was inspired by the example of ""that grand old man"" H. W. Nevinson, ""one of the most striking personalities I have ever known"", ""whose long life has been given to Liberty"". He dedicated his 1938 book The Delights of Dictatorship to Nevinson, by then a friend.
Believing that future readers would be interested in what it had been like to live through such times, Lucas kept and published in mid-1939 a
diary for 1938, Journal Under the Terror, 1938. (The ""high source"" he refers to in Journal was probably Harold Nicolson.) Journal is notable for its candid remarks on pro-Nazi and pro-appeasement figures in the British Establishment. Of Chamberlain at Munich he wrote (30 September):

""Even if what he did were the right thing to do, this was not the way to do it."" ""The surrender might have been necessary: the cant was not. Any statesman with a sense of honour would at least have stilled that hysterical cheering and said: My friends, for the present, we are out of danger. But remember that others, who trusted in us, are not. This is a day for relief, perhaps; but for sorrow also; for shame, not for revelling. But this Chamberlain comes home beaming as fatuously as some country-cousin whom a couple of card-sharpers in the train have just allowed to win sixpence, to encourage him.""
The outcome he feared was an Anglo-German peace agreement – an accord between Nazis and the British Establishment: ""One day a little note from Berchtesgaden will appoint Lord Londonderry to 10 Downing Street. And that will settle everything."" Though he welcomed the Government's about-turn on appeasement in March 1939, he doubted the genuineness of the conversion. ""The noble lords of our Fifth Column still go marching on."" 
The Nazis had noted Lucas's letters. In August 1939 he received a reply from Goebbels, advising him to heed public opinion. As a leading anti-fascist campaigner, he was placed by the Nazis on their Sonderfahndungsliste G.B. [:Special Search List G.B.] of Britons to be arrested and liquidated.


=== Bletchley Park ===

A brilliant linguist with infantry and Intelligence Corps experience from 1914 to 1918, proven anti-fascist credentials and a scepticism about the Soviet Union, Lucas was one of the first academics recruited by the Foreign Office – on 3 September 1939 – to Bletchley Park. He was one of the original four members of Hut 3, whose organisation he set up, and from March to July 1942, when the Hut was run by committee, acting head. He remained a central figure there, working throughout the war on the Enigma decodes as translator, intelligence-analyst and (from July 1942) head of the Research Section, 3G [:Hut 3 General Intelligence], on the busy 4 p.m. to 1 a.m. shift. His main activities in 3G were cracking Axis covernames and covernumbers in decodes, analysing German ""proformas"" (supplies and ammunition returns), and writing general intelligence papers.
Among the intelligence-reports he produced was a study of Hitler's intentions in the east in May 1941, which contrasted with the Foreign Office view that the Germans were just ""building up pressure [on the U.S.S.R.] to extract more raw materials"". ""It becomes harder than ever to doubt,"" Lucas wrote,

""that the object of these large movements of the German Army and Air Force is Russia. From rail movements towards Moldavia in the south to ship movements towards Varanger fjord in the far north there is everywhere the same eastward trend. Either the purpose is blackmail or it is war. No doubt Hitler would prefer a bloodless surrender. But the quiet move, for instance, of a prisoner-of-war cage to Tarnow looks more like business than bluff.""
Other Lucas papers ranged from practical suggestions, such as the proposal that the Salonica-Athens railway be cut in the Oeta gorges viaducts (carried out in Operation Harling), to psychological overviews later in the war, like 'Hitler as seen by Source' [:through decodes] and 'German Morale as seen by Source' (his old special subject from 1918 Intelligence Corps days).

He also wrote confidential Special Reports for the Bletchley Park Director-General, one on Second Front rumours in German signals, and another, with Peter Calvocoressi, in late 1944 on Ultra and the failure of Allied intelligence to foresee the German counter-offensive through the Ardennes in December 1944. Lucas and Calvocoressi concluded ""the costly reverse might have been avoided if Ultra had been more carefully considered"". For its part, Hut 3 had grown ""shy of going beyond its job of amending and explaining German messages"", believing that ""drawing broad conclusions was for the intelligence staff at SHAEF, who had information from all sources"", including aerial reconnaissance. E. J. N. Rose, head Air Adviser in Hut 3, read the paper at the time and described it in 1998 as ""an extremely good report"" that ""showed the failure of intelligence at SHAEF and at the Air Ministry"". The report is not known to have survived. It was probably the ""Top Secret [intelligence] digest"", a post-mortem on that failure, referred to by General Strong (1968), ""both record-copies of which were destroyed"". (A report by ""C"", the Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service, On indications of German December 1944 counter-offensive in Ardennes, derived from ULTRA material, submitted to DMI by C, issued 28 December 1944, is held in the UK National Archives as file HW 13/45; Calvocoressi, however, who knew Bennett's 1979 book and General Strong's claim, stated in 2001 that the Lucas-Calvocoressi report was not.) Lucas and Calvocoressi ""expected heads to roll at Eisenhower's HQ, but they did no more than wobble"".
The most ""exciting"" work he did at Bletchley Park, he recalled, was handling operational signals on Axis convoys to North Africa from July 1941 and deducing convoys' routes using decrypts, maps, pins and pieces of string. The high standards of accuracy and clarity that prevailed in Hut 3, his chief maintained, were ""largely due to [Lucas's] being such a stickler"" for them.
In out-of-hut hours Major Lucas was Officer Commanding the Bletchley Park Home Guard, a ""rabble of egg-heads"" that he turned, contrary to stereotype, into an efficient unit that outwitted the local regular forces in military exercises. He arranged the digging of defence positions to give code-breakers time to destroy papers should Bletchley Park come under attack. From June 1945 to the end of the War he was head of the Hut 3 History Section, compiling a 'History of Hut 3', now documents HW3/119 and HW3/120 in the National Archives. He was awarded the OBE in 1946 for his wartime work.


=== Demographics ===
In later years Lucas took up the cause of population-control, ""a problem not talked about nearly enough"", discussing the dangers of world overpopulation in The Greatest Problem (1960). Having laid out the statistics to 1959 and future projections, he argued that the ""reckless proliferation"" of homo sapiens, as well as impoverishing the world by environmental damage and species-extinctions, would be damaging to the individual and to society:

""The finest human qualities are endangered, because the size of populations increases, and ought to be diminished; the size of states increases, and ought to be diminished; the size of cities increases, and ought to be diminished. Vast communities lead to small individuals; and the real worth of any community lies in the worth of its individuals... The individual comes to feel himself a mere drop in the ocean; and feeling impotent, he grows irresponsible... Vast democracies cannot keep the virtues of democracy.""
If population-growth went unchecked, he felt, ""the damage to national efficiency might drive governments to act more intelligently""; but better would be ""a concentrated drive for population-planning, despite the formidable practical, scientific and psychological obstacles"". ""Far more, however,"" he added, ""depends on the individual and his power to realise his own plight. Hence the need for constant and frank discussion, instead of leaving the subject, as now, in a conspiracy of uneasy silence; and the need for patient and tireless propaganda against man's reckless propagation.""

He singled out the Vatican for particular criticism. ""Common sense percolates,"" he had written in 1934, ""despite the Roman Church; which with its half-cynical sense of reality will doubtless end by swallowing the inevitable, as with Copernicus and Darwin, and evolve some doctrine of Immaculate Contraception."" He later pointed out the illogicality of the doctrine declaring it lawful to juggle with the calendar but otherwise unlawful to practise contraception.
He was not optimistic about post-war immigration to the UK, believing that in the modern world overbreeding was not solved by migration, which in turn could bring new social problems. ""Persons of liberal principles are shocked if one views this influx with misgiving. But the advantages are far from certain. Principles, however liberal, are no substitute for common sense.""
In Literature and Psychology (1951) he had conjectured that the end of civilisation might come, not from war or famine, but from a decay of man's intelligence and self-control under the strain of a too artificial way of life. His only science-fiction story, 'Last Act' (1937), set in a not-too-distant future, had depicted the beginning of the end for ""the desolator, Man"", in an overpopulated, over-technological, and rapidly overheating biosphere.


== Works ==


=== Books ===

Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 1922 [29]; C.U.P. paperback 2009, ISBN 1-108-00358-3)
Euripides and his Influence (Marshall Jones, Boston, 1923 [30]; Harrap, London, 1924; Literary Licensing LLC paperback 2012, ISBN 1-258-33712-6)
Euripides: Medea, partly in the original and partly in translation; with introduction and notes (Oxford University Press, 1923)
Euripides: Medea; verse translation, with introduction and notes (Oxford University Press, 1924)
Ferenc Békássy:  'Adriatica' and other poems; selection with preface (Hogarth Press, London, 1925)
Authors Dead and Living; reviews and essays from the New Statesman [Li-Po, Drayton, Donne, Vaughan, Cotton, Marvell, Leopardi, Melville, Whitman, Swinburne, O'Shaughnessy, Flecker, Masefield, Housman, de la Mare, Bottomley, Davies, Rosenberg, Drinkwater, Dobson, Luce, Campbell, H.D., Edna St Vincent Millay, Belloc, Blunt, Sara Teasdale, Yeats, Lawrence, Wolfe, Sylvia Townsend Warner, Graves] (Chatto & Windus, London, 1926 [31]; Hassell Street Press, 2021, ISBN 1013735471; essay on Housman reprinted in the Critical Heritage series, ed. Philip Gardner, 1992)
The River Flows; novel (Hogarth Press, London, 1926)
The Complete Works of John Webster; edition in four volumes: 1 [32], 2 [33], 3 [34], 4 [35] (Chatto & Windus, London, 1927; Houghton Mifflin, N.Y., 1928; O.U.P., New York, 1937; Chatto & Windus, London, 1966 [36] [37] [38] [39]; Gordian Press, N.Y., 1966)
Tragedy in Relation to Aristotle's 'Poetics' (Hogarth Press, London, 1927) [40]
Time and Memory; poems and verse translations (Hogarth Press, London, 1929)
Cécile; novel (Chatto & Windus, London, 1930; Henry Holt, New York, 1930; Chatto & Windus Centaur Library, London, 1931)
Marionettes; poems and verse translations (Cambridge University Press, 1930; paperback 2012, ISBN 1-107-60498-2) [41]
Eight Victorian Poets; essays [Tennyson, Browning, Arnold, Clough, Rossetti, Swinburne, Morris, Hardy] (Cambridge University Press, 1930)
The Art of Dying – an anthology of last words; selected with Francis Birrell; preface by Lucas (Hogarth Press, London, 1930)
The Wild Tulip; novella (Joiner & Steele, London, 1932)
Ariadne; poem, in four books (Cambridge University Press, 1932; paperback 2014, ISBN 9781107677524) [42]
Alfred, Lord Tennyson – an anthology; with introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1932; paperback 2013, ISBN 9781107682832) [43]
Thomas Lovell Beddoes – an anthology; with introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1932; paperback 2013, ISBN 9781107652446)
Dante Gabriel Rossetti – an anthology; with introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1933; paperback 2013, ISBN 9781107639799) [44]
George Crabbe – an anthology; with introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1933)
The Bear Dances: A Play in Three Acts; drama, with political essay: 'The Gospel According to Saint Marx' (Cassell, London, 1933)
The Criticism of Poetry; essay [The Warton Lecture on English Poetry, 1933; Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol.19.] (Oxford University Press, London, 1933)
Studies French and English [45]; essays [Hesiod, Langland, Ronsard, Montaigne, Dorothy Osborne, Crabbe, Beddoes, Flaubert, Proust] (Cassell, London, 1934; revised edition, 1950); (essay on Ronsard reprinted in The Cassell Miscellany, London, 1958); Forgotten Books edition, 2017 ISBN 978-0-259-21221-8
From Olympus to the Styx; Greek travelogue, written with Prudence Lucas (Cassell, London, 1934)
Marie Mauron: Mount Peacock, or Progress in Provence; translation, with introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1934; paperback, 2014 ISBN 9781107647183) [46]
Poems, 1935; poems and verse translations, with preface (Cambridge University Press, 1935)
Four Plays: 'Land's End'; 'Surrender to Discretion'; 'The Lovers of Gudrun'; 'Death of a Ghost' (Cambridge University Press, 1935)
The Awakening of Balthazar; poem for the Abyssinian Red Cross Fund (Cassell, London, 1935)
The Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal; literary criticism, with Iceland travelogue and essay on Icelandic Sagas (Cambridge University Press, 1936 [47]; Read Books paperback 2012, ISBN 1-4067-2311-8; CUP paperback 2014, ISBN 9780521092005) [48]
The Golden Cockerel Greek Anthology; originals and verse translations, with introduction and notes; engravings by Lettice Sandford (Golden Cockerel Press, 1937)
The Woman Clothed with the Sun, and Other Stories; a novella and short stories (Cassell, London, 1937; Simon and Schuster, New York, 1938)
The Delights of Dictatorship; history and politics (Heffer, Cambridge, 1938)
Doctor Dido; novel (Cassell, London, 1938)
A Greek Garland; a Selection from the Palatine Anthology; originals and verse translations, with introduction and notes [enlarged version of 1937 volume] (Oxford University Press, 1939)
Journal Under the Terror, 1938; diary (Cassell, London, 1939)
The Vigil of Venus; the original and a verse translation, with introduction and notes; engravings by John Buckland Wright (Golden Cockerel Press, 1939)
Messene Redeemed; a verse drama (Oxford University Press, 1940)
Ten Victorian Poets; essays [Tennyson, Browning, Arnold, Clough, Patmore, Rossetti, Christina Rossetti, Swinburne, Morris, Hardy] (Cambridge University Press, 1940; essay on Hardy reprinted in the Macmillan Casebook series, editors Gibson & Johnson, 1979)
Critical Thoughts in Critical Days; essay (Allen & Unwin, London, 1942)
Tennyson, Poetry and Prose; an anthology, with introduction and notes (Oxford University Press, 1947)
The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite; the original and a verse translation, with introduction and notes; engravings by Mark Severin (Golden Cockerel Press, 1948)
Aphrodite – two verse translations: the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite and the Pervigilium Veneris; with the originals; brings together 1939 and 1948 volumes (Cambridge University Press, 1948)
Gilgamesh, King of Erech; poem in free verse, re-telling the Sumerian epic; engravings by Dorothea Braby (Golden Cockerel Press, 1948)
Homer: The Odyssey; verse translation in selection, with introduction and notes; engravings by John Buckland Wright (Folio Society, 1948)
Musaeus: Hero and Leander; verse translation, with introduction; engravings by John Buckland Wright (Golden Cockerel Press, 1949)
Homer: The Iliad; verse translation in selection, with introduction and notes; engravings by John Buckland Wright (Folio Society, 1950)
Literature and Psychology; literary criticism based on the case-notes of Wilhelm Stekel [Shakespeare, The Romantics, Romanticism in Decay] (Cassell, London, 1951; revised edition, University of Michigan Press, 1957)
Greek Poetry for Everyman; verse translations, with introductions and notes (Dent, London, 1951) [49]
From Many Times and Lands; poems of legend and history (Bodley Head, London, 1953)
Greek Drama for Everyman; full verse translations [Prometheus Bound, Agamemnon, Oedipus the King, Antigone, Hippolytus, Bacchae, Clouds] and selections, with introductions and notes (Dent, London, 1954)
Style (Cassell, London, 1955; 2nd ed., with footnote translations: Collier Books, 1962, Pan Books, 1964; 3rd ed. Harriman House Publishing, 2012 ISBN 978-0-85719-187-8); 4th ed. Harriman House Publishing, 2020, with foreword by Joseph Epstein  [50]
Tragedy: Serious Drama in Relation to Aristotle's 'Poetics'; revised and enlarged edition of 1927 volume (Hogarth Press, London, 1957; with footnote translations: Collier Books, 1962)
Tennyson [51]; essay [British Council 'Writers and their Works' series] (Longman, London, 1957)
Webster: The White Devil; revised edition (Chatto & Windus, London, 1958)
Webster: The Duchess of Malfi; revised edition (Chatto & Windus, London, 1958)
The Search for Good Sense: Four Eighteenth-Century Characters: Johnson, Chesterfield, Boswell, Goldsmith (Cassell, London, 1958; Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015 [52])
The Art of Living: Four Eighteenth-Century Minds: Hume, Horace Walpole, Burke, Benjamin Franklin (Cassell, London, 1959) [53]

The Greatest Problem, and Other Essays; an essay on world overpopulation, literary essays [Tolstoy, Housman, 'Translation'], and autobiographical pieces (Cassell, London, 1960)
The Drama of Ibsen and Strindberg; literary criticism (Cassell, London, 1962)
August Strindberg: Inferno; translation by Mary Sandbach, introduction by Lucas (Hutchinson, London, 1962)
The Drama of Chekhov, Synge, Yeats and Pirandello; literary criticism (Cassell, London, 1963)
Greek Poetry; verse translations; revised and renamed edition of 1951 volume, without the passages from Homer (Everyman Library, Dent, London, 1966)
Greek Drama for the Common Reader; verse translations; revised and renamed edition of 1954 volume (Chatto & Windus, London, 1967)
Greek Tragedy and Comedy; verse translations; renamed paperback edition of 1967 volume (Viking Press, New York, 1968)
The English Agent: A Tale of The Peninsular War; novel (Cassell, London, 1969)


=== Other writings ===
'The Boar'; short story set in the aftermath of the Second Servile War (Athenaeum, 10 September 1920) [54]
'The Fortune of Carthage'; short story on the Battle of the Metaurus (Athenaeum, 28 January 1921) [55]
'The Brown Bag'; short story (Cambridge Review, 6 May 1921)
'The Battlefield of Pharsalos'; report on a field study (Annual of the British School at Athens, No. XXIV, 1919–21) [56] [57]
'The Reverse of Aristotle'; a discussion of Peripeteia (Classical Review, August–September 1923) [58] [59]
'The Waste Land'; review (New Statesman, 3 November 1923 [60]; reprinted in the Macmillan Casebook series and the Critical Heritage series)
'The Duchess of Malfi'; essay (New Statesman, 1 March 1924) [61]
'Playing the Devil'; theatre-review of The White Devil (New Statesman, 17 October 1925) [62]
'English Literature'; essay on English at Cambridge (University Studies, Cambridge 1933; editor Harold Wright; London, 1933)
'Poetry Examined by Professor Housman'; review of Housman's Name and Nature of Poetry (Cambridge Review, 8 June 1933)
'Mithridates – The Poetry of A.E. Housman'; essay (Cambridge Review, 15 May 1936; reprinted in the Critical Heritage series, ed. Philip Gardner, 1992)
'Julian Bell'; a memoir (Cambridge Review, 15 October 1937; reprinted in The Cambridge Mind, editors Homberger, Janeway & Shama, 1970)
'Proud Motherhood (Madrid A.D. 1937)'; poem (Poems for Spain, 1939; editors Spender & Lehmann; reprinted in The Penguin Book of Spanish Civil War Verse) [63]
'William Wordsworth'; essay (Fifteen Poets, an anthology, Oxford University Press, 1941) [64]
'A History of Hut 3', National Archives documents, ref. HW3/119 and HW3/120 [65] [66]
'Poet Laureate of Henry VIII'; essay on John Skelton (The Listener, 8 May 1947, p. 270)
'Poetry'; 'Epic'; 'Ode'; 'Elegy'; 'Lyric'; 'Pastoral'; articles (Chambers's Encyclopaedia, 1950–66)
'On the Fascination of Style'; essay (Holiday, March 1960; reprinted in The Odyssey Reader: Ideas and Style, ed. Birk and Birk, N.Y. 1968, and in Readings for Writers, ed. Jo Ray McCuen and Anthony C. Winkler, N.Y., 2009 ISBN 1-4282-3128-5); reissued as 'How to Write Powerful Prose', Petersfield, 2012 [67])
'Johnson's Bête Grise'; essay on Johnson's criticism of Gray's poetry (The New Rambler: Journal of the Johnson Society of London, June 1960)
'The Lonely Beauty of Iceland'; travelogue (Holiday, September 1963)
'Across Eternal Egypt'; travelogue (Holiday, June 1964)
'The Art of Proverbs'; essay (Holiday, September 1965; reprinted in Mieder and Sobieski, Gold Nuggets or Fool's Gold? Magazine and Newspaper Articles on the (Ir)relevance of Proverbial Phrases, Burlington, 2006)
'Long Lives the Emperor'; essay on The Hundred Days (The Historical Journal, Vol.8, No.1, Cambridge, 1965 [68])


=== Political letters ===

'New Forms of Harmony in Germany' (The Listener [BBC], 16 August 1933)
'Germany, Europe and Peace' (Week-end Review, 16 September 1933)
'Germany and Europe' (Week-end Review, 21 October 1933)
'Abyssinia: Our Duty' (The Daily Telegraph, 25 July 1935)
'Italy and Abyssinia' (Daily Telegraph, 31 July 1935)
'Italy's Claims' (Daily Telegraph, 7 August 1935)
'An Italian Teacher's Political Views' (Manchester Guardian, 9 August 1935)
'Impartiality at Cambridge' (Manchester Guardian, 14 August 1935)
'Home-truths from Italy' (New Statesman and Nation, 24 August 1935)
'Reply to an Italian's defence' (Morning Post, 12 October 1935)
'Mussolini's War' (Manchester Guardian, 14 October 1935)
'Mr. Bernard Shaw's Letter' (The Times, 24 October 1935)
'The Italians in Tripoli' (Manchester Guardian, 11 January 1936)
'Congratulations to the University of Heidelberg' (Cambridge Review, 14 February 1936)
'The League's Abyssinian Front' (Manchester Guardian, 12 March 1936)
'Alliance with Germany' (Daily Telegraph, written 27 April 1936)
'Fascism and Communism' (Daily Telegraph, 3 August 1936)
'British Policy in World Crises' (Manchester Guardian, 22 September 1936)
'Democracy and Progress' (Time and Tide, 10 October 1936)
'Blackshirt Marches and Meetings' (Manchester Guardian, 23 October 1936)
' ""Non-Intervention in Spain"" ' (Manchester Guardian, 16 February 1937)
'Barbarities of Modern War' (Manchester Guardian, 14 May 1937)
'The National Government's Foreign Policy' (Manchester Guardian, 6 September 1937)
'Pacifism and Panic-Mongering' (Manchester Guardian, 1 December 1937)
'Pacifism and Air-Raid Precautions' (Manchester Guardian, 7 December 1937)
'The Absolute Pacifist Position' (Manchester Guardian, 15 December 1937)
'Mr. Chamberlain's ""Realistic"" Policy' (Manchester Guardian, 10 March 1938)
'To the Editor of The Times ' (Journal Under the Terror, 17 March 1938)
'An Open Letter to Lord Halifax' (Journal Under the Terror, 12 May 1938)
'Labour and the Popular Front' (New Statesman and Nation, 14 May 1938)
'Air Defence' (Daily Telegraph, 16 May 1938)
'Britain and Political Refugees' (Manchester Guardian, 20 May 1938)
'Refugee Jews and England' (Manchester Guardian, 26 August 1938)
'The European Crisis' (Manchester Guardian, 15 September 1938)
'The Munich Agreement — and after' (Manchester Guardian, 4 October 1938)
'The Refugees in Czechoslovakia' (Manchester Guardian, 3 November 1938)
'The Two Voices' (Manchester Guardian, 7 November 1938)
'After Barcelona' (Manchester Guardian, 7 February 1939)
'Germany and World Empire' (Manchester Guardian, 10 February 1939)
'Hitler as ""The Friend of Peace"" ' (Manchester Guardian, 24 February 1939)
'Friendship with Germany' (Manchester Guardian, 8 March 1939)
'German Opinion about England' (Manchester Guardian, 15 August 1939)


== Adaptations ==
Gerald Finzi set to music Lucas's poem 'June on Castle Hill' (1935) in his collection To a Poet, op.13a no.5
Margaret Wood's play A Kind of Justice (1966) is based on Lucas's poem 'Spain 1809' (1953)
John Joubert set to music Lucas's poem 'Beleaguered Cities' (1929) in his collection Landscapes (1992), op.129
Nicola Baldwin's  The Nervous State is a dramatic adaptation of Lucas's Journal Under the Terror, 1938 (1939)


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==
Online texts by Frank Laurence Lucas at Hathi Trust Digital Library [69]
'Frank Laurence Lucas', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography [70]
F. L. Lucas papers, Archive Search, Cambridge University [71] [72] [73]
F. L. Lucas letters, Trinity College, Cambridge [74] archives.trin.cam.ac.uk
F. L. Lucas letters in the Charleston Papers, www.sussex.ac.uk  [75]
F. L. Lucas on BBC wireless, 1929-1949: genome.ch.bbc.co.uk [76]
Portrait, photographer unknown, c.1919: kings.cam.ac.uk [77]; colfesarchive.daisy.websds.net [78]
Two portraits by Bergne Porträttstudio, Stockholm, 1946: 1. (print by Edward Leigh, FRPS, 19 King's Parade, Cambridge): harriman-house.com [79]; 2. The New York Times, 26 June 1967 [80]
Portrait by Antony Barrington Brown, 1957: npg.org.uk [81]
Portrait by Erich Hartmann, Magnum Photos, 1961: magnumphotos.com [82]


== Further reading ==
Thomas Cheetham, 'From Classics Scholar to Intelligence Officer: F. L. ""Peter"" Lucas'; in Ultra: Bletchley Park Magazine: Issue 21,  Spring 2024; Bletchley Park Trust.
Julie V. Gottlieb, 'An Epidemic of Nervous Breakdowns and Crisis Suicides in Britain’s War of Nerves, 1938–1940', in The Historical Journal, 12 November 2024, Cambridge University Press"
Murray State Racers men's basketball,"The Murray State Racers men's basketball program represents Murray State University in intercollegiate men's basketball. Murray State is a member of the Missouri Valley Conference in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), having joined that conference in 2022 after 74 seasons in the Ohio Valley Conference. The Racers have played home games at the CFSB Center on their campus in Murray, Kentucky since 1998. Murray State made its 18th appearance in the NCAA tournament in 2022. Five times the Racers advanced in the tournament, most recently by defeating the University of San Francisco in 2022. In 1988, Murray State defeated NC State in the first round but lost to eventual national champion Kansas in the second round. In 2010, 22 years to the date of the 1988 win, the Racers beat Vanderbilt and lost to eventual runner-up Butler in the second round.


== Venues ==
Murray State's first basketball venues were Wilson Hall (1926–27); Lovett Auditorium (1927–1937), which had a capacity of 1,500; and Carr Health Building (1937–1954), which had a capacity of 3,000. Racer Arena opened in 1954 and entertained Racer fans for 43 years. While its capacity was 5,500, over 6,000 people crowded the arena on numerous occasions. Racer Arena is now a volleyball-only facility, one of the largest in NCAA Division I.

Replacing Racer Arena was the CFSB Center, the current home of Murray State men's basketball. Completed in June 1998 at a cost of $20 million, the facility is a modern arena which can host other events besides basketball. The CFSB Center sits 8,602 and includes a $250,000 scoreboard and a 2,000 sq. ft. weight room. The first basketball game at the CFSB Center was against Southern Illinois on November 14, 1998, a 65–62 victory for the Racers in front of 7,633 spectators. It was formerly known as the Regional Special Events Center, or ""RSEC"", until the name was changed on September 17, 2010, after Community Financial Services Bank donated $3.3 million to Murray State, at the time the largest donation in athletic history.


== History ==
In 2005, Street & Smith's named the Racers the 52nd best program of all time. In their prestige system, ESPN ranked Murray State the 30th best programs from 1984 to 2008, breaking a tie with Villanova due to a higher winning percentage. The Racers are the highest ""true"" mid-major team in their rankings.


=== Cutchin era (1925–1941) ===
Carlisle Cutchin launched the Murray State basketball program in 1925. At the time, Murray State was a teacher's college and the nickname was the Thoroughbreds. In the 1935–36 season, Cutchin coached Murray State to its highest win percentage for a season at .920, when his Thoroughbreds finished with a record of 23–2. That season also included Murray State's best start, at 19–1. In his final season, he led the Thoroughbreds to the title game of the 1941 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament, at which time they lost to the San Diego State Aztecs 36–34. Since he retired in 1941, he has maintained his position as the all-time winningest coach in Murray State basketball history, with a career record of 267–101.


=== Mountjoy era (1941–1942) ===
Rice Mountjoy was hired as the next men's basketball coach from Danville High School, where he was athletic director. In his only season with the Thoroughbreds, he coached the team to an 18–4 record. That season was marked by strong play from early jump shot proponent Joe Fulks, who transferred from Millsaps College. Mountjoy left after the 1941–42 season to coach Augusta Tilghman High School in nearby Paducah.


=== Miller era (1942–1948) ===
Former Murray State basketball player and then-freshman team coach John Miller replaced Mountjoy as head basketball coach. His best season was his first, when he led the team to a 21–5 record and finished fourth in the 1941 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament.


=== Hodges era (1948–1954) ===
From Southern Illinois, Harlan Hodges led the team to two NAIA Tournaments and two No. 16 AP rankings in his six seasons, with a 109–66 (.623) record.  Bennie Purcell and Garrett Beshear were on the roster during those years and were later named NAIA All-Americans. Hodges left Murray in May 1954 for the University of Idaho in the Pacific Coast Conference, where success largely eluded him.  He resigned after five seasons in 1959 to become the superintendent of schools in Anna, Illinois, then returned to Murray in 1964 to teach.


=== Alexander era (1954–1958) ===
Rex Alexander was promoted from assistant to head coach after former North Carolina head coach Tom Scott accepted, then turned down the head coaching post at Murray State. Alexander led Murray State for four seasons, posting a 45–54 record, including a 15–10 mark in 1955–56. But after his first team was Ohio Valley Conference regular-season and tournament runners-up, his teams never finished higher than third in the conference and he was replaced by DePauw University head coach Cal Luther on March 5, 1958. Alexander agreed to stay on as an assistant coach under Luther.


=== Luther era (1959–1974) ===
In 1958, Murray State hired Cal Luther, who had served the previous four seasons as head coach at DePauw. In 16 seasons under Luther, Murray State won three OVC regular-season championships and made the NCAA tournament in 1964 and 1969. His 1970–71 team reached No. 17 in the Associated Press poll, entering the rankings after a thrilling 73–71 victory over Western Kentucky in Murray. WKU would go on to reach the NCAA tournament Final Four that season. A two-time OVC Coach of the Year, Luther led the Racers to a 241–134 record.
Luther's most notable players were future professional players Dick Cunningham, Claude Virden and Stewart Johnson, as well as Racer greats Herb McPherson, Jim Jennings and Les Taylor.
Cal Luther was a firebrand of a coach. The standing joke at the university was the over and under of Cal throwing off his jacket during a game due to a call by a ref, or from frustration with a player. The latter part of his tenure was marred by an OVC issue with testing and which tests the schools in the OVC used to qualify athletes. During the 1973–74 season several players were disqualified for using an illegal testing equivalency. This happened across the OVC, and Murray was not the only school to lose student athletes. Most of the disqualified athletes were allowed to transfer by the NCAA to other schools, but OVC schools lost the services of those athletes who had not actually taken the SAT, but had taken the ACT.


=== Overton era (1975–1978) ===
After three seasons as an assistant under Cal Luther, Fred Overton was elevated to head coach in 1975. After a 9–17 first season, the Racers started the 1976–77 season with a 17–6 record before dropping their last four games for a 17–10 final ledger, finishing second in the OVC. But after the Racers posted an 8–17 in 1977–78, Overton was fired.


=== Greene era (1978–1985) ===
Ron Greene returned to his alma mater fresh off earning the AP Southeastern Conference Coach of the Year award at Mississippi State in 1978.
After managing only four wins in his first season as coach at Murray, Greene led the Racers to 23 wins the following year and an appearance in the National Invitation Tournament. The Racers knocked off Jacksonville and Alabama before losing to Illinois 65–63 in the quarterfinals, all on the road. Greene's Racers would win three Ohio Valley Conference regular-season titles and reach the NIT twice more under his guidance.
A highlight of the 1981–82 season came when Murray State traveled to South Bend, Indiana, to play against Notre Dame.  Murray State defeated a Notre Dame team coached by Digger Phelps 56–54.
His overall record at Murray State was 119–78. While at the Racer helm, Greene coached Racer greats Gary Hooker and Lamont Sleets.


=== Newton era (1985–1991) ===
In Steve Newton's second season, in 1986–87 the team finished with a 13–15 record. This marked the last time the Racers had a losing season for the next 29 seasons; only Arizona, Kansas, and Syracuse hold longer streaks.
In addition to Murray's win in 1988, two years later the No. 16 seed Racers took No. 1 seed Michigan State into overtime before falling 75–71. The loss in 1990 was the closest a 16 seeded team had ever come to knocking off a No. 1 seeded team in the tournament. While a 16 seeded Princeton team and a 16 seeded East Tennessee State team both fell by just 1 point during regulation in the 1989 tournament, the 1990 Murray State team was the only 16 seed ever to take a game into overtime. In 1997, the No. 15 seed Racers nearly shocked the No. 2 seed Duke Blue Devils in a 71–68 loss.
In 1988, Jeff Martin became the first basketball player in Murray State, and OVC, history to be invited to the Olympic trials for the US Basketball Team.  This was the last year that professionals were not allowed on the team.  Martin did not make the team but impressed many with his performance.
The best-known player in the Newton era is Popeye Jones.  While at Murray State, Jones scored 2,057 points which still ranks fourth all time for the Racers. He is also Murray State's all-time leader in rebounds with 1,374, and led the nation in that category in the 1990–91 season. Jones is the only player in MSU history to record more than 2,000 points and 1,000 rebounds.  Jones helped lead the Racers to OVC championships in 1991 and 1992. He went on to have a successful career in the NBA after being drafted in the second round by the Houston Rockets in the 1992 NBA Draft.


=== Edgar era (1992–1995) ===
Scott Edgar was hired as head basketball coach after serving six seasons as an assistant coach under Nolan Richardson at Arkansas. Bringing a version of Richardson's uptempo ""40 Minutes of Hell"" philosophy to Murray, Edgar led the Racers to two NCAA tournament appearances (1992, 1995) and one NIT appearance (1994) in four seasons. His teams won three OVC regular-season championships (1992, 1994 and 1995), posting a 48–14 record in conference games during his tenure.
Edgar recruited Racer greats Marcus Brown and Vincent Rainey to Murray State, with Brown averaging 22.4 points and Rainey 18.8 points in Edgar's final season at Murray.
Edgar left Murray State after the 1994–95 season to become head coach at Duquesne.


=== Gottfried era (1995–1998) ===
Mark Gottfried was hired as head basketball coach after serving seven seasons as an assistant coach under Jim Harrick at UCLA. Gottfried was hired shortly after he finished the 1995 season with the Bruins, in which he helped lead the Bruins to an NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship. Mark Gottfried was also the nephew of ESPN analyst and former Murray State football coach Mike Gottfried.
In Gottfried's first season, the Racers returned four starters, including Marcus Brown, from the Racer team that nearly upset North Carolina in the 1995 NCAA tournament, and the team was picked to finished first in the OVC. The Racers won the Ohio Valley Conference regular season championship in 1996 for the third straight season; however, the Racers were defeated in the OVC tournament. In the final game of the tournament, Murray State's Vincent Rainey was charged with a foul with two-tenths of a second left on the clock in a tie game against the rival Austin Peay Governors. APSU's Reggie Crenshaw made two free throws and the Racers lost the game 70–68. As a result of the loss, the Racers did not reach the 1996 NCAA tournament. The Racers lost to the Missouri Tigers in the opening round of the 1996 National Invitational Tournament, and finished the season 19–10. Marcus Brown finished his college playing career at the close of the 1996 season with 2,236 career points, which is third best in Murray State history.
With a November 23, 1996, victory over the Belmont Bruins, the Racers began a 47-game home winning streak that would last into the 1999–2000 season. The Racers won the 1997 OVC Tournament with an overtime win over Austin Peay and earned a spot in the NCAA tournament.
ESPN's College Basketball Encyclopedia names the Racers 1997–98 season as having the best team in school history. OVC player of the year De'Teri Mayes led the 1997–98 team to 23 victories by double digit margins. Isaac Spencer was a freshman on the team. Spencer would go on to score 2,248 points over four seasons, which places him second place all time for the Racers. The Racers won both the OVC regular season and OVC tournament again in 1998; however, Murray State fell to number eight seed Rhode Island in the first round of the NCAA tournament. The Racers finished the season a number 25 ranking in the final AP Poll. Mark Gottfried won three Ohio Valley Conference Championships in each of his three seasons, the only OVC coach to accomplish such a mark.
Gottfried was hired by Alabama to be head basketball coach in March 1998. He had been a starting player for the Crimson Tide for three seasons between 1985 and 1987.


=== Anderson era (1998–2003) ===
Tevester Anderson was promoted to head coach of the Racers in March, 1998 after Mark Gottfried left Murray State to take the head coach position at the University of Alabama. Anderson, the first African American to serve as head coach of the Murray State men's basketball team, had previously served as an assistant coach under Gottfried during the previous three seasons. At age 61, Anderson was also the oldest rookie head coach in NCAA Division I basketball. In his first year as coach of the Racers, Anderson led the team to a 27–6 record, an Ohio Valley Conference championship, and an NCAA tournament appearance. Anderson was named the OVC's Co-Coach of the Year and was named NABC District 7 Coach of the Year following the 1998–99 season.
In Anderson's second year as head coach, the Racers finished the 1999–2000 season with a 23–9 record. The record was good enough to capture a share of the OVC regular season championship, but the Racer's failed to win the OVC Tournament and earn a spot in the NCAA tournament. Murray State home court winning streak, the longest in the nation, also came to an end in 2000 with a January 15 loss to Southeast Missouri State University.
Over the next three years under Anderson, the success of the Racer basketball program steadily declined, culminating in a low point during the 2002–03 season. The Racers finished the 2002–03 season with a 17–12 record, which was fourth-place in the OVC standings. The fourth-place finish was the worst finish in the OVC standings since the 1986–87 season. Amid rumors that Anderson would relinquish his coaching duties at Murray State under pressure from university officials, he resigned from the head coach position in March 2003. Anderson was named as the new head coach at Jackson State University in April 2003.


=== Cronin era (2003–2006) ===
Previously an assistant at Cincinnati (1997–2001) under Bob Huggins and at Louisville (2001–03) under Rick Pitino, Mick Cronin was introduced as the new head coach of the Racers on April 5, 2003. When he accepted the position, Cronin became the fourth youngest head coach in NCAA Division-I basketball. In Cronin's first season as head coach, the Racers won the OVC tournament and advanced to the first round of the NCAA tournament where the Racers fell to No. 5 seeded Illinois. The success of the 2003–04 season was also tainted by arrests and suspensions. Just before the start of the 2004 NCAA tournament, juniors Adam Chiles and Kelvin Brown were arrested on drug charges. Chiles was charged with hindering prosecution and possession of marijuana and drug paraphernalia, and Brown was charged with theft from an alleged gas drive-off, possession of marijuana, and his second offense of possession of drug paraphernalia. Both were arrested following a 911 hangup call from their apartment in which Chiles was found outside and Brown was found hiding in a closet. Chiles was cleared to play in the tournament, but Brown was suspended indefinitely and later dismissed from the team in April.
Problems continued for the Racers in the 2004–05 season. The team's only returning starter, Adam Chiles, was dismissed from the team in November following his second arrest of 2004. Chiles was stopped by Kentucky State Police while driving on Western Kentucky Parkway near Leitchfield, Kentucky. Chiles was charged with driving under the influence, possession of marijuana, possession of an open alcoholic beverage container, and speeding. Chiles had averaged 10.1 points and 3.9 assists for the Racers in the previous season. The Racers went on to finish the 2004–05 season with a record of 20–10 and a first round loss in the OVC tournament.
The 2005–06 Racers rebounded from their struggles in the previous season to win both the OVC regular season title, their 1st since 2000, and the tournament title to return to the NCAA. In the 2006 tournament, junior guard Trey Pearson missed a critical 3-point shot in the final seconds of the first-round game against No. 3 seeded defending champion North Carolina.  UNC was fouled on the rebound and went to the line to sink the game clinching shots to defeat the No. 14 seeded Racers 69–65. After the 2006 NCAA tournament Cronin took the reins of the Cincinnati Bearcats, his hometown team and alma mater.


=== Kennedy era (2006–2011) ===

On April 12, 2006, Southeastern Louisiana head coach Billy Kennedy was introduced as Murray State University's head men's basketball coach, succeeding the recently departed Cronin.
After continuing to contend in the conference over his first few seasons, Kennedy's 2009–10 team finally broke through, winning the program's 21st OVC regular season title with a conference record of 17–1. They would then go on to defeat Morehead State to capture their 14th OVC tournament title, clinching a berth in the NCAA tournament.
The Racers won their first-round game in the 2010 NCAA tournament in dramatic fashion, defeating fourth-seeded Vanderbilt 66–65 on a buzzer-beating jump shot by senior Danero Thomas. This was the first time that any Ohio Valley Conference team had advanced to the 2nd round of the NCAA tournament since Middle Tennessee advanced in 1989.
The Racers followed up a regular season conference championship for the second year in a row in 2011. The Racers were eliminated from the OVC tournament in 2011; however, they earned a number six seed in the National Invitational Tournament where the Racers suffered a first round loss to Missouri State University. In May 2011, Billy Kennedy announced that he was leaving Murray State to accept the head coach position at Texas A&M University.


=== First Prohm era (2011–2015) ===
Steve Prohm was introduced as the 15th head coach on May 23, 2011. Prohm was promoted to the head coach position after serving as an assistant coach under Billy Kennedy for the previous five seasons. The Racers won the 2011 Great Alaska Shootout early in the 2011–12 season and went on a 23-game winning streak to start the season. The team's 23–0 start under Prohm was the best start to a season in team history. The 23–0 start beat the previous best start record of 16–0 set by the 1935–36 men's basketball team under Carlisle Cutchin. The 23–0 start was the third-best start in NCAA Division I history for a first-year head coach, and it set OVC records for most wins to start a season and overall winning streak during a season
The 10th win of the 2011–12 season was a victory over the then No. 21-ranked Memphis Tigers. This was Murray State's first win over a ranked team since defeating Vanderbilt in the 2010 NCAA tournament. It was also Murray State's first win over a ranked team during the regular season since the Racers defeated No. 12 Arkansas in 1997. Following the victory over Memphis, the Racers entered the national polls at No. 24 on the AP Top 25 Poll on December 12, 2011. This marked the first time an OVC basketball team had been ranked in the major national polls since the Racers were last ranked at No. 25 in the final poll of the 1998 season. The No. 24 ranking also marked the team's highest ranking since February 1971, when the Racers were 17th. The No. 24-ranked Racers defeated the Lipscomb Bisons in the 11th game of the season. The victory was the first win for Murray State as a ranked team since a ranked Racer team defeated Tennessee Tech 72–69 on February 2, 1971. On January 2, 2012, Murray State moved into the No. 1 spot in the CollegeInsider.com Mid-Major Top 25 Poll. The Racers became the first OVC team to ever achieve the No. 1 ranking in the Mid-Major Top 25 Poll. Following Murray State's 16th win of the season, a January 7, 2012, victory over conference-rival Austin Peay, the Racers moved up to No. 14 in the USA Today/ESPN Coaches' Poll and No. 15 in the AP Poll. Their 17th win came against Jacksonville State at the CFSB center to put the Racers to 17–0, and their best start in school history. Their 18th win against Tennessee Tech, 82–74 on January 14, 2012, kept Murray one of only three Division I schools with an unbeaten season as of that date. The January 9 AP ranking was the highest ranking in the history of the Murray State men's basketball program. The No. 15 ranking was also the highest ranking for an OVC team since the Western Kentucky Hilltoppers were ranked No. 7 on March 16, 1971.
On February 9, 2012, Murray State hosted OVC-rival Tennessee State University as the No. 9 team in the nation and the lone unbeaten in Division I basketball. Murray State lost 72–68. Two days later, Murray State answered with a definitive win at home against rival Austin Peay 82–63, bringing its record to 24–1. This win was quickly followed by a win on the road at SEMO, 75–66, to clinch the Racers third consecutive Ohio Valley Conference regular-season championship.
On February 18, Murray State hosted St. Mary's College in a much-anticipated Bracketbuster event, and the last home game of the season. The game was not only a sellout, but the largest ever for attendance at the CFSB center: 8,825. This marked the first time two ranked teams played at the CFSB Center  (Murray State No. 16 AP, No. 14 USA Today/ESPN; St. Mary's No. 21 AP, No. 16 USA Today/ESPN) and the first time a ranked Murray State team played another ranked team. The game also featured a national TV audience on ESPN with legendary announcers Dave O'Brien and Dick Vitale calling the action. Murray State never trailed in the game and defeated St. Mary's 65–51, improving its record to 26–1. As the historic 2011–12 season came to a close, the Murray State men's basketball program was the recipient of several high-profile awards. Coach Steve Prohm was named the Ohio Valley Conference Coach of the Year, which marked the third-consecutive year the award was presented to a Murray State head coach. Prohm also was recognized as the District-IV Coach of the Year by the United States Basketball Writers Association and District 19 Coach of the Year by the National Association of Basketball Coaches. Prohm also received two national coach of the year awards: the Basketball Times Coach of the Year Award and the Joe B. Hall National Coach of the Year Award. Junior point guard Isaiah Canaan was named OVC Player of the Year and Second Team All-America by the Associated Press, as well as selected to the John R. Wooden All-American team, Lute Olson All-America team, NABC All-America Third Team, and Sporting News All-America First Team. Canaan was a finalist for the John R. Wooden Award, Bob Cousy Award, Oscar Robertson Trophy, Lou Henson Award and to the Naismith College Player of the Year Midseason watch list.
On June 8, 2015, Prohm was announced as the new head coach at Iowa State. The Iowa State job had become open when Fred Hoiberg left to become head coach of the Chicago Bulls.


=== McMahon era (2015–2022) ===
On June 10, 2015, Matt McMahon was hired as head coach of Murray State. McMahon served as an assistant under Prohm and had just left the school to serve as an assistant to Eric Konkol at Louisiana Tech on May 27, 2015, before Prohm left for Iowa State. ""I am so excited to know that Coach McMahon will be returning to Murray State to lead the Racers,"" Murray State athletic director Allen Ward said. ""After watching him for four years, I'm convinced he's the right man for the job. He's an outstanding coach, nationally recognized as one of the top assistants in the country, with a tremendous upside. Matt has the talent and integrity to continue the momentum we've built, put his own stamp on the program, and meet the expectations that come with being the head coach at Murray State.""
In his first season as head coach, the Racers finished the season 17–14, 10–6 in OVC play to finish in a tie for the West Division title. They lost in the quarterfinals of the OVC tournament. However, the following year, the team's record dipped as they finished 16–17, 8–8 in OVC play to finish in third place in the West Division and losing in the semifinals of the OVC tournament.
McMahon's third Racer team posted a 26–6, 16–2 record, winning the OVC regular season and tournament championships. They were received a 12 seed in the 2018 NCAA tournament, where they fell in the first round to West Virginia. After the season, he was named National Association of Basketball Coaches District 19 Coach of the Year.
In June 2018, Murray State awarded McMahon a contract extension through 2022.
The 2018–19 season saw the Racers win 15 of their first 17 games, with the only losses to Southeastern Conference opponents Alabama and eventual Final Four participant Auburn, both on the road. By then, the nation had been introduced to sophomore point guard Ja Morant, who scored 25 points against Auburn and 38 against Alabama. The Racers went on to post a 16–2 OVC record and won the conference tournament championship over Belmont, 77–65, in Evansville, Indiana, earning a bid to the NCAA tournament for the 17th time. There, the Racers earned a No. 12 seed and defeated Marquette of the Big East Conference, 83–64, in Hartford, Connecticut, on March 21 behind a triple-double from Morant (17 points, 11 rebounds, 16 assists). Two days later, Murray State fell to No. 4 seed Florida State of the Atlantic Coast Conference, 90–62, finishing the season with a 28–5 record. After the season, Morant was named a consensus First Team All-American after becoming the first player in NCAA history to average at least 20 points and 10 assists per game (24.5 ppg, 10 apg).
The 2019–20 season saw the Racers go 22–8 in the regular season and finish tied with Belmont atop the OVC standings with a record of 15–3. Murray State earned a share of its third straight regular season OVC Championship, while Belmont earned the No. 1 seed due to a tie-breaker (having a better record against EIU than the Racers did). Sophomores Tevin Brown and KJ Williams were named to the All-OVC First Team prior to entering the 2020 OVC Tournament. The Racers and Belmont squared off in the OVC Championship finale for the third time in the last three years. Murray State won the previous two years but fell this season, 76–75. There was no postseason play forthcoming for the Racers—or anyone else in college basketball—due to the shutdown of spectator sports due to the COVID-19 pandemic that engulfed the world in 2020.
The Racers' final OVC season in 2021–22 saw the Racers go on an unprecedented run rarely seen in the program's history. Initially picked to finish 3rd in the conference, the Racers compiled a perfect 18–0 record in conference play, winning the regular season title for the 28th time in program history. During this stretch, the Racers would enter the Top 25 rankings for the first time since the 2014–15 season, reaching as high as No. 19. In addition, Brown would break the OVC record for most 3-point field goals made in a career. They would then go on to win both of their OVC tournament games; a dominant semi-final victory over SEMO and a back-and-forth thriller against defending tournament champion Morehead State in the championship game, to secure the program's 18th OVC tournament championship and an automatic bid to the NCAA tournament. Individually, Brown and Williams were once again named to the All-OVC First Team, being joined by sophomore Justice Hill. Williams was named OVC Player of the Year, while Hill was named the OVC tournament's Most Valuable Player. McMahon himself was named the OVC Coach of the year for his efforts. Earning a No. 7 seed, they defeated San Francisco in the first round of the NCAA tournament before a surprise loss to Saint Peter's in the second round. Two days after Murray's exit from the NCAA tournament, McMahon left to take the head coaching opening at LSU.


=== Second Prohm era (2022–2025) ===
On March 25, 2022, it was announced that Steve Prohm would return to the university as head coach. ""As we envisioned the ideal profile for the next Murray State Men's Basketball head coach, it remained abundantly clear a commitment to character, integrity, student-athlete development, community, family and competitive excellence were critically important,"" said Murray State Director of Athletics, Kevin Saal. ""Steve Prohm represents, reflects and personifies these, and many more, qualities. His skill set, experience and genuine love for Murray State will effectively guide our program as we begin our Missouri Valley Conference journey.""
On March 7, 2025, after a loss in the Missouri Valley Conference Tournament quarterfinals, it was reported by ESPN that Murray State had parted ways with Prohm after a 45–52 record in three seasons as head coach. The university confirmed the decision the following day.


== Season-by-season results ==
Starting from the 1987–88 season, the Racers had recorded a winning season for 29 straight years ending in the 2016–17 season.  They have won 20 or more games in a season 32 times and three times have won 30 or more.  For the first time in school history, the 2014–15 Racers went undefeated (16–0) in the OVC regular season. In their final OVC season in 2021–22, they posted an unprecedented 18–0 OVC regular-season record.

MsVC – Mississippi Valley Conference 
KIAC – Kentucky Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (now known as River States Conference)
SIAA – Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association 
NAIB – National Association for Intercollegiate Basketball
NAIA – National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (Was the NAIB until 1952, when it started sponsoring other sports) 
NIT – National Invitation Tournament 
NCAA – National Collegiate Athletic Association 
CIT – CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament


=== Rankings ===
The Racers have been nationally ranked in eight seasons in either the Associated Press (AP) Poll or the ESPN-USA Today (Coaches) Poll.  They were first ranked during the 1950–51 season coached by Harlan Hodges.  The Racers received their highest ranking, under coach Steve Prohm, during the 2011–12 season, ranking 9th in the AP Poll and 7th in the Coaches Poll.

The AP Poll and Coaches Poll rankings represent the highest rankings received during that season.


== Rivalries ==


=== Western Kentucky University ===
Murray State's oldest basketball rivalry is with nearby Western Kentucky (WKU).  The two teams became archrivals during their time together in the Ohio Valley Conference.  Although the schools no longer share their conference affiliation (Western Kentucky joined the Sun Belt Conference in 1982 and Conference USA in 2014), the two schools keep the series alive every few years. The teams last played each other in 2014. They are set to renew their rivalry beginning in 2023 as part of a 4-game annual series. The two teams have met in basketball 147 times, with WKU leading the all-time series 95 to 56.


=== Austin Peay State University (Battle of the Border) ===
For the rest of the Racers' OVC tenure, their primary in-conference rivalry was with Austin Peay State University, a school closer geographically than WKU. In February 2009, ESPN The Magazine highlighted the Austin Peay-Murray State rivalry. The men's basketball rivalry is part of the larger athletics rivalry between the two schools known as the Battle of the Border. While the schools no longer share their conference affiliation (both left the OVC in 2022, with Austin Peay joining the ASUN and Murray State joining the MVC), both teams have kept the series going. The two teams have met 135 times, with MSU leading the all-time series 90 to 45.


=== Belmont University ===
Recently, the Racers have been building a rivalry with Belmont University since the Bruins' entry into the OVC in 2012. From that year until both teams' departure from the OVC in 2022, Belmont and Murray State combined to win every regular season championship, including two seasons (2018–19 and 2019–20) where they shared the title. In three consecutive years (from 2018 to 2020), the Racers and Bruins met in the OVC Tournament finals, with Murray State winning in 2018 and 2019. With Belmont joining the MVC alongside Murray State, the rivalry will continue in that conference. The Bruins currently lead the all-time series 13 to 12.
Murray has two more built-in regional rivals in the MVC, with Southern Illinois about two hours' drive away and Evansville slightly farther away (and also located in a county whose residents pay Kentucky in-state tuition at Murray State).


== Coaches ==
The Racers have had 17 different head coaches in their history.  Carlisle Cutchin has the most wins in school history with 267.  Steve Newton has won the most OVC Regular Season titles with four. Newton and Matt McMahon share the most OVC Tournament titles with three apiece.  Eleven different coaches have received the OVC Coach of the Year award for a combined 17 times.


== Players ==


=== All-Americans ===
The Racers have had 14 All-Americans; the first in 1938 and the most recent in 2019.


=== NBA draftees ===
The Racers have had 25 players selected in the NBA draft, the first being Johnny Reagan by the Chicago Stags in 1948. Twice Murray State has had two players selected in the draft, in 1967 (Herb McPherson, San Diego [now Houston] Rockets, third round; Don Duncan, San Diego Rockets, 10th round) and 1971 (Hector Blondet, Portland Trail Blazers, fifth round; Ron Johnson, Baltimore Bullets [now Washington Wizards], ninth round). Here is a list of Racers picked in the draft that posted minutes in the NBA regular season:


=== Retired numbers ===

The Racers have retired 13 numbers, the first in 1952 and the last in 2023. The 13 retired numbers are the most of any NCAA Division I men's program, with Duke also having 13 retired numbers.


=== Scoring leaders ===

The Racers have had six players score over 2,000 points and 41 players score over 1,000 points during their careers.  Marcus Brown holds the record for the most points in a single game with 45 against Washington (Mo.) on December 16, 1995.  Jeff Martin holds the record for the most points in a single season with 806 during the 1987–88 season.


==== Career scoring leaders ====


== Postseason ==


=== NCAA tournament ===
The Racers have appeared in 18 NCAA tournaments.  They received their highest ranking in the tournament in 2012 with a 6th seed.  They have an overall 5–18 record in tournament games.  Popeye Jones holds the single game scoring record with 37 points against Michigan State in 1990.


=== National Invitation tournament ===
In eight National Invitation Tournament (NIT) appearances, the Racers are 4–8 overall in tournament games.


=== CollegeInsider.com Postseason tournament ===
The Racers appeared in the 2014 CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament (CIT). They posted a 5–0 record to be 2014 CIT champions.


=== NAIA tournament ===
The Racers appeared in the NAIA tournament seven times. Their combined record is 16–8.


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Bradley, Bill (2009). ESPN College Basketball Encyclopedia: The Complete History of the Men's Game. Random House.


== External links ==
Official website"
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Kingdom Hearts II is the third game in the Kingdom Hearts series, and takes place one year after the events of Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories. Sora, the protagonist of the first two games, returns to search for his lost friends while battling the sinister Organization XIII, a group of antagonists previously introduced in Chain of Memories. Like previous games, Kingdom Hearts II features a large cast of characters from Disney and Square Enix properties.
Concepts for Kingdom Hearts II began during the end of development of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix, with the game entering full development in 2003 and being announced at Tokyo Game Show 2003. Most of the first game's development team returned, including director Tetsuya Nomura, with the game being developed concurrently with Chain of Memories. In developing Kingdom Hearts II, the development team sought to address user feedback from the first game, give the player more freedom and options in combat and present a deeper and more mature plot.
The game was released to a very positive reaction from critics; earning several awards upon release. Reviewers praised the visuals, soundtrack, voice acting, and emotional weight, but assessments of the gameplay and narrative were mixed. In both Japan and North America, it shipped more than one million copies within weeks of its release, with over four million worldwide by April 2007. It has been cited as one of the greatest video games ever made.


== Gameplay ==

The gameplay of Kingdom Hearts II is similar to the action RPG and hack and slash gameplay of the first Kingdom Hearts game, though developers made an effort to address some of the complaints of no map and camera bugs with the previous game. The player directly controls Sora from a third-person camera angle, though first-person perspective is available via Select button. Most of the gameplay occurs on interconnected field maps where battles take place. The game is driven by a linear progression from one story event to the next, usually told via cutscenes, though there are numerous side-quests available that provide bonuses to characters.
Like many traditional role-playing video games, Kingdom Hearts II features an experience point system which determines character development. As enemies are defeated, the player and allies gain experience to ""level up"", allowing them to grow stronger and gain access to new abilities.
Combat in Kingdom Hearts II takes place in real-time and involves hack and slash elements with button presses which initiate attacks by the on-screen character. A role-playing game menu on the screen's bottom left, similar to those found in Final Fantasy games, provides other combat options, such as using magic or items, summoning beings to assist in battle, or executing combination attacks with other party members. A new feature is the ""Reaction Command"", special enemy-specific attacks that are triggered when the player presses the triangle button at the correct time during battle. Reaction Commands can be used to defeat regular enemies or avoid damage, and are sometimes necessary to complete a boss battle. In addition to the main character, two party members are usually present who also participate in combat. Although these characters are computer-controlled, the player is allowed to customize their behavior to a certain extent through the menu screen, such as attacking the same enemy Sora targets.
In response to criticism, the ""Gummi Ship"" feature of the first game was re-imagined to be ""more enjoyable"". Although retaining its basic purpose of travel, the system was completely redone to resemble a combination of rail shooter and ""Disney theme park ride"". In the world map, the player now controls the Gummi Ship from a top-down view to fly to the world they wish to enter. Worlds are no longer open from the beginning—the player must unlock the routes to them by entering a new level, controlling the ship from a third-person point of view, and battling enemy ships. After the route is opened, travel to the world is unimpeded, unless it is blocked again due to a plot-related event. The player may also gain new Gummi Ships from completing routes, which is also a new feature.


=== Drive Gauge ===
One of the new features is a meter known as the ""Drive Gauge"". which has two functions: to transform Sora into a ""Drive Form"" or to summon a special character. While in a Drive Form, Sora bonds with party members to become more powerful and acquire different attributes; all but two Forms also allow the use of two Keyblades. When a Drive is executed, Sora's combat statistics are heightened. Drive Forms also give Sora new abilities that can be used in normal form, called ""Growth Abilities"". Sora's first two Drive Forms only combine power with one party member; later-obtained Drive Forms require him to bond with both party members. When allies are used in a Drive, they are temporarily removed from battle for its duration. Unlike the HP and MP gauges, the Drive Gauge is not refilled at save points.
Like in the first game, Sora can summon a Disney character to aid him in battle. Summons will replace the two computer-controlled characters and fight alongside Sora for as long as the Drive Gauge allows, or until Sora's HP runs out. Instead of being limited to only one action, Summons now have a menu of their own and are capable of performing solo or cooperative actions with Sora, which are performed by pressing the triangle button. The Summon ability and each Drive Form are leveled up separately and by different criteria; obtaining higher levels allows for extended use and in the case of Drive Forms, access to new abilities.


== Plot ==


=== Setting ===

Kingdom Hearts II begins one year after the events of Kingdom Hearts and Chain of Memories. The game's setting is a collection of various levels (referred to in-game as ""worlds"") that the player progresses through. As in the first game, the player can travel to various Disney-based locales, along with original worlds specifically created for the series. While Disney-based worlds were primarily derived from the Disney animated features canon in the first game, Kingdom Hearts II introduces worlds that are based on live-action franchises, with Port Royal based on Pirates of the Caribbean. Each world varies in appearance and setting, depending on the Disney film on which it is based. The graphics of the world and characters are meant to resemble the artwork and style of the environments and characters from their respective Disney films. Each world is disconnected from the others and exists separately; with few exceptions, players travel from one world to another via a Gummi Ship.
Some worlds featured in the previous games reappear, but with new and expanded areas. New worlds are also introduced, with the Land of Dragons being based on Mulan, Beast's Castle on Beauty and the Beast, Timeless River on not only Steamboat Willie, but the Mickey Mouse film series, Port Royal on Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, Pride Lands on The Lion King, and Space Paranoids on Tron. Twilight Town, an original world first seen in Chain of Memories, has a greater role as the introductory world. The World That Never Was is a new world that serves as the headquarters of Organization XIII.


=== Characters ===

The three protagonists of the game are Sora, a 15-year-old boy chosen as a wielder of the Keyblade, a mystical key-shaped weapon that can combat darkness; Donald Duck, the court magician of Disney Castle; and Goofy, the captain of the Disney Castle guards. Both Donald and Goofy are under orders from their missing king, Mickey Mouse, to accompany Sora and his Keyblade. Other original characters include Riku, who is briefly playable at the game's climax, and Kairi, who are Sora's friends from his home world of Destiny Islands; Roxas, a boy who can also wield the Keyblade and is playable in the game's beginning sequence; Naminé, a girl with the power to manipulate memories; and DiZ, a man who wears red robes and has a vendetta against Organization XIII, and is later revealed to be Ansem the Wise, the mentor of Xehanort.
As in the previous games, characters from both Disney and Square Enix works appear. While some make a return from Kingdom Hearts, new characters from Disney fiction are also introduced, such as Scrooge McDuck and several characters from Disney films in their home worlds. Pete appears as a persistent enemy who works with the resurrected Maleficent. Nearly twenty characters from Final Fantasy games appear, notably Auron from Final Fantasy X, Squall Leonhart from Final Fantasy VIII, and Cloud Strife, Sephiroth, and Tifa Lockhart from Final Fantasy VII. It was stated that although the first game strictly stuck to characters Tetsuya Nomura designed, this time they were going to ""take some risks"", implying that characters not directly designed by Nomura might appear. Other new characters to the series are Vivi Ornitier from Final Fantasy IX, Seifer Almasy from Final Fantasy VIII, and Setzer Gabbiani from Final Fantasy VI.
The various worlds that Sora explores often have an optional party character from the film which the world is based on. These party members include Fa Mulan, a woman who passes as a man to take her ailing father's place in the army; Jack Sparrow, a pirate who seeks to reclaim his ship, the Black Pearl; Simba, a self-exiled lion and the rightful king of the Pride Lands; and Tron, a security program in Hollow Bastion's computer network who seeks to end the dictatorship of the Master Control Program.
Organization XIII, a group of powerful Nobodies—the ""empty shells"" left over when a strong-hearted person becomes a Heartless—introduced in Chain of Memories, is established as the primary group of antagonists early on. Xemnas, the leader of Organization XIII, serves as the main antagonist and final boss of the game. Villains unique to the worlds are prevalent, and are often presented as challenges that Sora's group must overcome.


=== Story ===
Sora, Donald, and Goofy have been asleep for the past year to regain their lost memories. Roxas, Sora's Nobody, is trapped in a virtual simulation of Twilight Town created by DiZ to merge him with his original self and restore Sora's power. DiZ's plans are threatened when Nobodies led by Axel, Roxas's former friend in Organization XIII, infiltrate the virtual town to extract Roxas. However, Roxas is able to repel the Nobodies and merge with Sora. Sora, Donald, and Goofy awaken in the real Twilight Town and meet King Mickey and Yen Sid, who send them on another journey to find Riku and uncover the Organization's plans. Afterward, Maleficent is resurrected and joins with Pete to continue her quest for power.
Sora travels to familiar and unfamiliar worlds and resolves problems caused by Organization XIII, the Heartless, and various local villains. During a visit to Hollow Bastion, they reunite with Mickey, who explains that the Heartless ""Ansem"" they defeated is an imposter named Xehanort, whose Nobody, Xemnas, is the Organization's leader. The Organization also reveal that they seek the power of Kingdom Hearts, seeking to create one from the hearts Sora has released from the Heartless with his Keyblade to regain their lost hearts; in addition, Sora discovers that the Organization is holding Kairi hostage to force him to comply. Sora revisits the worlds to solve lingering problems while seeking a path to Organization XIII's base of operations in the World That Never Was. Throughout his endeavors, Sora is secretly aided by a hooded figure whom he believes to be Riku.
Following a lead, Sora, Donald, and Goofy enter a passageway to the World That Never Was through Twilight Town, where Axel sacrifices himself to allow them to proceed. Sora finds Kairi and Riku, with the latter's appearance having been changed to that of Ansem after using his power to capture Roxas. Mickey encounters DiZ, who reveals himself to be the true Ansem, Xehanort's mentor. Ansem uses a device that dissipates some of Kingdom Hearts' power, but a system overload causes the device to self-destruct, engulfing Ansem and returning Riku to his original form. Atop the Castle That Never Was, Sora and company battle Xemnas, who uses what remains of Kingdom Hearts to fight them. After Sora and Riku destroy Xemnas, they become trapped in the realm of darkness. There, they discover a portal to the realm of light in a bottled letter sent by Kairi, allowing them to return to the Destiny Islands and reunite with their friends. In a post-credits scene, Sora, Kairi, and Riku receive and read a letter from Mickey, the contents of which are hidden from the player.


== Development ==
Development plans for Kingdom Hearts II began around the completion of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix, but specific details were undecided until July 2003. Nomura noted several obstacles to clear before development could begin on a sequel. One such obstacle was the development team's desire to showcase Mickey Mouse more, which required Disney's approval. The game was developed by Square Enix's Product Development Division 1, with most of the original staff from the first game. The game was originally supposed to have been released after Kingdom Hearts. Nomura had planned for the sequel to take place a year after the first and originally intended for the events of that year to be left unexplained. To bridge the gap between the two games, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories was developed. To explain the loss of all the abilities from the first game at the beginning of Kingdom Hearts II, Nomura had Sora's memories scrambled in Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories.

Many aspects of the gameplay were reworked for the sequel. Some changes were made due to user feedback and others were meant to be included in previous games but were omitted either because of time or technological constraints. The camera was switched to the right analog stick of the DualShock controller instead of the shoulder buttons and the Gummi Ship travel was reworked. The combat system was completely redone and did not use any animations from the first game. Because Sora had matured, Nomura wanted his fighting style to reflect that. Other changes included more integration between exploration and battles. The variations in combat styles associated with each Drive Form and the introduction of the Reaction Command were added to give players more choices in battles. The inclusion of worlds based on live-action Disney films was aided by technology that generated the character models from live-action pictures.


=== Audio ===


==== Musical score ====

Like the first game, Kingdom Hearts II features music by Yoko Shimomura and Hikaru Utada. The Original Soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts II was composed by Shimomura and released on January 25, 2006. The opening orchestration and ending credits theme were arranged and orchestrated by Kaoru Wada and performed by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra. The main vocal theme for the original Japanese release was ""Passion"", written and performed by Utada. The English version of ""Passion"", ""Sanctuary"", was used in the Western releases. Utada's involvement was announced on July 29, 2005. According to Nomura, the vocal theme ties in even more closely with the game's story than ""Hikari"" (""Simple and Clean"") did with Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories. The CD single for ""Passion"" was released on December 14, 2005, and ""Sanctuary"" was first previewed on MTV's official website in early 2006.


==== Voice cast ====
Kingdom Hearts II features well-known voice actors for both the Japanese and English versions. Many of the original voice actors from the first Kingdom Hearts reprised their roles; Miyu Irino and Haley Joel Osment as Sora, Mamoru Miyano and David Gallagher as Riku, and Risa Uchida and Hayden Panettiere as Kairi. New voice actors included Koki Uchiyama and Jesse McCartney as Roxas, Iku Nakahara and Brittany Snow as Naminé, and Genzō Wakayama and Christopher Lee as DiZ. A special effort was made to preserve the official voice actors from the Disney films used in Kingdom Hearts II. Many actors reprised their Disney roles for the game, including Ming-Na Wen as Mulan, James Woods as Hades, Bruce Boxleitner as Tron, Chris Sarandon as Jack Skellington, Angela Lansbury as Mrs. Potts, Kenneth Mars as King Triton, and Zach Braff as Chicken Little. Some voice actors from the related television series or direct-to-video sequels were chosen over original voice actors where applicable, such as Robert Costanzo as Philoctetes rather than Danny DeVito or Cam Clarke as Simba instead of Matthew Broderick. Some characters were given new voice actors in the English version; Ansem, Aerith Gainsborough, Squall Leonhart, Sephiroth, and Hercules, who were originally voiced by Billy Zane, Mandy Moore, David Boreanaz, Lance Bass, and Sean Astin respectively in the first game, were voiced by Richard Epcar, Mena Suvari, Doug Erholtz, George Newbern, and Tate Donovan (Hercules' original voice actor), and newcomer Tifa Lockhart was voiced by Rachael Leigh Cook.


=== Content editing ===

Besides English translation and localization, the international version of Kingdom Hearts II differs from the original Japanese version in the content of gameplay and several scenes. The Hydra boss in the Hercules-themed world Olympus Coliseum had its green blood from the original Japanese version (which was taken from the film) changed into black and purple smoke in the English version. In one cutscene, Hercules fights the Hydra and uses his sword on its head, which releases green blood from its mouth in the Japanese version; this was later changed into drool in the English version. There is also a scene in Disney Castle where, after chasing Donald around for missing a date, Daisy Duck pounds him on the backside in the Japanese version, whereas she merely tells him off inaudibly in the English version.
Xigbar's telescopic sight was changed from a crosshair and black shading around the sides to three glowing circles. An attack animation was also altered; in the Japanese version, Xigbar combines his two guns to create a sniper rifle, which is used to shoot the player's party during the telescoping sight sequence. In the English version, Xigbar does not combine his guns, but twirls them around and shoots at Sora with a single gun. The death of Organization XIII member Axel was slightly edited; in the original, he bursts into flames during his suicide attack, while in the English version he fades away after using up all of his power.
Port Royal, based on Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, contains the most content edits. Cutscenes were edited to remove some of the violence, such as Will Turner threatening to commit suicide while aiming a gun at his neck, as in the film. Unlike the Japanese version, the undead pirates do not catch fire when affected by Fire magic, and their muskets were modified to resemble crossbows, though the crossbows still fire with an audible musket shot sound effect.


=== Promotion ===
An unlockable trailer in Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts Final Mix hinted at the possibility of a sequel. Rumors for a sequel on the PlayStation 2 were spurred in Japan when the video game website Quiter stated that ""an internal (and anonymous source) at Square Japan"" confirmed that development of Kingdom Hearts II had begun. It was not until Kingdom Hearts II was announced, along with Chain of Memories, at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 that rumors were confirmed. Initial details were that it would take place some time after Chain of Memories, which takes place directly after the first game. Other details included the return of Sora, Donald, and Goofy, as well as new costumes. Information about Mickey Mouse's involvement was kept to a minimum.
At the 2004 Square Enix E3 Press conference, producer Shinji Hashimoto said that many mysteries of the first game would be answered. Square Enix launched the official Japanese website in May 2005, followed by the English website in December 2005. The websites featured videos and information regarding characters and worlds. Commercials were aired in Japan which highlighted the numerous Disney characters in the game. Although the game was announced in September 2003, a release date for the game was not set until two years later. Nomura admitted that the game was announced too early and information regarding the game was not released until a debut period was in sight.


== Release ==
Within a week of its Japanese release, Kingdom Hearts II shipped one million copies, selling almost 730,000 copies. The NPD Group reported that Kingdom Hearts II was the highest-selling console game in North America during March 2006 with 614,000 copies. In the month after its release in North America, Kingdom Hearts II sold an estimated one million copies. GameStop listed the game as their best-selling title for the first quarter of 2006. The game was also on IGN's ""Top 10 Sellers in 2006"". By December 2006, over 3.5 million copies of Kingdom Hearts II had been shipped worldwide with 700,000 in PAL regions, 1.1 million in Japan, and 1.7 million in North America. By March 31, 2007, Square Enix had shipped over 4 million units worldwide.


== Reception ==

Kingdom Hearts II was met with ""generally positive"" reviews upon release according to the review aggregator Metacritic.
Like its predecessors, the gameplay received mixed reviews. The refined combat system was praised, with the drive forms, limit breaks, and combos being said to add depth, variety, and excitement. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer called the combo potential ""divine"", claiming that it surpassed God of War's intensity. Carrie Gouskos of GameSpot and Luke Albiges of Eurogamer highlighted the game's accessibility, with Gouskos saying that the ease of customization allowed for both deep and shallow gameplay experiences, and Reiner noted the dynamic controls, which he said instilled confidence and comfort. Gouskos and IGN's Jeff Haynes criticized the combat's decreased difficulty, with Haynes remarking that the effectiveness of basic attacks sidelined offensive magic, and observed that the large amount of health orbs released by enemies during battle rendered healing items redundant. However, Gouskos regarded the approach to be an improvement upon the original game, which she felt derived difficulty from ""backtracking, tediousness, and confusion"". Louis Bedigian of GameZone also concluded that the game would not be challenging to players experienced with action RPGs from the SNES and PlayStation eras. Patrick Gann of RPGFan deemed the partner artificial intelligence to be superior to the first game, whereas Haynes denounced it as ""absolutely terrible"", attributing this to the omitted ability to issue AI commands.
The quick time events were a generally welcomed addition, with Albiges regarding their quality and impact to be on par with the knife fight scene in Resident Evil 4. Bedigian declared the game to be the first instance of quick time events being successfully implemented, and admired the resulting actions as ""some of the most beautiful polygon sequences seen on PlayStation 2"". While Russ Fischer of GameRevolution deemed their lenient mechanics compared to God of War to be a saving grace, he and Gann acknowledged that the lack of skill required for their execution may be a drawback for hardcore gamers. Bryan Intihar and Shane Bettenhausen of Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) spoke positively of the boss fights, with Bettenhausen saying that the quick time events enhanced their dynamic feeling. Eric Bratcher of GamesRadar+ was also excited by most of the boss battles, though considered a few of them ""straight-up lame"". Gouskos described the bosses as interesting and well conceived, but observed that the strategies for defeating them hardly differed from that of regular enemies.
Reviewers complimented the camera's increased responsiveness, which Haynes attributed to the altered control method from the shoulder buttons to the right thumbstick. Contrariwise, Gerald Villoria of GameSpy and Gann did not see any improvement, with Villoria occasionally struggling with forced and awkward camera positions. James Mielke (writing for EGM) and Gann dismissed the first-person mode as unhelpful, with Mielke warning that the inability to see Sora's Keyblade was disorienting.
The RPG elements were described as light, with Haynes calling them a ""casualty"" of the increased emphasis on combat; he remarked that items were ""practically useless"" due to a lack of need to use them in certain places as in the first game. Although Albiges considered the quality of the locales to be consistently high (singling out Port Royal for praise), others lamented the decreased size and increased linearity of the worlds, with Haynes particularly describing Halloween Town and Atlantica as ""shadows of their former selves"". While the assortment of minigames in the Hundred Acre Wood was said to be improved from the first game, the transition of Atlantica from an action set-piece to a series of rhythm minigames was derided. Bratcher and Gann were relieved by the absence of the scavenger hunt-type quests from the first game.
The Gummi Ship segments were widely agreed to be an improvement over those of the first game. Comparisons were drawn to Star Fox, Panzer Dragoon, Gradius, R-Type, Einhänder, and the recent works of Cave. Although Gouskos and PALGN's Phil Larsen acknowledged the improved execution, they were still overall unimpressed, though Larsen singled out the battle against a giant pirate ship as a highlight. Villoria considered the ship-building interface to have been greatly improved, whereas Fischer and Gann still found it obtuse and confusing.
The visuals were lauded, with Mielke and Albiges considering them among the PlayStation 2's best, and Villoria putting them on par with Square's best productions. The environmental renderings were praised, with special mention going to the Space Paranoids, Timeless River, and Port Royal worlds. The character models and animations were complimented; Villoria and Gann singled out the Pirates of the Caribbean characters for their realistic quality, and Gann declared the facial designs to be the best he had seen on the PlayStation 2. Haynes admired the main characters' changing appearance depending on the world they are visiting, and Villoria noted that the enemies were also visually adapted to their environments, which he said granted them personality. The full-motion videos were admired by Albiges, Gann, and Bedigian, and compared by Gann to those of Final Fantasy XII. Gann was also impressed by the special effects applied in the dream sequences during the prologue, and claimed to be impacted by the ""artistic flair that combined the binary/data/static effect with the heartfelt scenes from the first title"".
Reviewers praised the soundtrack, which Bedigian described as ""An impeccable, unforgettable mixture of classic Disney tracks and new Square Enix themes"". He added that despite the limited nostalgic value of the Disney tunes, they ""never get tiring, slightly repetitive, or seem out of place"". Gouskos remarked that the presence of some songs from The Little Mermaid were the redeeming quality of the Atlantica rhythm minigames, and she considered the music's infectiousness to be ""a tribute to how well the music was adapted and integrated into the gameplay"". Larsen only criticized some repetitiveness, but noted that the fast-paced action made this hardly noticeable. However, Villoria and Gann were less than impressed; Villoria felt that the soundtrack did not meet the high standard set by the first game, while Gann complained of the synth quality and recycled tracks from the first game. Gann considered the live orchestral and piano recordings to be the best tracks. Mielke (writing for 1Up.com) and Larsen spoke positively of the theme song ""Sanctuary"", with Mielke calling it ""a sublime contribution that grows with each listen"" and Larsen deeming it to ""have been perfectly crafted to both set and build from the atmosphere of the game"". Gann, however, faulted what he perceived to be a rushed localization from the equivalent Japanese track ""Passion"". He elaborated that ""Full harmonic backup parts have been cut, and Utada's stand-alone melody sounds flat in English. She stretches syllables to make up for the bouncy melody of the very syllabic Japanese version"".
The voice acting was generally commended for its quality and the prestige of its cast. Christopher Lee's presence in particular was singled out as commanding and show-stealing. Gouskos determined the overall voice acting quality to be excellent, saying that the use of lines from the original Disney films enhanced the sense of immersion, although she identified ""one or two bad apples among the bunch"", describing Jasmine as ""screechy"". Additionally, she noted that the Square characters were not given an equal level of treatment to the Disney characters; she deplored the ""aloof"" dialogue for the Square characters, singling out an instance in which Final Fantasy VIII antagonist Seifer declares ""We totally owned you lamers!"". Larsen praised the voice actors' effort, but said that the cutscenes felt longer than they are due to the timing of the spoken dialogue. Haynes felt that many lines fell flat and the incorporation of film dialogue was awkward. Mielke and Bratcher respectively deemed Mena Suvari's performance as Aerith ""pretty dry"" and ""all wrong"". The absence of the actors from Pirates of the Caribbean was a source of disappointment, with EGM describing the sound-alike actor for Jack Sparrow as ""iffy at best"".
Responses to the narrative were varied, with some reviewers cautioning that the plot would be confusing to those who had not played the previous games. Haynes, however, assured that the Journal feature provided sufficient context, and added that it had been improved from the first game. Proponents of the story include Intihar, Bedigian, and Gann, with Bedigian declaring that the game ""should be the benchmark of RPG storytelling"". Villoria and Gann said that the frequent cameos were well-handled, and pointed out that the inclusion of Square characters not created by Nomura was an interesting risk, though Mielke occasionally felt that the cameos were excessive. Gann considered the plot to be more cohesive than that of the first, as the Disney worlds held more relevance to the story. Reiner promised that the story would ""give you shivers and make your heart leap"" despite not being as powerful as the first game. Mielke complimented Nomura's ""eye for epic drama"" previously observed in Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children, which he said ""touches you where games like, say, God of War never will"". Gouskos said that the interactions with the frequently changing cast of characters made up for the game's lack of challenge. Bettenhausen faulted what he perceived to be a clumsy blend of the serious Square-style narrative and whimsical Disney worlds. Larsen deemed several lines and scenes unnecessary, and noted a tendency of the characters' more serious speeches to take on an obscure ""Matrix sequel-esque"" quality. Fischer, likening the general plot to ""a long episode of Quantum Leap with permanent guest stars Donald and Goofy"", described the storyline as linear and somewhat nonsensical, but ""endearing and twisty"" enough to hold players' attention. Bettenhausen and GamePro's Bones regarded the prologue as dull and slow, though Reiner lauded its ""devilish"" plot twist for potentially casting doubt on a desire for Sora's return. Reiner and Fischer were disappointed by the amount of recycled Disney content from the first game; Reiner, describing most of the Disney-based conflicts as ""tacked on"" diversions, suggested that Disney restricted Square Enix's ability to create new content.


=== Awards and accolades ===
The game received numerous awards, including a Satellite Award in 2006 for ""Outstanding Game Based on Existing Medium"". It tied with Resident Evil 4 as Famitsu's ""Game of the Year"" 2005. Famitsu's readers ranked the game 29th on their ""All Time Top 100"" feature, ten places below Kingdom Hearts. It was ranked number one on IGN's 2006 ""Reader's Choice"" for PlayStation 2 games. Eurogamer ranked it 34th on their ""Top 50 Games of 2006"" list. Video game magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded it ""Best Sequel"" of 2006, and Game Informer listed it among the ""Top 50 games of 2006"". VideoGamer.com featured it 10th in their article ""Top 10: Role playing games"". GamePro named it the 25th best RPG title of all time. Kingdom Hearts II also received a near-perfect score, 39/40, from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu. G4 awarded Kingdom Hearts II ""Best Voice Over"" and ""Best Soundtrack"" in their 2006 G-Phoria awards show.
The game was ranked the 16th greatest console video game of all time in a 2021 Japanese poll conducted by TV Asahi which surveyed over 50,000 respondents.


== Versions and merchandise ==

Kingdom Hearts II has been released in four different versions. The first three are the normal regional releases in Japan, North America, and PAL regions, which only differ nominally in content editing and localization. The European and Australian PAL releases were reformatted to run at 50 Hz to fit the definition size of PAL encoding systems. The fourth version has additional content and was released under the title Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix. Like the previous titles, both Square and Disney released numerous types of merchandise before and after the game came out. Merchandise ranged from toys and figurines to clothing items and books. The game has also been adapted into both manga and novel series. Prior to the game's release, an Ultimania book titled Kingdom Hearts Series Ultimania α ~Introduction of Kingdom Hearts II~ came out. It provides extended information on the first two Kingdom Hearts games, as well as information on the unreleased Kingdom Hearts II. After the release of the game, Kingdom Hearts II Ultimania, which focuses on the game itself, came out. Another book, titled Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ Ultimania, was released after the Final Mix version came out. Released along with Final Mix, Kingdom Hearts -Another Report- was a hardback book which includes game information, visuals by Shiro Amano, and a director interview. In North America, BradyGames published two strategy guides—a standard guide and a limited edition version. The latter version was available in four different covers and included a copy of Jiminy's Journal along with 400 stickers.


=== Final Mix ===
Because the first game was re-released, there was speculation whether Tetsuya Nomura would do the same with Kingdom Hearts II. In a Weekly Shōnen Jump interview with Nomura, he expressed interest in a possible international version of Kingdom Hearts II, although there were no definite plans. He said that should a ""Final Mix"" version arise, he had a ""trump card"" in mind, with such features as the Mushroom Heartless found in the first Kingdom Hearts game. In September 2006, Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix, featuring new scenes and gameplay elements. Like the first re-release, this version would combine English audio with Japanese text and also use the ""Sanctuary"" theme song instead of ""Passion"". New cutscenes, however, used Japanese voice acting, as they mostly featured Organization XIII members from Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories who did not yet have English voice actors; these scenes were later re-dubbed into English for the HD 2.5 Remix release.
Kingdom Hearts II was re-released in Japan on March 29, 2007 as a 2-disc set titled Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+. The first disc contains Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix with a new secret movie and additional battles and items. The second disc contains Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories, a 3D PlayStation 2 remake of Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories with extra scenes and voice acting. The battle system maintains the card gameplay, with the addition of Reaction Commands from Kingdom Hearts II. Like the first game's Final Mix, the two games serve as a canonical update to the series. The book Kingdom Hearts -Another Report- was included along with the game for those who reserved a copy. Based on Amazon.com figures, Final Mix+ was the number one PlayStation 2 game in sales during the week of its release in Japan. Nomura cited the presence of Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories to explain why Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ was so popular. Nevertheless, in a Famitsu poll in July 2011, Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix was voted the most popular entry so far.
It was released for the first time outside Japan as part of Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix.


=== Printed adaptations ===
A manga series based on the game started its serialization in the June 2006 issue of the magazine Monthly Shōnen Gangan, published by Square Enix. The artist is Shiro Amano, who also did the Kingdom Hearts and Chain of Memories manga series. The first volume was released in Japan in December 2006. As a result of Amano working in the Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days manga, the series has been on hiatus and resumed publication in October 2012. Tokyopop licensed the manga and released volume one in North America on July 3, 2007. The second volume was released the following year.
The game has also been novelized by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano. The first volume, titled ""Roxas—Seven Days"", was released on April 22, 2006 and covers Roxas' story to when Sora wakes up and leaves Twilight Town. The novel depicts extra scenes that were added in the Final Mix version, such as interaction between Organization XIII members and between Axel, Naminé, and Riku. The second book, ""The Destruction of Hollow Bastion"", was released on July 16, 2006, the third book, ""Tears of Nobody"", revolving around Roxas' past, was released on September 29, 2006, and the fourth book, ""Anthem—Meet Again/Axel Last Stand"", came out in February 2007.


=== HD 2.5 Remix ===

In the credits of HD 1.5 Remix, clips of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix were shown, hinting at its inclusion in another collection. On October 14, 2013, Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix, a second compilation exclusively for the PlayStation 3 after HD 1.5 Remix, that includes both Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix in HD and trophy support. Additionally, the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from Kingdom Hearts Re:coded and was released in Japan on October 2, 2014, North America on December 2, 2014, Australia on December 4, 2014, and Europe on December 5, 2014.


== See also ==
List of Disney video games


== Notes ==


== References ==


== External links ==

Kingdom Hearts II official website (in Japanese)
Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ official website (in Japanese)
Kingdom Hearts II official website (in English)
Kingdom Hearts II at IMDb"
Corinne Rey-Bellet,"Corinne Rey-Bellet (2 August 1972 – 30 April 2006) was a Swiss alpine skier. Rey-Bellet shared a World Championship silver medal in the downhill event in St. Moritz in 2003 (tying with Alexandra Meissnitzer) and won a total of five World Cup races, three downhill and two super-G. Her double win at St Anton am Arlberg on 16 January 1999 is the first and only double win on the same day in the women's Alpine World Cup. She retired in 2003 due to a series of injuries sustained to her right knee. 
On 30 April 2006, her husband Gerold Stadler murdered her and her brother, shortly after she separated from him. He killed himself two days later. Her murder attracted a significant amount of public attention and resulted in increased political and institutional pressure to fight domestic violence, and influenced the debate on changing Swiss gun laws. Stadler was a captain in the Swiss Armed Forces, and used his service pistol in her murder; following her death, rules were changed to prohibit the keeping of military ammunition by soldiers at home. In 2021, Rey-Bellet was honored by the Swiss government as part of the Hommage 2021 project to honor women significant to Swiss history.


== Early life ==
Rey-Bellet was born 2 August 1972 in Les Crosets in Valais, Switzerland, to Adrien ""Le Sheriff"" Rey-Bellet and Verena Rey-Bellet. She had a brother, Alain, two years her junior. Rey-Bellet was bilingual in French and German as her mother was from German-speaking Basel. Her father's family were locally influential and powerful landowners who at times had harsh conflicts with their neighbors over their wealth. 
She grew up skiing, developing an interest in it from her early childhood. She took college classes in Martigny in economics, though attended few in her first year, instead preferring to ski.


== Career ==
The disciplines Rey-Bellet competed in were the downhill, super-G, and the giant slalom. Her first professional skiing was in winter 1989 at the giant slalom in Veysonnaz. She won a total of five World Cup races from 1992 to 2003. She placed 17th in the women's giant slalom at the 1992 Winter Olympics. She placed third in the giant slalom race at Crans-Montana in the 1991–92 season, which was her only podium placement until 1999.
Her career was marked by repeated injuries. In 1992, Rey-Bellet injured her shoulder; the following year she tore her meniscus; and in 1996 she tore a cruciate ligament in her right knee after a severe fall. She underwent surgery for the last injury and had to take an eight-month break. Due to previous disappointments, she was at times derisively called ""the eternal talent"". While previously viewed as having potential and placed under much pressure, called the new Vreni Schneider, the fact she did not win any World Cup races between 1992 and 1996 resulted in disappointment, and she was abandoned by her sponsor.
On 16 January 1999, Rey-Bellet won two races, the downhill and the super-G three hours later in the World Cup at St Anton am Arlberg. She won with a lead of 19 hundredths of a second over the second-place racer Michaela Dorfmeister. This was the first time a woman had won two races on one day in the alpine skiing World Cup, and is the only time to date. The only male skier to have done the same was the Frenchman Luc Alphand in 1995. She dedicated the win to her psychologist, her family, her boyfriend, and to herself.
She had little success in races shortly after this; she said later that year that ""I want to win, but that doesn't change my new philosophy. I ski for myself, for my pleasure. I don't owe anything to anyone."" In 2000, the Swiss newspaper Le Temps described her as one of the most consistent of the Swiss skiing team. On 15 January 2000, she won the downhill race at Altenmarkt in the 1999–2000 World Cup, beating the next racer, Regina Häusl, by 15 hundredths of a second. At the 2000–01 World Cup, she came second in the giant slalom at Semmering, third at Lake Louise in the downhill and in the Aspen super-G in 2001. She came first place at Åre in the super-G, and reached the podium in three of the other events. On 2 March 2002, she placed first in the World Cup in the downhill race at Lenzerheide.  
On 9 February 2003, she won a silver medal in the downhill at the World Skiing Championship in St. Moritz, in the downhill event. She shared the medal with Austrian skier Alexandra Meissnitzer, both tying at 1:34.41 seconds. She retired later that year to start a family, becoming a stay-at-home mother. Her retirement was also due to her knee injuries, as she had developed osteoarthritis.


== Personal life ==
Rey-Bellet underwent kinesiology treatments (an alternative medicine) to help her regain movement in her knee following her 1996 injury, which she believed helped her recovery. While competing, she used alternative medicine treatments, including acupuncture and homeopathy, to treat allergies, to the chagrin of her skiing team's doctors. Following her usage of kinesiology treatments to recover from her injuries, she became passionate about it and began practicing it at home. In 2001, she worked with a naturopath and psychologist, whom she credited with improving her mental health.   
In 1998 she was engaged to a man named Martin five years her senior, whom she had known for five years. They were still engaged in January 2001. By October 2001, she was dating Gerold ""Gery"" Stadler, a private banker for Credit Suisse and captain in the Swiss Armed Forces. They married 4 May 2002. Stadler was from Abtwil in the Canton of Aargau, and was bilingual. They met as part of a financial monitoring program from Credit Suisse for prominent Swiss athletes. Stadler asked to marry her shortly after they met. Associates of Stadler described him as working ""like a madman"" and he was highly successful within the company. Stadler disliked her interest in alternative medicine. In 2004, six months after her retirement, they had a son, living together in Abtwil. Rey-Bellet co-founded Mube (mein|unser Beruf Eltern), a local parents' association. She told L'Illustré magazine in 2004 that she had always wanted to be a mother, and said that Stadler was now the main provider.  
While she presented to the public and media a very happy marriage, giving several happy interviews, those that knew them thought she was lonely and that they were having marital problems. According to the pastor who married them, she told him that she was attempting to fix their marriage; Stadler refused to speak of it to anyone and kept up ""a facade"". Another who knew Rey-Bellet said she felt disconnected in German-speaking Switzerland, and that she had told her she wanted to ""finally be loved as a woman and a mother, not as a ski champion"", and said that Stadler was ""very ambitious"". Another said that he had used her career for his own advancement. Stadler became physically abusive, which resulted in her needing to be taken to the hospital on several occasions. Stadler's family claimed that he had assaulted her once, after which he had confessed to them and her parents, and that afterwards they had received couples' therapy with Stadler also receiving individual therapy. She became pregnant again after this incident.


== Murder ==
In mid-April 2006, the separation of Rey-Bellet and Stadler was officiated before a St. Gallen lawyer. That month, she moved out of Abtwil and back to Les Crosets with her parents, to ""get some perspective"" on their relationship. Their son was left with Stadler. Ten days later, on 30 April 2006, Stadler murdered Rey-Bellet in her parents' home. 
On 30 April, Stadler brought their son home to Les Crosets and put him to bed upstairs. Afterwards, Stadler and Rey-Bellet went downstairs at 9:30 and had a conversation about their separation. Both of Rey-Bellet's parents were home at the time, as was her brother, Alain. Her father left shortly after the conversation started, to repair a household appliance. Shortly after her father left, Stadler opened fire, killing Rey-Bellet and Alain, and seriously injuring her mother. According to Rey-Bellet's mother, he took his gun out from under a towel and opened fire without saying anything. Her mother was left disabled without use of her arm, having been shot five times. The shootings happened in the middle of the home, above the bar. Rey-Bellet was three months pregnant. Her brother Alain was to be married 5 May.
Stadler used his service pistol, which all Swiss men under the age of 42 are issued, in the killing. Their son was left unharmed. Witnesses saw Stadler leaving with a gun, before he fled the scene by car. A police officer saw him shortly after, resulting in a high speed chase, but he escaped. A warrant was issued for his arrest, resulting in an extensive manhunt. Search dogs were deployed, as was a military helicopter using thermal imaging. His car was recovered in a forest in Huémoz near Ollon in the Vaud canton, 20 kilometres (12 mi) away from the location of the murders, abandoned with an empty magazine inside. Stadler's body was found about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) away from his car, by a walker on 3 May. He had killed himself using his military service weapon. The crime was found to be premeditated, with Stadler leaving two notes, one addressed to his parents and the other to his employer. In the note to his parents he asked his parents to raise their son. In both notes he stated the crime he was going to commit and why.


== Legacy ==
Rey-Bellet's murder was widely publicized, and attracted a large amount of public and media attention nationally, with many trying to understand what had led to the murder. The media presented it as a crime of passion or an act of madness, in contradiction to the processes that typically lead to family murders. The funeral for Rey-Bellet and her brother took place on 5 May, attended by many members of Europe's skiing fraternity. Many local businesses in the valley closed the day of their funeral.
Rey-Bellet was a celebrity and the murder had happened in what was viewed as a ""perfect Swiss family"". This resulted in increased political and institutional pressure to fight domestic violence. The case also influenced the debate on changing Swiss gun laws, with a popular initiative for reform forming in the aftermath, particularly spearheaded by the women's magazine Annabelle. The magazine launched a petition, which gained 17,400 signatures, for the removal of military weapons from homes. Switzerland was then noted to have a high rate of family murders, with a contemporary study putting 58% of all murders as family-related, compared to 29% for the Netherlands. At the time, Switzerland had a very high rate of suicide amongst young males, and more familicides than the United States.  
After her murder, in 2007, rules were changed banning the storage of military ammunition by soldiers at home instead of in arsenals. The vast majority of Switzerland's soldiers did not keep their ammunition at home prior to this change, with only a few thousand doing so. An additional change was instituted, with soldiers of the army also able to keep their weapons at a central register, instead of guns being mandatory to keep at home. This law change was disputed by anti-gun activists, who argued it was ineffective as it only applied to soldiers, not civilian gun owners. A previous gun debate had resulted from the 2001 Zug massacre, in which 14 people were murdered. Following both the Zug massacre and Rey-Bellet and her brother's murders, in 2011 a referendum was held on instituting stricter firearms laws, which would have entirely banned military weapons from private homes. It failed after it was voted against by 56% of the population.
Her son, orphaned in the shootings, was placed with a related foster family by the authorities of St. Gallen. This followed several high-profile custody controversies between the families on both sides, and following the placement several visitation controversies resulted. 
Fifteen years after her murder, the Swiss government honored Rey-Bellet as part of the Hommage 2021 project, which honors women significant to the history of Switzerland. It was created in response to the 50th anniversary of the achievement of women's suffrage in Switzerland. They described her as, in addition to being a champion, ""one of too many women victims of domestic violence and femicide in Switzerland. She embodies both female success and the worst injustices suffered by women."" As part of the project, a portrait of Rey-Bellet was to be projected onto the exterior of the Berner Kantonalbank and onto the Swiss National Bank in August 2021.


== References ==


== External links ==
Corinne Rey-Bellet at FIS (alpine)
Corinne Rey-Bellet at Olympics.com
Corinne Rey-Bellet at Olympedia
Official website (archived)"
Mihail Leshtarski,"Mihail Tsvetanov Leshtarski (Bulgarian: Михаил Цветанов Лещарски; born 1959), known as The Killer from the Cave (Bulgarian: Убиецът от пещерата), is a Bulgarian thief, robber, murderer and suspected serial killer. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of 59-year-old Elena Tomova in Vlado Trichkov, and is suspected of murdering at least four other pensioners from 2009 to 2011.


== Biography ==


=== Early life ===
Mihail Leshtarski was born in 1959 in the village of Tsarevets as one of two children. His father Tsvetan was a wealthy shopkeeper, but a very aggressive and nervous man, while his mother was a housekeeper. Mihail Leshtarski was an unruly child, and in order to discipline him, his father would chain him to the family bed and put food just out of reach, starving his young son, with his mother never trying to protect or even interact at all with him. His father would even chain him to the family car and drive around the yard, and beat him with a motor cord until his skin turned blue. He studied up to the 8th grade, but didn't finish his education, and was continuously incarcerated for various robberies throughout the rest of his life, during some of which he was also abused and even gang raped by some of the inmates. In order to evade beatings by his father, the young Leshtarski would go out at night stealing and robbing people. Eventually, at 15 or 16 years old, he was called for mandatory service in the army, and began visiting the village only from time to time.
One day, Leshtarski had to return to his regiment following a short break, with his father offering to drive him and his mother to the nearby village in the family's newly bought Moskvitch. From there, Leshtarski would catch a train to Roman. However, shortly after they took off, his father, who had drunk heavily, got into a car crash. Although Leshtarski was unscathed, his father had had his legs broken and his mother suffered a heavy concussion, allegedly causing her mental health issues. According to Leshtarski, she would be in the kitchen cooking and when the cat would jump on the table, she would drag along the cat's fur before putting it back into the pot, and even burned down some of the family's sheep pens. His mother would eventually accuse him of raping her, for which Leshtarski was sentenced to 18 years imprisonment.
During his stay in prison, he was regularly visited by his brother, who'd often ask him for money to buy various house appliances. One of the women in the facility also taught Leshtarski how to do donations, in order to have his sentence reduced. Shortly after his incarceration, his mother suffered from a stroke and stopped talking. Leshtarski was described as an ""excellent prisoner, bad citizen"", and after 12 years behind bars, he was released in 2005. According to him, his father then told him that his mother had started talking again soon after seeing him.
After this, Leshtarski resumed with stealing and robbing rich people, being incarcerated and released at various times. He had bought off an underage Romani prostitute to have as a live-in girlfriend, but the girl later abandoned him, hurting him deeply. From 2005 to 2008, he worked in hotel complex ""Chaika"" in Vratsa as a worker. He was described as a good, hard-working employee, but one day, just after his probation period had ended, he went berserk, breaking all of the company cars' and trucks' windows before fleeing. Feeling that he couldn't fit into normal society, Leshtarski began living in caves around the mountain range, surviving by eating 3-4 spoonfuls of honey every day and hunting animals with a self-made bow, with some reports claiming that he had eaten live bats. He was also a skilled climber who scaled his way to most of his hideouts and even during his later confessions, he claimed that he could walk 30 kilometers to the seaside in the span of several days.
For a span of four months, he hid in the house of former cellmate Stoyan Mladenov in Dolna Kremena, threatening to kill the man and his family if they ratted him out. Leshtarski slept in their attic, making a hole in the walls to see what's going on downstairs. He'd disappear for 4-5 days, leaving his hideout by climbing out the roof. On one occasion, he attacked Mladenov with a stool, and even raped his wife.


=== Murder of Elena Tomova ===
On August 27, 2009, Elena Tomova, a 59-year-old woman who lived with her daughter and her husband in Sofia and often visited her renewed villa in Vlado Trichkov, noticed that somebody had been in her house and had slept in her bed. The woman even found a hunter's hat lying around, but none of the more expensive items were touched. Tomova contemplated calling the police, but decided that it's no use and abandoned the idea, instead wondering if she should remain in the villa or return to Sofia. As the villa was a bit farther away from other homes, Tomova had decided to get her axe and place it nearby. She then went off to collect wild berries, later asking her neighbor if she could stay at her house, but the latter denied, as she had visitors. Soon after, while trying to read a book, she heard somebody open the wooden gate. That somebody turned out to be Leshtarski – scruffy, with a long, graying and bushy beard.
The day before, Leshtarski had boarded a train from Mezdra to Sofia and landed in Vlado Trichkov, where he then proceeded to wander around the hillside, sleeping in abandoned houses without doors or windows before continuing to drift along. He eventually reached Tomova's house, entering through a broken window from the back side, and began looking for food and water. Leshtarski found and drank a bottle of gin, and then ate some canned mushrooms and cucumbers before deciding to leave. He then returned a few hours later to check if anybody was home, noticing that Tomova was there – a plump woman, 160 cm tall, blond hair, wearing a dress, a vest and some slippers.
After noticing him, he asked Tomova for some food, after which the good-natured woman gave him two slices of bread. Leshtarski confessed that he intended to sleep in the house, before asking to make himself an omelette, to which Tomova agreed. While he was baking the eggs, Tomova phoned her daughter Zornitsa, telling her that there was a man in the house and that her father was sleeping in the adjoining room (which was a lie, as she had been divorced for 10 years, and visited the villa alone). After offering Leshtarski to go outside for a smoke, the two returned to the room, where Tomova, who was a Jehovah's witness, started lecturing him about the Bible and God. Upon hearing this, Leshtarski got agitated, telling her that she reminded him of his mother.
The two got into a quarrel, with the enraged Leshtarski pushing Tomova off her chair. Tomova had grabbed the axe and tried to defend herself, but she was overwhelmed. Leshtarski then pushed her onto the bed, intending to rape her while choking Tomova with his hands. When he let her go, she did not move anymore. Supposedly, Leshtarski then sat on the bed and started crying, and after some time, he lowered his victim's clothes to her spine, before taking a knife and carving a cross on her forehead. He then took a metal spatula and severed her left breast, leaving it under the bed, put the sheets and the Bible over the deceased, grabbed the bottle of gin and left.
On August 28, her daughter Zornitsa rang on Tomova's telephone, but nobody answered. She called her mother several times and on the following day, along with her husband and son, traveled to the villa. The husband found the corpse and immediately called the police. The police conducted a search on the entire area, checking twice, but after months, the investigation into Tomova's death was called off.


== Capture, trial and sentence ==
The investigators worked on the case for two years, examining witness testimonies, pictures and the victim's background. They determined that the killer would be over 35, male, Bulgarian, with a basic education, with no permanent job, without a family. He would also be knowledgeable of the area, sexually immature, have a hatred towards women due to a tragic past, unable to have a social or sexual contact with the opposite sex. That profile fitted Leshtarski near perfectly.
On February 22, 2011, Mihail Leshtarski was captured in a cave near Mezdra on suspicion of committing robberies and taken to the court, where he readily confessed to murdering Tomova, but later recanted his confession, claiming he was mistreated by the police and that he wasn't hiding from them due to killing Tomova, and that he was instead doing because he was filmed by a camera stealing heroin from a rich woman. Nevertheless, on September 29, 2011, he was given two life sentences by the court, and is currently serving in Sofia Central Prison.


== Suspected murders ==
Leshtarski is suspected by authorities to have committed at least four other murders in the Vratsa and Montana provinces. Although no details about the latter murders are available, the former suspected murders are that of Yordan Yolov and Vladimir Toshovski. The 82-year-old and half-blind Yolov was beaten to death at his home in Staro Selo in January 2011, not far from where Leshtarski was hiding after killing Tomova, after which he was robbed. The following month, the 75-year-old Toshovski was also robbed at his home in Gorna Kremena, and when he only tried to give half of his pension to the killer, he was also beaten to death in a rage.
Aside from these, another similar murder that occurred in the capital is also thought to be Leshtarski's doing: the July 2007 killing of 59-year-old Mariana Dandova, who was also found strangled and with her breast cut off by a knife. Her body was found in a place frequented by a lot of prostitutes, but there were no witnesses to the crime. It was initially thought that, due to wild dogs having torn apart the rest of the corpse, she had been attacked by the rabid beings, but it was later determined that this was not the case. Leshtarski might have also had a motive here – the woman resembled the prostitute which had abandoned him years ago.
There is also a possibility for even more murders, as murders of elderly people have been reported around the country. The fact that while searching through his cave police found 12 pairs of glasses, possibly means that for the period that he was hiding out in the mountain range and travelled to the seaside, Leshtarski might have murdered more people living in remote villages.


== Aftermath ==
Leshtarski continues to deny any of the murders attributed to him, claiming that the police have framed him and that the real killer is out there. He has taken a huge dislike to his portrayal in the media, and in 2016, he claimed that when he gets out, he'd skin alive at least five people.
In 2020, during an interview with psychologist Todor Todorov recorded on the Bulgarian show No Man's Land, Leshtarski admitted to two further murders: his very first killing, which occurred in his native Tsarevets in 1999, when he got drunk and beat to death a female neighbor without any reason; he also confessed to killing a midwife whose death was erroneously attributed to heart problems, but refused to divulge the date or location of the crime. In response to his claims, prosecutors have indicated that they would investigate the claims and bring new charges if enough evidence is gathered.


== See also ==
List of serial killers by country


== References ==


== External links ==
Interview with Lead Investigator on the Leshtarski case (in Bulgarian)
Follow-up interview with Svetoslav Petkov, from the University of Psychology (in Bulgarian)
""Natural Born Killers"" Interview with Leshtarski (in Bulgarian)"
Jesus in Ahmadiyya,"Ahmadiyya Muslims consider Jesus (ʿĪsā) as a mortal man, entirely human, and a prophet of God born to the Virgin Mary (Maryam). Jesus is understood to have survived the crucifixion based on the account of the canonical Gospels, the Qurʾān, hadith literature, and revelations (waḥy and kašf) to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. Having delivered his message to the Israelites in Judea, Jesus is understood to have emigrated eastward to escape persecution from Judea and to have further spread his message to the Lost Tribes of Israel. Ahmadi Muslims accept that Jesus died a natural death in India. Jesus lived to old age and later died in Srinagar, Kashmir, and his tomb is presently located at the Roza Bal shrine.
Although sharing many similarities with the other Islamic views of Jesus, the Ahmadiyya teachings are distinct from the beliefs held by most mainstream Muslims, who deny the crucifixion of Jesus and believe that he ascended bodily to heaven, and will, according to Islamic literary sources, return before the end of time.
Ahmadis believe the prophecies surrounding the second advent of the messiah Jesus were fulfilled in the likeness and personality of Mīrzā G̲h̲ulām Aḥmad, who initiated the foundation of the Ahmadiyya movement.


== Overview ==
According to Ahmadiyya beliefs, a literal interpretation of the miracles performed by ʿĪsā (Jesus) in the Qurʾān (such as creating birds and bringing back the dead to life) is inconsistent with the Quran and attributes a semi-divine status to Jesus. This understanding is replaced with a hermeneutic interpretation of the Qurʾānic verses on account of these miracles. For example, Jesus bringing the dead back to life is understood in the context of bringing back a 'spiritual life' to people who were spiritually dead.
Ahmadi scholars regard the contemporary Islamic interpretations relating to the Second Coming of Jesus (see Ahmadi prophetology) are inaccurate. Ahmadis believe that the expected return of an Israelite prophet after the Islamic prophet Muhammad contravenes the finality of Muhammad's prophethood. Traditional Muslims, however, hold the view that in his second coming - Jesus son of Mary will come as ""just ruler"" rather than in a prophetic capacity.
The ḥadīth prophecies of Jesus are understood in the Ahmadiyya view to be interchangeably linked with the prophecies of the coming of the Mahdi. Ahmadiyya believes that both the terms, Jesus Son of Mary and Mahdi (as used in Islamic hadith and eschatological literature), designate two titles for the same person.


== History ==
Ahmad, in his treatise Jesus in India (Urdu: Masih Hindustan Mein), proposed that Jesus survived crucifixion and travelled to India after his apparent death in Jerusalem.
The views of Jesus having travelled to India had been put forth prior to Mirza Ghulam Ahmed's publication, most notably by Nicolas Notovitch in 1894. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad expressly rejected the theory of a pre-crucifixion visit that Notovitch had proposed, arguing instead that Jesus's travels to India took place after surviving crucifixion.
The first response in English to Ahmad's writings came in a book by Howard Walter, an Urdu-speaking American pastor in Lahore, The Ahmadiyya Movement (1918). Walter, like later scholars, identified the Islamic version of the Barlaam and Josaphat story as the primary of Ahmad's evidence despite the fact that the four chapters of his book are arranged around evidence from the Gospels, the Quran and hadith, medical literature and historical records–respectively.
In his writings Mirza Ghulam Ahmad elaborated that the Roza Bal tomb in Srinagar, that is said by locals in the Srinagar region to contain the grave of a holy Jewish saint known as Yuz Asaf, is the tomb of Jesus of Nazareth.
The teaching was further researched by Ahmadi missionaries. Kamal ud-Din and Khwaja Nazir Ahmad (1952), who added to Notovitch's theory of his first earlier visit.
Although the material of Notovitch and Ahmad has been refuted by notable historians, such as the Indologist Günter Grönbold (1985) and Norbert Klatt (1988), it has been supported by others such as the archaeologist Fida Hassnain and the writer Holger Kersten.


=== Other publications ===
Ahmadi Muslims have published extensively on the topic of Jesus' natural death expanding upon Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's work in light of newer archeological discoveries and historical research. In 1978, Mirza Nasir, the third Khalifa of the Ahmadiyya movement, travelled to London where the international conference of Jesus' Deliverance from the cross was held at the Commonwealth Institute in Kensington. This was attended by a number of scholars and academics who had presented papers discussing the circumstances surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus, in which the Ahmadiyya viewpoint regarding the death of Jesus was presented. Nasir Ahmad's lecture discussed the subject of Jesus' survival from death upon the cross, his travel to the east, the Unity of God and the status of Muhammad.
In 2003, the viewpoint of Roza Bal being Jesus' tomb was covered in a BBC documentary by Richard Denton, Did Jesus Die?. Jesus' possible travels to India are also discussed in a 2008 documentary Jesus in India by Paul Davids.


== Death of Jesus ==

The Ahmadiyya movement advocates the notion of the survival of the crucifixion by Jesus through a mixture of biblical and quranic analyses.


=== Biblical sources ===
Jesus had prophesied that his fate would be like that of Jonah (the story of Jonah is one of survival).
Jesus was placed on the cross for only a few hours. Death by crucifixion usually takes several days. While he was on the cross his legs were left intact, and not broken as was the normal procedure. This would have prevented death by respiratory distress. As blood and water were reported to have 'gushed' from the spear wound, this was sign of a beating heart.
Jesus prayed to be rescued from death on the cross. 
Pilate, having sympathy for Jesus, secretly devised to save him by setting his Crucifixion shortly before Sabbath day.
The Gospel of John records that Nicodemus brought myrrh and aloes. These healing plants, particularly aloe plants, are considered medicinal and applied to wounds. It would make little sense applying them to a dead body.
According to the Bible ""He that is hanged is accursed of God.""; something Paul imputed to Jesus. However, since the word ""curse"" would signify a satanic connection, divine antipathy and displeasure, spiritual impurity, faithlessness and disobedience to God; Jesus' being from God and the beloved of God, does not allow for him to have become accursed at any moment and therefore for him to have died on a cross.
After he had awoken from his swoon (""resurrection""), Jesus bared his wounds to Thomas, showing he did not have a supernatural, resurrected body, but a wounded human body. He was also seen in the flesh by a large number of his followers, baring the same wounds that he had suffered from his ordeal on the Cross. 
After his wounds had sufficiently healed Jesus left the tomb and met some of his disciples and had his food with them and walked from Jerusalem to Galilee. 
In his post-crucifixion appearances, Jesus left the tomb in the darkness of night; he appears to have been moving away from the source of danger; he showed himself only to his disciples, people whom he trusted and not the general public; and met them under the cover of darkness at night. This behaviour is uncharacteristic of one who had just miraculously succeeded in defying death at the hands of his enemies, having been given a new eternal life with an immortal physical body, and is more consistent with one who had just survived it and was avoiding their (that is both the government agencies and the public) notice lest he be recaptured.
Jesus stated that he was sent only for the ""lost sheep of the house of Israel"" and prophesied that he would go to seek out the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel (residing beyond the Palestine region). The Jews of Jesus's time believed that the Lost Tribes of Israel had become dispersed in different lands. 
When Joseph requested Jesus' body from the cross, Pilate asked a centurion if Jesus was already dead. The centurion confirmed that Jesus was already dead. This centurion was a believer that Jesus was the son of God.
There are no accounts in the gospel of Jesus ascending into the heavens, aside from accounts that were absent from the earliest written gospels.


=== Quranic sources ===

Ahmadiyyas state that there are at least 30 verses of the Quran that suggest that Jesus did not ascend to Heaven but instead died a natural death on Earth. The verses in Chapter Al-Nisa (4:157-158) indicate that Jesus did not die on the Cross - but rather that God had ""raised"" Jesus unto God Himself (not into heaven).

[4:157-158] And their saying, 'We did kill the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the
Messenger of Allah;' whereas they slew him not, nor crucified him, but he was
made to appear to them like one crucified; and those who differ therein are
certainly in a state of doubt about it; they have no definite
knowledge thereof, but only follow a conjecture; and they
did not convert this conjecture
into a certainty;
On the contrary, Allah raised him to Himself. And Allah is Mighty, Wise.

As the Quran speaks of God being Omnipresent in the Earth and in the hearts of mankind, God's existence is not to be misconstrued as being confined to the Heavens alone, making any bodily movement towards God impossible. Ahmadis interpret the Arabic word raised in these verses to mean ""exalted"". In other words, Jesus' spiritual rank and status was raised to come closer to God as opposed to him dying the accursed death which his adversaries had wished for.
To further support the view of Jesus having died a mortal death, Ahmadis use the following verse in the Quran 5:76:

[5:75] The Messiah, son of Mary, was only a Messenger; surely Messengers the like unto him had passed away before him. And his mother was a truthful woman. They both used to eat food. See how We explain the Signs for their good, and see how they are turned away.

In the preceding verse, Jesus is compared to the previous Messengers – all of whom had died a natural death and none of whom had ascended bodily to Heaven.
From the following verse in Al-Imran and Al-Anbiya, the Quran clarifies that all messengers before Muhammad, including Jesus, had died:

[3:145] And Muhammad is only a Messenger. Verily, all Messengers have passed away before him. If then he die or be slain, will you turn back on your heels?...
[21:8-9]
And We sent none as Messengers before thee (Muhammed) but men to whom We sent revelations. So ask the people of the Reminder, if you know not.
And We did not give them bodies that ate no food, nor were they to live for ever.
[21:34]
And We made no mortal before thee (Muhammed) to live on forever.


=== Hadith accounts ===
To illustrate the death of Jesus, Ahmadiyya scholars use references to various Islamic hadith. For example, 

If Jesus and Moses had been alive, they would have had no choice but to follow me. 
[Kathir vol II, p 245 and al yawaqit wal Jawahir, part 2, page 24]
Jesus son of Mary lived for 120 years, and I see myself as only entering upon the beginning of the sixties. 
[Kanz al Ummal, part 6, p.120]
As Muhammad had lived and died after some 60 years, Jesus must also have died. In other words, as Muhammad had died, this states that there likewise was a death of Jesus.
During the Mi'raj, Muhammad had also seen Jesus in the second heaven along with John the Baptist. Thus, because Islam believes the dead cannot dwell amongst the living, it can only indicate that Jesus must also be dead.


== Second Coming of Jesus ==

The Ahmadiyya movement interprets the prophecised Second Coming of Jesus as being of a person ""similar to Jesus"" (mathīl-i ʿIsā), rather than that of Jesus of Nazareth himself. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad professed that the prophecy in traditional religious texts were greatly misunderstood to interpret that Jesus of Nazareth himself would return.
Ahmadis consider that the founder of the movement, in both his teachings and character as well as his situation and struggles, was likewise a circumstantial representation of the situation and struggles of Jesus.


== Universal prophethood ==
Adherents of the Ahmadiyya movement assert that the expected arrival of a latter day Messiah is represented across all major faiths. The prophecy of the messiah historically diverged into several theories and distinct interpretations which filtered across through the world's religious movements. The original Messianic prophecy nonetheless, only referred to a single Messiah. As such, Ahmadis declare that the Messiah for all major world faiths and mankind has been unified by the advent of a single Promised Messiah (Mirza Ghulam Ahmad).
Ahmadi's believe that God will cause all world faiths to gradually fade away and gravitate towards the Ahmadiyya faith; that such a process will follow a correlative pattern of circumstances and take a similar amount of time as what it took for Christianity to rise to dominance (e.g. roughly 300 years – Seven Sleepers).


== Contention with mainstream Islamic beliefs ==
The Encyclopedia of Islam states that the post-crucifixion journey of Jesus towards the East and his natural death as an aspect of Ahmadi belief is one of three primary tenets that distinguish Ahmadi teachings from general Islamic ones, and that it has provoked a fatwa against the movement.


=== Last of the Prophets / Seal of the Prophets ===

Contemporary Muslim scholars argue that no prophet can come after Muhammed based upon abstractions from the hadith and this is the principal reason for rejecting and advocating persecution against the movement.
Ahmadi scholars use hadith and the quranic sources that indicate these strictly rigid ideologies are a fallacy of misplaced concreteness. The following hadith for instance illustrates the context of when Muhammad had declared himself to be the ""last of the prophets"", with the same breath he had also declared his mosque as the ""last"" of the mosques.

Ayesha narrated that the Prophet (Allah's prayer and salvation be upon him) said : 
""I am the last of the Prophet and my mosque is the last of the mosques of the Prophets. The most rightful of the mosque that may be visited and for which the vigours of the journey may be borne are the Masjid Haram and my mosque; and a Salah in my mosque is more excellent than a salah in any other mosque by one thousand times, except the Masjid Haram.""
(Reported by al-Bazzar and authenticated by Sheikh Albani in Sahih Targhib No. 1175) 

This hadith implicates the rhetoric of Muhammad being the ""last"" in the absolute sense. If for instance Muhammad declared his mosque as being ""last"" of the mosques by the same interpretation this would have invalidated all subsequent mosques that have ever been built after his advent.
The Ahmadiyya understanding of the term Khatam an-Nabiyyin (Seal of Prophets) with reference to Muhammad, establishes that a prophet cannot come after Muhammad from outside the Islamic dispensation. In other words, one whose prophethood which is independent of Muhammad cannot develop a new faith.
Contemporary Muslims interpret from the hadith the notion of Jesus's actual physical return in person after the advent of Muhammad. According to the Quran, Jesus' revelation was addressed for the Israelites. Since Jesus had received his revelation independently of Muhammad, this would conversely violate the Seal of Prophethood of Muhammed altogether.
Thus Ahmadis regard that, as Ghulam Ahmad was only a follower and reviver of the original Islamic faith, his claim of being a subordinate prophet (in the likeness of Jesus being a subordinate prophet) does not in any way violate the Seal of Prophets (Muhammad).


=== Finality of prophethood ===
The claim that Mirza Ghulam was a prophet forms a point of contention with mainstream Islam, as it is considered a violation of the quranic and hadith teachings of Muhammad. In particular, contemporary Islamic scholars view the Ahmadiyya belief as a contradiction with the verse in the Quran, Chapter 33 (The Combined Forces), verse 40:

Muhammad is not the father of [any] one of your men, but [he is] the Messenger of Allah and Seal of the prophets. And ever is Allah, of all things, Knowing.


=== Farewell sermon ===
In his Farewell Sermon, delivered just prior to his death, Muhammad warned his followers and all mankind with the following message:

O People! No Prophet or apostle will come after me and no new faith will be born. Reason well, therefore O People! and understand words that I convey to you. I leave behind me two things, the Qur'an and the Sunnah and if you follow these you will never go astray.

The Ahmadiyya movement interpret the hadith context of ""Last of the Prophets"" to signify the ""Very Best"" and ""Most Exalted Law Giver Prophet"" among all the Prophets. The farewell sermon had indicated only that no prophet would come immediately after Muhammad had died.
The movement consider the literal interpretation of the term ""finality"" that is zealously constrained by the mainstream Islamic view, completely paradoxes their own views of the hadith concerning the second advent of Jesus. In the manner that the Islamic mainstream views that Jesus himself is expected to physically return in the latter days from Heaven, it becomes implausible to also presume that it is absolutely impossible for any prophet to come after Muhammad.


== Consensus of companions of Muhammad on Jesus' death ==
Ahmadi scholars state that when Muhammad died, the Sahaba were grieved. Umar, angered and upset, took out a sword, and said that he would kill anyone who said Muhammad is dead. At this instance Abu Bakar quoted:

[3:144] And Muhammad is but a messenger; the messengers passed away before him; if then he dies or is killed will you turn back upon your heels? And whoever turns back upon his heels, he will by no means do harm to Allah in the least and Allah will reward the grateful.""
The Ahmadiyya movement believe that no companion ever stated Jesus is alive in heaven. Nor that he would come physically in the Second Coming. As such according to the quranic verses, Jesus could only have died a natural death (and not have died on the Cross).


== Fulfilment of messianic prophecies ==
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad regarded the prophecies and concepts in hadith and Bible concerning his advent in an entirely metaphorical light. As an example, in his publication, Izala-e-Auham Mirza Ghulam Ahmad stated:

The second special aspect of the prophecy, which relates to the advent of the Promised Messiah, is that he will break the cross, slaughter the swine and kill the one-eyed Antichrist. Every disbeliever who is touched by his breath will die instantly. The spiritual interpretation of this special aspect is that the Promised Messiah will crush under his feet all the glory of the religion of the cross, that he will destroy with the weapon of conclusive arguments those who are afflicted with shamelessness like swine, and who devour filth like pigs, and that he will wipe out with the sword of clear proofs the opposition of those who possess only the eye of the world and are bereft of the eye of the faith in place of which they have only an unsightly taint. Not only such one-eyed ones, but also every disbeliever who views Islam with contempt will suffer spiritual extinction through the glorious breath of Messianic reasoning. In short all these signs are metaphoric, the significance of which has been fully revealed to me. Some may not appreciate it at this time but after waiting for sometime, and despairing altogether of the hopes that they now entertain, all of them will accept it."" (Izala-e-Auham, Volume 3, Pages 141-143)


=== Battle against Dajjal (Anti-Christ) ===

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad elaborated on the depictions of Antichrist as prophecised in the Bible and the hadith concerning the emergence of the Dajjal. These are interpreted in Ahmadiyya teachings, in metaphorical terms - to denote a group of nations centred upon falsehood. The reference to the Dajjal is personified as a unified system - a chain of deceptive ideas indicating it's chains of unity as a class (instead of any single person).
The defeat of the Dajjal, was by force of reason and argument and by the warding off of its mischief through the ideologies and teachings of the Messiah, rather than by way of any physical warfare; with the Dajjal's power and influence gradually disintegrating and ultimately allowing for the recognition and worship of God along Islamic ideals to prevail throughout the world.


=== Breaking of the cross ===
The Islamic hadith describe that Jesus would, upon his second coming, ""Break the Cross"". Ahmadis interpret this to mean that he will ""make plain the error of the creed of the cross"". Ghulam Ahmad's teachings of Jesus, being a mortal man who survived crucifixion and died a natural death upon earth, is considered as a testimony of the prophecy being fulfilled.
Ahmadis believe the followers of Christianity will gradually come to accept the same teaching and this will repeal the central doctrines of the divinity of Jesus, Atonement and Resurrection. In turn, the traditional Christian reverence for the cross and doctrine of the immortality of Jesus will become untenable.


=== Ending of wars ===

In 1894, Ghulam Ahmad had declared that the contemporary Islamists views of Jihad of the sword and Holy War was a fundamental misrepresentation of Islam, that was invented during the Dark Ages. He advocated for these false beliefs to be ended in their entirety.
The Ahmadiyya Movement believe that any military jihad in Islam is permitted only and exclusively for the defence of religious freedom and in very strictly defined circumstances (not exclusive only to Islam). Those circumstances did not exist at the present time of British rule in India. As a result, early Ahmadis had faced virulent opposition from extremist groups, some of whom protested a conspiracy that Ghulam Ahmad had been put in place as a pacifist by the British Government to appease Muslims. Ahmadis believe that in the modern era, the ""Jihad of the pen"" (peaceful intellectual reasoning) is the only potent way of espousing and spreading the Islamic teaching.
Accordingly, as per scriptural prophecies in the hadith relating to the Messiah ending of wars, the movement regard this declaration has deprecated ""Jihad of the sword"" and consider the prophecies in the hadith relating to ending of religious wars had been fulfilled by Ghulam Ahmad teachings.


== Journey from Judea to India ==

According to Ghulam Ahmad, (and further developed by the next generation of Ahmadi writers such as Khwaja Nazir Ahmad in 1952), Jesus taught the message of Jewish messianism to his disciples and to the people living in Judea. 
After surviving his ordeal on the cross, Jesus remained in Judea for a short time before leaving from there. Jesus was declared a criminal and therefore, decided to leave Judea with his mother Mary, his wife Mary Magdalene and his apostle Thomas the Apostle. Thereafter, Jesus traveled toward Asia.


=== From Judea to Iraq ===

With these three companions, he went first to Iraq. Here he met his disciple, Ananias. He met his rival Paul who later became a Christian. In Nusaybin, he got another tension at the hands of a cruel king. He was arrested again. Prophet Jesus along with his mother performed some miracles and impressed the king. The king gave him permission to go to the kingdom of Parthia. There was a strong Jewish community living there.


=== Iraq to Iran and Afghanistan ===

From Iraq, he went to Iran where he was honourably received by the Persian Jews. Five centuries before Cyrus the Great had conquered Babylon and the Jews were freed. Many of the Jews went to live in Iran and were known as Persian Jews. Jesus preached here and went on to Bactria (Afghanistan). At that time, Persia was a great center of Judaism. He professed the advent of the coming of a great prophet named Muhammad to his fellowmen in these areas specially in the area of Afghanistan. He met with the first king of Parthia who honored him. The Pashtun people have a tradition in their royal and non-royal functions and consider themselves to be the sons of Children of Israel. Many of these Persian Jews who had been receiving the teachings from Jesus proselytized to Muslims at the time of Muhammad and accepted his call. Qais Abdur Rashid, his name is this and the original was Kish.


=== Kashmir, Tibet and India ===


==== Reasons for coming to India ====

According to Ahmadiyya sources (Islam International Publications Ltd.) the Tribes of Israel who had migrated to eastern countries seeing the attraction in Hinduism and Buddhism had themselves become Hindus and Buddhists. They subsequently became unaware of their religion. Jesus and Thomas the Apostle later arrived in India to restore the Abrahamic teachings to these tribes.


==== Jesus meets Shalivahana ====
According to a late section of the Hindu Bhavishya Purana (written after 1739), Jesus met a Hindu king, Shalivahana.
The king along with his companions went to the peak of the Himalayas to meet a man who was a dignified person of fair complexion in white clothes sitting in the mountain. When the king asked who he was, the man replied ""I am the Messiah, born of a virgin.""
He told the king he had come from a far off place where he has suffered at the hands of his people. When the king asked what religion he adhered to, he said that his religion was of peace, love and purity of heart. The king was impressed, so he paid homage to him.


== Tomb of Jesus ==

During his initial research into Jesus' death, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad postulated that Jesus may have been buried in either Galilee or Syria. After investigating further he eventuality uncovered evidence to conclude that the tomb of Jesus was located at the Roza Bal shrine in Srinagar, Kashmir. Based upon this evidence, Ahmadis today believe the tomb of Jesus is located in the Srinagar region of Kashmir.
Ghulam Ahmad, and later Ahmadi writers have cited various evidences for identifying the grave as that of Jesus: The Bhavishya Purana Official Decree, The Glass Mirror, Tarikh-i-Kashmir, Qisa-shazada, The Garden of Solomon (Bagh-i-Sulaiman) by Mir Saadullah Shahabadi (1780 A.D.), Wajeez-ut-Tawarikh, Ikmal-ud-Din (962 AD), Ain-ul-Hayat, The Acts of Thomas, Takhat Sulaiman (Throne of Solomon, a hill in Kashmir), Tarikh-i-Kabir, and Rauzat-us-Safa. Ahmadis believe that these sources testify to the view that Yuz Asaf and Jesus are the same person.
Haji Mohi-ud-din Miskin, writing in 1902, three years after Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1899, is the first historian to mention that ""some"" connect the shrine of Yuz Asaf as the grave of Hazrat Isa Rooh-Allah (Jesus the Spirit of God).
The importance of the shrine has been preserved in the memory of the descendants of the ancient Israelites to this day. They call the shrine ""The tomb of Hazrat Issa Sahib"", ""The Tomb of Prophet Jesus (Isa)"".
The building constructed is named ""Roza Bal"" or ""Rauza Bal"". ""Rauza"" is generally a term used to denote the tomb of a celebrated personality, i.e. noble, wealthy, or saintly. A local scholar and supporter of the theory, Fida Hassnain, has claimed that the tomb is arranged with the feet pointing in the direction of Jerusalem, and claimed that this is in accordance with Jewish tradition.
Ahmadis give the Yuz Asaf enshrined in the tomb the epithet Shahzada Nabi, ""Prophet Prince"". The majority Srinagar Sunni Muslim community reject the Ahmadiyya claims that the tomb is that of Jesus and consider this viewpoint as blasphemous.


=== Tomb of Mary ===
Muslim and Persian documents — the Tafir-Ibn-I-Jarir, the Kanz-al-Ummal, and the Rauzat-us-Safa — have references that contribute to the theory of Jesus' escape. Some of these also mention that Jesus was accompanied by Mary, and there is another burial place in Pakistan, along his theoretical route to Kashmir, known as Mai Mari da Ashtan, or ""resting place of Mother Mary.""


== See also ==
Apocalypse of Peter
Basilideans
Gospel of Barnabas
Gospel of Basilides
Islamic views on Jesus' death
Holger Kersten
Substitution hypothesis
Swoon hypothesis
Unknown years of Jesus


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Faruqi, Nisar Ahmed (1983). ""The Promised Messiah"". Ahmadiyyat in the Service of Islam. Lahore: Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat. ISBN 0-913321-00-1.
Houtsma, M. Th. (1913). ""Ahmedia"". In Houtsma, M. Th.; Arnold, T. W.; Basset, R. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill.
Korbel, Jonathan; Preckel, Claudia (2016). ""Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908)"". In Bentlage, Björn; Eggert, Marion; Krämer, Hans-Martin; Reichmuth, Stefan (eds.). Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism. Numen Book Series. Vol. 154. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 426–442. doi:10.1163/9789004329003_034. ISBN 978-90-04-32511-1. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
Leirvik, Oddbjørn (2010). ""The Christology of the Ahmadiyya Movement"". Images of Jesus Christ in Islam (2nd ed.). London: Continuum International. pp. 129–132. ISBN 978-1-4411-7739-1. Retrieved 25 October 2020.


== External links ==
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad: Jesus in India, Ahmadiyya Muslim Foreign Mission Department, 1978, ISBN 978-1-85372-723-8; Original Masih Hindustan Mein, Oriental & Religious Publications Ltd., Rabwah (Online)
Ahmad, Khwaja Nazir (2012). ""Jesus in Heaven on Earth: Journey of Jesus to Kashmir, his preaching to the Lost Tribes of Israel, and death and burial in Srinagar"". www.aaiil.org. London: Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
Goraya, Azhar Ahmad (2020). ""Jesus Christ died a Natural Death"". www.alislam.org. Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
Lanier, Gregory R. (May 2016). """"It Was Made to Appear Like that to Them:"" Islam's Denial of Jesus' Crucifixion"". Reformed Faith & Practice: The Journal of Reformed Theological Seminary. 1 (1). Orlando, Florida: Reformed Theological Seminary: 39-55. Archived from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
Mordillat, Gérard; Prieur, Jérôme (2015). ""Jesus and Islam: The Crucifixion According to the Qur'an"". www.arte.tv. Strasbourg: Arte. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021."
Mental health in association football,"The subject of mental health in association football has been described as a ""stigma"" in the sport, although other professional sports are also affected. Studies suggest that professional footballers may experience higher rates of depression and anxiety compared to the general population.


== Examples ==
After suffering from depression, former England international George Harrison died by suicide in 1939 at the age of 46.
Agostino Di Bartolomei suffered from clinical depression after retiring from professional football, and eventually committed suicide by shooting himself in his villa in San Marco di Castellabate, on 30 May 1994, ten years to the day after his former club Roma had lost the European Cup final to Liverpool on penalties.
Argentine footballer Mirko Šarić committed suicide by hanging in April 2000, after suffering with depression which was reportedly worsened by the fact that his girlfriend at the time had gotten pregnant by another man.
During the first part of the 2000–01 season with Everton, Paul Gascoigne struggled with depression after losing his place in the first team following a series of injuries and a lack of fitness. Later in his career, during his time with Chinese club Gansu Tianma, he went to America in April 2003 for treatment against alcoholism and depression.
Former professional players Robert Enke and Gary Speed have died by suicide; both suffered from depression. Enke died by suicide in a railway incident. Five years after Enke's death his wife stated that she believed depression in sport was no longer a taboo subject. Speed hanged himself. In September 2018 his wife said that she discovered a letter written by Speed as a teenager which hinted at his long-term depression. In 2019 a 10-year memorial event for Enke was held at theatre hall in Hannover.
Clarke Carlisle stated that he contemplated suicide after becoming injured early in his career, and in December 2014 attempted suicide due to the severe depression he was suffering from.
American former player Landon Donovan has spoken publicly about dealing with depression throughout his life and career, and has criticized the professional sports world for its approach to mental health issues.
Sebastian Deisler was hospitalised after being unable to cope with the pressures of professional football, eventually retiring from the sport at the age of 27.
Jean-Marc Bosman struggled to find work after his judicial challenge of the football transfer rules led to the Bosman ruling in 1995. He ended up living off of welfare, and as a result of his financial difficulties and his claimed ostracism by the world of football, he fell into depression and also struggled with alcoholism.
Adriano struggled with depression and alcoholism following the death of his father in 2004.
In November 2008, Gianluigi Buffon revealed in his autobiography Numero 1 that he had suffered from depression between December 2003 and June 2004, and that he even saw a psychologist during this period in order to overcome it; he later elaborated further on his struggles with depression in 2013. In January 2019, he also revealed that because of his depression, he had suffered from panic attacks during his early career with Juventus, even missing a game as a result during the 2003–04 season.
Ex-player Mickey Bennett set up an organisation called Unique Sports Counselling to help footballers deal with mental health issues.
In February 2016 Steve Harper spoke out about his mental health problems while in between clubs. The PFA had to apologise after initially criticising his comments.
In May 2016, professional footballer Chris Mitchell committed suicide. In October 2018 his family spoke out about his struggles with mental health.
In May 2017, Aaron Lennon was detained under the Mental Health Act, and he received treatment for a ""stress-related illness"". In March 2019 he spoke about the incident, and said that other players had asked him for advice.
In June 2017, Steven Caulker spoke about his struggles with depression, and his addiction to alcohol and gambling.
In February 2018 David Cox stated that he had been mocked by both players and fans for discussing his mental health problems.
In March 2018, the UK government announced plans to deal with mental health in professional sports. Later that month, Harry Smith released a statement stating that he was seeking help for mental health and gambling addiction problems. That same month, Danish player Jannik Skov Hansen talked about the depression and suicidal thoughts he had experienced earlier in his career.
In April 2018 The Secret Footballer, an anonymous former Premier League player, talked about his depression.
In May 2018, Andrés Iniesta revealed that he suffered from depression before the 2010 FIFA World Cup due to his injuries and the death of his friend Daniel Jarque.
In June 2018, England international Danny Rose stated that he had been diagnosed with depression.
In September 2018, professional footballer Marvin Sordell suggested that clubs should have full-time counsellors to assist players with depression and other mental health issues. When Sordell retired from football in July 2019 he cited his mental health. Later that month Anthony Knockaert also revealed his struggles with mental health issues, as did David Cotterill.
In October 2018, Michael Carrick announced that he had suffered from depression for 2 years following the defeat in the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final. Later that month Christian Nadé revealed that he had tried to commit suicide in 2014 following struggles with depression.
In June 2019, former player Emmanuel Eboué spoke about his ongoing struggles with mental health. In August 2019 Martin Ling discussed his mental health problems.
Billy Kee has spoken publicly about his struggles with anxiety and depression, which led him to considering giving up football. In September 2019 it was revealed that Kee was seeking treatment for depression, anxiety, and bulimia. During that same month, the English Football League announced a scheme in conjunction with mental health charity Mind called 'Get Set to Go'. This included a series of street art pieces to raise awareness about mental health. Later that month, Motherwell manager Stephen Robinson said clubs had a duty of care in relation to players' mental well-being if they were injured. Kee announced his retirement from professional football on 29 January 2020 due to mental health.
In October 2019, Francesco Acerbi revealed that during his time with Milan he had suffered from depression following the death of his father, and fell into alcoholism as a result of the loss and his personal struggles.
In November 2019, initiatives to promote mental health in football included Prince William meeting with West Bromwich Albion players to discuss the topic.
In December 2019 ex-professional Rhodri Jones spoke out about the pressures that young players face.
The kick-offs for all third-round FA Cup matches over the weekend of 4 and 5 January 2020 were delayed by 60 seconds to promote a film narrated by Prince William about mental health. That same weekend ex-player Paul Merson spoke about his struggles with mental health. Later that month former player Brian Lenihan revealed that he retired from professional football at the age of 23 mental health issues.
For the 2020–21 season, Newport County appointed Kevin Ellison as their 'mental health ambassador'. In June 2018 he has publicly talked about his struggles with depression, giving advice to fellow professionals.
In October 2020, former Manchester City academy player Jeremy Wisten committed suicide by hanging in his home in Baguley. He had been released the year before by the club, and had struggled to find a new club while recovering from a knee injury. His death led to Manchester City changing how they went about releasing young players, including introducing player exit surveys and creating a 'parent portal' to improve communication between the club, players, and their families.
In January 2021, Cheltenham Town captain Ben Tozer spoke about his previous struggles with anxiety, which led to him nearly quitting the game. That same month Jordan Ibe revealed that he was suffering with depression, describing himself as being in a ""dark place"".
In April 2021, Scottish footballer David Cox retired in the middle of a match, leaving the stadium at the half-time break, after alleged comments from opposition player Jonathan Tiffoney related to Cox's mental health.
In January 2022, Josip Iličić missed game time due to mental health issues. Previously, he also missed crucial quarterfinal Champions League game due to mental health issues. His then Atalanta team-mate Alejandro Gómez stated that Iličić had fallen into depression after catching coronavirus during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In February 2022 former players Chris Sutton and Micah Richards spoke about mental health issues in their playing days.
In March 2022, Paul Pogba said that he had suffered from depression whilst being managed by José Mourinho at Manchester United during 2018.
In May 2022 Dominic Calvert-Lewin spoke out about his mental health problems. That same month the WSL academies began a campaign around mental health.
In June 2022 Tottenham players Harry Kane and Matt Doherty discussed the matter of mental health in professional sport.
In October 2022, Steven Reid revealed that he had left his job as Nottingham Forest assistant manager in order to begin studying to qualify as a counsellor. That month, Theo Vassell stated that he had battled with depression since childhood, which led to suicide attempts as a teenager.
In October 2022, American player Christian Pulisic released an autobiography titled Pulisic: My Journey So Far. In the book, he revealed that he suffered with depression while he was injured in 2020 and during times that he did not get much playing time.
In November 2022, Prince William and footballers Harry Kane and Declan Rice discussed mental health for the BBC, in an effort to raise awareness.
Millie Farrow has struggled with obsessive compulsive disorder throughout her career. In 2023, she released a book called Brave Enough Not To Quit, which details how she deals with her OCD and anxiety.
In February 2023, France national team player Wendie Renard announced that she would not play at the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup in order to ""preserve"" her ""mental health""; teammates Kadidiatou Diani and Marie-Antoinette Katoto also announced their retirement from the national team.
Former Manchester United youth team captain Tom Thorpe spent five years away from the sport due to mental health problems, returning in 2023.
In July 2023, Dele Alli said he had spent 6 weeks in rehab for sleeping pill addition and mental health issues, linked to childhood abuse.
In September 2023, Brazilian footballer Richarlison said that he would seek ""psychological help"" for off-pitch issues that were affecting his playing. Later that month, Bradford City announced a campaign to promote mental health. The following year, he revealed that he struggled with depression following Brazil's elimination from the 2022 FIFA World Cup and even considered quitting football as a result. He urged other players to seek therapy for struggles with mental illness.
In October 2023, Norwich City released a video for World Mental Health Day which was praised by UEFA.
In November 2023, a number of England players including Beth Mead and Ben Chilwell launched a new mental health initiative.
In December 2023, Northern Ireland player Rebecca Holloway discussed her mental health problems.
In January 2024, former player Thierry Henry said he had been depressed throughout his career. Later that month, active player James Talbot announced he was 'stepping back' from football due to his mental health. The BBC also asked whether the Women's Super League was doing enough to support women's footballers. Also in January 2024, Tyreece John-Jules said that a spate of injuries was taking a toll on him mentally.
In March 2024, former footballer Dani Osvaldo revealed that he had been undergoing treatment for his struggles with depression, which had led to his addictions to alcohol and drugs.
In June 2024, it was revealed that the Bradford City mental health supporters' group had helped 500 people.
In July 2024, Scottish referee chief Willie Collum warned that criticism of referees would affect their mental health.
In October 2024, a Professional Footballers' Association survey of 1,000 players found that 68% felt that the fear of injuries impacted their mental health.
In December 2024, Tino Anjorin spoke about his mental health problems whilst injured.
In May 2025, Dan Burn spoke about his struggles with mental health, as he had struggled particularly early in his career.


== See also ==
Mental health in the Australian Football League


== References ==


=== Specific ===


=== General ==="
French destroyer Le Triomphant,"Le Triomphant (""The triumphant one"") was one of six Le Fantasque-class large destroyers (contre-torpilleur, ""Torpedo-boat destroyer"") built for the Marine Nationale (French Navy) during the 1930s. The ship entered service in 1935 and participated in the Second World War. When war was declared in September 1939, all of the Le Fantasques were assigned to the Force de Raid which was tasked to hunt down German commerce raiders and blockade runners. Le Triomphant and two of her sister ships were based in Dakar, French West Africa, to patrol the Central Atlantic for several months in late 1939. They returned to Metropolitan France before the end of the year and were transferred to French Algeria in late April 1940 in case Italy decided to enter the war. Le Triomphant played a minor role in the Norwegian Campaign in late April and was under repair when the Germans invaded France in May. She sailed to Britain to avoid capture in June.
The ship was seized by the British in early July and was transferred to the Free French in August. After a refit, Le Triomphant began escorting convoys before the end of 1940 and was transferred to the Pacific Ocean in mid-1941. Later that year, she received orders to return to the Mediterranean in December, but they were cancelled when the Pacific War began on 8 December. Aside from a refit that lasted 10 months, the ship was on convoy escort duties until late 1943. Ordered again to return to the Mediterranean, Le Triomphant was badly damaged by a typhoon in the Indian Ocean and had to be sent to the United States for permanent repairs and modernization that lasted until mid-1945.
The ship was sent to French Indochina after the Japanese surrender in September to provide support for the French forces there. After returning to Metropolitan France in mid-1946, she was intermittently active until late 1949. Le Triomphant was placed in reserve at that time and was sold for scrap in 1957.


== Design and description ==
The Le Fantasque-class ships were designed to counter the fast Italian Condottieri-class light cruisers and one member of the class, Le Terrible, set a world record for a ship with a conventional hull that was in excess of 45 knots (83 km/h; 52 mph). They had an overall length of 132.4 meters (434 ft 5 in), a beam of 12 meters (39 ft 4 in), and a draft of 4.5 meters (14 ft 9 in). The ships displaced 2,569 metric tons (2,528 long tons) at standard and 3,417 metric tons (3,363 long tons) at deep load. Le Triomphant was powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by four water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce 74,000 metric horsepower (54,000 kW; 73,000 shp), which would propel the ship at 37 knots (69 km/h; 43 mph). During her sea trials on 26 November 1935, her turbines provided 98,529 metric horsepower (72,468 kW; 97,181 shp) and she reached 43.1 knots (79.8 km/h; 49.6 mph) for a single hour. The Parsons turbines were more economical than the Rateau-Bretagne turbines which gave those ships equipped with them a range of 2,900 nautical miles (5,400 km; 3,300 mi) versus 2,700 nmi (5,000 km; 3,100 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The crew of the Le Fantasque class consisted of 11 officers and 221 crewmen in peacetime and the number of the latter increased to 254 in wartime.
The main armament of the Le Fantasques consisted of five Canon de 138.6 mm (5.5 in) Modèle 1929 guns in single mounts, one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel. Their anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of two Canon de 37 mm (1.5 in) Modèle 1925 guns in single mounts positioned amidships and four Hotchkiss Mitrailleuse de 13.2 mm (0.52 in) CA Modèle 1929 in two twin-gun mounts aft of the 37 mm mounts. The ships carried three above-water triple sets of 550-millimeter (21.7 in) torpedo tubes; the aft mount could traverse to both sides, but the forward mounts were positioned one on each broadside. A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern; these housed a total of sixteen 200-kilogram (440 lb) depth charges with another dozen available in the torpedo magazine. They could also be fitted with rails capable of handling 40 naval mines.


=== Modifications ===
In April 1939, the bridge wings were enlarged to accommodate the Hotchkiss machine guns on Le Triomphant, L'Indomptable and Le Malin. After the war began, 200 kg depth-charge stowage increased to 48 and a pair of rails were installed on the stern for 35-kilogram (77 lb) depth charges. Each rail could accommodate 3 depth charges and 15 more were stored in the magazine. In early 1940 twin-gun 37 mm mounts replaced the single-gun mounts. Under Free French control as of 3 July, Le Triomphant was refitted in late 1940 during which she had her aft superfiring 138.6 mm gun replaced by a British 4-inch (102 mm) Mk V AA gun and a Type 128 ASDIC system that had been taken from a seized French destroyer was installed. The 35 kg depth charges and their rails were removed and the ship was fitted with four Modèle 1918 depth-charge throwers abreast the aft superstructure for 100-kilogram (220 lb) depth charges. Two of these were stowed next to each mount and eighteen more were stowed in the magazine.
During a subsequent refit in mid-1941, the Hotchkiss machine guns were relocated to positions on the forecastle deck and their former positions were occupied by single mounts for 2-pounder (40 mm (1.6 in)) Mk II AA guns. A quadruple mount for Hotchkiss machine guns taken from the battleship Paris was installed atop the aft superstructure and rails for 18 British Mk VIIH depth charges were installed on the stern. A fixed antenna for a Type 286M search radar was also installed. A late 1942 refit in Australia exchanged the 13.2 mm machine guns for six 20-millimeter (0.8 in) Oerlikon light AA guns and the Type 286M radar was replaced by a Type 290 system with a rotating antenna.
En route to the Boston Navy Yard in 1944 for a comprehensive refit, Le Triomphant stopped in Bizerte, French Tunisia, where the British Mk V AA gun was replaced by a 138.6 mm gun from L'Audacieux. The Americans installed SA early-warning, SF surface-search and a British Type 285 fire-control radar, removed her aft torpedo tubes to save weight and converted some boiler feedwater tanks to fuel oil to improve her range. Her AA armament had been removed earlier and now consisted of six 40-millimeter (1.6 in) Bofors guns in a twin-gun mount superfiring over the aft 138.6 mm guns, and two other twin mounts forward of the aft funnel; she now carried eleven Oerlikon guns in single mounts, four on the sides of the bridge and the remaining guns on platforms on the aft superstructure, on the quarterdeck, and where the aft torpedo mount had been.


== Construction and career ==
Ordered on 22 May 1931 as part of the 1930 Naval Program, Le Triomphant was laid down on 28 August 1931 by Ateliers et Chantiers de France at their shipyard in Dunkerque. She was launched on 16 April 1934, commissioned on 31 December 1935, completed on 25 May 1936 and entered service on 24 July. Completion was delayed when her turbines stripped some of their blades and required lengthy repairs. When the Le Fantasques entered service they were assigned to the newly formed 8th and 10th Light Divisions (Divisions légère) which were later redesignated as scout divisions (Division de contre-torpilleurs); both divisions were assigned to the 2nd Light Squadron (2eme Escadre légère) in Brest. As of 1 October 1936 Le Triomphant, L'Indomptable and Le Malin were assigned to the 8th Light Division while Le Fantasque, Le Terrible and L'Audacieux belonged to the 10th. Between 15 January and 26 February 1937, the 2nd Light Squadron cruised as far south as Conakry, French West Africa. On 27 May, Alphonse Gasnier-Duparc, Minister of the Navy, reviewed the fleet, including all of the Le Fantasques.


=== World War II ===
Both the 8th and 10th Scout Divisions were assigned to the Force de Raid at Brest when war was declared in September 1939; it made only a single sortie as a complete unit on 2–6 September when it responded to an erroneous report that German ships had left port. Afterwards it was dispersed into smaller groups to search for German commerce raiders and blockade runners. During 21–30 October, the Force de Raid, including all of the Le Fantasques, screened Convoy KJ 4 against a possible attack by the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee. On 25 November the 8th Scout Division, consisting of Le Triomphant, L'Indomptable, and Le Malin, rendezvoused with the battleship Strasbourg and escorted her to Brest. Her sister, Dunkerque, sailed for Canada on 11 December with a cargo of gold and she was escorted for the next two days by Le Triomphant, Le Terrible, Valmy, Mogador and Volta.
In anticipation of an Italian declaration of war, the Force de Raid, including the 8th Scout Division, assembled in Mers-el-Kébir, French Algeria, on 5–9 April 1940, only to return to Brest when the Germans invaded Norway on the 10th. On the night of 23/24 April 1940, the 8th Scout Division made a high-speed patrol of the Skaggerak, hoping to attack German merchantmen headed for Norway. They encountered two patrol boats and damaged one of them while also engaging a pair of S-boats to little effect and narrowly missed spotting a convoy of minelayers. Le Malin then began experiencing engine problems and the ships were forced to reduce speed. Near-misses by German bombers damaged one of Le Triomphant's propeller shafts as they withdrew and she returned to Lorient on 30 April for repairs. As the Germans advanced in France and threatened the harbors in Brittany, the ship departed for Plymouth on 21 June.


==== Free French service ====

On 3 July she was seized by the British at Plymouth as part of Operation Catapult, but the ship was turned over to the FNFL on 28 August and Commander (Capitaine de frégate) Philippe Auboyneau assumed command of the ship. She was partially refitted with British equipment in September–October and recommissioned on 23 October, although the ship was not ready to go back to sea until November when she was assigned to the 11th Escort Group, based on the Firth of Clyde in western Scotland. Le Triomphant had constant problems with her propulsion machinery and propeller shafts during this time, which were aggravated when she broke loose from her mooring in Greenock during a gale in February 1941 and collided with a cargo ship. The ship received a major refit at HM Dockyard, Devonport in May–July to prepare her for service in the Pacific Ocean for which she departed on 31 July via the Panama Canal. As Le Triomphant passed through the canal on 16 August, she was recognised and reported by a Japanese observer, whose transmission was intercepted by Magic. The ship reached San Diego on 25 August and received some minor repairs before she sailed for Tahiti on 5 September. Le Triomphant transported Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu, the Free French High Commissioner for the Pacific during this voyage and reached Papeete harbor on 23 September. The ship spent the next month visiting many of the islands of French Polynesia and British Fiji before arriving back in Papeete on 22 October.

At that time, she received orders from the Admiralty to return to the Mediterranean and to be at Suez, Egypt, no later than 13 December. While leaving Wellington, New Zealand, Le Triomphant was damaged by a violent and sudden gust of wind and was under repair in Sydney, Australia, on 8 December when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. In mid-December, she escorted the troopship SS Ormiston from Sydney to Nouméa, New Caledonia, and conducted other escort missions during this time. In late February 1942, as a Japanese invasion of Nauru and Ocean Island was feared, Le Triomphant helped to evacuate the small military contingent and the European and Chinese workers from both islands. The ship resumed her earlier duties before she began a refit at the Garden Island Dockyard in Sydney on 19 March. Completion of the refit was delayed by the heavy workload there and it was not finished until 20 January 1943. Le Triomphant was reassigned to escort duties, mostly between Sydney and Melbourne and she rescued survivors of the torpedoed BHP Shipping iron ore carrier SS Iron Knight off Cape Howe on 8 February. Between 10 February and 23 May, the ship conducted 19 escort missions before entering Williamstown Dockyard in Melbourne for the installation of her port propeller chase on 26 May. Le Triomphant resumed escort missions after the installation was completed on 17 June and Captain (Capitaine de vaisseau) Paul Ortoli relieved Auboyneau in July. The ship was overhauled again in Sydney from 8 September to 7 November. She was reclassified as a light cruiser on 28 September.
On 24 November, a five-man liaison team from the Royal Australian Navy boarded the ship in Melbourne. Le Triomphant departed Fremantle the following day to return to the Mediterranean, accompanied by the American oil tanker SS Cedar Mills. A few days later, an accident while starting to refuel damaged the oil transfer gear, which meant that the cruiser only had 170 metric tons (170 t) of fuel in her tanks; to conserve fuel, Cedar Mills started towing Le Triomphant. The transfer gear was finally repaired on 1 December and she was able to top off her oil tanks. During the night of 2/3 December, the ships were struck by a typhoon and Le Triomphant was badly damaged. She took on a 15 degree list and her forward boiler and engine rooms were flooded. After taking off some of the crew, Cedar Mills was able to re-establish the tow on 5 December. The heavy cruiser HMS Frobisher took over the task and towed the large destroyer to Diego Suarez, French Madagascar, on 19 December. Temporary repairs there took until 21 February 1944 when she sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, for permanent repairs that lasted for a year after her arrival there on 12 April. En route, Le Triomphant stopped at Algiers where she was inspected by General Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French, and the High Commissioner for the Navy, Louis Jacquinot. Ordered to the Indian Ocean in 1945, she served with the Eastern Fleet after her arrival in Colombo, Ceylon, on 27 May. After a brief refit in Diego Suarez in July, she covered the British occupation of Singapore in early September together with the French battleship Richelieu.


=== Postwar activities ===
Le Triomphant was the first French warship to deploy to French Indochina after the war, arriving in Saigon on 3 October 1945 and alternated with Le Fantasque in providing gunfire support to the French garrison at Nha Trang and then supporting French forces on the coast of the Gulf of Tonkin until February 1946. On 6 March she led a convoy to Haiphong which the French were to take over from the Chinese, but they engaged the convoy for 20 minutes before a cease-fire could be negotiated. Le Triomphant was lightly damaged, but 8 of her crew had been killed and 39 wounded. The sisters participated in a naval review in Ha Long Bay on 24 March before Le Triomphant departed for France on 9 April where she arrived at Toulon on 16 May.
The ship was reduced to reserve upon her return and was refitted at Bizerte from February to November 1947. During this time, only two of the four surviving ships of the class were active at any one time because of a shortage of trained personnel. When Le Triomphant arrived at Toulon on 7 February, she relieved Le Malin in the 10th Light Cruiser Division (10e Division de croiseurs légers). The ship remained on active duty until she was placed in reserve at Bizerte on 1 November 1949. Le Triomphant was sold for scrap in December 1957 and was subsequently broken up.


== References ==


== Bibliography ==
Bertrand, Michel (1982). La Marine française au combat [The French Navy in Combat: Battles in the Atlantic with the Free French Naval Forces] (in French). Vol. I: Des combats de l'Atlantique aux F.N.F.L. Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle. ISBN 2-7025-0002-1.
Jordan, John & Dumas, Robert (2009). French Battleships 1922–1956. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Punblishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-034-5.
Jordan, John & Moulin, Jean (2015). French Destroyers: Torpilleurs d'Escadre & Contre-Torpilleurs 1922–1956. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-198-4.
Roberts, John (1980). ""France"". In Chesneau, Roger (ed.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946. New York: Mayflower Books. pp. 255–279. ISBN 0-8317-0303-2.
Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (Third Revised ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-119-2.
Waters, Sydney D. (1956). The Royal New Zealand Navy. The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War, 1939–1945. Wellington, New Zealand: Historical Publications Branch. OCLC 173284131. Retrieved 31 August 2019.
Whitley, M. J. (1988). Destroyers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-326-1."
Siege of Toul,"The siege of Toul was the siege of the fortified French town of Toul from 16 August to 23 September 1870 by Prussian, Bavarian and Württemberg forces during the Franco-Prussian War. Toul controlled a railway line leading to Germany and it was vital for the Germans to secure it to resupply and reinforce their armies in northern France.
An attempt to seize the fortress on 16 August failed with heavy losses for the Germans. After a blockade of 37 days, the German siege artillery opened fire with 62 guns and howitzers at 0530 on 23 September and the fortress surrendered at 1530. The Germans captured 2,349 French soldiers and 71 fortress guns along with considerable stores of supplies and pushed the German railway terminus in France closer to the German forces besieging Paris.


== Background ==
During the German campaign in northern France in 1870, and especially after German armies began to advance on Paris to besiege it, it was critical for the German High Command to secure Toul, which controlled a railway line to Germany. Toul, located in a valley between the Marne–Rhine Canal and the Moselle, was protected by nine bastions, some outworks, water-filled ditches, including a 40 feet (12 m)-wide main ditch and a system of sluices to inundate the nearby ground. The 125-meter-high Mont St.Michel to the north, the Dommartin-lès-Toul heights to the east, the Choloy plateau to the south-west and the absence of bomb-proof cover rendered the fortification vulnerable to artillery bombardment and the hills and villages nearby made it easy for hostile infantry to advance to its ramparts.


== Prelude ==
On 14 August, Captain von Trotha's squadron from the 2nd Dragoons of the Guard attacked some chasseurs à cheval near Toul. A melee commenced and the French were driven into the suburbs. They received no fire support from the fortress. Trotha took this as evidence of a weak garrison and sent an officer to the fortress, demanding its surrender. The French commandant, Major Huck, simply told the Germans to go back and the French began shooting at the Germans from the houses and gardens nearby. The German cavalry broke their way out and destroyed the sluices controlling the water in the ditches.
Another demand for surrender came on 15 August, this time from Captain von Rosen of the 2nd squadron, 3rd Lancers of the Guard, whose men had advanced on the fortress under fire, though they suffered no losses. The commandant turned down the demand as before, and the Germans returned to Ménil-la-Tour in the afternoon.


== Coup de Main ==
General of the Infantry Gustav von Alvensleben, commander of IV Corps, encouraged by Toul's weak resistance to these advance groups, decided on the early morning of 16 August to reconnoiter the fort and seize it by means of a coup de main. French inhabitants told the Germans that Toul had only 1,000 or 1,200 Garde Mobile as garrison. IV Corps' advance guard, consisting of the reinforced 14th Infantry Brigade, which included the 27th and 93rd Infantry Regiments, the 7th Dragoons, the 1st heavy and 2nd light batteries, two pioneer companies and the light bridge train and which was commanded by General von Zychlinski, received Alvensleben's order and deployed at Francheville at 1100, where the 2nd heavy battery had also been concentrated.
The two heavy batteries advanced on the fort and opened fire at the ramparts at 1,500 meters, the first battery from the east and the second from Mont St. Michel to the north. Two guns from the light battery augmented the St. Michel position, with the remaining four guns of the battery in reserve. Dismounted dragoons and 2nd Battalion, 93rd Regiment escorted the batteries. The bombardment was ineffective and the French replied with six guns well-concealed by trees. Alvensleben arrived in person and ordered the town to bombardment to induce a surrender.

At 1245, Zychlinski led the infantry column on an assault at the fortress. The 3rd pioneer company led the attack to reconnoiter the ditches. Skirmishers would follow and surround the fort, the ditch would be passed and an entrance gained through the north gate of the fortress. The pioneers reached the north side of the fortress under long-range rifle fire. The Germans found the northern glacis unfavorable to an assault and began to search for an eastern passage. After a gaining a position on the eastern side, they opened fire on the garrison. At 1300, the 93rd Regiment's fusilier battalion advanced in skirmishing order against the northern face and reached the main ditch, opening fire on the garrison deployed at the north gate ravelin. The 2nd Battalion of the 93rd Regiment advanced against the north-western side and engaged in a firefight in a skirmish line against the garrison. The drawbridge had been raised and no suitable location for an assault was found. The 2nd Battalion, 27th Regiment moved against the western side, crossing open ground and suffering heavy losses in the process, including the injuring of the battalion's commander Major Joffroy. They reached the foot of the glacis and received reinforcements from the 1st Battalion, which also suffered casualties, with the battalion commander Lieutenant-Colonel Werner wounded. The Bavarian lancer brigade reached the scene and opened fire with its horse artillery batteries on the fort.
With the fortress immune to the fire of skirmishers and a few batteries of artillery, the only means to take it was to gain a passage over the main ditch and storm it. At 1400, a German heavy gun fired eight rounds from a range of 80 meters at the gate near the St. Mansuy suburb to destroy it and bring down the drawbridge. The powder-smoke and large number of trees made aiming impossible and the attempt was discontinued. Between 1500 and 1600, Alvensleben ordered the coup de main to be abandoned. The Germans retreated in small groups to minimize casualties, though the French artillery fired on them with effect. The 2nd Battalion in the west did not get the order until 1900, having maintained a fire up until that moment and suffering serious casualties. It then withdrew north with few losses, as the French passively contented themselves with staying in the fort and launched no sorties. On arriving at his headquarters, Alvensleben received an order from Second Army commander to attempt a coup de main on Toul but decided that a second assault would be pointless and would tie down his troops in an extended siege and reported his thoughts to Second Army headquarters. IV Corps continued its march to the west.


== Siege ==
The French commandant, Major Huck, controlled 2,375 men and 71 fortress guns. By early September, the German besiegers had Etappen troops from III Prussian Army, the 4th and 6th fortress artillery companies and captured French guns from Marsal with which to bombard Toul.
The weather and unfavorable ground delayed the German preparations but by the night of 9–10 September they had deployed three artillery batteries on the Côte Barine slope with German infantry providing cover from the nearby railway embankment. After informing Major Huck of their intent, the German batteries opened fire at 0700 but only burned some houses in the town and received heavy French counter-battery fire. The French artillery continued firing on 11 September and the newly-arrived German commander, Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, discontinued his own bombardment. Frederick Francis had been detached to Toul from the Siege of Metz with the 17th Infantry Division, the 17th Cavalry Brigade, three batteries from the 2nd Landwehr Division. The German formations arrived near Toul on 12 and 13 September. The previously engaged German siege forces were redeployed to cover the German supply lines at St. Dizier. German cavalry at Ochey prevented French forces on the Langres plateau from interfering with the siege.
The 34th Brigade was deployed on the Choloy plateau, the 33rd on both banks of the Marne–Rhine Canal and the Germans set to work closing in on the glacis from the north. French fire could not stop the German outpost groups, which suffered only 13 casualties. A reconnaissance on 12 September convinced Frederick Francis to begin bombarding the fortress to submission from the south-west. He went off on 13 September to meet King Wilhelm I at Château-Thierry to receive more instructions.
On the morning of 15 September, the 2nd Landwehr Division's heavy battery at Mont St. Michel, firing from positions prepared the previous night, harassed for hours the French troops inside Toul and watchposts in the Toul Cathedral tower. The 5th and 6th heavy batteries of the 17th Infantry Division were deployed into pre-prepared positions on Mont St. Michel on 16 September to subdue the French fortress artillery, which had maintained its own fire. Three companies of Prussian heavy artillery with 26 heavy guns and their ammunition arrived by railway from Nancy on 17 and 18 September at St. Robert. Carriages transported the guns to the artillery parks on the Choloy plateau and on the Côte Marine, while their emplacements were being constructed by infantry from Ecrouves. Simultaneously, 42 field guns pounded the fortress on 18 September to distract the French from the transport operation.
Colonel Bartsch, commander of the siege artillery, and Major Schumann, the senior engineer officer, planned the direction of the attack. Twelve siege batteries would be used and trenches dug, if necessary. The siege batteries on Mont St. Michel would fire on bastions no. 3 and 4, while fire from La Justice would make a breach on the masonry to the right of bastion no. 4. German pioneers erected a bridge over the river at Pierre la Treiche on 20 September, while a detachment of Bavarian engineers destroyed a canal lock near the suburb of St. Mansuy. A German attempt to drain the ditch of the fortress by diverting the Vauban canal's water to the Moselle succeeded only partially.


=== Franc-tireur ===
French franc-tireur bands harassed the lines of communications of the German siege forces surrounding Paris. The French garrison at Toul was so weak that the Germans could send the 33rd Infantry Brigade, the 11th Lancers and three batteries to Châlons on 19 September to secure the lines of communications alongside other German forces.


=== Final bombardment and capitulation ===
The Prussian siege artillery, with the help of five infantry companies, constructed emplacements for its pieces on the evening of 22 September. To cover the preparations, a rifle company occupied St. Evre on the night of 21–22 September and heavy guns and three field batteries bombarded the town throughout the day from Mont St. Michel. At 0530 on 23 September, 11 siege batteries with 62 guns and howitzers opened fire, while Frederick Francis watched the proceeding from the Côte Barine. The German firepower burned down French barracks' and magazines near the fortifications. After an initially lackluster response, the French artillery and infantry set on fire the suburbs of St. Evre and St. Mansuy, but otherwise accomplished little.
At 1530 the French raised the white flag over the cathedral. Major Huck sent a letter to the Germans, declaring his readiness to surrender the fort. The garrison was taken prisoner of war and sent to a bivouac on the Choloy road and the German 3rd Battalion, 90th Regiment and two rifle companies occupied the town in the evening. The Grand Duke entered the next morning at the head of the troops.


== Aftermath ==
The 2nd Battalion, 90th Regiment, remained as garrison while the Prussian siege artillery was sent to bombard Soissons. The French guns captured at Marsal and Toul were now available for operations against Verdun. The German railway terminus was pushed to the west by the fall of Toul and by the German victory at the Siege of Strasbourg on 28 September. The Germans expended 5,034 artillery shells, shrapnel and bombs during the siege on 16 and 23 August and from 10 to 23 September.


=== Casualties ===
The French lost 1 officer and 25 men killed, 8 officers and 80 men wounded, 109 officers and 2,240 men captured as well as 8 civilians killed and 20 wounded. Three standards of the 3rd dragoons and the eagle of a Garde Mobile regiment were captured. Three barracks and some private buildings were destroyed by the German bombardment but overall damage to the town was minimal. French material losses were enormous, with 71 fortress guns, 30,000 stands of arms, 2,800 sabres, 224,000 lb (102 t) of gunpowder, 143,000 rations of food and 50,000 rations of corn captured by the Germans.
German casualties during the expedition to Toul on 16 August amounted to 6 officers and 41 enlisted men killed or died of wounds, 11 officers, 1 assistant surgeon and 129 men wounded and 9 men missing. Five horses were killed and nine wounded. Losses from 27 August to 23 September were minimal, with 7 enlisted men killed or dead of wounds, 1 officer and 27 men wounded and 1 horse wounded.


== Citations ==


== References ==
The Franco-German War 1870–71 Part 1. Vol. I. Translated by Clarke, F.C.H. (2nd Clowes & Sons, London ed.). Grosser Generalstab. Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung. 1881. OCLC 221986676. translated from the German official account for the Intelligence Branch of the Quartermaster-General's Department, Horse Guards
German General Staff (1880). The Franco-German War 1870-71: Part 2; Volume 1. Translated by F.C.H Clarke. London: Clowes & Sons.
German General Staff (1884). The Franco-German War 1870-71: Part 2; Volume 3. Translated by F.C.H Clarke. London: Clowes & Sons."
1975 in animation,"Events in 1975 in animation.


== Events ==


=== January ===
January 5:
The first episode of Dog of Flanders is broadcast, an adaptation of Ouida's novel A Dog of Flanders.
The first episode of Paddington is broadcast, based on the eponymous children's books by Michael Bond.
January 11: An animated TV special based on the 2000 Year Old Man sketch is broadcast on CBS, with Mel Brooks and Carl Reiner reprising their characters. The animation is produced by Leo Salkin Films.
January 28: The Peanuts special Be My Valentine, Charlie Brown airs. This marks Vince Guaraldi's music upgrade with the then-newly invented ARP String Ensemble used in a Peanuts special, which such instrument was more commonly used in songs during that period.


=== February ===
February 19: Maurice Sendak's Really Rosie airs. This limited animated TV special went into obscurity decades later.


=== March ===
March 21: Tomoharu Katsumata and Tim Reid's Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid premieres.


=== April ===
April 1:
Alexander Schure's Tubby the Tuba is first released.
The first episode of the television series Maya the Honey Bee is broadcast.
April 3: Monty Python and the Holy Grail premieres which has several animated intermezzos and combinations of animation with live-action, directed by Terry Gilliam.
April 8: 47th Academy Awards: Closed Mondays by Will Vinton and Bob Gardiner wins the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.


=== June ===
June 11: Raúl daSilva's Rime of the Ancient Mariner premieres.


=== July ===
July 17: Manuel García Ferré's Trapito premieres.


=== August ===
August 20: Ralph Bakshi's film Coonskin, a combination of animation and live-action, premieres. It flops at the box office due to accusations of racism, but decades later became a cult classic and shed its undeserved bad reputation.
August 28: Kjell Aukrust's The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix is first released.


=== September ===
September 4: Belgian cartoonist Picha and Boris Szulzinger release their animated feature film debut Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle which will become a cult classic.
September 6:
The first episode of The Secret Lives of Waldo Kitty, produced by Filmation, is broadcast.
The first episode of Uncle Croc's Block is broadcast, a live-action children's TV show with animated intermezzo's: M*U*S*H, Fraidy Cat and Wacky and Packy.
The first episode of The Tom and Jerry Show airs, which is Tom and Jerry’s first television show. This show gained negative attention by fans of the theatrical shorts from the Golden era due to the result that the duo are shown as friends as slapstick violence were grounded by the Seal of Good Practices at the time. This cartoon ended after one season while regarding these issues.
September 8: John Hubley's Everybody Rides the Carousel premieres.


=== October ===
October 1: The first episode of Arabian Nights: Sinbad's Adventures is broadcast.
October 5: The first episode of Grendizer is broadcast.
October 6: The first episode of The Adventures of Pepero is broadcast.
October 10: The first episode of Bod is broadcast.
October 15: The first episode of Ikkyū-san is broadcast.
October 23: Yuri Norstein's Hedgehog in the Fog premieres.


=== November ===
November 9: Sally Cruikshank's Quasi at the Quackadero is first released which will become a cult classic.


=== December ===
December 19: Bob Clampett releases the anthology film Bugs Bunny: Superstar, directed by Larry Jackson which is the first Looney Tunes package film. The film will attract controversy amongst some of Clampett's colleagues, most obviously Chuck Jones, because Clampett takes credit for many contestable claims.
December 24:
Per Åhlin's Sagan om Karl-Bertil Jonssons julafton is first released which in Sweden will become an annual Christmas tradition.
The Smurfs and the Magic Flute, produced by Belvision, premieres.
December 25: William Feigenbaum and József Gémes' Hugo the Hippo premieres.


=== Specific date unknown ===
Halas and Batchelor animates the music video for Roger Glover's song Love Is All in which a singing frog with a guitar gathers animals for a ball in the forest.
Bill Melendez' Dick Deadeye, or Duty Done premieres, based on designs by Ronald Searle.
André Leduc and Bernard Longpré's Monsieur Pointu premieres.
The first episode of Leopold the Cat is broadcast.
Robert Swarthe's Kick Me premieres.
Bob Godfrey's Great premieres.
Chuck Jones' adaptation of Rudyard Kipling's Rikki-Tikki-Tavi is released.


== Films released ==

January 1 - Moby-Dick (Australia)
January 22 - La Genèse (France)
March 21 - Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid (Japan)
March 27 - Robinson Columbus (Denmark)
April 1 - Tubby the Tuba (United States)
June 11 - Rime of the Ancient Mariner (United States)
July 17 - Trapito (Argentina)
August 20 - Coonskin (United States)
August 27 - Donald Duck's Frantic Antic (United States)
August 28 - Pinchcliffe Grand Prix (Norway)
August 29 - Walt Disney's Cartoon Carousel (United States)
September - Dick Deadeye, or Duty Done (United Kingdom)
September 3 - Bedbug-75, or Mayakovsky's Laughing (Soviet Union)
September 4 - Tarzoon: Shame of the Jungle (France and Belgium)
October 24 - The Humpbacked Horse (Soviet Union)
November 15 - The Mysterious Island (Australia)
November 27:
Ivanhoe (Australia)
The Last of the Mohicans (United States and Australia)
December 14 - Hugo the Hippo (Hungary and United States)
December 19 - Bugs Bunny: Superstar (United States)
December 24 - The Smurfs and the Magic Flute (Belgium)
Specific date unknown:
Junma feiteng (China)
The Story of the Chinese Gods (Taiwan)


== Television series ==

January 1 - Kérem a következőt! debuts on Magyar Televízió.
January 5:
Dog of Flanders debuts on Fuji TV.
Paddington debuts on BBC1.
January 7 - Manga Nihon Mukashi Banashi debuts on TBS.
April 1 - Maya the Honey Bee debuts on NET (now TV Asahi).
April 4:
Brave Raideen debuts on Nihon Educational Television.
La Seine no Hoshi debuts on Fuji TV.
April 5 - Don Chuck Monogatari debuts on Tokyo Channel 12.
April 7 - Ganba no Bōken debuts on Nippon TV.
May 15 - Getter Robo G debuts on Fuji TV.
July 2 - Tekkaman: The Space Knight debuts on NET TV.
September 6:
Fraidy Cat, M*U*S*H, The Great Grape Ape Show, The Oddball Couple, The Tom and Jerry Show, Uncle Croc's Block, and Wacky and Packy debut on ABC.
Return to the Planet of the Apes and The Secret Lives of Waldo Kitty debut on NBC.
September 16 - Peter Puck debuts on NBC.
October 1 - Arabian Nights: Sinbad's Adventures debuts on Fuji TV.
October 3 - Wanpaku Omukashi Kum-Kum debuts on TBS.
October 4 - Time Bokan debuts on Fuji TV.
October 5:
Steel Jeeg debuts on NET (now TV Asahi).
Grendizer debuts on Fuji TV.
October 6:
Ganso Tensai Bakabon debuts on Nippon TV.
The Adventures of Pepero debuts on NET Network.
October 7 - Laura, The Prairie Girl debuts on TBS.
October 15 - Ikkyū-san debuts on NET TV.
December 23 - Bod debuts on BBC1.
Specific date unknown:
Animal Kwackers debuts on ITV.
Leopold the Cat debuts on Russia-1.
Noddy debuts on ITV.
The Undersea Adventures of Captain Nemo debuts on CBS.


== Births ==


=== January ===
January 1: Eiichiro Oda, Japanese manga artist (creator of One Piece).
January 3:
Jason Marsden, American voice actor (voice of Kovu in The Lion King II: Simba's Pride and The Lion Guard, Peter Pan in Peter Pan and the Pirates, teenage Clark Kent in Superman: The Animated Series, Richie Foley / Gear and Edwin Alva Jr. in Static Shock, Billy Numerous in Teen Titans, Snapper Carr in Justice League, Danger Duck in Loonatics Unleashed, Haku in Spirited Away, Nermal in the Garfield franchise, Michael in Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue, Kid Flash and Atom in Young Justice, King Louie and Shere Khan in Jungle Cubs, Firefly in The Batman, Cavin in seasons 4 and 5 of Adventures of the Gummi Bears, continued voice of Max Goof).
Danica McKellar, American actress (voice of Miss Martian in Young Justice, Frieda Goren in Static Shock, Frost in DC Super Hero Girls, Judy Jetson in The Jetsons & WWE: Robo-WrestleMania!).
January 6: Yukana Nogami, Japanese actress and singer (voice of Honoka Yukishiro / Cure White in Futari wa Pretty Cure, Azuki in Azuki-chan, Yuri Tanima in Wedding Peach, Meiling Li in Cardcaptor Sakura, Tessa in Full Metal Panic, Ulrike in Kyo Kara Maoh!, Yumiko Tomi in Fafner in the Azure, C.C. in Code Geass, Cecilia Alcott in Infinite Stratos, Kale in Dragon Ball Super, Kanna in Inuyasha).
January 17: Freddy Rodriguez, American actor (voice of Mas y Menos in Teen Titans and Teen Titans Go!, Miguel O'Hara / Spider-Man 2099 in Ultimate Spider-Man, Caesar Salazar in Generator Rex).
January 28: Hiroshi Kamiya, Japanese actor (voice of Levi Ackerman in Attack on Titan, Trafalgar Law in One Piece, Mephisto Pheles in Blue Exorcist, Izaya Orihara in Durarara!!, Shinji Matō in the Fate franchise, Takashi Natsume in Natsume's Book of Friends, Choromatsu in Mr. Osomatsu, Akashi Seijuro in Kuroko's Basketball, Yuzuru Otonashi in Angel Beats!, Yato in Noragami, Nozomu Itoshiki in Sayonara, Zetsubou-Sensei, Koyomi Araragi in Monogatari, Sōma in Working!!, Juli in Brothers Conflict, Balder Hringhorni in Kamigami no Asobi, Tieria Erde in Mobile Suit Gundam 00, Saiki Kusuo in The Disastrous Life of Saiki K., Kinshirō Kusatsu in Cute High Earth Defense Club Love!).
January 29: Sara Gilbert, American actress, director and producer (voice of Laura Powers in The Simpsons episode ""New Kid on the Block"", Cindy in the Rugrats episode ""Cynthia Comes Alive"").
January 30: Yumi Yoshimura, Japanese singer, musician, actress and member of PUFFY (portrayed herself in the live action segments of Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, performed the theme songs of Teen Titans and Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi).
January 31: Jorge R. Gutierrez, Mexican animator and voice actor (El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera, The Book of Life, Maya and the Three).


=== February ===
February 2: Myriam Sirois, Canadian voice actress (voice of Akane Tendo in Ranma 1/2).
February 5: Ana Lúcia Menezes, Brazilian actress (dub voice of Amy Rose in Sonic X and Sonic Boom, Margaret in Regular Show, Gwen Tennyson in Ben 10, Misa Amane in Death Note, Koto in Yu Yu Hakusho, Toph Beifong in Avatar: The Last Airbender, the title character in Hilda, Rosalie Rowan in The Zeta Project, Ikon Eron in Gormiti), (d. 2021).
February 7: Dan Green, American voice actor, voice director, and screenwriter (voice of Yugi Moto in Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters).
February 15: Brendon Small, American actor, stand-up comedian, animator, writer, director, producer, and musician (Home Movies, Metalocalypse).
February 16: Rebecca Shoichet, Canadian voice actress (singing voice of Twilight Sparkle in My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, voice of Sunset Shimmer in My Little Pony: Equestria Girls).
February 17: Raymond S. Persi, American animator, storyboard artist (The Twisted Tales of Felix the Cat, Teacher's Pet, Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law, The Simpsons, Walt Disney Animation Studios), writer and director (The Simpsons, Neighbors from Hell, Extinct, Peanuts specials).
February 22: Drew Barrymore, American actress, producer (Olive, the Other Reindeer), talk show host and author (voice of the title character in Olive, the Other Reindeer, Akima in Titan A.E., Mrs. Lockhart and Jillian Russell in Family Guy, Maggie Dunlop in Curious George, Sophie Krustofsky and herself in The Simpsons episodes ""Insane Clown Poppy"" and ""The King of Nice"").
February 23:
Michael Cornacchia, American actor (voice of Bouncing Boy in Legion of Super Heroes, Frankie in Happy Feet).
Robert Lopez, American songwriter (Frozen, Coco, Winnie the Pooh, Wonder Pets!, the South Park episode ""Broadway Bro Down"", the Central Park episode ""Castle Sweet Castle"").
February 26: Matthew Faughnan, American animator and director (The Simpsons).
February 27: Ego Plum, American film composer, musician, and performer (SpongeBob SquarePants, Jellystone!, Making Fiends, Harvey Beaks).
Specific date unknown: Hugh Welchman, British filmmaker, screenwriter, and producer (Peter and the Wolf, Loving Vincent).


=== March ===
March 7: Sarayu Rao, American actress (voice of Margie in Inside Out 2, Diya Dinkley in Velma).
March 8: Christy Karacas, American animator, writer, producer, director, voice actor and musician (Adult Swim).
March 15: will.i.am, American musician and member of the Black Eyed Peas (voice of Moto Moto in Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa, Snow in Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard, Pedro in Rio and Rio 2, Bernard Bernard in The Cleveland Show, himself in The Cleveland Show episode ""Menace II Secret Society"", performed the theme song of Samurai Jack).
March 16:
Maggie Blue O'Hara, Canadian actress (voice of Bulma in the Ocean Productions dub of Dragon Ball Z, Ultra Violet in Ninjago, Kitty Pryde in X-Men: Evolution, Strawberry Sunrise in the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic episode ""Honest Apple"").
Eban Schletter, American composer and songwriter (SpongeBob SquarePants, Father of the Pride, Drawn Together, The Patrick Star Show).
March 27: Stacy Ferguson, American actress and former lead vocalist of the Black Eyed Peas (voice of Replay in Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard, Sally Brown in It's Flashbeagle, Charlie Brown, Snoopy's Getting Married, Charlie Brown, and The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show).
March 30: Valentina Garza, Cuban-American television writer and producer (The Simpsons, Bordertown).
Specific date unknown: Nigel Pilkington, English actor (voice of Gill in Dragons: Rescue Riders, Drac in Super Monsters, Percy in Thomas & Friends, Squirrel Nutkin in Peter Rabbit, Tabaqui and Rikki-Tikki-Tavi in The Jungle Book).


=== April ===
April 2: Deedee Magno Hall, American actress and singer (voice of Pearl in the Steven Universe franchise, Snuggs in Doc McStuffins, Miss Deer in Kiff).
April 4: Pamela Ribon, American screenwriter (Moana, Smurfs: The Lost Village, Ralph Breaks the Internet, My Year of Dicks, Nimona), author, television writer, blogger and actress (voice of Snow White in Ralph Breaks the Internet, Kaori in City Hunter).
April 6: Zach Braff, American actor and filmmaker (voice of the title character in Chicken Little, Paul Revere and X-Stream Mike in Clone High, himself in the BoJack Horseman episodes ""Underground"" and ""The View from Halfway Down"").
April 7: Tiki Barber, American former football running back (voice of Touchdown Tiki in the Wow! Wow! Wubbzy! episode ""What a Card"").
April 10: David Harbour, American actor (voice of Rick Buck in Q-Force, Frankenstein in Creature Commandos, Tajin in the Star Wars: Visions episode ""The Elder"", Fred Kranepool in The Simpsons episode ""Undercover Burns"").
April 13: Angus MacLane, American film director, animator, screenwriter and voice actor (Pixar).
April 14: Amy Birnbaum, American voice actress (voice of Tea Gardner in Yu-Gi-Oh!).
April 15: Elissa Knight, American voice actress and assistant (voice of Tia in Cars, EVE in WALL-E).
April 22: Dannah Phirman, Israeli-born American actress (voice of Zaria in Tak and the Power of Juju, the title character, Claire McCallister, Chuck the Evil Sandwich Making Guy's Mother, Edith Von Hoosinghaus and Pretty Princess in WordGirl, Penny in The Mighty B!,  The Moon and Ben's Mom in Talking Tom and Friends, Missy in The Fairly OddParents episode ""Finding Emo""), comedian and writer (The Mighty B!, WordGirl, The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show).
April 30: Johnny Galecki, American actor (voice of Knux in the Batman Beyond episode ""April Moon"", Leonard Hofstadter in the Family Guy episode ""Business Guy"").


=== May ===
May 3: Christina Hendricks, American actress (voice of Gabby Gabby in Toy Story 4, Zarina in The Pirate Fairy, Cherie in Solar Opposites, Lois Lane in All-Star Superman, Officer Jaffe in Scoob!, Naydern in the American Dad! episode ""Gorillas in the Mist"", Unity in the Rick and Morty episode ""Auto Erotic Assimilation"").
May 8: Kaspar Jancis, Estonian film director and musician (Frank ja Wendy, Captain Morten and the Spider Queen).
May 9: Chris Diamantopoulos, Canadian actor (voice of Mickey Mouse in Mickey Mouse and The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse, Darkwing Duck and Storkules in DuckTales, Green Arrow in Batman Unlimited and Justice League Action).
May 10: Julie Nathanson, American actress (voice of Rosalie Rowan in the DC Animated Universe, Black Widow in Avengers Assemble, Gilda Dent in Batman: The Long Halloween, Silver Banshee in Suicide Squad: Hell to Pay, Robin in The Powerpuff Girls episode ""Superfriends"", Ally in the Megas XLR episode ""Terminate Her"", continued voice of Belle).
May 15: Ben Whitehead, English actor (voice of Baker Bob in A Matter of Loaf and Death, The Pirate Who Likes Sunsets and Kittens in the UK dub of The Pirates! In an Adventure with Scientists!, continued voice of Wallace in the Wallace and Gromit franchise, additional voices in Early Man).
May 17: Rufus Jones, English actor (voice of Hugo in 101 Dalmatian Street, the Flying Scotsman in Thomas & Friends).
May 20: Marc Thompson, American actor (voice of Kevin Thompson, Anthony DeMartino, Timothy O'Neill, and Jamie White in Daria, Shark, Bee, Robot and Turtle in WordWorld, Casey Jones in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Knut in Winx Club, Dante Vale in Huntik: Secrets & Seekers, the title character in P. King Duckling, Megatron in Transformers: Cyberverse).
May 24: Will Sasso, Canadian actor (voice of Mr. Ellingboe in Klaus, Maxie Zeus in Harley Quinn, Hekakiah in the Glenn Martin, DDS episode ""Amish Anguish"").
May 27: André 3000, American musician and actor (voice of Senator Harvey in the Brad Neely's Harg Nallin' Sclopio Peepio episode ""For Aretha"", co-creator and voice of Sunny Bridges in Class of 3000).
May 29: Daniel Tosh, American actor and comedian (voice of Malloy in Brickleberry).
May 30: Loni Steele Sosthand, American television writer (The Simpsons).


=== June ===
June 4:
Angelina Jolie, American actress (voice of Master Tigress in the Kung Fu Panda franchise, Lola in Shark Tale).
Russell Brand, English comedian and actor (voice of Dr. Nefario in the Despicable Me franchise, Creek in Trolls, himself in The Simpsons episode ""Angry Dad: The Movie"").
June 9: Tommy Karlsen Sandum, Norwegian actor (Norwegian dub voice of Shrek and Pinocchio in the Shrek franchise, Wildmutt in the Ben 10 franchise, Eddy in Ed, Edd n Eddy, Armando in Rio, General Gato and General Mono in TMNT), (d. 2024).
June 13: Daniel Ingram, Canadian composer and lyricist (DHX Media, Kung-Fu Magoo, Nina's World, We're Lalaloopsy, Esme & Roy).
June 25: Linda Cardellini, American actress (voice of Wendy Corduroy in Gravity Falls, Marcy 'Hot Dog Water' Fleach in Scooby-Doo: Mystery Incorporated, CJ in Regular Show).
June 27: Tobey Maguire, American actor and film producer (voice of Adult Tim Templeton / Narrator in The Boss Baby).
June 28: Jeff Geddis, Canadian actor (voice of Reef in Stoked, Devin and Tom in Total Drama Presents: The Ridonculous Race).


=== July ===
July 6: Alessandro Juliani, Canadian actor (voice of L in Death Note, Kid Icarus in Captain N: The Game Master, Gambit in X-Men: Evolution, Lobo in Super Monsters).
July 10: Stefán Karl Stefánsson, Icelandic actor and singer (portrayed Robbie Rotten in LazyTown), (d. 2018).
July 12: Phil Lord, American producer (The Lego Batman Movie, The Lego Ninjago Movie, Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, Bless the Harts, The Mitchells vs. the Machines, co-creator of Clone High), director (Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs, The Lego Movie), writer (Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2, The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part) and voice actor.
July 14: Jaime Gomez, American rapper and member of Black Eyed Peas (Blue's Big City Adventure, Waqaq in Spirit Rangers, and Quickatoo in Dora the Explorer).
July 20:
Jason Raize, American actor and singer (voice of Denahi in Brother Bear), (d. 2004).
Judy Greer, American actress (voice of Cheryl Tunt in Archer, Beep in Ask the StoryBots, Luna in Let's Go Luna!, Wendy Park in Glenn Martin, DDS, Yuki in The Cat Returns, Martha Washington in America: The Motion Picture).
July 22: David Dastmalchian, American actor (voice of Calendar Man and Penguin in Batman: The Long Halloween, Kurt in the What If...? episode ""What If... Zombies?!"").


=== August ===
August 6: Trista H. Navarro, American animation production manager (The Simpsons, The Simpsons Movie), (d. 2019).
August 7:
Christy Hui, Chinese producer (creator of Xiaolin Showdown and Xiaolin Chronicles).
Charlize Theron, South African-American actress (voice of Monkey in Kubo and the Two Strings, Morticia Addams in The Addams Family and The Addams Family 2).
August 11: Roger Craig Smith, American actor (voice of Sonic in the Sonic the Hedgehog franchise, Captain America in Ultimate Spider-Man, Avengers Assemble, Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H., Guardians of the Galaxy, Spider-Man, Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, and Marvel Future Avengers, Warden Wrath and Jacob Hopkins in The Owl House, Hawkodile and Richard in Unikitty!, Steam Smythe, the Forever Knight, and Diamondhead in Ben 10, Ocean Master in Young Justice, Captain Marvel in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, Mister Miracle in the Justice League Action episode ""It'll Take A Miracle!"").
August 12: Zeke Johnson, American animator, storyboard artist (Family Guy, American Dad!), background artist (Futurama, Baby Blues, What a Cartoon!) and prop designer (Futurama, Baby Blues, American Dad!).
August 16: Taika Waititi, New Zealand filmmaker, actor and comedian (voice of Mo Morrison in Lightyear, the title character in Save Ralph, Glootie in the Rick and Morty episode ""The Old Man and the Seat"", Korg in the What If...? episode ""What If... Thor Were an Only Child?"").
August 18: Kaitlin Olson, American actress (voice of Destiny in Finding Dory, Ethel Anderson in season 1 of Brickleberry, Quinn Hopper in The Simpsons episode ""The Girl Code"", Brenda Quagmire in the Family Guy episode ""Screams of Silence: The Story of Brenda Q"").
August 29: Dante Basco, American voice actor (voice of Zuko in Avatar: The Last Airbender, the title character in American Dragon: Jake Long, Javier in Victor and Valentino, Scorpion in Ultimate Spider-Man, Tuck in Generator Rex, Matt Martin / Kewl Breeze in Zevo-3, Karate Kid in JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time).
August 31: Sara Ramirez, Mexican-American actor and singer (voice of Queen Miranda in Sofia the First).


=== September ===
September 1: John Aoshima, American animator (Baby Blues, Futurama, What a Cartoon!, Looney Tunes, The Simpsons, Avatar: The Last Airbender), storyboard artist (Family Guy, Disney Television Animation, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, American Dad!, Kubo and the Two Strings, Maya and the Three), sheet timer (Star vs. the Forces of Evil), writer (The LeBrons) and director (American Dad!, Disney Television Animation).
September 2:
Brad Ableson, American animator (The Simpsons, The Life & Times of Tim), storyboard artist (The Simpsons, The Simpsons Movie), director (Minions: The Rise of Gru) and producer (co-creator of Good Vibes and Legends of Chamberlain Heights).
MC Chris, American rapper, voice actor, comedian and writer (voice of MC Pee Pants in Aqua Teen Hunger Force, Hesh Hepplewhite in Sealab 2021).
September 10: Gabe Swarr, American animator (Spümcø, What a Cartoon!, El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera), storyboard artist (The Ripping Friends, Dexter's Laboratory, Nickelodeon Animation Studio, ¡Mucha Lucha!, The Buzz on Maggie, Coconut Fred's Fruit Salad Island, Brandy & Mr. Whiskers), character designer (Poochini), background artist (Boo Boo Runs Wild), writer (Dexter's Laboratory, My Life as a Teenage Robot, Shorty McShorts' Shorts), producer (Animaniacs) and director (Spümcø, Shorty McShorts' Shorts, Nickelodeon Animation Studio).
September 16: Toks Olagundoye, Nigerian actress (voice of Nanefua Pizza in Steven Universe, Bentina Beakley in DuckTales, Cleo in Carmen Sandiego, Mel Medarda in Arcane, Krang Two in Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Movie, Zamfir in Castlevania).
September 18: Jason Sudeikis, American actor and comedian (voice of Red in The Angry Birds Movie and The Angry Birds Movie 2, Justin Pin and Ares in Next Gen, Holt Ritcher and Terry Kimple in The Cleveland Show, Bryce Fowler in Hit-Monkey, Professor Bomba in Epic).
September 19: Jim Hecht, American screenwriter (The Fairly OddParents, Ice Age).
September 23: Christopher Miller, American film director (Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs, The Lego Movie), writer (Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2, The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part, co-creator of Clone High), producer (The Lego Batman Movie, The Lego Ninjago Movie, Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, Bless the Harts, The Mitchells vs. the Machines) and voice actor.


=== October ===
October 3: Alanna Ubach, American actress (voice of Rope Girl, and Skate Lad in Teamo Supremo, the title character in El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera, Lola Boa in Brandy & Mr. Whiskers, Ansi Molina in Welcome to the Wayne, Rook Shar and Rook Ben in Ben 10: Omniverse, Liz Allan in The Spectacular Spider-Man, Mamá Imelda in Coco).
October 5:
Scott Weinger, American actor (voice of Aladdin in the Aladdin franchise and House of Mouse).
Monica Rial, American actress (voice of Kyoko Tokiwa in Full Metal Panic!, Minamo Kurosawa in Azumanga Daioh, Sayuki in Initial D, Bulma in the Dragon Ball franchise, Tsubaki Nakatsukasa in Soul Eater, Shizuka Marikawa in Highschool of the Dead, Mirajane Strauss in Fairy Tail, Kaede Kayano in Assassination Classroom, Tsuyu Asui / Froppy in My Hero Academia).
Kate Winslet, English actress (voice of Rita Malone in Flushed Away, Madame Mumblechook in Mary and the Witch's Flower).
Parminder Nagra, English actress (voice of Cassandra in Batman: Gotham Knight, Nisha Bains in Postman Pat: The Movie, Ada in the Tron: Uprising episode ""Isolated"").
October 16: Kellie Martin, American actress (voice of Daphne Blake in A Pup Named Scooby-Doo, Molly Tazmanian Devil in Taz-Mania, Sadira in Aladdin, Roxanne in A Goofy Movie, Oracle in The Batman episode ""Artifacts"").
October 19: James L. Venable, American composer (Cartoon Network Studios).
October 20:
Natalie Gregory, American former child actress (voice of Jenny in Oliver & Company).
Brian Iles, American animator (The Simpsons, The Oblongs), storyboard artist (Drawn Together, American Dad!, Family Guy) and director (Family Guy).


=== November ===
November 2: Danny Cooksey, American actor (voice of Montana Max in Tiny Toon Adventures, Urchin in The Little Mermaid, Wendall Malone in The Completely Mental Misadventures of Ed Grimley, the title character in Dave the Barbarian, Francis Stone / Hotstreak in Static Shock, Jack Spicer in Xiaolin Showdown, Brad Buttowski in Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil, Paul Cheechoo in The Secret Saturdays, Peter Lik in What's with Andy?, Greg Skeens in Recess, Milo Kamalani in Pepper Ann, Mooch in 101 Dalmatians: The Series, Peng in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness).
November 6: Mike Hollingsworth, American artist, animator, and stand-up comedian (BoJack Horseman, Brickleberry, The Life and Times of Tim, Cat Burglar).
November 21: Jimmi Simpson, American actor (voice of Green Arrow in Green Lantern: Beware My Power, Drednok in Star Trek: Prodigy, Royce Hemlock in Star Wars: The Bad Batch, Ethan in the Solar Opposites episode ""The Apple Pencil Pro"").
November 26: DJ Khaled, American DJ, record executive, author and record producer (voice of Ears in Spies in Disguise).


=== December ===
December 1: David Hornsby, American actor, screenwriter and producer (voice of Brandon in The X's, Fanboy in Fanboy & Chum Chum, Tyson, Vivian, Radley and Edwardo in Sanjay and Craig, Wildvine in Ben 10, Leif Bornewell III in Welcome to the Wayne, Riddler in DC Super Hero Girls, Harry in the We Bare Bears episode ""Christmas Movies"", co-creator of and voice of Joel Zymanski in Unsupervised).
December 6: Sayaka Ohara, Japanese voice actress (voice of Layla Hamilton in Kaleido Star, Yūko Ichihara in xxxHolic, Beatrice in Umineko When They Cry, Milly Ashford in Code Geass, Erza Scarlet in Fairy Tail, Irisviel in Fate/Zero).
December 10: Emmanuelle Chriqui, Canadian-American actress (voice of Cheetara in ThunderCats, Paige in Tron: Uprising, Sapphire Stagg in Beware the Batman).
December 12:
Houko Kuwashima, Japanese actress (voice of Itsuki Myoudouin / Cure Sunshine in HeartCatch PreCure!, Sango in Inuyasha, Kenny Kyouju in Beyblade, Kagura in Azumanga Daioh, Hitomi in GeGeGe no Kitaro, Nene Amano in Digimon Fusion).
Mayim Bialik, American actress, television personality, and author (voice of Brittany Bright in The Adventures of Hyperman, Maria in Hey Arnold!, Kirsten Kurst in Recess, Mean Cindy in Lloyd in Space, Great Sphinx in the Blaze and the Monster Machines episode ""Race to the Top of the World"", Willoughby in the Star vs. the Forces of Evil episode ""Fetch"").
December 18: Sia, Australian singer and songwriter (voice of Songbird Serenade in My Little Pony: The Movie, Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle in Peter Rabbit and Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway, Half-Oracle in Charming, Autotuned Randy in the South Park episode ""The Cissy"", herself in the Scooby-Doo and Guess Who? episode ""Now You Sia, Now You Don't!"").


=== Specific date unknown ===
Dan Santat, American author and illustrator (creator of The Replacements).


== Deaths ==


=== January ===
January 22: Hazel Sewell, American animator, head of the ink and paint department at Walt Disney Animation Studios (Plane Crazy, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs), dies at age 76.
January 27: Bill Walsh, American film producer, screenwriter and comics writer (Mary Poppins, Bedknobs and Broomsticks), dies at age 61.


=== February ===
February 23: Frank Smith, American animator and film director (Fleischer Studios, UPA, Peanuts animated specials), dies at age 63.


=== March ===
March 2: Salvador Mestres, Spanish animator, film director and comics artist (Hispano Grafic Films), dies at age 64 or 65.


=== May ===
May 8: Abe Levitow, American animator (Warner Bros. Cartoons, MGM animation, UPA) and director (Mr. Magoo's Christmas Carol, The Phantom Tollbooth), dies at age 52.


=== June ===
June 19: Ge Ge Pearson, American actress (second voice of Crusader Rabbit in Crusader Rabbit), dies at age 58.


=== July ===
July 19: Manny Gould, American animator (Barré Studio, Paramount Studios, Columbia Pictures, Warner Bros. Cartoons, Ed Graham Productions, DePatie-Freleng Enterprises, Ralph Bakshi), dies at age 71.


=== August ===
August 14 Frank Marsales, Canadian composer (Warner Bros. Cartoons, Walter Lantz Studios), dies at age 88.


=== September ===
September 4: Walter Tetley, American actor (voice of Felix the Cat, Andy Panda, Sherman in The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends), dies at age 60.


=== October ===
October 16: Don Barclay, American actor and caricaturist (voice of the Doorman in Cinderella), dies at age 82.
October 29: John Scott Trotter, American arranger, composer and orchestra leader (Peanuts), dies at age 67.


=== November ===
November 28: Valentina Semyonovna Brumberg, Russian animator, film director and screenwriter (The Tale of Tsar Saltan, The Lost Letter, The Night Before Christmas, It Was I Who Drew the Little Man), dies at age 76.


=== December ===
December 7: Hardie Albright, American actor (voice of adolescent Bambi in Bambi), dies at age 71.
December 18: Ray Bailey, American animator and comics artist (Fleischer Brothers), dies at age 62.
December 24:
Harold Mack, British animator and comics artist (worked for Gaumont British Animation, British Animated Pictures and Marten Toonder's animation studio, founder of the Anglo-Dutch Group), dies at age 67.
December 26: Igor Podgorskiy, Russian animator, dies at age 53.


== See also ==
1975 in anime


== References ==


== External links ==
Animated works of the year, listed in the IMDb"